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THE
ENCYCLOPEDIA BRITANNICA
ELEVENTH EDITION
FIRST edition, published in three volume*,
1768— 1771.
SECOND ,
, „ ten „
1777—1784.
THIRD
, „ eighteen „
1788-1707-
FOURTH
, „ twenty „
1801— 1810.
FIFTH
f „ twenty „
1815—1817,
SIXTH ,
( t( twenty „
1823— 1824!
SEVENTH ,
t $t twenty-one „
1830—1842.
EIGHTH
, „ twenty-two „
1853—1860.
NINTH
, „ twenty-five „
1875— 1889.
TENTH
, ninth edition end eleven
supplementary volumes,
190a— 1903.
ELEVENTH
published in twenty-nine volumes.
19x0— IQI 1.
THE
ENCYCLOPAEDIA BRITANNICA
A
DICTIONARY
OF
ARTS. SCIENCES, LITERATURE AND GENERAL
INFORMATION
ELEVENTH EDITION
VOLUME I
A to ANDROPHAGI
NEW YORK
THE ENCYCLOPEDIA BRITANNICA COMPANY
1910
HZ
5~
v/.l
Copyright, in the United States of America. 191a
by
The Encyclopaedia Briunnka Compaoy.
DEDICATED BY PERMISSION
TO
HIS MAJESTY GEORGE THE FIFTH
KING OF GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND
AND OF THE BRITISH DOMINIONS BEYOND THE SEAS
EMPEROR OF INDIA
AND TO
WILLIAM HOWARD TAFT
PRESIDENT OF THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA
EDITORIAL INTRODUCTION
ELSEWHERE in these volumes, under the heading of Encyclopaedia (voL ix. p. 369), an account
is given in detail of the particular form of literature to which that name applies. It is no longer
necessary, as was done in some of the earlier editions of the Encyclopedia Britannka, to defend in
a Preface the main principle of the system by which subjects are divided for treatment on a dictionary plan
under the headings most directly suggesting explanation or discussion. The convenience of
an arrangement of material based on a single alphabetization of subject words and proper Jt^Utohodk
names has established itself in the common sense of mankind, and in recent years has led to
the multiplication of analogous works of reference. There are, however, certain points in the execution
of the Eleventh Edition to which, in a preliminary survey, attention may profitably be drawn.
The Eleventh Edition and its Predecessors.
It is important to deal first with the relationship of the Eleventh Edition to its predecessors. In
addition to providing a digest of general information, such as is required in a reference-book pure and
ample, the object of the Encyclopedia Britannka has always been to give reasoned dis-
cussions on all the great questions of practical or speculative interest, presenting the tdit i on ^ r
results of accumulated knowledge and original inquiry in the form of articles which are
themselves authoritative contributions to the literature of their subjects, adapted for the purpose of
systematic reading and study. In this way its successive editions have been among the actual sources
through which progressive improvements have been attained in the exposition of many important branches
of learning. The Ninth Edition in particular, to which the Eleventh is the lineal successor— for the
name of the Tenth was used only to indicate the incorporation of supplementary vol- Md-i
times which left the main fabric untouched — was universally recognized as giving the y^u^*^^
most scholarly contemporary expression to this constructive ideal. The reputation thus
gained by the Encyclopedia Britannka as a comprehensive embodiment of accurate scholarship —
the word being used here for authoritative exposition in all departments of knowledge — carries with
it a responsibility which can only be fulfilled by periodical revision in the light of later research. Yet
in any complete new edition, and certainly in that which is here presented, due acknowledgment
must be made to the impulse given by those who kept the sacred fire burning in earlier days. In this
respect, if a special debt is owing to the editors of the Ninth Edition, and particularly to the great
services of Robertson Smith, it must not be forgotten that long before their time the Encyclopedia
Briiannica had enlisted among its contributors many eminent writers, whose articles, substantially car-
ried forward at each revision, became closely associated with the name and tradition of the work. 1 To
* In earlier days the reverence due to deceased authority was perhaps carried to extreme lengths. The following footnote, attached in the
Eighth Edition to Sir Walter Scott's article Drama, may be cited:—" It Is proper to state here . . that this article to reprinted as it originally
MTlfMMit in the awppawnwit to tKm fourth, fifth maA mirth mMtianm nl tM« — »* HfV»lt f ffy nf th/Mf l1JT I p !f »i*»"f -****•* ♦»»* rr*wm* nf tim* »iwi chanatt
11
EDITORIAL INTRODUCTION
ELSEWHERE in these volumes, under the heading of Encyclop.edu (vol ix. p. 369), an account
is given in detail of the particular form of literature to which that name applies. It is no longer
necessary, as was done in some of the earlier editions of the Encyclopedia Briiannica, to defend in
a Preface the main principle of the system by which subjects are divided for treatment on a dictionary plan
under the headings most directly suggesting explanation or discussion. The convenience of
an arrangement of material based on a single alphabetization of subject words and proper . tbe - .
names has established itself in the common sense of mankind, and in recent years has led to
the multiplication of analogous works of reference. There are, however, certain points in the execution
of the Eleventh Edition to which, in a preliminary survey, attention may profitably be drawn.
The Eleventh Edition and its Predecessors.
It is important to deal first with the relationship of the Eleventh Edition to its predecessors. In
addition to providing a digest of general information, such as is required in a reference-book pure and
simple, the object of the Encyclopaedia Briiannica has always been to give reasoned dis-
cussioos on all the great questions of practical or speculative interest, presenting the editioaSm
results of accumulated knowledge and original inquiry in the form of articles which are
themselves authoritative contributions to the literature of their subjects, adapted for the purpose of
systematic reading and study. In this way its successive editions have been among the actual sources
through which progressive improvements have been attained in the exposition of many important branches
of learning. The Ninth Edition in particular, to which the Eleventh is the lineal successor— for the
name of the Tenth was used only to indicate the incorporation of supplementary vol- _.
umes which left the main fabric untouched — was universally recognized as giving the v-/tf& ^^
most scholarly contemporary expression to this constructive ideal. The reputation thus
gained by the Encyclopaedia Briiannica as a comprehensive embodiment of accurate scholarship —
the word being used here for authoritative exposition in all departments of knowledge — carries with
it a responsibility which can only be fulfilled by periodical revision in the light of later research. Yet
in any complete new edition, and certainly in that which is here presented, due acknowledgment
must be made to the impulse given by those who kept the sacred fire burning in earlier days. In this
respect, if a special debt is owing to the editors of the Ninth Edition, and particularly to the great
services of Robertson Smith, it must not be forgotten that long before their time the Encyclopaedia
Briiannica had enlisted among its contributors many eminent writers, whose articles, substantially car-
ried forward at each revision, became closely associated with the name and tradition of the work. 1 To
* In earner days tbe re v e r ence due to deceased authority was perhaps carried to extreme length*. The following footnote, attached in the
Eighth Edition to Sir Walter Scott's article Drama, may be dted:— " It is proper to state here . . that this article is reprinted as it originally
appeand i» the suppfament to the fourth, fifth and sixth edltkms of this work without any of thoeetxte^
zii EDITORIAL INTRODUCTION
preserve the continuity of its historic associations, so far as might be consistent with the public interest,
and with what was due to progress in knowledge, was one of the first duties of those responsible for a
new edition; and just as the Ninth Edition carried forward, with notable additions or substitutions, work
contributed to the Eighth and earlier editions, so it provided matter for utilization in the Eleventh, which
in its turn had to accommodate the new knowledge of a later generation.
In considering the treatment, however, of the mass of material thus handed down, the editor of the
Eleventh Edition had an entirely new situation to deal with. It is necessary here to explain why it is
that the Eleventh Edition is much more than a revision — is, indeed, a new edifice as com-
de ^! hgnt pared with the structure of the Ninth Edition. In the whole architecture of the latter
there was a serious flaw, due to no want of ability in editors or contributors, but to the
conditions imposed upon them in the system of publication.
The economic and mechanical obstacles to the production of a great encyclopedia otherwise than
in a series of volumes separately issued at intervals during a number of years were formerly considered
prohibitive. Thus the Ninth Edition, the first volume of which was published in 1875
o/pfwfiStoa" an( ^ tnc twentv "fif tn m l88o » was incomplete for some sixteen years after its real incep-
tion. Not only does such a long interval between the start and the finish involve the
possibility of a change in editorial direction and conception such as happened in 1 881 when Spencer
Baynes was compelled by ill-health to hand over the reins to Robertson Smith; but even if the same
editorial policy remained to dominate the work, the continual progress of time was constantly chang-
ing the conditions under which it was exercised. With such a system of publication an encyclopedia
can have no proper unity of conception or uniformity of treatment. It cannot be planned from
the beginning so as to present at its completion a satisfactory synoptic view of any department of
knowledge. The historical record is restricted by the accident of the dates at which the separate vol-
umes are published, in such a way that the facts included in one volume may contradict those in
another. Individual volumes, the contents of which are arbitrarily determined by the alphabetical
order of headings, may indeed be abreast of the learning and accomplishments of their day, but
_. . each time a later volume appears the circumstances have altered, and there is every
dlvi io nder cnance tnat somc integral portion of what had previously been published may be
different dates, stultified. Those who were responsible for the execution of the Ninth Edition of the
Encyclopedia Brilannica did their best under an impossible system. They made it a
collection of detached monographs of the highest authority and value. In their day the demand of a
modern public for "up-tondate-ness" had not come into existence, and it seemed perfectly reason-
able in 1879 to bring the article on the history of England no further than the accession of Queen Victoria.
But it was not their failure to appreciate the importance of dealing with the latest events in history that
made so much of the Ninth Edition useless in preparing its successor. When only this was in question,
later history could be added. It was the fact that, owing to its system of publication, its arrangement
was not encyclopedic, and that in preparing an edition which for the first time had the advantage of being
systematic in the distribution of its material, there was no way of adapting to its needs what had been
written originally on a faulty principle.
Until the year 1902, when, within nine months, nine supplementary volumes of text were issued
by The Times, no publisher had cared or dared to attempt to produce at one time the whole of any
work of similar magnitude. It was the regular practice to issue volume by volume.
fflrtWnw 0° this svstem the P ublic has been burnished with the Oxford New English Diction-
employed. ^ ( stiU incomplete in 19 10, though work had begun in the early 'sixties and the first
volume appeared in 1888) and with the Dictionary of National Biography, while the French
La Grande Encyclopedic, which took even longer than the Ninth Edition of the Encyclopedia Brilannica
to complete, was coming out in its thirty-one volumes between 1885 and 1902. But the proof obtained
in 1902 of the practicability of simultaneous production in the case of the supplementary volumes which
of circumstances render necessary in ordinary cues. We have deemed this homage due to the genius and fame of the illustrious author, whose
splendid view of the origin and progress of the dramatic art we have accordingly presented to the reader exactly as it proceeded from" his own hand,
leaving every contemporaneous allusion and illustration untouched." It may be remarked that this footnote, which was reprinted from the Seventh
Edition, was itself carried forward without being brought up to date, apparently in the same spirit; and in another footnote, also reprinted from the
Sevtatb Edition, a reference is made to allusions "on p. 147," which were indeed on p. 147 of the Seventh Edition, but are on p. 137 of the Eighth!
EDITORIAL INTRODUCTION aria
converted the Ninth into the Tenth Edition of the Encydopadia Britannica, made it imperative to
extend this limited experiment to the making of an entirely new edition. By this means a
new value might be given to a work which aimed not merely at providing a storehouse of
facts, but expounding all knowledge as part of an ordered system. For the problem here was
bound up with the question of the date of publication to a unique degree. In some other
sorts of book the fact that successive volumes appear at certain intervals of time only affects
the convenience of the purchaser— as, for instance, in the case of the Cambridge Modem History,
the various volumes do not cover the same field or touch the same materials. But in an ency-
clopedia it is only the alphabetization of the headings which causes them to fall in distinct volumes,
and the accident of position separates the treatment of the same or closely related subjects in
such a way that, if they are discussed from the point of view of widely different dates, the
organic unity of the work is entirely lost. Thanks to the enterprising provision of capital, and
the co-operation of a far-sighted business management, it was possible to start fWw# .
the preparation of the Eleventh Edition of the Encyclopedia Britannica with the ijjjjjj^ £"
knowledge that it would be published as a whole at one date. The separate volumes, Mucbmwark.
whatever their number, would no longer represent so many lapses of time and so many
distinct units in executive conception, but merely mechanical divisions for convenience in handling.
And arrangements were made so that the printing of the whole edition should eventually take hardly
more time than had been required for the printing and correcting of a single volume under the
old system.
The opportunity thus provided was in many ways more appropriate to the making of an
entirely new work than to the revision of an old one. For the Ninth Edition was wanting in pre-
cisely that character of interdependence in all its parts which could now be given
to the various related articles. Moreover, experience had shown that, as compared fl< ^jV^.
with other encyclopedias of less ambitious scope, not intended for systematic study possible.
or continuous reading, its arrangement as a work of reference had defects which
resulted in some injustice being done to its merits as a series of individual contributions to
learning. There was no reason why both these purposes should not be served, and attention
be paid to distributing the material under the much larger number of headings which are required
for rapid and easy reference, when once it was possible to ignore the particular order in which the
subjects were treated. Since none of the work was printed or published until the whole of it
was ready, new headings could always be introduced with their appropriate matter, according as
the examination of what was written under another heading revealed omissions which showed
that some related subject required explanation on its own account, or according as the progress
of time up to the year of publication involved the emergence of new issues, to which previously
no separate reference would have been expected. The execution of the Eleventh Edition, planned
on uniform lines as a single organism, and thus admitting of continual improvement in detail,
irrespectively of the distribution of matter under this or that letter of the alphabet, could proceed
in all its parts pari passu, the various articles being kept open for revision or rewriting, so as to
represent the collective knowledge and the contemporary standpoint of the date at which the whole
was issued.
This new design involved the maintenance, during all the years of preparation, of an active collabora-
tion among a vast body of contributors. The formal structure of the Ninth Edition necessarily dis-
appeared, leaving only its component parts as building material for incorporation in the
new edifice to such degree as examination might prove its adaptability. The site— in this a /^ ^g^jg
case the whole field of knowledge— was mapped out afresh under the advice of special- knowledge,
ist departmental advisers, who, in providing for the occupation of the different
areas, co-operated with a central editorial staff, comprising many members, each of whom was responsi-
ble to the Editor-in-Chief for a particular section of the work. In this manner what, it is hoped, is a
more complete articulation of subjects was effected, while co-operation between the contributors who
dealt with each homogeneous department of knowledge was combined with the concentration in editorial
direction, which alone could make the Eleventh Edition of the Encydopadia Britannica an organic unit.
xiv EDITORIAL INTRODUCTION
The result of the new survey was a distribution of material under a far larger number of headings than
had been included in the Ninth Edition— some 40,000 instead of some 17,000; and the method of simul-
taneous construction enabled the co-ordination which is of such peculiar importance in
results. a wor ^ °* re ^ ercnce t0 b* applied systematically by the editorial staff. The authority
which attaches to the names of individual contributors remains, as before, an important
feature of the Eleventh Edition, but by these means, it is hoped, the authority which attaches to the
Encyclopedia Britonnica itself is more firmly established. When Robertson Smith finally wrote his
preface to the Index volume of the Ninth Edition, he said:— "The use of initials (as signatures to articles)
was not designed to lighten the responsibility of the editors. No editor can possess the knowledge
which would enable him to control the work of his contributors in all the subjects treated
of authority °* m ^ e ^Kcyctoporfta, but no effort has been spared on the part of the editorial staff to
secure the accuracy and sufficiency of every contribution, and to prevent those repeti-
tions and inconcinnities which necessarily occur where each contributor is absolutely and solely re-
sponsible for the articles which bear his name." The principle here enunciated, which represents the
tradition of the Encyclopedia Britanntca in the matter of the correct relationship between editors and
contributors, and the responsibility attaching to individual signatures, has been adopted in the
Eleventh Edition, but with all the advantages resulting alike from simultaneous production and
from the fact that the Editor-in-Chief was assisted by a much larger staff, working under conditions
which enabled the editorial control to be effective to a degree unattainable under the earlier
system. In concert with the numerous eminent writers whose signatures give individual inter-
„„ . est and weight to their contributions, the whole work — and not only the unsigned articles,
tor reference!* mBXi y °* wn * cn mc *eed have equally high authority behind them— passed through the
detailed scrutiny of the editorial staff, whose duty it was to see that it provided what
those who used any part of the book could reasonably expect to find, to remedy those "inconcinnities"
to which Robertson Smith alluded, and to secure the accuracy in the use of names, the inclusion of dates*
and similar minutia, which is essential in a work of reference.
A great deal of the older fabric was obviously incompatible with the new scheme of treatment; but,
where possible, those earlier contributions have been preserved which are of the nature of classics in the
world of letters. By a selective process which, it is believed, gives new value to the old
material ** n^tenBJ — by the revision, at the hands of their own authors or of later authorities, of
such articles or portions of articles as were found to fit accurately into their several places
— or by the inclusion under other headings of a consideration of controverted questions on which the
writers may have taken a strong personal view, itself of historical interest — their retention has been effected
so as to conform to the ideal of making the work as a whole representative of the best thought of a later
day.
Questions of Formal Arrangement
Both in the addition of new words for new subjects, and in the employment of different words
for old subjects, the progress of the world demands a reconsideration from time to time of the
headings under which its accumulated experiences can best be presented in a work which
head? employs the dictionary plan as a key to its contents. No little trouble was therefore
expended, in planning the Eleventh Edition, on the attempt to suit the word to the sub-
ject in the way most likely to be generally useful for reference. While the selection has at times been,
of necessity, somewhat arbitrary, it has been guided from first to last by an endeavour to follow the
natural mental processes of the average educated reader. But it was impossible to interpret what
is "natural" in this connexion without consideration for the advances which have
Correctness j )cen mSi ^ e m terminological accuracy, alike in the technicalities of science and
in the forms of language adopted by precise writers, whose usage has become or
is rapidly becoming part of the common stock. The practice of modern schools
and the vocabulary of a modern curriculum, as well as the predominating example of expert
EDITORIAL INTRODUCTION xv
#
authorities, impose themselves gradually on the public mind, and constitute new conventions which
are widely assimilated. In forecasting what would be for the convenience of a new generation of
readers, it has seemed best to aim at adopting the nearest approach to correct modern terminology,
while avoiding mere pedantry on the one hand, and on the other a useless abandonment of well-
established English custom.
It is easier, however, to lay down principles than to carry them out consistently in face of the ob-
stinacy of the materials with which one is dealing in an encyclopaedia which attempts to combine accu-
rate scholarship with general utility and convenience. In the case of biographical articles, _ .
for instance, it was decided that the proper headings were the names by which the in-
dividuals concerned are in fact commonly known. Thus "George Sand" is now dealt with under her
pen-name (Sand, George) and not under that of Madame Dudevant; "George Eliot" is no longer hid-
den away under her married name of Mrs Cross; and "Mark Twain" is taken as the permanent name
by which the world will know Mr Clemens. But it is not only in the case of pseudonyms that there
is a difficulty in deciding upon the heading which is most appropriate. In variance with-
the practice of the Dictionary of National Biography, all articles on titled persons are nere aiI !f^2tefc l, * ID '*
arranged under the title headings and not the family names. In principle it is believed
that this is much the more convenient system, for in most cases the public (especially outside the British
Islands) does not know what the family name of an English peer may be. Moreover, the system adopted
by the Dictionary of National Biography sacrifices a very important feature in connexion with these bio-
graphical articles, namely, the history of the title itself, which has often passed through several families
and can only be conveniently followed when all the holders are kept together. As a rule, this system
of patting peers under the headings of their titles agrees with the principle of adopting the names by
which people actually are called; but sometimes it is too glaringly otherwise. Nobody would think of
looking for Francis Bacon under the heading of Viscount St Albans, or for Horace Walpole under that
of Earl of Orford. In such cases what is believed to be the natural expectation of readers has
been consulted. The exceptional use, however, of the family name as a heading for persons of title has
been reserved strictly for what may be regarded as settled conventions, and where reasonably possi-
ble the rule has been followed; thus Harley and St John are dealt with as Earl of Oxford and Viscount
Bolingbroke respectively. On the other hand, when a celebrity is commonly known, not under his
family name but under a title which eventually was changed for a different one of higher rank, the more
convenient arrangement has seemed to be — notwithstanding general usage — to associate the article with
the higher title, and so to bring it into connexion with the historical peerage. Thus the account of the
statesman commonly called by his earlier title of Earl of Danby is deliberately placed t1mAnt ^
under his later title of Duke of Leeds, and that of Lord Castlereagh under Marquess of infot.
Londonderry. If the result of such exceptions to the rule might seem to be that in cer-
tain cases a reader would not know where to turn, the answer is that a reference to the Index, where cross-
references are given, will decide. In the text of the. work, although a great deal has been done to refer
a reader from one article to another, mere cross-references — such as "Danby, Earl of; see Leeds, Duke
07" — are not included as distinct entries; it was found that the number of such headings would
be very large, and they would only have duplicated the proper function of the Index, which
now acts in this respect as the real guide to the contents and should be regarded as an integral part of
the work.
The reference just made to the Dictionary of National Biography may here be supplemented by &
few words as to the British biographies in the Eleventh Edition of the Encyclopedia Britannka. The
whole standard of biographical writing of this kind has undoubtedly been raised by the labours of Sir
Leslie Stephen, Dr Sidney Lee, and their collaborators, in the compilation of that invaluable work; and
no subsequent publication could fail to profit, both by the scholarly example there set,
and by the results of the original research embodied in it. But in the corresponding treatmeatot
articles in the Encyclopedia Britannica advantage has been taken of the opportunity for biography.
further research and the incorporation of later information, and they represent an in-
dependent study, the details of which sometimes differ from what is given in the Dictionary, but must
not for that reason be thought in haste to be incorrect. Allowance being made for a somewhat different
xvi EDITORIAL INTRODUCTION
standard in the selection of individuals for separate biographies, and for the briefer treatment, the at-
tempt has been made to carry even a step forward the ideals of the Dictionary in regard to accuracy of
detail and critical judgment. This has largely been made possible by the existence of the Dictionary,
but the original work done in the Eleventh Edition of the Encyclopedia Britannica in the same field —
drawing as it can upon a number of biographical articles,' already classics, in its earlier editions— gives
it an independent authority even in the sphere- of British national biography. More-
chmctcr. ove^, *** " lc ^ us ' on °* biographies of eminent persons who died after the Dictionary was
supplemented in 1901, and of others still living in 19 10, results in a considerable extension
of the biographical area, even as regards individuals of British nationality in the narrowest sense. The
articles in the Encyclopedia Britannica, however, are of course not limited to personages of the British
Islands. Not only are biographies here included of the great men and women of French, German,
Italian, Belgian, Dutch, Russian, Scandinavian, Japanese, and other foreign nationalities, as well as
of those of the ancient world, but the same standard of selection has been applied to American and
British Colonial biography as to English, Welsh, Scottish and Irish. Indeed the Encyclopedia Bri-
tannica may now claim for the first time to supply a really adequate Dictionary of American National
Biography, covering all those with whom the citizens of the United States are nationally concerned.
It thus completes its representation of the English-speaking peoples, to all of whom English
history, even in its narrower sense, is a common heritage, and in its evolution a common ex-
ample.
Another form of the terminological problem, to which reference was made above, is found in
the transliteration of foreign names, and the conversion of the names of foreign places and countries
into English equivalents. As regards the latter, there is no English standard which can
tnfoffo'ivtta l ^ >e ^^ to ^ ^v 6 ^* though in particular cases there is a convention which it would
Mfmtf . be absurd to attempt to displace for any reason of supposed superior accuracy. It would
be pragmatical in the extreme to force upon the English-speaking world a system of call-
ing all foreign places by their local names, even though it might be thought that each nationality had
a right to settle the nomenclature of its country and the towns or districts within it. In general the
English conventions must stand. One of these days the world may agree that an international nomen-
clature is desirable and feasible, but not yet; and the country which its own citizens call Deutsckland
and the French VAllemagne still remains Germany to those who use the English language. Similarly
Cologne (Koln), Florence (Firenze), or Vienna (Wien) are bound to retain their English
th robtcm names m an English book. But all cases are not so simple. The world abounds in less
important places, for which the English names have no standardized spelling; different
English newspapers on a single day, or a single newspaper at intervals of a few weeks or months, give
them several varieties of form; and in Asia or Africa the latest explorer always seems to have a preference
for a new one which is unlike that adopted by rival geographers. When the Eleventh Edition of the
Encyclopedia Britannica was started, the suggestion was made that the Royal Geographical Society
of London — the premier geographical society of the world — might co-operate in an attempt to secure
the adoption of a standard English geographical and topographical nomenclature. The
rd" P tar ° Society, indeed, has a system of its own which to some extent aims at fulfilling this require-
ment, though it has failed to impose it upon general use; but unfortunately the Society's
system breaks down by admitting a considerable number of exceptions and by failing to settle a very
large number of cases which really themselves constitute the difficulty. The co-operation of the Royal
Geographical Society for the purpose of enabling the Encyclopedia Britannica to give prominent literary
expression to an authoritative spelling for every place-name included within its articles or maps was
found to be impracticable; and it was therefore necessary for the Eleventh Edition to adopt a consistent
spelling which would represent its own judgment and authority. It is hoped that by degrees this spell-
ing may recommend itself in other quarters. Where reasonably possible, the local spelling popularized
by the usage of post-offices or railways has been preferred to any purely philological system of trans-
literation, but there are numerous cases where even this test of public convenience breaks down and some
form of Anglidzation becomes essential to an English gazetteer having an organic unity of its own. Apart
from the continuance of English conventions which appeared sufficiently crystallized, the most author!-
EDITORIAL INTRODUCTION xvii
tative spelling of the foreign name has been given its simplest English transliteration, preference being
given, in cases of doubt, to the form, for instance in African countries, adopted by the European na-
tion m possession or control. In the absence of any central authority or international ^^^^a^aatt^
agreement, the result is occasionally different in some slight degree from any common
English variant, but this cannot well be helped when English variants are so capricious, and none per-
sistent; and the names selected are those which for purposes of reference combine the most accuracy with
the least disturbance of familiar usage. Thus the German African colony of Kamerun is here called
Cameroon, an English form which follows the common practice of English transliteration in regard
to its initial letter, but departs, in deference to the German official nomenclature, from the older
English Cameroons, a plural no longer justifiable, although most English newspapers and maps still
perpetuate it.
In the case of personal names, wherever an English spelling has become sufficiently established
both in literature and in popular usage it has been retained, irrespectively of any strict linguistic value.
Foreign names in English shape really become English words, and they are so treated _^
here; e.g. Alcibiades (not Alkibiades), Juggernaut (not Jagganath). But discrimination ^QrienS^
as to where convenience rather than philological correctness should rule has been made languages.
all the more difficult, especially with names representing Arabic or other Oriental
originals, by the strong views of individual scholars, who from time to time attempt in their own writ-
ings to impose their own transliterations upon others, in the face of well-established convention. In
the course of the preparation of the Eleventh Edition of the Encyclopedia Britannica, various eminent
Arabic scholars have given strong expression to their view as to the English form of the name of the
Prophet of Islam, preference being given to that of Muhammad. But the old form Mahomet is a well-
established English equivalent; and it is here retained for convenience in identification where the
Prophet himself is referred to, the form Mahommed being generally used in distinction for other per-
sons of this name. Purists may be dissatisfied with this concession to popular usage; our choice is, we
believe, in the interest of the general public. If only the "correct" forms of many Oriental names had
been employed, they would be unrecognizable except to scholars. On the other hand, while the retention
of Mahomet is a typical instance of the preference given to a vernacular spelling when there is one, and
customary forms are adopted for Arabic and other names in the headings and for ordinary use through-
out the work, in every case the more accurate scientific spelling is also given in the appropriate article.
While deference has naturally been paid to the opinion of individual scholars, as far as possible, in connex-
ion with articles contributed by them, uniformity throughout the work (a necessity for the purpose of
Index-making, if for no other) has been secured by transliterating on the basis of schemes which have
been specially prepared for each language; for this purpose the best linguistic opinions have been consulted,
but due weight has been given to intelligibility on the part of a public already more or less accustomed
to a stereotyped spelling. In the case of Babylonian names, a section of the general article Babylonia
is specially devoted to an elucidation of the divergences between the renderings given by individual
Assyriologists.
While the Encyclopedia Britannica has aimed, in this matter of local and personal nomenclature,
at conciliating the opinion of scholars with public usage and convenience, and the present edition
makes an attempt to solve the problem on reasonable lines, it should be understood
that the whole question of the uniform representation in English of foreign place and & . .
personal names is still in a highly unsatisfactory condition. Scholars will never get
the public to adopt the very peculiar renderings, obscured by complicated accents, which do service in
purely learned circles and have a scientific justification as part of a quasi-mathematical device for accurate
pronunciation. Any attempt to transliterate into English on a phonetic basis has, moreover, a radical
weakness which is too often ignored. So long as pronunciation is not itself standardized, and so long
as the human ear does not uniformly carry to a standardized human brain the sound that is uniformly
pronounced — and it will be long before these conditions can be fulfilled— even a phonetic system of spell-
ing must adopt some convention; and in that case it is surely best, if a well-recognized convention already
exists and is in use among the public at large, to adopt it rather than to invent a new one. The point
is, indeed, of more than formal importance. So long as scholars and the public are at issue on the very
xviii EDITORIAL INTRODUCTION
essentials of the comprehension of scholarly books, which are made unreadable by the use of diacritical
signs and unpronounceable spellings, culture cannot advance except within the narrowest of sects.
This incompatibility is bad for the public, but it is also bad for scholarship. While the general reader
is repelled, the Orientalist is neglected,— to the loss of both. This criticism, which sub-
com- gtantkUy app^ to many other formal aspects of modern learning, may be unwelcome
to the professors, but it is the result of an extended experience in the attempt to bring
accurate knowledge into digestible shape for the wide public for whom the Encydopctdia Brilannica is
intended. It is indeed partly because of the tendency of modern science and modern scholarship
to put the artificial obstacles of a technical jargon in the path of people even of fairly high
education, that it becomes imperative to bring both parties upon a common ground, where the
world at large may discover the meaning of the learned research to which otherwise it is apt to
be a stranger.
With regard to the various departments of natural science, there was a tendency in previous
editions of the Encyclopedia Brilannica to make inclusive treatises of the longer articles, and
to incorporate under the one general heading of the science itself matter which
article*? would more naturally form a separate, if subordinate, subject. An attempt has now
been made to arrange the material rather according to the heading under, which, in an
encyclopaedia, students would expect to find it. In any text-book on Light, for instance, the
technical aspects of aberration, refraction, reflection, interference, phosphorescence, &c, would be
discussed concurrently as part of the whole science, in so many chapters of a continuous treatise.
But each such chapter Or subdivision in a treatise becomes in an encyclopaedia arranged on the
dictionary plan, matter to be explained where the appropriate word occurs in the alpha-
encvcloiuedia be** ^ order of headings. Under the name of the common subject of the science as a
method. whole, its history and general aspects are discussed, but the details concerned with the
separate scientific questions which fall within its subject-matter — on each of which often
a single specialist has unique authority — are relegated to distinct articles, to the headings of which
the general account becomes, if required, a key or pointer. This arrangement of the scientific
material'— a general article acting as pointer to subsidiary articles, and the latter relieving the
general account of details which would overload it — has been adopted throughout the Eleventh
Edition; and in the result it is believed that a more complete and at the same time more
authoritative survey has been attained, within the limits possible to such a work, than ever
before. The single-treatise plan, which was characteristic of the Ninth Edition, is not only
cumbrous in a work of reference, but lent itself to the omission altogether, under the general
heading, of specific issues which consequently received no proper treatment at all
r/lrtar^s/nWe 4 "^^ 1 * "* tne book; whereas the dictionary plan, by automatically providing
treatise, headings throughout the work, under which, where appropriate, articles of more or
less length may be put, enables every subject to be treated, comprehensively or in
detail, yet as part of an organic whole, by means of careful articulation adapted to the requirements of
an intelligent reader.
In preparing the Eleventh Edition a useful check on the possibility of such accidental omissions
as are apt to occur when the treatise plan is pursued, was provided by the decision, arrived at
D independently of any question of subdivision, to revert more closely to the original
heading* * orm °* *^ e Encyclopaedia Brilannica, and to make separate headings of any words
which, purely as words, had any substantial interest either for historical or philological
reasons, or as requiring explanation even for English-speaking readers. 1 The labours of Sir James
Murray and his colleagues on the Oxford New English Dictionary, which has only become accessible
since the Ninth Edition of the Encyclopedia Brilannica was published, have enabled a precise
examination to be made of all the possible headings of this kind. Such words, or groups of words,
together with proper names, personal, geographical, zoological, etc., obviously exhaust the headings
1 Though, in pursuance of the ideal of making the whole book self-explanatory, a great many purely technical terms have been given their
interpretation only in the course of the article on the science or art in which they are used, even these are included, with the correct references, among
the headings in the Index. Similarly, biographical accounts are given of far more persons than have separate biographies. The-lndex In all such
cases must be consulted, whether for word or name.
EDITORIAL INTRODUCTION xix
under which the subject matter of an encyclopaedia can be subdivided; and thus the dictionary plan,
combined with a complete logical analysis of the contents of the various arts and sciences, forms a
comprehensive basis for ensuring that no question of any substantial interest can be omitted. As
a rule the headings suggested by a logical subdivision of subject, as approved by the professional
or scientific expert, follow the usage of words which is natural to any one speaking the
English language; but where, owing to the existence of some accepted terminology in f^^^JL^f
any particular line of inquiry, it departs from this ordinary usage, the dictionary plan accuracy.
still enables a cross-reference to guide the reader, and at the same time to impart instruc-
tion in the history or technical niceties of a vocabulary which is daily outgrowing the range even of the
educated classes. It is highly and increasingly important that mere words should be correctly evaluated,
and connected with the facts for which properly they stand.
Some Points as to Substance.
In considering the substance, rather than the form, of the Eleventh Edition, it may be remarked
first that, 'as a work of reference no less than as a work for reading and study, its preparation has
been dominated throughout by the historical point of view. Any account which ThBmoiH
purports to describe what actually goes on to-day, whether in the realm of mind or in gtw /JSto^ii.
that of matter, is inevitably subject to change as years or even months pass by; but
what has been, if accurately recorded, remains permanently true as such. In the larger sense the
historian has here to deal not only with ancient and modern political history, as ordinarily under*
stood, but with past doings in every field, and thus with the steps by which existing conditions have
been reached. Geography and exploration, religion and philosophy, pure and applied science, art
and literature, commerce and industry, law and economics, war and peace, sport and games, — all
subjects are treated in these volumes not only on their merits, but as in continual evolution, the
successive stages in which are of intrinsic interest on their, own account, but also throw light on what
goes before and after. The whole range of history, thus considered, has, however, been immensely
widened in the Eleventh Edition as compared with the Ninth. The record of the past, thrown farther
and farther back by the triumphs of modern archaeology, is limited on its nearer confines only
by the date at which the Encyclopedia BrUannica is published. Any contemporary description is
indeed liable to become inadequate almost as soon as it is in the hands of the reader; but the
available resources have been utilized here to the utmost, so that the salient facts up to the autumn
of the year 1910 might be included throughout, not merely as isolated events, but as part of a con-
sistent whole, conceived in the spirit of the historian. Thus only can the fleeting present be
true to its relation with later developments, which it is no part of the task of an encyclopaedia
to prophesy.
In this connexion it is advisable to explain that while the most recent statistics have been
incorporated when they really represented conditions of historic value, the notion that economic
development can be truly shown merely by giving statistics for the last year available
is entirely false, and for this reason in many cases there has been no attempt merely statistics.
to be "up-to-date" by inserting them. Statistics are used here as an illustration of
the substantial existing conditions and of real progress. For the statistics of one year, and especially
for those of the latest year, the inquirer must necessarily go to annual publications, not to an
encyclopaedia which attempts to show the representative conditions of abiding importance. In such
a work statistics are only one useful method of expressing historic evolution; their value varies con-
siderably according to the nature of the subject dealt with; and the figures of the year which by
accident is the last before publication would often be entirely misleading, owing to their being
subject to some purely temporary influence. In general, far less tabular matter has been included
in the Eleventh Edition than in the Ninth. Where it is used, it is not as a substitute for descriptive
accounts, which can put the facts in readable form much better, but more appropriately as showing
concisely and clearly the differences between the conditions at different periods. As years pass by,
xx EDITORIAL INTRODUCTION
and new statistics on all subjects become accessible, those which have been given here for their
historical value are, as such, unaffected by the lapse of time; but if they had been slavishly inserted
simply because they were the latest in the series of years immediately preceding publication, their
precarious connexion with any continuous evolution would soon have made them futile. So much
has been done in the Eleventh Edition to bring the record of events, whether in political history or
in other articles, down to the latest available date, and thus to complete the picture of the world as
it was in 1910, that it is necessary to deprecate any misconception which might otherwise arise from
the fact that statistics are inserted not as events in themselves — this they may or may not be,
according to the subject-matter — but as a method of expressing the substantial results of human
activity; for that purpose they must be given comparatively, selected as representative, and weighed
in the balance of the judicious historian.
While every individual article in an encyclopaedia which aims at authoritative exposition must
be informed by the spirit of history, it is no less essential that the spirit of science should move over
The soMt of ^ c construc ^ on °f ^ c wor ^ ** a whole. Whatever may be the deficiencies of its
science. execution, the Eleventh Edition has at any rate this advantage to those who use it,
that the method of simultaneous preparation, already referred to, has enabled every
subject to be treated systematically. Not only in the case of "science" itself, but in history, law, or
any other kind of knowledge, its contributors were all assisting to carry out a preconcerted scheme,
each aware of the relation of his or her contribution to others in the same field; and the inter-
dependence of the related parts must be remembered by any reader who desires to do justice to the
treatment of any large subject Cross-references and other indications in the text are guides to the
system employed, which are supplemented in greater detail by the elaborate Index. But the
scientific spirit not only affects the scheme of construction as a whole: it has modified the individual
treatment. Attention may perhaps be drawn to two particular points in this connexion,— the
increased employment of the comparative method, and the attempt to treat opinion and .controversy
objectively, without partisanship or sectarianism.
The title of the Encyclopedia Britannica has never meant that it is restricted in its accounts of
natural science, law, religion, art, or other subjects, to what goes on in the British dominions; but a
The comMra- cons *derable extension has been given in the Eleventh Edition to the amount of
five method, information it contains concerning the corresponding activities in other countries. By
approaching each subject, as far as possible, on its merits, the contributors in every
department aim at appraising the achievements of civilization from whatever source they have
arisen, and at the same time, by inserting special sections on different countries when this course is
appropriate, they show the variations in practice under different systems of government or custom. But
the subjects are not only arranged comparatively in this sense: new branches of study have arisen which
are of chief importance mainly for the results attained by the comparative method. The impetus given
to comparative sociology by Herbert Spencer, the modern interest in comparative law, religion,
folklore, anthropology, psychology and philology, have resulted in the accumulation of a mass of detail
which it becomes the task of an encyclopaedia produced on the plan of organized co-operation to reduce
to manageable proportions and intelligible perspective. Comparative bibliography, so much fostered
of late years by the growth of great library organizations, undergoes in its turn the same process; and
expert selection makes the references to the best books a guide to the student without overwhelming
him. To deal here with all the lines of new research which have benefited .by the comparative method in
recent years would trench unnecessarily upon the scope of the contents of the work, where sufficient
is already written. One illustration must suffice of a science in which the new treatment affects both
the substance and the form of the articles in the Eleventh Edition of the Encyclopaedia Britannica. Com-
parative Anatomy, as a branch of Zoology, can no longer be scientifically separated from Human Anatomy.
The various parts of the human body are therefore systematically treated under separate headings,
in connexion not only with the arts of medicine and surgery, which depend on a knowledge of each
particular structure, but with the corresponding features in tie rest of the animal kingdom, the study
of which continually leads to a better understanding of the human organism. Thus comparative anatomy
and human anatomy take their places, with physiology and pathology, as interdependent and inter-
EDITORIAL INTRODUCTION xxi
connected branches of the wider science of Zoology, in which all the lines of experimental inquiry and
progressive knowledge lead up to a more efficient service of man and society.
In stating "the position taken by the Encyclopedia Briiannica in relation to the active con-
troversies of the time/' Spencer Baynes, in his Preface to the first volume of the Ninth Edition
(1875), referred to the conflict of opinion then raging in regard to religion and #
science. "In this conflict," he said, "a work like the Encyclopaedia is not called upon ^T W
to take any direct part. It has to do with knowledge, rather than opinion, and to
deal with all subjects from a critical and historical rather than a dogmatic point of view. It cannot
be the organ of any sect or party in science, religion or philosophy " The same policy has in-
spired the Eleventh Edition. The Encyclopaedia Briiannica itself has no side or party, it attempts
to give representation to all parties, sects and sides. In a work indeed which deals with opinion and
controversy at all, it is manifestly impossible for criticism to be colourless, its value as a source of
authoritative exposition would be very different from what it is if individual contributors were
cot able to state their views fully and fearlessly. But every effort has been made to obtain, impar-
tially, such statements of doctrine and belief in matters of religion and similar questions as are sat-
isfactory to those who hold them, and to deal with these questions, so far as criticism is concerned, in
such a way that the controversial points may be understood and appreciated, without-prejudice to the
argument The easy way to what is sometimes considered impartiality is to leave controversy out
altogether; that would be to avoid responsibility at the cost of perpetuating ignorance, for it is
only in the light of the controversies about them that the importance of these questions of doctrine
and opinion can be realized. The object of the present work is to furnish accounts of all sub-
jects which shall really explain their meaning to those who desire accurate information. Amid
the variety of beliefs which are held with sincere conviction by one set of people or another,
impartiality does not consist in concealing criticism, or in withholding the knowledge of divergent
opinion, but in an attitude of scientific respect which is precise in stating a belief in the terms,
and according to the interpretation, accepted by those who hold it In order to give the fullest
expression to this objective treatment of questions which in their essence are dogmatic, con-
tributors of all shades of opinion have co-operated in the work of the Eleventh Edition of the
Encyclopedia Briiannica. They have been selected as representative after the most careful con-
sideration and under the highest sense of editorial responsibility . The proportion of space devoted
to these subjects is necessarily large, because they bulk largely in the minds of thinking people;
and while they are treated more comprehensively than before, individual judgments as to their relative
claims may naturally vary The general estimates which prevail among the countries which repre-
sent Western civilization are, however, in practical agreement on this point, and this consensus
is the only ultimate criterion. In one respect the Eleventh Edition is fortunate in the time
of its appearance. Since the completion of the Ninth Edition the controversies which at that
time raged round the application of- historical and scientific criticism to religion have become less
acute, and an objective statement of the problems, for instance, connected with the literary
history of the Bible is now less encumbered with the doubts as to the effect on personal religion
which formerly prevailed Science and theology have learnt to dwell together, and a reverent
attitude towards religion, and indeed towards all the great religions, may be combined,
without arriere-pensie, with a scientific comparative study of the phenomena of their institutions and
development.
Modern scientific progress has naturally affected other aspects of the Eleventh Edition no less
than the literary text, and a word may be added here as to the illustrations and maps. Photography
and reproductive processes generally now combine to enable much more to be done than was
possible a generation ago to assist verbal explanations and descriptions by an appeal to the eye,
and to make this appeal scientifically accurate both in form and colour- The older pictorial material
in the Ninth Edition has undergone the same critical survey as the text, and a
large proportion of what now appears in the Eleventh Edition is not only new, but illustration.
represents more adequately the modern principles of the art of illustration. The
microscope on the one hand, and the museum on the other, have become in an increasing degree the
xxii EDITORIAL INTRODUCTION
instruments for attaining a scientific presentment in pictorial form of the realities of science and art.
Whether for elucidating the technicalities of zoology or engineering machinery, or for showing concrete
examples of ancient or modern statuary or painting, the draughtsman or the photographer has
co-operated in the Eleventh Edition with the writers of the various articles, so that as far as possible
their work may be accurately illustrated, in the correct sense, as distinct from any object of
beautifying the book itself by pictures which might merely be interesting on their own account.
Similarly the maps are not collected in an atlas, but accompany the topographical articles to which
they are appropriate. Whether plate-maps or text-maps, they were all laid out with the scope,
orthographical system, and other requirements of the text in view, either the cartographers have
worked with the text before them—often representing new geographical authority on the part of
the contributors — or they have been directed by the geographical department of the editorial staff
as to the sources on which they should draw; and the maps have been indexed as an atlas is, so that
any topographical article not accompanied by a map has its appropriate map-reference in the general
index. The more important coloured maps have been specially prepared by Messrs Justus Perthes
of Gotha, the publishers of Slider's Atlas, which in some instances has served as their basis, and the others
have been made under the direction of Mr Emery Walker of London, in collaboration with the editorial
staff. Mr Emery Walker's great knowledge and experience in the work of illustration has throughout
been put ungrudgingly at the service of the Eleventh Edition.
Conclusion
In expressing, on behalf of the editorial staff and the publishers, their indebtedness to the large
number of contributors who have assisted in carrying the work to its completion, the Editor would be
glad to refer to many individuals among the eminent writers who have given of their best. But the
list is so long that he must content himself with a word of general thanks. It is more important to
give public credit here to those who, without actually being members of the editorial staff, have taken
an intimate part with them in planning and organizing the Eleventh Edition. It was necessary for
the Editor to be able to rely on authoritative specialists for advice and guidance in regard to particular
sciences. Foremost among these stand the subjects of Zoology and Botany, which were under
the charge respectively of Dr P. Chalmers Mitchell, Secretary of the Zoological Society of London, and
Dr A. B. Rendle, Keeper of the department of Botany, British Museum. Dr Chalmers Mitchell's
Advisers oa assistance in regard to Zoology extended also to the connected aspects of Comparative
special Anatomy (in association with Mr F G. Parsons), Physiology and Palaeontology. The
subjects, whole field of Biology was covered by the joint labours of Dr Chalmers Mitchell and
Dr Rendle, and their supervision, in all stages of the work, gave unity to the co-operation of the numer-
ous contributors of zoological and botanical articles. The treatment of Geology was planned by Mr H.
B. Woodward; and with him were associated Dr J. A. Howe, who took charge of the department of
Topographical Geology, Dr. J. S. Flett, who covered that of Petrology, and Mr L. J. Spencer and Mr
F. W. Rudler, who dealt comprehensively with Mineralogy and Crystallography. The late Dr Simon
Newcomb planned and largely helped to carry out the articles dealing with Astronomy. Prof. J. A.
Fleming acted in a similar capacity as regards Electricity and Magnetism. Prof. Hugh Callendar was
responsible for the treatment of Heat; Prof. Poynting for that of Sound; and the late Prof. C. J. Joly,
Royal Astronomer in Ireland, planned the articles dealing with Light and Optics. On literary subjects the
Editor had the sympathetic collaboration of Mr Edmund Gosse, Librarian to the House of Lords; and
Mr Marion H. Spielmann, on artistic subjects, also gave valuable help.
Among those whose association with the editorial staff was particularly close were the Rev. E.
M. Walker of Oxford, as regards Subjects of ancient Greek history; Mr Stanley Cook of Cambridge,
who was the Editor's chief adviser on questions of Old Testament criticism and Semitic learning
generally, Dr T. Ashby, Director of the British School of Archaeology at Rome, who dealt with
Italian topography and art; and Mr Israel Abrahams, who was consulted on Jewish subjects.
Dr Peter Giles of Cambridge undertook the survey of Comparative Philology, and Sir Thomas
EDITORIAL INTRODUCTION xxiii
Barclay that of International Law. Others who gave valuable advice and assistance in regard to
their various subjects were— Lord Rayleigh and Mr W C D. Whetham (Physical Science), Sir
Archibald Geikie (Geology), Sir £. Maunde Thompson (Palaeography and Bibliology), Mr J. H.
Round (History and Genealogy), Mr Phene* Spiers (Architecture), Mr W. Burton (Ceramics), Mr
T. M. Young of Manchester (Textile Industries), Prof W E. Dalby (Engineering), Dr G. A.
Grierson (Indian Languages), the Rev. G W. Thatcher (Arabic), Mr H. Stuart Jones (Roman
History and Art), Dr D. G. Hogarth and Prof. Ernest Gardner (Hellenic Archaeology), the late Dr
W. Fream (Agriculture), Mr W F Sheppard (Mathematics), Mr Arthur H. Smith (Classical Art),
Dr Postgate (Latin Literature), Mr Fitzmaurice Kelly (Spanish Literature), Prof J. G. Robertson
(German Literature), Mr J S. Cotton (India), Mr Edmund Owen (Surgery), Mr Donald Tovey (Music),
Prof H. M. Howe of Columbia University (Mining), Prof. W M Davis and Prof. D. W. Johnson of
Harvard (American Physiography)
These names may be some indication of the amount of expert assistance and advice on which the
editorial staff were able to draw, first when they were engaged in making preparations for the Eleventh
Edition, then in organizing the whole body of contributors, and finally in combining cnfk**h,
their united resources in revising the work so as to present it in the finished state in which W poort
it is given to the public. Constituting as they did a college of research, a centre which
drew to itself constant suggestions from all who were interested in the dissemination of accurate
information, its members had the advantage of communication with many other leaders of opinion,
to whose help, whether in Europe or America, it is impossible to do adequate justice here The
interest shown in the undertaking may be illustrated by the fact that his late Majesty King Edward VII
graciously permitted his own unique collection of British and foreign orders to be used for the purpose
of making the coloured plates which accompany the article Knighthood Makers of history like Lord
Cromer and Sir George Goldie added their authority to the work by assisting its contributors, even while
not becoming contributors themselves. Custodians of official records, presidents and secretaries of
institutions, societies and colleges, relatives or descendants of the subjects of biographies, governmental
or municipal officers, librarians, divines, editors, manufacturers,— from many such quarters answers
have been freely given to applications for information which is now embodied in the Encyclopedia
Britannica.
In the principal Assistant-Editor, Mr Walter Alison Phillips, the Editor had throughout as his
chief ally a scholarly historian of wide interests and great literary capacity Prof J. T Shotwell,
of Columbia University, US.A., in the earlier years of preparation, acted as joint j^m staff
Assistant-Editor; and Mr Ronald McNeill did important work as additional Assistant-
Editor while the later stages were in progress. To Mr Charles Crawford Whinery was entrusted the
dfrection of a separate office in New York for the purpose of dealing with American contributors and
with articles on American subjects, to his loyal and efficient co-operation, both on the special subjects
assigned to the American office, and in the final revision of the whole work, too high a tribute cannot
be paid. The other principal members of the editorial staff in London, responsible for different depart-
ments, were Mr J. Malcolm Mitchell, Dr T- A. Ingram, Mr H M Ross, Mr Charles Everitt, Mr O. J. R.
Howarth, Mr F R. Cana, Mr C 0. Weathcrly, Mr J. H. Freese, Mr K. G. Jayne, Mr Roland Truslove,
Mr C. F Atkinson, Mr A. W. Holland, the Rev A J Grieve, Mr W E. Garrett Fisher and Mr Arthur
B. Atkins, to the last of whom, as private secretary to the Editor-in-Chief, the present writer owes a
special debt of gratitude for unfailing assistance in dealing with all the problems of editorial control.
On the New York staff Mr Whinery had the efficient help of Mr R Webster, Dr N D Mereness, Dr
F.S.Philbrick,DrW K.Boyd,DrW O Scroggs.MrW T Arndt.MrW L. Corbin and Mr G Gladden.
A word must be added concerning a somewhat original feature in the editorial mechanism, the
Indexing department. This department was organized from the first so that it might serve a double
purpose. By indexing the articles as they came in, preparation could gradually be j^ index.
made for compiling the Index which would eventually be published; and as the reference-
cards gradually accumulated under systematic index-headings, the comparison of work done by different
writers might assist the editing of the text itself by discovering inconsistencies or inaccuracies in points
of detail or suggesting the incorporation of additional material. The text of the Eleventh Edition owes
xxiv EDITORIAL INTRODUCTION
much in this way to suggestions originating among the staff of ladies concerned, among whom particular
mention may be made of Miss Griffiths, Miss Tyler, and Miss Edmonds. The actual Index, as published,
represents a concentration and sifting of the work of the Indexing department , and in order to put it into
shape a further stage in the organization was necessary, which was carried through under the able direction
of Miss Janet Hogarth. The completion of the Index volume, which all those who wish to make full use
of the Eleventh Edition of the Encyclopaedia Britannica should regard as the real guide to its contents,
brought finally into play all parts of the editorial machinery which had been engaged in the making of
the work itself, — a vast engine of co-operative effort, dedicated to the service of the public.
HUGH CHISHOLM.
London,
December xo, zgio
INITIALS USED IN VOLUME I. TO IDENTIFY INDIVIDUAL
CONTRIBUTORS,* WITH THE HEADINGS OF THE
ARTICLES IN THIS VOLUME SO SIGNED.
A.A.E.*
A.C.L.
A.D.
A.K.8.
A.F.B.
A.F.P.
A.G.H.
A.H.J.Q.
A.J.B.
•UI.G.
A.H.C.
A.M.CL
AVR.W.
a. a.
«VW.»
A.W.B*
■.*•
CI.*
CLE*
CF.A.
AJry.
Afghanistan: History,
impart).
Aethub Alcocx Rambaut, MA., D.Sc, F.R.S.
Raddiffe Observer, Oxford. Professor of A str onomy In the University of Dublin
and Royal Astronomer of Ireland, 1892-1897.
Sot Alrid Comyn Lyall, K.C.B.
See the biographical article: Lyall, Sim A. C
Austin Dobson, LL.D.
Seethe biographical artick:DoBSON,HSMRTAusTlJl.
Aethub Everett Shipley, M.A.,D.Sc.,T.R.S.
Fellow and Tutor of Christ's College, Cambridge. Reader In Zoology In Cam-
bridge University. Joint-editor of the Cambrid& Natural History.
Aldred Fabrer Barker, M.Sc.
Professor of Textile Industries at Bradford Technical College.
Albert Frederick Pollard, M.A., F.R.HurSoc.
Fellow of AU SouU' College, Oxford; Professor of Eiigush History in the University
of London. Assutam-editor of the Dictionary of Notional Biography, 1893-1901.
AETHUB GlRAULT.
P rofes so r of Political Economy at the University of Poitiers. Member of the
International Colonial Institute. Author of Prindpos do colonisation (1907-1908).
A. C. Hadcock (lateRA.)
Manager of the Gun Department, Elswick Works, Newcastk-on-Tyne.
Abel Hekdt Tones Gbeenbge, M.A., DXttt. (Oxon.) (d. 1005).
Formerly Fellow and Lecturer of Hertford College, Oxford, and of St John's'
College, Oxford. Author of Jnfamia in Roman Law; Ac
Alfred Joshua Butleb, M.A., D.Lttt. J Abyssinian Church.
Fellow and Bursar of Brasenose College, Oxford. Fellow of Eton College. I
Algeria: History.
(in park
Rev. Alexander J. Grieve, MA. B.D.
Professor of New Testament and Church History, Yorkshire United independent
College, Bradford.
Alls* MawejlM.A.
Pr o f es s or of English Language and Literature, Armstrong College, Newcastle*on-
Tyne; formerly Fellow of Gonville and Caius College, Cambridge.
Acnes Masy Clebee.
See the biographical article: Clerks, A. M.
Acnes Muriel Clay (Mrs Edward WOde).
Late Resident Tutor of Lady Margaret Hall, Oxford. Joint-editor of Sonrcos of
Baman History, 133-70 B.C.
Alfred Russel Wallace. LL.D., D.C.L., F.R.S.
See the biographical article: Wallace, A. R.
Aethub Sidowice, M.A- LL.D. (Glasgow).
Fellow of Corpus Cbristi College, Oxford; formerly Reader In Greek, Oxford Uni-
J
/Aberdeea, 4th Earl ot
(in part);
(in port)*
{
Arthur Willey, DJSc, F.R.S.
Director of Colombo Museum, Ceylon.
Arthur William Holland.
Formerly Scholar of St John's College, Oxford. Bacon Scholar of Gray's Inn, 1900.
Budgztt Meaetn (d. 1906).
Aatbor ciTks Moors; Tks Land of tks Moors; Tht Moorish Bmpirsi &c
Charles Bemovt, D. is L., LtttJ). (Oxon.).
See the biographical article: Bbmont, C
Charles Evebjtt, M.A., F.CS., F.G.S., F.R.A&
Magdalen College, Oxford.
Alexandria: BattU.
Amerkan Olffl War;
(in pari).
'A complete list, showing all individual contributors, appears in the final volume,
Charles Francis Atkinson.
Formerly Scholar of Queen's College, Oxford. Captain, 1st Gty of London (Royal '
is). Author of Tit WUdorntss and Cold Harbour.
Agrarian Lewi (in part).
Abo* V.;
Alford;
Ambrose, St
L;
{AsjoL
Agrarian Laws (in part).
{
.Algebra: History.
xxvi
C.P.R.
C.L.
C. ML
C.PL
C.PL
C.R.B.
C. 8. P.*
CWe.
D. B.Ma.
D.O.H.
INITIALS AND HEADINGS OF ARTICLES
D.R.
D.H.
D. Mn.
D. H. W.
B.B.*
B.Br.
B.Ch.
B.C.B.
K.G.
E.Gr.
B.He.
B.H.H.
B.J.R.
B.H.W.
B.O.*
Cham.es F. Richardson, Ph.D.
Professor of English, Dartmouth College, USA.
H. Caldwell Lipsett.
Formeriy Editor of the Cm/ and Military GauUe, Lahore, India.
ChEDOMILLE MlTATOVICH.
Senator of the Kingdom of Servia. Envoy Extraordinary and Minister Pleni-
potentiary of the Kong of Servia to the Court of St James's, 1895- 1900, and
1902-1903.
Christian Pfistejl, D. is L.
Professor at the Sorbonne, Paris. Chevalier of the Legion of Honour. Author of
Etudes sur le regno de Robert le Pieux.
Rev. Pwa»i.«i Plummer, M.A.
Fellow of Corpus Christ! College, Oxford. Author of Life and Times of Alfred Ike
■Great; Ac Ford's Lecturer, 1901.
Charles Raymond Beazley, M.A., D.Lrrr.
Professor of Modern History in the University of Birmingham. Formerly Fellow of
Merton College, Oxford, and University Lecturer in tine History of Geography.
Author of Henry the Navigator ; The Dawn ef Modern Geography ; &c
Rev. Charles Stanley Phillips.
King's College, Cambridge. Gladstone Memorial Priae,. 1904.
Cecil Weatherly.
Formerly Scholar of Queen's College, Oxford. Barrister-at-Law.
Duncan Black Macdonald, M.A.. D.D.
Professor of Semitic Languages, Hartford Theological Seminary, U.&A.
David Georoe Hogarth, M.A.
Keeper of die Ashmolean Museum, Oxford. Fellow of Magdalen College. Oxford.
Fellow of the British Academy. Excavated at Paphos, 1888; Naukratis. 1899
and 1903; Ephesus, 1904-1905; Assiut, 1906-1907; Director, British School at
"~ *, Cretan ~ " ' ~ '
fAleott, A.B.;
.Alcott,L.H.
AWdl; Agra.
Alexander of Servta,
Athens, 1*97-1900; Director,
1 Exploration Fund, 1899.
David Hannay.
Formerly British Vice-Consul at Barcelona. Author of Short History of Royal Naoy,
1*17-1088', Life of Emilio Castelar; &c
Rev. D. Metklxjohn.
Rev. Ducalo Macvaoyen, M.A.
Minister of South Grove Congregational Church, Highgate.
Sia Donald Mackenzie Wallace, K.C.I.E., K.C.V.O.
Extra Groom of the Bedchamber to H.M. King George V. Director of the Foreign
Department of The Times, 1891-1899. Author of Russia.
Ernest C. F. Babelon.
Professor at the College de France. Keeper of the Dept. of Medals and Antiquities
at the Bibliotheque National©. Chevalier of the Legion of Honour.
Ernest Barker, M.A.
Fellow and Lecturer in Modern History, St John's College, Oxford. Formeriy
Fellow and Tutor of Merton College.
Edward Cbanntno, Pb.D.
Professor of History, Harvard University.
Right Rev. Edward Cuthbert Butler, O.S.B.. D.Lttt.
Abbot of Downside Abbey, Bath.
Edmund Gosse,LL.D.
.See the biographical article: Gosss, Edmund.
Ernest Arthur Gardner, M.A.
See the biographical article: Gardner, Percy.
Edward Heawood, M.A.
Librarianto Royal Geographical Society, London. Author of Geography of Africa ; &c
Ellis Hovell Minns, M.A.
Lecturer and Assistant Librarian, and formerly Fellow, Pembroke College, Cam-
bridge. University Lecturer in Palaeography.
Emanuel Joseph Ristori, Ph.D.. Assoc.M.Inst.CE.
Member of Council, Institute of Metals.
Rev. Edward Mewburn Walker. M.A.
Fellow, Senior Tutor and Librarian of Queen's College, Oxford.
Edmund Owen, M.B., F.R.C.S., LL.D., D.Sc
Consulting Surgeon to St Mary's Hospital, London, and to the Children's Hospital,
Great Ormond Street. Late Examiner in Surgery at the Universities of Cambridge,
Durham and London. Author of A Manual of Anatomy for Senior Students.
Alfred the Gnat
Andrew of Loogjumean*
JEtnelredn.
.Advertisement (in part).
'Aba Hanlfa;
< Ahmad Ibn HanbaL
Adatta; Adana; Aegean
Civilization; Aintab; Aleppo;
Alexandria; Alexandretfa;
Alexandria Troas;
AMadides; Abd^Ar-Rahman;
Admiral; Agreda;
Almogavaras; Almohades;
Almoravldes; Alphonao;
America: History;
American War of Inde-
pendence: Naval Operations;
American War of 1812.
Adams, John Couch.
Alexander, W. L.; Alton, H.
Alexander XL, of Rnssia;
Alexander ILL, of Rnssia.
Africa, Roman:
Amalrlc
Adams, John;
Adams, John Qulnoy;
Almqvist;
Anacreontics;
Andersen, Hans Christian.
Abac; Acarnanla;
Aetna.
Africa: Geography, Economics,
Bibliography.
Aeglna: History.
INITIALS AND HEADINGS OF ARTICLES
xxvu
LPt.
E.S.B.
LTB.
LV.
I.W.*
T.JLI.
r.ac
F.Fn.
F.G.H.B.
P.G.P.
F.R.B*.
F.U.G.
F.B.CL
F.L
f.t.h.
F.W.R*
CJLB.
CA.Gr.
Cat.
6.B.K.
C.C.R.
c&c.
uw.
0.L
Edgar Prestacb.
Special Lecturer in Portuguese Literature in the University of
Examiner in Portuguese in the Universities of Lo n do n , Manchester, Ac Com-
mendador, Portuguese Order of S. Thiaga
Edwyn Robert Bevan, M.A.
New College, Oxford. Author of The Hens* of Seleucus.
Rev. Etkelbed Leonard Taunton (d. 1007). f
Author of The English Black Monks of St Benedict; History of the Jesuits in England. \
Rev. Edmund Vexabus, M.A., D.D. (18x0-1895).
Canoo and Precentor of Lincoln. Author of Episcopal Palaces of Enfant.
Edgar Whxtakeb <d. 100 s).
Formerly Times co r re sp ondent at Constant ino ple,
Feed. A. Eaton.
Secretary to the Royal Academy.
Frederick Cobnwalus Conybeare, M.A., D.Th. (Giessen).
■ Alexander the Gnat
Acolyte;
{Abbey;
I Abbot
{Ahmed Vett.
Formerly Fellow of University College, Oxford. Fellow of the British Academy, i
* . L „ Im ~. .___. ^ _•__ TgxU j Ari4l0llti Mytkf MagU ajlrf Morals; Ac I
I Academy, RoyaL
Ablution; Agape;
Anabaptists;
Ancestor-Worship.
Frederick Geobge Meeson Beck, M.A.
Fellow and Lecturer of Clare College, Cambridge.
Author of The Ancient Armenian '.
Fbaxk Finn, F.Z.S. f ,
Late Assistant Director of the Indian Museum, Calcutta. \ *
rJBfhelbald; JEthelberht;
< JEthelnith; JEthelred;
IjEthelwuHr; Alamanni.
Feedeexck Gymeb Parsons, F.R.C.S., F.Z.S., F.R.Anthrop.Inst. r
Vice-President, Anatomical Society of Great Britain and Ireland. Lecturer on [ *u mail< ««, r<« n .i.
Anatomy at St Thomas's Hospital and the London School of Medicine for Women, i AlHBtBltlf Canal,
Formerly Hunterian Professor at the Royal College of Surgeons. Anatomy.
Fbancxs Henry Neville, M.A. f F.R.S. J ._ ,. A
Fellow of Sidney Sussex College, Cambridge, and Lecturer 00 Physics and Chemistry. \ Alloys U* part).
Francis Llewelyn Grotith, M.A., Ph.D., F.S.A.
' 1 Egyptology, Oxford. Editor of the Archaeological Survey and Archaeo-
sports of the "* »—•-—»-- - — -•
I Abn SImbel;
logical Reports of the Egypt Exploration Fund.
Frank R. Cana.
Author of South Africa from the Gnat Trek to Ike Union.
Francis Store.
E^litoeoithtJom^uU of Education (London). Oficier d'Acsdtmie (Paris).
Sir Frank Thomas Maroalb.
Accountant-General of the Army, 1898-1904. Editor of " Great Writers " Series.
Frederick William Rudler, I.S.O., F.G.S.
Curator and Librarian of the Museum of Practical Geology, London, 1879-1903.
President of the Geologists' Association, 1887-1889.
Abyssinia: Geography;
Africa: Geography, History Un
fori) ; Albert Edward Nyansa
Kin port); Albert Nyansa (in
part); Alexandria {in pari);
Algeria: Geography.
About,
Ar/te*>
Agate; Alabaster;
Alexandrite;
Amber; Amethyst
Count Albert Edward Wilfred Glexchen, K.C.V.O., C.B., C.M.G., D.S.O., r .. ... „. .
A.D.M.O., War Office; Colonel, Grenadier Guards. Mission to Abyssinia, 1897. \ Abyssinia: History.
George A. Boulencer, D.Sc., F.R.S.
In charge of the Collections of Reptiles and Fishes, Department of Zoology, British .
Museum. Vice-President of the Zoological Society of London.
George Abraham Gbterson. C.I.E., Ph.D., D.Lrrr.
Member of the Indian Civil Service, 1 873-1 003. In charge of Linguistic Survey of
India, 1898-1902. Gold Medallist* Asiatic Society, 1909.
Rev. George Bryce, D.D., LL.D.
Head of Faculty of Science, and Lecturer in Biology and Geology in Manitoba •
University, 1891-1904. Vice-President of Royal Society, Canada, 1908.
George Ballard Mathews, M.A., F.R.S.
Formerly Professor of Mathematics, University College of N. Wales. Sometime <
Fellow of St John's College, Cambridge.
Geobge Croom Robertson.
See the biographical article: Robertson, G. C
Colonel Geobge Earl Church
See the biographical article; Church, G. E.
George Edward Woodberry, LtttD., LL.D. f
Professor of Comparative Literature at Columbia University, 1801-1904. Author of i American literature.
Alberta.
Algebra: Special
/Abelard {in part).
{
Edgar Allan Poo; Makers of Literature; America in Literature; &c
G. F. Babwick. I
Assistant-Keeper of Printed Books and Superintendent of Reading-room, British 1
Alfred, Doke of Saxo-Goborg;
Alice, Orand-Duchess of Hesse.
Gborg -Lungs, Ph.D. (Breslau). Hon. Db.Ing. (Karlsruhe).
See the biographical article: Lunge, G.
XXVUl
O.P.H.
G.W.B.
O.W.T.
H.B.WO.
H.Ch.
H.C.C.
H.H.R.
H.H.V.
H.P.J.*
H.B.H.*
H.S.-K.
H.8.I.
H.V.K.
H.w.aa
H.W.H.
H.W.8.
H.T.
J.A.Ba.
J.A.R.
J.A.F.
J.A.H.
J.B.B.
I.D.B.
J.D.PT,
J.F.-K.
I.F.B.
10.C.A.
INITIALS AND HEADINGS OF ARTICLES
George Peroval Mudce, A.R.C.S., F.Z.S. f
Lecturer on Biology, London Hospital Medical College, and London School of
Medicine for Women.
George Willis Botsford, A.M., Ph.D.
Professor of History of Greece and Rome in Columbia University, New York.
Author of The Roman Assemblies', Ac
Rev. Griffiths* Wheeler Thatcher, M.A., B.D.
Warden of Camden College, Sydney, N.S.W Formerly Tutor in Hebrew and Old
Testament History at Mansfield College, Oxford.
Horace Bouncbroke Woodward, F.R.S., F.G.S.
Formerly Assistant Director of the Geological Survey of England and Wales.
President Geologists' Association, 1893-1894. Wollaston Medallist, 1908.
Hugh Ckbholm , M.A.
Formerly Scholar of Corpus Christ! College. Oxford. Editor of the I Ith edition of
the Encyclopaedia Britonmcai co-editor of the loth edition.
Herbert Challicr Crouch, M.R.C.S., L.R.C.P.
Anaesthetist and Teacher of Anaesthetics at St Thomas's, Samaritan and French,
Hospitals, London.
Hugh Munro Ross.
Formerly Exhibitioner of Lincoln College, Oxford. Editor of the Times Engineering
Supplement. Author of British Railways.
Herbert M. Vaughan, F.S.A.
Keble College, Oxford. Author of The Last of the Royal Stuarts t <&c
Henry Phelps Johnston.
Author of Loyalist History of the Revolution', The Yorhlown Campaign; Ac
H. R. Haxton.
Sir Henry Seton-Karr, C.M.G.
Member for St. Helen's, 1885-1906. Author of The Call to Arms,
Henry Stuart Tones. M.A.
Formerly Fellow of Trinity College, Oxford. Director of the British School at
Rome, 1903-1905* Author of The Roman Empire.
Captain Howard V. Knox, M.A.
Exeter College, Oxford.
Henry William Carless Davis, M.A.
Fellow and Tutor of Balliol College, Oxford. Feliow of All Souls', Oxford, 1895-1903.
Hope W. Hogg, M.A.
Professor of Semitic Languages and Literatures in the University of Manchester.
H. Wicxham Steed.
Co-respondent of The Times at Rome (1897-1903) and Vienna.
Sir Henry Yule, K.C.S.I.
See the biographical article: Yule, Sir H.
J. Arthur Barrett, LL.B.
New York Bar, 188a US. Supreme Court Bar, 1901.
James Alfred Ewino. C.B., LL.D., F.R.S., MJnst.CE. r
Director of (British) Naval Education, 1903. Hon.. Fellow of King's College,! ... t,-*».
Cambridge. Professor of Mechanism and Applied Mechanics In the University 1 ^"f™'
Abu-l-'am; Abu-KAtahfym;
AbulfaraJ; Abulfada;
Ab n I Qtttm ; Abu Nuwas;
Abu Tammam; Aba UbaJda;
Akhtal; Ahnmi Do 'Ateda;
Amru'-oJ-QaJs,
Agassis, J. L.R.
Acton, Lord; Agnosticism;
Albert, Prinoe Consort
Albany, Countsss oL
American War of Independ-
•Bos: Land Operations.
Ammunition: Small Arms.
•Alps: Flora and Fauna.
I Kind; Alrata; Ambrose,
{Anah.
/ Amedso, Ftedmando, of Savoy.
«f Afgnanhtam History.
i
United States.
of Cambridge, 1 890-1903.
John Ambrose Fleming, M.A.. D.Sc, F.R.S.
Pender Professor of Electrical Engineering in the University of London. Fellow of ,
University College, London. Formerly Fellow of St John's College, Cambridge, and '
University Lecturer on Applied Mechanics. Author of Magnets and Electric Currents.
John Allen Howe, B.Sc
Curator and Librarian at the Museum of Practical Geology, London.
John Bagnell Bury, Litt.D., LL.D.
See the biographical article: Bury, J. B.
James David Bourchier, M.A., F.R.G.S.
Correspondent of The Times in South-Eastern Europe. Officer of the Order of
St Alexander of Bulgaria.
John Dyneley Prince, Ph.D.
Professor of Semitic Languages at Columbia University, N.Y. Took part in the
Expedition to Southern Babylonia, 1888-89.
James Fttzmaurice-Kelly, Lttt.D., F.R.Hist.S.
Fellow of the British Academy. Gilmour Professor of Spanish Language and
Literature in the University of Liverpool. Norman MacCoII Lecturer in the
University of Cambridge. Knight Commander of the Order of Alphonso XII.
Author 01 A History of Spanish Literature.
James Ford Rhodes, LL.D.
See the biographical article: Rhodes, J. Ford.
Akxttts L to m.
Akkas,
Aeosta, J. da;
Ataroon, J. R. as;
Anroon, p. A. at;
AmadU at Gaum.
C. F.
John George Clare: Anderson, M.A.
Student, Censor and Tutor of Christ Church, Oxford.
Formerly Fellow of Lincoln College, Oxford
Craven Fellow, 1896. \ Ancfia.
INITIALS AND HEADINGS OF ARTICLES
XXIX
1.0.6*.
J.6.86.
J.H.P.
J.H.R.
ILL
J.L*
J.L.M.
J.P-B.
J.P.Pe.
J.R.C.
I.B.D.
JL8.
LLP.
UE,
J-T.Bi.
I.T.C
J.T.1*
J.T.B.
J«\W.
JW.D.
LJ.L
Sot Joseph Larmor, M.A.
Fellow of St John's C
Cambridge University.
Matter; ice
ohn Linton Myees, MA, F.S.A., F.R.G.S.
Wykeham Professor of Ancient History in the University of Oxford.
{Aooonntaiita.
Author of Burma ; Ac I Aknhm
fOBM G. GRIFFITHS.
Fellow and late President, Institute of Chartered Accountants.
Sot Tames George Scott, K.C I.E.
Superintendent and Political Officer, Southern Shan States.
[ohm Heniy Poyvtinc, M.A., D.Sc., F.R.S. .
Mason Professor of Physics and Dean of the Faculty of Science, Birmingham'
University. Sometime Fellow of Trinity College, Cambridge.
n Horace Round, M.A., LL.D. (Edin.).
Author of Feudal England; Peerage and Pedigree; Ac*
ules Isaac
Pro fes so r of History at the Lycee of Lyons, France.
D.Sc., LL.D., D.C.L., F.R.A.S.
Cambridge. Lucasian Professor of Mathematics in .
of the Royal Society. Author of Aether and
Abeyance; Ana,
Ambolst, 0. d\
Formerly.
Gladstone Professor of Greek and Lecturer in Ancient Geography, University of
Liverpool. Lecturer in Classical Archaeology in University of Oxford.
Amathos.
Anuigons (in part).
{Adam, Robert
Agglomerate;
AmphlboDto; Andeslte,
ohn Maucolm Mitchell.
Formerly Scholar of Queen's College, Oxford. Lecturer in Classics, East London
College (University of London). Joint-editor of Grote's History of Greece,
[amis George Joseph PenderevBeoohuest.
Editor of the Guardian (London).
fOEN PuNNETT PETERS, Pb.D., D.D. f
Canon Residentiary, Cathedral of New York. Formerly Professor of Hebrew in J Anhar
the University of Pennsylvania. In charge of the University Expedition to Baby- j
lonia,i88*-i895. Author of Nippur, or Explorations and Adventures on the Euphrates. I
OSEPH ROGEESON COTTEE, M.A. f
Assistant to the Professor of Physics, Trinity College, Dublin. Editor of 2nd 4 Absorption of Light
edition of Preston's Theory ofHeaL (.
Colonel John Richard Dodo, M.D., F.R.C.S., R.A.M.C.
Administrative Medical Officer of Cork Military District.
Ames Sully, LL.D.
See the biographical article: SULLY, J.
obn Smith Flett, D.Sc. t F.G.S.
Petrographer to the Geological Survey. Formerly Lecturer on Petrology in Edin-
burgh University.
ohm Scott Kiltie, LL.D., F.S.S., F.S.A. (Scot.). f
Sec. Royal Geog. Soc. Hon. Memb. Geographical Societies of Paris, Berlin, Rome, X Abbldle; AMea: History.
Ac Editor of Statesman's Year-book. Editor of the Geographical Journal. (,
N T. Bealby.
Joint-author of Stanford's Europe. Formerly editor of the Scottish Geographical*
Magazine, Translator of Sven Hedin's Through Asia, Central Asia and Tibet; &c.
oszPH THomas Cunningham, M.A., F.Z.S.
Lecturer on Zoology at South-Western Polytechnic, London. Formerly Fellow of
University College. Oxford. Assistant Professor of Natural History tn the Uni-
versity of Edinburgh. Naturalist to the Marine Biological Association.
amis Thomson Shotwell, Ph.D.
Professor of History in Columbia University, New York City.
Vernon Bartlet, M.A., D.D.
Professor of Church History, Mansfield College, Oxford.
ohn Westlaee, K.C, LL.D., D.C.L.
Professor of International Law, Cambridge, 1 888-1908. One of the Members for
United Kingdom of International Court 01 Arbitration under the Hague Convention, .
1000-1906. Author of A Treatise on Private International Law, or the Conflict
of Laws: Chapters on the Principles 0/ International Law, part I " Peace,'' part ii.
War."
»{
Anchovy.
Abelard (m peri).
{Acts of the Apostles.
Captain T. Wbttly Dixon, R.N.
Nautical Assessor to the Court of Appeal
Kathleen Schlesincer.
Author of The Instruments of the Orchestra; Ac
Louis Marie Olivier Duchesne.
See the biographical article: Duchesne. L. M. O.
Leonard James Spencer.
Allen;
Allegiance.
Anchor.
Department of Mineralogy. British Museum. Formerly Scholar of Sidney Sussex.
College, Cambridge, and Harkncss Scholar. Editor of the Mineralogical Ma
f
1
r Aeoordlon; Aeolian Harp;
\ Alpennoro.
f Adrian L,IL,m.;
I Alexander L, IL (popes),
f Alblte; Alunlte;
Amblygonlte; Amplbole;
aaganne.
Luia Villast.
Italian Foreign Office (Emigration DepU. Formerly Ni
of Europe; Italian Vice-Consul in" New Orleans,'
U.S.A.. 1907-1910. Author of Italian Life '
erly Newspaper Correspondent in
ns, 1906, Philadelphia. 1907, and '
fe in Town and Country; &c.
Andalusite.
Aoeorambonl;
Alexander VL (pops);
Amari.
XXX
'M.Br.
H.O.
H.G.D.
M.1U.
M.H.C.
M.J*.
M.M.Bh.
H.H.T.
H. 0. B. C
*.P.*
H.V.
O.K.
O.H.*
O.T.H.
P. A.
P. A. A.
P.A.O.
P.A.K.
P.A.H.
P.O.H.
P.C.Y.
P.GL
INITIALS AND HEADINGS OF ARTICLES
Margaret Bryant.
Moses Caster, Ph.D. (Leipzig).
ChieC Rabbi of the Scpnardic communities of England. Vke-Pcesklent, Zionist
Congress, 1898, 1899, 190a Uchester Lecturer at Oxford on Slavonic and By-
zantine Literature, 1886 and 1891. President, Folklore Society of England.
Vice-President, Anglo-Jewish Association. Author of History of Rumanian Popular
Literature; The Hebrew Version of the Secretum Secretorum of Aristotle.
Rt. Hon. Sir Mountstuart Elphinstone Grant-Duff, G.C.S.I., F.R.S. (1820-
1906). M.P. for the Elgin Burghs, 1857-1881. Under-Secretary of State for India.
1 868-1 874. Under-Secretary of State for the Colonics, 1 880- 1 88 1. Governor of
Madras, 1881-1886. President of the Royal Geographical Society, 1 880-1893.
President of the Royal Historical Society, 1892-1899. Author of Studies in European
Politics; Notes front a Diary; &c
Marcus Hartog, M.A., D.Sc. (Lond.), FX.S. I
Professor of Zoology in University College, Cork. Formerly Professor of Natural -j
History in Queen's College, Cork, and Fellow of the Royal university of Ireland. I
Montague Hughes Crackanthorpe, M.A., K.C., D.C.L. 1
President of the Eugenics Education Society. Formerly Member of the General
Council of the Bar and Council of Legal Education. Late Chairman, Incorporated 4
Council of Law Reporting. Chairman of Quarter Sessions, Westmorland.
Honorary Fellow, St John's College, Oxford. I
Morris Jastrow, Jr., Ph.D. I
Professor of Semitic Languages, University of Pennsylvania, U.S.A. Author of A
Religion of Ike Babylonians and Assyrians ; &c. I
Sir Mancherjee Merwanjee Bhownaccree, K.C.I.E.
Fellow of Bombay University. M.P. (C.) Bethnal Green, North-East, 1895-1906.
Author of Small History of the East India Company.
Marcus Niebuhr Too, M.A.
Fellow and Lecturer of Oriel College, Oxford. University Lecturer in Greek
Epigraphy. Corresponding Member of the German Imperial Archaeological
Institute. Joint-author of Catalogue of the Sparta Museum.
Max Otto Bismarck Caspari, M.A.
Reader in Ancient History at London University. Lecturer in Greek at
Birmingham University, 1905-1908.
Leon Jacques Majoxe Prinet.
Formerly Archivist to the French National Archives. Auxiliary of the Institute of
France (Academy of Moral and Political Sciences).
Joseph Marie Noel Valois.
Member of Academie des Inscriptions et Belles-lettres, Paris. Honorary Archivist
dt the Archives Nationales. Formerly President of the Sodete de I'Histoire -de
France, and of the Societe dc I'EcoIc de Chartes.
S. Otto Eppenstexn, Ph.D.
Member of Scientific Staff at Zetss's optical works, Tena. Editor of 2nd ed. of
Grundx&ge der Theorie der optischen Instruments nock Abbe.
Otto Herner, Ph.D.
Formerly President of the Society of Analytical Chemists.
Otis Tutton Mason (d. 1008).
*° ~ hroooloev. Na „ , .,__.
; Primitive Traveland Transportation ; &c.
Paul Daniel Alphandery.
Professor of the History of Dogma, Ecole Pratique des Hautes Etudes, Sorbonne,
Paris. Author of Us Idies morales chet Us htikrodoxes latines au dibui du XUP sikcle.
Philip A. Ashworth, M.A., D.Juris.
New College, Oxford. Barrister-at-Law.
P. Anderson Graham.
Editor of Country Life. Author of The Rural Exodus: the Problem of the Village and
the Town.
Prince Peter Alexxivttch Kropotxjn.
See the biographical ankle: Kropotkin, P. A.
Percy Alexander Macmahon, D.Sc., F.R.S., late Major R.A.
Deputy Warden of the Standards, Board of Trade. Joint General Secretary',
British Association. Formerly Professor of Physics, Ordnance College. President
of London Mathematical Society, 1894-1896.
Peter Chalmers Mitchell, F.R.S., D.Sc., LL.D.
Secretary to the Zoological Society of London from 1903. University Demonstrator
in Comparative Anatomy and Assistant to Linacre Professor at Oxford, 1888-1891.
Lecturer on Biology at Charing Cross Hospital, 1892-1804: at London Hospital,
1894. Examiner in Biology to the Royal College of Physicians, 1892-1896, 1901-
1903. Examiner in Zoology to the University of London, 1903.
Philip Cresney Yorke, M.A.
Magdalen College, Oxford.
/Alexander the Great:
I Legends.
Alecsandrl.
Amplhill, Baron,
Amoeba.
"Alabama" Arbitration.
Adad.
Aga Khan.
Curator, Department of Anthropology, National Museum, Washington, 1 884-1908.
Authorof Woman's Sharein Primitive Culture ; Prim lM ~- "* ' — * •"—— ■■-
Agetuaus;
Agis.
Aearnania; Achaean League:
Aetium; Aetolla; Ambraeia.
Albret;
Alencon, Counts of.
AiOy;
Alexander V. (pope).
Aberration.
/Adulteration.
* America : Ethnology and
( Archaeology.
/Alain de Line;
J Albigenses.
I Alsace-Lorraine.
J Allotments.
r Altai; Amur: District;
| Anarchism.
I Algebraic Forms.
Ablogenetis; Actlnosoa;
Alimentary Canal;
Amphibia (in part).
f Aberdeen, 1st Earl of;
\ADestree,IL
Peter Giles, M.A., LL.D. f
Fellow and Classical Lecturer of Emmanuel College, Cambridge, and University <
Reader in Comparative Philology. I
A; Accent;
Alphabet.
INITIALS AND HEADINGS OF ARTICLES
ZUI
P. La.
R.JLS.M.
R.K.D.
B.L.*
R-H-B.
R.P.S.
R.S.C
R.Tr.
R.V.H.
R.W.P.
S.A.C
LLB.
T.Ai
T.A.L
T.A.J.
T.H.
T.S.H.
T.B.H.*
T.K.C.
T. W. H. D.
T.B.L.
Philip Lake. M.A., F.G.S.
Lecturer on Physical and Regional Geography in Cambridge University. Formerly
of the Geological Survey of India. Author of Monograph of British Cambrian
Tritobites. Translator and editor of Kayser's Comparative Otology.
Robert Alexander Stewart Macauster, M.A., F.S.A.
Director of Excavations for the Palestine Exploration Fund.
Sir Robert Kennaway Douglas.
Formerly Keeper of Oriental Printed Books and MSS. at the British Museum;
Professor of Chinese, King's College, London. Author of The Ungual* and
Literature of China; &c
Richard Lydekker, F.R S.,
Author of Catalogues ofFossU Mammals, Reptiles and Birds in British Museum ;
The Deer of all Lands ; The Came Animals of Africa; Ac.
Robert Nisbet Bain (d 1900)
Assistant Librarian, British Museum, 1883-1909. Author of Scandinavia: tkePolitual
History of Denmark. Norway and Sweden, 1513-1000; The First Romanovs, 1613 to
1725 : Slavonic Europe : Ike Political History of Poland and Russia from 1469 to 1706, Ac.
1 Alps: Geology.
{ Aon; Al; Altar.
Alcock,SIrR.
Ainbfypoda;
Aagesen; Absalon;
Adolphm Frederick;
Alexander Neysky;
Alexius Hlkhailovlch;
Alexins Petrovteh;
Alin; Andrassy, Count;
Andrew IL of Hungary.
Able.
AequL
Agriculture (in part).
Admiralty Administration
(British).
Aaron; Ablmelech;
Abraham; Ahab;
Amalekltes;
R. Phene Spiers, F.S.A., F.R.I B.A.
Past President of Architectural Association. Associate and Fellow of King's
College, London. Editor of Fergusson's History of Architecture. Author of
Arduteeture: East and West; Ac-
Robert Seymour Conway, M.A., Lrrr.D.
Professor of Latin, Victoria University of Manchester: formerly Professor of Latin
in University College, Cardiff.
Roland Truslove, M.A.
Dean. Fellow and Lecturer, Worcester College, Oxford. Formerly Scholar of
Christ Church, Oxford.
Admiral Sir Richard Vesey Hamilton, G.C.B.
Senior Naval Lord of Admiralty, 1889-1891. President, Royal Naval College,
Greenwich, 1 891-1894.
Reginald W. Phillips, D.Sc.. F.L.S.
Professor of Botany in the University College of North Wales. Author of Morpho-
logy of Ike Algae. Ac.
Stanley Arthur Cook, M A.
Lecturer in Hebrew and Syriac. and formerly Fellow, Gonville and Caius College,
Cambridge. Examiner in Hebrew and Aramaic, London University, 1004- 1908.
Council of Royal Asiatic Society, 1 904-1005. Editor for Palestine Exploration Fund.
Author of Critical Notes on Old Testament History; Religion of Ancient Palestine ; &c.
Simeon Eben Baldwin. M.A., LL.D
Professor of Constitutional and Private International Law in Yale University.
Chief J u st ice of the Supreme Court of Errors. Connecticut. President of the Inter-
national Law Association. President of the American Historical Association.
Thomas Ashby. M.A., D.Lrrr. (Oxon.), F.S.A.
Formerly Scholar of Christ Church, Oxford. Director of British School of Archaeo-
logy at Rome.
Thomas Allan Incram, M.A., LL.D.
Trinity College, Dublin.
T. Athol Joyce, M A.
Assistant in Department of Ethnography, British Museum. Hon. Sec. Anthropo-
logical Society.
Thomas Hodckin, LL.D., D.Lrrr
See the biographical article: Hodgjun, T.
Thomas Henry Huxley, F.R.S.
See the biographical article: Huxley. Thomas H.
Colonel Sir Thomas Huncerpord Holdich, K.C.M.G., K.C.I.E.. Hon. D Sc. f ar.K>iii«te«« n,*******
Superintendent. Frontier Surveys. India. 1892-1898. Author of The Indian \7?Z^LT\. °? P *
Borderland. The Countries of the King's Award; India; Tibet; &c
Rev Thomas Kelly Cheyne, D.Lrrr . D D
See the biographical article: Chbynb, T K.
American Law.
Adrla; Aemllla Via;
Agrigentum; Alba Fucent
Alba Longs; Atotrlum;
/Affiliation.
f Ababda;
1 Africa: Ethnology.
JAlarlc.
J Amphibia (in pari).
{Afghanistan: Ctogra
Afghan Turkestan.
{
W. Rhys Davids, LL.D., Ph.D
Professor of Comparative Religion in Manchester University. President of the Pali .
Text Society. Fellow of the British Academy Secretary and Librarian of Royal '
Asiatic Society, 1885-1902. Author of Buddhism. &c
Abl
Ajanta;
Vivian Byam Lewes, F.I.C., F.C S
Professor of Chemistry, Royal Naval College,
to the Corporation of the City of London.
Chief Superintendent Gas Examiner < AostykOM.
Sir Joseph Walton (d. 10 to)
Formerly Judge of the King's Bench Dtv.
Bar, 1899-
Cfeairman of the General Council of the j Affreightment
INITIALS AND HEADINGS OF ARTICLES
xxxu
W. A. B. 0. Rev. William Augustus Brevoobt Cooudce, M.A., F.R.G.S., D.Ph. (Bern).
Fellow of Magdalen College, Oxford. Professor of English History, St David's
College, Lampeter, 1880-1881. Author of Guide du Haul Dauphint; The Rang* of
the Tddi; Guide to Grindetwald; Guide to SwituHand; The Alps in Nature and in
History; &c Editor of the Alpine Journal, 1 880-1 889; &C.
W. A. P. Walter Alison Phillips, M.A.
Formerly Exhibitioner of Merton College and Senior Scholar of St John's College, ■
Oxford. Author of Modern Europe; Ac
W. Ba. William Baches, Ph.D.
Professor at the Rabbinical Seminary, Buda-Pest.
W. C. R.-A. Sir William Chandler Roberts-Austen, K.C.B., D.C.L., F.R.S.
See the biographical article: Roberts-Austen, Sir W. C
W. E. 0. Szs William Edmund Garstin, G.C.M.G.
Governing Director, Suez Canal Co. Formerly Inspector-General of Irrigation.
Egypt. Under-Secretary of State for Public Works. Adviser to the Ministry of
Public Works in Egypt, 1904-1908.
W. It. William Fream, LL.D., F.G.S., F.L.S., F.S.S. (d. 1907).
Author of Handbook of Agriculture.
W. F. 8b. William Fleetwood Sheppard, M.A.
Senior Examiner in the Board of Education. Formerly Fellow of Trinity College,
Cambridge. Senior Wrangler, 1884.
W. G. # Walcot Gibson, D.Sc., F.G.S.
H.M. Geological Survey. Author of The Gold-Bearing Rocks of the S. Transvaal;
Mineral Wealth of Africa; The Geology of Coal and Coalmining; &c
W. G. F. P. Sir Walter George Frank Phtllimore, Bart., D.C.L., LL.D.
Judge of the King s Bench Div. President of International Law Association, 1905.
Author of Book of Church Lav. Edited and cd. of Pkillimore's Ecclesiastical Law,
and 3rd ed. of vol. iv. of Pkillimore's International Law.
W. Ht Walter Hibbert, A.M.I.C.E., F.I.C., F.C.S.
Lecturer on Physics and Electro-Technology, Polytechnic, Regent Street, London.
W. M. D. William Morris Davis, D.Sc., Ph.D.
Professor of Geology in Harvard University. Formerly Professor of Physical
Geography. Author of Physical Geography; &c
W. H. F. P. William M. Flinders Petrie, D.C.L., Litt.D., LL.D., Ph.D.
See the biographical article: Petrie, W. M. F.
W. H. fc. William Michael Rossetti.
See the biographical article: Rossetti, Dante Gabriel.
W. 0. B. Ven. Winfrid Oldfield Burrows. M.A.
Archdeacon of Birmingham. Formerly Tutor of Christ Church. Oxford, 1884-1891,
and Principal of Leeds Clergy School, 1891-1900.
W. RL William Ridge way, M.A., D.Sc., Litt.D
Disney Professor of Archaeology, Cambridge University, and Brereton Reader in
Classics-. Fellow of Caius College, Cambridge. Fellow of the British Academy.
President of Royal Anthropological Institute, 1908. Author of The Early Age
of Greece, &c
W. S. William Spalding.
See the biographical article; Spalding, W
W. T. 8. Rear-Admiral W. T Sampson. LL.D.
See the biographical article: Sampson, W. T.
W.W. William Wallace.
See the biographical article: Wallace, William (1844-1897).
W. W. P.* William Warde Fowler, M.A.
Fellow of Lincoln College. Oxford. Sub-Rector. 1 881-1904. Gifford Lecturer,
Edinburgh University, 1908. Author of The City-Stale of the Greeks and Romans.
W. W. R.* William Walker Rockwell, Lic.Theol.
Assistant Professor of Church History, Union Theological Seminary, New York.
Art; Aarau; Aargavn; Ada*
Adige; Album Pass; AIs;
Alpes Maritimes; Alps:
Altdorf.
Abbot; Aix-uvChapeDe:
Congresses;
Alexander L of Russia;
AIL of]
«! Abcnezra.
J Alloys (in pari).
{Albert Edward Hyanam;
Albert Nyanza (in pari).
I Agriculture (in pari).
Algebra.
Africa: Geology;
Algeria: Geology.
Admiralty, High Court of;
Admiralty JurisdfcttoiL,
Accumulator.
{
• America: Physical Geography.
.Abydos. '
Andrea del Sarto.
J Addison (in part)
/ Admiralty Administration
\ (United Stales).
I Anaxagoras (in part).
Ambarvalla.
Adrian IV., V, VL;
Alexander IIL, IV., VU» VOL;
Ancyra, Synod of.
PRINCIPAL UNSIGNED ARTICLES
Abbreviation*
Aeronautics.
Albumin.
Alimony.
Ambo.
Acid.
Aerotherapeuties.
Alcohol
AUsmaceae.
Ammonia.
Aconite.
Agapemonltas.
Alcohols.
Almanac
Amsterdam.
Addison's Disease.
Age.
Aldehydes.
Aloe.
Ana.
Adoption.
Alabama.
Alexandrian SchooL
Alum.
Andaman Is
Advocate.
Alaska.
Alhambra.
Amazons.
Andes.
Advoweon.
Alb.
via
nhk.
anu
,'i
Hi
ENCYCLOPEDIA BRITANNICA
ELEVENTH EDITION
VOLUME I
A This letter of ours corresponds to the first symbol In the
Phoenician alphabet and in almost all its descendants.
In Phoenician, a, like the symbols for e and for o, did
/ not represent a vowel, but a breathing ; the vowels
* tripaifly were not represented by any symbol When the
alphabet was adopted by the Greeks it was not very well fitted
to represent the sounds of their language. The breathings
*kkb were not required in Greek were accordingly, employed
to represent some of the vowel sounds, other vowels, like i and *,
hong represented by an adaptation of the symbols for the
stni-voweb y and v. The Phoenician name, which must have
corresponded closely to the Hebrew AUpk, was taken over by
tie Greeks in the form Alpha (ftX+a). The earliest authority
for Una, as for the names of the other Greek letters, is the
pumnalkal drama frpajinarun) 0cunla) of Callias, an earlier
roBtemporary of Euripides, from whose works four trimeters,
containing the names of all the Greek letters, are preserved in
Athrnaeus x. 453 d.
TV form of the letter has varied considerably. In the earliest
of the Phoenician, Aramaic and Greek inscriptions (the oldest
Phoenician dating about 1000 B.C., the oldest Aramaic from the
ftih, and the oldest Greek from the 8th or 7th century B.C.) A rests
upon its side thus— ^ \ 4* 1° the Greek alphabet of later times
it generally resembles the modern capital letter, but many local
varieties can be distinguished by the shortening of one leg, or by
Che aagfc at which tl» cross line bset--^^/i/) p|, &c From
the Greeks of the west the alphabet was borrowed by the Romans
and from them has passed to the other nations of western
Europe. In the earliest Latin inscriptions, such as the inscription
sound in the excavation of the Roman Forum in 1809, or that
on a gohkn jEfrnfa found at Praeneste in 1886 (see Alphabet),
the letters ait stul identical in form with those of the western
Greeks. Latin develops early various forms, which are compara-
tively rare in Greek, as A, or unknown, as ^. Except possibly
Fafiscan, the other dialects of Italy did not borrow their alphabet
directly from the western Greeks as the Romans did, but received
it at second hand through the Etruscans. In Oscan, where the
vriting of early inscriptions' is no less careful than in Latin, the
A takes the form ft to which the nearest parallels are found
* north Greece (Boeotia, Locris and Tbessaly, and there only
In Greek the symbol was used for both the long and the
short sound, as in English father (d) and German Ratte (ft);
English, except in dialects, has no sound corresponding precisely
to the Greek short a, which, so far as can be ascertained, was
a mid-back-wide sound, according to the terminology of H.
Sweet (Primer of Phonetics, p. 107). Throughout the history
of Greek the short sound remained practically unchanged. On
the other hand, the long sound of a in the Attic and Ionic dialects
passed into an open /-sound, which in the Ionic alphabet was
represented by the same symbol as the original /-sound (see
Alphabet : Creek). The vowel sounds vary from language to
language, and the a symbol has, in consequence, to represent
in many cases sounds which are not identical with the Greek a
whether long or short, and also to represent several different
vowel sounds in the same language. Thus the New English
Dictionary distinguishes about twelve separate vowel sounds,
which are represented by o in English. In general it may be
said that the chief changes which affect the o-sound in different
languages arise from (1) rounding, (2) fronting, i.e. changing
from a sound produced far back in the mouth to a sound produced
farther forward. The rounding is often produced by combination
with rounded consonants (as in English wis, wall, &c), the
rounding of the preceding consonant being^ontinued into the
formation of the vowel sound. Rounding has also been produced
by a following /-sound, as in the English fall, small, bald, &c.
(see Sweet's History of English Sounds, 2nd ed., §§ 906, 784).
The effect of fronting is seen in the Ionic and Attic dialects of
Greek, where the original name of the Medes, Mddoi, with &
in the first syllable (which survives in Cyprian Greek as MaJot),
is changed into Midoi (M$5ot), with an open /-sound instead
of the earlier dV In the later history of Greek this sound
is steadily narrowed till it becomes identical with 1 (as in
English seed). The first part of the process has been almost
repeated by literary English, d (ah) passing into * {eh), though
in present-day pronunciation the sound has developed further
Into a diphthongal ei except before r, as in hare (Sweet,
op. c*. $ 783).
In English represents unaccented forms of several words,
e.g. dn (one), of, hate, he, and 01 various prefixes the history of
which is given in detail in the New English Dictionary (Oxford,
1888), vol i. p. 4. (P- Gl)
AA— AAR
As a symbol the letter is used in various connexions and for
various technical purposes, e.g. for a note in music, for the first
of the seven dominical letters (this use is derived from its being
the first of the UUerac uundinales at Rome), and generally as
a sign of priority.
In Logic, the letter A is used as a symbol for the universal
affirmative proposition in the general form " all x is y." The
letters I, £ and O are used respectively for the particular affirm-
ative " some x is y," the universal negative " no x is y," and
the particular negative " some x is not y." The use of these
letters is generally derived from the vowels of the two Latin
verbs Ajflrmo (or AIo), "I assert/' and nEgO, "I deny."
The use of the symbols dates from the 13th century, though
some authorities trace their origin to the Greek logicians. A is
also used largely in abbreviations ($.».).
in Skipping, Ai is a symbol used to denote quality of con-
struction and material. In the various shipping registers ships
are classed and given a rating after an official examination, and
assigned a classification mark, which appears in addition to
other particulars in those registers after the name of the ship.
See Shipbuilding. It is popularly used to indicate the highest
degree of excellence.
AA, the name of a large number of small European rivers. The
word is derived from the Old German oka, cognate to the Latin
aqua, water (cf. Ger. -ach, Scand. d, aa, pronounced d). The
following are the more important streams of this name: —
Two rivers in the west of Russia, both falling into the Gulf of
Riga, near Riga, which is situated between them; a river in the
north of France, falling into the sea below Gravelines, and navi-
gable as far as St.Omer; and a river of Switzerland, in the can-
tons of Lucerne and Aargau, which carries the waters of Lakes
Baldegger and Hallwiler into the Aar. In Germany there are the
Westphalian Aa, rising in the Teutoburger Wald, and joining the
Werrc at Herford, the Miinster Aa, a tributary of the Ems, and
others.
AAOESEN, ANDREW (1826-2879), Danish jurist, was educated
for the law at Kristianshavn and Copenhagen, and interrupted
his studies in 1848 to take part in the first Schleswig war, in
which he served as the leader of a reserve battalion. In 1855 he
became professor of jurisprudence at the university of Copen-
hagen. In 1870 he was appointed a member of the commission for
drawing up a maritime and commercial code, and the navigation
law of 1 88a is mainly his work. In 1 879 he was elected a member
of the Landsthing; but it is as a teacher at the university that he
won his reputation. Among his numerous juridical works may be
mentioned: Bidrag til Laeren cm (herdragdse of Ejendomsret^
Bemaerkinger om Rcltighcder over Ting (Copenhagen, x866, 1871-*
j 87 a); Fortegneise mer Reissamlinger, RelsliUeraiur i Denmark,
Norgc, Svtrige (Copenhagen, 1876). Aagesen was Hall's suc-
cessor as lecturer on Roman law at the university, and in this
department his researches were epoch-making. All his pupils
were profoundly impressed by his exhaustive examination of
the sources, his en? rgetic demonstration of his subject and his
stringent search after truth. His noble, imposing, and yet most
amiable personality won for him, moreover, universal affection
and respect.
See C. F. Bricka, Dansk. Bice. Lex. vol. i. (Copenhagen, 1887);
Samlad* Shifter, edited by F. C Bornemann (Copenhagen,
1863). (R. N. BO
AAL, also known as A'l, Ach, or Aich, the Hindustani names
for the Morinda tincloria and Morinda cilrifolia, plants exten-
sively cultivated in India on account of the reddish dye-stuff
which their roots contain. The name is^also applied to the dye,
bu t the common trade name is Suranji. I ts properties are due to
the presence of a glucoside known as Morindin, which is com-
pounded from glucose and probably a trioxy-methyl-anthra-
quinone.
AALBORO, a city and seaport of Denmark, the seat of a bishop,
and chief town of the ami (county) of its name, on the south bank
of the Limf jord, which connects the North Sea and the Cattegat-
Pop. (1001) 31,457- The situation is typical of the north of
'"tland. To the west the Limf jord broadens into an irregular
lake with low, niarshy shores and many islands. North-west b
the Store Vildmose, a swamp where the mirage is seen in summer.
South-east lies the similar Lille VQdmose. A railway connects
Aalborg with Hjorring, Frederikshavn and Skagen to the north,
and with Aarhus and the lines from Germany to the south. The
harbour is good and safe, though difficult Of access. Aalborg is a
growing industrial and commercial centre, exporting grain and
fish. An old castle and some picturesque houses of the 2 7 th cen-
tury remain. The Budolphi church dates mostly from the mid-
dle of the 18th century, while the Frue church was partially burnt
in 1894, but the foundation of both is of the -14th century or
earlier. There are also an ancient hospital and a museum of art
and antiquities. On the north side of the fjord is-Norre Sundby ,
connected with Aalborg by a pontoon and also by an iron rail-
way bridge, one of the finest engineering works in the kingdom.
Aalborg received town-privileges in 1542, and the bishopric dates
from 1554.
AALEN, a town of Germany, in the kingdom of Wurttemberg,
pleasantly situated on the Kocher, at the foot of the Swabian
Alps, about 50 m. E. of Stuttgart, and with direct railway com-
munication with Ulm and Cannstatt. Pop. 10,000. Woollen
and linen goods are manufactured, and there are ribbon looms and
tanneries in the town, and large iron works in the neighbourhood.
There are several schools and churches, and a statue of the poet
Christian Schubart. Aalen was a free imperial city from 1360 to
1802, when it was annexed to Wurttemberg.
AALESUND, a seaport of Norway, in Romsdal ami (county),
X45 m. N. by E. from Bergen. Pop. (2000) 2 2,672. It occupies
two of the outer islands of the west coast, Aspo and Ndrvo, which
enclose the picturesque harbour. Founded in 1824, it is the
principal shipping-place of SondmSre district, and one of the chief
stations of the herring fishery. Aalesund is adjacent to the
jSrund and Geiranger fjords, frequented by tourists. From Oje
at the head of Jorund a driving-route strikes south to theNord-
f jord, and from Merok on Geiranger another strikes inland to
Otta, on the railway to Lillehammer and Christiania. Aalesund
is a port of call for steamers between Bergen, Hull, Newcastle and
Hamburg, and Trondhjem. A little to the south of the town are
the ruins of the reputed castle of Rollo, the founder, in the 9th
century, of the dynasty of the dukes of Normandy. On the 33rd
of January 2004, Aalesund was the scene of one of the most
terrible of the many conflagrations to which Norwegian towns,
built largely of wood, have been subject. Practically the whole
town was destroyed, a gale aiding the flames, and the population
had to leave the place in the night at the notice of a few minutes.
Hardly any lives were lost, but the sufferings of the people were
so terrible that assistance was sent from all parts of the kingdom,
and by the German government, while the British government
also offered it.
AALI, MEHEMET, Pasha (2825-2872), Turkish statesman,
was born at Constantinople in 181 si the son of a government
official. Entering the diplomatic service of his country soon after
reaching manhood, he became successively secretary of the Em-
bassy in Vienna, minister in London, and foreign minister under
Reshid Pasha. In 2852 he was promoted to the post of grand
vizier, but after a short time retired into private life. During the
Crimean War he was recalled in order to take the portfolio of
foreign affairs for a second time under Reshid Pasha, and in this
capacity took part in 2855 in the conference of Vienna. Again
becoming in that year grand vizier, an office he filled no less than
five times, he represented Turkey at the congress of Paris in 2856.
In 2867 he was appointed regent of Turkey during the sultan's
visit to the Paris Exhibition. Aali Pasha was one of the most zeal-
ous advocates of the introduction of Western reforms under the
sultans Abdul Mejid and Abdul Aziz. A scholar and a linguist,
he was a match for the diplomats of the Christian powers, against
whom he successfully defended the interests of his country. He
died at Erenkcni in Asia Minor on the 6th of September 2872.
AAR, or A ake, the most considerable river which both rises
and ends entirely within Switzerland. Its total length (including
all bends) from its source to its junction with the Rhine is about
28 1 m,, during which distance it descends 5235 ft. while its
AARAU— AARHUS
damage area is 6804 sq.m. It rises in the great tar glaciers, in
taecaatonof Bern, and W. of the Grimsel Pass. It runs E. to the
Grimsel Hospice, and then N.W. through the Hasli valley, fonn-
iagoa the way the magnificent waterfall of the Handegg (151 ft.),
ptst Guttaanen, and pierces the limestone barrier of the Kirchet
by a grand gorge, before reaching Meiringen, situated in a plain.
A Ettle beyond, near Brienz, the river expands into the lake of
Brkaz, where it becomes navigable. Near the west end of that
hie it receives its first important affluent, the Lutschine (left),
and then runs across the swampy plain of the Bodeli, between
laterhken (left) and Unterseen (right), before again expanding in
order to form the Lake of Thun. Near the west end of that lake
it receives on the left the Kander, which has just before been joined
by the Smme; on flowing out of the lake it passes Thun, and
then drdes the lofty bluff on which the town of Bern is built.
It soon «-i>*»fl»« its north-westerly for a due westerly direction,
but after receiving the Saane or Sarine (left) turns N. till near
Aarberg its stream b diverted W. by the Hagneck Canal into the
Lake of Bienne, from the upper end of which it issues through the
Nldaa Canal and then runs E. to Buren. Henceforth its course is
N E. for a long distance, past Soleurc (below which the Grosse
Enune flows in on the right), Aarburg (where it is joined by the
Wigger, right), Otten, Aarau, near which is the junction with the
Scar on the right, and WQdegg, where the Haliwiler Aa falls in
oa the right. A short way beyond, below Brugg, it receives first
the Reuss (right), and very shortly afterwards the Limmat or
Lath (right). It now turns due N., and soon becomes itself an
■fluent of the Rhine (left), which it surpasses in volume when
they unite at Cobfcnx, opposite Waldshut. (W. A. B. C.)
AARAU, the capital of the Swiss canton of Aargau. In 1000
k bad 7831 Inhabitants, mostly German-speaking, and mainly
Protestants. It is situated in the valley of the Aar, on the right
bank of that river, and at the southern foot of the range of the
Jura. It is about so m. by rail N.E. of Bern, and 31 m. N.W.
sf Zurich. It is a well-built modern town, with no remarkable
features about it. In the Industrial Museum there is (besides
fflftTtions of various kinds) some good painted glass of the 16th
century, taken from the neighbouring Benedictine monastery
of Muri (founded 1027, suppressed 1841 — the monks are now
qsartered at Gries, near Botzen, in Tirol). The cantonal library
contains many works relating to Swiss history and many MSS.
osarag from the suppressed Argovian monasteries. There are
easy industries in the town, especially silk-ribbon weaving,
foundries, and factories for the manufacture of cutlery and scien-
tific instruments. The popular novelist and historian, Heinrich
7arhokke (1771-1848), spent most of his life here, and a bronze
statue has been erected to his memory. Aarau is an important
sriiitary centre. The slopes of the Jura are covered with vine-
yards. Aarau, an ancient fortress, was taken by the Bernese in
141 s, and in 1708 became for a time the capital of the Helvetic
repuofic. Eight miles by rail N.E. are the famous sulphur baths
of Scamxnach. just above which is the ruined castle of Habsburg,
tat original home of that great historical house. (W. A. B. C.)
AARD-TJlRK (meaning " earth-pig "), the Dutch name for the
— — ».w of genus Orycltropus, confined to Africa (see Eden*
nra). Several species have been named. Among them is the
typical form, O. captnsis, or Cape ant-bear from South Africa,
sad the northern aard-vark (0. aelkiopicus) of north-eastern
Africa, extending into Egypt. In form these animals are some-
watt pig-lake; the body is stout, with arched back; the limbs
are short and stout, armed with strong, blunt claws; the ears
dBpraportionatety long; and the tail very thick at the base and
tapering gradually. The greatly elongated head is set on a short
thick neck, and at the extremity of the snout is a disk in which
the nostrils open. The mouth is small and tubular, furnished with
a bag extensile tongue. The measurements of a female, taken in
the flesh, were head and body 4 ft., tail 1 7 J in. ; but a large indi-
vidual m e awu e d 6 ft. 8 in. over all In colour the Cape aard-vark
a pale sandy or yellow, the hair being scanty and allowing the
■kit to show; the northern aard-vark has a still thinner coat, and
• farther distinguished by the shorter tail and longer head and
ears. These animals are of nocturnal and burrowing habits, and
generally to be found near ant-hills. The strong claws make a
hole in the side of the ant-hill, and the insects are collected on
the extensile tongue. Aard-varks are hunted for their skins; but
the flesh is valued for food, and often salted and smoked.
AARD-WOLF (earth-wolf), a South and East African carni-
vorous mammal (Proteks cristattu), in general appearance like a
small striped hyena, but with a more pointed muzzle, sharper
ears, and a long erectile mane down the middle line of the neck
and back. It is of nocturnal and burrowing habits, and feeds on
decomposed animal substances, larvae and termites.
AARGAU (Fr. Argovie), one of the more northerly Swiss
cantons, comprising the lower course of the river Aar (o.v.) (
whence its name. Its total area is 541-9 sq. m., of which 517-0
sq. m. are classed as " productive " (forests covering 172 sq. in.
and vineyards 8- 2 sq. m.). It is one of the least mountainous
Swiss cantons, forming part of a great table-land, to the north of
the Alps and the east of the Jura, above which rise low hills. The
surface of the country is beautifully diversified, undulating tracts
and well-wooded bills alternating with fertile valleys watered
mainly by the Aar and its tributaries. It contains the famous hot
sulphur springs of Baden (q.v.) and Schinznach, while at Rhein-
felden there are very extensive saline springs. Just below Brugg
the Reuss and the Limmat join the Aar, while around Brugg are
the ruined castle of Habsburg, the old convent of Konigsfelden
(with fine painted medieval glass) and the remains of the Roman
settlement of Vindonissa (Windisch). The total population in
1000 was 206,498, almost exclusively German-speaking, but
numbering 114,176 Protestants to 91,039 Romanists and 090
Jews. The capital of the canton is Aarau (q.v.), while other im-
portant towns are Baden (q.v.), Zofingen (4591 inhabitants),
Reinach (3668 inhabitants), Rheinfelden (3349 inhabitants),
Wohlen (3274 inhabitants), and Lenzburg (2588 inhabitants).
Aargau is an industrious and prosperous canton, straw-plaiting,
tobacco-growing, silk-ribbon weaving, and salmon-fishing in the
Rhine being among the chief industries. As this region was, up
to 141 s, the centre of the Habsburg power, we find here many
historical old castles (e.g. Habsburg, Lenzburg, Wildegg), and
former monasteries (e.g. Wettingen, Muri), founded by that
family, but suppressed in 1841, this act of violence being one of
the main causes of the civil war called the " Sonderbund War," in
1847 in Switzerland. The cantonal constitution dates mainly
from 1885, but since 1904 the election of the executive council of
five members is made by a direct vote of the people. The legisla-
ture consists of members elected in the proportion of one to every
1100 inhabitants. The "obligatory referendum " exists in the
case of all laws, while 5000 citizens have the right of " initiative "
in proposing bills or alterations in the cantonal constitution.
The canton sends 10 members to the federal Nationalrat, being
one for every 20,000, while the two Sutnder&te are (since 1904)
elected by a direct vote of the people. The canton is divided into
eleven administrative districts, and contains 241 communes.
In 14 15 the Aargau region was taken from the Habsburgs by the
Swiss Confederates. Bern kept the south-west portion (Zofingen,
Aarburg, Aarau, Lenzburg, and Brugg). but some districts, named
the Frete Amter or " free bailiwicks " (Mellingcn, Muri, Villmergeir,
and Bremgarten), with the county of Baden, were ruled as " subject
lands " by all or certain of the Confederates. In 1798 the Bernese
bit became the canton of Aargau of the Helvetic Republic, the re-
mainder forming the canton of Baden. In 1803. the two halves (plus
the Frick glen, ceded in 1802 by Austria to the Helvetic Republic)
were united under the name of Kanton Aargau, which was then ad-
mitted a full member of the reconstituted Confederation.
See also Argovia (published by the Cantonal Historical Society),
Aarau, from i860; F. X. Bronner, Der Kanton Aargau, 2 vols.,
St Gall and Bern, 1844; H. Lehmann, Die argauiscke Slrokinduslrie.
Aarau, 1896; W. Mcrz, Die milUiaJt. Burganlagen und Wtkrbauten
d. Kant. Argau (fine illustrated work on castles), Aarau. 2 vols.,
1904-1906; W. Mcrz and F. E. Welti. Die RecktiqueUen d. Kant.
Argau, 3 vols., Aarau. 1898-1905; J. Mailer. Der Aargau, 2 vols..
— .•>-!.!. .O.m. C 1 D..LLJ. >«..-__...._ UU.lL.1au. Ainu t fi-rT •
Zurich, 1870: E. L. Rochholz, Aargauer Weisthumer, Aarau. 1877
E. Zschokke, CeschichU des Aargaus, Aarau. 1903. (W. A. B. C.)
AARHUS, a seaport and bishop's see of Denmark, on the east
coast of Jutland, of which it is the principal port; the second
largest town in the kingdom, and capital of the ami (county) of
Aarhus. Pop. (1001) 51.814. The district is low-lying, fertile
and well wooded. The town is the junction of railways from all
AARON— AASEN
parts of the country. The harbour is good and safe, and agricul-
tural produce is exported, while coal and iron are among the
chief imports. The cathedral of the 13th century (extensively
restored) is the largest church in Denmark. There is a museum of
art and antiquities. To the south-west (13 m. by rail), a pictur-
esque region extends west from the railway junction of Skander-
borg, including several lakes, through which flows the Gudenaa,
the largest river in Jutland, and rising ground exceeding soofL
in the Himmelbjerg. The railway traverses this pleasant district
of moorland and wood to Silkeborg, a modern town having one of
the most attractive situations in the kingdom. The bishopric of
Aarhus dates at least from 951.
AARON, the traditional founder and head of the Jewish priest-
hood, who, in company with Moses, led the Israelites out of
Egypt (see Exodus , Moses) . The greater part of his life-history
is preserved in late Biblical narratives, which carry back exist-
ing conditions and beliefs to the time of the Exodus, and find
a precedent for contemporary hierarchical institutions in the
events of that period. Although Aaron was said to have been
sent by Yahweh (Jehovah) to meet Moses at the " mount of God "
(Horeb, Ex. iv.27). he plays only a secondary part in the incidents
at Pharaoh's court. After the " exodus " from Egypt a striking
account is given of the vision of the God of Israel vouchsafed to
him and to his sons Nadab and Abihu on the same holy mount
(Ex. xxiv. 1 seq. -1 1), and together with Hur he was at the side
of Moses when the latter, by means of his wonder-working rod,
enabled Joshua to defeat the Aroalekites (xvii. 8-16). Hur and
Aaron were left in charge of the Israelites when Moses and Joshua
ascended the mount to receive the Tables of the Law (xxiv.
12-15) and when the people, in dismay at the prolonged absence
of their leader, demanded a god, it was at the instigation of Aaron
that the golden calf was made (see Calf, Golden). This was
regarded as an act of apostasy which, according to one tradition,
led to the consecration of the Levites, and almost cost Aaron his
life (cp. Deut ix. 20). The incident paves the way for the account
of the preparation of the new tables of stone which contain a
series of laws quite distinct from the Decalogue (q.v.) (Ex. xxxiii.
seq.). Kadesh, and not Sinai or Horeb, appears to have been
originally the scene of these incidents (Deut. xxxiii. 8 seq. com-
pared with Ex. xxxii. 26 sqq.), and it was for some obscure
offence at this place that both Aaron and Moses were prohibited
from entering the Promised Land (Num. xx.). In what way they
had not "sanctified" (an allusion in the Hebrew to Kddish
" holy ") Yahweh is quite uncertain, and it would appear that it
was for a similar offence that the sons of Aaron mentioned above
also met their death (Lev. x. 3 ; cp. Num. xx. 12, Deut. xxxii. 51).
Aaron is said to have died at Moserah (Deut. x. 6), or at Mt. Hor ;
the latter is an unidentified site on the border of Edom (Num.
xx. 23, xxxiii. 37 , for Moserah see ib. 30-31), and consequently
not in the neighbourhood of Petra, which has been the traditional
scene from the time of Josephus {Ant. iv. 4. 7).
Several difficulties in the present Biblical text appear to have
ansen from the attempt of later tradition to find a place for
Aaron in certain incidents. In the account of the contention
between Moses and his sister Miriam (Num. xii.), Aaron occupies
only a secondary position, and it is very doubtful whether he
was originally mentioned in the older surviving narratives. It
is at least remarkable that he is only thrice mentioned in Deuter-
onomy (ix. 20, x. 6, xxxii. 50). The post-exilic narratives give
him a greater share in the plagues of Egypt, represent him as
high-priest, and confirm his position by the miraculous budding
of his rod alone of all the rods of the other tribes (Num. xvii. ; for
parallels see Gray comm. ad he., p. 217). The latter story illus-
trates the growth of the older exodus-tradition along with the
development of priestly ritual: the old account of Koran's
revolt against the authority of Moses has been expanded, and
now describes (a) the divine prerogatives of the Levites in
general, and (6) the confirmation of the superior privileges of the
Aaronites against the rest of the Levites, a development which
Can scarcely be earlier than the time of Ezekiel (xliv. r$ seq.).
Aaron's ton Eleazar was buried in an Ephraimite locality known
after the grandson as the " hill of Phinebas (J<*»- *xiv. 33). Little
historical information hat been preserved of either. The name
Phinehas (apparently of Egyptian origin) is better known as that of
a son of Eli, a member of the priesthood of Shiloh, and Eleazar is
only another form of Elteaer the son of Moses, to whose Ion Eli is
said to have belonged. The dose relation between Aaromte and
Levitical names and those of clans related to Moses is very note-
worthy, and it is, a curious coincidence that the name of Aaron s
sister Miriam appears in a genealogy of Caleb (l Chron. iv. 17)
with Jether (cp. Jetkko) and Heber (cp. Kekites). In view
of the confusion of the traditions and the difficulty of interpreting
the details sketched above, the recovery of the historical Aaron
is a work of peculiar intricacy. He may well have been the tradi-
tional head of the priesthood, and R. H. Kennett has argued in
favour of the view that be was the founder of the cult at Bethel
(Joum. of Thed. Stud., 1903, pp. 161 sqq.), corresponding to the
Mosaite founder of Dan (q.v.). This throws no light upon the name,
which still remains quite obscure; and unless Aaron (Aharon) ia
based upon Aran. " ark " (Redslob. R. P. A. Doxy, J. P. N. Land;,
it must be placed in a line with the other un~Hebraic and difficult
names associated with Moses and Aaron, which are. apparently, of
South Palestinian (or North-Arabian) origin.
For the literature and a general account of the Jewish priesthood.
see the articles Lsvitbs and Priest. (§. A. C.)
AARON'S ROD, the popular name given to various tall
flowering plants (" hag taper," " golden rod, 11 &c). In archi-
tecture the term is given to an ornamental rod with sprouting
leaves, or sometimes with a serpent entwined round it (from the
Biblical references in Exodus vii. zo and Numbers xvii. 8).
AARSSENS, or Aakssen, FRANCIS VAN (1572-1641), a cele-
brated diplomatist and statesman of the United Provinces. His
talents commended him to the notice of Advocate Johan van
Oldenbarncveldt, who sent him, at the age of 26 years, as a
diplomatic agent of the states-general to the court of France.
He took a considerable part in the negotiations of the twelve
years' truce in 1606. His conduct of affairs having displeased the
French king, he was recalled from his post by Oldenbarneveldt
in 16 16. Such was the hatred he henceforth conceived against his
former benefactor, that he did his very utmost to effect his ruin.
He was one of the packed court of judges who in 1610 condemned
the aged statesman to death. For his share in this judicial murder
a deep stain rests on the memory of Aarssens. He afterwards be-
came the confidential counsellor of Maurice, prince of Orange,
and afterwards of Frederick Henry, prince of Orange, in their
conduct of the foreign affairs of the republic. He was sent on
special embassies to Venice, Germany and England, and dis-
played so much diplomatic skill and finesse' that Richelieu ranked
him among the three greatest politicians of his time.
AASEN, IVAR (1813-1806), Norwegian philologist and lexico-
grapher, was born at Aasen i Orsten, in Sondmore, Norway, on
the. 5th of August 181 j. His father, a small peasant-farmer
named Ivar Jonsson, died in 1826. He was brought up to farm-
work, but he assiduously cultivated all his leisure in reading, and
when he was eighteen he opened an elementary school in his
native parish. In 1833 he entered the household of H. C. Thore-
scn, the husband of the eminent writer Magdalene Thoresen, in
Herd, and here he picked up the elements of Latin. Gradually,
and by dint of infinite patience and concentration, the young
peasant became master of many languages, and began the
scientific study of their structure. About 1841 he had freed
himself from all the burden of manual labour, and could occupy
his thoughts with the dialect of his native district, the Sondmore ;
his first publication was a small collection of folk-songs in the
Sondmore language (1843)- His remarkable abilities now attracted
general attention, and he was helped to continue his studies un-
disturbed. His Grammar of the Norwegian Dialects (1848) was the *
result of much labour, and of journeys taken to every part of
the country Aasen's famous Dictionary of the Norwegian Dialects
appeared in its original form in 1850, and from this publication
dates all the wide cultivation of the popular language in Nor-
wegian, since Aasen really did no less than construct, out of the
different materials at his disposal, a popular language or definite
fotke-maal for Norway. With certain modifications* the most
important of which were introduced later by Aasen himself, this
artificial language is that which has been adopted ever since
by those who write in dialect, and which later enthusiasts have
once more endeavoured to foist upon Norway as her official
AB— ABACUS
S
ia the place of Dano-Norwegian. Alien composed
i and plays in the composite dialect to show how it should
be used ; one of these dramas, The Heir (1655), was frequently
acted, and may be considered as the pioneer of all the abundant
duriect-literatnre of the last half-century, from Vinje down to
Garborg. Aasen continued to enlarge and improve his grammars
sad his dictionary. He lived very quietly in lodging! in Chris-
tiana, surrounded by his books and shrinking from publicity,
but his name grew into wide political favour as his ideas about
the language of the peasants became more and more the watch-
word of the popular party. Quite early in his career, 1842, he
had begun to receive a stipend to enable him to give bis entire
attention to his philological investigations ; and the Storthing —
conscious of the national importance of his- work— treated him in
this respect with more and more generosity as he advanced in
years. He continued his investigations to the last, but it may be
said that, after the 1873 edition of his Dictionary, he added but
tittle to his stores. Ivar Aasen holds perhaps an isolated place
in literary history as the one man who has invented, or at least
selected and constructed, a language which has pleased so many
thousand* of his countrymen that they have accepted it for their
schools, their sermons and their songs. He died in Christiania
on the 23rd of September 1896, and was buried with public
aonoois. (E. G.)
AB* the fifth month of the ecclesiastical and the eleventh
of the rivfl year of the Jews. It approximately corresponds to
the period of the 15th of July to the 15th of August. The word
is of Babylonian origin, adopted by the Jews with other calendar
names after the Babylonian exile. Tradition ascribes the death
of Aaron to the first day of Ab. On the ninth is kept the Fast of
Ab, or the Black Fast, to bewail the destruction of the first temple
by Nebuchadrezzar ($86 bx.) and of the second by Titus (a.d. 70).
ABA. (1) A form of altazimuth instrument, invented by, and
called after, Antoine d'Abbadie ; (2) a rough homespun manu-
factured in Bulgaria; 0) * long coarse shirt worn by the Bedouin
Arabs.
ABiBDA (the Gebadei of Pliny, probably the Troglodytes*of
classical writers), a nomad tribe of African " Arabs" of Hamitic
origin. They extend from the Nile at Assuan to the Red Sea,
and reach northward to the Kena-Kosseir road, thus occupying
the southern border of Egypt east of the Nile. They call them-
selves "sons of the Jinns." With some of the clans of the
Bakarin (f a) and possibly the Hadendoa (q.v.) they represent
the Bl c mm y es of classic geographers, and their location to-day is
almost identical with that assigned them in Roman times. They
were constantly at war with the Romans, who at last subsidized
them. In the middle ages they were known as Beja (q.v.), and
ecB u o y ed pflgrims from the Nile valley to Aidhab, the port *of
H^***"" for Jedda. From time immemorial they have acted
as guides to caravans through the Nubian desert and up the Nile
valley as far as Sennar. To-day many of them are employed in
the telegraph service across the Arabian desert They inter-
aarried with the Nuba, and settled in small colonies at Shendi
and el s ew h er e long before the Egyptian invasion (a.d. 1820-1822).
They are still great trade carriers, and visit very distant districts.
The Ababda of Egypt, numbering some 30,000, are governed by
an hereditary "chief." Although nominally a vassal of the
Khedive he pays no tribute. Indeed he is paid a subsidy a por-
tion of the toad-dues, in return for his safeguarding travellers
from Bedouin robbers. The sub-sheikhs are directly responsible to
him. The Ababda of Nubia, reported by Joseph von Russegger,
who visited the country in 1836, to number some 40,000, have
nee duntttshed, having probably amalgamated with the
sHsharin, their hereditary enemies when they were themselves a
powerful nation. The Ababda generally speak Arabic (mingled
with Barabra (Nubian] words), the result of their long-continued
contact with Egypt, but the southern and south-eastern portion
of the tribe in many cases still retain their Beja dialect. To-
Bcdawiet Those of Kosseir wiB not speak this before strangers,
as they beheve that to reveal the mysterious dialect would bring
rain on them. Those nearest the Nfle have much fellah blood in
them As a tribe they daim an Arab origin, apparently through
their sheikhs. They have adopted the dress and habits of the
fellahin, unlike their kinsmen the Bisharin and Hadendoa, who
go practically naked. They are neither so fierce nor of so fine a
physique as these latter. They are lithe and well built, but
small: the average height is little more than 5 ft., except in the
sheikh clan, who are obviously of Arab origin. Their complexion
is more red than black, their features angular, noses straight and
hair luxuriant They bear the character of being treacherous
and faithless, being bound by no oath, but they appear to be
honest in money matters and hospitable, and, however poor,
never beg. Formerly very poor, the Ababda became wealthy
after the British occupation of Egypt Their chief settlements are
in Nubia, where they live in villages and employ themselves in
agriculture. Others of them fish in the Red Sea and then hawk
the salt fish in the interior. Others are pedlars, while charcoal-
burning, wood-gathering and trading in gums and drugs, especi-
ally in senna leaves, occupy many. Unlike the true Arab, the
.Ababda do not live in tents, but build huts with hurdles and mats,
or live in natural caves, as did their ancestors in classic times.
They have few horses, using the camel as beast of burden or
their " mount " in war. They live chiefly on milk and durra, the
latter eaten either raw or roasted. They are very superstitious,
believing, for example, that evil would overtake a family if a
girl member should, after her marriage, ever set eyes on her
mother: hence the Ababda husband has to make his home far
from bis wife's village. In the Mahdist troubles (1882-1808)
many " f riendlies " were recruited from the tribe.
For their earlier history see Beta; see also Bisbauk, Haden-
doa, Kabbabish; and the following authorities:— Sir F. R. Win-
gate, Mahdism and the Egyptian Sudan (Load. 1891) ; Giuseppe Serri,
Antropologia delta Slirpe Camitica (Turin, 1897); A. R.
Keane. Ethnology of Egyptian Sudan (Lond. 1884); An£
Sudan, edited by Count Gleicherv (Lond. 1005); Josepl
segger, Die Rrisen in AJrika (Stuttgart, 1841-1850). (T. A. J.)
ABACA, or Abaka, a native name for the plant liusa textilis,
which produces the fibre called Manila Hemp (q.v.).
ABACUS (Gr. A0af, a slab; Fr. abaque, tailhir), in archi-
tecture, the upper member of the capital of a column. Its chief
function is to provide a larger supporting surface for the archi-
trave or arch it has to carry. In the Greek Doric order the abacus
is a plain square slab. In the Roman and Renaissance Doric
orders it is crowned by a moulding. In the Archaic-Greek Ionic
order, owing to the greater width of the capital, the abacus is
rectangular in plan, and consists of a carved ovolo moulding. Jn
later examples the abacus is square, except where there are angle
volutes, when it is slightly curved over the same. In the Roman
and Renaissance Ionic capital, the abacus is square with a fillet
on the top of an ogee moulding, but curved over angle volutes.
In the Greek Corinthian order the abacus is moulded, its sides
are concave and its angles canted (except in one or two excep-
tional Greek capitals, where it is brought to a sharp angle); and
the same shape is adopted in the Roman and Renaissance Corin-
thian and Composite capitals, in some cases with the ovolo
moulding carved. In Romanesque architecture the abacus is
square with the lower edge splayed off and moulded or carved,
and the same was retained in France during the medieval period;
but in England, in Early
English work, a circular
deeply moulded abacus
was introduced, which in
the 14th and 15th cen-
turies was transformed
into an octagonal one.
The diminutive of
Abacus, Abaciscus, is
applied in architecture to
the chequers or squares
of a tessellated pavement
"Abacus" is also the
name of an instrument
employed by the ancients
for arithmetical calculations; pebbles, bits of bone or coins
being used as counters. Fig. 1 shows a Roman abacus taken
Fie. 1.— Roman Abacus.
ABADDON— ABANDONMENT
6 992 798408
Fig. a.— Chinese Swan-Plan.
from an andent monument It contains seven long and seven
shorter sods or bars, the former having four perforated beads
running on them and the latter one. The bar marked I indi-
cates units, X tens, and so on up to millions. The beads on
the shorter bars denote fives,— five units, five tens, &c The
rod and corresponding short rod are for marking ounces ;
and the short quarter rods for fractions of an ounce.
The Swan-Pan of the Chinese (fig. a) closely resembles the
Roman abacus in its construction and use. Computations are
made with it by means of
balls of bone or ivory run-
ning on slender bamboo
rods*, similar to the simpler
board, fitted up with beads
strung on wires, which is
employed in teaching the
rudiments of arithmetic in
English schools.
The name of "abacus"
Is also given, in logic, to an
instrument, often called the "logical machine," analogous to
the mathematical abacus. It is constructed to show all the
possible combinations of a set of logical terms with their nega-
tives, and, further, the way in which these combinations are
affected by the addition of attributes or other limiting words,
i.e. to simplify mechanically the solution of logical problems.
These instruments are all more or less elaborate developments
of the " logical slate," on which were written in vertical columns
all the combinations of symbols or letters which could be made
logically out of a definite number of terms. These were com-
pared with any given premises, and those which were incom-
patible were crossed off. In the abacus the combinations are
inscribed each on a single slip of wood or similar substance,
which is moved by a key; incompatible combinations can thus
be mechanically removed at will, in accordance with any given
series of premises. The principal examples of such machines
are those of W. S. Jevons {Element. Lessons in Logic, c xxiii.),
John Venn (see his Symbolic Logic, and ed., 1804, p. 135),
and Allan Marquand (see A mericon A cademy of A rts and Sciences,
1885, pp. 303-7, and Johns Hopkins University Studies in Logic,
1883).
ABADDON, a Hebrew word meaning "destruction." In
poetry it comes to mean "place of destruction," and so the under-
world or Sheol (cf. Job xxvi. 6 ; Prov. xv. xi). In Rev. he n
Abaddon OA/toAMar) is used of hell personified, the prince of
the underworld. The term is here explained as Apollyon (9.0.),
the "destroyer." W. Baudissin (Herzog-Hauck, Rcolencyklo-
padie) notes that Hades and Abaddon in Rabbinic writings are
employed as personal names, just as shemayya in Dan. iv. 33,
sh&moyim ("heaven"), and m&Jtim ("place") among the
Rabbins, are used of God..
ABADEH, a small walled town of Persia, in the province of
Fan, situated at an elevation of 6200 ft. in a fertile plain on the
high road between Isfahan and Shiraz, 140 m. from the former
and 170 m. from the latter place. Pop. 4000. It is the chief place
of the Abadeh-Iktid district, which has 30 villages ; it has tele-
graph and post offices, and b famed for its carved wood-work,
small boxes, trays, sherbet spoons, &c, made of the wood of pear
and box trees.
ABAB CA0cu), a town in the N.E. corner of Phods, in Greece,
famous in early times for its oracle of Apollo, one of those con-
sulted by Croesus (Herod. L 46). It was rich in treasures (Herod.
viiL 33), but was sacked by the Persians, and the temple remained
in a ruined state. The oracle was, however, still consulted, e.g.
by the Thebans before Leuctra (Paus. iv. 32. 5). The temple
seems to have been burnt again during the Sacred War, and was
in a very dilapidated state when seen by Pausanias (x. 35),
though some restoration, as well as the building of a new temple,
was undertaken by Hadrian. The sanctity of the shrine ensured
certain privileges to the people of Abae {Bull. Cortes p. Hell. vi.
171), and these were confirmed by the Romans. The polygonal
walls of the acropolis may still be seen in a fair state of preserva-
tion on a circular hill standing about $00 ft above the little
plain of Exarcho ; one gateway remains, and there are also
traces of town walls below. The temple site was on a low spur of
the hill, below the town. An early terrace wall supports a pre-
cinct in which are a stoa and some remains of temples ; these
were excavated by the British School at Athens in 1894, but
very little was found.
See also W. M. Leake, Travels in Northern Greece, U. p. 163;
Journal of HeUenu Studies, avi. pp. 291-312 (V. W. York*).
ABAKAN! K, a fortified town of Siberia, in the Russian
government of Yeniseisk, on the river Yenisei, 144 m. S.S.W. of
Krasnoyarsk, in lat. 54*20' N., long. 91*40' & This is considered
the mildest and most salubrious place in Siberia, and is remark-
able for certain tumuli (of the Li Kitai) and statues of men from
seven to nine feet high, covered with hieroglyphics. Peter the
Great had a fort built here in 1707. Pop. aooo.
ABALONE, the Spanish name used in California for various
species of the shell-fish of the Haliotidae family, with a richly
coloured shell yielding mother-of-pearL This sort of Haliotis is
also commonly called " ear-shell," and in Guernsey " ormer "
(Fr. ormier, for oreille de mer). The abalone shell is found
especially at Santa Barbara and other places on the southern
Calif ornian coast, and when polished makes a beautiful ornament.
The mollusc itself is often eaten, and dried for consumption in
China and Japan.
ABANA (or Amanah, classical Chrysorrhoas) and PHARPAR,
the "rivers of Damascus" (a Kings v. 12), now generally
identified with the Barada (i.e. " cold ") and the A'waj (i.e.
" crooked ") respectively, though if the reference to Damascus
be limited to the city, as in the Arabic version of the Old Testa-
ment, Pharpar would be the modern Taura. Both streams run
from west to east across the plain of Damascus, which owes to
them much of its fertility, and lose themselves in marshes, or
lakes, as they are called, on the borders of the great Arabian
desert John Af'Gregor, who gives an interesting description of
them in his Rob Roy on the Jordan, affirmed that as a work of
hydraulic engineering, the system and construction of the canals,
by which the Abaca and Pharpar were used for irrigation, might
be considered as one of the most complete and extensive in the
world. As the Barada escapes from the mountains through a
narrow gorge, its waters spread out fan-like, in canals or " rivers,"
the name of one of which, Nahr Banias, retains a trace of Abana.
ABANCOURT, CHARLES XAVIER JOSEPH DE FRANQUE-
VILLB D* (1 758-1 792), French statesman, and nephew of Calonne.
He was Louis XVI.'s last minister of war (July 1792), and
organized the defence of the Tuilerics for the 10th of August.
Commanded by the Legislative Assembly to send away the Swiss
guards, he refused, and was arrested for treason to the nation
and sent to Orleans to be tried. At the end of August the As-
sembly ordered Abancourt and the other prisoners at Orleans to
be transferred to Paris with an escort commanded by Claude
Fournier, " the American." At Versailles they learned of the
massacres at Paris, and Abancourt and his fellow-prisoners were
murdered in cold blood on the 8th of September 179a. Fournier
was unjustly charged with complicity in the crime.
ABANDONMENT (Fr. abandonnemenl, from abandonner, to
abandon, relinquish; abandonner was originally equivalent to
mettred bandon, to leave to the jurisdiction, i.e. of another, bandon
being from Low Latin bandum, bannum, order, decree, " ban "),
in law, the relinquishment of an interest, claim, privilege or
possession. Its signification varies according to the branch of
the law in which it is employed, but the more important uses of
the word are summarized below.
Abandonment or an Action is the discontinuance of pro-
ceedings commenced in the High Court of Justice either because
the plaintiff is convinced that he will not succeed in his action 01
for other reasons. Previous to the Judicature Act of 1875, con-
siderable latitude was allowed as to the time when a suitor
might abandon his action, and yet preserve his right to bring
another action on the same suit (see Nonsuit) ; but since 1875
this right has been considerably curtailed, and a plaintiff who
ABANO— ABATIS
has delivered his reply (tee Pleading), and Afterwards wishes to
abandon his action, can generally obtain leave so to do only on
condition of bringing no further proceedings in the matter.
Abandonment us marine znsurance is the surrender of the
ship or goods insured to the insurers, in the case of a constructive
total loss of the thing insured. For the requisites and effects of
abandonment in this sense see Insurance, Marine.
Abandonment or wife and children is dealt with under
Dxsertiok, and the abandonment or exposure of a young child
under the age of two, which is an indictable misdemeanour, is
dealt with under Children, Cruelty to.
Abandonment of domicile is the ceasing to reside perman-
ently in a former domicile coupled with the intention of choosing
a new domicile. The presumptions which will guide the court in
deciding whether a former domicile has been abandoned or not
must be inferred from the facts of each individual case. See
Domicile.
Abandonment of an easement Is the relinquishment of some
accommodation or right in another's land, such as right of way,
free access of light and air, &c See Easement.
Abandonment of railways has a legal signification in Eng-
land recognized by statute, by authority of which the Board of
Trade may, under certain circumstances, grant a warrant to a
railway au thorisin g the abandonment of its line or part of it.
ABABD. PEETRO V (1250-1316), known also as Petrus de
Afono or Afonensxs, Italian physician and philosopher, was
born at the Italian town from which he takes his name in 1 250.
or, according to others, in 1246. After studying medicine and
philosophy at Paris he settled at Padua, where he speedily gained
a great reputation as a physician, and availed himself of it to
gratify bis avarice by refusing to visit patients except for an
exorbitant fee. Perhaps this, as weQ as his meddling with
astrology, caused him to be charged with practising magic, the
particular accusations being that he brought back into his purse,
by the aid of the devil, all the money he paid away, and that he
pnenaed the philosopher's stone. He was twice brought to trial
by the Inquisition ; on the first occasion he was acquitted, and
he died (13 16) before the second trial was completed. He was
found guilty, however, and his body was ordered to be exhumed
and burned ; but a friend had secretly removed it, and the
Inquisition had, therefore, to content itself with the public pro-
rtanwfion of its sentence and the burning of Abano in effigy. In
bis writings he expounds and advocates the medical and philo-
sophical systems of Averroes and other Arabian writers. His
best known works are the Conciliator differentiarum quae inter
pmHosopkos et medicos tersantur (Mantua, 1472 ; Venice, 1476),
and De venenis eorumque remediis (1472), of which a French
trawls r ion was published at Lyons in 1593.
ABABO BA8BI, a town of Venetia, Italy, in the province of
Padua, on the E. slope of the Monti Euganei ; it is 6 m. S.W. by
rafl from Padua. Pop. (1001) 4556. Its hot springs and mud
baths are much resorted to, and were known to the Romans as
A pent foms or Aquae Patavinae. Some remains of the ancient
baths have been discovered (S. Mandruzzato, Trattato dei Bagni
€ Abano, Padua, 1 780). An oracle of Geryon lay near, and the
sxafled sowUs Praenestinae (CJX. I, Berlin, 1863; 1438- 14 54),
small bronze cylinders inscribed, and used as oracles, were per-
haps found here in the 16th century.
IBaBIB. a Scythian or Hyperborean, priest and pqpphet of
ApoOo, who is said to have visited Greece about 770 B.C., or two
or three centuries later. According to the legend, he travelled
th rough o u t the country, living without food and riding on a
golden arrow, the gift of the god ; he healed the sick, foretold the
future, worked miracles, and delivered Sparta from a plague
(Herod, hr. 36 : lamblichus, De Vit. Pythag. six. 28). Suidas
credits him with several works : Scythian oracles, the visit of
Apollo to the Hyperboreans, expiatory formulas and a prose
ABATED, an ancient technical term applied in masonry and
metal work to those portions which are sunk beneath the surface,
as is iascriptkms where the ground is sunk round the letters so
as U leave the letters or ornament in relief.
ABATEMENT (derived through the French abattre, from the
Late Latin batlere, to beat), a beating down or diminishing or
doing away with ; a term used especially in various legal phrases.
Abatement of a nuisance is the remedy allowed by law to a
person or public authority injured by a public nuisance of de-
stroying or removing it, provided no breach of the peace is com-
mitted in doing so. In the case of private nuisances abatement is
also allowed provided there be no breach of the peace, and no
damage be occasioned beyond what the removal of the nuisance
requires. (See Nuisance.)
Abatement of freehold takes place where, after the death
of the person last seised, a stranger enters upon lands before the
entry of the heir or devisee, and keeps the latter out of possession.
It differs from intrusion, which is a similar entry by a stranger on
the death of a tenant for life, to the prejudice of the reversioner,
or remainder man ; and from disseisin, which is the forcible or
fraudulent expulsion of a person seised of the freehold. (See
Freehold.)
Abatement of debts and legacies. When the equitable
assets (see Assets) of a deceased person are not sufficient to
satisfy fully all the creditors, their debts must abate proportion-
ately, and they must accept a dividend. Also, in the case of
legacies when the funds or assets out of which they are payable
are not sufficient to pay them in full, the legacies abate in
proportion, unless there is a priority given specially to any
particular legacy (see Legacy). Annuities are also subject to
the same rule as general legacies.
Abatement in pleading, or plea in abatement, was the de-
feating or quashing of a particular action by some matter of
fact, such as a defect in form or the personal incompetency of the
parties suing, pleaded by the defendant. It did not involve the
merits of the cause, but left the right of action subsisting. In
criminal proceedings a plea in abatement was at one time a
common practice in answer to an indictment, and was set up for
the purpose of defeating the indictment as framed, by alleging
misnomer or other misdescription of the defendant. Its effect
for this purpose was nullified by the Criminal Law Act 1826,
which required the court to amend according to the truth, and
the Criminal Procedure Act 1851, which rendered description
of the defendant unnecessary. All pleas in abatement are now
abolished (R.S.C. Order 21, r. 20). See Pleading.
Abatement in litigation. In civil proceedings, no action
abates by reason of the marriage, death or bankruptcy of any of
the parties, if the cause of action survives or continues, and does
not become defective by the assignment, creation or devolution
of any estate or title pendente lite (R.S.C. Order 1 7, r. 1). Crim-
inal proceedings do not abate on the death of the prosecutor,
being in theory instituted by the crown, but the crown itself
may bring about their termination without any decision on the
merits and without the assent of the prosecutor.
Abatement of false lights. By the Merchant Shipping Act
1854, the general lighthouse authority (see Lighthouse) has
power to order the extinguishment or screening of any light
which may be mistaken for a light proceeding from a lighthouse.
Abatement in commerce is a deduction sometimes made at a
custom-house from the fixed duties on certain kinds of goods, on
account of damage or loss sustained in warehouses. The rate
and conditions of such deductions are regulated, in England, by
the Customs Consolidation Act 1853. (See also Drawback;
Rebate.)
Abatement in heraldry is a badge in coat-armour, indi-
cating some kind of degradation or dishonour. It b called also
rebatemenL
ABATI, or Dell' Abbato, fflCCOLO (1 51 >-is7i), a celebrated
fresco-painter of Modena, whose best works are there and at
Bologna. He accompanied Primaticdo to France, and assisted
in decorating the palace at Fontainebleau ( 1 S57- 1 57 1). His pic-
tures exhibit a combination of skill in drawing, grace and natural
colouring. Some of his easel pieces in oil are in different collec-
tions ; one of the finest, in the Dresden Gallery, represents the
martyrdom of St Peter and St PauL
ABATIS, Abattis or Abbattis (a French word meaning a heap
8
ABATTOIR— ABBADIDES
of material thrown), a term in field fortification for an obstacle
formed of the branches of trees laid in a row, with the tops
directed towards the enemy and interlaced or tied with wire.
The abatis is used alone or in combination with wire-entangle-
ments and other obstacles.
ABATTOIR (from abattre, to strike down), a French word often
employed in English as an- equivalent of "slaughter-house"
(q.v), the place where animals intended for food are lulled.
ABAUZIT. PIRMIK (1670-1767), a learned Frenchman, was
born of Protestant parents at Uses, in Languedoc His father
died when he was but two years of age; and when, on the revo-
cation of the edict of Nantes in 1685, the authorities took steps
to have him educated in the Roman Catholic faith, his mother
contrived his escape. For two years his brother and he lived as
fugitives in the mountains of the Cevennes, but they at last
reached Geneva, where their mother afterwards joined them on
escaping from the imprisonment in which she was held from the
time of their flight* Abauzit at an early age acquired great pro-
ficiency in languages, physics and theology. In 1608 he went to
Holland, and there became acquainted with Pierre Bayle, P.
Jurieu and J. Basnage. Proceeding «to England, he was intro-
duced to Sir Isaac Newton, who found in him one of the earliest
defenders of his discoveries. Sir Isaac corrected in the second
edition of his Principle an error pointed out by Abauzit, and,
when sending him the Commercium Epistolicum, said, " You are
well worthy to judge between Leibnitz and me." The reputation
of Abauzit induced William III. to request him to settle in
England, but he did not accept the king's offer, preferring to
return to Geneva. There from x 7 1 5 he rendered valuable assist-
ance to a society that had been formed for translating the New
Testament into French. He declined the offer of the chair of
philosophy in the university in 1733, but accepted, in 1727, the
sinecure office of librarian to the city of his adoption. Here he
died at a good old age, in 1767. Abauzit was a man of great
learning and of wonderful versatility. Whatever chanced to be
discussed,it used to be said of Abauzit,as of Professor W. Whewell
of more modern times, that he seemed to have made it a subject
of particular study. Rousseau, who was jealously sparing of his
praises, addressed to him, in his NouveUe HHolse, a fine pane-
gyric; and when a stranger flatteringly told Voltaire he had
come to see* great man, the philosopher asked him if he had seen
Abauzit. Little remains of the labours of this intellectual giant,
his heirs having, it is said, destroyed the papers that came into
their possession, because their own religious opinions were
different. A few theological, archaeological and astronomical
articles from his pen appeared in the Journal Helvitique and else-
where, and he contributed several papers to Rousseau's Die*
tionnaire de musique ( 1 767). He wrote a work throwing doubt on
the canonical authority of the Apocalypse, which called forth a
reply from Dr Leonard Twells. He also edited and made valuable
additions to J. Spon's Histoire de la ripublique de Geneve. A
collection of his writings was published at Geneva in 1770
((Euvres de feu M. AbausU), and another at London in 1773^
((Euvres diverse* de M. Abautit). Some of them were translated'
into English by Dr Edward Harwood (1774)*
Information regarding Abauzit will be found in J. Senebter's
Histoire Littiraire de Geneve, Harwood's Miscellanies, and W. Orme's
BMiotkeca BMica (1824).
'ABAYS, the name of a Babylonian * amor a (q.v.), born in the
middle of the 3rd century. He died in 330.
'ABBA 'ARIKA, the name of the Babylonian 'amora (q.v.) of
the 3rd century, who established at Sura the systematic study of
the Rabbinic traditions which, using the Mishnah as text, led to
the compilation of the Talmud. He is commonly known as Rab.
ABBADIDES. a Mahommedan dynasty which arose in Spain on
the downfall of the western caliphate. It tasted from about 1023
till 1091, but during the short period of its existence was singu-
larly active and typical of its time. The founder of the house was
Abd-ul-Qasim Mahommed, the cadi of Seville in 1023. He was
the chief of an Arab family settled in the dty from the first days
of the conquest. The Beni-abbad were not of ancient descent,
though the poets, whom they paid largely, made an illustrious
pedigree for them when they had become powerful. They were,
however, very rich. Abd-ul-Qasim gained the confidence of the
townsmen by organizing a successful resistance to the Berber
soldiers of fortune who were grasping at the fragments -of the
caliphate. At first he professed to rule only with the advice of a
council formed of the nobles, but when his power became estab-
lished he dispensed with this show of republican government, and
then gave himself the appearance of a legitimate title by protect-
ing an impostor who professed to be the caliph Hisham II. When
Abd-ul-Qasim died in 1042 he had created a state which, though
weak in itself, was strong as compared to the little powers about
it. He had made his family the recognized leaders of the Mahom-
medans of Arab and native Spanish descent against the Berber
element, whose chief was the king of Granada. Abbad. surnamed
El Motaddid, his son and successor, is one of the most remarkable
figures in Spanish Mahommedan history. He had a striking re-
semblance to the Italian princes of the later middle ages and the
early renaissance, of the stamp of Filipo Maria Visconti: El
Motaddid was a poet and a lover of letters, who was also a
poisoner, a drinker of wine, a sceptic and treacherous to the
utmost degree. Though he waged war all through his reign he
very rarely appeared in the field, but directed the generals, whom
he never trusted, from his " lair " in the fortified palace, the
Alcazar of Seville. He killed with his own hand one of has sods
who had rebelled against him. On one occasion he trapped a
number of his enemies, the Berber chiefs of the Ronda, into
visiting him, and got rid of them by smothering them in the hot
room of a bath. It was his taste to preserve the skulls of the
enemies he had killed — those of the meaner .men to be used as
flower-pots, while those of the princes were kept in special chests.
His reign until his death on the 28th of February 1069 was mainly
spent in extending his power at the expense of his smaller neigh-
bours, and in conflicts with his chief rival the king of Granada.
These incessant wars weakened the Mahommedans, to the great
advantage of the rising power of the Christian kings of Leon and
Castile, but they gave the kingdom of Seville a certain superiority
over the other little states. After 1063 he was assailed by
Fernando El Magno of Castile and Leon, who marched to the
gates of Seville, and forced him to pay tribute. His son,
Mahommed Abd-ul-Qasim Abenebet— who reigned by the title
of El Motamid— was the third and last of the Abbadides. He
was a no less remarkable person than his father and much more
amiable. Like him he was a poet, and a favourer of poets. El
Motamid went, however, considerably further in patronage of
literature than his father, for he chose as his favourite and prime
minister the poet Ibn Ammar. In the end the vanity and
featherheadedness of Ibn Ammar drove his master to kill him
El Motamid was even more influenced by his favourite wife,
Romaica, than by his vizir. He had met her paddling in the
Guadalquivir, purchased her from her master, and made her his
wife. The caprices of Romaica, and the lavish. extravagance of
Motamid in his efforts to please her, form the subject of many
stories. In politics he carried on the feuds of his family with the
Berbers, and in his efforts to extend his dominions could be as
faithless as his father. His wars and his extravagance exhausted
his treasury, and he oppressed his subjects by taxes. In 1080
he brought down upon himself the vengeance of Alphonso VI.
of Castile by a typical piece of flighty oriental barbarity. He had
endeavoured to pay part of his tribute to the Christian king with
false money. The fraud was detected by a Jew, who was one of
the envoys of Alphonso. El Motamid, in a moment of folly and
rage, crucified the Jew and imprisoned the. Christian members
of the mission. Alphonso retaliated by a destructive raid. When
Alphonso took Toledo in 1085, El Motamid called in Yusef ibn
Tashfin, the Almoravide (see Spain, History, and Almokavides).
During the six years which preceded his deposition in 109 1, El
Motamid behaved with valour on the field, but with much
meanness and political folly. He endeavoured to curry favour
wkh Yusef by betraying the other Mahommedan princes to him,
and intrigued to secure the alliance of Alphonso against the
Almoravide. It was probably during this period that he sur-
rendered his beautiful daughter Zaida to the Christian king, who
ABBADIE— ABBAS II.
Bade far his concubine, and h said by some authorities to have
ourried acr after tbe bore him a son, Sancho. The vacillation*
and submissions of El Motamid did not save him from the fate
which overtook his fellow-princes. Their scepticism and extor-
tion had tired their subjects, and the mullahs gave Yusef a
M fctva M authorizing him 4o remove them in the interest of
religion. In iooi the Almoravides stormed Seville, £1 Motamid,
who had fought bravely, was weak enough to order his sons to
surrender the fortresses they still held, in order to save his own
hfe. He died in prison in Africa in 1095.
Acthohttes.— Dory. Histoire des Musnlmans fEspagne, Leiden,
1861: and Historic Abbadidamm (Scriptorum Arabuna loci de
Abfaadadio). Leiden. 1846. (D. H.)
ABBADIE. AJfTODTB THOMSON V (1810-1897). and AB-
HAUD BUCHBL LT (1815-1893), two brothers notable for their
travels in Abyssinia during the first half of the 19th century.
They were both born in Dublin, of a French father and an Irish
■other, Antoine in 1810 and Arnaud in 1815. The parents re-
moved to France in 1818, and there the brothers received a
careful scientific education. In 1835 the French Academy sent
Antoine on a scientific mission to Brazil, the results being pub-
lished at a later date ( 1873) under the title of Observations relatives
ita physique dm gjobefaites an Brisileten ttinopU. The younger
Abbadie spent some time in Algeria before, in 1837, the two
brothers started for Abyssinia, landing at Massawa in February
1838. They visited various parts of Abyssinia, including the then
little-known districts of Ennarea and Kaffa, sometimes together
and sometimes separately. They met with many difficulties and
many adventures, and became involved in political intrigues,
Antoine especially exercising such influence as be possessed in
favour of France and the Roman Catholic missionaries. After
collecting much valuable information concerning the geography,
geology, archaeology and natural history of Abyssinia, the
brothers returned to France in 1848 and began to prepare their
materials for publication. The younger brother, Arnaud, paid
another visit to Abyssinia in 1853. The more distinguished
brother, Antoine, became involved in various controversies re-
lating both to bis geographical results and his political intrigues.
He was especially attacked by C T. Beke, who impugned his
veracity, especially with reference to the journey to Kaffa. But
time and the investigations of subsequent explorers have shown
that Abbadie was quite trustworthy as to his facts, though wrong
in kb contention— hotly contested by Beke— that the Blue Nile
was the main stream. The topographical results of his explora-
tions were published in Paris in 1860-1873 in Gtodisie f&hiopie,
feu of the most valuable information and illustrated by ten maps.
Of the Ctographie de Fltlhiopie (Paris, 1890) only one volume has
been published. In Un Catalogue raisonntdemanuscrUs ithiopiens
(Paris, 1859) is a description of 334 Ethiopian manuscripts col-
lected by Antoine, He also compiled various vocabularies, in-
cluding a Dictionnaire de la langue amarinna (Paris, 188 x), and
prepared an edition of the Shepherd of Hermas, with the Latin
version, in i860. He published numerous papers dealing with the
geography of Abyssinia, Ethiopian coins and ancient inscriptions.
Coder the title of Reconnaissances magnitiques he published in
1890 an account of the magnetic observations made by him in the
course of several journeys to the Red Sea and the Levant. The
general account of the travels of the two brothers was published
bv Arnaud in x868 under the title of Dotae ans dans la Haute-
tihiepie. Both brothers received the grand medal of the Paris
Geographical Society in 185a Antoine was a knight of the
Legion of Honour and a member of the Academy of Sciences. He
died in 1897, and bequeathed an estate in the Pyrenees, yielding
40,000 francs a year, to the Academy of Sciences, on condition of
its producing within fifty years a catalogue of half-a-million
stars. His brother Arnaud died in 1893. (J. S. K.)
ABIADI2, JAKOB (x654?-i7*7)r Swiss Protestant divine,
was bora at Nay in Bern. He studied at Sedan, Saumur and
Puytaureaa, with such success that he received the degree of
doctor in theology at the age of seventeen. After spending some
years in Berlin as minister of a French Protestant church, where
be had great success at a preacher, he accompanied Marshal
Schomberg, in 1688, to England, and next year became minister
of the French church in the Savoy, London. His strong attach-
ment to the cause of King William appears in his elaborate de-
fence of the Revolution {Defense de la nation britanrnqme, 1692) at
well as in his history of the conspiracy of 1696 (Histoire de la
grande conspiration tfA nglelerre). The king promoted him to the
deanery of Killaloe in Ireland. He died in London In 1737.
Abbadie was a man of great ability and an eloquent preacher, but
is best known by his religious treatises, several of which were
translated from the original French into other languages and had
a wide circulation throughout Europe. The most important of
these are Traits de la vtriti de la religion chrttienne (1684); its
continuation, TraiU de la diviniti de Jesus-Christ (1689); and
VArt de se connattre soi-mHne (1692).
'ABBAHU, the name of a Palestinian 'antra (9.9.) who flour-
ished c. 379-320. 'Abbahu encouraged the study of Greek by
Jews. He was famous as a collector of traditional lore, and is
very often cited in the Talmud.
ABBA MARI (In full, Abba Man ben Moses ben Joseph), French
rabbi, was born at Lunel, near Montpellier, towards the end of
the 13th century. He is also known as Yarhi from his birthplace
(Heb. Yerah, i*. moon, /«*«), and he further took the name
Astruc, Don Astruc or En Astruc of Lunel. The descendant of
men learned in rabbinic lore, Abba Man devoted himself to the
study of theology and philosophy, and made himself acquainted
with the writing of Moses Maimonides and Nachmanides as well
as with the Talmud. In Montpellier, where he lived from 1303 to
1306, he was much distressed by the prevalence of Aristotelian
rationalism, which, through the medium of the works of Maimon-
ides, threatened the authority of the Old Testament, obedience
to the law, and the belief in miracles and revelation. He, there-
fore, in a series of letters (afterwards collected under the title
Minhat Kenaot, i.e. " Jealousy Offering ") called upon the famous
rabbi Solomon ben Adret of Barcelona to come to the aid of
orthodoxy. Ben Adret, with the approval of other prominent
Spanish rabbis, sent a letter to the community at Montpellier
proposing to forbid the study of philosophy to those who were
less than thirty years of age, and, in spite of keen opposition from
the liberal section, a decree in this sense was issued by ben Adret
in 1305. The result was a great schism among the Jews of Spain
and southern France, and a new impulse was given to the study
of philosophy by the unauthorized interference of the Spanish
rabbis. On the expulsion of the Jews from France by Philip IV.
in 1306, Abba Man settled at Perpignan, where he published the
letters connected with the controversy. His subsequent history
is unknown. Beside the letters, he was the author of liturgical
poetry and works on civil law.
Authorities.— Edition of the Minhat Kenaot by M. L. BUKchii
(Preabufg, 1838); E. Renan. Les rabbins francots, pp. 647 foil.;
Perles, Salerno ben Abraham ben Adereth, pp. 15-54: Scww* £*<•
cyclopaedia, s .#. " Abba Mari."
ABBAS I. (18x3-1854), pasha of Egypt, was a son of Tusun
Pasha and grandson of Mehemet Ali, founder of the reigning
dynasty. As a young man he fought in Syria under Ibrahim
Pasha (q.v.) , his real or supposed uncle. The death of Ibrahim in
November 1848 made Abbas regent of Egypt, and in August
following, on the death of Mehemet Ali— who had been deposed
in July 1848 on account of mental weakness, — Abbas succeeded
to the pashalik. He has been generally described as a mere
voluptuary, but Nubar Pasha spoke of him as a true Turkish
gentleman of the old school He was without question a re-
actionary, morose and taciturn, and spent nearly all his time shut
up in his palace. He undid, as far as lay in his power, the works
of his grandfather, good and bad. Among other things he abol-
ished trade monopolies, dosed factories and schools, and reduced
the strength of the army to 9000 men* He was inaccessible to
adventurers bent on plundering Egypt, but at the instance of the
British government allowed the construction of a railway from
Alexandria to Cairo. In July 1854 he was murdered in Benha
Palace by two of his slaves, and was succeeded by his uncle, Said
Pasha.
ABBAS IL (1874- ), Utedive of Egypt Abbas Hilmi Pasha,
IO
ABBAS I.— ABBAZIA
great-great-grandson of Mehemet Ali, bora on the 14th of July
1874, succeeded bis father, Tewfik Pasha, as khedive of Egypt on
the 8th of January 1892. When a boy he visited England, and he
had an English tutor for some time in Cairo. He then went to
school in Lausanne, and from there passed on to the Theresianum
in Vienna. In addition to Turkish, his mother tongue, he ac-
quired fluency in Arabic, and a good conversational knowledge
of English, French and German. He was still at college in
Vienna when the sudden death of his father raised him to the
Khcdivate; and he was barely of age according to Turkish law,
which fixes majority at eighteen in cases of succession to the
throne. For some time he did not co-operate very cordially with
Great Britain. He was young and eager to exercise his new
power. His throne and life had not been saved for him by the
British, as was the case with his father. He was surrounded by
intriguers who were playing a game of their own, and for some
time he appeared almost disposed to be as reactionary as his
great-uncle Abbas L But in process of time he learnt to under-
stand the importance of British counsels. He paid a second visit
to England in 1000, during which he frankly acknowledged the
great good the British bad done in Egypt, and declared himself
ready to follow their advice and to co-operate with the British
officials administering Egyptian affairs. The establishment of a
sound system of native justice, the great remission of taxation,
the reconquest of the Sudan, the inauguration of the stupendous
irrigation works at Assuan, the increase of cheap, sound educa-
tion, each received his approval and all the assistance he could
give. He displayed more interest in agriculture than in state-
craft, and his farm of cattle and horses at Koubah, near Cairo,
would have done credit to any agricultural show in England; at
Montaza, near Alexandria, he created a similar establishment
He married the Princess Ikbal Hanem and had several children.
Mahommed Abdul Mouneim, the heir-apparent, was born on the
aoth of February 1809.
ABBAS I. (c. 1 557-1628 or 1629), shah of Persia, called the
Great, was the son of shah Mahommed (d. 1 586). In the midst of
general anarchy in Persia, he was proclaimed ruler of Khorasan,
and obtained possession of the Persian throne in 1586. Deter-
mined to raise the fallen fortunes of his country, he first directed
his efforts against the predatory Uxbegs, who occupied and har-
assed Khorasan. After a long and severe struggle, he regained
Meshed, defeated them in a great battle near Herat in 1597, and
drove them out of his dominions. In the wars he carried on with
the Turks during nearly the whole of his reign, his successes
were numerous, and he acquired, or regained, a large extent of
territory. By the victory he gained at Bassora in 1605 he ex-
tended his empire beyond the Euphrates; sultan Ahmed I. was
forced to cede Shirvan and Kurdistan in 1611 ; the united armies
of the Turks and Tatars were completely defeated near Sultanieh
in 1618, and Abbas made peace on very favourable terms; and
on the Turks renewing the war, Bagdad fell into his hands after a
year's siege in 1623. In 1622 he took the island of Ormus from
the Portuguese, by the assistance of the British, and much of its
trade was diverted to the town of Bander-Abbasi, which was
named after the shah. When he died, his dominions reached
from the Tigris to the Indus. Abbas distinguished himself, not
only by his successes in arms, and by the magnificence of his
court and of the buildings which he erected, but also by his re-
forms in the administration of his kingdom. He encouraged com-
merce, and, by constructing highways and building bridges, did
much to facilitate it To foreigners, especially Christians, he
showed a spirit of tolerance; two Englishmen, Sir Anthony and
Sir Robert Shirley, or Sherley, were admitted to his confidence.
His fame is tarnished, however, by numerous deeds of tyranny
and cruelty. His own family, especially, suffered from his fits of
jealousy; his eldest son was slain, and the eyes of his other
children were put out, by his orders.
See The Three Brothers, or Travels of Sir Anthony, Sir Robert
Sherley, 6rc. (London, 1825); Sir C. R. Markham, General Sketch
of the History of Persia (London, 1874).
ABBASIDS, the name generally given to the caliphs of Bagdad,
the second of the two great dynasties of the Mahommedan em*
pire. The Abbasid caliphs officially based their daim to the
throne on their descent from Abbas (aj>. 566-652), the eldest
uncle of Mahomet, in virtue of which descent they regarded
themselves as the rightful heirs of the Prophet as opposed to the
Omayyads, the descendants of Omayya. Throughout the second
period of the Omayyads, representatives of this family were
among their most dangerous opponents, partly by the skill' with
which they undermined the reputation of the reigning princes by
accusations against their orthodoxy, their moral character and
their administration in general, and partly by their cunning
manipulation of internecine jealousies among the Arabic and non-
Arabic subjects of the empire. In the reign of Merwan II. this
opposition culminated in the rebellion of Ibrahim the Imam, the
fourth in descent from Abbas, who, supported by the province of
Khorasan, achieved considerable successes, but was captured
(a.d. 747) and died in prison (as some hold, assassinated). The
quarrel was taken up by his brother Abdallah, known by the
name of Abul-Abbas as-Safflh, who after a decisive victory on
the Greater Zab (750) finally crushed the Omayyads and was
proclaimed caliph.
The history of the new dynasty is marked by perpetual strife
and the development of luxury and the liberal arts, in place of the
old-fashioned austerity of thought and manners. Mansur, the
second of the house, who transferred the seat of government to
Bagdad, fought successfully against the peoples of Asia Minor,
and the reigns of Harun al-Rashid (786-809) and Mamun (8ij-
8j3) werc periods of extraordinary splendour. Bu t the empire as
a whole stagnated and then decayed rapidly. Independent mon-
archs established themselves in Africa and Khorasan (Spain had
remained Omayyad throughout), and in the north-west the
Greeks successfully encroached. The ruin of the dynasty came,
however, from those Turkish slaves who were constituted as a
royal bodyguard by Moqtasim (833-842). Their power steadily
grew until Radi (934-941) was constrained to hand over most
of the royal functions to Mahommed b. Raik. Province after
province renounced the authority of the caliphs, who were merely
lay figures, and finally Hulagu, the Mongol chief, burned Bagdad
(Feb. 28th, 1258). The Abbasids still maintained a feeble
show of authority, confined to religious matters, in Egypt under
the Mamelukes, but the dynasty finally disappeared with Mota-
wakkil III., who was carried away as a prisoner to Constantinople
by Selim I.
See Caliphate (Sections B, 14 and C), where a detailed account
of the dynasty will be found.
ABBAS MIRZA (c. 1 783-1833), prince of Persia, was a younger
son of the shah, Feth Ali, but on account of his mother's royal
birth was destined by his father to succeed him. Entrusted with
the government of a part of Persia, he sought to rule it in Euro-
pean fashion, and employed officers to reorganize his army. He
was soon at war with Russia, and his aid was eagerly solicited by
both England and Napoleon, anxious to checkmate one another
in the East Preferring the friendship of France, Abbas continued
the war against Russia, but his new ally could give him very little
assistance, and in 1814 Persia was compelled to make a disadvan-
tageous peace. He gained some successes daring a war between
Turkey and Persia which broke out in 1821, but cholera attacked
his army, and a treaty was signed in 1823. His second war with
Russia, which began in 1825, was attended with the same want of
success as the former one, and Persia was forced to cede some
territory. When peace was made in 1828 Abbas then sought to
restore order in the province of Khorasan, which was nominally
under Persian supremacy, and while engaged in the task died at
Meshed in 1833. In 1834 his eldest son, Mahommed Mirza, suc-
ceeded Feth Ali as shah. Abbas was an intelligent prince,
possessed some literary taste, and is noteworthy on account of
the comparative simplicity of his life.
ABBAS-TUM AN, a spa in Russian Transcaucasia, government
of Tiflis, 50 m. S.W. of the Borzhom railway station and 65 m. E.
of Batum, very picturesquely situated in a cauldron-shaped
valley. It has hot sulphur baths (93j°-ii8|° Fahr.) and an
astronomical observatory (4240 ft.).
ABBAZIA, a popular summer and winter resort of Austria, in
ABBESS— ABBEY
11
btria, $6 m. S.E. of Trieste by rafl. Pop. (zooo) 3343. It is
situated on the Gulf of Quarnero in a sheltered position at the
foot of the Monte Maggiore (4580 ft.), and is surrounded by
beautifol woods of UuxeL The average temperature is 50° Fahr.
in winter, and 77° Fahr. in summer. The old abbey, San Giacomo
defla Prfluca, from which the place derives its name, has been
converted into a villa. Abbaxia is frequented annually by about
16,000 visitors. The whole sea-coast to the north and south of
Abbazia is rocky and picturesque, and contains several smaller
winter-resorts. The largest of them is Lovrana (pop. 513), situ*
ated 5 m. to the south.
ABSBS (Lat. abbotissa, fem. form of abbas, abbot), the female
superior of an abbey or convent of nuns. The mode of election,
posit i o n, rights and authority of an abbess correspond generally
with those of an abbot (q.v.). The office is elective, the choice
being by the secret voteaof the sisters from their own body. The
abbess is solemnly admitted to her office by episcopal benediction,
together with the conferring of a staff and pectoral cross, and
holds for life, though liable to be deprived for misconduct. The
council of Trent fixed the qualifying age at forty, with eight years
of profession. Abbesses have a right to demand absolute obedi-
ence of their nuns, over whom they exercise discipline, extending
even to the power of expulsion, subject, however, to the bishop.
As a female an abbess is incapable of performing the spiritual
functions of the priesthood belonging to an abbot She can-
not ordain, confer the veil, nor excommunicate. In England
abbesses attended ecclesiastical councils, e.g. that of Bocanfield
in 604, where they signed before the presbyters.
By Celtic usage abbesses presided over joint-houses of monks
and nuns. This custom accompanied Celtic monastic missions
to France and Spain, and even to Rome itself. At a later period,
*J>. 1 1 15, Robert, the founder of Fontevraud, committed the
go ve r nm ent of the whole order, men as well as women, to a female
In the German Evangelical church the title of zbbesi(Aebtissin)
has ia some cases— t.g. I Ueboe— survived to designate- the heads
of abbeys which since the Reformation have continued as Stifte,
U. collegiate foundations, which provide a home and an income
for unmarried ladies, generally of noble birth, called canonesses
{KaaenUsiaen) or more usually Stiflsdamen. This office of abbess
is of considerable social dignity, and is sometimes filled by prin-
cesses ofthe reigning houses.
ABBEVILLE, a. town of northern France, capital of an anon-
disscment in the department of Somme, on the Sorame, xa m.
from its month- in the English Channel, and 28 m. N. W. of Amiens
on the Northern railway. Pop. (xooi) 18,5x9; (1006) 18,971.
It lies in a pleasant and fertile valley, and is built partly
on an island and partly on both sides of the river, which is
ranalmd from this point to the estuary. The streets are narrow,
and the bouses are mostly picturesque old structures, built of
wood, with many quaint gables and dark archways, 'the most
remarkable building is the church of St Vulfran, erected in the
15th, 1 6th and 17th centuries. The original design was not
completed. The nave has only two bays and the choir is insig-
nificant. The facade is a magnificent specimen of the flamboyant
Gothic style, flanked by two Gothic towers. Abbeville has
several other old churches and an hotel-de-ville, with a belfry of
the 13th century. Among the numerous old houses, that known
as the Maison de Francois I", which is the most remarkable,
dates tram the x6th century. There is a statue of Admiral
Courbet (d. 1885) in the chief square. The public institutions
iadnde tribunals of first instance and of commerce, a board of
ttxde-arbitratots, and a communal college. Abbeville is an
important industrial centre; in addition to its old-established
manufacture of doth, hemp-spinning, sugar-making, ship-building
and locksmiths' work are carried on; there is active commerce
in grain, but the port has little trade.
Abbeville, the chief town of the district of Ponthieu, first
appears in history during the 9th century. At that time belong-
ing to the abbey of St Riquier, it was afterwards governed by the
counts of Ponthieu. Together with that county, it came into the
1 of the Alencon and other French families, and after-
wards into that of the house of Castale, from whom by marriage
it fell in x 372 to Edward I., king of England. French and English
were its masters by turns till X435 when, by the treaty of Arras,
it was ceded to the duke of Burgundy. In 1477 it was annexed
by Louis XI., king of France, and was held by two illegitimate
branches of the royal family in the x6th and 17th centuries,
being in x6o6 reunited to the crown.
ABBEY, EDWIN AUSTIN (1852- ), American painter, was
born at Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, on the xst of April 1852. He
left the schools of the Pennsylvania Academy of Fine Arts at the
age of nineteen to enter the art department of the publishing
house of Harper & Brothers in New York, where, in company
.with such men as Howard Pyle, Charles Stanley Remhart, Joseph
Pennell and Alfred Parsons, he became very successful as an
illustrator. In 1878 he was sent by the Harpers to England to
gather material for illustrations of the poems of Robert Herrick.
These, published in 1882, attracted much attention, and were
followed by illustrations for Goldsmith's She Stoops to Conquer
(1887), for a volume of Old Songs (1889), and for the comedies
(and a few of the tragedies) of Shakespeare. His water-colours
and pastels were no less successful than the earlier illustrations
in pen and ink. Abbey now became closely identified with the
art life of England, and was elected to the Royal Institute of
Painters in Water-Colours in 1883. Among his water-colours are
" The EvU Eye " (1877); " The Rose in October" (1879); " An
Old Song" (x886); "The Visitors" (1800), and "The Jong-
leur " (1892). Possibly his best known pastels are " Beatrice, "
" Phyllis," and " Two Noble Kinsmen." In 1800 he made his
first appearance with an oil painting, "A May Day Morn," at
the Royal Academy in London. He exhibited " Richard duke of
Gloucester and the Lady Anne " at the Royal Academy in 1896,
and in that year was elected A.R.A., becoming a full R.A. in
1898. Apart from his other paintings, special mention must be
made of the large frescoes entitled " The Quest of the Holy Grail,"
in the Boston Public Library, on which he was occupied for some
years; and in xooi he was commissioned by King Edward VII.
to paint a picture of the coronation, containing many portraits
elaborately grouped. The dramatic subjects, and the brilliant
colouring of his oil pictures, gave them pronounced individuality
among the works of contemporary painters. Abbey became a
member not only of the Royal Academy, but also of the National
Academy of Design of New York, and honorary member of the
Royal Bavarian Society, the Societe Nationale des Beaux Arts
(Paris), the American Water-Colour Society, etc He received
first class gold medals at the International Art Exhibition of
Vienna in 1898, at Philadelphia in x8o8, at the Paris Exhibitions
of 1889 and 1900, and at Berlin in 1903; and was made a cheva-
lier of the French Legion of Honour.
ABBEY (Lat. abbalia; from Syr. abba, father), a monastery,
or conventual establishment, under the government of an abbot
or an abbess. A priory only differed from an abbey in that the
superior bore the name of prior instead of abbot. This was the
case in all the English conventual, cathedrals, e.g. Canterbury,
Ely, Norwich, &c, where the archbishop or bishop occupied the
abbot's place, the superior of the monastery being termed prior.
Other priories were originally offshoots from the larger abbeys,
to the abbots of which they continued subordinate; but in later
times the actual distinction between abbeys and priories was lost
The earliest Christian monastic communities (see Monasti-
CISm) with which we are acquainted consisted of groups of cells
or huts collected about a common centre, which was usually the
abode of some anchorite celebrated for superior holiness or
singular asceticism, but without any attempt at orderly arrange-
ment. The formation of such communities in the East does not
date from the introduction of Christianity. The example had
been already set by the Essenes in Judea and the Therapeutae
in Egypt.
In the earliest age of Christian monastidsm the ascetics were
accustomed to live singly, independent of one another, at no
great distance from some village, supporting themselves by the
labour of their own hands, and distributing the surplus after the
supply of their own scanty wants to the poor. Increasing religious
12
ABBEY
fervour, aided by persecution, drove them farther and farther
away from the abodes of men into mountain solitudes or lonely
deserts. The deserts of Egypt swarmed with the " cells " or huts
of these anchorites. Anthony, who had retired to the Egyptian
Thebaid during the persecution of Maximin, aj>. 312, was the
most celebrated among them for his austerities, his sanctity, and
his power as an exorcist. His fame collected round him a host of
followers, emulous of his sanctity. The deeper he withdrew into
the wilderness, the more numerous his disciples became. They
refused to be separated from him, and built their cells round that
of their spiritual father. Thus* arose the first monastic com-
munity, consisting of anchorites living each in his own little
dwelling, united together under one superior. Anthony, a3
Neander remarks (Church History, vol. iii. p. 316, Clark's trans.),
" without any conscious design of his own, had become the
founder of a new mode of living in common, Coenobitism." By
degrees order was introduced in the groups of huts. They were
arranged in lines like the tents in an encampment, or the houses
in a street. From this arrangement these lines of single cells
came to be known as Laurae, AaGpcu, " streets " or " lanes. "
The real founder of coenobian (*ot*6f , common, and /ftor, life)
monasteries in the modern sense was Pachomius, an Egyptian of
the beginning of the 4th century. The first community estab-
lished by him was at Tabennae, an island of the Nile in Upper
Egypt Eight others were founded in his lifetime, numbering
3000 monks. Within fifty years from his death his societies
could reckon 50,000 members. These coencbia resembled vil-
lages, peopled by a hard-working religious community, all of one
sex. The buildings were detached, small and of the humblest
character. Each cell or hut, according to Sozomen (H. E. iii. 14),
contained three monks. They took their chief meal in a common
refectory at 3 p.m., up to which hour they usually fasted. They
ate in silence, with hoods so drawn over their faces that they
could see nothing but what was on the table before them. The
monks spent all the time, not devoted to religious services or
study, in manual labour. Palladius, who visited the Egyptian
monasteries about the dose of the 4th century, found among the
300 members of the coenobium of Panopolis, under the Pachtf-
mian rule, 15 tailors, 7 smiths, 4 carpenters, 12 camel-drivers
and 1 5 tanners. Each separate community had its own oeconomus
or steward, who was subject to a chief oeconomus stationed at
the head establishment All the produce of the monks' labour
was committed to him, and by him shipped to Alexandria. The
money raised by the sale was expended in the purchase of stores
for the support of the communities; and what was over was
devoted to charity. Twice in the year the superiors of the
several coenobia met at the chief monastery, under the presidency
of an archimandrite (" the chief of the fold," from plu&pa, a fold),
and at the last meeting gave in reports of their administration
for the year. The coenobia of Syria belonged to the Pachomian
institution. We learn many details concerning those in the
vicinity of Antioch from Chrysostom's writings. The monks
lived in separate huts, KaXifiia, forming a religious hamlet on the
mountain side. They were subject to an abbot, and observed a
common rule. (They had no refectory, but ate their common
meal, of bread and water only, when the day's labour was over,
reclining on strewn grass, sometimes out of doors.) Four times in
the day they joined in prayers and psalms.
The necessity for defence from hostile attacks, economy of
space and convenience of access from one part of the community
to another, by degrees dictated a more compact and orderly
arrangement of the buildings of a monastic coenobium. Large
piles of building were erected, with strong outside walls, capable
of resisting the assaults of an enemy, within which all the neces-
Smatm wry edifices were ranged round one or more open
Lourm, courts, usually surrounded with cloisters. The usual
Eastern arrangement is exemplified in the plan of the
convent of Santa Laura, Mount Athos (Laura, the
designation of a monastery generally, being converted into a
female saint).
This monastery, like the oriental monasteries generally, is
•uttounded by a strong and lofty blank stone wall, enclosing an
Mouot
area of between 3 and 4 acres. The longer side extends to a
length of about 500 feet. There is only one main entrance, on
the north side (A), defended by three separate iron doors. Near
the entrance Is a large tower (M), a constant feature in the
monasteries of the Levant. There is a small postern gate at L.
The enceinte comprises two large open courts, surrounded with
buildings connected with cloister galleries of wood or stone. The
outer court, which is much the larger, contains the granaries and
storehouses (K), and the kitchen (H) and other offices connected
with the refectory (G). Immediately adjacent to the gateway is a
two-storied guest-house, opening from a cloister (C). The inner
court is surrounded by a cloister (EE), from which open the
monks' cells (II). In the centre of this court stands the catholicon
or conventual church, a square building with an apse of the cruci-
form domical Byzantine type, approached by a domed narthex.
In front of the church stands a marble fountain (F), covered by a
dome supported on columns. Opening from the western side of
the cloister, but actually standing in the outer court, is the refec-
tory (G), a large cruciform building, about 100 feet each way,
decorated within with frescoes of saints. At the upper end is a
semicircular recess, recalling the triclinium of the Latcran Palace
A. Gateway.
B. Chapels.
C Guest-house.
D. Church.
E. Cloister.
F. Fountain.
G. Refectory.
H. Kitchen,
I. Cells.
K. Storehouses.
L. Postern gate.
M. Tower.
Fig. 1. — Monastery of Santa Laura, Mount Athos (Lenoir).
at Rome, in which is placed the seat of the kegumenos or abbot.
This apartment is chiefly used as a hall of meeting, the oriental
monks usually taking their meals in their separate cells. St
Laura is exceeded in magnitude by the convent of Vato- „_
pede also on Mount Athos. This enormous establish- "■*•**
ment covers at least 4 acres of ground, and contains so many
separate buildings within its massive walls that it resembles
a fortified town. It lodges above 300 monks, and the establish-
ment of the hegumenos is described as resembling the court of a
petty sovereign prince. The immense refectory, of the same
cruciform shape as that of St Laura, will accommodate 500
guests at its 24 marble tables.
The annexed plan of a Coptic monastery, from Lenoir, shows
a church of three aisles, with cellular apses, and two ranges of
cells on either side of an oblong gallery.
Monasticism in the West owes its extension and develop-
ment to Benedict of Nursia (born a.d. 480). His rule was
diffused with miraculous rapidity from the parent foundation
on Monte Cassino through the whole of western Europe, and
every country witnessed the erection of monasteries far exceed-
ing anything that had yet been seen in spaciousness and
splendour. Few great towns in Italy were without their Bene-
dictine convent, and they quickly rose in all the great centres
of population in England, France and Spain. The number
of these monasteries founded between a.d. 520 and 700 is
ABBEY
13
Before die Council of Constance, aj>. 141s, no
fewer than 13,070 abbeys had been established of this order
fiaJ alone. The buildings of a Benedictine abbey were
m^ uniformly arranged after one plan, modified where
necessary (as at Durham and Worcester, where the
monasteries stand dose to the steep bank of a river) to
Ac commo d a te the arrangement to local circumstances. We
have no existing examples of the earlier monasteries of the
Benedictine order. They have all yielded to the ravages of time
and the violence of man. But we have fortunately preserved to
SflMB as an elaborate plan of the great Swiss monastery of
St Call, erected about a.o. 820, which puts us in pos-
sesion of the whole arrangements of a monastery of the first
class towards the early part of the 9th century. This curious and
interesting plan has been
-JU-JV
made the subject of a
memoir both by Keller
(Zurich, 1844) and by Pro-
fessor Robert Willis (Arch.
Journal, 1848, voL v. pp.
86-117. To th* ktter we
are indebted for the sub-
stance of the following de-
_j| __« - scription, as well as for the
E3 BH J^^ A ^^ plan, reduced from his
B2 Qg u^ Mfti elucidated transcript of the
e- «*. tr> .• w original preserved in the
A Na^et" Tch^cT^' arChiVC8 ° f ** COnVCnt
C. Corridor, with ceUs on each side. £* 8cncral t appearance of
D V sh n tt the convent is that of a
, town of isolated houses with
streets running between them. It is evidently planned in com-
pliance with the Benedictine rule, which enjoined that, if possible,
the monastery should contain within itself every necessary of life,
as well as the buildings more intimately connected with the
religious and social life of its inmates. It should comprise a mill,
a bakehouse, stables and cow-houses, together with accommoda-
tion for carrying on all necessary mechanical arts within the
•alls, so as to obviate the necessity of the monks going outside
its"
The general distribution of the buildings may be thus described^
The church, with its cloister to the south, occupies the centre of a
quadrangular area, about 430 feet square. The buildings, as in all
great monasteries, are distributed into groups. The church forms
the nucleus, as the centre of the religious life of the community,
la rin s e a t connexi o n with the church is the group of buildings
appropriated to the monastic life and its daily requirements— the
refe cto ry for eating, the dormitory for sleeping, the common room
(or social intercourse, the chapter-house for religious and disciplinary
conference. These essential elements of monastic life are ranged
about a dossier court, surrounded by a covered arcade, affording
communicatio n sheltered from the elements between the various
buildings The infirmary for nick monks, with the physician's house
tad physic garden, lies to the east. In the same group with the in-
irassryb the school for the novices. The outer school, with its head-
a wster 's hou s e a g a in st the opposite wall of the church, stands outside
the convene enclosure, in dose proximity to the abbot's house, that
be aught have a constant eye over them. The buildings devoted to
hospitality are divided into three groups,— one for the reception of
onejagunsVed guests, another for monks visiting the monastery, a
third lor poor travellers and pilgrims. The first and third are placed
ia the right and left of the common entrance of the monastery, — the
aaspitnun for distinguished guests being placed on the north side of
the church, not far from the abbot's house: that for the poor on the
awth side neat to the farm buildings. The monks are lodged in a
p«-lwwe«buih against the north waD c4 die church. The group of
bu i ld i ngs c o nne cted with the material wants of the establishment is
I to the south and west of the church, and is distinctly separated
he mon a stic buildings. The kitchen, buttery and offices are
I by a passage from the west end of the refectory, and are con-
sorted with the bakehouse and brewhouse, which are placed still
iarther away. The whole of the southern and western sides is devoted
to wor kshops, stables and farm-buildings. The buildings, with some
meptiun a. teem to have been of one story only, and all but the
church were probably erected of wood. The whole includes thirty-
three separate Mocks. The church (D) is cruciform, with a nave of
sine bays, and a senucircular apse at other extremity. That to the
- b surrounded by a semicircular colonnade, leaving an open
adsse " (£) b etw e en it and the wall of the church. The whole
placed t
bom in
area is divided by screens into various chapels. The high altar (A)
stands immediately to the east of the transept, or ritual choir; the
altar of St Paul (B) in the eastern, and that of St Peter (C) in the
western apse. A cylindrical campanile stands detached from the
church on either side of the western apse (FF).
The " cloister court " (G) on the south side of the nave of the
. H ®HB
Fig. 3.— Ground-plan of St Gall.
Church. U. House for blood-letting.
A. High altar. V. School.
B. Altar of St Paul W. Schoolmaster's lodgings.
C Altar of St Peter. XtX|. Guest-house for those o(
D. Nave. superior rank.
E. Paradise. X»X|. Guest-house for the poor.
FF. Towers. Y. Guest-chamber for strange
Monastic Buildings.
G. Cloister.
H. Calefactory, with dormitory
over.
I. N<
Abbot's house.
Refectory.
Kitchen.
Bakehouse and brewhouse.
Cellar.
Parlour. (over.
Scriptorium with library
Sacristy and vestry.
House of Novices — 1 .chapel;
a. refectory; 3. calefac-
tory: 4. dormitory; 5.
master's room; 6. cham-
bers.
Infirmary — 1-6 as above in
the house of novices.
Doctor's house.
Physic garden.
Menial Department.
Z. Factory.
a. Threshing-floor.
b. Workshops.
c,c. Mills.
: Stables.
/. Cow-sheds.
t Goat-sheds.
Pig-sties, t. Sheep-folds.
«, a, k. Servants' and workmen's
sleeping-chambers.
/. Gardener s house.
m, m. Hen and duck house.
n. Poultry-keeper's house.
o. Garden.
p. Cemetery. (bread.
q. Bakehouse for sacramental
r. Unnamed in plan,
s, s, s. Kitchens.
1./,/. Baths.
S.
T.
church has on its east side the " pisslis " or " calefactory " (H). the
common sitting-room of the brethren, warmed by flues beneath the
floor. On this side in later monasteries we invariably find the chapter-
house, the absence of which in this plan is somewhat surprising. It
appears, however, from the inscriptions on the plan itself, that the
north walk of the cloisters served for the purposes of a chapter-house,
and was fitted up with benches on the long sides. Above the calefac-
tory is the " dormitory " opening into the south transept of the
church, to enable the monks to attend the nocturnal services with
14
ABBEY
readiness. A passageat the other end leads to the "necessarium (I),
a portion of the monastic buildings always planned with extreme
care. The southern side is occupied by the ,r refectory " (K), from
the west end of which by a vestibule the kitchen (L) is reached. This
is separated from the main buildings of the monastery, and is con-
nected by a long passage with a building containing the bakehouse and
brewhouse (M), and the sleeping-rooms of the servants. The upper
story of the refectory is the " veatiarium," where the ordinary clothes
of the brethren were kept. On the western side of the cloister is an-
other two-story building (N). The cellar is below, and the larder and
store-roontabove. Between this building and the church, opening by
one door into the cloisters, and by another to the outer part of the
monastery area, is the " parlour " for interviews with visitors from
the external world (O). On the eastern side of the north transept is
the " scriptorium " or writing-room (Pi), with the library above.
To the east of the church stands a group of buildings comprising
two miniature conventual establishments, each complete in itself.
Each has a covered cloister surrounded by the usual buildings, %a.
refectory, dormitory, &c, and a church or chapel on one side, placed
back to back. A detached building belonging to each contains a bath
and a kitchen. One of these diminutive convents is appropriated to
the " oblati " or novices (Q), the other to the sick monks aa an
" infirmary " (R). *
The " residence of the physicians " (S) stands contiguous to the
infirmary, and the physic garden (T) at the north-east corner of the
monastery. Besides other rooms, it contains a drug store, and a
chamber lor those who are dangerously ill. The " house for blood-
letting and purging " adjoins it on the west (U).
The " outer school," to the north of the convent area, contains a
large schoolroom divided across the middle by a screen or partition,
and surrounded by fourteen little rooms, termed the dwellings of the
scholars. The head master's house ( W) is opposite, built against the
side wall of the church. The two " hospitia or " guest-houses " for
the entertainment of strangers of different degrees (Xi Xi) comprise
a large common chamber or refectory in the centre, surrounded by
sleeping-apartments. Each is provided with its own brewhouse and
bakehouse, and that for travellers of a superior order has a kitchen
and storeroom, with bedrooms for their servants and stables for their
horses. There is also an " hospitium " for strange monks, abutting
on the north wall of the church (Y).
Beyond the cloister, at the extreme verge of the convent area to
the south, stands the " factory " (Z), containing workshops for shoe-
makers, saddlers (or shoemakers, sellarii), cutlers and grinders,
trencher-makers, tanners, curriers, fullers, smiths and goldsmiths,
with their dwellings in the rear. On this side we also find the farm-
buildings, the Urge granary and threshing-floor (a), mills (c) t malt-
house (d). Facing the west are the stables (e), ox-sheds If), goat-
stables (x). piggeries (A), sheep-folds (i), together with the servants'
and labourers quarters (*). At the south-east corner we find the hen
and duck house, and poultry-yard (m), and the dwelling of the
keeper («). Hard by is the kitchen garden (o). the beds bearing the
names of the vegetables growing in them, onions, garlic, celery,
lettuces, poppy, carrots, cabbages. Ac, eighteen in all. In the same
way the physic garden presents the names of the medicinal herbs,
and the cemetery (p) those of the trees, apple, pear, plum, quince,
&c, planted there.
A curious bird's-eye view of Canterbury Cathedral and its an-
nexed conventual buildings, taken about 1 165, is preserved in the
Great Psalter in the library of Trinity College, Cam-
bridge. As elucidated by Professor Willis, 1 it exhibits
the plan of a great Benedictine monastery in the 12th
century, and enables us to compare it with that of the
oth as seen at St Call. We see in both the same general principles
of arrangement, which indeed belong to all Benedictine monas-
teries, enabling us to determine with precision the disposition of
the various buildings, when little more than fragments of the
walls exist. From some local reasons, however, the cloister and
monastic buildings are placed on the north, instead, as is far more
commonly the case, on the south of the church. There is also a
separate chapter-house, which is wanting at St Gall.
The buildings at Canterbury, as at St Gall, form separate
groups. The church forms the nucleus. In immediate contact
with this, on the north side, lie the cloister and the group of
buildings devoted to the monastic life. Outside of these, to the
west and east, are the " halls and chambers devoted to the
exercise of hospitality, with which every monastery was pro-
vided, for the purpose of receiving as guests persons who visited
it, whether clergy or laity, travellers, pilgrims or paupers." To
the north a large open court divides the monastic from the menial
buildings, intentionally placed as remote as possible from the
1 The Architectural History of the Conventual Buildings of the
Monastery of Christ Church in Canterbury. By the Rev. Robert Willis.
Printed for the Kent Archaeological Society, 1869.
conventual buildings proper, the stables, granaries, barn, bake-
house, brewhouse, laundries, &c, inhabited by the lay servants of
the establishment. At the greatest possible distance from the
church, beyond the precinct of the convent, is the eleemosynary
department The almonry for the relief of the poor, with a great
hall annexed, forms the paupers' hospitium.
The most important group of buildings is naturally that de-
voted to monastic life. This includes two cloisters, the great
cloister surrounded by the buildings essentially connected with
the daily life of the monks,— the church to the south, the refectory
or frater-house here as always on the side opposite to the church,
and farthest removed from it, that no sound or smell of eating
might penetrate its sacred precincts, to the east the dormitory,
raised on a vaulted undercroft, and the chapter-house adjacent,
and the lodgings of the cellarer to the west. To this officer was
committed the provision of the monks' daily food, as well as that
of the guests. He was, therefore, appropriately lodged in the
immediate vicinity of the refectory and kitchen, and dose to the
guest-hall. A passage under the dormitory leads eastwards to the
smaller or infirmary cloister, appropriated to the sick and infirm
monks. Eastward of this cloister extend the hall and chapel of
the infirmary, resembling in form and arrangement the nave and
chancel of an aisled church. Beneath the dormitory, looking out
into the green court or herbarium, lies the " pisalis " or " cale-
factory," the common room of the monks. At its north-east
corner access was given from the dormitory to the necessarium, a
portentous edifice in the form of a Norman hall, 145 ft. long by
25 broad, containing fifty-five seats. It was, in common with all
such offices in ancient monasteries, constructed with the most
careful regard to cleanliness and health, a stream of water running
through it from end to end. A second smaller dormitory runs
from east to west for the accommodation of the conventual
officers, who were bound to sleep in the dormitory. Close to the
refectory, but outside the cloisters, are the domestic offices con-
nected with it: to the north, the kitchen, 47 ft. square, sur-
mounted by a lofty pyramidal roof, and the kitchen court; to
the west, the butteries, pantries, &c. The infirmary had a small
kitchen of its own*, Opposite the refectory door in the cloister are
two lavatories, an invariable adjunct to a monastic dining-hall,
at which the monks washed before and after taking food.
The buildings devoted to hospitality were divided into three
groups. The prior's group " entered at the south-east angle of
the green court, placed near the most sacred part of the cathedral,
as befitting the distinguished ecclesiastics or nobility who were
assigned to him." The cellarer's buildings were near the west end
of the nave, in which ordinary visitors of the middle class were
hospitably entertained. The inferior pilgrims and paupers were
relegated to the north hall or almonry, just within the gate, as
far as possible from the other two.
Westminster Abbey b another example of a great Benedictine
abbey, identical in its general arrangements, so far as they can be
traced, with those described above. The cloister and
monastic buildings lie to the south side of the church. mSaor
Parallel to the nave, on the south side of the cloister, a** v.
was the refectory, with its lavatory at the door. On the
eastern side we find the remains of the dormitory, raised on a
vaulted substructure and communicating with the south transept
The chapter-house opens out of the same alley of the cloister. The
small cloister lies to the south-east of the larger cloister, and still
farther to the east wc have the remains of the infirmary with the
table hall, the refectory of those who were able to leave their
chambers. The abbot's house formed a small courtyard at the
west entrance, close to the inner gateway. Considerable portions
of this remain, including the abbot's parlour, celebrated as " the
Jerusalem Chamber," his hall, now used for the Westminster
King's Scholars, and the kitchen and butteries beyond
St Mary's Abbey, York, of which the ground-plan is annexed,
exhibits the usual Benedictine arrangements. The precincts
are surrounded by a strong fortified wall on three Y oen»
sides, the river Ouse being sufficient protection on the
fourth side. The entrance was by a strong gateway (U) to the
north. Close to the entrance was a chapel, where is now the
ABBEY
*5
church of St Oiaf (W), in which the new-comers paid their devo-
tions imnediately on their arrival. Near the gate to the south
■as the sues t- hail or hospitium (T). The buildings are com-
pletely runed, but enough remains to enable us to identify the
grand cruciform church (A), the cloister-court with the chapter-
house (B) the refectory (I), the kitchen-court with its offices
(K, O, O) and the other principal apartments. The infirmary
has perished completely.
Some Benedictine houses display exceptional arrangements,
dependent upon local circumstances, e.g. the dormitory of
Worcester runs from east to west, from the west walk of the
doister, aad that of Durham is built over the west, instead of
Fig. 4.
St Mary's Abbey, York (Benedictine).
A Church.
B. Chapter -house.
C. Vestibule to ditto.
E. Library or scriptorium.
F. Calefactory.
C Necessary.
H. Parlour.
L Refectory.
K. Great kitchen and court.
L Ceflarer's office.
at Cellars.
N. Passage toe
,— Churton's Monastic Ruins.
Offices,
Cellars.
Uncertain.
Passage to abbot's house.
Passage to common house.
Hospitium.
Great gat<
Porter's lodge.
Church of St Olaf.
Tower.
Entrance from Bootham.
as usual, over the east walk; but, as a general rule, the arrange-
ments deduced from the examples described may be regarded
as invariable.
The history of monasticism is one of alternate periods of decay
asd revival With growth in popular esteem came increase in
material wealth, leading to luxury and worldliness. The first
rehgkms ardour cooled, the strictness of the rule was relaxed,
aatu by the 10th century the decay of discipline was so complete
in France that the monks are said to have been frequently un-
acquainted with the rule of St Benedict, and even ignorant that
they were bound by any rule at all. The reformation of abuses
generally took the form of the establishment of new monastic
orders, with new and more stringent rules, requiring a modifica-
tion of the architectural arrangements. One of the earliest of
these reformed orders was the Cluniac. This order took its
name from the little village of Cluny, 12 miles N.W. of Mlcon,
near which, about a.d. 009, a reformed Benedictine cassy.
abbey was founded by William, duke of Aquitaine
and count of Auvergne, under Berno, abbot of Beaume. He was
succeeded by Odo, who is often regarded as the founder of the
order. The fame of Cluny .spread far and wide. Its rigid rule
was adopted by a vast number of the old Benedictine abbeys,
who placed themselves in affiliation to the mother society, while
new foundations sprang up in large numbers, all owing allegiance
to the " archabbot," established at Cluny. By the end of the
1 ath century the number of monasteries affiliated to Cluny in
the various countries of western Europe amounted to 2000.
The monastic establishment of Cluny was one of the most
extensive and magnificent in France. We may form some idea
of its enormous dimensions from the fact recorded, that when,
a,d. 1245, Pope Innocent IV., accompanied by twelve cardinals,
Fie. 5.— Abbey of Cluny, from Viollet-le-Duc.
A. Gateway. F. Tomb of St Hugh. M. Bakehouse.
B. Narthex. G. Nave. N. Abbey buildings.
C Choir. H. Cloister. O. Garden.
D. High-altar. K. Abbot's house. P. Refectory.
E. Retro-altar. L. Guest-house.
a patriarch, three archbishops, the two generals of the Carthu-
sians and Cistercians, the king (St Louis), and three of bis sons,
the queen mother, Baldwin, count of Flanders and emperor of
Constantinople, the duke of Burgundy, and six lords, visited the
abbey, the whole party, with their attendants, were lodged within
the monastery without disarranging the monks, 400 in number.
Nearly the whole of the abbey buildings, including the magnificent
church, were swept away at the close of the 18th century. When
the annexed ground-plan was taken, shortly before its destruc-
tion, nearly all the monastery, with the exception of the church,
had been rebuilt.
The church, the ground-plan of which bears a remarkable resem-
blance to that of Lincoln Cathedral, was of vast dimensions. It was
656 ft. by 130 ft. wide. The nave was 102 ft. and the aisles 60
ft. high. The nave (G) had double vaulted aisles on either side.
Like Lincoln, it had an eastern as Well as a western transept, each
furnished with apsidal chapels to the east. The western transept
was 213 ft. long, and the eastern 123 ft. The choir terminated
in a semicircular apse (F), surrounded by five chapels, also semi-
circular. The western entrance was approached by an ante-church,
or narthex (B), itself an aisled church of no mean dimensions, Banked
by two towers, rising from a stately flight of steps bearing a large
stone cross. To the south of the church lay the cloister-court (H), of
immense size, placed much farther to the west than is usually the
i6
ABBEY
case. On the south aide of the cloister stood the refectory (P). an
immense building, 100 ft- long and 60 ft- wide, accommodating
six longitudinal and three transverse rows of tables. It was adorned
with the portraits of the chief benefactors of the abbey, and with
Scriptural subjects. The end wall displayed the Last Judgment. We
are unhappily unable to identify any other of the principal buildings
(N). The abbot's residence (K). still partly standing, adjoined the
entrance-gate. The guest-house (L) was dose by. The bakehouse
(M), also remaining, is a detached building of *' —
The first English bouse of the Cluniac order was that of Lewes,
founded by the earl of Warren, c. a.d. 1077. Of this only a few
~ mk fragments of the domestic buildings exist The best
fS ^r preserved Cluniac houses in England are Castle Acre,
Norfolk, and Wenlock, Shropshire. Ground-plans
of both are given in Britton's Architectural Antiquities. They
show several departures from the Benedictine arrangement.
In each the prior's house is remarkably perfect. All Cluniac
bouses in England were French colonies, governed by priors
of that nation. They did not secure their independence nor
become " abbeys " till the reign of Henry VI. The Cluniac
revival, with all its brilliancy, was but short-lived. The celeb-
rity of this, as of other orders, worked its moral ruin. With
their growth in wealth and dignity the Cluniac foundations
became as worldly in life and as relaxed in discipline as their
predecessors, and a fresh reform was needed.
The next great monastic revival, the Cistercian, arising in
the last years of the nth century, had a wider diffusion, and a
nrtfrl4mm longer and more honourable existence. Owing its real
origin, as a distinct foundation of reformed Benedic-
tines, in the year 1098, to Stephen Harding (a native of Dorset-
shire, educated in the monastery of Sherborne), and deriving its
name from Clteaux (Cistercium), a desolate and almost inacces-
sible forest solitude, on the borders of Champagne and Bur-
gundy, the rapid growth and wide celebrity of the order are
undoubtedly to be attributed to the enthusiastic piety of St
Bernard, abbot of the first of the monastic colonies, subsequently
sent forth in such quick succession by the first Cistercian houses,
the far-famed abbey of Clairvaux (de Clara Valle), aj>. 1116
The rigid self-abnegation, which was the ruling principle of this
reformed congregation of the Benedictine order, extended itself
to the churches and other buildings erected by them. The
characteristic of the Cistercian abbeys was the extremest sim-
plicity and a studied plainness. Only one tower— a central one
—was permitted, and that was to be very low. Unnecessary
pinnacles and turrets were prohibited. The triforium was
omitted. The windows were to be plain and undivided, and it
was forbidden to decorate them with stained glass. All needless
ornament was proscribed. The crosses must be of wood; the
candlesticks of iron. The renunciation of the world was to be
evidenced in all that met the eye. The same spirit manifested
itself in the choice of the sites of their monasteries. The more
dismal, the more savage, the more hopeless a spot appeared,
the more did it please their rigid mood. But they came not
merely as ascetics, but as improvers. The Cistercian monas-
teries are, as a rule, found placed in deep well-watered valleys.
They always stand on the border of a stream; not rarely, as at
Fountains, the buildings extend over it. These valleys, now so
rich and productive, wore a very different aspect when the
brethren first chose them as the place of their retirement. Wide
swamps, deep morasses, tangled thickets, wild impassable
forests, were their prevailing features. The " bright valley,"
Clara VaUis of St Bernard, was known as the " valley of Worm-
wood," infamous as a den of robbers. " It was a savage dreary
solitude, so utterly barren that at first Bernard and his com-
panions were reduced to live on beech leaves." — (Milman's Lai.
Christ, vol. iii. p. 335.)
All Cistercian monasteries, unless the circumstances of the
locality forbade it, were arranged according to one plan. The
CtMkvauM. gener*! arrangement and distribution of the various
buildings, which went to make up one of these vast
establishments, may be gathered from that of St Bernard's own
abbey of Clairvaux, which is here given. It will be observed
that the abbey precincts are surrounded by a strong wall, fur-
nished at interval* with watch- towers and other defensive works.
The wall is nearly encircled by a stream of water , utifidally
diverted Irora the smalt rivulets which flow through the precincts,
furnishing the esLtblishaitni with an abundant supply in every
part, for the irrigation of the gardens and orchards, the sanitary
requirements at the brotherhood and for the use of the offices
and workshops.
The precincts are divided across the centre fay a wall, running from
N. to 5.. into an outer and inner ward, — the former containing
the menial, the lam*r the monutic buildings The prceincts are
entered by a gateway (P)„ at the extreme vntcrn enre mil y, giving
admi&aion to the lower ward. Here the bams, granaries, scabies*
shambles, workshop* and workmen'] lodging! were placed, without
any regard to symmetry, convenience being the only consideration.
* 'vancing eastwards, wrj have before us the wall separating the
FeG, 6. — Clairvaux, No. t (Ci»tcrciafl) f Genera! Plan.
[. Wine-press and
hay-chamber*
K, Parlour,
L, Workshops and
workmen's lodg-
ings.
M. Sla Lighter- house.
N. JJamsand stable*.
O- Public 1
P» Gateway.
R. Remains of old
monastery.
S. Oratory.
V. Tik-worfcs.
X. Tite-kUn.
V. Watercourses.
A- Cloisters.
Bh Oven*, and corn
and oil mill 1.
C. Si Bernard's cell.
D. Chief entrance.
E. Tank* far fish.
Fr Guest-house.
G, Abbot 1 * house.
H. Stables,
outer and inner ward, and the gatehouse (D) affording communicav
uon between the two, On pairing through the gateway, the outer
court of the inner ward was entered, with the western facade of the
monastic church in i root* Immediacy on the right of entrance was
the abbot's houw (C), inclose promimity 10 iht guesthouse (F). On
the other side of the court wtrr thr sxabfei, for the accommodation
of the horse* of the guests and their attendant* (H>. The church
occupied a central noettftsft. To tbt south was the great cloister (A),
surrounded by the chief monaine buildings, and (an her to the east
the smaller cloister, opening out of which were ibt infirmary, novices
I'jijfiinps and quarters for the aged monks. Still farther to the east,
divided from the monastic buildingi by a wall, were the vegetable
gardens and orchard*, and Lank for Ash. The Urge fish' ponds, an
indispensable adjunct to any ecclesiantical foundation, on the for*
marion of which the monks lavished extreme care and pains, and
which olten remiin as almost the only visible traces of these vast
establish cneni* r here placed outside the abbey walls-
Plan No. 7 furnishes (he fchnography of the distinctly monastic
building* on a large* scale. The usually unvarying arrangement of
the Ci*ten:ian huu&e* allowi us to accept thitata type of the monas*
tenet of Uu» order: The churcJh (A) is the chief feature- It consists
ABBEY
17
of a watt save off eleven bam entered by a narthex, with a transept
sad short speidal essoin (It amy be remarked that the eastern Kmb
m aB aaatered Cistercian churches b remarkably short, and usually
•quart-) To the east of each limb of the transept are two square
chapes*, divided according to Cbtercbn rule by solid walls. Nine
cadbriag chapels, similarly divided, surround the apse. The stalb
of the ssooas, forming the ritual choir, occupy the four eastern bays
of the save There was a second range of stalb in the extreme
western bays of the nave for the fratru conmrsi, or by brothers. To
the sooth of the church, so as to secure as much sun as possible,
the cloister was invariably placed, except when local reasons forbade
k. Round the cloister (B) were ranged the buildings connected with
the Bsonks' daily life, the chapter-house (C) always opened out of
the east stale of the cloister in a line with the south transept. In
Fig. 7.— Clairvaux,
A. Church.
B. Cloister.
C Chapter-bouse.
D. Monks' parlour.
E. Calefactory.
F Kitchen and court.
G Refectory.
H. Cemetery.
I. Liftfecioi
K. Infirmary.
No. 2 (Cistercian). Monastic Buildings,
L. Lodgings of nov- S. Cellars and store-
ices.
M. Old guest-house.
N. Old abbot's lodg-
ings.
0. Cloister of super-
numerary
monks.
P. Abbot'shall.
Cell of St Bernard.
Stables.
ft
houses.
T. Water-course.
U. Saw-mill and oil-
mill.
V. Currier's work-
shop.
X. Sacristy.
Y. Little library.
Z. Undercroft of dor-
mitory.
Grtercba houses thb was quadrangular, and was divided by pillars
sad arches into two or three aisles. Between it and the transept we
find the sacristy (X). and a small book-room (Y), armariolum, where
the brothers deposited the volumes borrowed from the library. On
the other side of the chapter-house, to the south, b a passage (D)
communicating with the courts and buildings beyond. This was
wartimes known as the parlour. coUoquii locus, the monks having the
privilege of conversation here. Here also, when discipline became
reksed, traders, who had the liberty of admission, were allowed to
dwpby their goods. Beyond this we often find the caUfactorium or
1 apartment warmed by flues beneath the pavement.
thtpba before us thb apartment (E) opens from the south cloister
walk, adjoining the refectory. The place usually assigned to it b
sor^ibd by the vaulted substructure of the dormitory (Z). Tbc dormi-
tory, as a rub, was placed on the east side of the cloister, running
over the calefactory and chapter-house, and joined the south transept, -
where a flight of steps admitted the brethren into the church for
nocturnal services. Opening out of the dormitory was always the
noussarium, planned with the greatest regard to health and cleanli-
ness, a water-course invariably running from end to end. The re-
fectory opens out of the south cloister at G. The position of the
refectory is usually a marked point of difference between Benedictine
and Cbtercbn abbeys. In the former, as at Canterbury, the refec-
tory ran east and west parallel to the nave of the church, on the side
of the cloister farthest removed from it. In the Cistercian monas-
teries, to keep the noise and smell of dinner still farther away from
the sacred building, the refectory was built north and south, at right
angles to the axb of the church. It was often divided, sometimes
into two, sometimes, as here, into three abbs. Outside the refectory
door, in the cloister, was the laoatory, where the monks washed their
hands at dinner-time. The buildings belonging to the material life
of the monks by near the refectory, as far as possible from the church,
to the S.W. With a distinct entrance from the outer court was the
kitchen court (F). with its buttery, scullery and larder, and the im-
portant adjunct of a stream of running water. Farther to the west,
projecting beyond the line of the west front of the church, were vast
vaulted apartments (SS), serving as eclbrs and storehouses, above
which was the dormitory of the convcrsi. Detached from these, and
separated entirely from the monastic buildings, were various work-
shops, which convenience required to be banished to the outer pre-
cincts, a saw-mill and oil-mill (UU) turned by water, and a currier's
shop (V). where the sandab and leathern girdles of the monks were
made and repaired.
Returning to the cloister, a vaulted passage admitted to the small
cloister (I),~opening from the north side of which were eight small
cells, assigned to the scribes employed in copying works for the
library, which was pbced in the upper story, accessible by a turret
staircase. To the south of the small cloister a long hall will be noticed
This was a lecture-hall, or rather a hall for the religious disputations
customary among the Cistercians. From thb cloister opened the
infirmary (K), with its hall, chapel, cells, blood-letting house and
other dependencies. At the eastern verge of the vast group of build-
ings we find the novices' lodfings (L), with a third cloister near the
novices' quarters and the original guest-house (M). Detached from
the great mass of the monastic edifices was the original abbot's house
(N). with its dining-hall (P). Closely adjoining to this, so that the eye
of the father of the whole establishment should be constantly over
those who stood the most in need of his watchful care. — those who
were training for the monastic life, and those who had worn them-
selves out in its duties, — was a fourth cloister (O), with annexed
buildings, devoted to the aged and infirm members of the establish-
ment. The cemetery, the last resting-place of the brethren, by to
the north side of the nave of the church (H).
It will be seen from the above account that the arrangement
of a Cistercian monastery was in accordance with a clearly
defined system, and admirably adapted to its purpose. The base
court nearest to the outer wall contained the buildings belonging
to the functions of the body as agriculturists and employers of
labour. Advancing into the inner court, the buildings devoted
to hospitality are found close to the entrance; while those
connected with the supply of the material wants of the brethren,
— the kitchen, cellars, &c.,— form a court of themselves outside
the cloister and quite detached from the church. The church
refectory, dormitory and other buildings belonging to the pro-
fessional life of the brethren surround the great cloister. The
small cloister beyond, with its scribes' celb, library, hall for
deputations, &c, b the centre of the literary life of the com-
munity. The requirements of sickness and old age are carefully
provided for in the infirmary cloister and that for the aged and
infirm members of the establishment The same group contains
the quarters of the novices.
This stereotyped arrangement b further shown by the illus-
tration of the mother establishmet of Clteaux.
A cross (A), planted on the high road, directs travellers to the gate
of the monastery, reached by an avenue of trees. On one side 01 the
gate-house (B) is a long building (C), probably the almonry, ^^
with a dormitory above for the lower cbss of guests. On the * mwmmu
other side is a chapel(D). As soon as the porter heard a stranger knock
at the gate, he rose, saying, Deo rrolft&s.the opportunity for the exercise
of hospitality being regarded as a cause for thankfulness. On opening
the door he welcomed the new arrival with a blessing — Benedkite.
He fell on hb knees before him, and then went to inform the abbot.
However important the abbot's occupations might be, he at once
hastened to receive him whom heaven had sent. He also threw
himself at hb guest's feet, and conducted him to the chapel (D) pur-
posely built dose to the gate. After a short prayer, the abbot com-
mitted the guest to the care of the brother hospitaller, whose duty it
was to provide for hb wants and conduct the beast on which be
i8
ABBEY
might be riding to the stable (F), built adjacent to the inner gate-
house (E). This inner gate conducted into the base court (T), round
which were placed the barns, stables, cow-sheds, &c. On the eastern
side stood the dormitory of the lav brothers, fratres conversi (G),
detached from the cloister, with cellars and storehouses below. At
H, also outside the monastic buildings proper, was the abbot's
house, and annexed to it the guest-house. For these buildings there
was a separate door of entrance into the church (S). The large
cloister, with its surrounding arcades, is seen at V. On the south end
projects the refectory (K), with its kitchen at I, accessible from the
Base court. The long gabled building on the east side of the cloister
contained on the ground floor the chapter-house and calefactory,
with the monks' dormitory above (M), communicating with the south
transept of the church. At L was the staircase to the dormitory.
The small cloister is at W, where were the carols or cells of the
scrjbes, with the library (P) over, reached by a turret staircase. At
R we see a portion of the infirmary. The whole precinct is sur-
rounded by a strong buttressed wall (XXX), pierced with arches,
Fie. 8. — Bird's-eye view of Cttcaux.
A. Cross.
B. Gate-house.
C. Almonry.
D. Chapel.
E. Inner gate-house.
F. Stable.
G. Dormitory of lay
brethren.
H. Abbot's house.
I. Kitchen.
K. Refectory.
L. Staircase to dor*
mitory.
M. Dormitory.
N. Church.
P. Library.
R. Infirmary.
S. Doortothechurch
for the lay bro-
thers.
T. Base court.
V. Great cloister.
W. Small cloister.
X. Boundary wall.
through which streams of water are introduced. It will be noticed
that the choir of the church is short, and has a square end instead of
the usual apse. The tower, in accordance with the Cistercian rule,
is very low. The windows throughout accord with the studied
simplicity of the order.
The English Cistercian houses, of which there are such ex-
tensive and beautiful remains at Fountains, Ricvaulx, Kirkstall,
Tin tern, Nctlcy, &c, were mainly arranged after the same plan,
with slight local variations. As an example, wc give the ground-
*u +-mn Pi* °f Kirkstall Abbey, which is one of the best pre-
AiSyT «erved. The church here is of the Cistercian type,
with a short chancel of two squares, and transepts
with three eastward chapels to each, divided by solid walls
(2 2 2). The whole is of the most studied plainness. The
windows are unornamented, and the nave has no triforium.
The cloister to the south (4) occupies the whole length of the
nave. On the east side stands the two-aisled chapter-house (5),
between which and the south transept is a small sacristy (3),
and on the other aide two small apartments, one of which was
probably the parlour (6). Beyond this stretches southward the
calefactory or day-room of the monks (14). Above this whole
range of building runs the monks' dormitory, opening by stairs
into the south transept of the church. At the other end were the
necessaries. On the south side of the cloister we have the re-
mains of the old refectory (11), running, as in Benedictine
houses, from east to west, and the new refectory (12), which,
with the increase of the inmates of the house, superseded it,
stretching, as is usual in Cistercian houses, from north to south.
Adjacent to this apartment are the remains of the kitchen,
pantry and buttery. The arches of the lavatory are to be seen
near the refectory entrance. The western side of the cloister is,
as usual, occupied by vaulted cellars, supporting on the upper
story the dormitory of the lay brothers (8). Extending from the
Fio. 9.— Kirkstall Abbey, Yorkshire (Cistercian).
Church.
Chapels.
Sacnsty.
Cloister.
Chapter-house.
Parlour.
Punishment cell (?).
Cellars, with dormitories for
conversi over*.
Guest-house.
10. Common room.
11. Old refectory.
12. New refectory.
13. Kitchen court.
14. Calefactory or day-room.
15. Kitchen and offices.
16-19. Uncertain ; perhapsoOices
connected with the in-
firmary.
3a Infirmary or abbot's house.
south-east angle of the main group of buildings are the waHs and
foundations of a secondary group of considerable extent. These
have been identified either with the hospitium or with the
abbot's house, but they occupy the position in which the infir-
mary is more usually found. The hall was a very spacious apart-
ment, measuring 83 ft. in length by 48 ft 9 in. in breadth,
and was divided by two rows of columns. The fish-ponds lay
between the monastery and the river to the south. The abbey
mill was situated about 80 yards to the north-west The mill-
pool may be distinctly traced, together with the gowt or null
stream.
Fountains Abbey, first founded aj>. 1132, is one of the largest
and best preserved Cistercian houses in England. But the
earlier buildings received considerable additions and ah>
alterations in the later period of the order, causing 4**^.
deviations from the strict Cisterdan type. The church
stands a short distance to the north of the river Skell, the
ABBEY
«9
buMags of the abbey stretching down to and even across the
stream. We have the cloister (H) to the south, with the three-
aiskd chapter-house (I) and calefactory (L) opening from its
csstern walk, and the refectory (S), with the kitchen (Q) and
battery (T) attached, at right angles to its southern walk.
If /~n-«
MJ+l±***tt ********** 1 * \\
^ 'ti;2 :
FlCw ia— Ground-plan of Fountains Abbey, Yorkshire.
A. Naweof tbecburch. N-
B. Transept
CCkapefcT
a Tower.
E. Sacristy.
F. Ch«r.
a Chapel of sua
akara.
H. Cloister.
1- Ckapter-hoase.
K. Beat court.
L Calefactory.
ItWaf
O.
P.
ft
&
T.
U.
V.
W.
X.
Y.
Cellar.
Brewbouse.
Prisons.
Kitchen.
Office*.
Refectory.
Buttery.
Cellars and store-
houses.
Necessary.
Infirmary (?).
Guest-houses.
Mill bridge.
Z. Gate-house.
Abbot's House.
I. Passage,
a. Great hall.
3. Refectory.
4. Buttery.
5. Storehouse.
& Chapel.
7. Kitchen.
8. Ashpit.
9. Yard.
la Kitchen tank
Parallel with the western walk is an immense vaulted sub-
structure (U). incorrectly styled the cloisters, serving as cellars
*nd store-rooms, and supporting the dormitory of the amversi
above. This building extended across the river. At its S.W.
comer were the necessaries (V), also built, as usual, above the
swiftly flowing stream. The monks' dormitory was in its usual
position above the chapter-house, to the south of the transept
As peculiarities of arrangement may be noticed the position of
the kitchen (Q), between the refectory and calefactory, and of
the infirmary (W) (unless there is some error in its designation)
above the river to the west, adjoining the guest-houses (XX).
We may also call attention to the greatly lengthened choir,
commenced by Abbot John of York, 1203-1 an, and carried on
by his successor, terminating, like Durham Cathedral, in an
eastern transept, the work of Abbot John of Kent, 1220-1247,
and to the tower (D), added not long before the dissolution by
Abbot Huby, 1404-1526, in a very unusual position at the north-
ern end of the north transept. The abbot's house, the largest and
most remarkable example of this class of buildings in the king-
dom, stands south to the east of the church and cloister, from
which it is divided by the kitchen court (K), surrounded by the
ordinary domestic offices. A considerable portion of this house
was erected on arches over the Skell. The size and character of
this house, probably r at the time of its erection, the most spacious
house of a subject in the kingdom, not a castle, bespeaks the
wide departure of the Cistercian order from the stern simplicity
of the original foundation. The hall (2) was one of the most
spacious and magnificent apartments in medieval times, measur-
ing 170 ft by 70 ft Like the hall in the castle at Winchester,
and Westminster Hall, as originally built, it was divided by 18
pillars and arches, with 3 aisles. Among other apartments, for
the designation of which we must refer to the ground-plan, was
a domestic oratory or chapel, 46J ft by 23 ft and a kitchen
(7). 50 ft- by 38 ft. The whole arrangements and character of
the building bespeak the rich and powerful feudal lord, not the
humble father of a body of hard-working brethren, bound by
vows to a life of poverty and self-denying tofl. In the words of
Dean Mil man, " the superior, once a man bowed to the earth
with humility, care-worn, pale, emaciated, with a coarse habit
bound with a cord, with naked feet, had become an abbot on
his curvetting palfrey, in rich attire, with his silver cross before
him, travelling to take his place amid the lordliest of the realm."
— (Lot. Christ, vol. iii. p. 330.)
The buildings of the Austin canons or Black canons (so called
from the colour of their habit) present few distinctive peculiari-
ties. This order had its first seat in England at Col-
chester, where a house for Austin canons was founded
about a.d. 1 105, and it very soon spread widely. As
an order of regular clergy, holding a middle position between
monks and secular canons, almost resembling a community of
parish priests living under rule, they adopted naves of great
length to accommodate large congregations. The choir is
usually long, and is sometimes, as at Llanthony and Christ
Church (Twynham), shut off from the aisles, or, as at Bolton,
Kirkham, &c, is destitute of aisles altogether. The nave in the
northern bouses, not ^infrequently, had only a north aisle, as at
Bolton, Brinkburn and Lanercost The arrangement of the
monastic -buildings followed the ordinary type. The prior's
lodge was almost invariably attached to the S.W. angle of
the nave. The annexed plan of the Abbey of St
Augustine's at Bristol, now the cathedra) church of '
that city, shows the arrangement of the buildings,
which departs very little from the ordinary Benedictine type.
The Austin canons' house at Thornton, in Lincolnshire, is re-
markable for the size and magnificence of its gate-house, the
upper floors of which formed the guest-house of the establish-
ment, and for possessing an octagonal chapter-house of Decorated
date.
The Premonstratensian regular canons, or White canons, had
as many as 3 s houses in England, of which the most perfect
remainin&are those of Easby, Yorkshire, and Bayham,
Kent. The head house of the order in England was
Welbeck. This order was a reformed branch of the
Austin canons, founded, a.d. 1119, by Norbert (born
at Xanten, on the Lower Rhine, c. 1080) at Premontre", a
secluded marshy, valley in the forest of Coucy in the diocese
of Laon. The order spread widely. Even in the founder's
lifetime it possessed houses in Syria and Palestine. It long
20
ABBEY
maintained its rigid austerity, till in the course of years wealth
impaired its discipline, and its members sank into indolence
and luxury. The Premonstratensians were brought to England
shortly after a.d. 1140, and were first settled at Newhouse, in
Lincolnshire, near the Humbcr. The ground-plan of Easby
Abbey, owing to its situation on the edge of the steeply sloping
banks of a river, is singularly irregular. The cloister is duly
placed on the south side of the church, and the chief buildings
occupy their usual positions round it. But the cloister garth, as
at Chichester, is not rectangular, and all the surrounding build-
ings are thus made to sprawl in a very awkward fashion. The
church follows the plan adopted by the Austin canons in their
northern abbeys, and has only one aisle to the nave— that to the
north; while the choir is long, narrow and aisleless. Each tran-
sept has an aisle to the east, forming three chapels.
The church at Bayham was destitute of aisles either to nave
or choir. The latter terminated in a three-sided apse. This
church is remarkable for its exceeding narrowness in proportion
to its length. Extending in longitudinal dimensions 257 ft., it is
A. Church.
B. Great cloister.
C. Little cloister.
D. Chapter-house.
E. Calefactory.
F. Refectory.
C. Parlour.
H. Kitchen.
I. Kitchen court.
K. Cellars.
L. Abbot's hall.
P. Abbot's gateway.
R. Infirmary.
S. Friars' lodging.
T. King's hall.
V. Guest-house.
W. Abbey gateway.
X. Barns, stables, Ac
Y. Lavatory.
not more than 25 ft broad. Stern Prtmonstratensian canons
wanted ho congregations, and cared for no possessions; there-
fore they built thein church like a long room.
The Carthusian, order, on its establishment by St Bruno,
about A.D. 1084, developed a greatly modified form and arrange-
ment of a monastic institution. The principle of this
order, which combined the coenobitic with the solitary
life, demanded the. erection of buildings on a novel
plan. This plan, which was first adopted by St Bruno and his
twelve companions at the original institution at Chartreux,
near Grenoble, was maintained in all the Carthusian establish-
ments throughout Europe, even after the ascetic severity of the
order had been to some extent relaxed, and the primitive sim-
plicity of their buildings had been exchanged for the magnifi-
cence of decoration which characterizes such foundations as the
Cerlosas of Pavia and Florence. According to the rule of St
Bruno, all the members of a Carthusian brotherhood lived in
the most absolute solitude and silence. Each occupied a small
detached cottage, standing'by itself in a small garden surrounded
by high walls and connected by a common corridor or cloister.
In these cottages or cells a Carthusian monk passed his time in
the strictest asceticism, only leaving his solitary dwelling to
attend the services of the Church, except on certain days when
the brotherhood assembled in the refectory. The peculiarity of
the arrangements of a Carthusian monastery, or charter-house,
as it was called in England, from a corruption of the French
chartreux, is exhibited in the plan of that of Clermont, from
Viollet-le-Duc.
The whole establishment is surrounded by a wall, furnished at in-
tervals with watch towers(R). Theenclosureisdiyidedintotwocourts,
of which the eastern court, surrounded by a cloister, from
which the cottages of themonks (I ) open, is much the larger.
The two cou/ts are divided by the main buildings of the monastery.
■gnUJjfS
including the church, the sanctuary f A), divided from B, the monies
choir, by a screen with two altars, the smaller cloister to the south
(S) surrounded by the chapter-house (E), the refectory (X) — these
buildings occupying their normal position — and the chapel of
Pontgibaud (K). The kitchen with its offices (V) lies behind the re-
fectory, accessible from the outer court without entering the cloister.
To the north of the church, beyond the sacristy (L), and the. side
chapels (M), we find the cell of the sub-prior (a), with its garden. The
lodgings of the prior (G) occupy the centre of the outer court, im-
mediately in front of the west door of the church, and face the rate-
way of the convent (O). A small raised court with a fountain (C) is
before it. This outer court also contains the guest-chambers (P), the
stables and lodgings of the lay brothers (N), the barns and granaries
'"), the dovecot (H) and the bakehouse (T). At Z is the prison.
1 this outer court, in all the earlier foundations, as at Witham,
ire was a smaller church in addition to the larger church of the
monks.) The outer and inner courts are connected oy a long passage
• (F), wide enough to admit a cart laden with wood to supply the cells
of the brethren with fuel. The number of cells surrounding the great
A. Church.
B. Monks' choir.
C. Prior's garden.
D. Great cloister.
E. Chapter-house.
F. Passage.
G. Prior's lodg-
ings.
H. Dovecot.
I. Cells.
K. Chapel of Pont-
gibaud.
L. Sacristy.
M. Chapel.
N. Stables.
O. Gateway.
P. Guest-cham-
bers.
Q. Barns and
granaries.
R. Watch-tower.
S. Little cloister.
T. Bakehouse.
V. Kitchen.
X. Refectory.
Y. Cemetery.
Z. Prison. '
o. Cell of sub-
prior.
b. Garden of do.
Fie. 12.— Carthusian. monastery of Clermont.
cloister is 18. They are all arranged on a uniform plan. Each little
dwelling contains three rooms:, a sitting-room (C), warmed by a
stove in winter; a sleeping-room (D), furnished with a bed, a table,
a bench, and a bookcase ; and a closet (E). Between the cell and
the cloister gallery (A) is a passage or corridor (B), cutting off the
inmate of the cell from all sound or movement which might interrupt
his meditations. The superior had free access to this corridor, and
through open niches was able to inspect the garden without being
seen. At I is the hatch or turn-table, in* which the daily allowance
of food was deposited by a brother appointed for that purpose,
affording no view either inwards or outwards. H is the garden,
cultivated by the occupant of the cell. At K is the wood-house.
F is a covered walk, with the necessary at the end.
The above arrangements are found with scarcely any varia-
tion in all the charter-houses of western Europe. The Yorkshire
Charter-house of Mount Grace, founded by Thomas Holland,
the young duke of Surrey, nephew of Richard IL And marshal
of England, during the revival of the popularity of the order,
about A.D. 1397, is the most perfect and best preserved English
example. It is characterized by all the simplicity of the order.
The church is a modest building, long, narrow and aisleless.
Within the wall of enclosure are two courts. The smaller of the
two, the south, presents the usual arrangement of church, re-
fectory, &&, opening out of a cloister. The buildings are plain
and solid. The northern court contains the cells, 14 in number.
It is surrounded by a double stone wall, the two walls being
about 30 ft or 40 ft apart. Between these, each in its own
ABBEY
21
gardes, stand the crib; low-built two-storied cottages, of two
or three rooms on toe ground-Boor, lighted by a larger and a
smaller window to the side, and provided with a doorway to
the court, and one at the back, opposite to one in the outer wall,
through which the monk may have conveyed the sweepings of
his cell and the refuse of his garden to the " eremus " beyond.
By the side of the door to the court is a little hatch through
which the dairy pittance of food was supplied, so contrived by
turning at an ingle in the wall that no one could either look in
or took out. A very perfect example of this hatch— an arrange-
ment belonging to all Carthusian houses— exists at Miraflores,
near Burgos, which remains nearly as it was completed in 148a
A. Cloister gallery.
B. Comdor*
C« Living-room*
D. Sleeping-room.
Fie 13.— Carthusian cen, Clermont.
There were only nine Carthusian houses in England. The
earliest was that at Witham in Somersetshire, founded by
Henry H., by whom the order was first brought into England.
The wealthiest and most magnificent was that of Sheen or Rich-
mood in Surrey, founded by Henry V. about aj>. 14x4. The
dimensions of the buildings at Sheen are stated to have been
resaarkably large. The great court measured 300 ft by 250
ft_; the cloisters were a square of 500 ft.; the hall was no
ft. in length by 60 ft, in breadth. The most celebrated
historically b the Charter-house of London, founded by Sir
Walter Hanny aj>. 1371, the name of which b preserved by the
famous public school established on the site by Thomas Sutton
ju>. 1611, now removed to Godalrning.
An article on monastic arrangements would be incomplete
without some account of the convents of the Mendicant or
Preaching Friars, including the Black Friars or Domini-
cans, the Grey or Franciscans, the White or Carmelites,
the Eremite or Austin Friars. These orders arose at the
j of the 1 3th century, when the Benedictines, together
with their various reformed branches, had- terminated their
active mission, and Christian Europe was ready for a new re-
fipous revival Planting themselves, as a rule, in large towns,
and by preference in the poorest and most densely populated
districts, the Preaching Friars were obliged to adapt their
buildings to the requirements of the site. Regularity of arrange-
neot, therefore, was not possible, even if they had studied it.
Their churches, built for the reception of large congregations of
bearers rather than worshippers, form a class by themselves,
totally, unlike those of the elder orders in ground-plan and
character. They were usually long parallelograms unbroken by
transepts. The nave very usually consisted of two equal bodies,
one containing the stalls of the brotherhood, the other left
entirely free for the congregation. The constructional choir b
often wanting, the whole church forming one uninterrupted
structure, with a continuous range of windows. The east end
was usually square, but the "Friars Church at Wlnchelsea had a
polygonal apse. We not unfrequently find a single transept,
sometimes of great sbe, rivalling or exceeding the nave This
affangement b frequent in Ireland, where the numerous small
friaries afford admirable exemplifications of these peculiarities
of ground-plan. Tfct friars' churches were at first destitute of
towers; but in the 14th and 15th centuries, tall, slender towers
were commonly inserted between the nave and the choir. The
Grey Friars at Lynn, where the tower b hexagonal, b a good
example. The arrangement of the monastic buildings b equally
peculiar and characteristic. We miss entirely the regularity of
the buildings of the earlier orders. At the Jacobins at Paris, a
cloister lay to the north of the long narrow church of two parallel
aisles, while the refectory— a room of immense length, quite
detached from the cloister— stretched across the area before the
west front of the church. At Toulouse the nave also has two
parallel aisles, but the choir b apsidal, with radiating chapel
The refectory stretches northwards at right angles to the cloister,
which lies to the north of the church, having the chapter-house
and sacristy on the east As examples of English
friaries, the Dominican house at Norwich, and those J
of the Dominicans and Franciscans at Gloucester,
may be mentioned. The church of the Black Friars of Norwich
departs from the original type in. the nave (now St Andrew's
Hall), in having regular aisles. In this it resembles the earlier
examples of the Grey Friars at Reading. The choir b long and
aisleless; an hexagonal tower between the two, like that existing
at Lynn, has perished. The dobter and monastic buildings
remain tolerably perfect to the north. The Dominican convent
at Gloucester still exhibits the cloister-court, on the north side
of which b the desecrated church. The refectory b on the 'west
side and on the south the dormitory of the 13th century. Thb
b a remarkably good example. There were 18 cells or cubicles
on each side, divided by partitions, the bases of which remain.
On the east side was the prior's house, a building of later date.
At the Grey or Franciscan Friars, the church followed the
ordinary type in having two equal bodies, each gabled, with a
continuous range of windows. There was a slender tower be-
tween the nave and the choir. Of the convents of the Carmelite
or White Friars we have a good example in the Abbey Hutatt
of Hulne, near Alnwick, the first of the order in
England, founded a.d. 124a The church b a narrow oblong,
destitute of aisles, 123 ft. long by only 26 ft. wide. The
cloisters are to the south, with the chapter-house, &c, to the
east, with the dormitory over. The prior's lodge b placed to
the west of the dobter. The guest-houses adjoin the entrance
gateway, to which a chapel was annexed on the south side of
the conventual area. The nave of the church of the Austin
Friars or Eremites in London b still standing. It b of Decorated
date, and has wide centre and side aisles, divided by a very
light and graceful arcade. Some fragments of the south walk of
the dobter of the Grey Friars remained among the buildings of
Christ's Hospital <the Blue-Coat School), while they were still
standing. Of the Black Friars all has perished but the name.
Taken as a whole, the remains of the establishments of the friars
afford little warrant for the bitter invective of the Benedictine
of St Alban's, Matthew Paris.—" The friars who have been
founded hardly 40 years have built residences as the palaces of
kings. These are they who, enlarging day by day their sumptuous
edifices, encircling them with Jofty walb, lay up in them their
incalculable treasures, imprudently transgressing the bounds of
poverty and violating the very fundamental rules of their
profession." Allowance must here be made for jealousy of a rival
order just rising in popularity.
Every large monastery had depending upon it one or more
smaller establishments known as cells. These cells were monastic
colonies, sent forth by the parent house, and planted ajba
on some outlying estate. As an example, we may
refer to the small religious house of St Mary Magdalene's,
a cell of the great Benedictine house of St Mary's, York, in
the valley of the Witham, to the south-east of the dty of
Lincoln. Thb consists of one long narrow range of building, of
which the eastern part formed the chapel and the western
contained the apartments of the handful of monks of which it
was the home. To the east may be traced the site of the abbey
mill, with its dam and mill-lead. These cells, when belonging to
a Cluniac house, were called Obcdientiae. The plan given by
22
ABBON OF FLEURY— ABBOT
VtoIlet-le-Duc of the Priory of St Joan des Bans Hommes, a
Cluniac cell, situated between the town of Avallon and the
village of Savigny, shows that these diminutive establishments
comprised every essential feature of a monastery,— chapel,
cloister, chapter-room, refectory, dormitory, all grouped ac-
cording to the recognized arrangement These Cluniac obediential
differed from the ordinary Benedictine cells in being also places of
punishment, to which monks who had been guilty of any grave
infringement of the rules were relegated as to a kind of peniten-
tiary. Here they were placed under the authority of a prior,
and were condemned to severe manual labour, fulfilling the
duties usually executed by the lay brothers, who acted as farm-
servants. The outlying farming establishments belonging to the
monastic foundations were known as villae or granges. They
gave employment to a body of conversi and labourers under the
management of a monk, who bore the title of Brother Hospitaller
—the granges, tike their parent institutions, affording shelter
and hospitality to belated travellers.
Authorities.— Dugdale. Monasticon; Lenoir, Architecture monas-
tiqut (1832-1856); VioUet-le-Duc, Dictionnaire raisounee de Forchi-
teclure franeaise; Springer, Klosterleben und Klosterkunst (1886);
Kraus. Ceschickk der chrutlichen Kunsi (1896). (E. V.)
ABBON OF FLEURY, or Abbo Floriacxnsis (c. 045-
1004), a learned Frenchman, born near Orleans about 045. He
distinguished himself in the schools of Paris and Reims, and was
especially proficient in science as known in his time. He spent
two years in England,- assisting Archbishop Oswald of York in
restoring the monastic system, and was abbot of Romsey. After
his return to France he was made abbot of Fleury on the Loire
(088). He was twice sent to Rome by King Robert the Pious
(086, 006), and on each occasion succeeded in warding off a
threatened papal interdict He was killed at La Reole in 1004,
in endeavouring to quell a monkish revolt He wrote an
Epitome de titis Romanorum pontificum, besides controversial
treatises, letters, &c. (sec Migne, Patrotpgia Lalina, vol 139).
His life, written by bis disciple Aimoin of Fleury, in which much
of Abbon's correspondence was reproduced, is of great import-
ance as a source for the reign of Robert II., especially with
reference to the papacy (cf. Migne, op. cit. vol. 139).
See Ch. Pfifter, hudesjur le regno de Robert U Pieux (1885):
Cuiuard-Gaucheron, " L'Ecole de Fleory-sur-Loire a la fin du 10*
siede," in Memoires de la sociiti arckiol.de TOrUanaii, xiv. (Orleans,
1875) ; A. Molinier, Sources de Fhisloire de France.
ABBOT, EZRA (18 10-1884), American biblical scholar, was
born at Jackson, Waldo county, Maine, on the 28th of April
1819. He graduated at Bowdoin College in 1840; and in 1847,
at the request of Prof. Andrews Norton, went to Cambridge,
where he was principal of a public school until 1856. He was
assistant librarian of Harvard University from 1856 to 187a,
and planned and perfected an alphabetical card catalogue,
combining many of the advantages of the ordinary dictionary
catalogues with the grouping of the minor topics under more
general heads, which is characteristic of a systematic cata-
logue. From 1872 until his death he was Bussey Professor of
New Testament Criticism and Interpretation in the Harvard
Divinity SchooL His studies were chiefly in Oriental languages
and the textual criticism of the New Testament, though his
work as a bibliographer showed such results as the exhaustive
list of writings (sjoo in all) on the doctrine of the future life,
appended to W. R. Alger's History of the Doctrine of a Future
Life, as it has prevailed in all Nations and Ages (1862), and
published separately in 1864. His publications, though always
of the most thorough and scholarly character, were to a large
extent dispersed In the. pages of reviews, dictionaries, concord-
ances, texts edited by others, Unitarian controversial treatises,
&c; but he took a more conspicuous and more personal part in
the preparation (with the Baptist scholar, Horatio B. Hackett)
of the enlarged American edition of Dr (afterwards Sir) William
Smith's Dictionary of the Bible (1867-1870), to which he contri-
buted more than 400 .articles besides greatly improving the
bibliographical completeness of the work; was an efficient
member of the American revision committee employed in
connexion with the Revised Version (1881-1885) of the King
James Bible; and aided In the preparation of Caspar Rene
Gregory's Prolegomena to the revised Greek New Testament of
Tischendorf. His principal single production, representing his
scholarly method and conservative conclusions, was The Author-
ship of the Fourth Gospel: External Evidences (1880; second
edition, by J. H. Thayer, with other essays, 1889), originally a
lecture, and in spite of the compression due to its form, up to
that time probably the ablest defence, based on external evi-
dence, of the Johannine authorship, and certainly the com-
pletest treatment of the relation of Justin Martyr to this gospel.
Abbot, though a layman, received the degree of S. T. D. from
Harvard in 187a, and that of D.D. from Edinburgh .in 18S4.
He died in Cambridge, Massachusetts, on the 21st of March
1884.
See S. J. Barrows, Esra Abbot (Cambridge, Mass., 1884).
ABBOT, GEORGE (1562-1633), English divine, archbishop of
Canterbury, was born on the 19th of October 1562, at Guildford
in Surrey, where his father was a cloth-worker. He studied,
and then taught, at Balliol College, Oxford, was chosen master
of University College in 1597, and appointed dean of Winchester
in 1600. He was three times vice-chancellor of the university,
and took a leading part in preparing the authorized version of
the New Testament In 1608 he went to Scotland with the earl
of Dunbar to arrange for a union between the churches of
England and Scotland. He so pleased the king (James I.) in
this affair that he was made bishop of Lichfield and Coventry
in 1609, was translated to the see of London a month afterwards,
and in less than a year was raised to that of Canterbury. His
puritan instincts frequently led him not only into harsh treat-
ment of Roman Catholics, but also into courageous resistance to
the royal will, e.g. when he opposed the scandalous divorce suit
of the Lady Frances Howard against the earl of Essex, and again
in 1618 when, at Croydon, he forbade the reading of the declara-
tion permitting Sunday sports. He was naturally, therefore, a
promoter of the match between the elector palatine and the
Princess Elizabeth, and a firm opponent of the projected mar-
riage of the prince of Wales with the infanta of Spain. This
policy brought upon him the hatred of Laud (with whom he
had previously come Into collision at Oxford) and the court,
though the king himself never forsook him. In 1622, while
hunting in Lord Zouch's park at Bramshill, Hampshire, a bolt
from his cross-bow aimed at a deer happened to strike one of
the keepers, who died within an hour, and Abbot was so greatly
distressed by the event that he fell into a state of settled melan-
choly. His enemies maintained that the fatal issue of this
accident disqualified him for his office, and argued that, though
the homicide was involuntary, the sport of hunting which had
led to it was one in which no clerical person could lawfully
indulge. The king had to refer the matter to a commission of
ten, though he said that "an angel might have miscarried after
this sort." The commission was equally divided, and the king
gave a casting vote in the archbishop's favour, though signing
also a formal pardon or dispensation. After this the arch-
bishop seldom appeared at the council, chiefly on account of
his infirmities. He attended the king constantly, however, in
his last illness, and performed the ceremony of the coronation
of Charles L His refusal to license the assize sermon preached
by Dr Robert Sibthorp at Northampton on the sand of February
1626-1627, in which cheerful obedience was urged to the king's
demand for a general loan, and the duty proclaimed of absolute
non-resistance even to the most arbitrary royal commands, led
Charles to deprive him of his functions as primate, putting them
in commission. The need of summoning parliament, however,
soon brought about a nominal restoration of the archbishop's
powers. His presence being unwelcome at court, he lived
from that time in retirement, leaving Laud and his party in
undisputed ascendancy. He died at Croydon on the 5th of
August 1633, and was buried at Guildford, his native place,
where he had endowed a hospital with lands to the value of £300
a year. Abbot was a conscientious prelate, though narrow in
view and often harsh towards both separatists and Romanists.
He wrote a large number of works, the most interesting being
ABBOT
23
his discursive Exposition on the Prophet Jonah (1600), which was
reprinted in 1845. His Geography, or a Brief Description of ike
Whole World (1599), passed through numerous editions.
The beat account of him is in S. R. Gardiner's History of England.
ABBOT, GEORGE (1601-1648), English writer, known as
M The Puritan," has been oddly and persistently mistaken for
others. He has been described as a clergyman, which he never
was, and as son of Sir Morris (or Maurice) Abbot, and his writ-
ings accordingly entered in the bibliographical authorities as
by the nephew of the archbishop of Canterbury. One of the
sons of Sir Morris Abbot was, indeed, named George, and he
was a man of mark, but the more famous George Abbot was of a
different family altogether. He was son or grandson (it is not
dear which) of Sir Thomas Abbot, knight of Easington, East
Yorkshire, having been born there m 1603-1604, his mother (or
grandmother) being of the ancient house of Pickering. Of his
early life and training nothing is known. He married a daughter
of Colonel Purefoy of Caldecote, Warwickshire, and as his
monument, which may still be seen in the church there, tells,
he bravely hdd the manor house against Princes Rupert and
Maurice during the dvfl war. As a layman, and nevertheless a
Theologian and scholar of rare ripeness and critical ability, he
holds an almost unique place in the literature of the period.
The terseness of his Whole Booke of Job Paraphrased, or made
easy for any to understand (1640, 4to), contrasts favourably with
the usual prolixity of the Puritan expositors and commentators.
His Vsmdidae Sabbatki (1641, 8vo) had a profound and lasting
influence in the long Sabbatarian controversy. His Brief Notes
upon the Whole Book of Psalms (1651, 4to), as its date shows,
was posthumous. He died on the 2nd of February 1648.
Authobities.— MS. collections at Abbeyville for history of all of
the name of Abbot, by I. T. Abbot, Esq., F&A.. Darlington : Dug-
dak's Antiquities of Warmch shire. 1750, p. 1099: Wood's Athena*
(Bibs), u. 141. 594; Cox's Literature of the Sabbath. *
ABBOT. ROBERT (158W-1662?), English Puritan divine.
Noted as this worthy was in his own time, and representative
in various ways, he has often since been confounded with others,
e.g. Robert Abbot, bishop of Salisbury. He is also wrongly
described as a relative of Archbishop Abbot, from whom he
acknowledges very gratefully, in the first of his epistles dedi-
catory of A Hand of Fellowship to Helpe Keepe out Sinneand
Antichrist (1623, 4 to), that he had " received all " his " worldly
maintenance,*' as well as " best earthly countenance " and
"fatherly incouragements." The worldly maintenance was
the presentation in 1616 to the vicarage of Cranbrook in Kent
He had received his education at Cambridge, where he pro-
ceeded M.A., and was afterwards incorporated at Oxford. In
1639, in the epistle to the reader of his most noticeable book
historically, his Triatt of our Church-Forsakers, he tells us, "I
have lived now, by God's gratious dispensation, above fifty years,
and an the place of my allotment two and twenty full" The
former date carries us back to 1 588-1 589, or perhaps 1587-1588
—the M Armada " year— as his birth-time; the latter to 1616-
161 7 (sf supra). In his Bee Thankfull London and her Sisters
(1626), he describes himself as formerly " assistant to a reverend
divine . . . now with God," and the name on the margin is
" Master Haiward of Wool Church (Dorset)." This was doubt-
less previous to his going to Cranbrook. Very remarkable and
effective was Abbot's ministry at Cranbrook, where his parish-
ioners were as his own " sons and daughters " to him. Yet,
Puritan though he was, he was extremdy and often unfairly
antagonistic to Nonconformists. He remained at Cranbrook
onta 1643, when. Parliament deciding against pluralities of
ecclesiastical offices, he chose the very inferior living of South-
wick, Hants, as between the one and the other. He afterwards
su cc e e d e d the w extruded " Udall of St Austin's* London, where
according to the Warning-piece he was still pastor in 1657. He
disappears silently between 1657-1658 and 1662. Robert Abbot's
books are conspicu o us amongst the productions of his time by
their terseness and variety. In addition to those mentioned
above he wrote Milk for Babes, or a Mother's Catechism for her
Children (1646), and A Christian Family buHded by God, or Dirt*
toons for Go w uno rs of Families (1653).
Authorities.— Brook's Puritans, iii. 182, 3: Walker's Sufferings*
ii. 183; Wood's Athenae (Bliss), L 323; Palmer's Nonconf. Menu li.
218, which confuses him most oddly of all with one of the ejected
ministers of 1662.
ABBOT, WILLIAM (1 708-1843), English actor, was born in
Chelsea, and made his first appearance on the stage at Bath
in 1806, and his first London appearance in 1808. At Covent
Garden in 1813, in light comedy and melodrama, he made his
first decided success. He was Pylades to Macread/s Orestes in
Ambrose Philips's Distressed Mother when Macready made his
first appearance at that theatre (1816). He created the parts of
Appius Claudius in Sheridan Knowles's Virginias (1820) and of
Modus in his Hunchback (183 2). In 1827 he organised the com*
pany, induding Macready and Miss Smithson, which acted
Shakespeare in Paris. On his return to London he played
Romeo to Fanny Kemble's Juliet (1830). Two of Abbot's
melodramas, The Youthful Days of Frederick the Great (181 7)
and Swedish Patriotism (1819), were produced at Covent Garden,
He died in poverty at Baltimore, Maryland.
ABBOT (from the Hebrew ab t a father, through the Syriac
abba, Lat abbas, gen. abbatis, O.E. abbad, fr. late Lat form
abbad-cm changed in 13th century under influence of the
Lit form to abbot, used alternativdy till the end of the 17th
century; Ger. Abt; Fr. abbi), the head and chief governor of a
community of monks, called also in the East hegumenos or
archimandrite. The title had its origin in the monasteries of
Syria, whence it spread through the £ast, and soon became
accepted generally in all languages as the designation of the
head of a monastery. At first it was employed as a respectful
title for any monk, as we learn from St Jerome, who denounced
the custom on the ground that Christ had said, " Call no man
father 00 earth " (in Epist. ad Gal. iv. 6, in Matt, xxiii. 9),
but it was soon restricted to the superior. The name " abbot,"
though general in the West, was never universal. Among the
Dominicans, Carmelites, Augustinians, &c, the superior was
called Praepositus, "provost," and Prior; among the Francis^
cans. Custos, " guardian "; and by the monks of Gamaldoli,
Major.
In Egypt, the first home of monastidsm, the jurisdiction of
the abbot, or archimandrite, was but loosdy defined. Some-
times he ruled over only one community, sometimes over several,
each of which had its own abbot as welL Cassian speaks of an
abbot of the Thebaid who had 500 monks under him, a number
exceeded in other cases. By the rule of St Benedict, which, until
the reform of Cluny, was the norm in the West, the abbot has
jurisdiction over only one community. The rule, as was inevit-
able, was subject to frequent violations; but it was not until
the foundation of the Ouniac Order that the idea of a supreme
abbot, exercising jurisdiction over all the houses of an order,
was definitdy recognized. New styles were devised to express
this new relation; thus the abbot of Monte Cassino was called
abbas obbalum, while the chiefs of other orders had the titles
abbas generalis, or magister or minister generalis.
Monks, as a rule, were laymen, nor at the outset was the
abbot any exception. All orders of dergy, therefore, even the
"doorkeeper," took precedence of him. For the reception of
the sacraments, and for. other religious offices, the abbot and his
monks were commanded to attend the nearest church (Novellae,
153, c ii.). This rule naturally proved inconvenient when a
monastery was situated in a desert or at a distance from a city,
and necessity compelled the ordination of abbots. This innova-
tion was not introduced without a struggle, ecdesiastical dignity
being regarded as inconsistent with the higher spiritual life, but,
before the dose of the $th century, at least in the East, abbots
seem almost universally to have become deacons, if not pres-
byters. The change spread more slowly in the West, where the
office of abbot was commonly filled by laymen till the end of
the 7th century, and partially so up to the 11th. Ecdesiastical
councils were, however, attended by abbots. Thus at that held
at Constantinople, aj>. 44a, for the condemnation of Eutyches,
93 archimandrites or abbots sign, with 30 bishops, and. c. a.d.
690. Archbishop Theodore promulgated a canon, inhibiting
24
ABBOT
bishops from compelling abbots to attend councils. Examples
are not uncommon in Spain and in England in Saxon times.
Abbot* were permitted by the second council of Nicaea, A.D. 787,
to ordain their monks to the inferior orders. This rule was
adopted in the West, and the strong prejudice against clerical
monks having gradually broken down, eventually monks,
almost without exception, took holy orders.
Abbots were originally subject to episcopal jurisdiction, and
continued generally so, in fact, in the West till the nth century.
The Code of Justinian (lib. i. tit iii. de Ep. leg. xl.) expressly
subordinates the abbot to episcopal oversight. The first case
recorded of the partial exemption of an abbot from episcopal
control is that of Faustus, abbot of Lerins, at the council of
Aries, A.D. 456; but the exorbitant claims and exactions of
bishops, to which this repugnance to episcopal control is to be
traced, far more than to the arrogance of abbots, rendered it
increasingly frequent, and, in the 6th century, the practice of
exempting religious houses partly or altogether from episcopal
control, and making them responsible to the pope alone, received
an impulse from Gregory the Great. These exceptions, intro-
duced with a good object, had grown into a widespread evil
by the 12th century, virtually creating an imperium in imperio,
and depriving the bishop of all authority over the chief centres
of influence in his diocese. In the z 2th century the abbots of
Fulda claimed precedence of the archbishop of Cologne. Abbots
more and more assumed almost episcopal state, and in defiance
of the prohibition of early councils and the protests of St Bernard
and others, adopted the episcopal insignia of mitre, ring, gloves
and sandals. It has been maintained that the right to wear
mitres was sometimes granted by the popes to abbots before the
nth century, but the documents on which this claim Is based
are not genuine (J. Braun, Lilurgisckc Gcwandung, p. 453). The
first undoubted instance is the bull by which Alexander IL in
Z063 granted the use of the mitre to Egelsinus. abbot of the monas-
tery of St Augustine at Canterbury (see Mitre). The mitred
abbots in England were those of Abingdon, St Alban's, Bardney,
Battle, Bury St Edmund's, St Augustine's Canterbury, Col-
chester, Croyland, Evesham, Glastonbury, Gloucester, St Benet's
Hulme, Hyde, Malmesbury, Peterborough, Ramsey, Reading,
Sclby, Shrewsbury, Tavistock, Thorney, Westminster, Winch-
combe, St Mary's York. Of these the precedence was originally
yielded to the abbot of Glastonbury, until in aj>. 1 154 Adrian IV.
(Nicholas Breakspear) granted it to the abbot of St Alban's, in
which monastery he had been brought up. Next after the abbot
of St Alban's ranked the abbot of Westminster. To distinguish
abbots from bishops, it was ordained that their mitre should be
made of less costly materials, and should not be ornamented
with gold, a rule which was soon entirely disregarded, and that
the crook of their pastoral staff should turn inwards instead of
outwards, indicating that their jurisdiction was limited to their
own house.
The adoption of episcopal insignia by abbots was followed
by an encroachment on episcopal functions, which had to
be specially but ineffectually guarded against by the Lateran
council, a J). 1123. In the East, abbots, if in priests' orders,
with the consent of the bishop, were, as we have seen, permitted
by the second Nicene council, a.d. 787, to confer the tonsure
and admit to the order of reader; but gradually abbots, in the
West also, advanced higher claims, until we find them in a.d.
1489 permitted by Innocent IV. to confer both the*ubdiaconate
and diaconatc Of course, they always and everywhere had the
power of admitting their own monks and vesting them with the
religious habit
When a vacancy occurred, the bishop of the diocese chose the
abbot out of the monks of the convent, but the right of election
was transferred by jurisdiction to the monks themselves, reserv-
ing to the bishop the confirmation of the election and the bene-
diction of the new abbot In abbeys exempt from episcopal
jurisdiction, the confirmation and benediction had to be conferred
by the pope in person, the house being taxed with the expenses
of the new abbot's journey to Rome. By the rule of St Benedict,
the consent of the laity was in some undefined way required;
but this seems never to have been practically enforced. It was
necessary that an abbot should Ae at least 25 years of age, of
legitimate birth, a monk of the house, unless it furnished no
suitable candidate, when a liberty was allowed of electing from
another convent, well instructed himself, and able to instruct
others, one also who had learned how to command by having
practised obedience. In some exceptional cases an abbot was
allowed to name his own successor. Cassian speaks of an abbot
in Egypt doing this; and in later times we have another example
in the case of St Bruno. Popes and sovereigns gradually en-
croached on the rights of the monks, until in Italy the pope had
usurped the nomination of all abbots, and the king in France,
with the exception of Cluny, Prlmontre' and other houses, chiefs
of their order. The election was for life, unless the abbot was
canonically deprived by the chiefs of his order, or when he was
directly subject to them, by the pope or the bishop.
The ceremony of the formal admission of a Benedictine abbot
in medieval times is thus prescribed by the consuetudinary of
Abingdon. The newly elected abbot was to put off his shoes at
the door of the church, and proceed barefoot to meet the mem-
bers of the house advancing in a procession. After proceeding
up the nave, he was to kneel and pray at the topmost step of
the entrance of the choir, into which he was to be introduced
by the bishop or his commissary, and placed in his stall. The
monks, then kneeling, gave him the kiss of peace on the hand,
and rising, on the mouth, the abbot holding his staff of office.
He then put on his shoes In the vestry, and a chapter was held,
and the bishop or his commissary preached a suitable sermon.
The power of the abbot was paternal but absolute, limited,
however, by the canons of the church, and, until the general
establishment of exemptions, by episcopal control. As a rule,
however, implicit obedience was enforced; to act without his
orders was calpable; while it was a sacred duty to execute
his orders, however unreasonable, until they were withdrawn.
Examples among the Egyptian monks of this blind submission
to the commands of the superiors, exalted into a virtue by
those who regarded the entire crushing of the individual will
as the highest excellence, are detailed by Cassian and others,—
e.g. a monk watering a dry stick, day after day, for months, or
endeavouring to remove a huge rock Immensely exceeding his
powers. St Jerome, indeed, lays down, as the principle of the
compact between the abbot and his monks, that they should
obey their superiors in all things, and perform whatever they
commanded (Ep. 3, ad Eusiock. de custod. virgin.). So despotic
did the tyranny become in the West, that in the time of Charle-
magne it was necessary to restrain abbots by legal enactments
from mutilating their monks and putting out their eyes; while
the rule of St Columban ordained 100 lashes as the punishment
for very slight offences. An abbot also had the power of ex-
communicating refractory nuns, which he might use if desired
by their abbess.
The abbot was treated with the utmost submission and
reverence by the brethren of his house. When he appeared
either in church or chapter all present rose and bowed. His
letters were received kneeling, like those of the pope and the
king. If he gave a command, the monk receiving it was also to
kneel. No monk might sit in his presence, or leave it without
his permission. The highest place was naturally assigned to
him, both in church and at table. In the East he was commanded
to eat with the other monks. In the West the rule of St Benedict
appointed him a separate table, at which he might entertain
guests and strangers. This permission opening the door to
luxurious living, the council of Aix, aj>. 817, decreed that the
abbot should dine in the refectory, and be content with the
ordinary fare of the monks, unless he had to entertain a guest.
These ordinances proved, however, generally ineffectual to
secure strictness of diet, and contemporaneous literature abounds
with satirical remarks and complaints concerning the inordinate
extravagance of the tables of the abbots. When the abbot con-
descended to dine in the refectory, his chaplains waited upon
him with the dishes, a servant, if necessary, assisting them. At
St Alban's the abbot took the lord's scat, in the centre of the
ABBOTSFORD
25
high table, and was served on saver plate, and sumptuously
entertained noblemen, ambassadors and strangers of quality.
When abbots dined in their own private hall, the rule of St
Benedict charged them to invite their monks to their table,
provided there was room, on which occasions the guests were
to abstain from quarrels, slanderous talk and idle gossiping.
The ordinary attire of the abbot was according to rule to be
the same as that of the monks. But by the ioth century the
rale was commonly set aside, and we find frequent complaints
of abbots dressing in silk, and adopting sumptuous attire. They
sometimes even laid aside the monastic habit altogether, and
assumed a secular dress. 1 This was a necessary consequence of
their following the chase, whkh was quite usual, and indeed at
that tune only natural. With the increase of wealth and power,
abbots bad lost much of their special religious character, and
become great lords, chiefly distinguished from lay lords by
ce&bacy. Thus we hear of abbots going out to sport, with their
men carrying bows and arrows; keeping horses, dogs and
huntsmen; and special mention is made of an abbot of Leicester,
t 1360, who was the most skilled of all the nobility in hare-
hunting. In magnificence of equipage and retinue the abbots
vied with the first nobles of the realm. They rode on mules with
gilded bridles, rich saddles and housings, carrying hawks on
their wrist, followed by an immense train of attendants. The
be&s of the churches were rung as they passed. They associated
an equal terms with laymen of the highest distinction, and
snared all their pleasures and pursuits. This rank and power
was, however, often used most beneficially. For instance, we
read of Whiting, the last abbot of Glastonbury, judicially mur-
dered by Henry VIIL, that his house was a kind of well-ordered
court, where as many as 300 sons of noblemen and gentlemen,
who had been sent to him for virtuous education, had been
brought up, besides others of a meaner rank, whom he fitted for
the universities. His table, attendance and officers were an
honour to the nation. He would entertain as many as 500
persons of rank at one time, besides relieving the poor of the
vicinity twice a week. He had his country houses and fisheries,
and when he travelled to attend parliament his retinue amounted
to upwards of 100 persons. The abbots of Cluny and Venddme
were, by virtue of their office, cardinals of the Roman church.
In process of time the title abbot was improperly transferred
to clerics who had no- connexion with the monastic system, as
to the principal of a body of parochial clergy; and under the
Carotingians to the chief chaplain of the king, Abbas Curiae, or
an&tary chaplain of the emperor, Abbas Castrensis. It even
came to be adopted by purely secular officials. Thus the chief
mapc*T*»» of the republic at Genoa was called Abbas Populi.
Do Gauge, in his glossary, also gives us Abbas Campanilis,
Cixkeru, Palatii, Sckolaris, ftc.
Lay abbots (M. Lat. defensores, abbacomUes, abbates laid,
abbaUs militcs, abbates saecnlares or irrdigiosi, abbatiarii, or
sometimes simply abbates) were the outcome of the growth of
the feudal system from the 8th century onwards. The practice
of commendation, by which— to meet a contemporary emergency
—the revenues of the community were handed over to a lay
lord, in return for his protection, early suggested to the em-
poors and kings the expedient of rewarding their warriors with
rich abbeys held in tomnumdam. During the Carolingian epoch
the custom grew up of granting these as regular heritable fiefs
or benefices, and by the ioth century, before the great Cluniac
reform, the system was firmly established. Even the abbey of
St Denis was held incemmendam by Hugh Capet. The example
of the kings was followed by the feudal nobles, sometimes by
staking a temporary concession permanent, sometimes without
say form of commendation whatever. In England the abuse
•as rife In the 8th century, as may be gathered from the acts
of the council of Ooveshoe, These lay abbacies were not merely
a question of ovcrlordship, but implied the concentration in
lay hands of all the rights, immunities and jurisdiction of the
foundations, i*. the more or less complete secularization of
m • Walworth, the fourth abbot of St Alban's, c. 930, is charged by
Matthew Paris with nooptiag the atthe of a wortsman.
spiritual Institutions. The lay abbot took his recognized rank
in the feudal hierarchy, and was free to dispose of his fief as in
the case of any other. The enfeoffment of abbeys differed in
form and degree. Sometimes the monks were directly subject
to the lay abbot; sometimes he appointed a substitute to
perform the spiritual functions, known usually as dean (decdnus),
but also as abbot (abbas legitimus, monasticus, regularis) . When
the great reform of the 1 1 th century had put an end to the direct
jurisdiction of the lay abbots, the honorary title of abbot con-
tinued to be held by certain of the great feudal families, as late
as the 13th century and later, the actual head of the community
retaining that of dean. The connexion of the lesser lay abbots
with the abbeys, especially in the south of France, lasted longer;
and certain feudal families' retained the title of abbis chevaliers
(abbates milites) for centuries, together with certain rights over
the abbey lands or revenues. The abuse was not confined to the
West John-, patriarch of Antioch, at the beginning of the 1 2th
century, informs us that in his time most monasteries had been
handed over to laymen, beneficiarii, for life, or for part of their
lives, by the emperors.
In conventual cathedrals, where the bishop occupied the place
of the abbot, the functions usually devolving on the superior
of the monastery were performed by a prior.
The title abbi (Ital. abbate), as commonly used in the Catholic
church on the European continent, is the equivalent of the
English " Father," being loosely applied to all who have re-
ceived the tonsure. This use of the tide is said to have originated
in the right conceded to the king of France, by the concordat
between Pope Leo X. and Francis I. (1516), to appoint abbis
commendataires to most of the abbeys in France. The expecta-
tion of obtaining these sinecures drew young men towards the
church in considerable numbers, and the class of abbes so formed
— abbis de cour they were sometimes called, and sometimes
(ironically) abbis de sainte esptrance, abbes of St Hope— came
to hold a recognized position. The connexion many of them
had with the church was Of the slenderest kind, consisting mainly
in adopting the name of abbi, after a remarkably moderate
course of theological study, practising celibacy and wearing a
distinctive dress— a short dark-violet coat with narrow collar.
Being men of presumed learning and undoubted leisure, many
of the class found admission to the houses of the French nobility
as tutors or advisers. Nearly every great family had its abb*.
The class did not survive the Revolution; but the courtesy
title of abbe" , having long lost all connexion in people's minds
with any special ecclesiastical function, remained as a convenient
general term applicable to any clergyman.
In the German Evangelical church the title of abbot (Abt)
is sometimes bestowed, like abbi, as an honorary distinction,
and sometimes survives to designate the heads of monasteries
converted at the Reformation into collegiate foundations. Of
these the most noteworthy is the abbey of Lokkum in Hanover,
founded as a Cistercian house in 11 63 by Count Wilbrand of
Hallermund, and reformed in 1593. The abbot of Lokkum,
who still carries a pastoral staff, takes precedence of all the clergy
of Hanover, and is ex officio a member of the consistory of the
kingdom. The governing body of the abbey consists of abbot,
prior and the " convent " of canons (Stiftsherren).
See Joseph Bingham, (Menus ecdesiasticae (1840) ; Du Cange.
Ctossarium med. el inf. Lot. (ed. 1883); J. Craig* Robertson, H*sL
of the Christian Church (1858-1873); Edmond Martene, De antiquis
ecclesiae ritibus (Venice, 1783) ; C. F. R. de Montalembert, Les
murines <T Occident depuis S. BenoU jusqu'a S. Bernard (1860-1877);
Achille Lucbaire, Manuel des institutions francaises (Par. 1893).
\E. V. ; W. A. P.)
ABBOTSFORD, formerly the residence of Sir Walter Scott,
situated on the S. bank of the Tweed, about 3 m. W. of Melrose,
Roxburghshire, Scotland, and nearly 1 m. from Abbotsford
Ferry station on the North British railway, connecting Selkirk
and Galashiels. The nucleus of the estate was a small farm of
too acres, called Cartleyhole, nicknamed Clarty (i.e. muddy)
Hole, and bought by Scott on the lapse of his lease (181 1 ) of the
neighbouring bouse of Ashestiel. It was added to from time to
time, the last and principal acquisition being that of Toftfield
2b
ABBOTT
(afterwards named Huntlyburn), purchased in 1817. The new
house was then begun and completed in 1824. The general
ground-plan is a parallelogram, with irregular outlines, one side
overlooking the Tweed; and the style is mainly the Scottish
Baronial. Into various parts of the fabric were built relics and
curiosities from historical structures, such as the doorway of
the old Tolbooth in Edinburgh. Scott had only enjoyed his
residence one year when (182s) he met with that reverse of
fortune which involved the estate in debt. In 1830 the library
and museum were presented fo him as a free gift by the creditors.
The property was wholly disencumbered in 1847 by Robert
Cadell, the publisher, who cancelled the bond upon it in ex-
change for the family's share in the copyright of Sir Walter's
works. Scott's only son Walter did not live to enjoy the property,
having died on his way from India in 1847. Among subsequent
possessors were Scott's son-in-law, J. G. Lockhart, J. R. Hope
Scott, Q.C., and his daughter (Scott's great-granddaughter), the
Hon. Mrs Maxwell Scott. Abbotsford gave its name to the
" Abbotsford Gub," a successor- of the Bannatyne and Maitland
clubs, founded by W. B. D. D. Turnbull in 1834 in Scott's
honour, for printing and publishing historical works connected
with his writings. Its publications extended from 1835 to 1864.
See Lockhart, Life of Scott; Washington Irving, Abbotsford and
Newstead Abbey; W. S. Crockett, The Scott Country.
ABBOTT, EDWIN ABBOTT (1838- ), English school-
master and theologian, was born on the 20th of December 18 J8.
He was educated at the City of London school and at St John's
College, Cambridge, where he took the highest honours in the.
classical, mathematical and theological triposes, and became
fellow of his college. In 1862 he took orders. After holding
masterships at King Edward's School, Birmingham, and at
CliTton College, he succeeded G. F. Mortimer as headmaster
of the City of London school in 1865 at the early age of twenty-
six. He was Hulsean lecturer in 1876. He retired in 1889, and
devoted himself to literary and theological pursuits. Dr Abbott 's
liberal inclinations in. theology were prominent both in his
educational views and in his books. His Shakespearian Cram-
mar (1870) is a permanent contribution to English philology.
In 1885 he published a life of Francis Bacon. His theo-
logical writings include three anonymously published religious
romances— PAtteArw/tu (1S7S), Onesimus ( 1882), S Hon us (1006).
More weighty contributions are the anonymous theological
discussion The Kernel and the Husk (1886), Phihmythus (1891),
his book on Cardinal Newman as an Anglican (1892), and his
article "The Gospels " in the ninth edition of the Encyclopaedia
Britannica, embodying a critical view which caused considerable
stir in the English theological world; he also wrote St Thomas
of Canterbury, his Death and Miracles (18&), Johannine Vocabu-
lary (\gos)ifoftannine Grammar (1006).
His brother, Evelyn Abbott (1843-1901), was a well-known
tutor of Balliol, Oxford, and author of a scholarly History of
Greece.
ABBOTT, EMMA (1840-2891), American singer, was born at
Chicago and studied in Milan and Paris. She had a fine soprano
voice, and appeared first in opera in London under Colonel
Mapleson's direction at Covent Garden, also singing at important
concei ts. She organized an opera company known by her name,
and toured extensively in the United States, where she had a
great reputation. In 1873 she married E. J. WetherdL She
died at Salt Lake City on the 5th of January 189 1.
ABBOTT, JACOB (1803-1879), American writer of books for
the young, was born at Hallowell, Maine, on the 14th of
November 1803. He graduated at Bowdoin College in 1820;
studied at Andover Theological Seminary in 1821, 1822, and
1824; was tutor in 1824-1825, and from 18*5 to 1829 was
professor of mathematics and natural philosophy in Amherst
College; was licensed to preach by the Hampshire Association
in 1826; founded the Mount Vernon School for young ladies in
Boston in 1829, and was principal of it in 1820-1833; was pastor
of Eliot Congregational Church (which he founded), at Roxbury,
Mass., in 1834*1835; and was, with his brothers, a founder, and
in 1843-1851 a principal of Abbott's Institute, and in 1845-1848
of the Mount Vernon School for boys, in New York City. He was
a prolific author, writing juvenile stories, brief histories and
biographies, and religious books for the general reader, and a
few works in popular science. He died on the 31st of October
1879 at Fannington, Maine, where he had spent part of bis time
since 1839, and where bis brother Samuel Phillips Abbott
founded in 1844 the Abbott School, popularly called " Little
Blue." Jacob Abbott's " Rollo Books "—Roilo at Work, R0U0
at Play, Rollo in Europe, &c. (28 vols.)— are the best known of
his writings, having as their chief characters a representative
boy and his associates. In them Abbott did for one or two
generations of young American readers a service not unlike that
performed earlier, in England and America, by the authors of
Evenings at Home, Sandford and Merton, and the Parents
Assistant. Of his other writings (he produced more than two
hundred volumes in all), the best are the Franconia Stories (10
vols.), twenty-two volumes of biographical histories in a series
of thirty-two volumes (with his brother John S. C Abbott), and
the Young Christian, — all of which had enormous circulations.
His sons, Benjamin Vaughan Abbott (1830-1800), Austin
Abbott (1831-1896), both eminent lawyers, Lyman Abbott
(q.v.), and Edward Abbott (1841-1908), a clergyman, were also
well-known authors.
See his Young Christian, Memorial Edition, with a Sketch of the
Author by one of his sons, U. Edward Abbott (New York. 1882).
with a bibliography of his works.
ABBOTT, JOHN STEVENS CABOT (1805-1877), American
writer, was born in Brunswick, Maine, on the 18th of September
1805. He was a brother of Jacob Abbott, and was associated
with him in the management of Abbott's Institute, New York
City, and in the preparation of his series of brief historical
biographies. He is best known, however, as the author of a
partisan and unscholarly, but widely popular and very readable
History of Napoleon Bonaparte (1855), in which the various
elements and episodes in Napoleon's career are treated with some
skill in arrangement, but with unfailing adulation. Dr Abbott
graduated at Bowdoin College in 1825, prepared for the ministry
at Andover Theological Seminary, and between 1830 and 1844,
when he retired from the ministry, preached successively at
Worcester, Roxbury and Nantucket, Massachusetts. He died
at Fair Haven, Connecticut, on the 17th of June 1877. He was
a voluminous writer of books on Christian ethics, and of his-
tories, which now seem unscholarly and untrustworthy, but
were valuable in their time in cultivating a popular interest in
history. In general, except that he did not write juvenile fiction,
his work in subject and style closely resembles that of his brother,
Jacob Abbott.
ABBOTT, LYMAN (1835- ), American divine and author,
was born at Roxbury, Massachusetts, on the 18th of December
1835, the son of Jacob Abbott He graduated at the University
of New York in 1853, studied law, and was admitted to the bar
in 1856; but soon abandoned the legal profession, and, after
studying theology with his uncle, J. S. C. Abbott, was ordained
a minister of the Congregational Church in i860. He was pastor
of a church in Terre Haute, Indiana, in 1860-1865, and of the New
England Church in New York City in 1865-1869. From 1865 to
1868 he was secretary of the American Union (Freedman's)
Commission. In 1869 he resigned his pastorate to devote him-
self to literature. He was an associate editor of Harper's Maga-
zine, was editor of the Illustrated Christian Weekly, and was-
co-editor (1876-1881) of The Christian Union with Henry Ward
Beecher, whom he succeeded in 1888 as pastor of Plymouth
Church, Brooklyn. From this pastorate he resigned ten years
later. From 1881 he was editor-in-chief of The Christian Union,
renamed The Outlook in 1893; this periodical reflected his efforts
toward social reform, and, in theology, a liberality, humanitarian
and nearly unitarian. The latter characteristics marked his
published works also.
His works include Jesus of Nazareth (1869) ; Illustrated Commentary
' '* " "* ' " " ' ; A Study in Human Naturt
lutum of Christianity (Lowell
_ , _» Evolutionist (1897); Chris-
tianity and Social Problems (1*97) ; Life and Letters of Paul (1 898) ;
nis works include Jesus of Nazareth (I8&
on the New Testament (4 vols.. 1875); A
(1885); Life of Christ '(1804); Bwlutun
Lectures, 1896); The Theology of an B
ABBOTTABAD— ABBREVIATION
27
The life foot RoaBy is (1899); Problems of Lift (1900); The Rights
ef Man (1901) ; Henry Ward Sucker (1903) ; The Christian Ministry
(1905); The Personality of Cod (1905); Industrial Problems (1905);
(H,_ M .. j, ,-,„,. - - —■
and Chrises Stent of Happiness (1907). He edited Sermons of
Henry Ward Bouhtr (2 vols., 1868).
ABBOTTABAD* a town of British India, 4120 ft. above sea-
level, 63 m. from Rawalpindi, the headquarters of the Hazara
district in the N.W. Frontier Province, called after its founder,
Sir James Abbott, who settled this wild district after the annexa-
tion of the Punjab. It is an important military cantonment and
sanatorium, being the headquarters of a brigade in the second
division of the northern army corps. In ioox the population of
the town and cantonment was 7704.
ABBREVIATION (Lat brewis, short), strictly a shortening;
more particularly, an " abbreviation " is a letter or group of
fetters, taken from a word or words, and employed to represent
them for the sake of brevity. Abbreviations, both of single
words and of phrases, having a meaning more or less fixed and
recognized, are common in ancient writings and inscriptions
(see Paiaeogeafhy and Diplomatic), and very many are in
use aUbe present time. A distinction is to be observed between
abbreviations and the contractions that are frequently to be
met with in old manuscripts, and even in early printed books,
whereby letters are dropped out here and there, or particular
collocations of letters represented by somewhat arbitrary sym-
bols. The commonest form of abbreviation is the substitution
Cor a word of its initial letter; but, with a view to prevent
ambiguity, one or more of the other letters are frequently
added. Letters are often doubled to indicate a plural or a
superlative.
L Classen. Abbreviations.— The following list contains
a wfrftinn from the abbreviations that occur in the writings
aad inscriptions of the Romans: —
A.
A Absofvo, Aedflis, Acs, Ager, Ago, Aio, Amicus, Annus,
Antique, Auctor, Auditor, Augustus, Aulus, Aurum,
Aut.
AA Aes ahemna, Ante audita, Apudagrum, Aurum argentum.
AA Augusti. AAA. Augusti ties.
AAAF.F. Auto argento aere nando feriundo. 1
AAV. Alter ambove.
AC. Acta 011*81 Alius avis.
AD. Ante diem; e.g. AD.V. Ante diem quintum.
ADA Ad dandos agros.
AED. Aedes, Aedilis, Aedffitas.
AEVL and AIM. Aemilius, Acmiha.
AER. Aerarium. AER.P. Aere publico.
AF. Actum fide, Auli filius.
AG. Ager, Ago, Agrippa.
AC Animo grato, Aulus Gellius.
ALAE.oWX.L-E. Arbitrium litis aesjimandae.
AIL and A MILL. Ad milliarium.
AN. Anicitsis, Annus, Ante.
ANN. Annales, Anni, Annona.
ANT. Ante, Antoniua.
AO. Alii omnes, Amtco Optimo.
AP. Appios, Apud.
AP. Ad pedes, AediBtia potestate.
AP.F. Aoro (or argento) publico feriundo.
A.P.M. Amico posutt monumentum, Annorum plus minus.
AP.R.C Anno post Romam conditam.
ARC Argentum.
AR-V.V.DJX Aram votam volens dedicavit, Arma votiva dono
AT. Aterga Also A TE. and A-TER.
AT.11D.O. Alo te mini dare oportere.
AV. Augur, Augustus, Aurelius.
A.V. Anaos vixit.
AV.C Ab urbe condita.
AVC Augur, Augustus.
AVGG. Augusti (generally of two). AVGGG. Augusti tres.
AVT.PR.R. Auctoritas provmciae Romanorum.
B.
B. Balbius, Balbus, Beatus, Bene, Bcncnciarius, Beneficium,
Bonus, Brutus, Bustura.
B. far V. Berna Brvus, Bixit.
BA Bixit anos, Bonis auguriis. Bonus amabilis.
8B. or B.BL Bene bene, is. optime, Optimus.
B.D. Boose deae, Bonum datum.
BJ>D. -
B.D.S.M.
B.F.
B.F.
B.H.
B.I.
B.M.
B.N.-
BN.H.L
B.P.
B.RP.N.
BRT.
B.T.
B.V.
B.V.V.
BX.
the function of the triumviri monetales.
C.
c.a
c.c
ccc
C.C.F.
cc.w.
CD.
CES.
C.F.
C.H.
CI.
CL.
CL.V.
CM.
CN.
COH.
COL.
COLL.
COM.
CON.
COR.
COS.
CP.
CR
&.
CVR.
D.C.
D.D.
D.D.D.
D.E.R.
DES.
D.I.
D.I.M.
D.M.
D.O.M.
D.P.S.
E.
EG.
E.M.
EQ.M.
E.R.A
F.C.
F.D.
F.F.F.
FL.
F.L.
FR.
F.R.
G.F.
Bene de se merenti.
Bona femina, Bona fides, Bona fortuna, Bonum factum.
Bona femina, Bona filia.
Bona hereditaria, Bonorum hcrcs.
Bonum judicium. B.I.I. Boni judids judicium.
Beatae memoriae, Bene merenti.
Bona nostra, Bonum nomen.
Bona hie inventes.
Bona paterna, Bonorum potestas, Bonum publicum.
Bene quiescat. Bona quaesita.
Bono reipublicae natus.
Britannicus.
Bonorum tutor, Brevi tempore.
Bene vale. Bene vixit. Bonus vir.
Balnea vina Venus.
Bixit, for vixit.
C.
Caesar, Caius.Caput.Causa.Censor.Civls, Conors, Colonia,
Comitialis (dies), Condemno, Consul, Cum, Curo,
Custos.
Caia, Centuria, Cum, the prefix Con.
Civis bonus, Commune bonum, Conjugi benemercnti, Cui
Calumniae causa, Causa cognita, Conjugi carissimae, Con-
silium cepit. Curiae consulto.
Calumniae cavendae causa.
Caesar (or Caius) curavit faciendum, Caius Caii filius.
'Clarissimi viri.
Caesaris decreto, Casus Decius, Comitialibus dicbus.
Censor, Censores. CESS. Censores.
Causa fiductae, Conjugi fecit, Curavit faciendum.
Custos heredum, Custos hortorum.
Caius Julius, Consul jussit, Curavit judex.
Clarissimus, Claudius, Clodius, Colonia.
Clarissimus vir, Clypeum vovit.
Caius Marius, Causa mortis.
Cnaeus.
Coheres, Cohors.
Collega, Collegium, Colonia, Columns,
Collega, Coloni, Coloniae.
Comes, Comitium, Comparatum.
Conjux, Consensus, ConsUiarius; Consul, Consularis.
Cornelia, (tribus), Cornelius, Corona, Corpus.
Consiliarius, Consul, Consulares. COSS. Consules.
Carissimus or Clarissimus puer, Civis publicus, Curavit
ponendum.
Caius Rufus, Civis Romanus, Curavit reficiendum.
Caesar, Communis, Consul.
Clarissimus or Consularis vir.
Cura, Curator, Curavit, Curia.
D.
Dat, Dedit, Ac, De, Decimus, Decius, Decretum, Decurio,
Deus, Dicit, &c, Dies, Divus, Dominus,. Domus,
Donum.
Decurio coloniae, Dicbus comitialibus, Divus Caesar..
Dea Dia.Decurionum decreto, Dedicavit, Deo dedit, Dono'
dedit.
Datum decreto decurionum, Dono dedit dedicavit.
Deea re.
Designatus.
Dedit imperator, Diis Immortalibus, Diis inferis.
Deo invicto Mithrae, Diis inferis Manibus.
Deo Magno, Dignus memoria, Diis Manibus, Dolo mala
Deo Optimo Maxima
Dedit proprio sumptu, Deo pcrpetuo sacrum, De pecunia
Ejus, Eques, Erexit, Ergo, Est, Et. Etiam, Ex.
Aeger, Egit, Egrcgius.
Egrcgiae memoriae, Ejusmodi, Erexit monumentum.
Equitum magistcr.
Ea res agitur.
F.
Fabius, Facere, Fecit, &c, Familia, Fastus (diesL Felix,
Femina, Fides, Filius, Flamcn, Fortuna, Frater, Fuit.
Functus.
Faciendum curavit, Fidei commissum, Fiduciae causa.
Fidem dedit, F la men Dialis, Fraudc donavit.
Fcrro flamma fame, Fortior fortuna fata
Filius, Flamcn, Flaminius, Flavius.
Favctc Unguis, Fecit libens, Felix liber.
Forum, Fronte, Framcntarius.
Forum Romanum.
G.
Gaius (- Caius), Gallia. Gaudium, Gellius, Gemina. Gens,
Gesta, Gratia. _ .
Gemina fidelis (applied to a legion). So G.P.F. Gemina
piafidelis.
28
ABBREVIATION
jGL. Gloria.
GN. Genius, Gens, Genus, Gnaeus (—Cnaeus)*
G.P.R. Genio populi Rontani.
H. ,
H. Habet, Herts, Hie, Homo, Honor, Hora.
HER. Heres, Herennius. HER. and HERC. Hercufea.
;H.L. Hac lege, Hoc loco, Honesto loco.
H.M. Hoc monumentum, Honesta mulier, Hora mala.
H.S.E, Hie sepultus est, Hie situ* est.
H.V. Haec urbs, Hie vivit, Honeste vixit, Honeatus vir.
I.
I. JramortaJta. lmpcrator, In, Infra, Inter, Invictus, Ipse,
UU, Judex, Julius Junius, Jupiter, Justus*
IA. Jam, Intra,
I.C. Julius Caesar. Juris Ccitauttum, Jus civile.
ID. Idem; Id us, Intcrdurri.
I.D. Intern diia, Jovi doiicatum, Jus dicendum, Jusau Dd.
I.D.M. Jovi dco magno.
I.F. in foro. In frame,
I.H. J acct hie, 1 ii h une*t.i tem, Justus homo.
IM. Imago, Imrooruli** Itnmuais, Impensa.
IMP. Iititw:rator t Imrx-riLim.
I.O.M. jovi u|uimo nuidmo.
I. P. In puhlicoi Intra provirtdam, Justa persona*
I.S.V.P. Irnpcn^asua vivuspoitik.
K.
K. Kaeso, Caia, Calumnia, Caput, Cams, Castra.
K., KAL. and KL. Kalendae.
L.
L. Laelius, Legio, Lex, Libens, Liber, Libra, Locus, Lollius,
Lucius, LuduE.
LB. Libens, Libcri, Libertus.
L.D.D.D. Locus datus decreto decurionum.
LEG. Legatus, Legio.
LIB. Liber, Libcralitas, Libertas, libertus, Librarius.
LL. Leges, Libcntissime, Liberti.
L.M. Libens merito, Locus monument!.
L.S. Laribus sacrum, Libens solvit, Locus sacer.
LVD. Ludus. /
jLV.P.F. Ludos publicos fedt.
, M.
IM. Magister, Magistratus, Magnus, Manes, Marcus, Marius,
Marti,Matcr,Memoria,Mensis, Miles, Monumentum,
Mortuus, Mudus, Mulier.
,M\ Manius. *
M.D.* Magno Deo, Manibus diis, Matri deum, Merenti dedit.
MES. Mcnsis. MESS. Menses.
M.F. Mala fides, Mard filius, Monumentum fedt.
M-L Matri Idaeae, Matri Isidi, Maximo Jovi.
MNT.owfMON. Moneta.
' M.P. Male positus, Monumentum posuit.
■M.S. Manibus sacrum, Memoriae sacrum, Manu scriptum.
MVN. Municeps, or munidpium; wolwMN.,MV.o«iMVNIC.
M.V.S. Marti ultori sacrum, Merito votum solvit.
N.
N. Natlo, Natus, Nefastus (dies), Nepos, Neptunus, Nero,
Nomcn, Non, Nonac, Noster, Novus, Numen, Nume-
rius, Numerus, Nummus.
NEP. Nepos, Neptunus.
N.F.C. Nostrae fidci commissum.
N.L. Non licet, Non liquet, Non longe.
N.M.V. Nobilis memoriae vir.
NN. Nostri. NN., NNO. and NNR. Nostrorum.
NOB. Nobilis. NOB., NOBR.ai«INOV.Novembris.
N.P. Nefastus primo (i.e. priore parte did), Non potest.
O.
O. Ob. Offictum, Omnis, Oportet, Optimus, Opus, Ossa.
OB. Obtit, Obiter, Orbis.
O.C.S. Ob dves servatos.
O.H.F. Omnibus honoribus functus.
O.H.SS. Ossa hie sita sunt.
OR. Hora, Ordo, Ornamentum.
O.T.B.Q. Ossa tua bene quiescant.
P.
P. Pars, Passus, Pater, Patronus, Pax, Perpetuus, Pes, Pius,
Plebs, Pondo, Populus, Post, Posuit, Praeses, Praetor,
Primus, Pro, Provincia, Publicus, Publius, Puer.
P,C Pactum conventum, Patres conscripti, Pecunia consti-
tuta, Ponendum curavit, Post consulatum, ^otestate
censoria.
P.F. Pia fidelia, Pius fclix, Promissa fides, Pubtii filius.
P.M. Piae memoriae, Plus minus, Pontifex maximus.
P.P. Pater patratus,Pater patriae,Pecunia publica.Praepositus,
PrimipiluB, Propraetor.
PR. Praeses, Praetor, Pndie, Princepa.
P.R. Permissu reipublicae, Populus Komanus.
P.R.C Post Romam conditam.
PR.PR. Praefectus praetoril t Proprae to r .
P.S. Pecunia sua, Plebudtum, Proprio sumptu, Publkae
salutL
P.V. Pia victrix, Praefectus urbi, Praestantissimus vir.
Q.
Quaestor, Quando, Quantus, Que, Qui, Quinqucnnalis.
Quintus, Quirites.
Qua dt re.
Quae infra scriota sunt; so Q.S.S.S. Quae supra, &c
Quaecunque, Quinquennalis, Quoque.
Quaestor reipublicae.
Recte, Res, Respublica, Retro, Rex, Ripa, Roma, Roman us,
\ Rufus, Rursus.
Romana dvitas, Romanus dvia
RESP. and RP. Respublica.
RET.P. and RP. Retro pedes.
S.
S. Sacrum, Scriptus, Semis, Scnatus, Sepultus, Servius,
Servus, Sextus, Sibi, Sine, Situs, Solus, Solvit, Sub,
Suus.
Sacerdos, Sacrifidum, Sacrum.
Senatus consultum.
Sacrum diis, Salutem didt, 'Scnatus decreto, Sententiam
dedit.
Sacrum diis Manibus, Sine dolo malo.
Servius, Servus.
R.C.
SAC
S.C
S.D.
S.D.M.
SER.
S.E.TJL Sit d terra levis.
SN. Senatus, Sententia, Sine.
S.P. Sacerdos perpetua. Sine pecunia, Sua pecunia.
S.P.Q.R. Senatus populusque Romanus.
S.S. Sanctissimus scnatus. Supra scriptum.
S.V.B.E.E.Q.V. Si vales bene est, ego quidem valeo.
T.
T. Terminus, Testamentum, Titus, Tribunus, Tu, Turnu,
Tutor.
TB., TI. and TIB. Tiberius.
TB., TR. and TRB. Tribunus.
T.F. Tesumentum fedt.Titi nlius.TituIum fedt.Titus Flavius.
TM. Terminus, Testamentum, Thermae.
T.P. Terminum posuit, Tribunicia potestate, Tribunus plebis.
TVL. TuUius, Tullus.
» V.
V. Urbs, Usus. Uxor, Vale. Verba, Vestalis, Vester, Vir.
Vivus, Vixit, Volo, Votum.
V.A. Veterano assignatus. Vixit annos.
V.C. Vale conjux, Vir clarisstmus, Vir consularis.
V.E. Verum etiam, Vir egregius, Visum est.
V.F. Usus fructus. Verba fecit, Vivus fedt.
V.P. Urbis praefectus, Vir perfectissimus, Vivus posuit.
V.R. Urbs Roma, Uti rogas, Votum reddidit.
II. Medieval Abbreviations. — Of the different kinds of
abbreviations in use in the middle ages, the following are
examples : —
A.M. Ave Maria.
B.P. Bcatus Paulus, Beatus Petrus.
CC Carissimus (also plur. Carissimi), Clarissimus, Circum.
D. Deus, Dominicus, Dux.
D.N.PP. Domtnus noster Papa.
FF. Felidssimus, Fratre "
I.C. or I.X. Jesus Christus.
l.D.N. In Dd nomine.
KK. Karissimus (or -mi;.
MM. Magistri, Martyres, Matrimonium, Merittssimua.
O.S.B. Ordinis Sancti Benedicti.
PP. Papa, Patres, Fussimus.
R.F. Rex Francorutn.
R.P.D. Reverendissimus Pater Dominus.
S.C.M. Sacra Caesarea Majcstas.
S.M.E. Sancta Mater Ecdesia.
S.M.M. Sancta Mater Maria.
S.R.I. Sanctum Romanuro Imperium.
S.V. Sanctitas Vestra, SancU Virgo.
V. Venerabilis, Venerandus. -
V.R. P. Vestra Reverendissima Paternius.
III. Abbreviations now in use.— The import of these
will often be readily understood from the connexion in which
they occur. There is no occasion to explain here the common
abbreviations used for Christian •names, books of Scripture,
months of the year, points of the compass, grammatical and
mathematical terms, or familiar titles, like " Mr," &c.
The ordinary abbreviations, now or recently in use, may
be conveniently classified under the following headings.—
Felidssimus, Fratres, Pandectae (prokfor Cr. II).
ABBREVIATION
29
S. AnUTlATCD TtTLIS AND DESIGNATIONS.
AA. Associate of Arts.
A.& Able-bodied seaman: (w America) Bachelor of Arts.
AD.G Aide-decamp.
AM. {Arimm M agistor). Muter of Am.
AR-A. Associate of the Royal Academy.
AR.I.AA. Amodate of the Royal Institution of British Architect*.
A.R.SA Asonate ef the Royal Scottish Academy.
BA &ar he tor of Am.
Bat. Baronet-
B.CI- Bachelor of Civ3 La*.
BD. Bachelor of Divinity,
E1L Bachelor of Uw
B JSt Bachelor of
C
CA.
CB.
CE.
CIX
CM.
cua
CiL
d.ca.
D_D.
nut a
om.
I IS&
Ebar.
FCS
F.a
F-F.P.S.
F.C&
Accountant.
_ __in of the Bath.
GviJ Engineer.
Companion of the Order of the Indian Empire,
(Cktrvrgvu Magister), Master in Surgery.
Companion of St Michael and St George.
Companion of the Star of India.
Doctor of Civil Law.
Doctor of Divinity.
Litt. D. Doctor of Literature*
Doctor of Medicine (Oxford).
Doctor of Science. ^
Distinguished Service Order.
(Ofwnhi) of York.*
Fellow of the Chemical Society*
(Ftdei Drf enter), Defender of the Faith.
Fellow of the Faculty of Physicians and Surgeons
(Glasgow).
FeUo v of the Geological Society.
F.KjQlCPJ. FswOw of King and Queen'i College of Physicians
in Ireland.
Fi-$. Fellow of the Unnaean Society.
F,1L FieW MarihaL
FJ.S. Fellow of the P Molnflral Society.
F.JLAA Fellow of the Royal Astronomical Society*
F RCP. Fellow of the Royal College of Physicians,
FJLCP.E. Fellow of the RoyalCoDege of Physicians of Edinburgh.
F.JLCS. Fellow of the Royal College of Surgeon*.
F.R.O& Fef low of the Royal Geographical Society.
F ILHS Feflow of the Royal Horticultural Society,
FR.Hat.Soc, Fellow nf the Royal Historical Society.
F.ILLBA. Fellow of the Royal Institution of British Architect!.
F.ltS, Fellow of the Royal Society.
F.EL5-E. Fellow ol the Royal Society of Edinhurgh.
F.RSL. FeDow of the Royal Society of Literature.
F-SJL FeDow of the Society of Antiquaries.
Fellow of the Statistical Society.
Feflow of the Zoological Society.
FiS.
GCB.
GX.H.
GOLE.
Knight Grand Cross of the Bath.
Knight Grand Cross of Hanover.
Knight Grand Commander of the Order of the Indian
Empire.
C.CMG Knight Grand Cross of St Michael and St Grorg^
CCS. I. Knight Grand Commander of the Star of End La.
G.C.V.Q. Knight Grand Commander of the Victorian Order.
KH. Hii or Her Highness.
HI rL Ha pr Her ImrcruJ Highness,
i! NL His or Her Imperial Majesty,
rill.
H.R.H.
ILSiL
ticjx
Hi* or Her Majesty.
Hit or Her Royal Htghn
tr
Hi* or Her Serene Highness.
(Juris Canonici Doctor, or Juris Caiiis Doctor), Doctor of
Canon or Ctvil Law.
(Juris ulriusgue Doctor). Doctor of Civil and Canon Law.
Justice of the Peace.
Kings Counsel.
ICC.R. Knight Commander of the Bath,
KC-l E- Knight Commander of the Order of the Indian Empire.
h-Jr*-^ Knight Commander of St Michael and St George.
^£_Sl. Knight Commander of the Star of India.
K-CY.Q, Knight Commander of the Victorian Order.
K.G. Knight of the Garter.
K-P. Knight of St Patrick.
K T. Knight of t he Thistle.
{-AH. Lkentiate of the ApothccaiW Hall.
f-CC London County Council, or Councillor,
LCJ, Lord Chief Justice.
jAa archbishop or bishop, in writing his signature, substitutes
wte surname the name of his tee: thus the prelates of Canterbury,
YaA, Oxford. London, Ac. subscribe themselves with their initials
(Clnttta names oofy). followed by Caatuar., Ebor., Oxon., Londin.
LA.
Lord Justice.
L.L.A, Lady literate in Arts.
LL.B. (Legum Baccalaureus), Bachelor of Laws.
LL.D. (Legum Doctor), Doctor of Laws.
LL.M. (Legum Magister), Master of Laws.
L.R.C.P. Licentiate of the Royal College of Physicians.
L.R.GS. Licentiate of the Royal College of Surgeons.
L.S.A. Licentiate of the Apothecaries' Society.
M.A. Master of Arte.
M.B. (Moiicma* Baccalaureus), Bachelor of Medicine.
M.C Member of Congress..
M.D. (Medicinae Doctor), Doctor of Medicine.
M.InstX.E, Member of the Institute of Civil Engineers,
M.P. Member of Parliament.
M.R. Master of the Rolls.
M.R.C.P. Member of the Royal College of Physicians.
M.R.CS. Member of the Royal College of Surgeons.
M.R.LA. Member of the Royal Irish Academy.
MuaB. Bachelor of Music
Mus.D. Doctor of Music
M.V.O. Member of the Victorian Order.
N.P. Notary Public
O.M. Order of Merit.
P.C Privy Councillor.
Ph.D. ^**°"£**" Doctor), Doctor of Philosophy.
P.rIa. President of the Royal Academy.
R. (Rex, Regina), King, Queen.
R. & I. Rex ct Imperator.
R.A. Royal Academician, Royal Artillery.
R.A.M. Royal Academy of Munc
R.E. Royal Engineers.
Reg. Prof. Regius Professor.
RJM. Royal Marines, Resident Magistrate.
R.N. Royal Navy.
S. or St. Saint.
S.S.C. Solicitor before the Supreme Courts [of Scotland] .
S.T.P. (Sacfosanctae Theotogtae Professor), Professor of Sacred
Theology.
V.C Vice-Chanceflor. Victoria Cross.
V.G. Vicar-General.
V.S. Veterinary Surgeon.
YY.S. Writer to the Signet [in Scotland]. Equivalent to Attorney.
2. Abbreviations Denoting Monies, Weights, and
Measures.*
lb. or lb. (libra), pound (weight),
m. or mi. mile, • minute,
is,, minim,
mo. month.
drachm or dram.
pennyweight.
franc
florin.
foot.
furlong.
ac acre,
bar. barrel,
bus. bushel.
c. cent.
c (or cub.) ft. &c. cubic foot,Ac
cwt. hundredweight.
d. (denarius), penny,
deg.
dr.
dwt.
f.
fl.
ft.
fur.
gal.
gr. grain,
h. or hr. hour,
hhd. hogshead,
in. inch,
kilo, kilometre.
L..' £.»orf. (libra), pound
(money).
3. Miscellaneous Abbreviations.
A. Accepted.
A.C. (A nU Christum), Before Christ.
acc r a/c. or acct. Account.
A.D. (Anno Domini), In the year of our Lord.
A.E.I.O.U. Austriae est imperare orbi univeno, 4 or Alles Erdreich
1st Oesterreich Unterthan.
Act, orAetat. (AetaUs, \anno\). In the year of his age.
A.H. (A nno Hegirao), In the year of the Hegira (the Mohammedan
eta).
ox.
Pk. pedt,
pt. pint.
q. \quadrans), farthing.
qr. quarter.
qt. quart.
ro. rood.
Rs. a rupees.
a or/ (soiidus), shilling.
a or sec. second.
sc. or scr. scruple.
sq. ft. Ac. square foot, Ac
at. stone.
ydi yard.
• Characters, not properly abbreviations, are used in the same
way j t.f. * ' • for "degrees, minutes, seconds " (circular measure);
5. 3* 3 for "ounces, drachms, scruples." § is probably to be traced
to the written form of the s in "0*,"
* These forms (as well as $, the symbol for the American dollar)
are placed before their amounts.
«/f is gtnm to Austria to rule Ike whole earth. The device of
Austria, first adopted by Frederick III.
30
ABBREVIATORS— ABDALLATIF
A.M. (Anno Mundi), In the year «f the world.
A.M. (Ante meridiem). Forenoon.
Anon. Anonymous.
A.U.C (Anno urbis conditae), In the year from the building of the
city (t*. Rome).
A.V. Authorized version of the Bible,
b. born.
B.V.M. The Blessed Virgin Mary.
B.C. Before Christ,
c circa, about.
C. or Cap. {Caput). Chapter.
C. Centigrade (or Celsius's) Thermometer.
cent. 1 {Centum), A hundred, frequently £100.
Cf. or cp. {Confer), Compare.
Ch. or Chap. Chapter.
C.M.S. Church Missionary Society.
Co. Company, County.
C.O.D. Cash on Delivery.
Cr. Creditor,
curt. Current, the present month.
died.
(Dei gratia), By the grace of God.
Ditto, the same.
D.O.M. (Deo Optimo Maximo), To God the Best and Greatest.
Dr. Debtor.
D.V. (Deo volente), God willing.
E.& O.E. Errors and omissions excepted,
e.g. (Exempli gratia), For example.
etc or Sec (Etcaetera), And the rest; and so forth.
Ex. .Example.
F. or Fahr. Fahrenheit's Thermometer.
Fee (FecU), He made (or did) it.
d.
D.G.
Do.
Fo. or FoL Folio.
f .o.b. Free on board.
G.P.O. General Post Office.
H.M.S. His Majesty's Ship, or Service.
lb. or Ibid. (Ibidem), In the same place.
Id. (Idem), The same.
i.e. lid est). That is.
I.H.S.. A. symbol for "Jesus," derived from the first three letters
of the Greek (IHI); the correct origin was lost sight
of, and the Romanized letters were then interpreted
erroneously as standing for Jesus, Hominum Safoator,
the Latin h " and Greek long " e " being confused.
I.M.D.G. (In majorem Dei gforiam), To the greater glory of God.
Inf. (Infra), Below.
Inst. Instant, the present month.
I.O.U. I owe you.
Lq. (Idem quod), The same as.
cr.X. (coi ta Xatr*), Et caetera, and the rest.
L. or Lib. (Liber), Book.
Lat. Latitude.
I.e. (Loco citato), In the place cited.
Lon. or Long. Longitude.
L.S. (Locus sigiUt), The place of the seal.
Mem. (Memento), Remember, Memorandum.
"MS. Manuscript. MSS. Manuscripts.
N. B. (Nota bene), Mark well ; take notice.
N.B. North Britain (U. Scotland).
N.D. No date.
nctn. con. (Nemine contradicenle). No one contradicting.
No. (Numero), Number.
N.S. New Style.
N.T. New Testament.
ob, {OMii\ Died.
Ok*. Obsolete.
O-H.M.S* Od His Majesty's Service.
O.S, Old Style
O.SwB, Ordo Saxtti Beneditli (Benedictines).
O.T* Old Testament,
F, Page. Pp. Pjgw-
(Ptr) r For; *,r. ft lb.. For one pound.
Picuc tPinxit), He painted it.
P,M* v/*^ Meridiem}, Afternoon.
F + 0, Post OfRccp Po*ul Order
P + OXX Post Office Order.
P.P.C. (P<"*r prtxdTt i#n£f) t To take leave.
RR* Prue-onE-
pToi. (Proximo [mense]) t Nt*t month.
P& Postscript*
Ft. Part.
p.t. or pro tern. (Pro tempore), For the time.
P.T.O. Please turn over.
Q,Qu., or Qy. Query ; Question.
-.d. (Quasi dtcat), As if he should say; as much as to say.
'•5-P* (Q^ ^rat demonstnndum), Which was to be demonstrated.
E.F. (Quod erat faciendum), Which was to be done.
"Per cent." is often signified by %, a form traceable to "100."
q.s. or quant, suff. (Quantum suficit), As much as is sufficient.
%v. (Quod vide), Which see.
. or U. (£eopr), Take.
V ( -r. for radix). The sign of the square root.
R.I.P. (Requtescat in pace!), May he rest in peace!
R.S.V.P. (Respondes s'U vous plait), Please reply,
sc (Scilicet), Namely; that is to say.
Sc or Sculp. (Sculpsit), He engraved it.
S.D.U.K. Society for the Diffusion of Useful Knowledge,
seq-or eq., seqq. or sqq. (Sequent, sequentia). The following.
S.J. Society of Jesus,
s-p. (Sine prole). Without offspring.
S.P.C.K. Society for the Promotion of Christian Knowledge.
S.P.G. Society for the Propagation of the Gospel
S.T.D. )
S.T.B. I Doctor, Bachelor, Licentiate of Theology.
S.T.L. )
Sup. (Supra), Above.
s.v. (Sub voce). Under the word (or heading).
T.CD. Trinity College, Dublin,
ult. (Ultimo \mense\). Last month.
U.S. United States.
U^A. United States of America.
v. (Versus), Against,
v. or vid. (Vide), bee.
viz. (Videlicet), Namely.
.Xmas. Christmas. This X is a Greek letter, corresponding to Ch.
See also Graevius's Thesaurus Antiquitatum (1694* sqq.) ; Nicolai's
Tractatus de Siglis Veterum; Mommsen's Corpus Inscriptionum Lati-
narum (1863, sqq.); Natatis de Wsilly's PaUorrapkie (Paris, I 838);
Alph. Chassant s PaUographie (1854), and Dictionnaire des Abrfrta-
tions (3rd ed. i860); Campelli, Dinonario di Abbreviature (1899).
ABBREVIATORS, a body of writers in the papal chancery,
whose business was to sketch out and prepare in due form the
pope's bulls, briefs and consistorial decrees before these are
written out in extenso by the scriptores. They are first men-
tioned in Extravagantes of John XXII. and of Benedict XH.
Their number was fixed at seventy-two by Sixtus IV. From the
time of Benedict XH. (1334-1342) they were classed as de Parco
majori or Praesidentiae ntajoris, and de Parco minori. The name
was derived from a space in the chancery; surrounded by a
grating/ in which the officials sat, which is called higher or lower
(major or minor) according to the proximity of the seats to that
of the vice-chancellor. After the protonotaries left the sketching
of the minutes to the abbreviators, those de Parco majori, who
ranked as prelates, were the most important officers of the
apostolic chancery. By Martin V. their signature was made
essential to the validity of the acts of the chancery; and they
obtained in course of time many important privileges. They
were suppressed in 1908 by Pius X. and their duties were trans-
ferred to the protonolarii aposlolici participantes. (See Curia
Romana.)
ABDALLATIF, or Abd-ul-Latit (1162-1231), a celebrated
physician and traveller, and one of the most voluminous writers
of the East, was born at Bagdad in x 162. An interesting memoir
of Abdallatif, written by himself, has been preserved with addi-
tions by Ibn-Abu-Osaiba (Ibn abl Usaibia), a contemporary.
From that work we learn that the higher education of the youth
of Bagdad consisted principally in a minute and oareful study
of the rules and principles of grammar, and in their committing
to memory the whole of the Koran, a treatise or two on philology
and jurisprudence, and the choicest Arabian poetry. After
attaining to great proficiency in that land of learning, Abdallatif
applied himself to natural philosophy and medicine. To enjoy
the society of the learned, he went first to Mosul (1189), and
afterwards to Damascus. With letters of recommendation
from Saladin's vizier, he visited Egypt, where the wish be had
long cherished to converse with Maimonides, " the Eagle of the
Doctors," was gratified. He afterwards formed one of the circle
of learned men whom Saladin gathered around him at Jerusalem.
He taught medicine and philosophy at Cairo and at Damascus
for a number of years, and afterwards, for a shorter period, at
Aleppo. His love of travel led him in his old age to visit different
parts of Armenia and Asia Minor, and he was setting out on a
pilgrimage to Mecca when he died at Bagdad in 1231. Abdal-
latif was undoubtedly a man of great knowledge and of an
inquisitive and penetrating mind. Of the numerous works—
mostly on medicine— which Osaiba ascribes to him* one only,
ABD-AR-RAHMAN
3«
has graphic and detailed Account of E&pt (in two parts), appear*
to be known in Europe. The manuscript, discovered by Edward
Pbcocke the Orientalist, and preserved in the Bodleian Library,
contains a vivid description of a famine caused, during the
author's residence in Egypt, by the Nik tailing to overflow its
banks. It was translated into Latin by Professor White of
Oxford in 1800, and into French, with valuable notes, by De
Sacy in iftio.
ABP-Aft-BAHMaW, the name borne by five princes of the
Omayyad dynasty, amirs and caliphs of Cordova, two of them
being rulers of great capacity.
Ahkib-IUhxan L (756-788) was the founder of the branch
of the family whkh ruled for nearly three centuries in Mahom-
sudan Spain. When the Omayyads were overthrown in the
East by the Abbasids he was a young man of about twenty
years of age. Together with his brother. Yahya, he took refuge
with Bedouin tribes in the desert The Abbasids hunted their
monies down without mercy. Their soldiers overtook the
brothers; Yahya was slain, and Abd-ar-rahman saved himself
by fleeing first to Syria and thence to northern Africa, the
common refuge of all who endeavoured to get beyond the reach
of the Abbasids. In the general confusion of the caliphate
produced by the change of dynasty, Africa had fallen into the
hands of local rulers, formerly amirs or lieutenants of the Omay-
yad cahphs, but now aiming at independence. After a time
Abd-ar-rahman found that his life was threatened, and he fled
hither west, taking refuge among the Berber tribes of Mauri-
tania. In the midst of all his perils, which read like stories from
the iiro&M* Nig/Us, Abd-ar-rahman had been encouraged by
reliance on a prophecy of his great-uncle Maslama that he would
restore the fortune of the family. He was followed in all his
wanderings by a few faithful clients of the Omayyads. In 75s
he was in hiding near Ceuta, and thence he sent an agent over
to Spain to ask for the support of other clients of the family,
descendants of the conquerors of Spain, who -were numerous
in the province of Elvira, the modern Granada. The country
was m a state of confusion under the weak rule of the amir
Yusef, a mere puppet in the hands of a faction, and was torn by
tribal dissensions among the- Arabs and by race conflicts be-
tween the Arabs and Berbers. It offered Abd-ar-rahman the
opportunity he had failed to find in Africa. On the invitation
of his partisans he landed at Almufiecar, to the east of Malaga,
m September 755. For a time he was compelled to submit to
be guided by his supporters, who were aware of the risks of their
venture. Yusef opened negotiations, and offered to give Abd-
tr-rahman one of his daughters in marriage and a grant of land.
This was far less than the prince meant to obtain, but he would
probably have been forced to accept the offer for want of a
better if the insolence of one of Yusef s messengers, a Spanish
renegade, had not outraged a chief partisan of the Omayyad
cause. He taunted this gentleman, Obeidullah by name, with
bring unable to write good Arabic Under this provocation
ObekSuOah drew the sword. In the course of 756 a campaign
was fought in the valley of the Guadalquivir, which ended, on
the 16th of May, in the defeat of Yusef outside Cordova. Abd-
ir-cahmaa's army was so ni provided that he mounted almost
the only good war-horse in it; he had no banner, and one was
improvised by unwinding a green turban and binding it round
the head of a spear. The turban and the spear became the
banner of the Spanish Omayyads. The long reign of Abd-ar-
raaman L was spent in a struggle to reduce his anarchical Arab
and Berber subjects to order. They had never meant to give
themselves a master, and they chafed under his hand, which
grew continually heavier. The details of these conflicts belong
to the general history of Spain. It is, however, part of the
personal history of Abd-ar-rahman that when in 763 he was
compelled to fight at the very gate of his capital with rebels
acting on behalf of the Abbasids, and had won a signal victory,
he cut off the heads of the leaders, filled them with salt and
camphor and sent them as a defiance to the eastern caliph.
His last years were spent amid a succession of palace conspiracies,
repressed with cruelty. Abd-ar-rahman grew embittered and
ferocious. He was a fine example of an oriental founder of a
dynasty, and did his work so well that the Omayyads lasted in
Spain for two centuries and a half.
Abd-ax-Rabkan n. (829-852) was one of the weaker of
the Spanish Omayyads. He was a prince with a taste for music
and literature, whose reign was a time of confusion. It is chiefly
memorable for having included the story of the "Martyrs of
Cordova," one of the most remarkable passages in the religious
history, of the middle ages.
Abd-ak-Rahxan in. (912-961) was the greatest and the
most successful of the princes of his dynasty in Spain (for the
general history of his reign see Spain, History). He ascended the
throne when he was barely twenty-two and reigned for half a
century. His life was so completely identified with the govern-
ment of the state that he offers less material for biography than
his ancestor Abd-ar-rahman L Yet it supplies some passages
which show the real character of an oriental dynasty even at its
best. Abd-ar-rahman IIL was the grandson of his predecessor,
Abdallah, one of the weakest and worst of the Spanish Omayyads.
His father, Mahommed, was murdered by a brother Motarrif by
order of Abdallah. The old sultan was so far influenced by
humanity and remorse that he treated his grandson kindly.
Abd-ar-rahman III. came to the throne when the country was
exhausted by more than a generation of tribal conflict among
the Arabs, and of strife between them and the Mahommedans
of native Spanish descent. Spaniards who were openly or
secretly Christians had acted with the renegades. These ele-
ments, which formed the bulk of the population, were not
averse from supporting a strong ruler who would protect them
against the Arab aristocracy. These restless nobles were the
most serious of Abd-ar-rahman's enemies. Next to them came
the Fatimitcs of Egypt and northern Africa, who claimed the
caliphate, and who aimed at extending their rule over the
Mahommedan world, at least in the west. Abd-ar-rahman
subdued the nobles by means of a mercenary army, which in-
cluded Christians. He repelled the Fatimites, partly by sup-
porting their enemies in Africa, and partly by claiming the
caliphate for himself. His ancestors in Spain had been content
with the title of sultan. The caliphate was thought only to
belong to the prince who ruled over the sacred cities of Mecca
and Medina. But the force of this tradition had been so far
weakened that Abd-ar-rahman could proclaim himself caliph
on the 16th of January 929, and the assumption of the title
gave him increased prestige with his subjects, both in Spain
and Africa. His worst enemies were always his fellow Mahom-
medans. After he was defeated by the Christians at Alhandega
in 939 through the treason of the Arab nobles in his army (see
Spain, History) he never again took the field. He is accused of
having sunk in his later years into the self-indulgent habits of
the harem. When the undoubted prosperity of his dominions
is quoted as an example of successful Mahommedan rule, it is
well to remember that he administered well not by means of
but in spite of Mahommedans. The high praise given to his
administration may even excite some doubts as to its real ex-
cellence. We are told that a third of his revenue sufficed for
the ordinary expenses of government, a third was hoarded
and a third spent on buildings. A very large proportion of the
surplus must have been wasted on the palace-town of Zahra,
built three miles to the north of Cordova, and named after a
favourite concubine. Ten thousand workmen are said to have
been employed for twenty-five years on this wonder, of which
no trace now remains. The great monument of early Arabic
architecture in Spain, the mosque of Cordoya, was built by his
predecessors, not by him. It is said that his harem included
six thousand women. Abd-ar-rahman was tolerant, but it is
highly probable that he was very indifferent in religion, and it
is certain that he was a thorough despot One of the most
authentic sayings attributed to him is his criticism of Otto I. of
Germany, recorded by Otto's ambassador, Johann, abbot of
Gone, who has left in his Vita an incomplete account of his
embassy (in Perts, lion. Germ. Scriptores, iv. 355-377)* He
blamed the king of Germany for trusting his nobles, which he said
3*
ABD-EL-AZIZ IV.— ABD-EL-KADER
could only increase their pride and leaning to rebellion. His
confession that he had known only twenty happy days in his
long reign is perhaps a moral tale, to be classed with the " omnia
fui, et nil exfedit " of Septimius Severus.
In the agony of the Omayyad dynasty in Spain, two princes
of the house were proclaimed caliphs for a very short time,
Abd-ar-rahman IV. Mortada (1017), and Abd-ar-rahman V.
Mostadir ( 1023-1034). Both were the mere puppets of factions,
who deserted them at once, Abd-ar-rahman IV. was murdered
in the year in which he was proclaimed, at Guadis, when fleeing
from a battle in which he had been deserted by his supporters.
Abd-ar-rahman V. was proclaimed caliph in December 1023 at
Cordova, and murdered in January 1024 by a mob of unemployed
workmen, headed by one of his own cousins.
The history of the Omayyads in Spain is the subject of the Histoirt
des Musulmans fEspagne, by R. Dozy (Leiden, 1861). (D. H.)
ABD-EL-AZIZ IV. (1880- ), sultan of Morocco, son of
Sultan Mulai el Hasan III. by a Circassian wife. He was fourteen
years of age on his father's death in 1804. By the wise action
of Si Ahmad bin Musa, the chamberlain of El Hasan, Abd-el-
Aziz's accession to the sultanate was ensured with but little
fighting. Si Ahmad became regent and for six years showed
himself a capable ruler. On his death in 1000 the regency
ended, and Abd-er-Axix took the reins of government into his
Own hands, with an Arab from the south, El Menebhi, for his
chief adviser. Urged by his Circassian mother, the sultan
sought advice and counsel from Europe and endeavoured to
act up to it. But disinterested advice was difficult to obtain,
and in spite of the unquestionable desire of the young ruler to
do the best for the country, wild extravagance both in action
and expenditure resulted, leaving the sultan with depleted
exchequer and the confidence of his people impaired. His in-
timacy with foreigners and his imitation of their ways were
sufficient to rouse fanaticism and create dissatisfaction. His
attempt to reorganize the finances by the systematic levy of
taxes was hailed with delight, but the government was not
strong enough to carry the measures through, and the money
which should have been used to pay the taxes was employed to
purchase firearms. Thus the benign intentions of Mulai Abd-
el-Aziz were interpreted as weakness, and Europeans were
accused of having spoiled the sultan and of being desirous of
spoiling the country. When British engineers were employed
to survey the route for a railway between Mequinez and Fez,
this was reported as indicating an absolute sale of the country.
The fanaticism of the people was aroused, and a revolt broke
out near the Algerian frontier. Such was the condition of
things when the news of the Anglo-French Agreement of 1004
came as a blow to Abd-el-Aziz, who had relied on England for
support and protection against the inroads of France. On the
advice of Germany he proposed the assembly of an international
conference at Algeciras in 1006 to consult upon methods of
reform, the sultan's desire being to ensure a condition of affairs
which would leave foreigners with no excuse for interference in
the control of the country, and would promote its welfare,
which Abd-el-Aziz had earnestly desired from his accession to
power. The sultan gave his adherence to the Act of the Algeciras
Conference, but the state of anarachy into which Morocco fell
during the latter half of 1006 and the beginning of 1907 showed
that the young ruler lacked strength sufficient to make his will
respected by his turbulent subjects. In May 1907 the southern
tribes invited Mulai Hafid, an elder brother of Abd-el-Aziz, and
viceroy at Marrakesh, to become sultan, and in the following
August Hafid was proclaimed sovereign there with all the
usual formalities. In the meantime the murder of Europeans
at Casablanca had led to the occupation of that port by France.
In September Abd-el-Aziz arrived at Rabat from Fez and
endeavoured to secure the support of the European powers
against his brother. From France he accepted the grand
cordon of the Legion of Honour, and was later enabled to
negotiate a loan. His leaning to Christians aroused further
opposition to his rule, and in January 1908 he was declared
deposed by the ulema of Fez, who offered the throne to Hafid.
After months of inactivity Abd-el-Aziz made an effort to re-
store bis authority, and quitting Rabat in July he marched
on Marrakesh. His force, largely owing to treachery, was com-
pletely overthrown (August 10th) when near that city, and
Abd-el-Aziz fled to Settat within the French lines round Cas-
ablanca. In November he came to terms with his brother,
and. thereafter took up his residence in Tangier as a pensioner
of the new sultan. He declared himself more than reconciled
to the loss of the throne, and as looking forward to a quiet,
peaceful life. (See Morocco, History.)
ABD-EL-KADER (c. 1807-1883), amir of Mascara, the great
opponent of the conquest of Algeria by France, was born near
Mascara in 1807 or 1808. His family were skerifs or descend-
ants of Mahomet, and his father, Mahi-ed-Din, was celebrated
throughout North Africa for his piety and charity. Abd-eJ-
Kader received the best education attainable by a Mussulman
of princely rank, especially in theology and philosophy, in
horsemanship and in other manly exercises. While still a youth
he was taken by his father on the pilgrimage to Mecca and
Medina and to the tomb of Sidi Abd-el-Kader El Jalili at Bag-
dad—events which stimulated his natural tendency to religious
enthusiasm. While in Egypt in 1827, Abd-el-Kader is stated
to have been impressed, by the reforms then being carried out
by Mehemet Ali, with the value of European civilization, and the
knowledge he then gained affected his career. Mahi-ed-Din and
his son returned to Mascara shortly before the French occupa-
tion of Algiers (July 1830) destroyed the government of the Dey.
Coming forward as the. champion of Islam against the infidels,
Abd-el-Kader was proclaimed amir at Mascara in 183s. He
prosecuted the war against France vigorously and in a short
time had rallied to his standard all the tribes of western Algeria.
The story of his fifteen years' struggle against the French is
given under Algeria. To the beginning of 184a the contest
went in favour of the amir; thereafter he found in Marshal
Bugeaud an opponent who proved, in the end, his master.
Throughout this period Abd-el-Kader showed himself a born
leader of men, a great soldier, a capable administrator, a per-
suasive orator, a chivalrous opponent His fervent faith in the
doctrines of Islam was unquestioned, and his ultimate failure
was due in considerable measure to the refusal of the Kabyles,
Berber mountain tribes whose Mahommedanism is somewhat
loosely held, to make common cause with the Arabs against the
French. On the aist of December 1847, the amir gave himself
up to General Lamoridere at Sidi Brahim. On the 23rd, his
submission was formally made to the due d'Aumale, then
governor of Algeria. In violation of the promise that he would
be allowed to go to Alexandria or St Jean d'Acre, on the faith
of which he surrendered, Abd-el-Kader and his family were
detained in France, first at Toulon, then at Pau, being in
November 1848 transferred to the chateau of Amboise. There
Abd-el-Kader remained until October 185a, when he was re-
leased by Napoleon III. on taking an oath never again to dis-
turb Algeria. The amir then took up his residence in Brass,
removing in 1855 to Damascus. In July i860, when the Moslems
of that dty, taking advantage of disturbances among the Druses
of Lebanon, attacked the Christian quarter and killed over
3000 persons, Abd-el-Kader hdped to repress the outbreak
and saved large numbers of Christians. For this action the
French government, which granted the amir a pension of £4000,
bestowed on him the grand cross of the Legion of Honour. In
1865, be visited Paris and London, and was again in Paris at
the exposition of 1867. In 187.x, when the Algerians again rose
in revolt, Abd-el-Kader wrote to them counselling submission to
France. After his surrender in 1847 he devoted himself anew
to theology and philosophy, and composed a philosophical
treatise, of which a French translation was published in 1858
under the title of Rappd d VinUUigent. Avis d rindiftrtnt.
He also wrote a book on the Arab horse. He died at Damascus
on the a6th of May 1883.
See Commdt. J. Pichon, Abd d Kader, 1807-1883 (P»ns (itoal);
Alex. Bellemare, Abd-*l-Kader: so tit poliiiqu* *t miiiiain (Pan*.
1863) ; CoL C H. Churchill, Tk* Lift •/ A bddKader (London. 1867).
ABDERA— ABDOMEN
33
ABDERA. an ancient seaport town on the south coast of
Spain, between Malaca and New Carthage, in the district in-
habited by the BastuB. It was founded by the Carthaginians
is s trading station, and after a period of decline became under
the Romans one of the more important towns in the province
of ffispania Baetka. It was situated on a hill above the modern
Adra (?.*.). Of its coins the most ancient bear the Phoenician
inscription akdrt with the head of Heracles (Melkarth) and a
tinny-fish; those of Tiberius (who seems to have made the
place a colony) show the chief temple of the town with two
tunny-fish erect in the form of columns. For inscriptions re-
lating to the Roman municipality see C.I.L. ii. 267.
ABDflUa* a town on the coast of Thrace near the mouth of
the Nestos, and almost opposite Thasos. Its mythical founda-
tion was attributed to Heracles, its historical to a colony from
Qaaomenae in the 7U1 century B.C. But its prosperity dates
from $44 B.C., when the majority of the people of Teos migrated
to Abdera after the Ionian revolt to escape the Persian yoke
(Herod. L 168); the chief coin type, a gryphon, is identical
with that of Teos; the coinage n noted for the beauty and
variety of its reverse types. The town seems to have declined
in importance after the .middle of the 4th century. The air of
Abdera was proverbial as causing stupidity; but among its
dozens was the philosopher Democritus. The ruins of the
town may still be seen on Cape Balastra; they cover seven
saaH lulls, and extend from an eastern to a western harbour;
on the S.W. mils are the remains of the medieval settlement of
Polystyksn.
WtxknL d. demUch. JnsL Athens, nL (1887). p. 161 (Kegel);
J/«. it TAcad. des Inscriptions, xxxix. 211; K. F. Hermann, Gtf.
AbL 90-m. 370 ff.
ABDICATION (Lat ab d icatio, disowning, renouncing, from
eft, from, and dicare, to declare, to proclaim as not belonging
to one), the act whereby a person in office renounces and gives
sp the same before the expiry of the time for which it is held.
In Roman law, the term is especially applied to the disowning
of t member of a family, as the disinheriting of a son, but the
word is seldom used except in the sense of surrendering the
fapreme power in a state. Despotic sovereigns are at liberty
to divest themselves of their powers at any time, but it is other-
wise with a limited monarchy. The throne of Great Britain
cannot be lawfully abdicated unless with the .consent of the two
Bouses of Parliament When James II., after throwing the great
seal into the Thames, fled to France in 1688, he did not formally
range the crown, and the question was discussed in parliament
whether he had forfeited the throne or had abdicated. The
latter designation was agreed on, for in a full assembly of the
Lords and Commons, met in convention, it was resolved, in
spite of James's protest, " that King James II. having endea-
voured to subvert the constitution of the kingdom, by breaking
the original contract between king and people, and, by the
advice of Jesuits and other wicked persons, having violated
the funda m ental laws, and having withdrawn himself out of
this kingdom, has abdicated the government, and that the
throne is thereby vacant" The Scottish parliament pronounced
a decree of forfeiture and deposition. Among the most memor-
able abdications of antiquity may be mentioned that of Sulla
the dictator, 79 b.c, and that of the Emperor Diocletian, a.d.
305- The following is a list of the more important abdications
d hvter times: —
A.D.
• 1048
• • 1131
_j HI. of Poland .. w . . . . I ! 1206
Cdadae V.. pope ...... Dec 13, 1294
Jo*» Bafiol dfScodand 1296
• • «355
Sept. 29, 1399
. . 1415
Benedict IX, pope . / % •
Stephen II. of Hungary • . .
Albert (the Bear)_ot Brandenburg .
Jj*n Cantacuaene. emperor of the East
Kxaard fl. of Ei
M« XXIII., dov* .....
Eric VII. of Denmark and XIII. of Sweden • . 1439
Morad IL, Ottoman Sultan ..... 1444 and 1445
Canries V., em pe r or 1556
Cariwina of Sweden 1654
joaaCanimir of Poland 1668
La
lam?* If. of Fngland
Frcdenrk Augu*fu*of Poland
Philip V. of Spain
Victor Amailrm IL at Sardinia
Ahmed III-, Sulun of Turkey
Charl» of Naples (on accession to
Stanislaus IK of Poland
Charles Emanuel [V. .of Sardinia
Charles IV, of Spain , ,
Joseph Bonaparte of Naple* .
t*u*iavua IV, of Sweden .
Lout* Bonaparte ol Holland •
Napoleon L, French Emperor .
Victor Emanuel of Sardinia *
Charles X, of France . *
Pedro of Brazil ■ . ,
Miguel of Portion] ■ •
Wi m L of Holland . .
Louis Philippe, king of the French
Louis Charles of Bj
throne of Spain)
April 4, 1814, and
Fe mod of Austria
Charles Albert of Sardinia
Leopold IL of Tuscany •
Isat*L!all, of Spain , »
Anudeus J- of Spain - •.
Alexander of Bulgaria •
Milan of Servia . . •
A.D.
1688
1704
1724
I730
»73<>
1759
one 4, 1802
Mar. 19, 1808
tine 6
!ar. 29,
June 6, 1808
Mai
,. 1809
July s, 1810
June 22, 1815
■Mar. 13, 1821
Aug. 2, 1830
April 7, 183!
May 26, 1834
Oct. 7, 1840
Feb. 24, 1848
Mar. 21, 1848
Dec 2, 1848
Mar. 23, 1849
1859
1870
July 21, 18;
June 25, 18;
Feb. Ii, 1873
Sept. 7, 1886
Mar. 6, 1889
ABDOMEN (a Latin word, either from abdere t to hide, or from
a form adipomen, from adept, fat), the belly, the region of the
body containing most of the digestive organs. (See for ana-
tomical details the articles Alimentary Canal, and Anatomy,
Superficial and Artistic.)
Abdominal Surgery.— The diseases affecting this region
are dealt with generally in the article Digestive Organs, and
under their own names {e.g. Appendicitis). The term " ab-
dominal surgery " covers generally the operations which involve
opening the abdominal cavity, and in modern times this field of
work has been greatly extended. In this Encyclopaedia the
surgery of each abdominal organ is dealt with, for the most
part, in connexion with the anatomical description of that
organ (see Stomach, Kidney, Liver, &c); but here the general
principles of abdominal surgery may be discussed.
Exploratory Laparotomy. — In many cases of serious intra-
abdominal disease it is impossible (pr the surgeon to say exactly
what is wrong without making an incision and introducing his
finger, or, if need be, his hand among the intestines. With due
care this is not a perilous or serious procedure, and the great ad-
vantage appertaining to it is daily being more fully recognized.
It was Dr Oliver Wendell Holmes, the American physiologist
and poet, who remarked that one cannot say of what wood a
table is made without lifting up the cloth; so also it is often
impossible to say what is wrong inside the abdomen without
making an opening into it. When an opening is made in such
circumstances — provided only it is done soon enough — the
successful treatment of the case often becomes a simple matter.
An exploratory operation, therefore, should be promptly resorted
to as a means of diagnosis, and not left as a last resource till the
outlook is well-nigh hopeless.
It is probable that if the question were put to any experienced
hospital surgeon if he had often had cause to regret having
advised recourse to an exploratory operation on the abdomen,
his answer would be in the negative, but that, on the other hand,
he had not infrequently had cause to regret that he had not
resorted to it, post-mortem examination having shown that if
only he had insisted on an exploration being made, some band,
some adhesion, some tumour, some abscess might have been
satisfactorily dealt with, which, left unsuspected in the dark
cavity, was accountable for the death. A physician by himself
is helpless in these cases.
Much of the rapid advance which has of late been made in
the results of abdominal surgery is due to the improved rela-
tionship which exists between the public and the surgical pro-
fession. In former days it was not infrequently said, " If a
surgeon is called in he is sure to operate." Not only have the
* Pedro had aucceeded to the throne of Portugal in 1826. but
abdicated it at once in favour of hia daughter.
34
ABDOMEN
public said this, but even physicians have been known to suggest
it, and have indeed used the equivocal expression, the " apothe-
osis of surgery," in connexion with the operative treatment of
a serious abdominal lesion. But fortunately the public have
found out that the surgeon, being an honest man, does not
advise operation unless he believes that it is necessary or, at
any rate, highly advisable. And this happy discovery has led
to much more confidence being placed in his decision. It has
truly been said that a surgeon is a physician who can operate,
and the public have begun to realize the fact that it is useless
to try to relieve an acute abdominal lesion by diet or drugs.
Not many years ago cases of acute, obscure or chronic affections
of the abdomen which were admitted into hospital were sent
as a matter of course into the medical wards, and after the
effect of drugs had been tried with expectancy and failure, the
services of a surgeon were called in. In acute cases this delay
spoilt all surgical chances, and the idea was more widely spread
that surgery, after all, was a poor handmaid to medicine. But
now things are different. Acute or obscure abdominal cases are
promptly relegated to the surgical wards; the surgeon is at once
sent for, and if operation is thought desirable it is performed
without any delay. The public have found that the surgeon is
not a reckless operator, but a man who can take a broad view
of a case in all its bearings. And so it has come about that the
results of operations upon the interior of the abdomen have
been improving day by day. And doubtless they will continue
to improve.
A great impetus was given to the surgery of wounded, morti-
fied or diseased pieces of intestine by the introduction from
Chicago of an ingenious contrivance named, after the inventor,
Murphy's button. This consists of a short nickel-plated tube in
two pieces, which are rapidly secured in the divided ends of the
bowel, and in such a manner that when the pieces are subse-
quently " married " the adjusted ends of the bowel are securely
fixed together and the canal rendered practicable. In the course
of time the button loosens itself into the interior of the bowel
and comes away with the alvine evacuation. In many other
cases the use of the button has proved convenient and successful,
as in the establishment of a permanent communication between
the stomach and the small intestine when the ordinary gateway
between these parts of the alimentary canal is obstructed by
an irremovable malignant growth; between two parts of the
small intestine so that some obstruction may be passed; be-
tween small and large intestine. The operative procedure goes
by the name of short-circuiting; it enables the contents of the
bowel to get beyond an obstruction. In this way also a perma-
nent working communication can be set up between the gall-
bladder, or a dilated bile-duct, . and the neighbouring small
intestine — the last-named operation bears the precise but
very clumsy name of choUdocoduodenosUmy. By the use of
Murphy's ingenious apparatus the communication of two parts
can be secured in the shortest possible space of time, and this,
in many of the cases in which it is resorted to, is of the greatest
importance. But there is this against the method — that some-
times ulceration occurs around the rim of the metal button,
whilst at others the loosened metal causes annoyance in its
passage along the alimentary canal Some surgeons therefore
prefer to use a bobbin of decalcified bone or similar soft material,
while others rely upon direct suturing of the parts. The last-
named method is gradually increasing in popularity, and of
course, when time and circumstances permit, it is the ideal
method of treatment. The cause of death in the case of intestinal
obstruction is usually due to the blood being poisoned by the
absorption of the products of decomposition of the fluid contents
of the bowel above the obstruction. It is now the custom,
therefore, for the surgeon to complete his operation for the relief
of obstruction by drawing out a loop of the distended bowel,
incising and evacuating it, and then carefully suturing and
returning it. The surgeon who first recognized the lethal effect
of the absorption of this stagnant fluid — or, at any rate, who
first suggested the proper method of treating it— was Lawson
Tait of Birmingham, who on the occurrence of grave symptoms
after operating on the abdomen gave small, repeated doses of
Epsom salts to wash away the harmful liquids of the bowel
and to enable it at the same time to empty itself of the
gas, which, by distending the intestines, was interfering with
respiration and circulation.
Amongst still more recent improvements in abdominal
surgery may be mentioned the placing of the patient in the
sitting position as soon as practicable after the operation, and
the slow administration of a hot saline solution into the lower
bowel, or, in the more desperate cases, of injecting pints of
this " normal saline " fluid into the loose tissue of the armpit.
Hot water thus administered or injected is quickly taken into
the blood, increasing its volume, diluting its impurities and
quenching the great thirst which is so marked a symptom in
this condition.
Gunshot Wounds of the Abdomen. — If a revolver bullet passes
through the abdomen, the coils of intestine are likely to be
traversed by it in several places. If the bullet be small and, by
chance, surgically clean, it is possible that the openings may
tightly close up behind it so that no leakage takes place into
the general peritoneal cavity. If increasing collapse suggests
that serious bleeding is occurring within the abdomen, the cavity
is opened forthwith and a thorough exploration made. When
it is uncertain if the bowel has been traversed or not, it is well
to wait before opening the abdomen, due preparation being
made for performing that operation on the first appearance of
symptoms indicative of perforation having occurred. Small
perforating wounds of the bowel are treated by such suturing
as the circumstances may suggest, the interior.of the abdominal
cavity being rendered as free from septic micro-organisms as
possible. It is by the malign influence of such germs that a
fatal issue is determined in the case of an abdominal wound,
whether inflicted by firearms or by a pointed weapon. If
aseptic procedure can be promptly resorted to and thoroughly
carried out, abdominal wounds do well, but these essentials
cannot be obtained upon the field of battle. When after an
action wounded men come pouring into the field-hospital, the
many cannot be kept waiting whilst preparations are being
made for the thorough carrying out of a prolonged aseptic
abdominal operation upon a solitary case. Experience in the
South African war of 1890-1902 showed that Mauser bullets
could pierce coils of intestine and leave the soldiers in such a
condition that, if treated by mere "expectancy/' more than
50 % recovered, whereas if operations were resorted to, fata|
septic peritonitis was likely to ensue. In the close proximity of
the fight, where time, assistants, pure water, towels, lotions
and other necessaries for carrying out a thoroughly aseptic
operation cannot be forthcoming, gunshot wounds of the ab-
domen had best not be interfered with.
Stabs of the abdomen are serious if they have penetrated the
abdominal wall, as, at the time of injury, septic germs may
have been introduced, or the bowel may have been wounded.
In either case a fatal inflammation of the peritoneum may be
set up. It is inadvisable to probe a wound in order to find out
if the belly-cavity has been penetrated, as the probe itself might
carry inwards septic germs. In case of doubt it is better to en-
large the wound in order to determine its depth, and to disinfect
and close it if it be non-penetrating. If, however, the belly-
cavity has been opened, the neighbouring pieces of bowel should
be examined, cleansed and, if need be, sutured. Should there
have been an escape of the contents of the bowel the " toilet of
the peritoneum " would be duly made, and a drainage-tube
would be left in. If the stab had injured a large blood-vessel
either of the abdominal cavity, or of the liver or of some other
organ, the bleeding would be arrested by ligature or suture,
and the extravasatcd blood sponged out Before the days of
antiseptic surgery, and of exploratory abdominal operations,
these cases were generally allowed to drift to almost certain
death, unrecognized and almost untreated: at the present tim T
a large number of them are saved.
Intussusception.— This is a terribly fatal disease of infants and
children, in which a piece of bowel slips into, and is gripped by.
ABDUCTION— ABD-UL-HAMID II.
35
the piece next below it. Formerly it was generally the custom
to endeavour to reduce the invagination by passing air or water
ap the rectum under pressure — a speculative method of treat-
ment which sometimes ended in a fatal rupture of the distended
bowel, and often — one might almost say generally— failed to do
what was rsprcfrd of it. The teaching of modern surgery is
that a small incision into the abdomen and a prompt withdrawal
of the invaginatfd piece of bowel can be trusted to do all that,
sad more than, injection can effect, without blindly risking a
rupture of the boweL It is certain that when the surgeon is
onabk to unravel the bowel with his fingers gently applied to
the parts themselves, no speculative distension of the bowel
could have been effective. But the outlook in these distressing
cues, even when the operation is promptly resorted to, is ex-
tremely grave, because of the intensity of the shock which the
intussusception and resulting strangulation entail. Still, every
operation gives them by far the best chance.
Gutter ef ike Intestine.— With the introduction of aseptic
methods of operating, it has been found that the surgeon can
reach the bowel through the peritoneum easily and safely. With
the peritoneom opened, moreover, he can explore the diseased
bowel and deal with it as circumstances suggest If the can-
cerous mass is fairly movable the affected piece of bowel is
excised and the cut ends are spliced together, and the continuity
of the alimentary canal is permanently re-established. Thus
in the case of cancer of the large intestine which is not too far
advanced, the surgeon expects to be able not only to relieve
the ob s truction of the bowel, but actually to cure the patient
of ha disease. When the lowest part of the bowel was found
to be occupied by a cancerous obstruction, the surgeon used
formerly to secure an easy escape for the contents of the bowel
by making an opening into the colon in the left loin. But in
accent years this operation of lumbar coloiomy has been almost
entirely replaced by opening the colon in the left groin. This
operation of inptinal celiotomy is usually divided into two stages:
a loop of the large intestine is first drawn out through the ab-
dauunal wound and secured by stitches, and a few days after-
wards, when it is firmly glued in place by adhesive inflammation,
k is cut across, so that subsequently the motions can no longer
find their way into the bowel below the artificial anus. If at
the fust stage of the operation symptoms of obstruction are
uncut, one of the ingenious glass tubes with a rubber conduit,
which Mr F. T. Paul has invented, may be forthwith introduced
into the distended bowel, so that the contents may be allowed
to escape without fear of soiling the peritoneum or even the
■Brfact-woond. (E. O.*)
ABDUCTION (Lat abductio, abducere, to lead away), a law
term denoting the forcible or fraudulent removal of a person,
smited by custom to the case where a woman is the victim.
la the case of men or children, it has been usual to substitute
the term kidnapping (q.v.). The old English laws against abduc-
tion, generally contemplating its object as the possession of an
heiress and her fortune, have been repealed by the Offences
against the Person Act x86i, which makes it felony for any one
from motives of lucre to take away or detain against her will,
with intent Co marry or carnally know her, &c, any woman
of any age who has any interest in any real or personal estate,
or is an heiress presumptive, or co-heiress, or presumptive next
of kin to any one having such an interest; or for any one to
cause such a woman to be married or carnally known by any
other person; or for any one with such intent to allure, take
*way t or detain any such woman under the age of twenty-one,
out of the possession and against the will of her parents or
guardians. By s. 54, forcible taking away or detention against
her wiU of any woman of any age with like intent is felony.
The same act makes abduction without even any such intent a
aadrmeanour, where an unmarried girl under the age of six-
teen is unlawfully taken out of the possession and against the
win of her parents or guardians. In such a case the girl's con-
sent is immaterial, nor is it a defence that the person charged
reasonably believed that the girl was sixteen or over. The
Criminal Law Amendment Act 1885 made still more stringent
provisions with reference to abduction by making the procura-
tion or attempted procuration of any virtuous female under
the age of twenty-one years a misdemeanour, as well as the
abduction of any girl under eighteen years of age with the intent
that she shall be carnally known, or the detaining of any female
against her will on any premises, with intent to have, or that
another person may have, carnal knowledge of her. In Scotland,
where there is no statutory adjustment, abduction is similarly
dealt with by practice.
ABD-UL-AZIZ (1830-1876), sultan of Turkey, son of Sultan
Mahmud II., was born on the oth of February 1830, and suc-
ceeded his brother Abd-uL-Mejid in 1861. His personal in-
terference in government affairs was not very marked, and
extended to little more than taking astute advantage of the
constant issue of State loans during his reign to acquire wealth,
which was squandered in building useless palaces and in other
futile ways: he is even said to have profited, by means of
"bear" sales, from the default on the Turkish debt in 187s
and the consequent fall in prices. Another source of revenue
was afforded by Ismail Pasha,, the khedive of Egypt, who paid
heavily in bakshish for the firman of 1866, by which the succes-
sion to the khedivate was made hereditary from father to son
in direct line and in order of primogeniture, as well as for the
subsequent finnans of 1867, 1869 and 1872 extending the
khedive's prerogatives. It is, however, only fair to add that
the sultan was doubtless influenced by the desire to bring
about a similar change in the succession to the Ottoman
throne and to ensure the succession after him of his eldest
son, Yussuf Ixz-ed-din. Abd-ul-Aziz visited Europe in 1867,
being the first Ottoman sultan to do so, and was made a Knight
of the Garter by Queen Victoria. In 1869 he received the visits
of the emperor of Austria, the Empress Eugenie and other
foreign princes, on their way to the opening of the Suez Canal,
and King Edward VIL, while prince of Wales, twice visited
Constantinople during his reign. The mis-government and
financial straits of the country brought on the outbreak of
Mussulman discontent and fanaticism which eventually culmi-
nated in the murder of two consuls at Salonica and in the
" Bulgarian atrocities," and cost Abd-ul-Aziz his throne. His
deposition on the 30th of May 1876 was hailed with joy through-
out Turkey; a fortnight later be was found dead in the palace
where he was confined, and trustworthy medical evidence
attributed his death to suicide. Six children survived him:
Prince Yussuf Izs-ed-din, born 1857; Princess Saliha, wife of
Kurd Ismail Pasha; Princess Nazime, wife of Khalid Pasha;
Prince Abd-ul-Mejid, born 1869; Prince Seif-ed-din, born
1876; Princess Emine, wife of Mahommed Bey; Prince Shefket,
born 1873, died 1809.
ABD-UL-HAMID I. (1725-1789), sultan of Turkey, son of
Ahmed III., succeeded his brother Mustafa III. in 1773. Long
confinement in the palace aloof from state affairs had left him
pious, God-fearing and pacific in disposition. At his accession
the financial straits of the treasury were such that the usual
donative could not be given to the janissaries. War was, how-
ever, forced on him, and less than a year after his accession the
complete defeat of the Turks at Kozluja led to the treaty of
Kuchuk Kainarji (21st July 1774), the most disastrous, especially
in its after effects, that Turkey has ever been obliged to con-
clude. (See Tuuley.) Slight successes in Syria and the Morea
against rebellious outbreaks there could not compensate for the
loss of the Crimea, which Russia soon showed that she meant
to absorb entirely. In 1787 war was again declared against
Russia, joined in the following year by Austria, Joseph II. being
entirely won over to Catherine, whom he accompanied in her
triumphal progress in the Crimea. Turkey held her own against
the Austrians, but in 1788 Ochakov fell to the Russians. Four
months later,, on the 7th of April 1789, the sultan died, aged
sixty-four.
ABD-UL-HAMID n. (1842- ), sultan of Turkey, son of
Sultan Abd-ul-Mejid, was born on the 21st of September 1842,
and succeeded to the throne on the deposition of his brother
Murad V. t on the 31st of August 1876. He accompanied his
3*
ABD-UL-MEJID
uncle Sultan Abd-nl-Aziz on his visit to England and France
in 1867. At his accession spectators were struck by the fearless
manner in which he rode, practically unattended, on his way to
be girt with the sword of Eyub. He was supposed to be of
libera] principles, and the more conservative of his subjects
were for some years after his accession inclined to regard him
with suspicion as a too ardent reformer. But the circumstances
of the country at his accession were Of adapted for liberal
developments. Default in the public funds and an empty
treasury, the insurrection in Bosnia and the Herzegovina, the
war with Servia and Montenegro, the feeling aroused throughout
Europe by the methods adopted in stamping out the Bulgarian
rebellion, all combined to prove to the new sultan that be could
expect little aid from the Powers. But, still clinging to the
groundless belief, for which British statesmen had, of late at
least, afforded Turkey no justification, that Great Britain at
all events would support him, he obstinately refused to give ear
to the pressing requests of the Powers that the necessary reforms
should be instituted. The international Conference which met
at Constantinople towards the end of 1876 was, indeed, startled
by the salvo of guns heralding the promulgation of a constitu-
tion, but the demands of the Conference were rejected, in spite
of the solemn warnings addressed to the sultan by the Powers;
Midhat Pasha, the author of the constitution, was exiled; and
soon afterwards his work was suspended, though figuring to this
day on the Statute-Book. Early in 1877 the disastrous war
with Russia followed. The hard terms, embodied in the treaty
of San Stefano, to which Abd-ul-Hamid was forced to consent,
were to some extent amended at Berlin, thanks in the main
to British diplomacy (see Europe, History); but by this time
the sultan had lost all confidence in England, and thought that
he discerned in Germany, whose supremacy was evidenced in
his eyes by her capital being selected as the meeting-place of
the Congress, the future friend of Turkey. He hastened to
employ Germans for the reorganization of his finances and his
army, and set to work in the determination to maintain his
empire in spite of the difficulties surrounding him, to resist the
encroachments of foreigners, and to take gradually the reins
of absolute power into his own hands, being animated by a
profound distrust, not unmerited, of his ministers. Financial
embarrassments forced him to consent to a foreign control
over the Debt, and the decree of December 1881, whereby
many of the revenues of the empire were handed over to the
Public Debt Administration for the benefit of the bondholders,
was a sacrifice of principle to which he could only have con-
sented with the greatest reluctance. Trouble in Egypt, where
a discredited khedive had to be deposed, trouble on the Greek
frontier and in Montenegro, where the Powers were determined
that the decisions of the Berlin Congress should be carried into
effect, were more or less satisfactorily got over. In his attitude
towards Arabi, the would-be saviour of Egypt, Abd-ul-Hamid
showed less than his usual astuteness, and the resulting con-
solidation of England's hold over the country contributed still
further to his estrangement from Turkey's old ally. The union
in 1885 of Bulgaria with Eastern Rumelia, the severance of
which had been the great triumph of the Berlin Congress, was
another blow. Few people south of the Balkans dreamed that
Bulgaria could be anything but a Russian province, and appre-
hension was entertained of the results of the union until it was
seen that Russia really and entirely disapproved of it Then
the best was made of it, and for some years the sultan preserved
towards Bulgaria an attitude skilfully calculated so as to avoid
running counter either to Russian or to German wishes. Germany's
friendship was not entirely disinterested, and had to be fostered
with a railway or loan concession from time to time, until in
1809 the great object aimed at, the Bagdad railway, was con-
ceded. Meanwhile, aided by docile instruments, the sultan had
succeeded in reducing his ministers to the position of secretaries,
and in concentrating the whole administration of the country
into his own hands at Yildiz. But internal dissension was not
thereby lessened. Crete was constantly in turmoil, the Greeks
were dissatisfied, and from about 1800 the Armenians began ft
violent agitation with a view to obtaining the reforms promised
them at Berlin. Minor troubles had occurred in 1892 and 1803
at Marsovan and Tokat In 1894 a more serious rebellion in
the mountainous region of Sassun was ruthlessly stamped out;
the Powers insistently demanded reforms, the eventual grant
of which in the autumn of 1895 was the signal for a series of
massacres, brought on in part by the injudicious and threaten-
ing acts of the victims, and extending over many months and
throughout Asia Minor, as well as in the capital itself. The
reforms became more or less a dead letter. Crete indeed profited
by the grant of extended privileges, but these did not satisfy its
turbulent population, and early in 1897 a Greek expedition
sailed to unite the island to Greece. War followed, in which
Turkey was easily successful and gained a small rectification of
frontier; then a few months later Crete was taken over *■«•
dtpbi " by the Four Powers — Germany and Austria not partici-
pating,— and Prince George of Greece was appointed their
mandatory. In the next year the sultan received the visit of
the German emperor and empress.
Abd-ul-Hamid had always resisted the pressure of the European
Powers to the last moment, in order to seem to yield only to over-
whelming force, while posing as the champion of Islam against
aggressive Christendom. The Panislamic propaganda was en-
couraged; the privileges of foreigners in the Ottoman Empire—
often an obstacle to government — were curtailed ; the new railway
to the Holy Places was pressed on, and emissaries were sent to dis-
tant countries preaching Islam and the caliph's supremacy. This
appeal to Moslem sentiment was, however, powerless against the
disaffection due to perennial misgovernment. In Mesopotamia
and Yemen disturbance was endemic; nearer home, a semblance
of loyalty was maintained in the army and among the Mussulman
population by a system of delation and espionage, and by whole-
sale arrests ; while, obsessed by terror of assassination, the sultan
withdrew himself into fortified seclusion in the palace of Yfldix.
The national humiliation of the situation in Macedonia
(q.v.), together with the resentment in the army against the
palace spies and informers, at last brought matters to a crisis.
The remarkable revolution associated with the names of Niazi
Bey and Enver Bey, the young Turk leaders, and the Com-
mittee of Union and Progress is described elsewhere (see Turkey:
History); here it must suffice to say that Abd-ul-Hamid, on
learning of the threat of the Salonica troops to march on Con-
stantinople (July 33), at once capitulated. On the 24th an
iradi announced the restoration of the suspended constitution
of 1875; next day, further iradis abolished espionage and the
censorship, and ordered the release of political prisoners. On
the zoth of December the sultan opened the Turkish parlia-
ment with a speech from the throne in which he said that the
first parliament had been "temporarily dissolved until the
education of the people had been brought to a sufficiently high
level by the extension of instruction throughout the empire."
The correct attitude of the sultan did not save him from
the suspicion of intriguing with the powerful reactionary ele-
ments in the state, a suspicion confirmed by his attitude to-
wards the counter-revolution of the 13th of April, when an
insurrection of the soldiers and the Moslem populace of the
capital overthrew the committee and the ministry. The com-
mittee, restored by the Salonica troops, now decided on Abd-
ul-Hamid's deposition, and on the 97 th of April his brother
Reshid Effendi was proclaimed sultan as Mahommed V. The
ex-sultan was conveyed into dignified captivity at Salonica.
ABD-UL-MEJID (1823-1861), sultan of Turkey, was born 00
the 23rd of April 1823, and succeeded his father Mahmud II.
on the 2nd of July 1839. Mahmud appears to have been unable
to effect the reforms he desired in the mode of educating his
children, so that his son received no better education than that
given, according to use and wont, to Turkish princes in the
harem. When Abd-ul-Mejid succeeded to the throne, the
affairs of Turkey were in an extremely critical state. At the
very time his father died, the news was on its way to Constanti-
nople that the Turkish army had been signally defeated at
Nezib by that of the rebel Egyptian viceroy, Mehemet Ah';
ABDUR RAHMAN KHAN
37
end the Turkish fleet was at the same time on its way to Alex-
andria, where Jt was handed over by its commander, Ahmed
Pasha, to the same enemy, on the pretext that the young sultan's
advisers were sold to Russia. But through the intervention of
the European Powers Mehemet Ali was obliged to come to terms,
and the Ottoman empire was saved. (See Mehemet Ali.) In
fwpfisnog with bis father's express instructions, Abd-ul-M ejid
iet at once about carrying out the reforms to which Mahmud
had devoted himself. In November 1830 was proclaimed an
edict, known as tbe Hatt-i-sherif of Gulhanl, consolidating
and enforcing these reforms, which was supplemented at the
dose of the Crimean war by a similar statute issued in February
1856. By these enactments it was provided that all classes of
the sultan's subjects should have security for their lives and
property; that taxes should be fairly imposed and justice
impartially administered; and that all should have full religious
liberty and equal dvil rights. The scheme met with keen
opposi t ion from the Mussulman governing classes and the uUma,
or privileged religious teachers, and was but partially put in
force, especially in the remoter parts of the empire; and more
than one conspiracy was formed against the sultan's life on
account of it. Of the other measures of reform promoted by
Abd-ul-Mejid the more important were— the reorganization of the
tray (t843-ift44>t the institution of a council of public instruc-
tion (1846), the abolition of an odious and unfairly imposed
capitation, tax, the repression of slave trading, and various pro-
visions for the better administration of the public service and
for the advancement of commerce. For the public history of
his times— the disturbances and insurrections in different parts
of his dominkiDS throughout his reign, and the great war suc-
cessfully carried on against Russia by Turkey, and by England,
Fiance and Sardinia, in the interest of Turkey (1853-1856) —
see Tubkey, and Crimean Was. When Kossuth and others
sought refuge in Turkey, after the failure of the Hungarian
rising in 1849, the sultan was called on by Austria and Russia
to surrender them, but boldly and determinedly refused. It is
to his credit, too, that he would not allow the conspirators
against his own life to be put to death. He bore the character
of being a kind and honourable man, if somewhat weak and
easiy led. Against this, however, must be set down his ex-
cessive extravagance, especially towards the end of bis life.
He died on the 25th of June 1861, and was succeeded by bis
brother, Abd-ul-Azis, as the oldest survivor of the family of
Otman. He left several sons, of whom two, Murad V. and
Abd-ul-Hajmd IX, eventually succeeded to the throne. In his
reign was begun the reckkss system of foreign loans, carried to
excess in the ensuing reign, and culminating in default, which
led to the ali en a t io n of European sympathy from Turkey and,
■directly, to the dethronement and death of Abd-ul-Aziz.
ABDUR BAHhTAM KHAN, amir of Afghanistan (c. 1844-
tofti), was the son of Afsul Khan, who was the eldest son of
Dost Mahomed Khan, the famous amir, by whose success in
war the Barafcxai family established their dynasty in the ruler-
ship of Afghanistan. Before his death at Herat, 9th June 1863,
Dost Mahomed had nominated as his successor Shere Ali, his
third son, passing over the two elder brothers, Afsul Khan and
Axon Khan; and at first the new amir was quietly recognized.
Bat after a few months Afsul Khan raised an insurrection in
the northern province, between the Hindu Kush mountains and
the Oxus, where he had been governing when his father died;
sad then began a fierce contest for- power among the sons of
Dost Mahomed, which lasted for nearly five years. In this
«ar, which resembles in character, and in its striking vicissitudes,
the EngBsh War of the Roses at the end of the 15th century,
Abdar Rahman soon became distinguished for ability and daring
energy. Although his father, Afxul Khan, who had none of
these qualities, came to terms with the Amir Shere Ali, the
son's behaviour in the northern province soon excited the amir's
ninAhiu , and Abdur Rahman, when be was summoned to
Kabul, fled across the Oxus into Bokhara. Shere All threw
Afzul Khan into prison, and a serious revolt followed in south
but the amir had scarcely suppressed it by
winning a desperate battle, when Abdur Rahman's reappear-
ance in the north was a signal for a mutiny of the troops stationed
in those parts and a gathering of armed bands to his standard.
After some delay and desultory fighting, he and his uncle, Azim
Khan, occupied Kabul (March i860). The amir Shere Ali
marched up against them from Kandahar; but in the battle
that ensued at Sheikhabad on zoth May he was deserted by a
large body of his troops, and after his signal defeat Abdur
Rahman released his father, Afzul Khan, from prison in Ghazni,
and installed him upon the throne as amir of Afghanistan.
Notwithstanding the new amir's incapacity, and some jealousy
between the real leaders, Abdur Rahman and his uncle, they
again routed Shere Ali's forces, and occupied Kandahar in 1867;
and when at the end of that year Afsul Khan died, Azim Khan
succeeded to the rulership, with Abdur Rahman as his governor
in the northern province. But towards the end of 1868 Shere
Ali's return, and a general rising in his favour, resulting in
their defeat at Tinah Khan on the 3rd of January 1869, forced
them both to seek refuge in Persia, whence Abdur Rahman pro-
ceeded afterwards to place himself under Russian protection at
Samarkand. Azim died in Persia in October 1869.
. This brief account of the conspicuous part taken by Abdur
Rahman in an eventful war, at the beginning of which he was
not more than twenty years old, has been given to show the
rough school that brought out his qualities of resource and
fortitude, and the political capacity needed for rulership in
Afghanistan. He lived in exile for eleven years, until on the
death, in 1879, of Shere Ali, who had retired from Kabul when
the British armies entered Afghanistan, the Russian governor-
general at Tashkent sent for Abdur Rahman, and pressed him
to try his fortunes once more across the Oxus. In March 1880
a report reached India that be was in northern Afghanistan;
and the governor-general, Lord Lytton, opened communications
with him to the effect that the British government were pre*
pared to withdraw their troops, and to recognize Abdur Rahman
as amir of Afghanistan, with the exception of Kandahar and some
districts adjacent After some negotiations, an interview took
place between him and Mr (afterwards Sir) Lepel Griffin, the
diplomatic representative at Kabul of the Indian government,
who described Abdur Rahman as a man of middle height, with
an exceedingly intelligent face and frank and courteous manners,
shrewd and able in conversation on the business in hand. At
the durbar on the 22nd of July 18S0, Abdur Rahman was officially
recognized as amir, granted assistance in arms and money, and
promised, in case of unprovoked foreign aggression, such further
aid as might be necessary to repel it, provided that he followed
British advice in regard to his external relations. The evacua-
tion of Afghanistan was settled on the terms proposed, and in
l88r the British troops also made over Kandahar to the new
amir; but Ayub Khan, one of Shere Ali's sons, marched upon
that city from Herat, defeated Abdur Rahman's troops, and
occupied the place in July. This serious reverse roused the
amir, who had not at first displayed much activity. He led a
force from Kabul, met Ayub's army dose to Kandahar, and the
complete victory which he there won forced Ayub Khan to fly
into Persia. From that time Abdur Rahman was fairly seated
on the throne at Kabul, and in the course of the next few years
he consolidated his dominion over all Afghanistan! suppress-
ing insurrections by a sharp and relentless use of his despotic
authority. Against the severity of his measures the powerful
Ghilzai tribe revolted, and were crushed by the end of 1887.
In that year Ayub Khan made a fruitless inroad from Persia;
and in 1888 the amir's cousin, Ishak Khan, rebelled against
him in the north; but these two enterprises came to nothing.
In 1885, at the moment when (see Afghanistan) the amir
was in conference with the British viceroy, Lord Dufferin, in
India, the news came of a collision between Russian and Afghan
troops at Panjdeh, over a disputed point in the demarcation
of the north-western frontier of Afghanistan. Abdur Rahman's
attitude at this critical juncture is a good example of his political
sagacity. To one who had been a man of war from his youth
Up, who had won and lost many fights, the rout of a detachment
38
ABECEDARIANS— ABEKEN
and the forcible seizure of some debateable frontier lands was
an untoward incident; but it was no sufficent reason for calling
upon the British, although they had guaranteed his territory's
integrity, to vindicate his rights by hostilities which would
certainly bring upon him a Russian invasion from the north,
and would compel his British allies to throw an army into
Afghanistan from the south-east. His interest lay in keeping
powerful neighbours, whether friends or foes, outside his king-
dom. He knew this to be the only policy that would be sup-
ported by the Afghan nation; and although for some time a
rupture with Russia seemed imminent, while the Indian govern-
ment made ready for that contingency, the amir's reserved and
circumspect tone in the consultations with him helped to turn
the balance between peace and war, and substantially conduced
towards a pacific solution. Abdur Rahman left on those who
met him in India the impression of a clear-headed man of action,
with great self-reliance and hardihood, not without indications
of the implacable severity that too often marked his administra-
tion. His investment with the insignia of the highest grade of
the Order of the Star of India appeared to give him much
pleasure.
From the end of x888 the amir passed eighteen months in
his northern provinces bordering upon the Oxus, where he was
engaged in. pacifying the country that had been disturbed by
revolts, and in punishing with a heavy hand all who were known
or suspected to have taken any part in rebellion. Shortly after-
wards (1892) he succeeded in finally beating down the resistance
of the Hazara tribe, who vainly attempted to defend their
immemorial independence, within their highlands, of the central
authority at Kabul
In 1893 Sir Henry Durand was deputed to Kabul by the
government of India for the purpose of settling an exchange of
territory required by the demarcation of the boundary between
north-eastern Afghanistan and the Russian possessions, and in
order to discuss with the amir other pending questions. The
amir showed his usual ability in diplomatic argument, his
tenacity where his own views or claims were in debate, with a
sure underlying insight into the real situation. The territorial
exchanges were amicably agreed upon; the relations between
the Indian and Afghan governments, as previously arranged,
were confirmed; and an understanding was reached upon the
important and difficult subject of the border line of Afghanistan
on the east, towards India. In 1895 the amir found himself
unable, by reason of ill-health, to accept an invitation from
Queen Victoria to visit England; but his second son Nasrullah
Khan went in his stead.
Abdur Rahman died on the xst of October xoox, being succeeded
by his son Habibullah. He had defeated all enterprises by
rivals against his throne; he had broken down the power of
local chiefs, and tamed the refractory tribes; so that his orders
were irresistible throughout the whole dominion. His govern-
ment was a military despotism resting upon a well-appointed
army; it was administered through officials absolutely sub-
servient to an inflexible will and controlled by a widespread
system of espionage; while the exercise of his personal authority
was too often stained by acts of unnecessary cruelty. He held
open courts for the receipt of petitioners and the dispensation of
justice; and in the disposal of business he was indefatigable.
He succeeded in imposing an organized government upon the
fiercest and most unruly population in Asia; he availed himself
of European inventions for strengthening his armament, while
he sternly set his face against all innovations which, like rail-
ways and telegraphs, might give Europeans ft foothold within
his country. His adventurous life, his forcible character, the
position of his state as a barrier between the Indian and the
Russian empires, and the skill with which he held the balance in
dealing with them, combined to make him a prominent figure
in contemporary Asiatic politics and will mark his reign as an
epoch in the history of Afghanistan.
The amir received an annual subsidy from the British govern-
ment of x8| lakhs of rupees. He was allowed to import muni-
tions of war. In 1896 he adopted the title of Zia-ul-Millat-ud-
Din (Light of the nation and religion); and his zeal for the
cause of Islam induced him to publish treatises on Jehad. His
eldest son Habibullah Khan, with his brother Nasrullah Khan,
was bom at Samarkand. His youngest son, Mahomed Omar
Jan, was bom in 1889 of an Afghan mother, connected by
descent with the Barakzai family.
See also S. Wheeler, F.R.G.S., The Amir Abdur Rahman (London.
1895); The Life of Abdur Rahman. Amir of Afghanistan, G.C.B..
G.C.S.I., edited by Mir Munshi, Sultan Mahommed Khan (2 vols..
London, 1900) ; At the Court of the Amir, by J. A. Grey (1805).
ABECEDARIANS, a nickname given to certain extreme
Anabaptists (?.».), who regarded the teaching of the Holy Spirit
as all that was necessary, and so despised aU human learning
and even the power of reading the written word.
A BECKETT, GILBERT ABBOTT (1811-1856), English writer,
was bom in north London on the 9th of January 181 1. He
belonged to a family claiming descent from the father of St
Thomas Becket. His elder brother, Sir William a Beckett
(1806-1869), became chief justice of Victoria (Australia). Gil-
bert Abbott a Beckett was educated at Westminster school,
and was called to the bar at Gray's Inn in 1841. He edited
Figaro in London, and was one of the original staff of Punch
and a contributor all his life. He was an active journalist on
The Times and The Morning Herald, contributed a series of
light articles to The Illustrated London News, conducted in 1846
The Almanack of the Month and found time to produce some
fifty or sixty plays, among them dramatized versions of Dickens's
shorter stories in collaboration with Mark Lemon. As poor-law
commissioner he presented a valuable report to the home
secretary regarding scandals in connexion with the Andover
Union, and in 1849 he became a metropolitan police magistrate.
He died at Boulogne on the 30th of August 1856 of typhus fever.
His eldest son Gilbert Akthub A Beckett (1 837-1891) was
bora at Hammersmith on the 7th of April 1837. He went up
to Christ Church, Oxford, as a Westminster scholar in 1855,
graduating in i860. He was entered at Lincoln's Inn, but gave
his attention chiefly to the drama, producing Diamonds end
Hearts at the Haymarket in 1867, which was followed by other
light comedies. His. pieces include numerous burlesques and
pantomimes, the libretti of Savonarola (Hamburg, 1884) and of
The Canterbury Pilgrims (Drury Lane, 1884) for the music of
Dr (afterwards Sir) C. V. Stanford. The Happy Land (Court
Theatre, 1873), & political burlesque of W. S. Gilbert's Wicked
World, was written in collaboration with F. L. Tomline. For
the last ten years of his life he was on the regular staff of Punch.
His health was seriously affected in 1889 by the death of his
only son, and he died on the 15th of October 1891.
A younger son, Aktxtuk William A Beckett (1844-1900),
a well-known journalist and man of letters, was also on the
staff of Punch from 1874 to 1902, and gave an account of his
father and his own reminiscences In The A Bechetts of Punch
(1903). He died in London on the 14th of January 1909.
See also M. H. Spielmann, The History of Punch (1895).
ABEDNEGO, the name given in Babylon to Azariah, one of
the companions of Daniel (Dan. I 7, &c.). It is probably a
corruption, perhaps deliberate, of Abednebo, "servant of
Nebo," though G. Hoffmann thinks that the original form was
Abednergo, for Abednergal, "servant of the god NergaL"
C. H. Toy compares Baraebo, "son of Nebo," of which he
regards Barnabas, as a slightly disguised form {Jewish Ency-
clopaedia).
ABEKEN, HEDTRICH (1800-1872), German theologian and
Prussian official, was bora at Berlin on the 8th of August 1809.
He studied theology at Berlin and in 1834 became chaplain
to the Prussian embassy in Rome. In 1841 he visited England,
being commissioned by King Frederick William IV. to make
arrangements for the establishment of the Protestant bishopric of
Jerusalem. In 1848 he received an appointment in the Prussian
ministry for foreign affairs, and in 1853 was promoted to be privy
councillor of legation (Gehdmer Legationsrath). He was much
employed by Bismarck In the writing of official despatches,
and stood high in the favour of King William, whom he often
ABEL
39
accompanied on his journeys as representative of the foreign
office. He was present with the king during the campaigns of
1866 and 1870-71. In 1851 he published anonymously Babylo*
nmi Jerusalem, a slashing criticism of the views of the Countess
vu Hahn-Hahn (q.v.).
See Heinrick Abekas ein scklicktes Leben in beweeter Zeit (Berlin,
1898), by his widow. This n valuable by reason of the letters written
from the Prussian head qu a r ters.
ABEL (Hebrew for breath), the second son of Adam, slain by
Cain, his elder brother (Gen. iv. 1-16). The narrative in Genesis
which tdls ns that " the Lord had respect unto Abel and to his
offering, but unto Cain and to his offering he had not respect,"
is s upp l emented by the statement of the New Testament, that
"by faith Abel offered unto God a more excellent sacrifice
dun Cain " (Heb. at 4). and that Cain slew Abel " because his
own works were evil and his brother's righteous" (1 John iii
12). See further under Cain. The name has been identified
with the Assyrian ablu, "son/' but this is far from certain.
It more probably means " herdsman " (cf. the name Jabal),
and a distinction is drawn between the pastoral Abel and the
agriculturist Cain. If Cain is the eponym of the Kenites it is
quite possible that Abel was originally a South Judaean demigod
or hero; on this, see Winckler, Gesch. Israels, ii. p. 189;
E. Meyer, Israditen, p. 395. A sect of Abditae, who seem to
save lived in North Africa, is mentioned by Augustine {Do
Haertxibms, IxxxvL).
ABEL, SIR FREDERICK AUGUSTUS, Bast. (1827-1002),
Engfish chemist, was born in London on the 17th of July 1827.
After studying chemistry for six years under A. W. von Hofmann
at the Royal College of Chemistry (established in London
■n 1845), he became professor of chemistry at the Royal
Military Academy in 1851, and three years later was appointed
chemist to the War Department and chemical referee to the
government. During his tenure of this office, which lasted
until 1888, he carried out a large amount of work in connexion
with the chemistry of explosives. One of the most important
of his investigations had to do with the manufacture of gun-
cotton, and he developed a process, consisting essentially of
reducing the nitrated cotton to fine pulp, which enabled it to
be prepared with practically no danger and at the same time
yielded the product in a form that increased its usefulness.
This work to an important extent prepared the way for the
* smokeless powders " which came into general use towards
the end of the 19th century; cordite, the particular form
adopted by the British government in 1891, was invented
jointly by him and Professor James Dewar. Our knowledge
of the explosion of ordinary black powder was also greatly
added to by him, and in conjunction with Sir Andrew Noble
he carried out one of the most complete inquiries on record
into hs behaviour when fired. The invention of the apparatus,
Irgifizrri in 1879, for the determination of the flash-point of
petroleum, was another piece of work which fell to him by virtue
of his official position. His first instrument, the open-test
apparatus, was prescribed by the act of 1868, but, -being found
to possess certain defects, it was superseded in 1879 by the
Abel dose-test instrument (see Petroleum). In electricity Abel
studied the construction of electrical fuses and other applica-
tions of electricity to warlike purposes, and his work on problems
of sled manufacture won him in 1897 the Bessemer medal of
the Iron and Steel Institute, of which from 1891 to 1893 he was
president. He was president of the Institution of Electrical
Engineers (then the Society of Telegraph Engineers) in 1877.
He became a member of the Royal Society in i860, and received
a royal medal in 1887. He took an important part in the work
of the Inventions Exhibition (London) in 1885, and in 1887
became organizing secretary and first director of the Imperial
Institute, a position he held till his death, which occurred in
London on the 6th of September 1902. He was knighted in
1891, and created a baronet in 1893.
Among his books were— Handbook of Chemistry (with C. L.
Bloxam), Modern History of Gunpowder (1866), Gun-cotton (1866),
On Explosive Agents (1872), Researches in Explosives (1875), and
Electricity applied to Exploit* Purposes (1884)* He also wrote
several important articles in the ninth edition of the Encyclo-
paedia BrUannica.
ABEL, KARL FRIBDRICH (1725-1787), German musician,
was born in Kothen- in 1725, and died on the 20th of June
1787 in London. He was a great player on the viola da gamba,
and composed much music of importance in its day for that
instrument. He studied under Johann Sebastian Bach at the
Leipzig Thomasschule; played for ten years (1748-1758) under
A. Hasse in the band formed at Dresden by the elector of Saxony;
and then, going to England, became (in 1759) chamber-musician
to Queen Charlotte. He gave a concert of his own compositions
in London, performing on various instruments, one of which,
the pentachord, was newly invented. In x 762 Johann Christian
Bach, the eleventh son of Sebastian, came to London, and the
friendship between him and Abel led, in 1764 or 1765, to the
establishment of the famous concerts subsequently known as
the. Bach and Abel concerts. For ten years these were organ-
ized by Mrs Cornelys, whose enterprises were then the height
of fashion. In 1775 the concerts became independent of her,
and were continued by Abel unsuccessfully for a year after
Bach's death in 1782. At them the works of Haydn were first
produced in England. After the failure of his concert under-
takings Abel still remained in great request as a player on various
instruments new and old, but he took to drink and thereby
hastened his death. He was a man of striking presence, of
whom several fine portraits, including two by Gainsborough,
exist
ABEL, NIELS HEKRIK (1802-1829), Norwegian mathe-
matician, was born at Findoe on the 25th of August 1802. In
1815 he entered the cathedral school at Christiania, and three
years later he gave proof of his mathematical genius by his
brilliant solutions of the original problems proposed by B.
Holmboe. About this time, his father, a poor Protestant
minister, died, and the family was left in straitened circum-
stances; but a small pension from the state allowed Abel to
enter Christiania University in 1821. His first notable work
was a proof of the impossibility of solving the quintic equation
by radicals. This investigation was first published in 1824
and in abstruse and difficult form, and afterwards (1826) more
elaborately in the first volume of CreUe % s Journal. Further
state aid enabled him to visit Germany and France in 1825,
and having visited the astronomer Heinrich Schumacher (1780-
1850) at Hamburg, he spent six months in Berlin, where he
became intimate with August Leopold Crelle, who was then
about to publish his mathematical journal This project was
warmly encouraged by Abel, who contributed much to the
success of the venture. From Berlin he passed to Freiberg,
and here he made his brilliant researches in the theory of func-
tions, elliptic, hyperelliptic and a new class known as Abelians
being particularly studied. In 1826 he moved to Paris, and
during a ten months' stay he met the leading mathematicians
of France ; but he was little appreciated, for his work was
scarcely known, and his modesty restrained him from pro-
claiming his researches. Pecuniary embarrassments, from
which he had never been free, finally compelled him to abandon
his tour, and on his return to Norway he taught for some time
at Christiania. In 1829 Crelle obtained a post for him at Berlin,
but the offer did not reach Norway until after his death near
Arendal on the 6th of April.
The early death of this talented mathematician, of whom
Legendre said " quelle tite celle du jeune Noncgicnl", cut short
a career of extraordinary brilliance and promise. Under Abel's
guidance, the prevailing obscurities of analysis began to be
cleared, new fields were entered upon and the study of functions
so advanced as to provide mathematicians with numerous
ramifications along which progress could be made. His works,
the greater part of which originally appeared in CreUe's Journal,
were edited by Holmboe* and published in 1839 by the Swedish
government, and a more complete edition by L. Sylow and
S. Lie was published in 1881.
For further details of bis mathematical investigations see
4-o
ABEL— ABELARD
the Articles Groups, Theory of, and Functions ot Complex
Variables.
See C. A. Bjerknes, Niels Henrik Abel: Tableau de sane et son
action scientifique (Paris, 1885); Lucas de Pcdouan, Niels Henrik
Abel (Paris, 1906)*
ABEL (better Abell), THOMAS (d. 1540), an English priest
who was martyred during the reign of Henry VIII. The
place and date of his birth are unknown. He was educated at
Oxford and entered the service of Queen Catherine some time
before 1528, when he was sent by her to the emperor Charles V.
on a mission relating to the proposed divorce. On bis return
he was presented by Catherine to the living of Bradwell, in
Essex, and remained to the last a staunch supporter of the
unfortunate queen. In 1533, he published his Invicta Veritas
(with the fictitious pressmark of Luneberge, to avoid suspicion),
which contained an answer to the numerous* tracts supporting
Henry's ecclesiastical claims. After an imprisonment of more
than six years, Abel was sentenced to death for denying the
royal supremacy in the church, and was -executed at Smithfield
on the 30th of July 1540. There is still to be seen on the wall
of his prison in the Tower the symbol of a bell with an A upon
it and the name Thomas above, which he carved during his
confinement He was beatified by Pope Leo XIII.
See J. Gfllow's BibL Dictionary of Eng. Catholics, vol. L ; Calendar
of State Papers of Henry V11I., vols, iv.-vii. passim.
ABELARD, PETER (1070-1x42), scholastic philosopher, was
born at Pallet (Palais), not far from Nantes, in 1079. He was
the eldest son of a noble Breton house. The name Abaelardus
(also written Abailordus, Abcielardus, and in many other ways)
is said to be a corruption of Habelardus % substituted by himself
for a nickname Bajolardus given to him when a student. As
a boy, he showed an extraordinary quickness of apprehension,
and, choosing a learned life instead of the knightly career natural
to a youth of his birth, early became an adept in the art of
dialectic, under which name philosophy, meaning at that time
chiefly the logic of Aristotle transmitted through Latin channels,
was the great subject of liberal study in the episcopal schools.
Roscellinus, the famous canon of Compiegne, is mentioned by
himself as his teacher; but whether he heard this champion of
extreme Nominalism in early youth, when he wandered about
from school to school for instruction and exercise, or some years
later, after he had already begun to teach for himself, remains
uncertain. His wanderings finally brought him to Paris, still
under the age of twenty. There, in the great cathedral school
of Notre-Dame, he sat for a while under the teaching of William
of Champeaux, the disciple of St Anselm and most advanced of
Realists, but, presently stepping forward, he overcame the
master in discussion, and thus began a long duel that issued in
the downfall of the philosophic theory of Realism, till then
dominant in the early Middle Age. First, in the teeth of opposi-
tion from the metropolitan teacher, while yet only twenty-two,
he proceeded to set up a school of his own at Melun, whence, for
more direct competition, he removed to Corbeil, nearer Paris.
The success of his teaching was signal, though for a time he had
to quit the field, the strain proving too great for his physical
strength. On his return, after xxo8, he found William lecturing
no longer at Notre-Dame, but in a monastic retreat outside the
dty, and there battle was again joined between them. Forcing
upon the Realist a material change of doctrine, he was once
more victorious, and thenceforth he stood supreme. His dis-
comfited rival still had power to keep him from lecturing in
Paris, but soon failed in this last effort also. From Melun,
where he had resumed teaching, Abelard passed to the capital,
and set up his school on the heights of St Genevieve, looking
over Notre-Dame. Front his success in dialectic, he next turned
to theology and attended the lectures of Anselm at Laon. His
triumph over the theologian was complete; the pupil was able
to give lectures, without previous training or special study,
which were acknowledged superior to those of the master.
Abelard was now at the height of his fame. He stepped into the
chair at Notre-Dame, being also nominated canon, about the
year 1115.
Few teachers ever held such sway as Abelard now did for a
time. Distinguished in figure and manners, he was seen sur-
rounded by crowds— it is said thousands— of students, drawn
from all countries by the fame of his teaching, in which acutencss
of thought was relieved by simplicity and grace of exposition.
Enriched by the offerings of his pupils, and feasted with universal
admiration, he came, as he says, to think himself the only
philosopher standing in the world. But a change in his fortunes
was at hand. In his devotion to science, he had hitherto lived
a very regular, life, varied only by the excitement of conflict:
now, at the height of his fame, other passions began to stir
within him. There lived at that time, within the precincts of
Notre-Dame, under the care of her uncle, the canon Fulbert,
a young girl named Hcloise, of noble extraction, and born about
x xol, Fair, but still more remarkable for her knowledge, which
extended beyond Latin, it is said, to Greek and Hebrew, she
awoke a feeling of love in the breast of Abelard; and with
intent to win her, he sought and gained a footing in Fulbert 's
house as a regular inmate. Becoming also tutor to the maiden,
he used the unlimited power which he thus obtained over her
for the purpose of seduction, though not without cherishing a
real affection which she returned in unparalleled devotion.
Their relation interfering with his public work, and being,
moreover, ostentatiously sung by himself, soon became known
to all the world except the too-confiding Fulbert; and, when
at last it could not escape even his vision, they were separated
only to meet in secret Thereupon Heloise found herself preg-
nant, and was carried off by her lover to Brittany, where she
gave birth to a son. To appease her furious uncle, Abelard
now proposed a marriage, under the condition that it should be
kept secret, in order not to mar his prospects of advancement
in the church; but of marriage, whether public or secret, Heloise
would hear nothing. She appealed to him not to sacrifice for
her the independence of his life, nor did she finally yield to the
arrangement without the darkest forebodings, only too soon
to be realized. The secret of the marriage was not kept by
Fulbert; and when Heloise, true to her singular purpose, boldly
denied it, life was made so unsupportable to her that she sought
refuge in the convent of Argenteuil. Immediately Fulbert,
believing that her husband, who aided in the flight, designed to
be rid of her, conceived a dire revenge. He and some others
broke into Abclard's chamber by night, and perpetrated on him
the most brutal mutilation. Thus cast down from his pinnacle
of greatness into an abyss of shame and misery, there was left
to the brilliant master only the life of a monk. The priesthood
and ecclesiastical office were canonically dosed to him. Hcloise,
not yet twenty, consummated her work of self-sacrifice at the
call of his jealous love, and took the veil.
It was in the abbey of St Denis that Abelard, now aged forty,
sought to bury himself with his woes out of sight Finding,
however, in the doister neither calm nor solitude, and having
gradually turned again to study, he yielded after a year to urgent
entreaties from without and within, and went forth to reopen
his school at the priory of Maisoncelle (1x20). His lectures,
now framed in a devotional spirit, were heard again by crowds
of students, and all his old influence seemed to have returned;
but old enmities were revived also, against which he was no longer
able as before to make head. No sooner had he put in writing
his theological lectures (apparently the IntroducHo ad Theolo-
gian that has come down to us), than his adversaries fell foul
of his rationalistic interpretation of the Trinitarian dogma.
Charging him with the heresy of Sabellius in a provincial synod
held at Soissons in ixax, they procured by irregular practices
a condemnation of his teaching, whereby he was made to throw
his book into the flames and then was shut up in the convent of
St Me'dard at Soissons. After the other, it was the bitterest
possible experience that could befall him, nor, in the state of
mental desolation into which it plunged him, could he find any
comfort from being soon again set free. The life in his own
monastery proved no more congenial than formerly. For this
Abelard himself was partly responsible. He took a tort of
malicious pleasure in Irritating the monks. Quasi jocando, he
ABELIN
cited Bcde to prove that Dionysius the Areopagite had been
bishop of Corinth, while they rdied upon the statement of the
abbot HDduin that he had been bishop of Athens. When this
historical heresy led to the inevitable persecution, Abelard
wrote a letter to the abbot Adam in which he preferred to the
authority of Bede that of Eusebius' Historic Ecclesiastic* and
St Jerome, according to whom Dionysius, bishop of Corinth,
was distinct from Dionysius the Areopagite, bishop of Athens
and founder of the abbey, though, in deference to Bede, he
suggested that the Areopagite might also have been bishop of
Corinth. Life in the monastery was intolerable for such a
troublesome spirit, and Abelard, who had once attempted to
escape the persecution he had called forth by flight to a monastery
at Provins, was finally allowed to withdraw. In a desert place
near Nogent-sur-Seine, he built himself a cabin of stubble and
reeds, and turned hermit But there fortune came back to him
with a new surprise. His retreat becoming known, students
Socked from Paris, and covered the wilderness around him
with their tents and huts. When he began to teach again he
found consolation, and in gratitude he consecrated the new
oratory they built for him by the name of the Paraclete.
Upon the return of new dangers, or at least of fears, Abelard
left the Paraclete to make trial of another refuge, accepting an
invitation to preside over the abbey of St Gildas-de-Rhuys,
on the far-off shore of Lower Brittany. It proved a wretched
exchange. The region was inhospitable, the domain a prey
lo lawless exaction, the house itself savage and disorderly.
Yet for nearly ten years he continued to struggle with fate
before he fled from his charge, yielding in the end only under
peril of violent death. The misery of those years was not,
however, unrelieved; for he had been able, on the breaking up
of Heloise's convent at Argenteuil, to establish her as head of
a new religious house at the deserted Paraclete, and in the
capacity of spiritual director he often was called to revisit the
spot thus made doubly dear to him. All this time Heloise had
lived amid universal esteem for her knowledge and character,
altering no word under the doom that had fallen upon her
youth; but now, at last, the occasion came for expressing all
the pent-up emotions of her soul. Living on for some time
apart (we do not know exactly where), after his flight from St
Codas, Abelard wrote, among other things, his famous His tor ia
Cdemj t atum , and thus moved her to pen her first Letter, which
remains an unsurpassed utterance of human passion and womanly
devotion; the first being followed by the two other Letters, in
which she finally accepted the part of resignation which, now
as a brother to a sister, Abelard commended to her. He not
kag after was seen once more upon the field of his early triumphs
lecturing on Mount St Genevieve in 1x36 (when he was heard
by John of Salisbury), but it was only for a brief space: no new
triumph, but a last great trial, awaited him in the few years to
come of bis chequered life. As far back as the Paraclete days,
be had counted as chief among his foes Bernard of Clairvaux,
ia whom was incarnated the principle of fervent and unhesitating
faith, from which rational inquiry like his was sheer revolt,
aad now this uncompromising spirit was moving, at the instance
of others, to crash the growing evil in the person of the boldest
offender. After preliminary negotiations, in which Bernard
was roused by Abelard'a steadfastness to put forth all his
strength, a council met at Sens (1141), before which Abelard,
formally arraigned upon a number of heretical charges, was
prepared to plead his cause. When, however, Bernard, not
without foregone terror in the prospect of meeting the redoubt-
able dialectician, had opened the case, suddenly Abelard ap-
pealed to Rome. The stroke availed him nothing; for Bernard,
«ho had power, notwithstanding, to get a condemnation passed
at the council, did not rest a moment till a second condemnation
»as procured at Rome in the following year. Meanwhile, on
has way thither to urge his plea in person, Abelard had broken
down at the abbey of Cluny, and there, an utterly fallen man,
with spirit of the humblest, and only not bereft of his intellectual
farce, he lingered but a few months before the approach of
death. Removed by friendly hands, for the relief of bis sufferings,
to the priory of St Marcel, near Chalon-sur-Saone, he died on
the >ist of April 114a. First buried at St Marcel, his remains
soon after were carried off in secrecy to the Paraclete, and given
over to the loving care of Heloise, who in time came herself to
rest beside them (1x64). The bones of the pair were shifted
more than once afterwards, but they were marvellously pre-
served even through the vicissitudes of the French Revolution,
and now they lie united in the well-known tomb in the cemetery
of Pere-ia-Chaise at Paris,
Great as was the influence exerted by Abelard on the minds
of his contemporaries and the course of medieval thought, he
has been little known in modern times but for bis connexion
with Heloise. Indeed, it was not till the iQth century, when
Cousin in 1836 issued the collection entitled Outrages inldils
a" Abilard, that his philosophical performance could be judged
at first hand; of his strictly philosophical works only one, the
ethical treatise Scito te ipsum, having been published earlier,'
namely, in 1721. Cousin's collection, besides giving extracts
from the theological work Sic et Non (an assemblage of opposite
opinions on doctrinal points, culled from the Fathers as a basis
for discussion, the main interest in which lies in the fact that
there is no attempt to reconcile the different opinions), includes
the Diakciica, commentaries on logical works of Aristotle,
Porphyry and Boethius, and a fragment, De Generibus et
Speciebus. The last-named work, and also the psychological
treatise De InteUectibus, published apart by Cousin (in Fragment
Philosophiques, voL ii.), are now considered upon internal
evidence not to be by Abelard himself, but only to have sprung
out of his school. A genuine work, the Glossulae super Porplty-
rium, from which Charles dc Remusat, in his classical monograph
Abilard (1845), has given extracts, remains in manuscript
The general importance of Abelard lies in his having fixed
more decisively than any one before him the scholastic manner
of philosophizing, with, its object of giving a formally rational
expression to the received ecclesiastical doctrine. However
his own particular interpretations may have been condemned,
they were conceived in essentially the same spirit as the general
scheme of thought afterwards elaborated in the 13th century
with approval from the heads of the church. Through him
was prepared in the Middle Age the ascendancy of the philo-
sophical authority of Aristotle, which became firmly established
in the half-century after his death, when first the completed
Organon, and gradually all the other works of the Greek thinker,
came to be known in the schools: before his time it was rather
upon the authority of Plato that the prevailing Realism sought
to lean. As regards bis so-called Conceptualism and his attitude
to the question of Universals, see Scholasticism. Outside of his
dialectic, it was in ethics that Abelard showed greatest activity
of philosophical thought; laying very particular stress upon
the subjective intention as determining, if not the moral char-
acter, at least the moral value, of human action. His thought
in this direction, wherein he anticipated something of modern
speculation, is the more remarkable because his scholastic
successors accomplished least in the field of morals, hardly
venturing to bring the principles and rules of conduct under
pure philosophical discussion, even after the great ethical
inquiries of Aristotle became fully known to them.
BiBLrocaAPRY.— Abelard's own works remain the best source* for
his life, especially his Historia Calamitatum, an autobiography, and
the correspondence with Heloise. The literature on Abelard is
extensive, but consists principally of monographs on different
aspects of his philosophy. Charles de Remusat's Abilard (a vols.,
184$) remains an authority; it must be distinguished from his drama
Abelard (1877), which is an attempt to give a picture of medieval
life McCabe's life of Abelard is written closely from the sources.
See also the valuable analysis by Nitsch in the article "Abalard
in Hauck's Realencyklopddle /. prot. Theol. u. Kirche, 3rd ed.. 1896.
There is a comprehensive bibhography in U. Chevalier, Ripertoiredes
sources hisL du moyeu dge t a. "AbaUard." (G. C. R. ; J. T. S.*)
ABELIN, JOHANN PHIUPP. an early 16th-century German
chronicler, was born, probably, at Strasburg, and died there
between the years 1634 and 1637. He wrote numerous histories
over the pseudonyms of Philipp Arlanibtus, Abeleus and Johann
Ludwig Gottfried or Gotofredus, his earliest works of importance
42
ABENCERRAGES— ABEOKUTA
being his history of the German wars of Gustavus Adolphus.
entitled Armo Suecica (pub. 1631-1634, in 12 parts), and the
Inacntarium Sueciae (1632) — both compilations from existing
records. His best known work is the Theatrum Europaeum,
a series of chronicles of the chief events in the history of the
world down to 1610. He was himself responsible for the first
two volumes. It was continued by various writers and grew to
twenty-one volumes (Frankf. 1633- 1738). The chief interest
of the work is, however, its illustration by the- beautiful copper-
plate engravings of Matthaus Merian (1503-1650). Abetin also
wrote a history of the antipodes. Historia Antipodum (post-
humously pub. Frankf. 1655), and a history of India.
See G. Droysen. Arlanibaeus. Codofredus, AMinus (Berlin, 1864);
and notice in Allgemeine Deutsche Btographie.
ABENCERRAGES, a family or faction that is said to have
held a prominent position in the Moorish kingdom of Granada
in the 15th century. The name appears to have been derived
from Che Yussuf ben-Serragh, the head of the tribe in the time
of Mahommed VII., who did that sovereign good service in his
struggles to retain the crown of which he was three times de-
prived. Nothing is known of the family with certainty; but
the name is familiar from the interesting romance of Gines
Perez de Hita, Cuerras civilcs de Granada, which celebrates the
feuds of the Abencerrages and the rival family of the Zegris,
and the cruel treatment to which the former were subjected.
J. P. de Florian's Gonsalve de Cordoue and Chateaubriand's Lt
dernier des Abencerrages are imitations of Perez de Hita's work.
The hall of the Abencerrages in the Alhambra takes its name
from being the reputed scene of the massacre of the family.
A BEN DAN A, the name of two Jewish theologians. (1)
Jacob (1630-1695), rabbi (Hakham) of the Spanish Jews in
London from 1680. Like his brother Isaac, Jacob Abendana
had a circle of Christian friends, and his reputation led to the
appreciation of Jewish scholarship by modern Christian theo-
logians. (2) Isaac (c. 1650-1710), his brother, taught Hebrew
at Cambridge and afterwards at Oxford. He compiled a Jewish
Calendar and wrote Discourses on the Ecclesiastical and Civil
Polity of the Jews (1706).
ABENEZRA (Ibn Ezra), or, to give htm his full name,
Abraham be* Meir Ibn Ezra (ioqz or 1093-1167), one of the
most distinguished Jewish men of letters and writers of the
Middle Ages. He was born at Toledo, left his native land of Spain
before 1x40 and led until his death a life of restless wandering,
which took him to North Africa, Egypt, Italy (Rome, Lucca,
Mantua, Verona), Southern France(Narbonne, Beziers), Northern
France (Dreux), England (London), and back again to the South
of France. At several of the above-named places he remained
for some time and developed a rich literary activity. In his
native land he had already gained the reputation of a distin-
guished poet and thinker; but, apart from his poems, his works,
which were all in the Hebrew language, were written in the
second period of his life. With these works, which cover in the
first instance the field of Hebrew philology and Biblical exegesis,
he fulfilled the great mission of making accessible to the Jews
of Christian Europe the treasures of knowledge enshrined in
the works written in Arabic which he had brought with him
from Spain. His grammatical writings, among which Moznayim
("the Scales," written in 1140) and Zahot ("Correctness,"
written in 1141) are the most valuable, were the first expositions
of Hebrew grammar in the Hebrew language, in which the
system of Hayyuj and his school prevailed. He also translated
into Hebrew the two writings of Hayyuj in which the founda-
tions of the system were laid down Of greater original value
than the grammatical works of Ibn Ezra are his commentaries
on most of the books of the Bible, of which, however, a part
has been lost. Hb reputation as an intelligent and acute ex-
pounder of the Bible was founded on his commentary on the
Pentateuch, of which the great popularity is evidenced by
the numerous commentaries which were written upon it. In
the editions of this commentary (ed. princ. Naples 1488) the
commentary on the book of Exodus is replaced by a second,
more complete commentary of Ibn Ezra, while the first and
shorter commentary on Exodus was not printed until 1840.
The great editions of the Hebrew Bible with rabbinical com-
mentaries contained also commentaries of Ibn Ezra's on the
following books of the Bible: Isaiah, Minor Prophets, Psalms,
Job, Pentateuch, Daniel; the commentaries on Proverbs, Ezra
and Nehemiah which bear his name are really those of Moses
Kimhi Ibn Ezra wrote a second commentary on Genesis as
he had done on Exodus, but this was never finished. There are
second commentaries also by him on the Song of Songs, Esther
and Daniel. The importance of the exegesis of Ibn Ezra con-
sists in the fact that it aims at arriving at the simple sense of
the text, the so-called '* Pesohat," on solid grammatical prin-
ciples. It is in this that, although he takes a great part of his
exegetical material from his predecessors, the originality of his
mind is everywhere apparent, an originality which displays
itself also in the witty and lively language of his commentaries.
To judge by certain signs, of which Spinoza in his Tractalus
Theologko Politkus makes use, Ibn Ezra belongs to the earliest
pioneers of the criticism of the Pentateuch. His commentaries,
and especially some of the longer excursuses, contain numerous
contributions to the philosophy of religion. One writing in
particular, which belongs to this province (Yosdd M£ra), on the
division and the reasons for the Biblical commandments, he
wrote in n 58 for a London friend, Joseph b. Jacob. In his
philosophical thought neo-platonic ideas prevail; and astrology
also had a place in his view of the world. He also wrote various
works on mathematical and astronomical subjects. Ibn Ezra
died on the 28th of January 1167, the place of his death being
unknown.
Among the literature on Ibn Ezra may be especially mentioned :
M. Friedlander, Essays on the Writings of Ibn Ezra (London, 1877) :
W. Bacher. Abraham Ibn Etra als Grammatiher (Strasburg, 1882);
M. Steinschneider, Abraham Ibn Ezra, in the Zeilschrift fur Matke-
matih und Physik, Band xxv.. Supplement; D. Rosin, Die Religions*
phxlosophie Abraham Ibn Ezra' sin vols.xlii. and xliti. of the Monat-
schriftfur Geschtchte und Wissenschajt des Judenthums; his Diwan
was edited by T. Egers (Berlin, 1886) : a collection of his poems.
Reime und Cedichte, with translation and commentary, were pub-
lished by D. Rosin in several annual reports of the Jewish theological
Seminary at Breslau (1885-1894). (W. Ba.)
ABENSBBRG, a town of Germany, in the kingdom of Bavaria,
on the Abens, a tributary of the Danube, 18 m. S.W. of Regens-
burg, with which it is connected by rail. Pop. 2202. It has a
small spa, and its sulphur baths are resorted to for the cure of
rheumatism and gout. The town is the Castra Abusina of the
Romans, and Roman remains exist in the neighbourhood.
Here, on the 20th of April 1809, Napoleon gained a signal
victory over the Austrians under the Archduke Louis and
General Hiller.
ABEOKUTA, a town of British West Africa in the Egba
division of the Yoruba country, S. Nigeria Protectorate. It is
situated in 7° 8' N., 3° 25' E., on the Ogun river, 64 m. N.
of Lagos by railway, or 81 m. by water. Population, approxi-
mately 60,000. Abeokuta lies in a beautiful and fertile country,
the surface of which is broken by masses of grey granite. It
is spread over an extensive area, being surrounded by mud
walls 18 miles in extent. Abeokuta, under the reforming zeal
of its native rulers, was largely transformed during the early
years of the 20th century. Law courts, government offices,
prisons and a substantial bridge were built, good roads made,
and a large staff of sanitary inspectors appointed. The streets
are generally narrow and the houses built of mud. There are
numerous markets in which a considerable trade is done in
native products and articles of European manufacture. Palm-
oil, timber, rubber, yams and shea-butter are the chief articles
of trade. An official newspaper is published in the Yoruba and
English languages. Abeokuta is the headquarters of the Yoruba
branch of the Church Missionary Society, and British and
American missionaries have met with some success in their
civilizing work. In their schools about 2000 children are edu-
cated. The completion in 1809 of a railway from Lagos helped
not only to develop trade but to strengthen generally the in-
fluence of the white man.
Abeokuta (a word meaning "under the rocks '), dating
ABERAVON— ABERCROMBY
43
from i3«s* wwen it* origin to the incessant inroads of the slave-
huaters from Dahomey and lbadan, which compelled the
village populations scattered over the open country to take
refuse in this rocky stronghold against the common enemy.
Here they constituted themselves a free confederacy of many
distinct tribal groups, each preserving the traditional customs,
religious rites and even the very names of their original villages.
Yet this apparently incoherent aggregate held its ground suc-
cessfully against the powerful armies often sent against the
place both by the king of Dahomey from the west, and by the
people of lbadan from the north-east
The district of Egba, of which Abeokuta is the capital, has an
estimated area of 3000 sq. m. and a population of some 350,000.
It is officially known as the Abeokuta province of the Southern
Nigeria protectorate. It contains luxuriant forests of palm-
trees, which constitute the chief wealth of the people. Cotton
b indigenous and is grown for export. The Egbas are enthusi-
astic farmers and have largely adopted European methods of
cultivation. They are very tenacious of their independence,
but accepted without opposition the establishment of a British
protectorate, which, while putting a stop to intcr-tribal warfare,
stave-raiding and human sacrifices, and exercising control over
the working of the laws, left to the people executive and fiscal
autonomy. The administration is in the hands of a council of
chiefs which exercises legislative, executive and, to some extent,
judicial functions. The president of this council, or ruling chief
—chosen from among the members of the two recognized reign-
ing families— is called the alake, a word meaning "Lord of
Ahe," Ake being the name of the principal quarter of Abeokuta,
after the ancient capital of the Egbas. The alake exercises
little authority apart from his council, the form of government
being largely democratic Revenue is chiefly derived from
tofls or import duties. A visit of the alake to England in 1904
evoked considerable public interest The chief was a man of
great intelligence, eager to study western civilization, and an
ardent agriculturist.
See the publications of the Church Missionary Society dealing
uuh the Yoruba Mission; Col. A. B. Ellis's The Yorubo-speaking
Peoples (London, 1894); and an article on Abeokuta by Sir Wm.
Macgreror. sometime governor of Lagos, in the African Society's
J— ms/T No. an. (London. July 1904).
ABttAVOIf. a contributory' parliamentary and municipal
borough of Glamorganshire, Wales, on the right bank of the
Avon, near its mouth in Swansea Bay, n m. E.S.E. of Swansea
tad 170 m. from London by raiL Pop. (1901) 7553. It has a
station on the Rhondda and Swansea Bay railway and is also on
the main South Wales line of the Great Western, whose station,
however, is at Port Talbot, half a mile distant, on the eastern
side of the Avon. The valley of the Avon, which is only some
three miles long, has been from about 1840 a place of much
metallurgical activity. There are tinplate and engineering works
within the borou g h. At Cwmavon, 1) m. to the north-east,
are large copper-smelting works established in 1838, acquired
two years later by the governor and Company of the Copper
Miners of England, but now worked by the Rio Unto Copper
Company. There are also iron, steel and tinplate works both
at Cwmavon and at Port Talbot, which, when it consisted only
of docks, was appropriately known as Aberavon Port
The town derives its name from the river Avon (corrupted
Cram Avan), which also gave its name to a medieval lordship.
On the Norman conquest at Glamorgan, Caradoc, the eldest son
of the defeated prince, Lestyn ab Gwrgan, continued to hold
this lordship, and for the defence of the passage of the river
bait here a castle whose foundations are still traceable in a
field near the churchyard. His descendants (who from the
13th century onwards styled themselves De Avan or D'Avene)
established, under the protection of the castle, a chartered town,
which in 137a received a further charter from Edward Le De-
speaser, into whose family the lordship had come on an exchange
of lands. In modern times these charters were not acted upon,
the town being deemed a borough by prescription, but in 1861
it was incorporated under the Municipal Corporations Act.
Since 153a it has belonged to the Swansea parliamentary dis-
trict of boroughs, uniting with Kenfig, Loughor, Neath and
Swansea to return one member; but in 1885 the older portion
of Swansea was given a separate member.
ABERCARN, an urban district in the southern parliamentary
division of Monmouthshire, England, 10 m. N.W. of Newport
by the Great Western railway. Pop. (1901) 12,607. There are
collieries, ironworks and tinplate works in the district; the
town, which lies in the middle portion of the Ebbw valley,
being situated on the south-eastern flank of the great mining
region of Glamorganshire and Monmouthshire.
ABERCORN, JAMES HAMILTON, ist Eakl or (c. 1575-1618),
was the eldest son of Claud Hamilton, Lord Paisley (4th son of
James, and earl of Arran, and duke of Chatelherault), and of
Margaret, daughter of George, 6th Lord Seton. He was made
sheriff of Linlithgow in 1600, received large grants of lands in
Scotland and Ireland, was created in 1603 baron of Abercorn,
and on the 10th of July 1606 was rewarded for his services in
the matter of the union by being made earl of Abercorn, and
Baron Hamilton, Mount Castle and Kilpatrick. He married
Marion, daughter of Thomas, 5th Lord Boyd, and left five sons,
of whom the eldest, baron of Stxabane, succeeded him as and
earl of Abercorn. He died on the 23rd of March 16 18. The
title of Abercorn, held by the head of the Hamilton family,
became a marquessate in 1790, and a dukedom in 1868, the
2nd duke of Abercorn (b. 1838) being a prominent Unionist
politician and chairman of the British South Africa Company.
ABERCROMBIB, JOHN (1780-1844), Scottish physician,
was the son of the Rev. George Abercrombie of Aberdeen,
where he was born on the xoth of October 1780. He was edu-
cated at the university of Edinburgh, and after graduating as
M.D. in 1803 he settled down to practise in that city, where he
soon attained a leading position. From 1816 he published
various papers in the Edinburgh Medical and Surgical Journal,
which formed the basis of his Pathological and Practical Rt-
searches on Diseases of the Brain and Spinal Cord, and of his
Researches on the Diseases of the Intestinal Canal, Liver and
other Viscera of the Abdomen, both published in 1828. He also
found time for philosophical speculations, and in 1830 he pub-
lished his Inquiries concerning the Intellectual Powers of Man
and the Investigation of Truth, which was followed in 1833 by
a sequel. The Philosophy of the Moral Feelings, Both works,
though showing little originality of thought, achieved wide
popularity. He died at Edinburgh on the 14th, of November
1844.
ABERCROMBY. DAVID, a 17th-century Scottish physician
who was sufficiently noteworthy a generation after the probable
date of his death to have his Nova Medicinae Praxis reprinted
at Paris in 174a During his lifetime his Tula ac efficax luis
venereae saepe absque mercurio ac semper absque solhatione
mercuriali curando methodus (1684) was translated into French,
Dutch and German. Two other works by him were De Pulsus
Variation* (London, 1685), and Ars explorandi medicos facultates
plantarum ex solo sapore (London, 1685-1688). His Opuscule
were collected in 1687. These professional writings gave him a
place and memorial in A. von Haller's Bibliotheca Medicinae
Pract. (4 vols. 8vo, 1779, torn. ill. p. 6x9); but he claims notice
rather by his remarkable controversial books in theology and
philosophy than by his medical writings. Bred up at Douai as
a Jesuit, he abjured popery, and published Protestancy proved
Safer than Popery (London, x686). But the most noticeable
of his productions is A Discourse of Wit (London, 1685),
which contains some of the most characteristic and most
definitely-put metaphysical opinions of the Scottish philosophy
of common sense. It was followed by Academia Scientiarum
(1687), and by A Moral Treatise of the Power of Interest (1690),
dedicated to Robert Boyle. A Short Account of Scots Divines,
by him, was printed at Edinburgh in 1833, edited by James
Maidment The exact date of his death is unknown, but ac-
cording to Haller he was alive early in the x 8th century.
ABERCROMBY, PATRICK (1656-c. 1716), Scottish physician
and antiquarian, was the third son of Alexander Abercromby
of Fetterneir in Aberdeenshire, and brother of Francis Aber-
44
ABERCROMBY— ABERDARE
cromby, who was created Lord Glasford by James II. He
was bora at Forfar in 1656 apparently of a Roman Catholic
family. Intending to become a doctor of medicine he entered
the university of St Andrews, where he took his degree of M.D.
in 1685, but apparently he spent most of his youthful years
abroad. It has been stated that he attended the university of
Paris. The Discourse of Wit (1685), sometimes assigned to
him, belongs to Dr David Abercromby (?.*.). On his return to
Scotland, he is found practising as a physician in Edinburgh,
where, besides his professional duties, he gave himself with
characteristic zeal to the study of antiquities. He was appointed
physician to James II. in 1685, but the revolution deprived
him of the post Living during the. agitations for the union
of England and Scotland, he took part in the war of pamphlets
inaugurated and sustained by prominent men on both sides
of the Border, and he crossed swords with no less redoubtable
a foe than Daniel Defoe in his Advantages of the Act of Security
compared with those of the intended Union (Edinburgh, 1707),
and A Vindication of the Same against Mr De Foe {ibid.). A
minor literary work of Abercroraby's was a translation of
Jean de Beaugut's Histoire de la guerre d'JZcossc (1556) which
appeared in 1707. But the work with which his name is perma-
nently associated is his Martial Atchievements of the Scots Nation,
issued in two large folios, vol. i. 171 1, vol. it 1716. In the
title-page and preface to vol. L he disclaims the ambition of
being an historian, but in vol. ii., in title-page and preface
alike, he is no longer a simple biographer, but an historian.
Even though, read in the light of later researches, much of the
first volume must necessarily be relegated to the region of the
mythical, none the less was the historian a laborious and accom-
plished reader and investigator of all available authorities, as
well manuscript as printed; while the roll of names of those
who aided him includes every man of note in Scotland at the
time, from Sir Thomas Craig and Sir George Mackenzie to
Alexander Nisbet and Thomas Ruddiman. The date of Aber-
cromby's death is uncertain. It has been variously assigned to
17 15, 17 16, 1720, and 1726, and it is usually added that he left
a widow in great poverty. The Memoirs of the Abcrcrombys,
commonly attributed to him, do not appear to have been pub-
See Robert Chambers, Eminent Scotsmen, s.v.; William Anderson,
Scottish Nation, s.v.; Alexander Chalmers, Biog. Diet., s.v.; George
Chalmers, Lije of Ruddiman; William Lee, Dejoe.
ABERCROMBY. SIR RALPH (1734-1801), British lieutenant-
general, was the eldest son of George Abercromby of Tullibody,
Clackmannanshire, and was born in October 1734. Educated
at Rugby and Edinburgh University, in 1754 he was sent to
Leipzig to study civil law, with a view to his proceeding to the
Scotch bar. On returning from the continent he expressed a
strong preference for the military profession, and a cornet's
commission was accordingly obtained for him (March 1756) in
the 3rd Dragoon Guards. He served with his regiment in the
Seven Years' war, and the opportunity thus afforded him of
studying the methods of the great Frederick moulded his military
character and formed his tactical ideas. He rose through the
intermediate grades to the rank of lieutenant-colonel of the
regiment (1773) *°d brevet colonel in 1780, and in 1781 he
became colonel of the King's Irish infantry. When that regi-
ment was disbanded in 1783 he retired upon half -pay. That
up to this time he had scarcely been engaged in active service
was owing mainly to his disapproval of the policy of the govern-
ment, -and especially to his sympathies with the American
colonists in their struggles for independence; and his retirement
is no doubt to be ascribed to similar feelings. On leaving the
army he for a time took up political life as member of Parlia-
ment for Clackmannanshire. This, however, proved uncongenial ,
and, retiring in favour of his brother, he settled at Edinburgh
and devoted himself to the education ol his children. But on
France declaring war against England in 1793,. he hastened to
resume bis professional duties; and, being esteemed one of the
ablest and most intrepid officers in the whole British forces, he
was appointed to the command of a brigade under the duke of
York, for service in Holland. He commanded the advanced
guard in the action at Le Cateau, and was wounded at Ni jmwegen
The duty fell to him of protecting the British army in its dis-
astrous retreat out of Holland, in the winter of 1704-1795- In
1795 he received the honour of a knighthood of the Bath, in
acknowledgment of his services. The same year he was ap-
pointed to succeed Sir Charles Grey, as commander-in-chief of
the British forces in the West Indies. In 1796 Grenada was
suddenly attacked and taken by a detachment of the army
under his orders. He afterwards obtained possession of the
settlements of Demerara and Essequibo, in South America,
and of the islands of St Lucia, St Vincent and. Trinidad He
returned in 1797 to Europe, and, in reward for his important
services, was appointed colonel of the regiment of Scots Greys,
entrusted with the governments of the Isle of Wight, Fort-George
and Fort-Augustus, and raised to the rank of lieutenant-general
He held, in 1797-1798, the chief command of the forces in Ire-
land. There he laboured to maintain the discipline of the army,
to suppress the rising rebellion, and to protect the people from
military oppression, with a care worthy alike of a great general
and an enlightened and beneficent statesman. When he was
appointed to the command in Ireland, an invasion of that country
by the French was confidently anticipated by the English govern-
ment. He used his utmost efforts to restore the discipline of an
army that was utterly disorganized; and, as a first step, he
anxiously endeavoured to protect the people by re-establishing
the supremacy of the civil power, and not allowing the military
to be called out, except when it was indispensably necessary for
the enforcement of the law and the maintenance of order.
Finding that he received no adequate support from the head of
the Irish government, and that all his efforts were opposed and
thwarted by those who presided in the councils of Ireland, he
resigned the command. His departure from Ireland was deeply
lamented by the reflecting portion of the people, and was speedily
followed by those disastrous results which he had anticipated,
and which he so ardently desired and had so wisely endeavoured
to prevent. After holding for a short period the office of com-
mander-in-chief in Scotland, Sir Ralph, when the enterprise
against Holland was resolved upon in 1709, was again called to
command under the duke of York. The campaign of 1799
ended in disaster, but friend and Toe alike confessed that the most
decisive victory could not have more conspicuously proved the
talents of this distinguished officer. His country applauded the
choice when, in 1801, he was sent with an army to dispossess the
French of Egypt. His experience in Holland and the West
Indies particularly fitted him for this new command, as was
proved by his carrying his army in health, in spirits and with
the requisite supplies, in spite of very great difficulties, to the
destined scene of action. The debarkation of the troops at
Aboukir, in the face of strenuous opposition, is justly ranked
among the most daring and brilliant exploits of the English
army. A battle in the neighbourhood of Alexandria (March *i,
1 801) was the sequel of this successful landing, and it was
Abercromby's fate to fall in the moment of victory. He was
struck by a spent ball, which could not be extracted, and died
seven days after the battle.. His old friend and commander the
duke of York paid a just tribute to the great soldier's memory
in general orders: "His steady observance of discipline, his
ever-watchful attention to the health and wants of his troops,
the persevering and unconquerable spirit which marked his
military career, the splendour of his actions in the field and the
heroism of his death, are worthy the imitation of all who desire,
like him, a life of heroism and a death of glory." By a vote of
the House of Commons, a monument was erected in his honour
in St Paul's cathedral. His widow was created Baroness Aber-
cromby of Tullibody and Aboukir Bay, and a pension of £2000
a year was settled on her and her two successors in the title
A memoir of the later years of his life (1793-1801) by his third
son, James (who was Speaker of the House of Commons, 1835-1839.
and became Lord Dunfermline), was published in 1861. For a
shorter account of Sir Ralph Abercromby tee Wilkinson. Tweht
British Soldiers (London, 1899).
ABBRDARB. HENRY AUSTIN BRUCB. ist Baron (1815-
ABERDARE— ABERDEEN
45
1895), English statesman, was bora at Duffryn, Aberdare,
Glamorganshire, on the 16th of April 1815, the son of John
Brae, a Glamorganshire landowner. John Brace's original
family name was Knight, but on coming of age in 1805 he
assumed the name of Brace, his mother, through whom he in-
herited the Duffryn -estate, having been the daughter of William
Brace, high sheriff of Glamorganshire. Henry Austin Brace
was educated at Swansea grammar school, and in 1837 was
called to the bar. Shortly after he had begun to practise, the
discovery of coal beneath the Duffryn and other Aberdare
VaDey estates brought the family great wealth. From 1847 to
1852 he was stipendiary magistrate for Merthyr Tydvil and
Aberdare, resigning the position in the latter year, when he
entered parliament as Liberal member- for Merthyr Tydvil.
In 1862 he became under-secretary for the home department,
and in i860, after losing his seat at Merthyr Tydvil, but being
re-elected for Renfrewshire, he was made home secretary by
W. E. Gladstone. His tenure of this office was conspicuous for
a reform of the licensing laws, and he was responsible for the
licensing Act of 1872, which constituted the magistrates the
forming authority, increased the penalties for misconduct in
pubhc-houses and shortened the number of hours for the sale
of drink. In 1873 he relinquished the home secretaryship, at
Gladstone's request, to become lord president of the council,
and was almost simultaneously raised to the peerage as Baron
Aberdare. The defeat of the Liberal government in the following
year terminated Lord Aberdare's official political life, and he sub-
sequently devoted himself to social, educational and economic
Questions. In 1876 he was elected F.R.S.; from 1878 to 1892
he was president of the Royal Historical Society; and in 1881
he became president of the Royal Geographical Society. In
18S2 he began a connexion with West Africa which lasted the
rest of his life, by accepting the chairmanship of the National
African Company, formed by Sir George Taubman Goldie, which
in 1886 received a charter under the title of the Royal Niger
Company and in 1800 was taken over by the British government,
its territories being constituted the protectorate of Nigeria.
West African affairs, however, by no means exhausted Lord
Aberdare's energies, and it was principally through his efforts
that a charter was in 1804 obtained for the university of Wales
at Cardiff. Lord Aberdare, who in 1885 was made a G.C.B.,
presided over several Royal Commissions at different times.
He died in London on the 25th of February 1895. His second
wife was the daughter of Sir William Napier, the historian of
the TVninsnlar war, whose Life he edited.
ABERDARE, a market town of Glamorganshire, Wales,
situated (as the name implies) at the confluence of the Dar and
Cynon, the latter being a tributary of the Taff. Pop. of urban
district (1001), 43.305- It is 4 m. S.W. of Merthyr Tydvil, 24
from Cardiff and 160 from London by rail. It has* a station
on the Pontypool and Swansea section of the Great Western
railway, and is also served by the Llwydcoed and Abernant
stations which are on a branch line to Merthyr. The Taff Yale
fine (opened 1846) has a terminus in the town. The Glamorgan
canal has also a branch (made in 181 1) running from Abercynon
to Aberdare. From being, at the beginning of the 19th century,
a mere village in an agricultural district, the place grew rapidly
in population owing to the abundance of its coal and iron ore,
and the population of the whole parish (which was only i486 in
1S01) increased tenfold during the first half of the century. Iron-
works were established at Llwydcoed and Abernant in 1799 and
1800 respectively, followed by others at Gadlys and Aberaman
m 1827 a»d 1847. These have not been worked since about
1875, and the only metal industries remaining in the town are
•a iron foundry or two and a small tinplate works at Gadlys
(w t a hhshed in 1868). Previous to 1836, most of the coal worked
in the parish was consumed locally, chiefly in the ironworks, but
in that year the working of steam coal for export was begun,
pits were sunk in rapid succession, and the coal trade, which at
least since 1875 has been the chief support of the town, soon
reached huge dimensions. There are also several brickworks
■ad breweries. During the latter half of the 19th century,
considerable public improvements were effected in the town,
making it, despite its neighbouring collieries, an agreeable place
of residence. Its institutions included a post-graduate theo-
logical college (opened in connexion with the Church of England
in 1892, until 1907, when it was removed to Llandaff). There is
a public park of fifty acres with two small lakes. Aberdare,
with the ecclesiastical parishes of St Pagan's (Trecynon) and
Aberaman carved out of the ancient parish, has some twelve
Anglican churches, one Roman Catholic church (built in 1866 in
Monk Street near the site of a cell attached to Penrhys Abbey)
and over fifty Nonconformist chapels. The services in the
majority of the chapels are in Welsh. The whole parish falls
within the parliamentary borough of Merthyr TydviL The
urban district includes what were once the separate villages of
Aberaman, Abernant, Cwmbach, Cwmaman, Cwmdare, Llwyd-
coed and Trecynon. -There are several cairns and the remains
of a circular British encampment on the mountain between
Aberdare and Merthyr. Hirwaun moor, 4 m. to the N.W. of
Aberdare, was according to tradition the scene of a battle at
which Rhys ap Jewdwr, prince of Dyfed, was defeated by the
allied forces of the Norman Robert FiUhamon and Iestyn ab
Gwrgan, the last prince of Glamorgan.
ABERDEEN, GEORGE GORDON, ist Earl or (1637-1720),
lord chancellor of Scotland, son of Sir John Gordon, ist baronet
of Haddo, Aberdeenshire, executed by the Presbyterians in
1644, was born on the 3rd of October 1637. He graduated M.A.,
and was chosen professor at King's College, Aberdeen, in 1658.
Subsequently he travelled and studied civil law abroad. At
the Restoration the sequestration of his father's lands was
annulled, and in 1665 he succeeded by the death of his elder
brother to the baronetcy and estates. He returned borne in
r667, was admitted advocate in 1668 and gained a high legal
reputation. He represented Aberdeenshire in the Scottish
parliament of 1669 and in the following assemblies, during his
first session strongly opposing the projected union of the two
legislatures. In November 1678 he was made a privy councillor
for Scotland, and in 1680 was raised to the bench as Lord Haddo.
He was a leading member of the duke of York's administration,
was created a lord of session in June and in November 1681
president of the court. The same year he is reported as moving
in the council for the torture of witnesses. 1 In 1682 he was
made lord chancellor of Scotland, and was created, on the 13th
of November, earl of Aberdeen, Viscount Formartine, and Lord
Haddo, Methlick, Tarves and Kellie, in the Scottish peerage,
being appointed also sheriff principal of Aberdeenshire and
Midlothian. Burnet reflects unfavourably upon him, calls him
41 a proud and covetous man," and declares " the new chancellor
exceeded all that had gone before him." * He executed the laws
enforcing religious conformity with severity, and filled the parish
churches, but resisted the excessive measures of tyranny pre-
scribed by the English government; and in consequence of an
intrigue of the duke of Queensberry and Lord Perth, who gained
the duchess of Portsmouth with a present of £27,000, he was .
dismissed in 1684. After his fall he was subjected to various
petty prosecutions by his victorious rivals with the view of
discovering some act of maladministration on which to found
a charge against him, but the investigations only served to
strengthen his credit He took an active part in parliament
in 1685 and 1686, but remained a non- juror during the whole of
William's reign, being frequently fined for his non-attendance,
and took the oaths for the first time after Anne's accession, on
the 1 ith of May 1703. In the great affair of the Union in 1707,
while protesting against the completion of the treaty till the
act declaring the Scots aliens should be repealed, he refused to
support the opposition to the measure itself and refrained from
attending parliament when the treaty was settled. He died on
the 20th of April 1720, after having amassed a large fortune.
He is described by John Mackay as "very knowing in the laws
and constitution of his country and is believed to be the solidest
statesman in Scotland, a fine orator, speaks slow but sure."
1 Sir J. Lauder's Hist. Notices (Bannatyne Club, 1848), p. 297.
> Hist, of his own Times, i. 523.
4 6
ABERDEEN
His person was said to be deformed, and his " want of mine or
deportment " was alleged as a disqualification for the office of
lord chancellor. He married Anne, daughter and sole heiress of
George Lockhart of Torbrecks, by whom he had six children,
his only surviving son, William, succeeding him as and earl of
Aberdeen.
See Letters to George, earl of Aberdeen (with memoir: Spalding
Club, 1851); Hist. Account of the Senators of the College of Justice,
by G. Brunton and D. Haig (1832), p. 408; G. Crawfurd's Lives of
tkf Officers of State (1726); p. 226; Memoirs of Affairs in Scotland, by
Sir G. Mackenzie (1821), p. 148; Sir J. Lauder's (Lord Fountainhall)
Journals (Scottish Hist. Society, vol. xxxvi., 1900); J. Mackay's
Memoirs (1733), p. 215; A. Lang's HisL of Scotland, ail. 369. 376.
(P. C. Y.)
ABERDEEN, GEORGE HAMILTON GORDON. 4TH Earl or
( 1 784-1860), English statesman, was the eldest son of George
Gordon, Lord Haddo, by his wife Charlotte, daughter of William
Baird of Newbyth, Haddingtonshire, and grandson of George,
3rd earl of Aberdeen. Born in Edinburgh on the 28th of January
1784, he lost his father in 1791 and his mother in 170s; and as
his grandfather regarded him with indifference, he went to reside
with Henry Dundas, afterwards Viscount Melville. At the age of
fourteen he was permitted by Scotch law to name his own
curators, or guardians, and selecting William Pitt and Dundas
for this office he spent much of his time at their houses, thus
meeting many of the leading politicians of the day. He was
educated at Harrow, and St John's College, Cambridge, where
he graduated as a nobleman in 1804. Before this time, however,
he had become earl of Aberdeen on his grandfather's death in
180 1, and had travelled over a large part of the continent of
Europe, meeting on his journeys Napoleon Bonaparte and other
persons of distinction. He also spent some time in Greece, and
on his return to England founded the Athenian Society, member-
ship of which was confined to those who had travelled in that
country. Moreover, he wrote an article in the Edinburgh Review
of July 1805 criticizing Sir William Gill's Topography of Troy,
and these circumstances led Lord Byron to refer to him in
English Bards and Scotch Reviewers as "the travell'd thane,
Athenian Aberdeen." Having attained his majority in 1805,
he married on the 28th of July Catherine Elizabeth Hamilton,
daughter of John James, xst marquess of Abercorn. In De-
cember 1806 he was elected a representative peer for Scotland,
and took his seat as a Tory in the House of Lords, but for some
years he took only a slight part in public business. However,
by his birth, his abilities and his connexions alike he was marked
out for a high position, and after the death of his wife in February
181 2 he was appointed ambassador extraordinary and minister
plenipotentiary at Vienna, where he signed the treaty of Tdplitz
between Great Britain and Austria in October 1813; and
accompanying the emperor Francis I. through the subsequent
campaign against France, he was present at the battle of Leipzig.
He was one of the British representatives at the congress of
Chatillon in February 1814, and in the same capacity was present
. during the negotiations which led to the treaty of Paris in the
following May. Returning home he was created a peer of the
United Kingdom as Viscount Gordon of Aberdeen (1814), and
made a member of the privy council. On the 15th of July 1815
he married Harriet, daughter of the Hon. John Douglas, and
widow of James, Viscount Hamilton, and thus became doubly
connected with the family of the marquess of Abercorn. During
the ensuing thirteen years Aberdeen took a less prominent part
in public affairs, although he succeeded in passing the Entail
(Scotland) Act of 1825. He kept in touch, however, with foreign
politics, and having refused to join the ministry of George
Canning in 1827, became a member of the cabinet of the duke of
Wellington as chancellor of the duchy of Lancaster in January
1828. In the following June he was transferred to the office of
secretary of state for foreign affairs, and having acquitted himself
with credit with regard to the war between Russia and Turkey,
and to affairs in Greece, Portugal and France, he resigned with
Wellington in November 1830, and shared his leader's attitude
towards the Reform Bill of 1832. As a Scotsman, Aberdeen
was interested in the ecclesiastical controversy which culminated
in the disruption of 1843. In 1840 he introduced a bill to settle
the vexed question of patronage; but disliked by a majority
in the general assembly of the Scotch church, and unsupported
by the government, it failed to become law, and some opprobrium
was cast upon its author. In 1843 he brought forward a similar
measure " to remove doubts respecting the admission of ministers
to benefices." .This Admission to Benefices Act, as it was called,
passed into law, bat did not reconcile the opposing parties.
During the short administration of Sir Robert Peel in 1834
and 1835, Aberdeen had filled the office of secretary for the
colonies, and in September 1841 he took office again under Peel,
on this occasion as foreign secretary; the five years during
which he held this position were the most fruitful and successful
of his public life. He owed his success to the confidence placed
in him by Queen Victoria, to his wide knowledge of European
politics, to his intimate friendship with Guizot, and not least to
his own conciliatory disposition. Largely owing to his efforts,
causes of quarrel between Great Britain and France in Tahiti,
over the marriage of Isabella II. of Spain, and in other direc-
tions, were removed. More important still were his services
in settling the question of the boundary between the United
States and British North America at a time when a single in-
judicious word would probably have provoked a war. In 1845
he supported Peel when in a divided cabinet he proposed to
suspend the duty on foreign corn, and left office with that
minister in July 1846. After Peel's death in 1850 he became
the recognized leader of the Peelites, although since his resigna-
tion his share in public business had been confined to a few
speeches on foreign affairs. His dislike- of the Ecclesiastical
Titles Assumption Bill, the rejection of which he failed to secure
in 1851, prevented him from joining the government of Lord
John Russell, or from forming an administration himself in
this year. In December 1852, however, be became first lord of
the treasury and head of a coalition ministry of Whigs and
Peelites. Although united on free trade and in general on ques-
tions of domestic reform, a cabinet which contained Lord
Palmerston and Lord John Russell, in addition to Aberdeen,
was certain to differ on questions of foreign policy. The strong
and masterful character of these and other colleagues made the
task of the prime minister one of unusual difficulty, a fact which
was recognized by contemporaries. Charles Greville in his
Memoirs says, " In the present cabinet are five or six first-rate
men of equal, or nearly equal, pretensions, none of them likely
to acknowledge the superiority or defer to the opinions of any
other, and every one of these five or six considering himself abler
and more important than their premier"; and Sir James
Graham wrote, " It is a powerful team, but it will require good
driving." The first year of office passed off successfully, and it
was owing to the steady support of the prime minister that
Gladstone's great budget of 1853 was accepted by the cabinet.
This was followed by the outbreak of the dispute between
France and Turkey over the guardianship of the holy places at
Jerusalem, which, after the original cause of quarrel had been
forgotten, developed into the Crimean war. The tortuous
negotiations which preceded the struggle need not be discussed
here, but in defence of Aberdeen it may be said that he hoped
and strove for peace to the last Rightly or wrongly, however,
he held that Russell was indispensable to the cabinet, and that
a resignation would precipitate war. His outlook, usually so
clear, was blurred by these considerations, and he lacked the
strength to force the suggestions which he made in the autumn
of 1853 upon his imperious colleagues. Palmerston, supported
by Russell and well served by Lord Stratford de Reddiffe,
British ambassador at Constantinople, favoured a more aggres-
sive policy, and Aberdeen, unable to control Palmerston, and
unwilling to let Russell go, cannot be exonerated from blame.
When the war began he wished to prosecute it vigorously; but
the stories of misery and mismanagement from the seat of war
deprived the ministry of public favour. Russell resigned; and
on the 29th of January 1855 a motion by J. A. Roebuck, for
the appointment of a select committee to enquire into the con-
duct of the war was carried in the House of Commons by a
ABERDEEN
47
large majority. Treating this as a vote of want of confidence
Aberdeen at once resigned office, and the queen bestowed
upoa him the order of the Garter. He smoothed the way for
Palmerston to succeed him, and while the earl of Clarendon re-
mained at the foreign office he aided him with advice and was
consulted on matters of moment. He died in London on the
14th of December i860, and was buried in the family vault at
Stanaore. By his first wife he had one son and three daughters,
aO of whom predeceased their father. By his second wife, who
died in August 1833, he left four sons and one daughter. His
eldest son, George John James, succeeded as 5th earl; his second
son was General Sir Alexander Hamilton-Gordon, K.C.B.; his
third ton was the Reverend Douglas Hamilton-Gordon; and
bis youngest son Arthur Hamilton, after holding various high
offices under the crown, was created Baron Stanmore in 1893.
Among the public offices held by the earl were those of lord-
lieutenant of Aber d eenshire, president of the society of Anti-
quaries from 181 2 to 1846 and fellow of the Royal Society.
Aberdeen was a distinguished scholar with a retentive memory
and a wide knowledge of literature and art. His private life
was exemplary, and he impressed his contemporaries with the
loftiness of his character. His manner was reserved, and as a
speaker he was weighty rather than eloquent. In public life
he was remarkable for his generosity to his political opponents,
and for his sense of justice and honesty. He did not, however,
possess the qualities which impress the populace, and he lacked
the strength which is one of the essential gifts of a statesman.
His character is perhaps best described by a writer who says
"his strength was not equal to his goodness." His foreign
policy was essentially one of peace and non-intervention, and in
persuing it be was accused of favouring the despotisms of
Europe. Aberdeen was a model landlord. By draining the land,
by planting millions of trees and by erecting numerous build-
ings, he greatly improved the condition of his Aberdeenshire
estates, and studied continually the welfare of his dependants.
A bust of him by Matthew Noble is in Westminster Abbey, and
Ins portrait was j>ainted by Sir Thomas Lawrence. He wrote
An Inquiry into the Principles of Beauty in Grecian Architecture
(London, 1822), and the Correspondence of ike Earl of Aberdeen
has been printed privately under the direction of his son, Lord
Stanmore.
The 6th earl, George (1841-1870), son of the 5th earl, was
drowned at sea, and was succeeded by his brother John Campbell
Gordon, 7th earl of Aberdeen (b. 1847), a prominent Liberal
politician, who was lord-lieutenant of Ireland in 1886, governor-
general of Canada 1803-1898, and again the lord-lieutenant of
Ireland when Sir Henry Campbell-Bannerman formed his
ministry at the dose of 1005.
See Lord Stanmore, The Earl of Aberdeen (London, 1803);
C C F. GreviUe, Memoirs, edited by H. Reeve (London, 1 888):
Speocrr Watpole, History of England (London, 1878-1886), and Life
efLerJ John Russell (London. 1889); A. W. Kinglake, Invasion of
the Ctoim (London, 1877-1888); Sir T. Martin, Life of tht Prince
Consort (London, 1875-1880) ; J. Morlcy, Life of Gladstone (London,
1903). (A.W.H.*)
ABERDEEN, a royal burgh, city and county of a city, capital
of A b er d ee ns hire, and chief seaport in the north of Scotland.
It is the fourth Scottish town in population, industry and wealth,
and stands on a bay of the North Sea, between the mouths of
the Don and Dee, 130I m. N.E. of Edinburgh by the North
British railway. Though Old Aberdeen, extending from the
city suburbs to the southern banks of the Don, has a separate
charter, privileges and history, the distinction between it and
New Aberdeen can no longer be said to exist; and for parlia-
mentary, municipal and other purposes, the two towns now form
practically one community. Aberdeen's popular name of the
" Granite City " is justified by the fact that the bulk of the town
is built of granite, but to appreciate its more poetical designation
cf the u Stiver City by the Sea,*' it should be seen after a heavy
rainfall when its stately structures and countless houses gleam
pare and white under the brilliant sunshine. The area of the
city extends to 6602 acres, the burghs of Old Aberdeen and
Woodside. and the district of Tony (for parliamentary purposes
in the constituency of Kincardineshire) to the south of the Dee,
having been incorporated in 1801. The dty comprises eleven
wards and eighteen ecclesiastical parishes, and is under the
jurisdiction of a council with lord provost, bailies, treasurer and
dean of guild. The corporation owns the water (derived from
the Dee at a spot 21m. W.S.W. of the city) and gas supplies,
electric lighting and tramways. Since 1885 the city has returned
two members to Parliament. Aberdeen is served by the Cale-
donian, Great North of Scotland and North British railways
(occupying a commodious joint railway station), and there is
regular communication by sea with London and the chief ports
on the eastern coast of Great Britain and the northern shores
of the Continent. The mean temperature of the dty for the year
is 45-8° F. t for summer 56 F., and for winter 37-3° F. The
average yearly rainfall is 30*57 inches. The dty is one of the
healthiest in Scotland.
Streets and Buildings. — Roughly, the extended dty runs north
and south. From the new bridge of Don to the " auld brig " of
Dee there is tramway communication via King Street, Union
Street and Holbura Road — a distance of over five miles. Union
Street is one of the most imposing thoroughfares in the British
Isles. From Castle Street it runs W. S. W. for nearly a mile, is
70 ft. wide, and contains the principal shops and most of
the modern public buildings, all of granite. Part of the street
crosses the Denburn ravine (utilized for the line of the Great
North of Scotland railway) by a fine granite arch of 132 ft.
span, portions of the older town still fringing the gorge, fifty feet
below the level of Union Street. Amongst the more conspicuous
secular buildings in the street may be mentioned the Town and
County Bank, the Music Hall, with sitting accommodation for
2000 persons, the Trinity Hall of the incorporated trades (origin-
ating in various years between 1308 and 1527, and having charit-
able funds for poor members, widows and orphans), containing
some portraits by George Jamcsone, a noteworthy set of carved
oak chairs, dating from 1574, and the shields of the crafts with
quaint inscriptions; the office of the Aberdeen Free Press , one
of the most influential papers in the north of Scotland; the
Palace Hotel; the office of the Northern Assurance Company,
and the National Bank of Scotland. In Castle Street, a con-
tinuation eastwards of Union Street, are situated the Municipal
and County Buildings, one of the most splendid granite edifices in
Scotland, in the Franco-Scottish Gothic style, built in 1867-1878.
They are of four stories and contain the great hall with an open
timber ceiling and oak-panelled walls; the Sheriff Court House;
the Town Hall, with excellent portraits of Prince Albert (Prince
Consort), the 4th earl of Aberdeen, the various lord provosts
and other distinguished citizens. In the vestibule of the en-
trance corridor stands a suit of black armour believed to have
been worn by Provost Sir Robert Davidson, who fell in the battle
of Harlaw, near Inverurie, in 141 1. From the south-western
corner a grand tower rises to a height of 210 ft., commanding a
fine view of the dty and surrounding country. Adjoining the
municipal buildings is the North of Scotland Bank, of Greek
design, with a portico of Corinthian columns, the capitals of
which are exquisitely carved. On the opposite side of the street
is the fine building of the Union Bank. At the upper end of
Castle Street stands the Salvation Army Citadel, an effective
castellated mansion, the most imposing " barracks " possessed
anywhere by this organization. In front of it is the Market Cross,
a beautiful, open-arched, hexagonal structure, 21 ft. in diameter
and 18 ft. high. The original was designed in 1682 by John
Montgomery, a native architect, but in 1842 it was removed
hither from its old site and rebuilt in a better style. On the
entablature surmounting the Ionic columns are panels contain-
ing medallions of Scots sovereigns from James I. to James VII.
From the centre rises a shaft, 12} ft. high, with a Corinthian
capital on which is the royal unicorn rampant. On an eminence
east of Castle Street arc the military barracks. In Market Street
are the Mechanics' Institution, founded in 1824, with a good
library; the Post and Telegraph offices; and the Market, where
provisions of all kinds and general wares are sold. The Fish
Market, on the Albert Basin, is a busy scene in the early morning.
48
ABERDEEN
The Art Gallery and Museum at Schoolhill, built in the Italian
Renaissance style of red and brown granite, contains an excellent
collection of pictures, the Macdonald Hall of portraits of contem-
porary artists by themselves being of altogether exceptional
interest and unique of its kind in Great Britain. The public
library, magnificently housed, contains more than 60,000
volumes. The theatre in Guild Street is the chief seat of dra-
matic, as the Palace Theatre in Bridge Place is of variety enter-
tainment. The new buildings of Marischal College fronting
Broad Street, opened by King Edward VII. in 1006, form one
of the most splendid examples of modern architecture in Great
Britain; the architect, Alexander Marshall Mackenzie, a native
of Aberdeen, having adapted his material, white granite, to the
design of a noble building with the originality of genius.
Churches.— Like most Scottish towns, Aberdeen is well
equipped with churches, most of them of good design, but few
of special interest. The East and West churches of St Nicholas,
their kirkyard separated from Union Street by an Ionic facade,
147$ ft. long, built in 1830, form one continuous building, 220 ft.
in length, including the Drum Aisle (the ancient burial-place of
the lrvines of Drum) and the Collison Aisle, which divide them
and which formed the transept of the 12th-century church of St
Nicholas. The West Church was built in 1775, in the Italian
style, the East originally in 1834 in the Gothic. In 1874 a fire
destroyed the East Church and the old central tower with its
fine peal of nine bells, one of which, Laurence or " Lowrie,"
was 4 ft. in diameter at the mouth, 3} ft high and very thick.
The church was rebuilt and a massive granite tower erected
over the intervening aisles at the cost of the municipality, a
new peal of 36 bells, cast in Holland, being installed to- com-
memorate the Victorian jubilee of 1887. The Roman Catholic
Cathedral in Huntly Street, a Gothic building, was erected in
1859. The see of Aberdeen was first founded at Mortlach in
Banffshire by Malcolm II. in 1004 to celebrate his victory there
over the Danes, but in 1137 David I. transferred the bishopric
to Old Aberdeen, and twenty years later the cathedral of St
Machar, situated a few hundred yards from the Don, was begun.
Save during the episcopate of William Elphinstonc (1484-fsn),
the building progressed slowly. Gavin Dunbar, who followed
him in 15 18, was enabled to complete the structure by adding
the two western spires and the southern transept. The church
suffered severely at the Reformation, but is still used as the parish
church. 1 1 now consists of the nave and side aisles. 1 1 is chiefly
built of outlayer granite, and, though the plainest cathedral in
Scotland, its stately simplicity and severe symmetry lend it
unique distinction. On the flat panelled ceiling of the nave
are the heraldic shields of the princes, noblemen and bishops who
shared in its erection, and the great west window contains
modern painted glass of excellent colour and design. The
cemeteries are St Peter's in Old Aberdeen, Trinity near the
links, Nellficld at the junction of Great Western and Holburn
Roads, and Allenvale, very tastefully laid out, adjoining Duthie
Park.
Education.— Aberdeen University consists of King's College
in Old Aberdeen, founded by Bishop Elphinstone in 1404, and
Marischal College, in Broad Street, founded in 1593 by George
Keith, 5th earl Marischal, which were incorporated in i860.
Arts and divinity are taught at King's, law, medicine and science
at Marischal. The number of students exceeds 800 yearly. The
buildings of both colleges are the glories of Aberdeen. King's
forms a quadrangle with interior court, two sides of which have
been rebuilt, and a library wing has been added. The Crown
Tower and the Chapel, the oldest parts, date from 1500. The
former is surmounted by a structure about 40 ft high, consisting
of a six-sided lantern and royal crown, both sculptured, and
resting on the intersections of two arched ornamental slips
rising from the four corners of the top of the tower. The choir
of the chapel still contains the original oak canopied stalls,
miserere seats and lofty open screens in the French flamboyant
style, and of unique beauty of design and execution. Their
preservation was due to the enlightened energy of the principal
at the time of the Reformation, who armed his folk to save the
building from the barons, of the Mearns after they had robbed
St Machar's of its bells and lead. Marischal College is a stately
modern building, having been rebuilt in 1836-1841, and greatly
extended several years later at acost of £100,000. The additions
to the buildings opened by King Edward VII. in 1906 have been
already mentioned. The beautiful Mitchell Tower is so named
from the benefactor <Dr Charles Mitchell) who provided the
splendid graduation hall. The opening of this tower in 189s
signalized the commemoration of the four hundredth anniversary
of the foundation of the university. The University library
comprises nearly 100,000 books. A Botanic Garden was pre-
sented to the university in 1809. Aberdeen and Glasgow Uni-
versities combine to return one member to Parliament. The
United Free Church Divinity Hall in Alford Place, is the Tudor
Gothic style, dates from 1850. The Grammar School, founded in
1263, was removed in 1861-1863 from its old quarters in Schoolhill
to a large new building, in the Scots Baronial style, off Skene
Street. Robert Gordon's College in Schoolhill was founded in
1729 by Robert Gordon of Straloch and further endowed in 1816
by Alexander Simpson of CollyhiU. Originally devoted (as
Gordon's Hospital) to the instruction and maintenance of the
sons of poor burgesses of guild and trade in the city, it was re-
organized in 1 88 1 as a day and night school for secondary and
technical education, and has since been unusually successful
Besides a High School for Girls and numerous board schools,
there-are many private higher-class schools. Under the Endow-
ments Act 1882 an educational trust was constituted which
possesses a capital of £155,000, At Blairs, in Kincardineshire,
five miles S.W. of Aberdeen, is St Mary's Roman Catholic College
for the training of young men intended for the priesthood.
Charities. — The Royal Infimary, in.Woolmanhill, established
in 1740, rebuilt in the Grecian style in 1833-1840, and largely
extended after 1887 as a memorial of Queen Victoria's jubilee;
the Royal Asylum, opened in 1800; the Female Orphan Asylum,
in Albyn Place, founded in 1840; the Blind Asylum, in Huntly
Street, established in 1843; the Royal Hospital for Sick Chil-
dren; the Maternity Hospital, founded ht 1823; the City
Hospital for Infectious Diseases; the Deaf and Dumb Institu-
tion; Mitchell's Hospital in Old Aberdeen; the East and West
Poorhouses, with lunatic wards; and hospitals devoted to
specfclized diseases, are amongst the most notable of the charit-
able institutions. There are, besides, industrial schools for boys
.and girls and for Roman Catholic children, a Female School
of Industry, the Scabank Rescue Home, Nazareth House and
Orphanage, St Martha's Home for Girls, St Margaret's Conva-
lescent Home and Sisterhood, House of Bethany, the Convent
of the Sacred Heart and the Educational Trust School.
Parks and Open Spaces. — Duthie Park, of 50 acres, the gift of
Miss Elizabeth Crombie Duthie of Ruthrieston, occupies an
excellent site on the north bank of the Dee. Victoria Park (l.t
acres) and its extension Westbum Park (13 acres) are situated
in the north-western area; farther north lies Stewart Park (xi
acres), called after Sir D. Stewart, lord provost in 1893. The
capacious links bordering the sea between the mouths of the two
rivers are largely resorted to for open-air recreation; there is
here a rifle range where a " wapinschaw," or shooting tourna-
ment, is held annually. Part is laid out as an 18-hoIe golf course;
a section is reserved for cricket and football; a portion has been
railed off for a race-course, and a bathing-station has been
erected. Union Terrace Gardens are a popular rendezvous in
the heart of the city.
Statues.— In Union Terrace Gardens stands a colossal statue
in bronze of Sir William Wallace, by W. G. Stevenson, R.S.A.
(1888). In the same gardens are a bronze statue of Burns and
Baron Marochetti's seated figure of Prince Albert In front of
Gordon's College is the bronze statue, by T. S. Burnett, A.R.S.A.,
of General Gordon (1888). At the east end of Union Street is
the bronze statue of Queen Victoria, erected fn 1893 by the
royal tradesmen of the city. Near the Cross stands the granite
statue of the 5th duke of Gordon (d. 1836). Here may also be
mentioned the obelisk of Peterhead granite, 70 ft high, erected
in the square of Marischal College to the memory of Sir James
ABERDEEN— ABERDEENSHIRE
+9
If Gr%or (1779-1851), the military surgeon and director-general
of the Army Medical Department, who was thrice elected lord
rector of the College.
Bridges. — The Dee is crossed by four bridges,— the old bridge,
the Wellington suspension bridge, the railway bridge, and Vic-
toria Bridge, opposite Market Street. The first, till 1832 the
only access to the city from the south, consists of seven semi-
circular ribbed arches, is about 30 ft high, and was built early
is the i6th century by Bishops Elphinstone and Dunbar. It
was nearly all rebuilt in 1718-1723, and in 1842 was widened from
Ml to 26 ft. The bridge of Don has five granite arches, each
75 ft in span, and was built in 1827-1832. A little to the west is
the Auld Brig o* Balgownie, a picturesque single arch spanning
the deep black stream, said to have been built by King Robert I.,
and celebrated by Byron in the tenth canto of Don Juan.
Harbour. — A defective harbour, with a shallow sand and gravel
bar at its entrance, long retarded the trade of Aberdeen, but
under various acts since 1773 it was greatly deepened. The
north pier, built partly by Smeaton in 1775-1781, and partly
by Telford in 1810-1815, extends nearly 3000 ft into the North
Sea. It increases the depth of water on the bar from a few feet
to 22 or 24 ft at spring tides and to 17 or 18 ft. at neap. A
vet dock, of 29 acres, and with 6000 ft. of quay, was completed
m 1848 and called Victoria Dock in honour of the queen's visit
to the city in that year. Adjoining it is the Upper Dock. By
the Harbour Act of 1868, the Dee near the harbour was diverted
horn the south at a cost of £80,000, and 00 acres of new ground
Can addition to 25 acres formerly made up) were provided on the
north side of the rives for the Albert Basin (with a graving dock),
quays and warehouses. A breakwater of concrete, 1050 ft. long,
•as constructed on the south side of the stream as a protection
against south-easterly gales. On Girdleness, the southern point
of the bay, a lighthouse was built in 1833. Near the harbour
■oath are three batteries mounting nineteen guns.
Jsd*stry.—Owing to the variety and importance of its chief
industries Aberdeen is one of the most prosperous cities in
Scotland. Very durable grey granite has been quarried near
Aberdeen for more than 300 years, and blocked and dressed
paving " setts/' kerb and building stones, and monumental
and other ornamental work of granite have long been exported
from the district to all parts of the world. This, though once
the predominant industry, has been surpassed by the deep-sea
fisheries, which derived a great impetus from beam-trawling,
iatroduced in 1882, and steam line fishing in 1880, and threaten
to rival if not to eclipse those of Grimsby. Fish trains are
despatched to London daily. Most of the leading industries date
from the 18th century, amongst them woollens (1703), linen
(1740) and cotton (1779). These give employment to several
thousands of operatives. The paper-making industry is one of
the most famous and oldest in the city, paper having been first
made in Aberdeen in 1604. Flax-spinning and jute and comb-
making factories are also very flourishing, and there are suc-
cessful foundries and engineering works. There are large
distiueries and breweries, and chemical works employing many
hands. In the days of wooden ships ship-building was a flourish-
ing industry, the town being noted for its fast clippers, many of
which establi s hed records in the " tea races." The introduction
of trawling revived this to some extent, and despite the distance
of the city from the iron fields there is a fair yearly output of
iron vessels. Of later origin are the jam, pickle and potted
meat factories, hundreds of acres having been laid down in
strawberries and other fruits within a few miles of the city.
History.— Aberdeen was an important place as far back as the
irth century. William the Lion had a residence in the city, to
which he gave a charter in 11 79 confirming the corporate rights
panted by David L The city received other royal charters
later. It was burned by the English king, Edward III., in
1336, but it was soon rebuilt and extended, and called New
Aberdeen. The burgh records are the oldest in Scotland. They
begin m 1308 and with one brief break are complete to the
present day. For many centuries the city was subject to
attacks by the neighbouring barons, and was strongly fortified,
but the gates were all removed by 1770. In 1497 a blockhouse
was built at the harbour mouth as a protection against the
English. During the struggles between the Royalists and
Covenanters the city was impartially plundered by both sides.
In 1 71 5 the Earl Marischal proclaimed the Old Pretender at
Aberdeen, and in 1745 the duke of Cumberland resided for a
short time in the city before attacking the Young Pretender.
The motto on the city arms is " Bon Accord," which formed the
watchword of the Aberdonians while aiding Robert Bruce in
his battles with the English.
Population. — In 1396 the population was about 3000. By 1801
it had become 26,992; in 1841 it was 63,262; (1891) 121,623;
(n?oi) ls^.soj.
AcTHOHintb — The charter* of the burgh: extracts from the
council rtpiter down to 1625. and select tons from the letters,
guildry and tirisufti'^ accounts, formEOK 3 vols, of the Spalding
Club; Co*mo Inncfr, Heeistrurn EpiacQpatnj Abfrdoneirsis. Spalding
Club; Walter Thorn. The History 0/ A herdeen ( 1 8 1 1 ) ; Robert Wilson,
Historical Amount and Delineation vf Abrrdfen (1822); Will urn
Kennedy, The Annals of Aberdeen (1818);, Orem, Description of the
Chanenry* Cathedral and Kind's College of Old Aberdeen, 1724-1725
(tSto) ; Sir Andrew Lcith Hay of Kannes, The Castellated Architecture
' Aberdeen; Giles, Specimens cf Old Castellated Houses of Aberdeen
i
I&4~/, Joseph Rv».u».i, - ~» ~ w ~ ~j v .....v»rJ lAUirdwu, I&39);
W. Robbie, Aberdeen: its Traditions and History (Aberdeen, 1893);
C. G. Burr and A. M. Munro, Old Landmarks of Aberdeen (Aberdeen,
1886); A. M. Munro, Memorials of the Aldermen, Provosts and Lord
Provosts of Aberdeen (Aberdeen, 1897); P. J, Anderson, Charters, fire,
illustrating the History of the Royal Burgh of Aberdeen (Aberdeen,
" ■' * ■' " * ' 'farischat College (New Spalding
Chartulary of the Church of St
890) ; Selections from the Records of Marischal College (New Spatdin
Club, 1889, 1898-1809); J. Cooper, Chartu
Nicholas (New Spalding Club, 1888. 1892); G. Cadenhead, Sketch of
the Territorial History of the Burgh of Aberdeen (Aberdeen, 1876);
W. Cadenhead. Guide to the City of Aberdeen (Aberdeen*, 1897);
A. Smith, Hjstory and A ntupiities of New and Old A berdeen (Aberdeen,
1882).
ABERDEEN, a city and the county-scat of Brown county,
South Dakota, U.S.A., about 1 25 m. N.E. of Pierre. Pop. (1890)
3182; (1900) 4087, of whom 889 were foreign born; (1005)
5841; (1910) 10,753. Aberdeen is served by the Chicago, Mil-
waukee and St Paul, the Great Northern, the Minneapolis and
St Louis, and the Chicago and North Western railways. It is
the financial and trade -centre for the northern part of the state,
a fine agricultural region, and in 1908 had five banks and a
number of wholesale houses. The city is the seat of the Northern
Normal and Industrial School, a state .institution, and has a
Carnegie library; the principal buildings are the court house
and the government buildings. Artesian wells furnish good
water-power, and artesian-well supplies, grain pitchers, brooms,
chemicals and flour are manufactured. The municipality owns
and operates the water-works. Aberdeen was settled in 1880,
and was chartered as a city in 1883.
ABERDEENSHIRE, a north-eastern county . of Scotland,
bounded N. and E. by the North Sea, S. by Kincardine, Forfar
and Perth, and W. by Inverness and Banff. It has a coast-line
of 65 m., and is the sixth Scottish county in area, occupying
1,261,887 acres or 1971 sq. m. The county is generally hilly,
and from the south-west, near the centre of Scotland, the
Grampians send out various branches, mostly to the north-east.
The shire is popularly divided into five districts. Of these the
first is Mar, mostly between the Dee and Don, which nearly
covers the southern half of the county and contains the city of
Aberdeen. It is mountainous, especially Braemar (q.v.), which
contains the greatest mass of elevated land in the British Isles.
The soil on the Dee is sandy, and on the Don loamy. The second
district, Formartine, between the lower Don and Ythan, has a
sandy coast, which is succeeded inland by a clayey, fertile, tilled
tract, and then by low hills, moors, mosses and tilled land.
Buchan, the third district, lies north of the Ythan, and, com-
prising the north-east of the county, is next in size to Mar, parts
of the coast being bold and rocky, the interior bare, low, flat,
undulating and in places peaty. On the coast, 6 m. S. of Peter-
head, are the Bullers of Buchan — a basin in which the sea, enter-
ing by a natural arch, boils up violently in stormy weather.
Buchan Ness is the most easterly point of Scotland. The fourth
5°
ABERDEENSHIRE
district, Garioch, in the centre of the shire, is a beautiful, undu-
lating, loamy, fertile valley, formerly called the granary of
Aberdeen Strathbogie, the fifth district, occupying a consider-
able area south of the Deveron, mostly consists of hills, moors
add mosses. The mountains arc the most striking of the physical
features of the county. Ben Macdhui (4296 ft.), a magnificent
mass, the second highest mountain in Great Britain, Braeriach
(4248), Cairntoul (424 0. Ben-na-bhuaird (3924). Ben Avon
(3843), " dark " Lochnagar (3786), the subject of a well-known
song by Byron, Cairn Eas (3556), Sgarsoch (3402), Culardoch
(2953), are tne principal heights in the division of Mar. Farther
north rise the Buck of Cabrach (2368) on the Banffshire border,
Tap o* Noth (1830), Bennachie (1698), a beautiful peak which
from its central position is a landmark visible from many different
parts of the county, and which is celebrated in John Imlah's
song, "O gin I were where Gadie rins," and Foudland (1529).
The chief rivers are the Dee, 90 m. long; the Don, $2 m. ; the
Ythan, 37 m., with mussel-beds at its mouth; the Ugie, 20 m.,
and the Deveron, 62 m., partly on the boundary of Banffshire.
The rivers abound with salmon and trout, and the pearl mussel
occurs in the Ythan and Don. A valuable pearl in the Scottish
crown is said to be from the Ythan. Loch Muick, the largest of
the few lakes in the county, 13 10 ft above the sea, 2) m. long
and i to \ m. broad, lies some 8J m. S.W. of Ba Hater, and has
Altnagiuthasach, a royal shooting-box, near its south-western end.
Loch St rath beg, 6 m. S.E. of Fraserburgh, is only separated from
the sea by a narrow strip of land. There are noted chalybeate
springs at Peterhead, Fraserburgh, and Pannanich near Ballater.
Geology. — The greater part of the county is composed of
crystalline schists belonging to the metamorphic rocks of the
Eastern Highlands. In the upper parts of the valleys of the bee
and the Don they form well-marked groups, of which the most
characteristic are (1) the black schists and phyllites, with calc-
flintas, and a thin band of tremolite limestone, (2) the main or
Blair Atholl limestone, (3) the quartzite. These divisions are
folded on highly inclined or vertical axes trending north-cast
and south-west, and hence the same zones are repeated over a
considerable area. The quartzite is generally regarded as the
highest member of the series. Excellent sections showing the
component strata occur in Glen Clunie and its tributary valleys
above Bracmar. Eastwards down the Dec and the Don and
northwards across the plain of Buchan towards Rattray Head
and Fraserburgh there is a development of biotite gneiss, partly
of sedimentary and perhaps partly of igneous origin. A belt
of slate which has been quarried for roofing purposes runs along
the west border of the county from Turriff by Auchterless and
the Foudland Hills towards 'he Tap o' Noth near Gartly. The
metamorphic rocks have been invaded by igneous materials,
some before, and by far the larger series after the folding of the
strata. The basic types of the former are represented by the
sills of epidiorite and hornblende gneiss in Glen Muick and Glen
Callater, which have been permeated by granite and pegmatite
in veins and lenticles, often foliated. The later granites subse-
quent to the plication of the schists have a wide distribution on
the Ben Macdhui and Ben Avon range, and on Lochnagar; they
stretch eastwards from Ballater by Tarland to Aberdeen and
north to Bennachie. Isolated masses appear at Peterhead and
at Strichcn. Though consisting mainly of biotite granite, these
later intrusions pass by intermediate stages into diorite, as in
the area between Balmoral and the head-waters of the Gairn.
The granites have been extensively quarried at Rubislaw, Peter-
head and Kemnay. Serpentine and troctolite, the precise age
of which is uncertain, occur at the Black Dog rock north of
Aberdeen, at Belhelvie and near Old Meldrum. Where the
schists of sedimentary origin have been pierced by these igneous
intrusions, they are charged with contact minerals such as silli-
manite, cordierite, kyanite and andalusite. Cordierite-bearing
rocks occur near Ellon, at the foot of Bennachie, and on the top
of the Buck of Cabrach. A banded and mottled calc-silicate
hornfcls occurring with the limestone at Derry Falls, W. N.W. of
Bracmar, has yielded malacolite, wollastonite, brown idocrase,
garnet, sphene and hornblende. A larger list of minerals has
been obtained from an exposure of limestone and associated
beds in Glen Gairn, about four miles above the point where that
river joins the Dee. Narrow belts of Old Red Sandstone, resting
unconformably cm the old platform of slates and schists, have
been traced from the north coast at Peterhead by Turriff to Fyvie.
and also from Huntly by Gartly to Kildrummy Castle. The
strata consist mainly of conglomerates and sandstones, which,
at Gartly and at Rhynie, are associated with lenticular bands
of andesite indicating contemporaneous volcanic action. Small
outliers of conglomerate and sandstone of this age have recently
been found in the course of excavations in Aberdeen. The
glacial deposits, especially in the belt bordering the coast
between Aberdeen and Peterhead, furnish important evidence
The ice moved eastwards off the high ground at the head of the
Dee and the Don, while the mass spreading outwards from the
Moray Firth invaded the low plateau of Buchan; but at a
certain stage there was a marked defection northwards parallel
with the coast, as proved by the deposit of red clay north of
Aberdeen. Ata later date the local glaciers laid down materials
on top of the red clay. The committee appointed by the British
Association {Report for 1897, p. m) proved that the Greensand,
which has yielded a large suite of Cretaceous fossils at Moreseat,
in the parish of Cruden, occurs in glacial drift, resting probably
on granite. The strata from which the Moreseat fossils were
derived are not now found in place in that part of Scotland, but
Mr Jukes Brown considers that the horizon of the fossils is that
of the lower Greensand of the Isle of Wight or the Aplien stage
of France. Chalk flints are widely distributed in the drift
between Fyvie and the east coast of Buchan. At Plaidy a patch
of clay with Liassic fossils occurs. At several localities between
Logie Coldstone and Dinnet a deposit of diatomite (Kicselguhr)
occurs beneath the peat.
Flora and Fauna. — The tops of the highest mountains have
an arctic flora. At the royal lodge on Loch Muick, 1350 ft.
above the sea, grow larches, vegetables, currants, laurels, roses,
&c. Some ash-trees, four or five feet in girth, are growing at
1300 ft. above the sea. Trees, especially Scotch fir and larch,
grow well, and Brae mar is rich in natural timber, said to surpass
any in the north of Europe. Stumps of Scotch fir and oak
found in peat are sometimes far larger than any now growing
The mole is found at 1800 ft. above the sea, and the squirrel at
1400. Grouse, partridges and hares are plentiful, and rabbits
are often too numerous. Red deer abound in Bracmar, the deer
forest being the most extensive in Scotland
Climate and Agriculture. — The climate, except in the moun-
tainous districts, is comparatively mild, owing to the proximity
of much of the shire to the sea. The mean annual temperature
at Bracmar is 43*6° F., and at Aberdeen 45*8° The mean
yearly rainfall varies from about 30 to 37 in The summer
climate of the upper Dee and Don valleys is the driest and most
bracing in the British Isles, and grain is cultivated up to 1600 ft.
above the sea, or 400 to 500 ft. higher than elsewhere in North
Britain. Poor, gravelly, clayey and peaty soils prevail, but
tile-draining, bones and guano, and the best methods of modern
tillage, have greatly increased the produce. Indeed, in no part
of Scotland has a more productive soil been made out of such
unpromising material. Farm-houses and steadings have much
improved, and the best agricultural implements and machines
are' in general use. About two-thirds of the population depend
entirely on agriculture. Farms are small compared with those
in the south-eastern counties. Oats are the predominant crop,
wheat has practically gone out of cultivation, but barley has
largely increased. The most distinctive industry is cattle-feed-
ing. A great number of the home-bred crosses are fattened for
the London and local markets, and Irish animals are imported
on an extensive scale for the same purpose, while an exceedingly
heavy business in dead meat for London and the south is done
all over the county. Sheep, horses and pigs are also raised in
large numbers.
Fisheries.— -A large fishing population in villages along the
coast engage in the white and herring fishery, which is the neat
most important industry to agriculture, its development having
ABERDEENSHIRE
5»
been doe almost exdusivdy to the introduction of steam trawlers.
The total value of the annual catch, of which between a half
tod a third consists of herrings, amounts to £1,000,000. Had-
docks are salted and rock-dried (speldings) or smoked (finnans).
The ports and creeks are divided into the fishery districts of
Peterhead, Fraserburgh and Aberdeen, the last of which in-
cludes also three Kincardineshire ports. The herring season
for Aberdeen, Peterhead and Fraserburgh is from June to
September, at which time the ports are crowded with boats
from other Scottish districts. There are valuable salmon-
faav ng s r od, net and stake-net— on the Dee, Don, Ythan and
L'pe. The average annual despatch of salmon from Aberdeen-
shire is about 400 tons.
Other Industries. — Manufactures are mainly prosecuted in or
Bear the city of Aberdeen, but throughout the rural districts
there b much miffing of corn, brick and tile making, smith-work,
brewing and dhtflling, cart and farm-implement making, casting
■ad drying of peat, and timber-felling, especially on Dceside
sad Donskfe, for pit-props, railway sleepers, laths and barrel-
staves. There are a number of paper-making establishments,
most of them on the Don near Aberdeen.
The chief source of mineral wealth is the noted durable granite,
vhka is quarried at Aberdeen, Kemnay, Peterhead and else-
where. An acre of land on being reclaimed has yielded £40 to
iso worth of causewaying stones. Sandstone and other rocks
are also quarried at different parts. The imports are mostly
coal, time, timber, iron, slate, raw materials for the textile
manufactures, wheat, cattle-feeding stuffs, bones, guano, sugar,
alcoholic liquors, fruits. The exports are granite (rough-
dressed and polished), naz, woollen and cotton goods, paper,
combs, preserved provisions, oats, barley, live and dead cattle.
Communications. — From thejsouth Aberdeen dty is approached
by the Caledonian (via Perth, Forfar and Stonehaven), and the
North British (via Dundee, Montrose and Stonehaven) railways,
and the shire is also served by the Great North of Scotland
railway, whose main line runs via Kintore and Huntly to Keith
and Elgin. There are branch lines from various points opening
q> the more populous districts, as from Aberdeen to Ballater
by Deesde, from Aberdeen to Fraserburgh (with a branch at
Maud for Peterhead and at Ellon for Cruden Bay and Boddam),
from Kintore to Alford, and from Inverurie to Old Meldrum and
also to Macduff. By sea there is regular communication with
London, Leith, Inverness, Wick, the Orkneys and Shetlands,
Iceland and the continent. The highest of the macadamized
reads crossing the eastern Grampians rises to a point 2200 ft.
above sea-fevd.
Pafulatwn and Govern m ent— In 1891 the population num-
bered 284436 and in ioox it was 304,439 (of vjhom 159,603
were females), or 154 persons to the sq. m. In 1001 there were
S persons who spoke Gaelic only, and 1333 who spoke Gaelic
aad Engfish. The chief towns are Aberdeen (pop. in 1001,
>S3.503). Bucksburn (2231), Fraserburgh (9105), Huntly (4x36),
Inverurie (3624), Peterhead (11.794), Turriff (2273). The
Sspreme Court of Justiciary sits in Aberdeen to try cases from
the counties of Aberdeen, Banff and Kincardine. The three
counties are under a sheriff, and there are two sheriffs-substitute
resident in Aberdeen, who sit also at Fraserburgh, Huntly,
Peterhead and Turriff. The sheriff courts are held in Aberdeen
and Peterhead. The county sends two members to parliament
-one lor East Aberdeenshire and the other for West Aberdeen-
itee. The county town, Aberdeen (q.v.), returns two members.
Peterhead. Inverurie and Kintore belong to the Elgin group
of parliamentary burghs, the other constituents being Banff,
Cuflen and Elgin, The county is under school-board juris-
tfetioa, and there are also several voluntary schools. There are
signer-class schools in Aberdeen, and secondary schools at
Huntly, Peterhead and Fraserburgh, and many of the other
schools in the county earn grants for secondary education. The
County Secondary Education Committee dispense a large sum.
partly granted by the education department and partly con-
tributed by local authorities from the "residue*' grant, and
•apport, besides the schools mentioned, local classes and lectures
in agriculture, fishery and other technical subjects, in addition
to subsidizing the agricultural department of the university of
Aberdeen. The higher branches of education have always been
thoroughly taught in the schools throughout the shire, and pupils
have long been in the habit of going directly from the schools to
the university.
The native Scots are long-headed, shrewd, careful, canny,
active, persistent, but reserved and blunt, and without demon-
strative enthusiasm. They have a physiognomy distinct from
the rest of the Scottish people, and have a quick, sharp, rather
angry accent. The local Scots dialect is broad, and rich in
diminutives, and is noted for the use of e for or «,/ for wA, d for
Ik, &c So recently as 1830 Gaelic was the fireside language of
almost every family in Braemar, but now it is little used.
History.— The country now forming the shires of Aberdeen
and Banff was originally peopled by northern Picts, whom
Ptolemy called Takali, the territory being named Taixalon.
Their town of Devana, once supposed to be the modern Aber-
deen, has been identified by Prof. John Stuart with a site in
the parish of Peterculter, where there are remains of an ancient
camp at Normandykes, and by Dr W. F. Skene with a station
on Loch Da van, west of Aboyne. So-called Roman camps have
also been discovered on the upper Ythan and Deveron, but
evidence of effective Roman occupation is still to seek. Traces
of the native inhabitants, however, are much less equivocal.
Weems or earth-houses are fairly common in the west. Relics
of crannogs or lake-dwellings exist at Loch Ceander, or Kinnord,
5 m. north-east of Ballater, at Loch Goul in the parish of
New Machar and elsewhere. Duns or forts occur on hills at
Dunecht, where the dun encloses an area of two acres, Barra
near Old Meldrum, Tap o' Noth, Dunnideer near Insch and
other places. Monoliths, standing stones and "Druidical"
circles of the pagan period abound, and there are many examples
of the sculptured stones of the early Christian epoch. Efforts
to convert the Picts were begun by Ternan in the 5th century,
and continued by Columba (who founded a monastery at Old
Deer), Drostan, Maluog and Machar, but it was long before they
showed lasting results. Indeed, dissensions within the Columban
church and the expulsion of the clergy from Pictland by the
Pictish king Nee tan in the 8th century undid most of the
progress that had been made. The Vikings and Danes periodi-
cally raided the coast, but when (1040) Macbeth ascended the
throne of Scotland the Northmen, under the guidance of Thor-
finn, refrained from further trouble in the north-east. Macbeth
was afterwards slain at Lumphanan (1057), a cairn on Pcrkhill
marking the spot. The influence of the Norman conquest of
England was felt even in Aberdeenshire. Along with numerous
Anglo-Saxon exiles, there also settled in the country Flemings
who introduced various industries, Saxons who brought farming,
and Scandinavians who taught nautical skill. The Celts revolted
more than once, but Malcolm Canmore and his successors
crushed them and confiscated their lands. In the reign of Alex-
ander I. (d. 1124) mention is first made of Aberdeen (originally
called Aberd6n and, in the Norse sagas, Apardion), which re-
ceived its charter from William the Lion in 11 79, by which date
its burgesses had already combined with those of Banff, Elgin,
Inverness and other trans-Grampian communities to form a
free Hanse, under which they enjoyed exceptional trading privi-
leges. By this time, too, the Church had been organized, the
bishopric of Aberdeen having been established in x 1 50. In the
12th and 13th centuries some of the great Aberdeenshire families
arose, including the earl of Mar (c. x 122), the Leslies, Freskins
(ancestors of the dukes of Sutherland), Durwards, Bysets,
Comyns and Cheynes, and it is significant that in most cases
their founders were immigrants. The Celtic thanes and their
retainers slowly fused with the settlers. They declined to take
advantage of the disturbed condition of the country during the
wars of the Scots independence, and made common cause with
the bulk of the nation. Though John Comyn (d 1300?), one of
the competitors for the throne, had considerable interests in
the shire, his claim received locally little support. In 1296
Edward I. made a triumphal march to the north to terrorise the
52
ABERDOUR— ABERFOYLE
more turbulent nobles. Next year William Wallace surprised
the English garrison in Aberdeen, but failed to capture the castle.
In 1303 Edward again visited the county, halting at the castle
of Kildrummy, then in the possession of Robert Bruce, who
shortly afterwards became the acknowledged leader of the Scots
and made Aberdeen his headquarters for several months. De-
spite the seizure of Kildrummy Castle by the English in 1306,
Brace's prospects brightened from 1308, when he defeated John
Comyn, earl of Bucban (d. 1313?), at Inverurie. For a hundred
years after Robert Brace's death (1329) there was intermittent
anarchy in the shire. Aberdeen itself was burned by the English
in 1336, and the re-settlement of the districts of Buchan and
Strathbogie occasioned constant quarrels on the part of the dis-
possessed. Moreover, the crown bad embroiled itself with some
of the Highland chieftains, whose independence it sought to
abolish. This policy culminated in the invasion of Aberdeen-
shire by Donald, lord of the Isles, who was, however, defeated
at Harlaw, near Inverurie, by the earl of Mar in 14x1. In the
15th century two other leading county families appeared, Sir
Alexander Forbes being created Lord Forbes about 1442, and
Sir Alexander Seton Lord Gordon in 1437 and earl of Huntly
in 1445. Bitter feuds raged between these families for a long
period, but the Gordons reached the height of their power in the
first half of the 16th century, when their domains, already vast,
were enhanced by the acquisition, through marriage, of the
earldom of Sutherland (1514). Meanwhile commerce with the
Low Countries, Poland and the Baltic had grown apace, Camp-
vcre, near Flushing in Holland, becoming the emporium of the
Scottish traders, while education was fostered by the foundation
of King's College at Aberdeen in 1497 (Marischal College followed
a century later). At the Reformation so little intuition had the
clergy of the drift of opinion that at the very time that religious
structures were being despoiled in the south, the building and
decoration of churches went on in the shire. The change was
acquiesced in without much tumult, though rioting took place
in Aberdeen and St Machar's cathedral in the city suffered
damage. The 4th earl of Huntly offered some resistance, on
behalf of the Catholics, to. the influence of Lord James Stuart,
afterwards the Regent Murray, but was defeated and killed at
Corrichie on the hill of Fare in 1562. As years passed it was
apparent that Presbyterianism was less generally acceptable
than Episcopacy, of which system Aberdeenshire remained for
generations the stronghold in Scotland. Another crisis in ecclesi-
astical affairs arose in 1638, when the National Covenant was
ordered to be subscribed, a demand so grudgingly responded to
that the marquis of Montrose visited the shire in the following
year to enforce acceptance. The Cavaliers, not being disposed
to yield, dispersed an armed gathering of Covenanters in the
affair called the Trot of Turriff (1639), in which the first blood
of the civil war was shed. The Covenanters obtained the upper
hand in a few weeks, when Montrose appeared at the bridge of
Dee and compelled the surrender of Aberdeen, which had no
choice but to cast in its lot with the victors. Montrose, however,
soon changed sides, and after defeating the Covenanters under
Lord Balfour of Burleigh (1644), delivered the city to rapine.
He worsted the Covenanters again after a stiff fight on the 2nd
of July 1645, at Alford, a village in the beautiful Howe of Alford.
Peace was temporarily restored on the " engagement " of the
Scots commissioners to assist Charles I. On his return from
Holland in 1650 Charles II. was welcomed in Aberdeen, but in
little more than a year General Monk entered the city at the
head of the Cromwellian regiments. The English garrison re-
mained till 1659, and next year the Restoration was effusively
hailed, and prelacy was once more in the ascendant. Most of the
Presbyterians conformed, but the Quakers, more numerous in
the shire and the adjoining county of Kincardine than anywhere
else in Scotland, were systematically persecuted. After the
Revolution (1688) episcopacy passed under a cloud, but the
clergy, yielding to force majeure, gradually accepted the inevitable,
hoping, as long as Queen Anne lived, that prelacy might yet be
recognized as the national form of Church government. Her
death dissipated these dreams, and as George I., her successor,
was antipathetic to the clergy, it happened that Jacob! t ism and
episcopalianism came to be regarded in the shire as identical,
though in point of fact the non-jurors as a body never counte-
nanced rebellion. The earl of Mar raised the standard of revolt
in Braemar (6th of September 1715); a fortnight later James
was proclaimed at Aberdeen cross; the Pretender landed at
Peterhead on the 22nd of December, and in February 1716 he
was back again in France. The collapse of the first rising ruined
many of the lairds, and when the second rebellion occurred
thirty years afterwards the county in the main was apathetic,
though the insurgents held Aberdeen for five months, and Lord
Lewis Gordon won a trifling victory for Prince Charles Edward
at Inverurie (23rd of December 1 745). The duke of Cumberland
relieved Aberdeen at the end of February 1746, and in April
the Young Pretender was a fugitive. Thereafter the people
devoted themselves to agriculture, industry and commerce,
which developed by leaps and bounds, and, along with equally
remarkable progress in education, transformed the aspect of
the shire and made the community as a whole one of the most
prosperous in Scotland.
See W. Watt, History of Aberdeen and Banff (Edinburgh. 1900);
Collections for a History of the Skires of Aberdeen and Banff (edited
by Dr Joseph Robertson, Spalding Club) : Sir A. Leith-Hay, Castles
of Aberdeenshire (Aberdeen, 1887); J. Davidson, Inverurie and the
Earldom of the Garioch (Edinburgh, 1878): Pratt, Buchan (rev. by
R. Anderson). (Aberdeen, 1900); A. I. M'Connochie, Z>eu«4e.(Aber-
deen, 1895).
ABERDOUR* a village of Fifeshire, Scotland. Pleasantly
situated on the shore of the Firth of Forth, 17$ m. N.W. of
Edinburgh by the North British railway and 7 m. N.W. of Ldth
by steamer, it is much resorted to for its excellent sea-bathing.
There are rains of a castle and an old decayed church, which
contains some fine Norman work. About 3 m. S.W. is Doni-
bristle House, the seat of the earl of Murray (Moray), and the
scene of the murder (Feb. 7, 1592) of James, 2nd (Stuart) earl
of Murray. The island of Inchcolm, or Island of Columba, | m.
from the shore, is in the parish of Aberdour. As its name
implies, its associations date back to the time of Columba. The
primitive stone-roofed oratory is supposed to have been a
hermit's cell. The Augustinian monastery was founded in 1x23
by Alexander I. The buildings are well preserved, consisting of a
low square tower, church, cloisters, refectory and small chapter-
house. The island of Columba was occasionally plundered by
English and other rovers, but in the x6th century it became the
property of Sir James Stuart, whose grandson became 2nd earl
of Murray by virtue of his marriage to the elder daughter of the
xst earl. From it comes the earl's title of Lord St Colme (161 x).
ABERDOVEY (Aberdyfi: the Dyfi is the county frontier), a
seaside village of Merionethshire, North Wales, on the Cambrian
railway. Pop. (1901) 1466. It lies in the midst of beautiful
scenery, 4 m. from Towyn, on the N. bank of the Dyfi estuary.
commanding views of Snowdon, Cader Idris, Arran Mawddy and
Plynlimmon. The Dyfi, here a mile broad, is crossed by a ferry
to Borth sands, whence a road leads to Aberystwyth. The sub-
merged " bells of Aberdovey " (since Seithennin " the drunkard "
caused the formation of Cardigan Bay) are famous in a Welsh
song. Aberdovey is a health and bathing resort.
ABERFOYLE, a village and parish of Perthshire, Scotland.
34} m. N. by W. of Glasgow by the North British railway. Pop.
of parish (1901) 1052. The village is situated at the base of
Craigmore (1271 ft. high) and on the Laggan, a head- water of
the Forth. Since 1885, when the duke of Montrose constructed
a road over the eastern shoulder of Craigmore to join the older
road at the entrance of the Trossachs pass, Aberfoyle has be-
come the alternative route to the Trossachs and Loch Katrine.
Loch Aid, about 2 m. W. of Aberfoyle, lies 105 ft. above the sea.
It is 3 m. long (including the narrows at the east end) and x m.
broad. Towards the west end is Eilean Gorm (the green isle),
and near the north-western shore are the falls of Ledard. Two
m. N.W. is Loch Chon, 200 ft above the sea, i| m. long, and
about I m. broad. It drains by the Avon Dhu to Loch Ard,
which is drained in turn by the Laggan. The slate quarries oa
Craigmore are the only industry in Aberfoyle.
ABERGAVENNY— ABERNETHY
53
kMEM&ATEXWY. a market town and municipal borough in
the northern parliamentary division of Monmouthshire, England,
14 m. W. of Monmouth on the Great Western and the London
tad North- Western railways. Pop. (toot) 7795. It is situated
tt the junction of a small stream called the Gavenny with the
hver Usk; and the site, almost surrounded by lofty hills, is
very beautiful. The town was formerly walled, and has the
remains of a castle built soon after the conquest, frequently the
scene of border strife. The church of St Mary belonged origin-
ally to a Benedictine monastery founded early in the 12 th cen-
tury. The existing building, however, is Decorated and Perpen-
dicular, and contains a fine series of memorials of dates from the
ijth to the 17th century. There is a free grammar school, which
tin 1857 had a fellowship at Jesus College, Oxford. Breweries,
ironworks, quarries, brick fields and collieries in the neighbour-
hood are among the principal industrial establishments. Aber-
gavenny was incorporated in 1800, and n governed by a mayor,
4 aldermen and tt eoujiciBors, Area, 815 acres.
This -is the Roman Cetxinnivm, a small fort guarding the road
aloaf tin valley of the Utk and ensuring Quiet amortR the hi LI tribes.
There t ;*actkaElyno irareof thii fort, Abergavenny (Bcrjjjvcnny)
grew ■] jTuicr. the protection o! the lonj» of Abergavenny* whose
tide da fd Iran William [. Owing ia its situation, the town was
frequefly embroiled in the border warfare of the 12th ami uth
eearari as, and GiratrJm Cambrcn*i» rebic* how in 1 175 Th*- < i.tle
ws sri -d by the YYehh. Homelyn ck Baal tin. first lord of Ahcr-
pveai , founded the Benedictine priory, which was subsequently
— '"wed by WittUm de Brio** with a tenth of the pronto erf the
t and town." At the dissolution of the priory part of thin cn-
■em went towards the foundation of a free grammar schnol,
thesitt ryjf pawng to theGuntcr family, During the Civil War
prior tt :■* siege of Raglan Caiilc in 164J. Chailcs I. visited Aber-
pveaov, and presided in person over the trial of Sir Trevor Williams
sad other parliamentarians. In 1639 Abergavenny received a
darter of in cor p o ration under the title of bailiff and burgesses. A
darter with extended privileges was drafted in 1657, but appears
se*er to have been enrolled or to have come into effect. Owing to
the refusal of the chief officers of the corporation to take the oath
of allegiance to William III. in 1688, the charter was annulled, and
the tosra subsequently declined- in prosperity. The act of 27
Henry VIII., which provided that Monmouth, as county town,
•oold return one burgess to parliament, further stated that other
saoettt M o nmou t h s hi re boroughs were to contribute towards the
P*r"eot of the member. In consequence of this clause Abergavenny
oe various o c c asi o n s shared in the election, the last instance being
■ 1685. Reference to a market at Abergavenny is found in a
darter granted to the prior by William de Braose (d. 121 1). The
nght to hold two weekly markets and three yearly fairs, as hitherto
■dd. was confirmed in 1657. Abergavenny was celebrated for the
production of Welsh flannel, and also for the manufacture, whilst
tsebsmoa prevailed, of periwigs of goats' hair.
The title of Baron Abergavenny, in the Neville family, dates from
tdward Neville (d. 1476), who was the youngest son of the 1st earl
of Westmoreland by Joan Beaufort, daughter of John of Gaunt.
^j^*^ the hdrc * ** Wchard, earl of Worcester, whose father
kadtahemed the castle and estate of Abergavenny, and was sum-
moned to 1302 to parliament as Lord Bergavenny. Edward
Nerffle was summoned to parliament with this title in 1450. His
awea sale descendants ended in 1587 jn Henry Neville, but a
Edward Neville (d. 1622), was confirmed in the barony ...
iw*. From him it has descended continuously, the title being
Maessed to an earldom in 1784; and in 1876 William Nevill (sic).
5tfi ead GV 1826). an indefatigable and powerful supporter of the
t^oasu vauve party, was created 1st marquess of Abergavenny. (See
aJERIGH-MACKAY, GEORGE ROBERT (1848-1881), Anglo-
ladian writer, son of a Bengal chaplain, was born on the 25th
of JoJy 1848, and was educated at Magdalen College School and
Cambridge University. Entering the Indian education depart-
neat in 1870, be became professor of English literature in Delhi
Coflege in 1873, tutor to the raja of Rutlam 1876, and principal
of the Rajkamar College at Indore in 1877. He is best known
far ha book Twenty-cm Days in India (1878-1879), a satire upon
Anglo -Indian society and modes of thought. This book gave
promise of a successful literary career; but the author died at
the age of thirty -three.
AKRRETHT, JOHN (1680-1740), Irish Presbyterian divine,
*m born at Coleraine, county Londonderry, where his father
*■ Nonconformist minister, on the 19th of October 1680. In
ha thirteenth year be entered the university of Glasgow, and on
*<— *~- i: — ; his course there went on to Edinburgh, where his
intellectual and social attainments gained him a ready entrance
into the most cultured circles. Returning home he received
licence to preach from his Presbytery before he was twenty-one.
In 1 701 he was urgently invited to accept charge of an important
congregation in Antrim; and after an interval of two years,
mostly spent in further study in Dublin, he was ordained there
on the 8th of August 1703. Here he did notable work, both as a
debater in the synods and assemblies of his church and as an
evangelist In 17 12 he lost his wife (Susannah Jordan), and the
loss desolated bis life for many years. In 1 7 1 7 he was invited to
the congregation of Usher's Quay, Dublin, and contemporane-
ously to what was called the Old Congregation of Belfast. The
synod assigned him to Dublin. After careful consideration he
declined to accede, and remained at Antrim. This refusal was
regarded then as ecclesiastical high-treason; and a controversy
of the most intense and disproportionate character followed, Aber-
nethy standing firm for religious freedom and repudiating the
sacerdotal assumptions of all ecclesiastical courts. The contro-
versy and quarrel bears the name of the two camps in the con-
flict, the "Subscribers " and the " h{ on -subscribers." Out-and-
out evangelical as John Abernethy was, there can be no question
that he and his associates sowed the seeds of that after-struggle
(1821-1840) in which, under the leadership of Dr Henry Cooke,
the Arian and Socinian elements of the Irish Presbyterian Church
were thrown out M uch of what he contended for, and which the
" Subscribers " opposed bitterly, has been silently granted in the
lapse of time. In 1 726 the " Non-subscribers," spite of an almost
wofully pathetic pleading against separation by Abernethy, were
cut off, with due ban and solemnity, from the Irish Presbyterian
Church. In 1730, although a " Non-subscriber," he was invited
to Wood Street, Dublin, whither he removed. In 1731 came on
the greatest controversy in which Abernethy engaged, viz. in
relation to the Test Act nominally, but practically on the entire
question of tests and disabilities. His stand was " against all
laws that, upon account of mere differences of religious opinions
and forms of worship, excluded men of integrity and ability
from serving their country." He was nearly a century in ad-
vance of his age. He had to reason with those who denied that a
Roman Catholic or Dissenter could be a " man of integrity and
ability." His Tracts— afterwards collected— did fresh service,
generations later, and his name is honoured by all who love
freedom of conscience and opinion. He died in December 174a
See Dr Ductal's Life, prefixed to Sermons (1702); Diary in MS.,
6 vols. 4to; Reid's Presbyterian Church in Ireland, iii. 234.
ABERNETHY, JOHN (1764-1831), English surgeon, grandson
of John Abernethy (see above), was born in London on the
3rd of April 1764. His father was a London merchant Edu-
cated at Wolverhampton grammar school, he was apprenticed
in 1779 to Sir Charles Blicke (1745-1815), surgeon to St Bar-
tholomew's Hospital, London. He attended the anatomical
lectures of Sir William B lizard (1743-1835) at the London
Hospital, and was early employed to assist as " demonstrator";
he also attended Percival Pott's surgical lectures at St Bartholo-
mew's Hospital, as well as the lectures of John Hunter. On
Pott's resignation of the office of surgeon of St Bartholomew's,
Sir Charles Blicke, who was assistant-surgeon, succeeded him,
and Abernethy was elected assistant-surgeon in 1787. In this
capacity he began to give lectures at his house in Bartholomew
Close, which were so well attended that the governors of the
hospital built a regular theatre (1 700-1791), and Abernethy thus
became the founder of the distinguished school of St Bartholo-
mew's. He held the office of assistant-surgeon of the hospital
for the long period of twenty-eight years, till, in 18 15, he was
elected principal surgeon. He had before that time been ap-
pointed lecturer in anatomy to the Royal College of Surgeons
(1814). Abernethy was not a great operator, though his name is
associated with the treatment of aneurism by ligature of the
external iliac artery. His Surgical Observations on the Constitu-
tional Origin and Treatment of Local Diseases (1809)— known as
" My Book," from the great frequency with which he referred
his patients to it, and to page 72 of it in particular, under that
was one of the earliest popular works on medical science.
54
ABERRATION
He taught that local diseases were frequently the results of
disordered states of the digestive organs, and were to be treated
by purging and attention to diet. As a lecturer he was ex-
ceedingly attractive, and his success in teaching was largely
attributable to the persuasiveness with which he enunciated
his views. It has been said, however, that the influence he
exerted on those who attended his lectures was not beneficial'
in this respect, that his opinions were delivered so dogmatically,
and all who differed from him were disparaged and denounced
so contemptuously, as to repress instead of stimulating inquiry.
The celebrity he attained in bis practice was due not only to his
great professional skill, but also in part to the singularity of his
manners. He used great plainness of speech in his intercourse
with his patients, treating them often brusquely and sometimes
even rudely. In the circle of his family and friends he was
courteous and affectionate; and in all his dealings he was strictly
just and honourable. He resigned his position at St Bartholo-
mew's Hospital in 1827, and died at his residence at Enfield on
the 20th of April 183 1.
A collected edition of his works was published in 183a A bio-
graphy, Memoirs of John Aberncihy, by George Macilwain, appeared
in 1853.
ABERRATION (Lat. ab, from or away, errare, to wander),
a deviation or wandering, especially used in the figurative sense:
as in ethics, a deviation from the truth; in pathology, a mental
derangement; in zoology and botany, abnormal development
or structure. In optics, the word has two special applications:
(1) Aberration of light, and (2) Aberration in Optical Systems.
These subjects receive treatment below.
L Abexjlation of Light
This astronomical phenomenon may be defined as an apparent
motion of the heavenly bodies; the stars describing annually
orbits more or less elliptical, according to the latitude of the
star; consequently at any moment the star appears to be dis-
placed from its true position. This apparent motion is due to
the finite velocity of light, and the progressive motion of the
observer with the earth, as it performs its yearly course about
the sun. It may be familiarized by the following illustrations.
Alexis Claude Clairaut gave this figure: Imagine rain to be
falling vertically, and a person carrying a thin perpendicular
tube to be standing on the ground. If the bearer be stationary,
rain-drops will traverse the tube without touching its sides;
if, however, the person be walking, the tube must be inclined
at an angle varying as his velocity in order that the rain may
traverse the tube centrally. J. J. L. de Lalande gave the illus-
tration of a roofed carriage with an open front: if the carriage
be stationary, no rain enters; if, however, it be moving, rain
enters at the front. The " umbrella " analogy is possibly the
best known figure. When stationary, the most efficient position
in which to hold an umbrella is obviously vertical; when walk-
ing, the umbrella must be held more and more inclined from the
vertical as the walker quickens his pace. Another familiar figure,
pointed out by P. L. M. de Maupertuis, is that a sportsman,
when aiming at a bird on the wing, sights his gun some distance
ahead of the bird, the distance being proportional to the velocity
of the bird. The mechanical idea, named the parallelogram of
velocities, permits a ready and easy graphical representation of
these facts. Reverting to the analogy of Clairaut,
?r — 1 let AB (fig. 1) represent the velocity of the rain, and
!X ' AC the relative velocity of the person bearing the
tube. The diagonal AX) of the parallelogram, of
"a which AB and AC are adjacent sides, will represent,
Fio. 1. both in direction and magnitude, the motion of the
rain as apparent to the observer. Hence for the
rain to centrally traverse the tube, this must be inclined at an
angle BAD to the vertical; this angle is conveniently termed
the aberration due to these two motions. The umbrella analogy
is similarly explained; the most efficient position being when
the stick points along the resultant AD.
The discovery of the aberration of light in 1725, due to James
Bradley, is one of the most important in the whole domain of
d •
N
astronomy. That it was unexpected there can be no doubt;
and it was only by extraordinary perseverance and perspicuity
that Bradley was able to explain it in 1727. Its origin is seated
in attempts made to free from doubt the prevailing discordances
as to whether the stars possessed appreciable pa r allax e s. The
Copernican theory of the solar system — that the earth revolved
annually about the sun — had received confirmation by the ob-
servations of Galileo and Tycho Brahe, and the mathematical
investigations of Kepler and Newton. As early as z 573, Thomas
Digges had suggested that this theory should necessitate a
parallactic shifting of the stars, and, consequently, if such stellar
parallaxes existed, then the Copernican theory would receive
additional confirmation. Many observers claimed to have
determined such parallaxes, but Tycho Brahe and G. B. Ricdoli
concluded that they existed only in the minds of the observers,
and were due to instrumental and personal errors. In 1680
Jean Picard, in his Voyage a" Uranibeurg, stated, as a result of
ten years' observations, that Polaris, or the Pole Star, exhibited
variations in its position amounting to 40' annually; some
astronomers endeavoured to explain this by parallax, but these
attempts were futile, for the motion was at variance with that
which parallax would occasion. J. Flamsteed, from measure-
ments made in 1680 and succeeding years with his mural quad-
rant, similarly concluded that the declination of the Pole Star
was 40" less in July than in September. R. Hooke, in 1674,
published his observations of y Draconis, a star of the second
magnitude which passes practically overhead in the latitude of
London, and whose observations are therefore singularly free
from the complex corrections due to astronomical refraction,
and concluded that this star was 23* more northerly in July
than in October.
When James Bradley and Samuel Molyneux entered this
sphere of astronomical research in 1735, there consequently
prevailed much uncertainty as to whether stellar parallaxes
had been observed or not; and it was with the intention of
definitely answering this question that these astronomers
erected a large telescope at the house of the latter at Kcw.
They determined to reinvestigate the motion of y Draconis; the
telescope, constructed by George Graham (1675-1751), a cele-
brated instrument-maker, was affixed to a vertical chimney-
stack, in such manner as to permit a small oscillation of the
eyepiece, the amount of which, i.e. the deviation from the vertical,
was regulated and measured by the introduction of a screw and
a plumb-line. The instrument was set up in November 172$,
and observations on y Draconis were made on the 3rd, 5th, nth,
and 1 2 th of December. There was apparently no shifting of
the star, which was therefore thought to be at its most southerly
point On the 17th of December, however, Bradley observed
that the star was moving southwards, a motion further shown
by observations on the 20th. These results were unexpected,
and, in fact, inexplicable by existing theories; and an examina-
tion of the telescope showed that the observed anomalies were
not due to instrumental errors. The observations were continued,
and the star was seen 'to continue its southerly course until
March, when it took up a position some 20" more southerly than
its December position. After March it began to pass north-
wards, a motion quite apparent by the middle of April; in June
it passed at the same distance from the zenith as it did in De-
cember; and in September it passed through its most northerly
position, the extreme range from north to south, i.e. the angle
between the March and September positions, being 40*.
This motion is evidently not due to parallax, for, in this case,
the maximum range should be between the June and December
positions; neither was it due to observational errors. Bradley
and Molyneux discussed several hypotheses in the hope of
fixing the solution. One hypothesis was: while y Draconis was
stationary, the plumb-line, from which the angular measurements
were made, varied; this would follow if the axis of the earth
varied. The oscillation of the earth's axis may arise in two
distinct ways; distinguished as " nutation of the axis " and
" variation of latitude. " Nutation, the only form of osd])**
lion imagined by Bradley, postulates that while the earth's
ABERRATION
55
ub is fixed with respect to the earth, Lg. the north and south
poles occupy permanent geographical positions, yet the axis
is not directed towards a fixed point in the heavens; variation
of latitude, however, is associated with the shifting of the axis
within the earth, i.e. the geographical position of the north pole
Nutation of the axis would determine a similar apparent
notion for aO stars: thus, all stars having the same polar
distance as y Draands should exhibit the same apparent motion
after or before this star by a constant interval. Many stars
szUiij the condition of equality of polar distance with that of
1 Draconis, butfew were bright enough to be observed in Moly-
bcux j s telescope. One such star, however, with a right ascension
acarly equal to that of y Dr acorns, but in the opposite sense,
wis selected and kept under observation. This star was seen
to possess an apparent motion similar to that which would be a
consequence of the nutation of the earth's axis; but since its
declination varied only one half as much as in the case of y Dro-
wns, it was obvious that nutation did not supply the requisite
solution. The question as to whether the motion was due to an
irregular distribution of the earth's atmosphere, thus involving
ihaonnal variations in the refractive index, was also investi-
pted; here, again, negative results were obtained.
Bradley had already perceived, in the case of the two stars
previously scrutinized, that the apparent difference of declina-
tion from the maximum positions was nearly proportional to
the sun's distance from the equinoctial points; and he realized
the necessity for more observations before any generalization
could be attempted. For this purpose he repaired to the Rectory,
Waastead, then the residence of Mrs Pound, the widow of his
tade James Pound, with whom he had made many observations
ot the heavenly bodies. Here he had set up, on the 19th of
August 1727, a more convenient telescope than that at Kcw,
its range extending over 6j° on each side of the zenith, thus
covering a far larger area of the sky. Two hundred stars in the
Bntisi Catalogue of Flamsteed traversed its field of view; and,
of these, about fifty were kept under close observation. His
CGcdusions may be thus summarized: (1) only stars near the
solstitial colure had their maximum north and south positions
*hen the sun was near the equinoxes, (2) each star was at its
caxunum positions when it passed the zenith at six o'clock
corning and evening (this he afterwards showed to be inaccurate,
sad found the greatest change in declination to be proportional
10 the latitude of the star), 0) the apparent motions of all stars
at about the same time was in the same direction.
A re-examination of his previously considered hypotheses as
to the cause of these phenomena was fruitless; the true theory
*as ultimately discovered by a pure accident, comparable In
uatplidty and importance with the association of a falling apple
via the discovery of the principle of universal gravitation.
SJfiag on the river Thames, Bradley repeatedly observed the
lifting of a vane on the mast as the boat altered its course;
a=d, having been assured that the motion of the vane meant
teat the boat, and not the wind, had altered its direction, he
rallied that the position taken up by the vane was determined
by the motion of the boat and the direction of the wind. The
application of this observation to the phenomenon which had so
J«g perplexed him was not difficult, and, in 1727, he published
1-s theory of the aberration of light — a corner-stone of the
e-iiice of astronomical science. Let S (fig. 2) be a star and the
observer be carried along the line AB; let SB be
perpendicular to AB. If the observer be stationary
at B, the star will appear in the direction BS; if,
however, he traverses the distance BA in the same
time as light passes from the star to his eye, the star will
a~~«* appear in the direction AS. Since, however, the ob-
server is not conscious of his own translatory motion
¥t< * *• with the earth in its orbit, the star appears to have
* displacement which is at all times parallel to the motion
rf the observer. To generalize this, let S (fig. 3) be the sun,
ABCD the earth's orbit, and s the true position of a star.
When the earth is at A, in consequence of aberration, the star
/
1
J
-^
1
F10. 3.
is displaced to a point a, its displacement sa being parallel to
the earth's motion at A; when the earth is at B, the star
appears at b; and so on
throughout an orbital re-
volution of the earth. Every
star, therefore, describes an
apparent orbit, which, if the
line joining the sun and the
star be perpendicular to
the plane ABCD, will be ex-
actly similar to that of the
earth, i.e. almost a circle.
As the star decreases in lati-
tude, this circle will be
viewed more and more ob-
liquely, becoming a flatter
and flatter ellipse until, with * j-
zero latitude, it degenerates
into a straight line (fig. 4).
The major axis of any
such aberrational ellipse is
always parallel to AC, i.e. the
ecliptic, and since it is equal
to the ratio of the velocity
of light to the velocity of the earth, it is necessarily constant.
This constant length, subtends an angle of about 40' at the
earth;. the " constant of aberration " is half this angle. The
generally accepted value is 20-445*. due to Strove; the last two
figures are uncertain, and all that can be definitely affirmed
is that the value lies between 2043* *°d KM©**. The minor axis,
on the other hand, is not constant, but, as we have already
seen, depends on the latitude, being the product of
the major axis into the sine of the latitude.
Assured that his explanation was true, Bradley cor-
rected his observations for aberration, but he found
that there, still remained a residuum which was evi-
dently not a parallax, for it did not exhibit an annual
cycle. He reverted to his early idea of a nutation of
the earth's axis, and was rewarded by the discovery
that the earth did possess such an oscillation (see
Astronomy). Bradley recognized the fact that the
experimental determination of the aberration constant
gave the ratio of the velocities of light and of the
earth; hence, if the velocity of the earth be known,
the velocity of light is determined. In recent years
much attention has been given to the nature of the
propagation of light from the heavenly bodies to the earth, the
argument generally being centred about the relative effect of
the motion of the aether on the velocity of light. This subject is
discussed in the articles Aether and Light.
References.— A detailed account of -Bradley's work is given in
S. Rigaud, Memoirs of Bradley (1832), and in Charles Hut ton,
Mathematical and Philosophical Dictionary (1795): » particularly
clear and lucid account is given in H. H. Turner, Astronomical
O
uiir
O
o
2
L*fc«T
Fig. 4.
Discovery (1904).
works.
The subject receives treatment in all astronomical
.II. Aberration in Optical Systems
Aberration in optical systems, i.e. in lenses or mirrors or a
scries of them; may be defined as the non-concurrence of rays
from the points of an object after transmission through the
system; it happens generally that an image formed by such a
system is irregular, and consequently the correction of optical
systems for aberration is of fundamental importance to the
instrument-maker. Reference should be made to the articles
Reflexion, Refraction, and Caustic for the general char-
acters of reflected and refracted rays (the article Lens considers
in detail the properties of this instrument, and should also be
consulted); in this article will be discussed the nature, varieties
and modes of aberrations mainly from the practical point of
view, \jt. that of the optical-instrument maker.
Aberrations may be divided in two classes: chromatic (Gr.
Xpw/ta, colour) aberrations, caused by the composite nature of
56
ABERRATION
the light generally applied (e.g. white light), which is dispersed
by refraction, and monochromatic (Gr. ja4*ot v one) aberrations
produced without dispersion. Consequently the monochro-
matic class includes the aberrations at reflecting surfaces of any
coloured light, and at refracting surfaces of monochromatic or
light of single wave length.
(a) Monochromatic Aberration,
The elementary theory of optical systems leads to the theorem:
Rays of light proceeding from any " object point " unite in an
" image point "; and therefore an " object space " is repro-
duced in an " image space/' The introduction of simple auxiliary
terms, due to C. F. Gauss (Dioptriscke Unlersuchungen,. Got-
tingen, 1841), named the focal lengths and focal planes, permits
the determination of the image of any object for any system
(see Lens). The Gaussian theory, however, is only true so long
as the angles made by all rays with the optical axis (the symmet-
rical axis of the system) are infinitely small, Le. with infinitesimal
objects, images and lenses; in practice these conditions are not
realized, and the images projected by uncorrected systems are,
in general, ill defined and often completely blurred, if the aper-
ture or field of view exceeds certain limits. The investigations
of James Clerk Maxwell {PhU.Mog., 1856; Quart. J own. Math.,
X858, and Ernst Abbe 1 ) showed that the properties of these
reproductions, ije. the relative position and magnitude of the
images, are not special properties of optical systems, but neces-
sary consequences of the supposition (in Abbe) of the repro-
duction of all points of a space in image points (Maxwell assumes
a less general hypothesis), and are independent of the manner
in which the reproduction is effected. These authors proved,
however, that no optical system can justify these suppositions,
since they are contradictory to the fundamental laws of reflexion
and refraction. Consequently the Gaussian theory only supplies
a convenient method, of approximating to reality; ana no con-
structor would attempt to realize this unattainable ideaL All
that at present can be attempted is, to reproduce a single plane
in another plane; but even this has not been altogether satis-
factorily accomplished, aberrations always occur, and K is im-
probable that these will ever be entirely corrected.
This, and related general questions, have been treated— besides
the above-mentioned authors— by M. Thiesen {Berlin. AJuuL Sittber.,
of Rays," 1838, et seq.)< Reference may also be made to the treatise
of Czapski-Eppenstein, pp. 155-161.
A review of the simplest cases of aberration will now be given.
(1) Aberration of axial points (Spherical aberration in the re-
stricted sense). If S (fig. 5) be any optical system* rays pro-
ceeding from an axis point O under an angle U\ will unite in the
axis point O'r, and those under an angle «* in the axis point OV
If there be refraction at a collective spherical surface, or through
a thin positive lens, (f t will lie in front of Ci so long as the angle
«t is greater than «i ("under correction"); and conversely
with a dispersive surface or lenses ("over correction"). The
caustic, in the first case, resembles the sign > (greater than) ;
in the second < (less than). If the angle u\ be very small, 0*1
is the Gaussian image; and 0*1 Ct is termed the " longitudinal
aberration," and (yjl the " lateral aberration " of the pencils
with aperture u%. If the pencil with the angle- u% be that of the
maximum aberration of all the pencils transmitted, then in a
plane perpendicular to the axis at 0\ there is a circular " disk
of confusion" of radius CiR, and in a parallel plane at 0%
another one of radius O^R*; between these two is situated the
" disk of least confusion/ 1
The largest opening of the pencils, which take part in the
reproduction of 0, i.e. the angle u, is generally determined by
the margin of one of the lenses or by a hole in a thin plate placed
between, before, or behipd the lenses of the system. This hole
is termed the "stop" or "diaphragm"; Abbe used the term
"aperture stop " for both the hole and the limiting margin of the
1 The investigations of E. Abbe on geometrical optics, originally
published only in his university lectures, were first compiled by
5. Caapsld in 1893. See below, Authorities.
Fio. 3.
lens. The component Si of the system, situated between the
aperture stop .and the object O, projects an image of the dia-
phragm, termed by Abbe the "entrance pupil"; the "exit
pupil " is the image formed by the component S* which is placed
behind the aperture stop. All rays which issue from O and pass
through the aperture stop also pass through the entrance and
exit pupils, since these are images of the aperture stop. Since
the maximum aperture of the pencils issuing from O is the angle
u subtended by the entrance pupil at this point, the magni-
tude of the aberration will be determined by the position and
diameter of the entrance pupiL If the system be entirely behind
the aperture stop, then this is itself the entrance pupfl (" front
stop "); if entirely in front, it is the exit pupil (" back stop ").
If the object point be infinitely distant, all rays received by
the first member of the system are parallel, and their inter-
sections, after traversing the system, vary according to their
" perpendicular height of incidence," ije. their distance from
the axis. This distance replaces the angle u in the preceding
considerations; and the aperture, ix. the radius of the entrance
pupil, is its maximum value.
(a) Aberration of elements, i.e. smallest objects at right angjUs
to the axis.— II rays issuing from O (fig. 5) be concurrent, it
does not follow •
that points in a • yd \
portion of a plane '^M 1
perpendicular at M
O to the axis
will be also con- o
current, even if
the part of the
plane be very
small With
a considerable
rfperture, the
neighbouring
point N will be reproduced, but attended by aberrations com-
parable in magnitude to ON. These aberrations are avoided
if, according to Abbe, the " sine condition," sin N't/sin *i-sin
«Vsin «t, holds for all rays reproducing the point O. If the
object point O be infinitely distant, «i and u% are to be replaced
by At and A* the perpendicular heights of incidence; the M sine
condition " then becomes sin aVAi-sin u t Jh%. A system ful-
filling this condition and free from spherical aberration is called
" aplanatic " (Greek a-, privative, tXAjhj, a wandering): This
word was first used by Robert Blair (d. 1828), professor of prac-
tical astronomy at Edinburgh University, to characterize a
superior achromatism, and, subsequently, by many writers to
denote freedom from spherical aberration. Both the aberration
of axis points, and the deviation from the sine condition, rapidly
increase in most (uncorrected) systems with the aperture.
(3) Aberration of lateral object points (points beyond the- axis)
with narrow pencils. Astigmatism.— A point O (fig. 6) at a
finite distance from the
axis (or with an infinitely °r«
distant object, a point
which subtends a finite
angle at the system) is,
in general, even then not
sharply reproduced, if
the pencil of rays issuing
from it and traversing
the system is made infinitely narrow by reducing the aperture
stop; such a pencil consists of the rays which can pass from
the object point through the now infinitely small entrance
pupil. It is seen (ignoring exceptional cases) that the pencil
does not meet the refracting or reflecting surface at right angles;
therefore it is astigmatic (Gr. a-, privative, ariyfta, a point).
Naming the central ray passing through the entrance pupil the
" axis of the pencil " or " principal ray," we can say: the rays
of the pencil intersect, not in one point, but m two focal lines,
.which we can assume to be at right angles to the principal ray;
of these, one lies in the plane containing the principal ray and
ABERRATION
57
the axis of the system, U. in the M first principal section " or
" meridional section," and the other at right angles to it, i.e. in
the second principal section or sagittal section. We receive,
therefore, in no single intercepting plane behind the system, as,
for example, a focussing screen, an image of the object point;
oo the other hand, in each of two planes lines C and 0' are
separately formed (in neighbouring planes ellipses are formed),
sad in a plane between O* and O' a circle of least confusion.
The interval CO*, termed the astigmatic difference, increases,
ia general, with the angle W made by the principal ray OP with
the axis of the system, U. with the field of view. Two " astig-
Etttic image surfaces " correspond to one object plane; and these
are m contact at the axis point; on the one lie the focal lines
of the first kind, on the other those of the second. Systems in
which the two astigmatic surfaces coincide are termed ana-
scfButk or stigmatic
Sir Isaac Newton was probably the discoverer of. astigmation;
the position of the astigmatic image lines was determined by Thomas
Yocag U Course of Lectures on Natural Philosophy, 1807); and
the theory has been recently developed by A. Gullstrand (Skand.
A«h.f. pkysimL, 1 too, 2, p. 269: Atigemeine Theorie der tnonochromai.
Aboratimm. etc. Upaala, 1900: A rch,f. Opkth., loot, 53. PP- a, 185).
A bibbagnpliy by P. Culmann is given in M. von Rohr • Die Buaer-
ttagung m opeischem Instrument** (Berlin, 1904). .
U) Aberration of lateral object points with broad pencils. Coma.
—By opening the stop wider, similar deviations arise for lateral
points as have been already discussed for axial points; but in
tins case they are much more complicated. The course 4 of the
cays in the meridional section is no longer symmetrical to the
principal ray of the pencil; and on an intercepting plane there
appears, instead of a luminous point, a patch of light, not synt-
actical about a point, and often exhibiting a resemblance to a
eosMt having its tail directed towards or away from the axis.
Irani tats appearance it takes its name. The unsymmetrical form
of the "*">«<"?"*' pencil— formerly the only one considered— is
coma in the narrower sense only; other errors of coma have been
treated by A. Konig and M. von Rohr (op. cit.) , and more recently
by A. Gullstrand (op. cit.; Ann. d. Pkys. t 1005, 18, p. 941).
(5) Curmture of the field of Ike image.— U the above errors
be «*i«»?t~i the two astigmatic surfaces, united, and a sharp
iaage ^ff«H with a wide aperture— there remains the necessity
to correct the curvature of the image surface, especially when the
iaage is to be received upon a plane surface, e.g. in photography,
la most cases the surface is concave towards the system.
(6) Distortion of the image.— If now the image be sufficiently
sharp, m—wn»h u the rays proceeding from every object point
meet in an image point of satisfactory exactitude, it may happen
fast the image is distorted, ix. not sufficiently like the object.
IVb error consists in the different parts of the object being re-
produced with different magnifications; for instance, the inner
parts may differ in greater magnification than the outer (" barrel-
ssaped distortion "), or conversely (" cushion-shaped distortion")
(ice fig. 7). Systems free of this aberration are called " ortho-
scopic " (***, right,
CKorup, to look).
This aberration is
quite distinct from
that of the sharpness
of reproduction ; in
unsharp reproduction,
the question of dis-
tortion arises if only
puts of the object can be recognized in the figure. If, in
as ussharp image, a patch of light corresponds to an object
poiat, the "centre of gravity" of the patch may be regarded
as the image point, this being the point where the plane receiv-
ing the image, €4. a focussing screen, intersects the ray passing
tfeflMgb the middle of the stop. This assumption is justified if
a poor image on the focussing screen, remains stationary when
the aperture is diminished; in practice, this generally occurs.
Tim ray, named by Abbe a " principal ray " (not to be confused
*ub the "principal rays" of the Gaussian theory), passes
tsmugh the centre of the entrance pupil before the first refraction.
tats ^. -jf, ayxJCiua wc w uiu •unit
asm
Fig. 7.
and the centre xrf the exit pupil after the last refraction. From
this it follows that correctness of drawing depends solely upon the
principal rays; and is independent of the sharpness or curvature
of the image field. Referring to fig. 8, we have CQVOQ -a'
tan s//o tan r- i/N, where N is the " scale " or magnification
of the image. For N to be constant for all values of w, a' tan vf\
a tan v must also be constant If the ratio a' la be sufficiently
constant, as is often the case, the above relation reduces to the
" condition of Airy," i.e. tan s// tan w»a constant. This
simple relation (see Camb. Phil. Trans., 1830, 3, p. 1) is fulfilled
in all systems which are symmetrical with respect to their
diaphragm (briefly named '* symmetrical or holosymmetrical
objectives "), or which consist of two like, but different-sized,
components, placed from the diaphragm in the ratio of their
size, and presenting the same curvature to it (hemisymmetrical
objectives) ; in these systems tan a// tan v<- x. The constancy
of of la necessary for this re-
lation to hold was pointed out Q p
by R. H. Bow (Brit. J own.
Photog., i86i) t and Thomas | wT^P^ ? { *
Sutton (Photographic Notes, *
t86a); it has been treated by
O. Lummer and by M. von
Rohr (Zeit. f. Jnstrumentenk., p |a g
1897, 17, and 1898, 18, p. 4).
It requires the middle of the aperture stop to be reproduced
in the centres of the entrance and exit pupils without spherical
aberration. M. von Rohr showed that for systems fulfilling
neither the Airy nor the Bow-Sutton condition, the ratio
d tans//a tan w will be constant for one distance of the object.
This combined condition is exactly fulfilled by holosymmetrical
objectives reproducing with the scale r, and by hemisymmetrical,
if the scale of reproduction be equal to the ratio of the sizes of
the two components.
Analytic Treatment of Aberrations.— The preceding review of
the several errors of reproduction belongs to the " Abbe theory
of aberrations," in which definite aberrations are discussed separ-
ately; it is well suited to practical needs, for in the construction
of an optical instrument certain errors are sought to be elimi-
nated, the selection of which is justified by experience. In the
mathematical sense, however, this selection is arbitrary; the re-
production of a finite object with a finite aperture entails, in all
probability, an infinite number of aberrations. This number is
only finite if the object and aperture are assumed to be " in-
finitely small of a certain order"; and with each order of infinite
smallness, i.e. with each degree of approximation to reality (to
finite objects and apertures), a certain number of aberrations
is associated. This connexion is only supplied by theories
which treat aberrations generally and analytically by means of
indefinite series.
A ray proceeding from an object point (fig. 9) can be de-
fined by the co-ordinates ({,17) of this point in an object plane I,
at right angles
to the axis, and
two other co-
ordinates (x t y),
the point in
which the ray
intersects the
entrance pupil,
i.e. the plane II. Similarly the corresponding image ray may
be defined by the points (£,»'), *nd (*, /), in the planes I' and
II'. The origins of these four plane co-ordinate systems may be
collinear with the axis of the optical system; and the corre-
sponding axes may be parallel. Each of the four co-ordinates
*jtft**fS are functions of £,«,*,?; and if it be assumed that the
field of view and the aperture be infinitely small, then {, *, x, y
are of the same order of infinitesimals; consequently by expand-
ing ?* **• **! y in ascending powers of {, % x, y, series are ob-
tained in which it is only necessary to consider the lowest powers.
It is readily seen that if the optical system be symmetrical, the
origins of the co-ordinate systems collinear with the optical axis
Fig. 9.
58
ABERRATION
and the corresponding axes parallel, then by changing the signs
of (,i), x, y, the values £', 17' x, y must likewise change their sign,
but retain their arithmetical values; this means that the series
are restricted to odd powers of the unmarked variables.
The nature of the reproduction consists in the rays proceeding
from a point O being united in another point O'; in general, this
will not be the case, for (', 17' vary if £, n be constant, but x, y
variable. It may be assumed that the planes I' and II' are
drawn where the images* of the planes I and II are formed by
rays near the axis by the ordinary Gaussian rules; and by an
extension of these rules, not, however, corresponding to reality,
the Gauss image point O'o, with co-ordinates £'0, rj'e, of the
point O at some distance from the axis could be constructed.
Writing Ag=g— ft and Aif'«=V~ Vo, then A£* and A17' are
the aberrations belonging to (, » and x, y, and are functions of
these magnitudes which, when expanded in series, contain only
odd powers, for the same reasons as given above. On account
of the aberrations of all rays which pass through O, a patch of
light, depending in size on the lowest powers of £, rj, x, y which
the aberrations contain, will be formed in the plane I'. These
degrees, named by J. Petzval (Berickl tibcr die Ergebnisse einiger
dioplrischer Untersuchungen t Buda Pesth, 1843; Akad. Sitsber.,
Wien, 1857, vols.xxiv.xxvi.) "the numerical orders of the image,"
are consequently only odd powers; the condition for the for-
mation of an image of the mth order is that in the series for Ag
and An' the coefficients of the powers of the 3rd, 5th .. .
(m-a)th degrees must vanish. The images of the Gauss theory
being of the third order, the next problem is to obtain an image
of 5th order, or to make the coefficients of the powers of 3rd
degree zero. This necessitates the satisfying of five equations;
in other words, there are five alterations of the 3rd order, the
vanishing of which produces an image of the 5th order.
The expression for these coefficients in terms of the constants
of the optical system, i.e. the radii, thicknesses, refractive indices
and distances between the lsnsen, wrt* wived by L. Sldel ( 1 ttr.
A r ofV, 1856, p. 25f'JJ; in 1840. J. Petzval constructed hi§ portrait
objective, Unexcelled even ai the present, day, from bimihr cal-
cu la linns, which have never been nubti&hed (see M. von R^hr,
Thcoric und Gnchiikie des phoifygTabhisihfti Qbj££livs t Deri in, 1H99,
p. 148). The theory was elaborated by S. Finterewatdcr (hfimihen.
Akad, AhUandt.j iHryi, 17 p. 519)+ who also published a jum hummus
paper of Seidel containing a short view of bis work {hfumhrn, A hod.
Sitztvr, t tfrjS K m. p. 395) ; a simple; form was gave n by A- Kurber i i'ei-
trap zur Dia pink, Leipzig 1 W95-&-7-879 V A- Konband ^f r von Rohr
{■ee M. von Rohr, Die Btidrtttti£itttf in opiisthen imirumcnirr;, pp.
Stj-pt) have ptpicwriiod Ki-rU-r'* mpihmd, and have deduced rhe
Seidel Tormu he from |eomcmea] eo ibidem Hans toed on the Abbe
method, and have interpreted the analytical results geometrically
% 212-316).
w aberrations can also be expressed by means of the "char-
acteristic function " of the system and its differential coefficients,
instead of by the radii, &c, of the lenses; these formulae arc not
immediately applicable, but give, however, the relation between the
number of aberrations and the order. Sir William Rowan Hamilton
(British Assoc. Report, 1833, p. 360) thus derived the aberrations of
the third order; and in later times the method was pursued by
Clerk Maxwell (Proc. London Math. Soc., 1 874-1 875; see also the
treatises of R. S. Heath and L. A^ Herman), M. Thiesen (Berlin.
Akad. Sibber., 1890, 35, p. 804), H. Bruns (Leipzig- Math. Phys.Ber.
1895, 21 , p. 410), and particularly successfully by K. Schwartzschilu
(GdUingen. Akad. Abhandl., 1005, 4, No. 1), who thus discovered the
the shortest proof of the practical (Seidel) formulae. A. GuUstrand
(vide supra, and Ann. d. Phys., 1905, 18, p. 941) founded his theory
of aberrations on the differential geometry of surfaces.
The aberrations of the third order are: (x) aberration of the
axis point; (2) aberration of points whose distance from the
Ah4rnm axis is very small, less than of the third order — the
tioa» of deviation from the sine condition and coma here fall
together in one class; (3) astigmatism; (4) curvature
of the field; (5) distortion.
(1) Aberration of the third order of axis points is dealt with
in all text-books on optics. It is important for telescope objec-
tives, since their apertures are so small as to permit higher
orders to be neglected. For a single lens of very small thickness
and given power, the aberration depends upon the ratio of the
radii r: /, and is a minimum (but never zero) for a certain value
of this ratio; it varies inversely with the refractive index (the
power of the lens remaining constant). The total aberration of
two or more very thin lenses in contact, being the sum of the
individual aberrations, can be zero. This is also possible if the
lenses have the same algebraic sign. Of thin positive lenses with
««■ i*5, four are necessary to correct spherical aberration of the
third order. These systems, however, are not of great practical
importance. In most cases, two thin lenses are combined, one of
which has just so strong a positive aberration (" under-correc-
tion," vide supra) as the other a negative; the first mast be a
positive lens and the second a negative lens; the powers, however,
may differ, so that the desired effect of the lens is maintained.
It is generally an advantage to secure a great refractive effect
by several weaker than by one high-power lens. By one, and
likewise by several, and even by an infinite number of thin
lenses in contact, no more than two axis points can be repro-
duced without aberration of the third order. Freedom from
aberration for two axis points, one of which is infinitely distant,
is known as " Hersehel's condition." All these rules are valid,
inasmuch as the thicknesses and distances of the lenses are not
to be taken into account.
(2) The condition for freedom from coma in the third order is
also of importance for telescope objectives; it is known as
" Fraunhofer's condition." (4) After eliminating the aberration
on the axis, coma and astigmatism, the relation for the flatness
of the field in the third order is expressed by the " Petzval
equation," 2i/r(n'-*x) — o, where r is the radius of a refracting
surface, n and n' the refractive indices of the neighbouring
media, and 2 the sign of summation for all refracting surfaces.
Practical Elimination of Aberrations. — The existence of an
optical system, which reproduces absolutely a finite plane on
another with pencils of finite aperture, is doubtful; but practical
systems solve this problem with an accuracy which mostly
suffices for the special purpose of each species of instrument.
The problem of finding a system which reproduces a given object
upon a given plane with given magnification (in so far as aber-
rations must be taken into account) could be dealt with by
means of the approximation theory; in most cases, however,
the analytical difficulties are too great Solutions, however, have
been obtained in special cases (see A. Kdnig in M. von Rohr's
Die Bildenengung, p. 373; K. Schwarzschild, Gdttingen. Akad,
A bhandl., 1905, 4, Nos. 2 and 3). At the present time constructors
almost always employ the inverse method: they compose a
system from certain, often quite personal experiences, and test,
by the trigonometrical calculation of the paths of several rays,
whether the system gives the desired reproduction (examples
are given in A. Gleichen, Lekrbuch der geometriscken Optik,
Leipzig and Berlin, 1902). The radii, thicknesses and distances
are continually altered until the errors of the image become
sufficiently small. By this method only certain errors of repro-
duction are investigated, especially individual members, or all,
of those named above. The analytical approximation theory
is often employed provisionally, since its accuracy does not
generally suffice.
In order to render spherical aberration and the deviation
from the sine condition small throughout the whole aperture,
there is given to a ray with a finite angle of aperture w* (with
infinitely distant objects: with a finite height of incidence A*)
the same distance of intersection, and the same sine ratio as to
one neighbouring the axis (w* or h* may not be much smaller
than the largest aperture U or H to be used in the system).
The rays with an angle of aperture smaller than u* would not
have the same distance of intersection and the same sine ratio;
these deviations are called "zones," and the constructor en-
deavours to reduce these to a minimum. The same holds for
the errors depending upon the angle of the field of view, trr
astigmatism, curvature of field and distortion are eliminated
for a definite value, w*; "zones of astigmatism, curvature of
field and distortion " attend smaller values of w. The practical
optician names such systems: "corrected for the angle of
aperture u* (the height of incidence A*), or the angle of field of
view v*." Spherical aberration and changes of the sine ratios
are often represented graphically as functions of the aperture,
ABERRATION
59
m the nine way as the deviations of two astigmatic image sur-
faces of the image plane of the axis point are represented as
functions of the angles of the field of view.
The final form of a practical system consequently rests on
compromise; enlargement of the aperture results in a diminution
of the available field of view, and vice versa. The following
way he regarded as typical:— <i) Largest aperture; necessary
corrections are — for the axis point, and sine condition; errors
of the field of view are almost disregarded z example— high-
power inkroscope objectives, (a) Largest field of view; neces-
sary corrections are-— for astigmatism, curvature of field and
distortion; errors of the aperture only slightly regarded; ex-
ample*— photographic widest angle objectives and oculars.
Between these extr e m e examples stands the ordinary photo-
graphic objective: the portrait objective is corrected more with
regard to aperture; objectives for groups more with regard to
the field of view. (3) Telescope objectives have usually not
very large apertures, and small fields of view; they should,
1 zones as small as possible, and be built in the
They are the best for analytical computation.
(6) Chromatic or Colour A berralion.
In optical systems composed of lenses, the position, magnitude
and errors of the image depend upon the refractive indices of
the glass employed (see Lens, and above, " Monochromatic
Aberration")- Since the index of refraction varies with the colour
or wave length of the light (see Dispersion), it follows that a
system el lenses (uncorrected) projects images of different
colours in somewhat different places and sizes and with differ-
ent aberrations; s\e. there are "chromatic differences" of
the distances of intersection, of magnifications, and of mono-
chromatic aberrations. If mixed light be employed (e.g. white
fight) all these images are formed; and since they are all ulti-
mately intercepted by a plane (the retina of the eye, a focussing
screen of a camera, &c), they cause a confusion, named chro-
matic ob er ra tion; for instance, instead of a white margin on a
dark background, there is perceived a coloured- margin, or
narrow spectrum. The absence of this error is termed achroma-
tism, and an optical system so corrected is termed achromatic
A system is said to be u chromatically under-corrected " when it
shows the same kind of chromatic error as a thin positive lens,
otherwise it is said to be " over-corrected."
If , in the first place, monochromatic aberrations be neglected
—in other words, the Gaussian theory be accepted — then every
reproduction is determined by the positions of the focal planes,
and the magnitude of the focal lengths, or if the focal lengths,
as ordinarily happens, be equal, by three constants of repro-
duction. These constants are determined by the data of the
system (radii, thicknesses, distances, indices, &c., of the lenses);
therefore their dependence on the refractive index, and conse-
quently on the colour, are calculable (the formulae are given
is Czapski-Eppenstein, GrundzUge der Tkeorye dcr oplischen
Imstnmente (1903, p. x66). The refractive indices for different
vave lengths must be known for each kind of glass made use of.
la this manner the conditions are maintained that any one
constant of reproduction is equal for two different colours, i.e.
this constant is achromatized. For example, it is possible,
with one thick lens in air, to achromatize the position of a focal
place of the magnitude of the focal length. If all three constants
of reproduction be achromatized, then the Gaussian image for
all distances of objects is the same for the two colours, and (he
system is said to be in " stable achromatism."
In practice it ts more advantageous (after Abbe) to determine
the chromatic aberration (for instance, that of the distance of
intersection) for a fixed position of the object, and express it by
a sua in which each component contains the amount due to
each refracting surface (see Czapski-Eppenstein, op. cii. p. 170;
A. Konig in M. v. Rohr's collection, Die Bildcntugung, p. 340).
la a plane containing the image point of one colour, another
colour produces a disk of confusion; this is similar to the con-
fusion caused by two " zones " in spherical aberration. For
iaanitdy distant objects the radius of the chromatic disk of
confusion is proportional to the linear aperture, and independent
of the focal length {vide supra, " Monochromatic Aberration of the
Axis Point "); and since this disk becomes the less harmful with
an increasing image of a given object, or with increasing focal
length, it follows that the deterioration of the image is propor-
tional to the ratio of the aperture to the focal length, i.e. the
" relative aperture." (This explains the gigantic focal lengths in
vogue before the discovery of achromatism.)
Examples. — (a) In a very thin lens, in air, only one constant
of reproduction is to be observed, since the focal length and the
distance of the focal point are equal If the refractive index
for one colour be », and for another n+dn, and the powers, or
reciprocals of the focal lengths, be 4> and 4>+d<t>, then (x) d4>f$
-<*»/(* -i)-i/V; dn is called the dispersion, and v the dis-
persive power of the glass.
(b) Two thin lenses in contact: let c% and & be the powers
corresponding to the lenses of refractive indices «i and *h snd
radii r*u r*\, and r*% r*t respectively; let 4> denote the total
power, and oty, &n%, dn% the changes of 4>. »x, and m with the
colour. Then the following relations hold. —
(2) v -*,+«>,-(ii.-i)(i/r'»-i/r*»)+(is,-i)(i/r't-i/r'a)-
(»i-i)*i+(»i-i)*t; and
(3) d4> - kidnx + M*» For achromatism <fy - o, hence,
from (3),
(4) ki/kt" -dthjdni, ait c>i/4i w -«V»V Therefore <fc and 4»
must have different algebraic signs, or the system must be com-
posed of a collective and a dispersive lens. Consequently the
powers of the two most be different (in order that 4> be not zero
(equation ?)), and the dispersive powers must also be different
(according to 4).
Newton tailed to perceive the existence of media of different
dispersive powers required by achromatism; consequently be
constructed large reflectors instead of refractors. James Gregory
and Leonhard Euler arrived at the correct view from a false con-
ception of the achromatism of the eye; this was determined by
Chester More Hall in 1728, Klingenstierna in 1754 and by Dollond
in 1757. who constructed the celebrated achromatic telescopes.
(See Tblbscofb.)
Glass with weaker dispersive power (greater w) is named
"crown glass"; that with greater dispersive power, "flint
glass." For the construction of an achromatic collective lens
(^ positive) it follows, by means of equation (4), that a collec-
tive lens L of crown glass and a dispersive lens IX of flint glass
must be chosen; the latter, although the weaker, corrects the
other chromatically by its greater dispersive power. For an
achromatic dispersive lens the converse must be adopted.
This is, at the present day, the ordinary type,
e.g., of telescope objective (fig. xo); the values
of the four radii must satisfy the equations (a)
and (4). Two other conditions may also be pos-
tulated: one is always the elimination of the
aberration on the axis; the second either the
"Herschel" or "Fraunhofer condition," the
latter being the best (vide supra, " Monochromatic
Aberration "). In practice, however, it is often
more useful to avoid the second condition by Fig. xo.
making the lenses have contact, i.e. equal
radii. According to P. Rudolph (Eder's Jakrb. f. Photog.,
i8ox, 5, p. 225; 1803, 7, p. 221), cemented objectives of thin
lenses permit the elimination of spherical aberration on the
axis, if, as above, the collective lens has a smaller 'refractive
index; on the other hand, they permit the elimination of
astigmatism and curvature 0/ the field, if the collective lens
has a greater refractive index (this follows from the Petzval
equation; see L. Seidel, Asir. Nackr., 1856, p. 289). Should the
cemented system be positive, then the more powerful lens must
be positive; and, according to (4), to the greater power belongs
the weaker dispersive power (greater p), that is to say, crown
glass; consequently the crown glass must have the greater
refractive index for astigmatic and plane images. In all earlier
kinds of glass, however, the dispersive power increased with
the refractive index; that is, w decreased as n increased; but
some of the Jena glasses by E. Abbe and O. Schott were crown
6o
ABERRATION
glasses of high refractive index, and achromatic systems from
such crown glasses, with flint glasses of lower refractive index,
are called the ''new achromats," and were employed by P.
Rudolph in the first " anastigmats " (photographic objectives).
Instead of making rfo> vanish, a certain value can be assigned
to it which will produce, by the addition of the two lenses, any
desired chromatic deviation, e.g. sufficient to eliminate one
present in other parts of the system. If the lenses I. and II. be
cemented and have the same refractive index for one colour,
then its effect for that one colour is that of a lens of one piece;
by such decomposition of a lens it can be made chromatic or
achromatic at will, without altering its spherical effect. If its
chromatic effect (<ty/o» be greater than that of the same lens,
this being made of the more dispersive of the two glasses em-
ployed, it is termed " hyper-chromatic"
For two thin lenses separated by a distance D the condition
for achromatism is D— (vi/i+*t/s) (ti+vs); if »i=»i (e.g.
if the lenses be made of the same glass), this reduces to
D=i (/i+/t), known as the "condition for oculars."
If a constant of reproduction, for instance the focal length,
be made equal for two colours, then, it is not the same for other
colours, if two different glasses are employed. For example,
the condition for achromatism (4) for two thin lenses in contact
is fulfilled in only one part of the spectrum, since dn t /dn\ varies
within the spectrum. This fact was first ascertained by J.
Fraunhofer, who denned the colours by means of the dark lines
in the solar spectrum; and showed that the ratio of the disper-
sion of two glasses varied about 20% from the red to the violet
(the variation for glass and water is about 50%). If. therefore,
for two colours, a and *,/•-/» -/, then for a third colour, c, the
focal length is different, via. if c he between a and ft, then /« </,
and vice versa; these algebraic results follow from the fact that
towards the red the dispersion of the positive crown glass pre-
ponderates, towards the violet that of the negative flint. These
chromatic errors of systems, which are achromatic for two
colours, are called the "secondary spectrum," and depend
upon the aperture and focal length in the same manner as the
primary chromatic errors do.
In fig. xi, taken from M. von Rota's Theme und Gesckkkte
des photographiscken Objcctivs, the abscissae are focal lengths,
and the ordinates wave-lengths; of the latter the Fraunhofer
lines used are —
A' C D Green Hg. F C Violet Hg.
767-7 6563 589-3 546-1 486-2 434- x 405- 1 fill,
and the focal lengths are
made equal for the lines C
and F. In the neighbourhood
of 550 jip the tangent to the
curve is parallel to the axis
of wave-lengths; and the
focal length varies least over
a fairly large range of Colour,
therefore in this neighbour-
hood the colour union is at
its best. Moreover, this region
of the spectrum is that which
appears brightest to the
human eye, and consequently
this curve of the secondary
spectrum, obtained by making
/c e /n is, according to the
experiments of Sir G. G.
^ Stokes (Proc. Roy. Soe. t 1878),
_ „ # the most suitable for visual
^"sSSSSff rt?£ l »T m T r op ^ * chr °-
108. Optical correction / c -/, - mat,sm >• In a Mmilar man -
100 mm. The ordinate* give the ncr, for systems used in photo-
wave-lengths in » The ab- graphy, the vertex of the
imae give f X ■ h in o-oi mm., co i our ^^^ must u placed
"Tsrs^^-j m th < «««*« t *• maxi -
mum sensibility of the plates;
this is generally supposed to be at G'; and to accomplish this the
TOO
:
1
c
Or.H,
w
MO
r
^ *
\
VmIMc
4CW
uJ
', 11 C
F and violet mercury lines are united. This artifice b specially
adopted in objectives for astronomical photography ("pure
actinic achromatism"). For ordinary photography, however,
there is this disadvantage: the image on the focussing-screen
and the correct adjustment of the photographic sensitive plate
are hot in register; in astronomical photography this difference
is constant, but in other kinds it depends on the distance of the
objects. On this account the lines D and G' are united for ordi-
nary photographic objectives; the optical as well as the actinic
image is chromatically inferior, but both lie in the same place;
and consequently the best correction lies in F (this is known as
the "actinic correction" or "freedom from chemical focus").
Should there be in two lenses in contact the same focal lengths
for three colours a, b, and c, i.e. f m —f h —f —f t then the relative
partial dispersion (» <-n ») (».-» ») must be equal for the two
kinds of glass employed. TTiis follows by considering equation
(4) for the two pairs of colours ae and be. Until recently no
glasses were known with a proportional degree of absorption;
but R. Blair (Trans. Edin. Soc., 1791, 3, p. 3), P. Barlow, and
F. S. Archer overcame the difficulty by constructing fluid lenses
between glass walls. Fraunhofer prepared glasses which re-
duced the secondary spectrum; but permanent success was
only assured on the introduction of the Jena glasses by E. Abbe
and O. SchotL In using glasses not having proportional dis-
persion, the deviation of a third colour can be eliminated by two
lenses, if an interval be allowed between them; or ,by three
lenses in contact, which may not all consist of the old glasses.
In uniting three colours an " achromatism of a higher order "
is derived; there is yet a. residual "tertiary spectrum," but it
can always be neglected.
The Gaussian theory is only an approximation; monochro-
matic or spherical aberrations still occur, which will be different
for different colours; and should they be compensated for one
colour, the image of another colour would prove disturbing.
The most important is the chromatic difference of aberration
of the axis point, which is still present to disturb the image,
after par-axial rays of different colours are united by an appro-
priate combination of glasses. If a collective system be corrected
for the axis point for a definite wave-length, then, on account
of the greater dispersion in the negative components — the flint
glasses, — over-correction will arise for the shorter wave-
lengths (this being the error of the negative components), and
under-correction for the longer wave-lengths (the error of crown
glass lenses preponderating in the red). This error was treated
by Jean le Rond d'Alembert, and, in special detail, by C. F.
Gauss. It increases rapidly with the aperture, and is more
important with medium apertures than the secondary spectrum
of par-axial rays; consequently, spherical aberration must be
eliminated for two colours, and if this be impossible, then it
must be eliminated for those particular wave-lengths which
are most effectual for the instrument in' question (a graphical
representation of this error is given in M. von Rohr, Theorit
und Gcschichie des photographiscken Objeetivs).
The condition for the reproduction of a surface element in
the place of a sharply reproduced point — the constant of the
sine relation — must also be fulfilled with large apertures for
several colours. E. Abbe succeeded in computing microscope
objectives free from error of the axis point and satisfying the
sine condition for several colours, which therefore, according to
his definition, were " aplanatic for several colours "; such sys-
tems he termed " apochromatic" While, however, the magnifi-
cation of the individual tones is the same, it is not the same for
red as for blue; and there is a chromatic difference of magnifica-
tion. This is produced in the same amount, but in the opposite
sense, by the oculars, which are used with these objectives
(" compensating oculars "), so that it is eliminated in the image
of the whole microscope. The best telescope objectives, and
photographic objectives intended for three-colour work, are also
apochromatic, even if they do not possess quite the same quality
of correction as microscope objectives do. The chromatic
differences of other errors of reproduction have seldom practical
importances.
ABERSYCHAN— ABGAR
6.
AtrraoBrnsst— The standard treatise in English it H. D. Taylor,
A System ei Applied Optics (1906); reference may alao be made to
H SHeath. / Treatise em Geometrical Optics (2nd ed., 1895); and
L A. Herman, A Treatise em Geometrical Optics (1900). The ideas
of Abbe were first dealt with in S. Capski, Tkeorie dcr optischen
Instrvmsmtc mack Abbe, published separately at Breslau in 1893.
tod as vol. a. of Wmkelmann's Htmdbuch dcr Pkysik in 1894; a
•ecoad edition, by Caapski and O. Eppenstein, was published at
Leipzig in 1903 with the title, GnmdsAte dcr Tkeorie dcr optischen
IwmTmewte much Abbe, and in vol. ii. of the 2nd ed. of Winkelmann's
Bemfbatk dcr Pkysik. The collection of the scientific staff of Carl
2am at Jena, edited by M. von Rohr, Die Bilderweurttnt in optischen
Instrwmenten 10m Standpunkte der gpometriscken Opnm (Berlin, 1904),
contain* articles by A. Konig and M. von Rohr specially dealingwith
a ba ration s. (O.E.)
ABEBSYCHAX, an urban district in the northern parlia-
mentary division of Monmouthshire, England, 11 m. N. by W.
of Newport, on the Great Western, London and North- Western,
and Rhymney railways. Pop. (1001) 17,768. It lies in the
narrow upper valley of the Afon Lwyd on the eastern edge of
the great coal and iron mining district of Glamorganshire and
Monmouthshire, and its large industrial population is occupied
in the mines and ironworks. The neighbourhood is wild and
nwnntamww
ABERT1LLERY, an urban district in the western parlia-
mentary division of Monmouthshire, England, 16 m. N.W. of
Newport, on the Great Western railway. Pop. (1891) 10,846;
(xeoi) 31,945. It lies in the mountainous mining district of
Monmouthshire and Glamorganshire, in the valley of the Ebbw
Fach, and the large industrial population is mainly .employed
in the numerous coal-mines, ironworks and tinplate works.
Farther up the valley are the mining townships of Nantyglo
and Biadu, forming an urban district with a population (1901)
«f 13,489.
ABEBTITWTTH, a municipal borough, market-town and
seaport of Cardiganshire, Wales, near the confluence of the
rivers Ystwyth and Rhddol, about the middle of Cardigan Bay.
Fop. (1001) 8013. It is the terminal station of the Cambrian
noway, and also of the Manchester and Milford line. It is the
oust popular watering-place on the west coast of Wales, and
pnsamri a pier, and a fine sea-front which stretches from Consti-
tation HiB at the north end of the Marine Terrace to the mouth
of the harbour. The town is of modern appearance, and con-
tains many public buildings, of which the most remarkable is
the imposing but fantastic structure of the University College
of Wales near the Castle HilL Much of the finest scenery in
and- Wales fies within easy reach of Aberystwyth.
The history of Aberystwyth may be said to date from the
nae of Gilbert Strongbow, who in 1 109 erected a fortress on
tbe present Castle HilL Edward I. rebuilt Strongbow's castle
b 1377, after its destruction by the Welsh. Between the years
1404 **d 1408 Aberystwyth Castle was in thehandsof Owen Glen-
dower, but finally surrendered to Prince Harry of Monmouth, and
ihortly after this the town was incorporated under the title of
VSe de Lampadarn, the ancient name of the place being Llan-
badarn Caerog, or the fortified Llanbadarn, to distinguish it
nun Llanbadarn Fawr, the village one mile inland. It is thus
styled in a charter granted by Henry VIII., but by Elizabeth's
time the town was invariably termed Aberystwyth in all docu-
ments. In 1647 the parliamentarian troops razed the castle to
the ground, so that its remains are now inconsiderable, though
portions of three towers still exist Aberystwyth was a contri-
bctory parliamentary borough until 1885, when its representation
«as BMged in that of the county. In modern times Aberyst-
wyth has become a Welsh educational centre, owing to the
erection here of one of the three colleges of the university of
Wales (187a), and of a hostel for women in connexion with it-
la 1905 it was decided to fix here the site of the proposed Welsh
Na tional li brary.
UfnOB (from "to abet," O. Fr. obder,a and bder, to bait,
wge dogs upon any one ; this word is probably of Scandi-
navian origin, meaning to cause to bite), a law term implying
one who instigates, encourages or assists another to commit an
offence. An abettor differs from an accessory (?.».) in that he
sunt he present at the commission of the crime; all abettors
(with certain exceptions) tie principals, and, in the absence
of specific statutory provision to the contrary, are punishable
to the same extent as the actual perpetrator of the offence. A
person may in certain cases be convicted as an abettor in the
commission of an offence in which he or she could not be a
principal, e.g. a woman or boy under fourteen years of age in
aiding rape, or a solvent person in aiding and abetting a bankrupt
to commit offences against the bankruptcy laws.
ABEYANCE (O. Fr. abeance, " gaping"), a state of expectancy
in respect of property, titles or office, when the right to them
is not vested in any one person, but awaits the appearance or
determination of the true owner. In law, the term abeyance
can only be applied to such future estates as have not yet vested
or possibly may not vest. For example, an estate fa) granted
to A for life, with remainder to the heir of B, the latter being
alive; the remainder is then said to be in abeyance, for until
the death of B it is uncertain who his heir is. Similarly the
freehold of a benefice, on the death of the incumbent, is said
to be in abeyance until the next incumbent takes possession.
The most common use of the term is in the case of peerage
dignities. If a peerage which passes to heirs-general, like the
ancient baronies by writ, is held by a man whose heir-at-law
fa) neither a male, nor a woman who is an only child, it goes into
abeyance on his death between two or more sisters or their
heirs, and is held by no one till the abeyance is terminated; if
eventually only one person represents the claims of all the
sisters, he or she can claim the termination of the abeyance as
a matter of right. The crown can also call the peerage out of
abeyance at any moment, on petition, in favour of any one of
the sisters or their heirs between whom it is in abeyance. The
question whether ancient earldoms created in favour of a man
and his " heirs " go into abeyance like baronies by writ has been
raised by the claim to the earldom of Norfolk created in 131a,
discussed before the Committee for Privileges in 1006. It is
common, but incorrect, to speak of peerage dignities which are
dormant (i.e. unclaimed) as being in abeyance. 0- H. R.)
ABGAR, a name or title borne by a line of kings or toparchs,
apparently twenty-nine in number, who reigned in Osrhoene
and had their capital at Edessa about the time of the Christian
era. According to an old tradition, one of these princes, perhaps
Abgar V. (Ukkama or Uchomo, " the black "), being afflicted
with leprosy, sent a letter to Jesus, acknowledging his divinity,
craving his help and offering him an asylum in his own residence,
but Jesus wrote a letter declining to go, promising, however,
that after his ascension he would send one of his disciples. These
letters are given by Eusebius (Bed. Hist. L 13), who declares
that the Syriac document from which he translates them had
been preserved in the archives at Edessa from the time of Abgar.
Eusebius also states that in due course Judas, son of Thaddaeus,
was sent (in 340BA.D. 29). In another form of the story, de-
rived from Moses of Chorene, it is said further that Jesus sent
his portrait to Abgar, and that this existed in Edessa (Hist.
Armen., ed. W. Whiston, ii. 29-33). Yet another version is
found in the Syriac Dodrina Addaci (Addaeus- Thaddaeus),
edited by G. Phillips (1876). Here it is said that the reply of
Jesus was given not in writing, but verbally, and that the event
took place in 343 (aj>. 32). Greek forms of the legend are
found in the Acta Tkaddaci (C. Tlschendorf, Ada apostciarum
apocr. 261 ff.).
These stories have given rise to much discussion. The testi-
mony of Augustine and Jerome is to the effect that Jesus wrote
nothing. Trie correspondence was rejected as apocryphal by
Pope Gelasius and a Roman Synod (c. 495), though, it is true,
this view has not been shared universally by the Roman church
(Tillemont, kfcmoircs t L 3, pp. 990 ff.). Amongst Evangelicals
the spuriousness of the letters is almost generally admitted.
Lipsius (Die Edcsseniscke Abgarsage, 1880) has pointed out
anachronisms which seem to indicate that the story is quite
unhistoricaL The first king of Edessa of whom we have any
trustworthy information is Abgar VIII., bar Ma'nu (aj>. 176-
2x3). It is suggested that the legend arose from a desire to
trace the christianizing of Us kingdom to an apostolic source
62
ABHIDHAMMA— ABILA
Eusebius gives the legend in its oldest form; it was worked up
in the Doctrine Addaei in Ibe second half of the 4th century;
and Moses of Chorene was dependent upon both these sources.
Bibliography.— R. Schmidt in Herzog-Hauck, Realencyhlopddie;
Lipsius, Die Edessenische Abgarsage kritisth unlersuckt (1880);
Matthes, Die Edesseniscke Abgarsage auf ihre Fortbitdung unlersucht
(1882); Tixeront, Us Origin** de I'iglise d'Edesse ei la Ugende d'A.
(1888) ; A. Harnack. Ceschichte d. aUthristlichen Litteratur, 1. 2 (1893) ;
L. Duchesne, Bulletin critique, 1889, pp. 41-48; for the Epistles
see Apocryphal Literature, sect. <7 NeW Testament " (c).
ABHIDHAMMA, the name of one of the three Pitakas, or
baskets of tradition, into which the Buddhist scriptures (see
Buddhism) are divided. It consists of seven works: x. Dhamma
Sangani (enumeration of qualities). 2. Vibhanga (exposition).
3. Kathd Vatlku (bases of opinion). 4. Puggala PahnaUi (on
individuals). 5. Dhatu Kathd (on relations of moral disposi-
tions). 6. Yamaha (the pairs, that is, of ethical states). 7.
Patthdna (evolution of ethical states). These have now been
published by the Pali Text Society. The first has been trans-
lated into English, and an abstract of the third has been pub-
lished. The approximate date of these works is probably from
about 400 b.c. to about 250 B.C., the first being the oldest and
the third the latest of the seven. Before the publication of
the texts, when they were known only by hearsay, the term
A bhidhamma was usually rendered "Metaphysics." This is now
seen to be quite erroneous. Dhamma means the doctrine, and
A bhidhamma has a relation to Dhamma similar to that of by-
law to law. It expands, classifies, tabulates, draws corollaries
from the ethical doctrines laid down in the more popular treat-
ises. There is no metaphysics in it at all, only psychological
ethics of a peculiarly dry and scholastic kind. And there is no
originality in it; only endless permutations and combinations
of doctrines already known and accepted. As in the course of
centuries the doctrine itself, in certain schools, varied, it was felt
necessary to rewrite these secondary works. This was first done,
so far as is at present known, by the Sarvastivadins (Realists),
who in the century before and after Christ produced a fresh
set of seven A bhidhamma books. These are lost in India, but
still exist in Chinese translations. The translations have been
analysed in a masterly way by Professor Takakusu in the article
mentioned below. They deal only with psychological ethics.
In the course of further centuries these books in turn were
superseded by new treatises; and in one school at least, that of
the Mahfl-yana (great vehicle) there was eventually developed
a system of metaphysics. But the word Abhidhamma then fell
out of use in that school, though it is still used in the schools
that continue to follow the original seven books.
See Buddhist Psychology by Caroline Rhys Davids (London, 1900),
a translation of the Dhamma Sangant, with valuable introduction ;
"Schools of Buddhist Belief," by T. W. Rhys Davids, in Journal
of the Royal Asiatic Society, 1893, contains an abstract of the Kathd
Vatlhu; ''On the Abhidhamma books of the Sarvastivadins,
Prof. Takakusu, in Journal of the Pali Text Society, 19
by
*(T?°& R. D.)
ABHORRERS, the name given in 1679 to the persons who
expressed their abhorrence at the action of those who had signed
petitions urging King Charles II. to assemble parliament Feel-
ing against Roman Catholics, and especially against James,
duke of York, was running strongly; the Exclusion Bill had
been passed by the House of Commons, and the popularity of
James, duke of Monmouth, was very great. To prevent this
bill from passing into law, Charles had dissolved parliament in
July 1679, and in the following October had prorogued its suc-
cessor without allowing it to meet, He was then deluged with
petitions urging him to call it together, and this agitation was
opposed by Sir George Jeffreys (q.v.) and Francis Wythens, who
presented addresses expressing "abhorrence" of the "Peti-
tioners," and thus initiated the movement of the abhorrcrs, who
supported the action of the king. "The frolic went all over
England," says Roger North; and the addresses of the Ab-
horrers which reached the king from all parts of the country
formed a counterblast to those of the Petitioners. It is said
that the terms Whig and Tory were first applied to English poli-
tical parties in consequence of this dispute.
ABIATHAR (Heb. Ebydlhar, "the (divine) father is pre-
eminent"), in the Bible, son of Ahimelech or Ahijah, priest at
Nob. The only one of the priests to escape from Saul 's massacre,
he tied to David at Keilah, taking with him the ephod (1 Sam
xxii. so f., xxiii. 6, 9). He was of great service to David, especi-
ally at the time of the rebellion of Absalom (2 Sam. xv. 24* 29,
35, xx. 25). In x Kings iv. 4 Zadok and Abiathar are found
acting together as priests under Solomon. In x Kings i. 7, 19,
25, however, Abiathar appears as a supporter of Adonijah, and
in ii. 22 and 26 it is said that he was deposed by Solomon and
banished to Anathoth. In 2 Sam. viii. 17 "Abiathar, the son
of Ahimelech" should be read, with the Syriac, for "Ahimelech.
the son of Abiathar." For a similar confusion see Mark ii. 26
ABICH, OTTO WILHELM HERMANN VON (1806-18S6),
German mineralogist and geologist, was born at Berlin on the
nth of December 1806, and educated at the university in that
city. His earliest scientific work related to spinels and other
minerals, and later he made special studies of fumaroks, of the
mineral deposits around volcanic vents and of the structure of
volcanoes. In 2842 he was appointed professor of mineralogy
in the university of Dorpat, and henceforth gave attention to
the geology and mineralogy of Russia. Residing for some time
at Tiflis he investigated the geology of the Caucasus. Ultimately
he retired to Vienna, where he died on the xst of July 1886. The
mineral Abichite was named after him.
Publications.— VWj illustrative* de queUjues phtnomHes gjtelo-
giques, prises sur le VSsuve et PEtna, pendant lis anntes 1833 et
1 834 (Berlin, 1836); Ueber die Natur und den Zusammenhang der
vuuanischen Bildungen (Brunswick, 1 841); Ceologische Forschmugem
in den Kauhasischen Landern (3 vols., Vienna, 1878, 1882, and 1887).
ABIGAIL (Heb. Abigayil, perhaps "father is joy"), or Abigal
(2 Sam. iii. 3), in the Bible, the wife of Nabal the Carmelite,
on whose death she became the wife of David (1 Sam. xxv.).
By her David had a son, whose name appears in the Hebrew of
9 Sam. iii. 3 as Chfleab, in the Septuagint as Daluyah, and in
x Chron. iii. x as Daniel. The name Abigail was also borne by
a sister of David (2 Sam. xvii. 25; x Chron. ii. 16 f.). From the
former (self-styled "handmaid" x Sam. xxv. 25 f.) is derived
the colloquial use of the term for a waiting-woman (cf . Abigail,
the "waiting gentlewoman," in Beaumont and Fletcher's
Scornful Lady).
ABIJAH (Heb. Abiyyah and Abiyyahu, "Yah is father")* *
name borne by nine different persons mentioned in the Old
Testament, of whom the most noteworthy are the following.
(1) The son and successor of Rehoboam, king of Judah (2 Chron.
xii. xo-xiii.). reigned about two years (9x8-9x5 B.C.). The ac-
counts of him in the books of Kings and Chronicles are very con-
flicting (compare x Kings xv. s and 2 Chron. xi.20 with 2 Chron.
xiii.2). The Chronicler tells us that he has drawn his facts from
the Midrash (commentary) of the prophet Iddo, This is perhaps
sufficient to explain the character of the narrative. (2) The
second son of Samuel (1 Sam. viii. 2; x Chron. vi. 28 I13]). He
and his brother Joel judged at Beersheba. Their misconduct
was made by the elders of Israel a pretext for demanding a king
(x Sam. viii. 4). (3) A son of Jeroboam I., king of Israel; he
died young (x Kings xiv. x ff., x 7). (4) Head of the eighth order
of priests (1 Chron. xxiv. 10), the order to which Zachariaw, the
father of John the Baptist, belonged (Luke i. 5).
The alternative form Abijam is probably a mistake, though
it is upheld by M. Jastrow.
ABILA, (1) a dty of ancient Syria, the capital of the tetrarchy
of Abilene, a territory whose extent it is impossible to define.
It is generally called Abila of Lysanias, to distinguish it from
(2) below. Abila was an important town on the imperial high-
way from Damascus to Heliopolis (Baalbek). The site is indi-
cated by ruins of a temple, aqueducts, &c, and inscriptions on
the banks of the river Barada at Suk Wadi Baradi, a village
called by early Arab geographers Abil-es-SQk, between Baalbek
and Damascus. Though the names Abel and Abila differ in
derivation and in meaning, their similarity has given rise to the
tradition that this was the place of Abel's burial. According to
Josephus, Abilene was a separate Iturean kingdom till aj>. 37,
when it was granted by Caligula to Agrippa I.; in 52 Claudius
ABILDGAARD— ABINGER
63
panted it to Agrippa IL (See also Lysanxas.) (2) A city in
Ferea, now Abil-ez-Zeit.
ABILDGAAAD. NIKOLAJ ABRAHAM (1744-1809), called
"the Father of Danish Painting/' was born at Copenhagen, the
son of Sdreo AhDdgaard, an antiquarian draughtsman of repute.
He formed his style on that of Claude and of Nicolas Poussin,
and was a cold theorist, inspired not by nature but by art. As
a technical painter he attained remarkable success, his tone being
very harmonious and even, but the effect, to a foreigner's eye, is
rarely interesting. His works are scarcely known out of Copen-
hagen, where he won an immense fame in his own generation.
He was the founder of the Danish school of painting, and the
ouster of Thorwaldsen and Eckersherg.
AKHLBCH (Hebrew for " father of [or is] the king "). (1)
A king of Gerar in South Palestine with whom Isaac, in the Bible,
had relations. The patriarch, during his sojourn there, alleged
that his wife Rebekah was his sister, but the king doubting this
remonstrated with him and pointed out how easily adultery
aright have been unintentionally committed (Gen. xxvi).
Abimelech is called " king of the Philistines," but the title is
dearly an anachronism. A very similar story is told of Abraham
and Sarah (ch. xx), but here Abimelech takes Sarah to wife,
although he is warned by a divine vision before the crime is
actually committed. The incident is fuller and shows a great
advance in ideas of morality. Of a more primitive character,
however, is another parallel story of Abraham at the court of
Pharaoh, king of Egypt (xii. 10-20), where Sarah his wife is taken
into the royal household, and the plagues sent by Yahweh lead
to the discovery of the truth. Further incidents in Isaac's life
at Gerar are narrated in Gen. xxvi. (cp. xxi. 22-34, time of
Abraham), notably a covenant with Abimelech at Beer-sheba
(whence the name is explained "well of the oath"); (see
Aibaham). By a pure error, or perhaps through a confusion
is the traditions, Achish the Philistine (of Gath, x Sam. xxi.,
xxrfi.), to whom David fled, is called Abimelech in the super-
scription to halm xxxiv.
(2) A son of Jerubbaal or Gideon (g.v.), by his Shechemite
concubine (Judges vin. 31, ix.). On the death of Gideon,
Abimelech set himself to assert the authority which his father
had earned, and through the influence of his mother's clan won
over the citizens of Shechem. Furnished with money from the
treasury of the temple of Baal-berith, he hired a band of followers
and dew seventy (cp. 2 Kings x. 7) of nis brethren at Ophrah, his
father's home. This is one of the earliest recorded instances of
a practice common enough on the accession of Oriental despots.
Abimelech thus became king, and extended his authority over
central Palestine. But his success was short-lived, and the sub-
sequent discord between Abimelech and the Shechemites was
regarded as a just reward for his atrocious massacre. Jotham,
the only one who is said to have escaped, boldly appeared on
Mount Gerizim and denounced the ingratitude of the townsmen
towards the legitimate sons of the man who had saved them
from Midian. " Jotham's fable " of the trees who desired a king
any be foreign to the context; it is a piece of popular lore, and
cannot be pressed too far: the nobler trees have no wish to rule
<na others, only the bramble is self-confident. The " fable "
appears to he antagonistic to ideas of monarchy. The origin
of ihe conflicts which subsequently arose is not clear. Gaal, a
new-comer, took the opportunity at the time of the vintage,
when there was a festival in the temple, to head a revolt and
seized Shechem. Abimelech, warned by his deputy Zebu], left
ha residence at Arumah and approached the city In a fine bit
of realism we are told how Gaal observed the approaching foe
sad was told by Zebul, " You see the shadow of the hills as men,"
aad as they drew nearer Zebul's ironical remark became a taunt,
" Where b now thy mouth f is not this the people thou didst
despise? go now and fight them!" This revolt, which Abime-
lech successfully quelled, appears to be only an isolated episode.
Another account tells of marauding bands of Shechemites
«hkh disturbed the district. The king disposed his men (the
■hole chapter is specially interesting for the full details it gives
sf the nature of ancient military operations), and after totally
destroying Shechem, proceeded against Thebes, which had also
revolted. Here, while storming the citadel, be was struck on
the head by a fragment of a millstone thrown from the wall by
a woman. To avoid the disgrace of perishing by a woman's
hand, he begged his armour-bearer to run him through the body,
but his memory was not saved from the ignominy he dreaded
(2 Sam. xi 21). It is usual to regard Abimelech 's reign as the
first attempt to establish a monarchy in Israel, but the story is
mainly that of the rivalries of a half-developed petty state, and
of the ingratitude of a community towards the descendants of
its deliverer. (See, further, Jews, Judges.) (S. A. C.)
ABINGDON, a market town and municipal borough in the
Abingdon parliamentary division of Berkshire, England, 6m.S.
of Oxford, the terminus of a branch of the Great Western railway
from Radley. Pop. (1901) 648a It lies in the flat valley of
the Thames, on the west (right) bank, where the small river
Ock flows in from the Vale of White Horse. The church of
St Helen stands near the river, and its fine Early English tower
with Perpendicular spire is the principal object in the pleasant
views of the town from the river. The body of the church, which
has five aisles, is principally Perpendicular. The smaller church
of St Nicholas is Perpendicular in appearance, though parts of
the fabric are older. Of a Benedictine abbey there remain a
beautiful Perpendicular gateway, and ruins of buildings called
the prior's house, mainly Early English, and the guest house,
with other fragments. The picturesque narrow-arched bridge
over the Thames near St Helen's church dates originally from
1416. There may be mentioned further the old buildings of the
grammar school, founded in 1563, and of the charity called
Christ's Hospital (1583); while the town-hall in the market-
place, dating from 1677, is attributed to Inigo Jones. The
grammar school now occupies modern buildings, and ranks
among the lesser public schools of England, having scholarships
at Pembroke College, Oxford. St Peter's College, Radley, 2 m.
from Abingdon, is one of the principal modern public schools.
It was opened in 1847. The buildings lie close to the Thames,
and the school is famous for rowing, sending an eight to the
regatta at Henley each year. Abingdon has manufactures of
clothing and carpets and a large agricultural trade. The borough
is under a mayor, four aldermen and twelve councillors. Area,
730 acres.
Abingdon (Abbedun, Abendun) was famous for its abbey, which
was of great wealth and importance, and is believed to have been
founded in A.D. 675 by Cissa, one of the subreguli of Centwin. Abun-
dant charters from early Saxon monarchs are extant confirming
various laws and privileges to the abbey, and the earliest of these,
from King Cead walla, was granted before A.D. 688. In the reign of
Alfred the abbey was destroyed by the Danes, but it was restored
Henry I., to be educated at the abbey. After the dissolution in
1538 the town sank into decay, and in 1555, on a representation of
its pitiable condition. Queen Mary granted a charter establishing
it as a free borough corporate with a common council consisting
of a mayor, two bailiffs, twelve chief burgesses, and sixteen second-
ary burgesses, the mayor to be clerk of the market, coroner and a
t'ustice of the peace. The council was empowered to elect one
turgess to parliament, and this right continued until the Redistri-
bution of Seats Act of 1885. A town clerk and other officers were
also appointed, and the town boundaries described in great detail.
Later charters from Elizabeth, James I., James II., George II. and
George III. made no considerable change. James II. changed the
style of the corporation to that of a mayor, twelve aldermen and
twelve burgesses. The abbot seems to have held a market from
very early tiroes, and charters for the holding of markets and fairs
were granted by various sovereigns from Edward I. to George II.
In the 13th and 14th centuries Abingdon was a flourishing agri-
cultural centre with an extensive trade in wool, and a famous weav-
ing and clothing manufacture. The latter industry declined before
the reign of Queen Mary, but has since been revived.
The present Christ's Hospital originally belonged to the Gild
of the Holy Cross, on the dissolution of which Edward VI. founded
the hospital under its present name.
See Victoria County History, Berkshire; Joseph Stevenson,
Chrontcon Monasterii dt Abinfion, a.d. 201-1189 (Rolls Series.
2 vols., London, 1858).
ABINGER, JAMBS SCARLETT, ist Baron . (1760-1844),
64
ABINGTON— ABIOGENESIS
English judge, was born on the 13th of December 1769 in
Jamaica, where his father, Robert Scarlett, had property. In
the summer of 1785 he was sent to England to complete his
education, and went to Trinity College, Cambridge, taking his
B.A. degree in 1789. Having entered the Inner Temple he was
called to the bar in 1791, and joined the northern circuit and the
Lancashire sessions. Though he had no professional connexions,
by steady application he gradually obtained a large practice,
ultimately confining himself to the Court of King's Bench and
the northern circuit He took silk in 18x6, and from this time
till the close of 1834 he was the most successful lawyer at the
bar; he was particularly effective before a jury, and his income
reached the high-water mark of £18,500, a large sum for that
period. He began life as a Whig, and first entered parliament
in 1819 as member for Peterborough, representing that constitu-
ency with a short break (1822-1823) till 1830, when he was elected
for the borough of Malton. He became attorney-general, and
was knighted when Canning formed his ministry in 1827; and
though be resigned when the duke of Wellington came into power
in 1828, be resumed office in 1829 and went out with the duke of
Wellington in 1830. His opposition to the Reform Bill caused
his severance from the Whig leaders, and having joined the Tories
he was elected, first for Colchester and then in 1832 for Norwich,
for which borough he sat until the dissolution of parliament He
was appointed lord chief baron of the exchequer in 1834, and
presided in that court for more than nine years. While attending
the Norfolk circuit on the 2nd of April he was suddenly seized
with apoplexy, and died in his lodgings at Bury on the 7th of
April 1844. He had been raised to the peerage as Baron Abinger
in 1835, taking his title from the Surrey estate he had bought in
1813. The qualities which brought him success at the bar were
not equally in place on the bench; he was partial, dictatorial
and vain; and complaint was made of his domineering attitude
towards juries. But his acuteness of mind and clearness of ex-
pression remained to the end. Lord Abinger was twice- married
(the second time only six months before his death), and by his
first wife (d. 1829) had three sons and two daughters, the title
passing to his eldest son Robert (1794-1861). His second son,
General Sir James Yorke Scarlett (1700-1871), leader of the
heavy cavalry charge at Balaclava, is dealt with in a separate
article; and his elder daughter, Mary, married John, Baron
Campbell, and was herself created Baroness Stratheden (Lady
Stratheden and Campbell) (d. i860). Sir Philip Anglin Scarlett
(d. 183 1), Lord Abinger's younger brother, was chief justice of
Jamaica.
See P. C. Scarlett, Memoir of James, 1st Lord Abinger (1877);
Foss's Lives of the Judges; E. Manscra, Builders of our Law (1904).
ABINGTON, FRANCES (1737-18x5), English actress, was the
daughter of a private soldier named Barton, and was, at first, a
flower girl and a street singer. She then became servant to a
French milliner, obtaining a taste in dress and a knowledge of
French which afterwards stood her in good stead. Her first
appearance on the stage was at the Haymarket in 1755 as
Miranda in Mrs Centlivre's Busybody, In 1756, on the recom-
mendation of Samuel Foote, she became a member of the Drury
Lane company, where she was overshadowed by Mrs Pritchard
and Kitty Clive. In 1759, ***** *& unhappy marriage with her
music-master, one of the royal trumpeters, she is mentioned in
the bills as Mrs Abington. Her first success was in Ireland as
Lady Townley, and it was only after five years, on the pressing
invitation of Garrick, that she returned to Drury Lane. There
she remained for eighteen years, being the original of more than
thirty important characters, notably Lady Teazle (1777). Her
Beatrice, Portia, Desdemona and Ophelia were no less liked
than her Miss Hoyden, Biddy Tipkin, Lucy Lockit and Miss Prue.
It was in the last character in Love for Love that Reynolds
painted his best portrait of her. In x 782 she left Drury Lane for
Covent Garden. After an absence from the stage from 1700
untO 1797, she reappeared, quitting it finally in 1709. Her am-
bition, personal wit and cleverness won her a distinguished
position in society, in spite of her humble origin. Women of
fashion copied her frocks, and a head-dress she wore was widely
adopted and known as the " Abington cap.*' She died on the
4th of March 1815.
ABIOGENESIS, in biology, the term, equivalent to the older
terms " spontaneous generation," Generatio aequivoca, Generatio
primoria, and of more recent terms such as archegenesis and
archebiosis, for the theory according to which fully formed living
organisms sometimes arise from not-living matter. Aristotle
explicitly taught abiogenesis, and laid it down as an observed
fact that some animals spring from putrid matter, that plant-
lice arise from the dew which falls on plants, that fleas are
developed from putrid matter, and so forth. T. J. Parker
(Elementary Biology) cites a passage from Alexander Ross, who,
commenting on Sir Thomas Browne's doubt as to M whether mice
may be bred by putrefaction," gives a dear statement of the
common opinion on abiogenesis held until about two centuries
ago. Ross wrote: " So may he (Sir Thomas Browne) doubt
whether in cheese and timber worms are generated; or if beetles
and wasps in cows' dung; or if butterflies, locusts, grasshoppers,
shell-fish, snails, eels, and such like, be procreated of putrefied
matter, which is apt to receive the form of that creature to which
it is by formative power disposed. To question this is to question
reason, sense and experience. If he doubts of this let him go
to Egypt, and there he will find the fields swarming with mice,
begot of the mud of Nylus, to the great calamity of the in-
habitants."
The first step in the scientific refutation of the theory of abio-
genesis was taken by the Italian Redi, who, in x668, proved
that no maggots were " bred " in meat on which flies were pre-
vented by wire screens from laying their eggs. From the 17 th
century onwards it was gradually shown that, at least in the case
of all the higher and readily visible organisms, abiogenesis did
not occur, but that omne vivum t ttvo, every living thing came
from a pre-existing living thing.
The discovery of the microscope carried the refutation further.
In 1683 A. van Lceuwenhoek discovered bacteria, and it was
soon found that however carefully organic matter might be
protected by screens, or by being placed in stoppered receptacles,
putrefaction set in, and was invariably accompanied by the
appearance of myriads of bacteria and other low organisms. As
knowledge of microscopic forms of life increased, so the apparent
possibilities of abiogenesis increased, and it became a tempting
hypothesis that whilst the. higher forms of life arose only by
generation from their kind, there was a perpetual abiogenetic
fount by which the first steps in the evolution of living organisms
continued to arise, under suitable conditions, from inorganic
matter. It was due chiefly to L. Pasteur that the occurrence
of abiogenesis in the microscopic world was disproved as much
as its occurrence in the macroscopic world. If organic matter
were first sterilized and then prevented from contamination
from without, putrefaction did not occur, and the matter re-
mained free from microbes. The nature of sterilization, and the
difficulties in securing it, as well as the extreme delicacy of the
manipulations necessary, made it possible for a very long time
to be doubtful as to the application of the phrase omne vivum e
vivo to the microscopic world, and there still remain a few
belated supporters of abiogenesis. Subjection to the tempera-
ture of boiling water for, say, half an hour seemed an efficient
mode of sterilization, until it was discovered that the spores of
bacteria are so involved in heat-resisting membranes, that only
prolonged exposure to dry, baking heat can be recognized as
an efficient process of sterilization. Moreover, the presence of
bacteria, or their spores, is so universal that only extreme pre-
cautions guard against a re-infection of the sterilized material.
It may now be stated definitely that all known living organisms
arise only from pre-existing living organisms.
So far the theory of abiogenesis may be taken as disproved.
It must be noted, however, that this disproof relates only to
known existing organisms. All these are composed of a definite
substance, known as protoplasm (q. v.), and the modern refutation
of abiogenesis applies only to the organic forms in which proto-
plasm now exists. It may be that in the progress of science H
may yet become possible to construct living protoplasm from
ABIPONES— ABLUTION
65
Boa-Irving material. The refutation of abiogenesis has no further
bearing 00 this possibility than to make it probable that if
protoplasm ultimately be formed in the laboratory, it will be by
a series of stages, the earlier steps being the formation of some
mKc»»wf» or substances, now unknown, which are not proto-
plasm. Such intermediate stages may have existed in the past,
and the modern refutation of abiogenesis has no application to
the possibility of these having been formed from inorganic
matter at some past time. Perhaps the words archebiosis, or
arcbegenesis, should be reserved for the theory that protoplasm
in the remote past has been developed from not-living matter
by a series of steps, and many of those, notably T. H. Huxley,
who took a large share in the process of refuting contemporary
abiogenesis, have stated their belief in a primordial archebiosis.
(See Biogenesis and Lire.) (P. C. M.)
ABIPONES, a tribe of South American Indians of Guaycuran
stock recently inhabiting the territory lying between Santa Fe
and St lafo. They originally occupied the Chaco district of
Paraguay, but were driven thence by the hostility of the Spaniards.
According to Martin Dobriahofler, a Jesuit missionary, who,
towards the end of the 18th century, lived among them for a
period of seven years, they then numbered not more than 5000.
They were a well-formed, handsome people, with black eyes and
aqnfline noses, thick black hair, but no beards. The hair from
the forehead to the crown of the head was pulled out, this con-
stituting a tribal mark. The faces, breasts and arms of the
women were covered with black figures of various designs made
with thorns, the tattooing paint being a mixture of ashes and
blood. The lips and ears of both sexes were pierced. The men
were brave fighters, their chief weapons being the bow and spear.
No child was without bow and arrows; the bow-strings were
made of foxes' entrails. In battle the Abipones wore an armour
of tapir's hide over which a jaguar's skin was sewn. They were
excellent swimmers and good horsemen. For five months in the
year when the floods were out they lived on islands or even in
shelters buDt in the trees. They seldom married before the age
of thirty, and were singularly chaste. " With the Abipones,"
says Darwin, " when a man chooses a wife, he bargains with the
parents about the price. But it frequently happens that the
pri rescinds what has been agreed upon between the parents
and bridegroom, obstinately rejecting the very mention of
carriage. She often runs away and hides herself, and thus
efades the bridegroom." Infanticide was systematic, never
sore than two children being reared in one family, a custom
taintless originating in the difficulty of subsistence. The young
*ere seckled for two years. The Abipones are now believed to
be extinct as a tribe.
Martin Dobrizhoner't Latin Ristoria ieAbiponibus (Vienna, 1784)
w*s translated into English by Sara Coleridge, at the suggestion of
v wtbrf. in 182a, under the title of An Account of the Abipones
iBTTIBN, a lake and river of Ontario, Canada. The lake, in
tf N\ 80* W., is 60 m. long and studded with islands. It is
shallow, and the shores -in its vicinity are covered with small
timber. It was formerly employed by the Hudson's Bay Com-
pany as part of a canoe route to the fur lands of the north. The
construction of the Grand Trunk Pacific railway through this
&trki has made it of some importance. Its outlet is Abitibbi
rrrer, a rapid stream, which after a course of 200 m. joins the
Moose river, flowing into James Bay.
ABJURATION (from Lit. abjurarc, to forswear), a solemn
reparation or renunciation on oath. At common law, it signified
the oath of a person who had taken sanctuary to leave the realm
lor ever, this was abolished in the reign of James I. The Oath
«f AbjunHem, in English history, was a solemn disclaimer, taken
by members of parliament, clergy and laymen against the
right of the Stuarts to the crown, imposed by laws of William III.,
George L and George 111.; but its place has since been taken
by the oath of allegiance.
AKHASIA, or Abhasu, a tract of Russian Caucasia, govern-
■eat of Calais. The Caucasus mountains on the N. and N.E.
divide it from Chrassia: on the S.E. it is bounded by Mingrelia;
L 2*
and on the S.W. by the Black Sea. Though the country is
generally mountainous, with dense forests of oak and walnut,
there are some deep, well-watered valleys, and the climate is
mild. The soil is fertile, producing wheat, maize, grapes, figs,
pomegranates and wine. Cattle and horses are bred. Honey
is produced; and excellent arms are made. This country was
subdued (c. 550) by the Emperor Justinian, who introduced
Christianity. Native dynasties ruled from 735 to the 15th
century, when the region was conquered by the Turks and
became Mahommedan. The Russians acquired possession of it
piecemeal between 1829 and 184a, but their power was not
firmly established until after 1864. Area, 3800 sq. uu The
principal town is Sukhum-kaleh. Pop. 43,000, of whom two-
thirds are Mingrelians and one-third Abkhasians, a Cherkess or
Circassian race. The total number of Abkhasians in (he two
governments of Kutais and Kuban was 72,103 in 1807; large
numbers emigrated to the Turkish empire in 1864 and 1878.
ABLATION (from Lat ablatus, carried away), the process of
removing anything; a term used technically in geology of the
wearing away of a rock or glacier, and in surgery for operative
removal.
ABLATTTIOUS (from Lat ablatus, taken away), reducing or
withdrawing; in astronomy a force which interferes between
the moon and the earth to lessen the strength of gravitation is
called " ablatitious," just as it is called " addititious " when it
increases that strength.
ABLATIVE (Lat. aUativus, sc casus, from ablatum, taken
away), in grammar, a case of the noun, the fundamental sense
of which is direction from; in Latin, the principal language in
which the case exists, this has been extended, with or without a
preposition, to the instrument or agent of an act, and the place
or time at, and manner in, which a thing is done. The case is
also found in Sanskrit, Zend, Oscan and Umbrian, and traces
remain in other languages. The " Ablative Absolute," a gram-
matical construction in Latin, consists of a noun in the ablative
case, with a participle, attribute or qualifying word agreeing
with it, not depending on any other part of the sentence, to
express the time, occasion or circumstance of a fact.
ABLUTION (Lat ablulio, from ablucre, " to wash off "), a
washing, in its religious use, destined to secure that ceremonial
or ritualistic purity which must not be confused with the
physical or hygienic cleanliness of persons and things obtained
by the use of soap and water. 1 Indeed the two states may con-
tradict each other, as in the case of the 4th-century Christian
pilgrim to Jerusalem who boasted that she had not washed
her face for eighteen years for fear of removing therefrom the
holy chrism of baptism. The purport, then, of ablutions is to
remove, not dust and dirt, but the— to us imaginary— stains
contracted by contact with the dead, with childbirth, with
menstruous women, with murder whether wilful or involuntary,
with almost any form of bloodshed, with persons of inferior
caste, with dead animal refuse, e.g. leather or excrement, with
leprosy, madness and any form of disease. Among all races
in a certain grade of development such associations are vaguely
felt to be dangerous and to impair vitality. In a later stage the
taint is regarded as alive, as a demon or evil spirit alighting on
and passing into the things and' persons exposed to contamina-
tion. In general, water, cows' urine and blood of swine are the
materials used in ablutions. Of these water is the commonest,
and its efficacy is enhanced if it be running, and still more if a
magical or sacramental virtue has been imparted to it by ritual
blessing or consecration. Some concrete examples will best
illustrate the nature of such ablutions. In the Atharva-Vcda,
vii. 1 16, we have this allopathic remedy for fever. The patient's
skin burns, that of a frog is cold to the touch; therefore tie to
the foot of the bed a frog, bound with red and black thread,
and wash down the sick man so that the water of ablution falls
1 Tn its technical ecclesiastical sense the ablution is the ritual
washing of the chalice and of the priest's fingers after the celebration
of Holy Communion in the Catholic Church. The wine and water
used for this purpose are themselves sometimes called "the
ablution."
\m
66
ABNAKI— ABO
on the frog. Let the medicine man or magician pray that the
fever may pass i&o the frog, and the frog be forthwith re-
leased, and the cure will be effected. In the old Athenian
Anthcsteria the blood of victims was poured over the unclean.
A bath of bulls' blood was much in vogue as a baptism in the
mysteries of Attis. The water must in ritual washings run off
in order to carry away the miasma or unseen demon of disease;
and accordingly in baptism the early Christians used living or
running water. Nor was it enough that the person baptized
should himself enter the water; the baptizer must pour it over
his head, so that it run down his person. Similarly the Brahman
takes care, after ablution of a person, to wipe the cathartic water
off from head to feet downwards, that the malign influence may
pass out through the feet. The same care is shown in ritual
ablutions in the Bukoyina and elsewhere.
Water and fire, spices and sulphur, are used in ritual clcans-
ings, says Iamblichus in hi* book on mysteries (v. 23), as being
specially full of the divine nature. Nevertheless in all religions,
and especially in the Brahmanic and Christian, the cathartic
virtue of water is enhanced by the introduction into it by means
of suitable prayers and incantations of a divine or magical power.
Ablutions both of persons and things are usually cathartic,
that is, intended to purge away evil influences (icadedpav, to
make xa0ap6s , pure). But, as Robertson Smith observes, " holi-
ness is contagious, just as undcanness is "; and common things
and persons may become taboo, that is, so holy as to be dangerous
and useless for daily life through the mere infection of holiness.
Thus in Syria one who touched a dove became taboo for one
whole day, and if a drop of blood of the Hebrew sin-offering fell
on a garment it had to be ritually washed off. It was as neces-
sary in the Hebrew religion for the priest to wash his hands
after handling the sacred volume as before. Christians might not
enter a church to say their prayers without first washing their
hands. So Chrysostom says: "Although our hands may be
already pure, yet unless we have washed them thoroughly, we
do npt spread them upwards in prayer." Tertullian (c. 300)
had long before condemned this as a heathen custom; none the
less, it was insisted on in later ages, and is a survival of the pagan
lustrations or xtfHpparHipta. Sozomen (vi. 6) tells how a priest
sprinkled Julian and Valcntinian with water according to the
heathen custom as they entered his temple. The same custom
prevails among Mahommcdans. Porphyry {de Abst. ii. 44)
relates that one. who touched a sacrifice meant to avert divine
anger must bathe and wash his clothes in running water before
returning to his city and home, and similar scruples in regard
to holy objects and persons have been observed among the
natives of Polynesia, New Zealand and ancient Egypt. The
rites, met within all lands, of pouring out water or bathing in
order to produce rain from heaven, differ in their significance
from ablutions with water and belong to the realm of sympa-
thetic magic.
There are certain forms- of purification which one does not
know whether to describe as ablutions or anointings. Thus
Demosthenes in his speech ."On the crown " accused Aeschines
of having " purified the initiated and wiped them clean with
(not from) mud and pitch." Smearing with gypsum (rirapot ,
titanos) had a similar purifying effect, and it has been suggested *
that the Titans were no more than old-world votaries who had
so disguised themselves. Perhaps the use of ashes in -mourning
had the same origin. In the rite of death-bed penance given in
the old Mozarabic Christian ritual of Spain, ashes were poured
over the sick man.
Authorities.— W. R. Smith, Religion of the Semites jTul.. Well,
hauscn, Reste arabischen Heidenlums {—Skitsen und vorarbeiten',
lit. 2nd ed., Berlin, 1897); John Spencer, De legibus fiebraeorum
rilualibus (Tubingae, 1732); Art. "Clean and Unclean " in Hastings'
Bible Dictionary and in Jewish Encyclopedia, vol. iv.; J. G. Frazer,
Adonis, Attis, Osiris (London, 1906); Joseph Bingham, Antiquities
of the Christian Church, bk. viii.; Hermann Oldenperg, Die Religion
des Veda's, Berlin, 1894. (?• c - w
ABNAKI ("the whitening sky at daybreak," U. Easterners),
A confederacy of North American Indians of Algonquian stock,
1 By J. E. Harrison, Prolegomena to Creek Religion, p. 493.
called Terrateens by the New England tribes and colonial
writers. It included the Passamaquoddy, Penobscot, Norridgc-
wock, Malecite and other tribes. It formerly occupied what is
now Maine and southern New Brunswick. All the tribes were
loyal to the French during the early years -of the 18 th century,
but after the British success in Canada most of them withdrew
to St Francis, Canada, subsequently entering into an agreement
with the British authorities. The Abnaki now number some
1600.
For details see Handbook of American Indians, edited by F. W.
Hodge (Washington, 1907).
ABNER (Hebrew for "father of [or is a] light"), in the Bible,
first cousin of Saul and commander-in-chief of his army (x Sam.
xiv. 50, xx. 25). He is only referred to incidentally in Saul's
history (x Sam. xvii. 55, xxvi. 5), and is not mentioned in the
account of the disastrous battle of Gilboa when Saul's power
was crushed. Seizing the only surviving son, Ishbaal, he set
him up as king over Israel at Mahanaim, east of the Jordan.
David, who was accepted as king by Judah alone, was mean-
while reigning at Hebron, and for some time war was carried
on between the two parties. The only engagement between the
rival factions which is told at length is noteworthy, inasmuch
as it was preceded by an encounter at.Gibeon between twelve
chosen men from each side, in which the whole twenty-four seem
to have perished (2 Sam. ii. 12). 1 In the general engagement
which followed, Abner was defeated and put to flight. He was
closely pursued by Asahel, brother of Joab, who is said to have
been " light of foot as a wild roe." As Asahel would not desist
from the pursuit, though warned, Abner was compelled to slay
him in self-defence. This originated a deadly feud between
the leaders of the opposite parties, for Joab, as next of kin to
Asahel, was by the law and custom of the country the avenger
of his blood. For some time afterwards the war was carried on,
the advantage being invariably on the side of David. At length
Ishbaal lost the main prop of his tottering cause by remonstrat-
ing with Abner for marrying Rizpah, one of Saul's- concubines,
an alliance which, according to Oriental notions, implied pre*
tensions to the throne (cp. 2 Sam, xvi. 21 sqq.; x Kings ii. 21
sqq.). Abner was indignant at the deserved rebuke, and im-
mediately opened negotiatons with David, who welcomed him
on the condition that his wife Michal should be restored to him.
This was done, and the proceedings were ratified by a feast.
Almost immediately after, however, Joab, who had been sent
away, perhaps intentionally returned and slew Abner at the
gate of Hebron. The ostensible motive for the assassination
was a desire to avenge Asahel, and this would be a sufficient
justification for the deed according to the moral standard of the
time. The conduct of David after the event was such as to show
that he had no complicity in the act, though he could not ven-
ture to punish its perpetrators (2 Sam. ill. 31*39; cp. x Kings ii.
3X seq.). (See David.)
ABO (Finnish Turku), a city and seaport, the capital of the
province of Abo-Bjdrneborg, in the grand duchy of Finland, on
the Aura-joki, about 3 m. from where it falls into the gulf of
Bothnia. Pop. (1810) 10,224; (1870) 19,6x7; (1904) 42,639.
It is 38 x m. by rail from St Petersburg via Tavastehus, and is
in regular steamer communication with St Petersburg, Vasa,
Stockholm, Copenhagen and Hull. It was already a place of
importance when Finland formed part of the kingdom of Sweden.
When the Estates of Finland seceded from Sweden and accepted
the Emperor Alexander of Russia as their grand duke at the
Diet of Borga in 1809, Abo became the capital of the new state,
and so remained till 18x9 when the seat of government was
transferred to Helsingfors. In November 1827 nearly the
whole city was burnt down, the university and its valuable
library being entirely destroyed.' Before this' calamity Abo
contained xxxo houses and 13,000 inhabitants; and its- university
had 40 professors, more than 500 students, and a library of up-
wards of 30,000 volumes, together with a botanical garden, an
1 The object of the story of the encounter Ss to explain the name
Helkath-hazzurim, the meaning of which is doubtful (Ency. Bib,
col. 2006; Batten in ZeiLf. all-test. Wissens. 1906, pp. 90 aqq.).
ABO-BJORNEBORG— ABORTION
67
observatory and a chemical laboratory. The university has
since been removed to Helsingfors. Abo remains the ecclesias-
tical capital of Finland, is the seat of the Lutheran archbishop
and contains a fine cathedral dating from 1258 and restored
after the fire of 1827. The cathedral is dedicated to St Henry,
the patron saint of Finland, an English missionary who intro-
duced Christianity into the country in the zath century. Abo
b the seat of the first of the three courts of appeal of Finland.
It has two high schools, a school of commerce and a school of
navigation. The city is second only to Helsingfors for its trade ;
sail-cloth, cotton and tobacco are manufactured, and there are
extensive saw-mills. There is also a large trade in timber and
a considerable butter export. Ship-building has considerably
developed, torpedo-boats being built here for the Russian navy.
Vessels drawing 9 or 10 feet come up to the town, but ships of
greater draught are laden and discharged at its harbour (Bom-
holm, on Hyrvinsala Island), which is entered yearly by from
700 to 800 ships, of about 200,000 tons.
AbO-BJO* BJf EBORG, a province occupying the S.W. corner of
Finland and including the Aland islands. It has a total area of
14,171 square kilometres and a population (1000) of 447>oo8i
of whom 379,632 spoke Finnish and 67,260 Swedish; 446,000
were of the Lutheran religion. The province occupies a promi-
nent position in Finland for its manufacture of cottons, sugar
refinery, wooden goods, metals, machinery, paper, &c Its
chief towns are: Abo (pop. 42,639), Bjorneborg (16,053), Raumo
(5501), Nystad (4165), Mariehamn (1x71)1 Naderidal (917).
ABODE (from " abide," to dwell, properly " to wait for ," to
bide), generally, a dwelling. In English law this term has a more
restricted meaning than domicile, being used to indicate the
place of a man's residence or business, whether that be either
temporary or permanent The law may regard for certain
purposes, as a man's abode, the place where he carries on busi-
ness, though he may reside elsewhere ; so that the term has
come to have a looser significance than residence, which has been
defined as " where a man lives with his family and sleeps at
night" (R. v. Hammond, 1852, 17 Q.B. 772). In serving a
notke of action, a solicitor's place of business may be given as
his abode {Roberts v. Williams, 1835, 5 L.J.M.C. 23), and in more
recent decisions it has been similarly held that where a notice
was required to be served under the Public Health Act 1875,
either personally or to some inmate of the owner's or occupier's
" place of abode, " a place of business was sufficient
ABOMASUM {atUleite), the fourth or rennet stomach of
Rmmnantia. From the omasum the food is finally deposited
in the abotnasum, a cavity considerably larger than either the
second or third stomach, although less than the first. The base
of the abotnasum is turned to the omasum. It is of an irregular
conkal form. It is that part of the digestive apparatus which
is analogous to the single stomach of other Mammalia, as the
food there undergoes the process of chymification, after being
macerated and ground down in the three first stomachs.
ABOUT, capital of the ancient kingdom of Dahomey, West
Africa, now included in the French colony of the same name.
It is 70 m. N. by rail of the seaport of Kotonu, and has a popula-
tion of about 15,000. Abomey is built on a rolling plain, 800 ft.
above sea-level, terminating in short bluffs to the N.W., where it
is bounded by a long depression. The town was surrounded by a
mod wall, pierced by six gates, and was further protected by a
ditch 5 ft deep, filled with a dense growth of prickly acacia,
the usual defence of West African strongholds. Within the
walls, which had a circumference of six miles, were villages
separated by fields, several royal palaces, a market-place and
a large square containing the barracks. In November 1892,
rVnanan, the king of Dahomey, being defeated by the French,
set fire to Abomey and fled northward. Under French adminis-
tration the town has been rebuilt, placed (1905) in railway
communication with the coast, and given an ample water supply
by the sinking of artesian wells.
ABOMINATION (from Lat. ob, from, and ominare, to fore-
bode), anything contrary to omen, and therefore regarded with
; a word used often in the Bible to denote evil doctrines
or ceremonial practices which were impure. An incorrect deri-
vation was ab nomine (i.e. inhuman), and the spelling of the
adjective " abominable " in the first Shakespeare folio is always
" abhominablc." Colloquially "abomination" and "abomin-
able " are used to mean simply excessive in a disagreeable sense.
ABOR HILLS, a tract of country on the north-east frontier
of India, occupied by an independent tribe called the Abors.
It lies north of Lakhimpur district, in the province of eastern
Bengal and Assam, and is bounded on the east by the Mishrai
Hills and on the west by the Miri Hills, the villages of the tribe
extending to the Dibong river. The term Abor is an Assamese
word, signifying "barbarous" or "independent," and is applied
in a general sense by the Assamese to many frontier tribes; but
in its restricted sense it is specially given to the above tract
The Abors, together with the cognate tribes of Miris, Daphlas
and Akas, are supposed to be descended from a Tibetan stock.
They are a quarrelsome and sulky race, violently divided in
their political relations. In former times they committed fre-
quent raids upon the plains of Assam, and have been the object
of more than one retaliatory expedition by the British govern-
ment. In 1893-94 occurred the first Bor Abor expedition.
Some military police sepoys were murdered in British territory,
and a force of 600 troops was sent, who traversed the Abor
country, and destroyed the villages concerned in the murder
and all other villages that opposed the expedition. A second
expedition became necessary later on, two small patrols having
been treacherously murdered; and a force of 100 British troops
traversed the border of the Abor country and punished the tribes,
while a blockade was continued against them from 1894 to 1900.
See Colonel Dalton's Ethnology of Bengal, 1872.
ABORIGINES, a mythical people of central Italy, connected
in legendary history with Aeneas, Latinus and Evander. They
were supposed to have descended from their mountain home
near Rcate (an ancient Sabine town) upon Latium, whence they
expelled the Siceli and subsequently settled down as Latini
under a King Latinus (Dion Halic. i. 9. 60). The most gener-
ally accepted etymology of the name (ab origine), according to
which they were the original inhabitants ( =■ Gk. ainbxOovii) of the
country, is inconsistent with the fact that the oldest authorities
(e.g. Cato in his Origines) regarded them as Hellenic immigrants,
not as a native Italian people. Other explanations suggested
are arborigines, "tree-born," and aberrigines, "nomads." His-
torical and ethnographical discussions have led to no result;
the most that can be said is that, if not a general term, " abori-
gines " may be the name of an Italian stock, about whom the
ancients knew no more than ourselves.
In modern times the term "Aborigines" has been extended in
signification, and. is used to indicate the inhabitants found in a
country at its first discovery, in contradistinction to colonies or
new races, the time of whose introduction into the country is
known.
The Aborigines' Protection Society was founded in 1838 in
England as the result of a royal commission appointed at the
instance of Sir T. Fowell Buxton to inquire into the treatment
of the indigenous populations of the various British colonics.
The inquiry revealed the gross cruelty and injustice with which
the natives had been often treated. Since its foundation the
society has done much to make English colonization a synonym
for humane and generous treatment of savage races.
ABORTION (from Lat aboriri, to fail to be born, or perish),
in obstetrics, the premature separation and expulsion of the
contents of the pregnant uterus. It is a common terminology
to call premature labour of an accidental type a " miscarriage,"
in order to distinguish "abortion" as a deliberately induced
act, whether as a medical necessity by the accoucheur, or as
a criminal proceeding (see Medical Jurisprudence) ; otherwise
the term "abortion" would ordinarily be used when recurring
before the eighth month of gestation, and " premature labour "
subsequently. As an accident of pregnancy, it is far from un-
common, although its relative frequency, as compared with
that of completed gestation, has been very differently estimated
by accoucheurs. It is more liable to occur in the earlier than
68
ABORTION
in the later months of pregnancy, and it would also appear to
occur more readily at the periods corresponding to those of the
menstrual discharge. It may be induced by numerous causes,
both of a local and general nature. Malformations of the pelvis,
accidental injuries and the diseases and displacements to which
the uterus is liable, on the one hand; and, on the other, various
morbid conditions of the ovum or placenta leading to the death
of the foetus, are among the direct local causes. The general
causes embrace certain states of the system which are apt to
exercise a more or less direct influence upon the progress of
utero-geslation. The tendency to recurrence in persons who
have previously miscarried is well known, and should ever be
borne in mind with ihe view of avoiding any cause likely to lead
to a repetition of the accident. Abortion resembles ordinary
labour in its general phenomena, excepting that in the former
hemorrhage often to a large extent forms one of the leading
symptoms. The treatment embraces the means to be used by
rest, astringents and sedatives, to prevent the occurrence when
it merely- threatens; or when, on the contrary, it is inevitable,
to accomplish as speedily as possible the complete removal of
the entire contents of the uterus.
Among primitive savage races abortion is practised to a far
less extent than infanticide (q.v.), which offers a simpler way of
getting rid of inconvenient progeny. But it is common among
the American Indians, as well as in China, Cambodia and India,
although throughout Asia it is generally contrary both to law
and religion. How far it was considered a crime among the
civilized nations of antiquity has long been debated. Those
who maintain the impunity of the practice rely for their authority
upon certain passages in the classical authors, which, while
bitterly lamenting the frequency of this enormity, yet never
allude to any laws by which it might be suppressed. For ex-
ample, in one of Plato's dialogues (Tkcael.) t Socrates is made to
speak of artificial abortion as a practice, not only common but
allowable; and Plato himself authorizes it in his Republic
(lib. v.). Aristotle (Polit. lib. viL c. 17) gives it as his opinion
that no child ought to be suffered to come into the world, the
mother being above forty or the father above fifty-five years of
age. Lysias maintained, in one of his pleadings quoted by
Harpocration, that forced abortion could not be considered
homicide, because a child in ulcro was not an animal, and had no
separate existence. Among the Romans, Ovid (Amor. lib. ii.),
Juvenal (Sat. vL 594) and Seneca (Consol. ad Hd. 16) mention
the frequency of the offence, but maintain silence as to any
laws for punishing it On the other hand, it is argued that the
authority of Galen and Cicero (pro Cluailio) place it beyond a
doubt that, so far from being allowed to pass with impunity,
the offence in question was sometimes punished by death;
that the authority of Lysias is of doubtful authenticity; and
that the speculative reasonings of Plato and Aristotle, in matters
of legislation, ought not to be confounded with the actual state
of the laws. Moreover, Stobacus (Serm. 73) has preserved a
passage from Musonius, in which that philosopher expressly
stales that the ancient law-givers inflicted punishments on
females who caused themselves to abort. After the spread of
Christianity among the Romans, however, foeticide became
equally criminal with the murder of an adult, and the barbarian
hordes which afterwards overran the empire also treated the
offence as a crime punishable with death. This severe penalty
remained in force in all the countries of Europe until the Middle
Ages. With the gradual disuse of the old barbarous punishments
so universal in medieval times came also a reversal of opinion
as to the magnitude of the crime involved in killing a child not
yet born. But the exact period of transition is not clearly
marked.
In England the Anglo-Saxons seem to have regarded abortion
only as an ecclesiastical offence. Sir Matthew Hale (1609-1676)
tells us that if anything is done to "a woman quick or great
with child, to make an abortion, or whereby the child within
her is killed, it is not murder or manslaughter by the law of
England, because it is not yet in return natura." But the
common law appears, nevertheless, to have treated as a mis-
demeanour any attempt to effect the destruction of such an
infant, though unsuccessful. Blackstone (1723-1780), to be
sure, a hundred years later, says that, " if a woman is quick
with child, and by poison or otherwise killeth it in her womb,
or if any one beat her, whereby the child dieth in her body, and
she is delivered of a dead child, this, though not murder, was,
by the ancient .law, homicide or manslaughter." Whatever
may have been the exact view taken by the common law, the
offence was made statutory by an act of 1803, making the
attempt to cause the miscarriage of a woman, not being, or not
being proved, to be quick with child, a felony, punishable with
fine, imprisonment, whipping or transportation for any term
not exceeding fourteen years. Should the woman have proved
to have quickened, the attempt was punishable with death.
The provisions of this statute were re-enacted in 1828. The
English law on the subject is now governed by the Offences
against the Person Act 1861, which makes the attempting to
cause miscarriage by administering poison or other noxious
thing, or unlawfully using any instrument equally a felony,
whether the woman be, or be not, with child. No distinction is
now made as to whether the foetus is or is not alive, legislation
appearing to make the offence statutory with the object of
prohibiting any risk to the life of the mother. If a woman ad*
ministers to herself any poison or other noxious thing, or unlaw*
fully uses any instrument or other means to procure her own
miscarriage, she is guilty of felony. The punishment for the
offence is penal servitude for life or not less than three years, or
imprisonment for not more than two years. If a child is born
alive, but in consequence of its premature birth, or of the means
employed, afterwards dies, the offence is murder; the general
law as to accessories applies to the offence.
In all the countries of Europe the causing of abortion is now
punishable with more or less lengthy terms of imprisonment.
Indeed, the tendency in continental Europe is to regard the
abortion as a crime against the unborn child, and several codes
(notably that of the German Empire) expressly recognize the
life of the foetus, while others make the penalty more severe if
abortion has been caused in the later stages of pregnancy, or if
the woman is married. According to the weight of authority in
the United States abortion was not regarded as a punishable
offence at common law, if the abortion was produced with the
consent of the mother prior to the time when she became quick
with child; but the Supreme Courts of Pennsylvania and North
Carolina held it a crime at common law, which might be com-
mitted as soon as gestation had begun (Mills v. Com. 13 Pa. St.
630; State v. Slagle, 83 N.C. 630). The attempt is a punishable
offence in several states, but not in Ohio. Nor was it ever murder
at common law to take the life of the child at any period of
gestation, even in the very act of delivery (Mitchell v. Com. 78
Ky. 304). If the death of the woman results it is murder at
common law (Com. v. Parker, 9 Met. [Mass.] 363). It is now
a statutory offence in all states of the Union, but the woman
must be actually pregnant. In most states not only is the person
who causes the abortion punishable, but also any one who sup-
plies any drug or instrument for the purpose. The woman,
however, is not an accomplice (except by statute as in Ohio,
Stale v. M'Coy, 39 N.E. 316), nor is she guilty of any crime
unless by statute as in New York (Penal Code, § 295) and Cali-
fornia (Penal Code, § 275) and Connecticut (Gen. Stats. 1002,'
§ 1 1 56). She may be a witness, and her testimony does not
need corroboration. The attempt is also a crime in New York
(1905, People v. Conrad, 102 App. D. 566).
Authorities.— Ploucguct. Commentarius Medicus in processus
criminates super komicidto et infantUidio, &c. (1736); Burke Ryan.
Infanticide, its Law, Prevalence, Prevention ana History (1862);
G. Greaves, Observations on the Laws referring to Child- Murder, and
Criminal Abortion (1864); Storer and Heard, Criminal Abortion,
its Nature, Evidence and Law (Boston, 1868); J. Cave Browne.
Infanticide, its Origin, Progress and Suppression (1857); T. R - Bcck «
Medical Jurisprudence (1842)^; A. S. Taylor, Principles and Practice
of Medical Jurisprudence (1894); Sir J. Stephen, History of the
Criminal Law of England (1883); Sir W. O. Russell. Crtmes and
Misdemeanours (3 vols., 1896); Archbold's Pleading and Evidence
in Criminal Cases {1900) ; Roscoe's Evidence in Criminal Cases ( 1 898) ;
ABOUKIR— ABRAHAM
69
Treub. van Oppenraag and Vlaming, TU Right to Life of the Unborn
OM (New York. 1903); L. Hochheiroer. Crimes and Criminal
Pruedmre (New York, 1807); A. A. Tardieu. Etude medico-Ugal sur
temwumemt (Paris. 1004); r. Berolzheiraer. System der Rechts- und
WissensckaflspmUosopkie (Munich. 1904).
ABOUKIR, a village on the Mediterranean coast of Egypt,
14} m. N.E. of Alexandria by rail, containing a castle used as
a state prison by Mehemet Ali. (fear the village are many
remains of ancient buildings, Egyptian, Greek and Roman.
About id. S.E. of the village are ruins supposed to mark the
site of Canopus. A little farther east the Canopic branch of
the Nile (now dry) entered the Mediterranean.
Stretching eastward as far as the Rosetta mouth of the Nile
b the spacious bay of Aboukir, where on the 1st of August 1 708
Nelson fought the battle of the Nile, often referred to as the
battle of Aboukir. The latter title is applied more properly
to an engagement between the French expeditionary army and
the Turks fought on the 25th of July 1700. Near Aboukir, on
the 8th of March 1801, the British army commanded by Sir R.
Abcrcromby landed from its transports in the face of a strenuous
opposition from a French force entrenched on the beach. (See
Fiexcb Revolutionary Wais.)
ABOUT, EDMOHD FRANCOIS VALENTIN (1828-1885),
French novelist, publicist and journalist, was born on the 14 th
of February 1828, at Dieuze, in Lorraine. The boy's school
career was brilliant. In 1848 he entered the £cole Normale,
taking the second place in the annual competition for admis-
sion, Taine being first. Among bis college contemporaries were
Taine, Frandsque, Sarcey, Challemel-Lacour and the ill-starred
rVevost-ParadoL Of them all About was, according to Sarcey,
the most highly vitalized, exuberant, brilliant and " undisci-
plined." At the end of his college career he joined the French
school in Athens, but if we may believe his own account, it had
sever been his intention to follow the professorial career, for
which the £co!e Normale was a preparation, and in 1853 he
returned to France and frankly gave himself to literature and
journalism. A book on Greece, La Grlce contemporaine (1855),
which did not spare Greek susceptibilities, had an immediate
success. In ToUa (1855) About was charged with drawing too
freely on an earlier Italian novel, Vittorio Sovelli (Paris, 1841).
This caused a strong prejudice against him, and he was the
object of numerous attacks, to which he was ready enough to
retaliate. The LeUres d'un bon jeune Homme, written to the
Figaro under the signature of Valentin de Que'villy, provoked
more animosities. During the next few years, with indefatigable
energy, and generally with full public recognition, he wrote
novels, stories, a play— which failed,— a book-pamphlet on the
Roman question, many pamphlets on other subjects of the day,
sewspaper articles innumerable, some art criticisms, rejoinders
to the attacks of his enemies, and popular manuals of political
economy, VA B C du travaUUur (x868), Le progrh (1864).
AJxrat's attitude towards the empire was that of a candid friend.
He believed in its unprovability, greeted the liberal ministry of
£mfle OUivier at the beginning of 1870 with delight and wel-
comed the Franco-German War. That day of enthusiasm had a
terrible morrow. For his own personal part he lost the loved
borne near Saverne in Alsace, which he had purchased in 1858
cat of the fruits of his earlier literary successes. With the fall
of the empire he became a republican, and, always an inveterate
sati-clerical, he threw himself with ardour into the battle against
the conservative reaction which made head during the first
years of the republic From 1872 onwards for some five or six
years his paper, the XIX' Steele, of which he was the heart and
tod, became a power in the land. But the republicans never
<pite forgave the tardiness of his conversion, and no place
rewarded bis later real. On the 23rd January 1884 he was
elected a member of the French Academy, but died on the x6th
of January 1885, before taking his seat. His journalism— of
which specimens in his earlier and later manners will be found
ta the two series of LeUres d'un bon jeune Homme d sa cousine
Medeleine (1861 and 1863), and the posthumous collection, Le
dis-uemneme siicU (1802)— was of its nature ephemeral. So
■w the pamphlets, great and smalL His political economy
was that of an orthodox popularizer, and in no sense epoch-
making. His dramas are negligible. His more serious novels,
Madelon (1863), Vinfdme (1867), the three that form the
trilogy of the VieiUe Roche (1866), and Le roman d'un brave
Homme (1880) — a kind of counterblast to the view of the French
workman presented in Zola's Assommoir—cont&in striking and
amusing scenes, no doubt, but scenes which are often suggestive
of the stage, while description, dissertation, explanation too
frequently take the place of life. His best work after all is to
be found in the books that are almost wholly farcical, Le na
d'un notaire (1862); Le roi des Montagues (1856); L Homme d
Voreille cassie (1862); Trenie el quaranU (1858); Le cos de
U. Gubrin (1862). Here his most genuine wit, his sprighl-
liness, his vivacity, the fancy that was in him, have free play
" You will never be more than a little Voltaire," said one
of his masters when he was a lad at school. It was a true
prophecy. (F. T. M.)
ABRABANEL ISAAC* called also Abravanel, Abarbanel
(1437-1508), Jewish statesman, philosopher, theologian and
commentator, was born at Lisbon of an ancient family which
claimed descent from the royal house of David. Like many of
the Spanish Jews he united scholarly tastes with political ability
He held a high place in the favour of Ring Alphonso V., who
entrusted him with the management of important state affairs.
On the death of Alphonso in 1481, his counsellors and favourites
were harshly treated by his successor John, and Abrabanel was
compelled to flee to Spain, where he held for eight years (1484-
1492) the post of a minister of state under Ferdinand and
Isabella. When the Jews were banished from Spain in 1492,
no exception was made in Abrabanel's favour. He afterwards
resided at Naples, Corfu and Monopoli, and in X503 removed to
Venice, where he held office as a minister of state till his death
in 1508. His repute as a commentator on the Scriptures is still
high; in the 17th and 18th centuries he was much read by
Christians such as Buxtorf. Abrabanel often quotes Christian
authorities, though he opposed Christian exegesis of Messianic
passages. He was one of the first to see that for Biblical exegesis
it was necessary to reconstruct the social environment of olden
times, and he skilfully applied his practical knowledge of state-
craft to the elucidation of the books of Samuel and Kings.
ABRACADABRA, a word analogous to Abraxas (*;.».), used
as a magical formula by the Gnostics of the sect of Basilidcs
in invoking the aid of beneficent spirits against disease and
misfortune. It is found on Abraxas stones which were worn as
amulets. Subsequently its use spread beyond the Gnostics,
and in modern times it is applied contemptuously (e g. by the
early opponents of the evolution theory) to a conception or
hypothesis which purports to be a simple solution of apparently
insoluble phenomena. The Gnostic physician Serenus Sam-
monicus gave precise instructions as to its mystical use in avert-
ing or curing agues and fevers generally. The paper on which
the word was written had to be folded in the form of a cross,
suspended from the neck by a strip of linen so as to rest on the
pit of the stomach, worn in this way for nine days, and then,
before sunrise, cast behind the wearer into a stream running to
the east The letters were usually arranged as a triangle in one
of the following ways:—
ABRACADABRA ABRACADABRA
ABRACADABR BRACADABR
ABRACADAB RACADAB
ABRACADA ACADA
ABRACAD CAD
ABRACA A
ABRAC
ABRA
ABR
AB
A
ABRAHAM, or Absam (Hebrew for " father is high "), the
ancestor of the Israelites, the first of the great Biblical patri-
archs. His life as narrated in the book of Genesis reflects the
traditions of different ages. It is the latest writer (P) who men-
7°
ABRAHAM
tions Abram (the original form of the name), Nahor and Haran,
sons of Terah, at the close of a genealogy of the sons of Shem,
which includes among its members Eber the eponym of the
Hebrews. Terah is said to have come from Ur of the Chaldees,
usually identified with Mukayyar in south Babylonia. He
migrated to Haran 1 in Mesopotamia, apparently the classical
Carrhae, on a branch of the Habor. Thence, after a short stay,
Abram with his wife Sarai, and Lot the son of Haran, and all
their followers, departed for Canaan The oldest tradition does
not know of this twofold move, and seems to locate AbramS
birthplace and the homes of his kindred at Haran (Gen. xxiv.
4, 7, xxvii. 43). At the divine command, and encouraged by the
promise that Yahweh would make of him, although hitherto
childless, a great nation, be journeyed down to Shechem, and at
the sacred tree (cf. xxxv. 4, Josh. sriv. 26, Judg ix. 6) received
a new promise that the land would be given unto his seed.
Having built an altar to commemorate the theophany, he
removed to a spot between Bethel and Ai, where he built another
altar and called upon (i.e. invoked) the name of Yahweh (Gen.
xii. 1-9). Here he dwelt for some time, until strife arose between
his herdsmen and those of Lot. Abram thereupon proposed to
Lot that they should separate, and allowed his nephew the
first choice. Lot preferred the fertile land lying east of the
Jordan, whilst Abram, after receiving another promise from
Yahweh, moved down to the oaks of Manure in Hebron and built
an altar. In the subsequent history of Lot and the destruction
of Sodom and Gomorrah, Abram appears prominently in a fine
passage where he intercedes with Yahweh on behalf of Sodom,
and is promised that if ten righteous men can be found therein
the city shall be preserved (xviii. 16-33).
A peculiar passage, more valuable for the light it throws
upon primitive ideas than for its contribution to the history
of Abram, narrates the patriarch's visit to Egypt Driven by
a famine to take refuge in Egypt (cf. xxvi. 1, xli. 57, xiii. 1),
he feared lest his wife's beauty should arouse the evil designs
of the Egyptians and thus endanger his own safety, and alleged
that Sarai was his sister. This did not save her from the Pharaoh,
who took her into the royal harem and enriched Abram with
herds and servants. But when Yahweh "plagued Pharaoh and
his house with great plagues" suspicion was aroused, and the
Pharaoh rebuked the patriarch for his deceit and sent him away
under an escort (xii. xo-xiii. 1). This story of Abram and his
increased wealth (xiii. 2) receives no comment at the hands of
the narrator, and in its present position would make Sarai over
sixty years of age (xii. 4, xvii. 1, 17). A similar experience is
said to have happened to Abraham and Sarah at Gerar with the
Philistine king Abimelech (xx. E), but the tone of the narrative
is noticeably more advanced, and the presents which the patri-
arch receives are compensation for the king's offence. Here,
however, Sarah has reached her ninetieth year (xvii. 17). (The
dates are due to the post-exilic framework in which the stories
are inserted.) Still another episode of the same nature is re-
corded of Isaac and Rebekah at Gerar, also with Abimelech.
Ethically it is the loftiest, and Isaac obtains his wealth simply
through his successful farming. Arising out of the incident is
an account of a covenant between Abimelech and Isaac (xxvi.
16-33, J), a duplicate of which is placed in the time of Abraham
(xxi. 22-34, J and E). Beersheba, which figures in both, is cele-
brated by the planting of a sacred tree and (like Bethel) by the
invocation of the name of Yahweh. This district is the scene
of the birth of Ishmael and Isaac. As Sarai was barren (cf.
xi. 30)* the promise that his seed should possess the land seemed
incapable of fulfilment According to one rather obscure narra-
tive, Abram's sole heir was the servant, who was over his
household, apparently a certain Eliezer of Damascus 4 (xv. a,
1 The name is not spelt with the same guttural as Haran the son
of Terah.
* Barrenness is a motif which recurs in the stories of Rebekah,
Rachel, the mother of Samson, and Hannah (Gen. xxv. ai, xxix. 31 ;
Judg. xiii. a; 1 Sam. i. 5).
'Abram's connexion with Damascus is supplemented in the
traditions of Nicolaus of Damascus as cited by Josephus (Antiq.
t. 7. *)•
the text is corrupt). He is now promised as heir one of his own
flesh, and a remarkable and solemn passage records how the
promise was ratified by a covenant. The description is particu-
larly noteworthy for the sudden appearance of birds of prey,
which attempted to carry off the victims of the sacrificial cove-
nant. The interpretation of the evil omen is explained by an
allusion to the bondage of the Israelites in Egypt and their
return in the fourth generation (xv. 16; contrast v. 13, after four
hundred years; the chapter is extremely intricate and has the
appearance of being of secondary origin). The main narrative
now relates how Sarai, in accordance with custom, gave to
Abram her Egyptian handmaid Hagar, who, when she found she
was with child, presumed upon her position to the extent that
Sarai, unable to endure the reproach of barrenness (cf. the story
of Hannah, 1 Sam. i. 6), dealt harshly with her and forced her to
flee (xvi. 1-14, J; on the details see Ishmael). Another tradi-
tion places the expulsion of Hagar after the birth of Isaac. It
was thirteen years after the birth of Ishmael, according to the
latest narratives, that God appeared unto Abram with a renewed
promise that his posterity should inhabit the land. To mark the
solemnity of the occasion, the patriarch's name was changed to
Abraham, and that of his wife to Sarah. 4 A covenant was
concluded with him for all time, and as a sign thereof the rite of
circumcision was instituted (xvii P). The promise of a son to
Sarah made Abraham "laugh", a punning allusion to the name
Isaac (q.v.) which appears again in other forms. Thus, it is
Sarah herself who "laughs" at the idea, when Yahweh appears
to Abraham at Mamre (xviii. 1-15, J), or who, when the child is
born cries " God hath made me laugh; every one that heareth
will laugh at me" (xxi. 6, E). Finally, there is yet another
story which attributes the flight of Hagar and Ishmael to Sarah's
jealousy at the sight of Ishmael's "mocking" (rather dancing
or playing, the intensive form of the verb "to laugh") on the
feast day when Isaac was weaned (xxi. 8 sqq.). But this last
story is clearly out of place, since a child who was then fourteen
• years old (cf. xvii. 24, xxi. 5) could scarcely be described as a weak
babe who had to be carried (xxi. 14; see the commentaries).
Abraham was now commanded by God to offer up Isaac in
the land of Moriah. Proceeding to obey, he was prevented by
an angel as he was about to sacrifice his son, and slew a ram
which he found on the spot. As a reward for his obedience he
received another promise of a numerous seed and abundant
prosperity (xxii. E). Thence he returned to Beersheba. The
story is one of the few told by E, and significantly teaches that
human sacrifice was not required by the Almighty (cf. Mic.
vi. 7 seq.). The interest of the narrative now extends to Isaac
alone. To his "only son" (cp. xxii. a, 12) Abraham gave all
he had, and dismissed the sons of his concubines to the lands
outside Palestine; they were thus regarded as less intimately
related to Isaac and his descendants (xxv. 1-4, 6). The measures
taken by the patriarch for the marriage of Isaac are circum-
stantially described. His head-servant was sent to his master's
country and kindred to find a suitable bride, and the necessary
preparation for the story is contained in the description of
Nahor's family (xxii. 20-24). The picturesque account of the
meeting with Rebekah throws interesting light on oriental
custom. Marriage with one's own folk (cf. Gen. xxviL 46,
xxix. 19; Judg. xiv. 3), and especially with a cousin, is recom-
mended now even as in the past For its charm the story is
comparable with the account of Jacob's experiences in the same
land (xxix.). For the completion of the history of Abraham
the compiler of Genesis has used P's narrative. Sarah is said
to have died at a good old age, and was buried in the cave of
Machpelah near Hebron, which the patriarch had purchased,
with the adjoining field, from Ephron the Hittite (xxiii.) ; and here
he himself was buried. Centuries later the tomb became a place
of pilgrimage and the traditional site is marked by a fine mosque. •
4 Abram (or Abiram) is a familiar and old-attested name meaning
"(my) father is exalted "; the meaning of Abraham is obscure
and the explanation Gen. xvii. 5 is mere word-play. It is possible
that rikim was originally only a dialectical form 01 rdm.
■See Sir Charles Warren's description. Hastings Dki. BibU,
vol. lit. pp. 200 seq. . The so-called Babylonian colouring of Gen.
ABRAHAM
7*
The story of Abraham is of greater value for the study of Old
Testament theology than for the history of Israel. He became
to the Hebrews the embodiment of their ideals, and stood at
their head as the founder of the nation, the one to whom Yahweh
had manifested his love by frequent promises and covenants.
From the time when he was bidden to leave bis country to enter
the unknown land, Yahweh was ever present to encourage him
to trust in the future when his posterity should possess the land,
and so, in its bitterest hours, Israel could turn for consolation
to the promises of the past which enshrined in Abraham its
hopes for the future. Not only is Abraham the founder of
religion, but he, of all the patriarchal figures, stands out most
prominently as the recipient of the promises (xiL 2 seq. 7, xiii.
14-17, zv., zviL, zviiL 17-19, xzii. 17 seq.; cf. xxiv. 7), and these
the apostle Paul associates with the coming of Christ, and,
adopting a characteristic and artificial style of interpretation
prevalent in his time, endeavours to force a Messianic interpre-
tation out of them, 1
For the history of the Hebrews the life of Abraham is of the
same value as other stories of traditional ancestors. The narra-
tives, viewed dispassionately, represent him as an idealized
sheikh (with one important exception, Gen. xiv., see below),
about whose person a number of stories have gathered. As the
father of Isaac and Ishmael, he is ultimately the common an-
cestor of the Israelites and their nomadic fierce neighbours, men
roving unrestrainedly like the wild ass, troubled by and troubling
every one (xvL 12). As the father of Midian, Sheba and other
Arabian tribes (xxv. 1-4), it is evident that some degree of
kinship was felt by the Hebrews with the dwellers of the more
distant south, and it is characteristic of the genealogies that the
mothers (Sarah, Hagar and Keturah) are in the descending
scale as regards purity of blood. This great ancestral figure
came, it was said, from Ur in Babylonia and Haran and thence
to Canaan. Late tradition supposed that the migration was
to escape Babylonian idolatry (Judith v., Jubilees xii.j cf.
Josh. xxiv. a), and knew of Abraham's miraculous escape from
death (an obscure reference to some act of deliverance in Is.
nix, 22). The route along the banks of the Euphrates from
south to north was so frequently taken by migrating tribes that
the tradition has nothing improbable in itself, but the prominence
given in the older narratives to the view that Haran was the
home gives this the preference. It was thence that Jacob, the
lather of the tribes of Israel, came and the route to S bee hem
and Bethel b precisely the same in both. A twofold migration
b doubtful, and, from what is known of the situation in Palestine
in the 15th century b.c, is extremely improbable. Further,
there is yet another parallel in the story of the conquest by
Joshua (f.*.), partly implied and partly actually detailed (cf.
aho Josh. vm. 9 with Gen. xiL 8, xiii. 3), whence it would appear
that too much importance must not be Laid upon any ethnological
interpretation which fails to account for the three versions.
That similar traditional elements have influenced them is not
aniikdy; but to recover the true historical foundation is
difficult The invasion or immigration of certain tribes from
tie east of the Jordan; the presence of Aramaean blood among
the Israelites (see Jacob) ; the origin of the sanctity of venerable
sites,— these and other consideratons may readily be found to
account for the traditions. Noteworthy coincidences in the
fives of Abraham and Isaac, noticed above, point to the fluctu-
ating state of traditions in the oral stage, or suggest that Abra-
ham's hie has been built up by borrowing from the common
stock of popular lore. 1 More original is the parting of Lot and
Abraham at Bethel. The district was the scene of contests
between Moab and the Hebrews (cf. perhaps Judg. iii.),
sad if this explains part of the story, the physical configura-
tion of the Dead Sea may have led to the legend of the
afi, has been much exaggerated; see & R. Driver, Genesis, ad loc;
S. A Cook. Laws of Moses, p. ao8.
* See H. St. J. Thackeray. Relation of St Paul to Contemporary
•tois* Thouikt. p. 69 aeq. (1900).
*0a the other hand, the coincidence* in xx. sad. are due to E.
yao is aho the author of xxti. Apart from these the narratives of
Abraham are from J and P.
destruction of inhospitable and vicious cities (see Sodom and
Gomorrah).
Different writers have regarded the life of Abraham differently.
He has been viewed as a chieftain of the Amorites (f.v.), as the
head of a great Semitic migration from Mesopotamia; or, since
Ur and Haran were seats of Moon-worship, he has been identi-
fied with a moon-god. From the character of the literary evi-
dence and the locale of the stories it has been held that Abraham
was originally associated with Hebron. The double name Abram-
Abraham has even suggested that two personages have been
combined in the Biblical narrative; although this does not
explain the change from Sarai to Sarah. 4 But it is important
to remember that the narratives are not contemporary, and
that the interesting discovery of the name Abi-ramu (Abram) on
Babylonian contracts of about 2000 B.C. does not prove the
Abram of the Old Testament to be an historical person, even as
the fact that there were " Amorites " in Babylonia at the same
period does not make it certain that the patriarch was one of
their number. One remarkable chapter associates Abraham
with kings of Elam and the east (Gen. xiv.). No longer a
peaceful sheikh but a warrior with a small army of 318 followers, 4
he overthrows a combination of powerful monarchs who have
ravaged the land. The genuineness of the narrative has been
strenuously maintained, although upon insufficient grounds.
"It is generally recognized that this chapter holds quite an
isolated place in the Pentateuchal history; it is the only passage
which presents Abraham in the character of a warrior, and connects
him with historical nnme» and political movements, and there are
no dear marks by which it can be assigned to any one of the docu-
ments of 'which Genesis 1= made up. Thus, while one school of
interpreters finds in the chapter the earliest fragment of the political
history of western Asia, same even holding with Ewald that the
narrative is probably based on old Canaanite records, other critics,
as Nftldcke. regard the whole as unhistorical and comparatively
late in origin. On the latter view, which finds its main support
in the intrinsic difficulties of the narrative, it is scarcely possible
to avoid the conclusion that the chapter is one of the latest additions
to the Pentateuch (Wdlhau en and many others)." *
On the assumption that a recollection of some invasion in
remote days may have been current, considerable interest is
attached to the names. Of these, Amraphel, king of Shinar
(i.e. Babylonia, Gen. x. 10), has been identified with Kham-
murabi, one of the greatest of the Babylonian kings (c. 2000
B.C.), and since he claims to have ruled as far west as the
Mediterranean Sea, the equation has found considerable favour.
Apart from chronological difficulties, the identification of the
king and his country is far from certain, and at the most can
only be regarded as possible. Arioch, king of Ellasar, has been
connected with Eriaku of Larsa — the reading has been ques-
tioned — a contemporary with Khammurabi. Chedorlaomer,
king of Elam, bears what is doubtless a genuine Elamite name.
Finally, the name of Tid'al, king of Goiim, may be identical
with a certain Tudhulu the son of Gazza, a warrior, but appar-
ently not a king, who is mentioned in a Babylonian inscription,
and Goiim may stand for Gutim, the Guti being a people who
lived to the east of Kurdistan. Nevertheless, there is as yet no
monumental evidence in favour of the genuineness of the story,
and at the most it can only be said that the author (of what-
ever date) has derived his names from a trustworthy source,
and in representing an invasion of Palestine by Babylonian
overlords has given expression to a possible situation.* The
improbabilities and internal difficulties of the narrative remain
* According to Breasted (Amer. Journ. of Sem. Lit., 1904, p. 36),
the "field ol Abram " occurs among the places mentioned in the
list of the Egyptian king Shishak (No. 71-2) in the loth century.
See also his History of Egypt, p. 530.
4 The number is precisely that of the total numerical value of the
consonants of the name "Eliezer " (Gen. xv. 2) ; an astral signi-
fication has also been found.
* W. R. Smith. Ency. Brit. (9th eq\. 1883). art. " Mclchiaedek."
* That the names may be those of historical personages is no proof
of historical accuracy: "We cannot therefore conclude that the
whole account is accurate history, any more than we can argue
that Sir Walter Scott's A nne of Ceierstein is throughout a correct
account of actual events because we know that Charles the Bold and
Margaret of Anjou were real people" (W. H. Bennett, Century
Bible: Genesis, p. 186).
72
ABRAHAM— ABRUZZ1
untouched, only the bare outlines may very well be historical.
If. as most critics agree, it is a historical romance (cf., e.g., the
book of Judith), it is possible that a writer, preferably one who
lived in the post-exilic age and was acquainted with Babylonian
history, desired to enhance the greatness of Abraham by exhibit-
ing his military success against the monarch* of the Tigris and
Euphrates, the high esteem he enjoyed in Palestine and his
lofty character as displayed in his interview with Melchuedek.
See further. Pinches, Old Test, in Light of Hist. Records, pp. 208-
236; Driver, Genesis, p. xlix.,-and notes on ch. xiv.; Addis, Docu-
ments of the Hexattuck, ii. pp. 208-213; Carpenter and Harford
Battersby, The Hexattuck, i.'pp. 157-15?. 168; Bezold. Bab^Assyr.
Keilinsckriften, pp. 24 sqq., 54 sqq.; A.
LichJe d. Alien Orient**,
24 sqq., 54 sqq.; A. leremias, Altes Test, im
entr n , pp. 343 «eq.; alio the literature to the
art. Genesis. Many fanciful legend* about Abraham founded on
Biblical accounts orspun out of the fancy are to be found in Jose phus,
and in post-Biblical and Mahommcdan literature; for these, re-
ference may be made to Beer, Leben Abrahams (1859); Grun-
baum. Neue Beitrdge a, stmil. Sagenkunde, pp. 89 seq. (1893); the
apocryphal "Testament of Abraham" (M. R. James in Texts
end Studies, 1892); W. Tisdall, Original Sources of the Quran,
passim (1905). (S. A. C.)
ABRAHAM A SANCTA CLARA (1644-1700), Austrian divine,
was born at Kreenheinstetten, near Messkirch, in July 1644.
His real name was Ulrica Megerle. In 1662 he joined the order
of Barefooted Augustinians, and assumed the name by which be
is known. In this order he rose step by step until he became
prior provincialis and definitor of his province. Having early
gained a great reputation for pulpit eloquence, he was appointed
court preacher at Vienna in 1669. The people flocked to hear
him, attracted by the force and homeliness of his language,
the grotesqueness of his humour, and the impartial severity
with which he lashed the follies of all classes of society and of
the court in particular. In general he spoke as a man of the
people, the predominating quality of his style being an over-
flowing and often coarse wit. There are, however, many pass-
ages in his sermons in which he rises to loftier thought and
uses more dignified language. He died at Vienna on the 1st of
December 1709. In his published writings be displayed much
the same qualities as in the pulpit. Perhaps the most favourable
specimen of his style is his didactic novel entitled Judas der
Enscheim (4 vols., Salzburg, 1686-1695).
His works have been several times reproduced in whole or in part,
though with many spurious interpolations. The best edition is
that published in 21 vols, at Passau and Lindau (1835-1854). See
Th. G. von Kara jan, Abraham a Sancta Clara (Vienna, 1867);
Bbnckenburg, Studien uber die Sprache Abrahams a S. C. (Halle.
1897); Sexto. Abraham a S. C. (Sigmarineen, 1896); Schnell,
Pater A.oS.C. (Munich, 1895) ; H. Mareta, Uber Judas d. Enscheim
(Vienna. 1875).
ABRAHAM IBM DAUD (c. 1110-1180), Jewish historiographer
and philosopher of Toledo. His historical work was the Booh of
Tradition (Sepher Haqabala), a chronicle down to the year 1 161.
This was a defence of the traditional record, and also contains
valuable information for the medieval period. It was translated
into Latin by Genebrad (1 519). His philosophy was expounded
in an Arabic work belter known under its Hebrew title 'Emunah
Ramak (Sublime Faith). This was translated into German by
Weil (1882). Ibn Daud was one of the first Jewish scholastics to
adopt the Aristotelian system; his predecessors were mostly
neo-Platonists. Maimonides owed a good deal to him.
ABRAHAMITBS, a sect of deists in Bohemia in the 18th
century, who professed to be followers of the pre-drcumdsed
Abraham. Believing in one God, they contented themselves
with the Decalogue and the Paternoster. Declining to be classed
either as Christians or Jews, they were excluded from the edict
of toleration promulgated by the emperor Joseph II. in 1781,
and deported to various parts of the country, the men being
drafted into frontier regiments. Some became Roman Catholics,
and those who retained their " Abrahamite " views were not
able to hand them on to the next generation.
ABRAHAM-MEN, the nickname for vagrants who infested
England in Tudor times. The phrase is certainly as old as 1 561 ,
and was due to these beggars pretending that they were patients
discharged from the Abraham ward at Bedlam. The genuine
Bedlamite was allowed to roam the country on his discharge,
soliciting alms, provided he wore a badge. This humane privi-
lege was grossly abused, and thus gave rise to the slang phrase
" to sham Abraham."
ABRANTES, a town of central Portugal, in the district of
Santarem, formerly included in the province of Estremadura;
on the right bank of the river Tagus, at the junction of the
Madrid-Badajoz-Lisbon railway with the Guarda-Abrantcs
line. Pop. (1000) 7255. Abrantes, which occupies the crest of
a hill covered with olive woods, gardens and vines, is a fortified
town, with a thriving trade in fruit, olive oil and grain. As it
commands the highway down the Tagus valley to Lisbon, it
has usually been regarded as an important military position.
Originally an Iberian settlement, founded about 300 B.C., it
received the name Aurantes from the Romans; perhaps owing
to the alluvial gold (aurum) found along the Tagus. Roman
mosaics, coins, the remains of an aqueduct, and other antiquities
have been discovered in the neighbourhood. Abrantes was cap-
tured on the 24th of November 1807 by the. French under
General Junot, who for this achievement was created duke of
Abrantes. By the Convention of Cintra (22nd of August 1808)
the town was restored to the British and Portuguese.
ABRASION (from Lat. ab, off, and rodere, to scrape), the
process of rubbing off or wearing down, as of rock by moving
ice, or of coins by wear and tear; also used of the results of
such a process as an abrasion or excoriation of the skin. In
machinery, abrasion between moving surfaces has to be prevented
as much as possible by the use of suitable materials, good fitting
and lubrication. Engineers and other craftsmen make extensive
use of abrasion, effected by the aid of such abrasives as emery
and carborundum, in shaping, finishing and polishing their
work.
ABRAUM SALTS (from the German Abraum-sdxe, salts to be
removed), the name given to a mixed deposit of salts, including
halite, carnalu'te, kieserite, &c. v found in association with rock-
salt at Stassfurt in Prussia.
ABRAXAS, or Abeasax, a word engraved on certain antique
stones, called on that account Abraxas stones , which were used
as amulets or charms. The Basilidians, a Gnostic sect, attached
importance to the word, if, indeed, they did not bring it into use.
The letters of a/3pa{af ,in the Greek notation,make up the number
365, and the Basilidians gave the name to the 365 orders of
spirits which, as they conceived, emanated in succession from
the Supreme Being. These orders were supposed to occupy
365 heavens, each fashioned like, but inferior to that above it;
and the lowest of the heavens was thought to be the abode of
the spirits who formed the earth and its inhabitants, and to
whom was committed the administration of its affairs. Abraxas
stones are of very little value. In addition to the word Abraxas
and other mystical characters, they have often cabalistic figures
engraved on them. The commonest of these have the head of a
fowl, and the arms and bust of a man, and terminate in the
body and tail of a serpent.
ABROGATION (Lat. abrogare, to repeal or annul a law;
rogare, literally " to ask," to propose a law), the annulling
or repealing of a law by legislative action. Abrogation,
which is the total annulling of a law, is to be distinguished
from the term derogation, which is used where a law is only
partially abrogated. Abrogation may be either express or
implied. It is express either when the new law pronounces the
annulment in general terms, as when in a concluding section it
announces that all laws contrary to the provisions of the new
one are repealed, or when in particular terms it announces
specifically the preceding laws which it repeals. It is implied
when the new law contains provisions which are positively
contrary to the former laws without expressly abrogating
those laws, or when the condition of things for which the law
had provided has changed and consequently the need for the
law no longer exists. The abrogation of any statute revives
the provisions of the common law which had been abrogated
by that statute. See Statute; Repeal.
ABRUZZI B MOUSE, a group of provinces (comportimento) of
Southern Italy, bounded N. by the province of Ascoli, N.W. and
ABSALOM — ABSALON
73
W. by Perugia, S.W. by Rome and'Caserta, S. by Bcnevento,
E. by Foggia and N.E. by the Adriatic Sea, It comprises the
provinces of Teramo (population in iooi, 307,444X1 Aquila
(336,679), Chicti (370.907) and Campobasso (366,571), which,
asder ihe kingdom of Naples, respectively bore the names
Abruzzo Ulteriore I.. Abruzzo Ulteriore II., Abruzzo Cite no re
[ihc reference being to their distance from the capital) and
Mo&se. The total area is 6567 sq. m. and the population (iooi)
1.441,551. The district is mainly mountainous in the interior,
indoding as it does the central portion of the whole system of
the Apennines and their culminating point, the Gran Sasso
i' Italia. Towards the sea the elevation is less considerable,
the aiUs consisting mainly of somewhat unstable day and sand,
bat the zone of level ground along the coast is quite inconsider-
able. The coast line itself, though over 100 miles in length,
tots not a single harbour of importance. The climate varies
considerably with the altitude, the highest peaks being covered
with snow for the greater part of the year, while the valleys
naming N.E. towards the sea are fertile and well watered by
icvera! small rivers, the chief of which are the Tronto, Vomano,
Pescara, Sangro, Trigno and Biferno. These are fed by less
important streams, such as the Aterno and Gizio, which water
the vaUeys between the main chains of the Apennines. They
are liable to be suddenly swollen by rains, and floods and land-
slips often cause considerable damage. This danger has been
isoesscd, at elsewhere in Italy, by indiscriminate timber-felling
oa the higher mountains without provision for re-afforestation,
though considerable oak, beech, elm and pine forests still exist
ind are the home of wolves, wild boars and even bears. They
ako afford feeding-ground for large herds of swine, and the hams
acd sausages of the Abruzzi enjoy a high reputation. The
rearing of cattle and sheep was at one time the chief occupation
of the inhabitants, and many of them still drive their flocks
down to the Campagna di Roma for the winter months and
back again in the summer, but more attention is now devoted
10 cultivation. This flourishes especially in the valleys and in
the now drained bed of the Lago Fucino. The industries are
various, but none of them is of great importance. Arms and
cillery are produced at Campobasso and Agnone. At the
exhibition of Abruazese art, held at Chieti in 1005, fine specimens
of gokxsmiths* work of the 15th and x6th centuries, of majolica
of the 17th and 18th centuries, and of tapestries and laces
were brought together; and the reproduction of some of these
is sull carried on, the small town of Castclli being the centre of
the manufacture. The river Pescara and its tributary the
TirJBO form an important source of power for generating elec-
tricity. The chief towns are (x) Teramo, Atri, Campli, Penne,
CtstcQainmare Adriatico; (2) Aquila, Avezzano, Celano, Taglia-
cozBO, Sulmona, (3) Chieti, lanciano, Ortona, Vasto; (4)
Campobasso, Agnone, Iscrnia. Owing to the nature of the
oxnatry, communications are not easy. Railways are (1) the
coast railway (a part of the Bologna-Gallipoli line), with branches
fcom Giuhanova to Teramo and from Termoli to Campobasso;
(s) a line diverging S.E. from this at Pescara and running via
Sabnona (whence there are branches via Aquila and Rieti to
Tend, and via Carpinone to (a) Iscrnia and Caianello, on the line
from Rome to Naples, and (6) Campobasso and Benevento),
tod Avezzano (whence there is a branch to Roccasecca) to
The name Abruzzi is conjectured to be a medieval corruption
«f PraetatrJL The district was, in Lombard times, part of the
dnchy of Spokto, and, under the Normans, a part of that of
Apnea; it was first formed into a single province in 1240 by
Frederick IL, who placed the Justiciarius Aprulii at Solmona
aod bonded the city of Aquila. After the Hohenstauffen lost
their Italian dominions, the Abruzzi became a province of the
Asgevia kingdom of Naples, to which it was of great strategic
HBportaace, The division into three parts was not made until
the 17th century. The Molise, on the other hand, formed part
of the Lombard duchy of Benevento, and was placed under the
Suaciorix* of Terra di Lavoro by Frederick II. : after various
changes it became part of the Capitanata, and was only formed
into an independent province in 181 x. The people are remark-
ably conservative in beliefs, superstitions and traditions.
See V Bindi, MonumaUi storici ed artistici dtili Abruzzi (Naples,
1889). A. de Nino, Un costumi Abruiztsi (Florence, 1879-1883}.
ABSALOM (Hebrew for " father of [or is] peace "), in the
Bible, the third son of David, king of Israel. He was deemed
the handsomest man in the kingdom. His sister Tamar having
been violated by David's eldest son Aranon, Absalom, after
waiting two years, caused his servants to murder Amnon at a
feast to which he had invited all the king's sons (2 Sam. ziii.)
After this deed he fled to Talmai, " king " of Geshur (see Josh,
xii. s or ziii. 2), his maternal grandfather, and it was not until
five years later that he was fully reinstated in his father's favour
(see Joab). Four years after this he raised a revolt at Hebron,
the former capital. Absalom was now the eldest surviving son
of David, and the present position of the narratives (xv.-xx.) —
after the birth of Solomon and before the struggle between
Solomon and Adonijah — may represent the view that the
suspicion that he was not the destined heir of his father's throne
excited the impulsive youth to rebellion. All Israel and Judah
flocked to his side, and David, attended only by the Cherethites
and Pelcthites and some recent recruits from Gath, found it
expedient to flee. The priests remained behind in Jerusalem,
and their sons Jonathan and Ahimaaz served as his spies.
Absalom reached the capital and took counsel with the renowned
AhithopheL The pursuit was continued and David took refuge
beyond the Jordan. A battle was fought in the "wood of
Ephraim " (the name suggests a locality west of the Jordan)
and Absalom's army was completely routed. He himself was
caught In the boughs of an oak-tree, and as David had strictly
charged his men to deal gently with the young man, Joab was
informed. What a common soldier refused to do even for a
thousand shekels of silver, the king's general at once undertook.
Joab thrust three spears through the heart of Absalom as he
struggled in the branches, and as though this were not enough,
his ten armour-bearers came around and slew him. The king's
overwhelming grief is well known. A great heap of stones was
erected where he fell, whilst another monument near Jerusalem
(not the modern " Absalom's Tomb," which is of later origin)
he himself had erected in his lifetime to perpetuate his name
(2 Sam. xviii. 17 seq.). But the latter notice does not seem to
agree with xiv. 27 (cf. 1 Kings xv. 2). On the narratives in
2 Sam. xiii.-xix. f see further David; Samuel, Books or
ABSALON (c. 1x28-1201), Danish archbishop and statesman,
was born about 11 28, the son of Asset Rig of Fjenneslev, at
whose castle he and his brother EsbjOra were brought up along
with the young prince Valdemar, afterwards Valdemar I. The
Rigs were as pious and enlightened as they were rich. They
founded the monastery of Sord as a civilizing centre, and after
giving Absalon the rudiments of a sound education at home,
which included not only book-lore but every manly and martial
exercise, they sent him to the university of Paris. Absalon first
appears in Saxo's Chronicle as a fellow-guest at Roskilde, at the
banquet given, in 1 157, by King Sweyn to his rivals Canute and
Valdemar. Both Absalon and Valdemar narrowly escaped as-
sassination at the hands of their treacherous host on this occa-
sion, but at length escaped to Jutland, whither Sweyn followed
them, but was defeated and slain at the battle of Grathe Heath.
The same year (1158) which saw Valdemar ascend the Danish
throne saw Absalon elected bishop of Roskilde. Henceforth
Absalon was the chief counsellor of Valdemar, and the promoter
of that imperial policy which, for three generations, was to give
Denmark the dominion of the Baltic Briefly, it was Absalon 's
intention to clear the northern sea of the Wendish pirates, who
inhabited that portion of the Baltic littoral which we now call
Pomerania, and ravaged the Danish coasts so unmercifully that
at the accession of Valdemar one-third of the realm of Denmark
lay wasted and depopulated. The very existence of Denmark
demanded the suppression and conversion of these stiff-necked
pagan freebooters, and to this double task Absalon devoted the
best part of his life. The first expedition against the Wends,
conducted by Absalon in person, set out in 1x60, but it was not
7+
ABSCESS— ABSENCE
till 1 168 that the chief Wendish fortress, at Arkona in RQgen,
containing the sanctuary of their god Svantevit, was surrendered,
the Wends agreeing to accept Danish suzerainty and the Christian
religion at the same time. From Arkona Absalon proceeded by
sea to Garz, in south Rugcn, the political capital of the Wends,
and an all but impregnable stronghold. But the unexpected
fall of Arkona had terrified the garrison, which surrendered
unconditionally at the first appearance of the Danish ships.
Absalon, with only Sweyn, bishop of Aarhus, and twelve " house-
carls," thereupon disembarked, passed between a double row of
Wendish warriors, 6000 strong, along the narrow path winding
among the morasses, to the gates of the fortress, and, proceeding
to the temple of the seven-headed god Rilgievit, caused the idol
to be hewn down, dragged forth and burnt. The whole popula-
tion of Garz was then baptized, and Absalon laid the foundations
of twelve churches in the isle of Rugen. The destruction of
this chief sally-port of the Wendish pirates enabled Absalon
considerably to reduce the Danish fleet But he continued to
keep a watchful eye over the Baltic, and in 11 70 destroyed
another pirate stronghold, farther eastward, at Dievenow on
the isle of Wollin. Absalon's last military exploit was the
annihilation, off Strda (Stralsund), on Whit-Sunday 11 84, of a
Pomeranian fleet which had attacked Denmark's vassal, Jaromir
of Rugcn. He was now but fifty-seven, but his strenuous life
had aged him, and he was content to resign the command of
fleets and armies to younger men, like Duke Valdemar, after-
wards Valdemar II., and to confine himself to the administration
of the empire which his genius had created. In this sphere
Absalon proved himself equally great. The aim of his policy
was to free Denmark from the German yoke. It was contrary
to his advice and warnings that Valdemar I. rendered fealty to
the emperor Frederick Barbarossa at Dole in 1162; and when,
on the accession of Canute V. in 1182, an imperial ambassador
arrived at Roskilde to receive the homage of the new king,
Absalon resolutely withstood him. " Return to the emperor,"
cried he, " and te[l him that the king of Denmark will in no wise
show him obedience or do him homage." As the archpastor of
Denmark Absalon also rendered his country inestimable services,
building churches and monasteries, introducing the religious
orders, founding schools and doing his utmost to promote
civilization and enlightenment. It was he who held the first
Danish Synod at Lund in 1167. In 11 78 he became archbishop
of Lund, but very unwillingly, only the threat of excommunica-
tion from the holy see finally inducing him to accept the pallium.
Absalon died on the 21st of March 1 201, at the family monastery
of Sord, which he himself had richly embellished and endowed.
Absalon remains one of the most striking and picturesque
figures of the Middle Ages, and was equally great as churchman,
statesman and warrior. That he enjoyed warfare there can be
no doubt; and his splendid physique and early training had well
fitted him for martial exercises. He was the best rider in the
army and the best swimmer in the fleet. Yet he was not like
the ordinary fighting bishops of the Middle Ages, whose sole
concession to their sacred calling was to avoid the " shedding of
blood " by using a mace in battle instead of a sword. Absalon
never neglected his ecclesiastical duties, and even his wars were
of the nature of crusades. Moreover, all his martial energy
notwithstanding, his personality must have been singularly
winning; for it is said of him that he left behind not a single
enemy, all his opponents having long since been converted by
him into friends.
See Saxo, Cesta Danorum, ed. Holder (Strassburg, 1886), books x.-
xvi. ; Steinstrup, Denmark's Rites Historic. OltUidtn 01 den aldre
Middelalder, pp. 570-735 (Copenhagen, 1897-1905). (R. N. B.)
ABSCESS (from Lat abscedere, to separate), in pathology, a
collection of pus among the tissues of the body, the result of
bacterial inflammation. Without the presence of septic organ-
isms abscess does not occur. At any rate, every acute abscess
contains septic germs, and these may have reached the inflamed
area by direct infection, or may have been carried thither by
the blood-stream. Previous to the formation of abscess some-
thing has occurred to lower the vitality of the affected tissue —
some gross injury, perchance, or it may be that the power of
resistance against bacillary invasion was lowered by reason of
constitutional weakness. As the result, then, of lowered vitality,
a certain area becomes congested and effusion takes place into
the tissues. This effusion coagulates and a hard, brawny mass
is formed which softens towards the centre. If nothing is done
the softened area increases in size, the skin over it becomes
thinned, loses its vitality (mortifies) and a small " slough " is
formed. When the slough gives way the pus escapes and,
tension being relieved, pain ceases. A local necrosis or death of
tissue takes place at that part of the inflammatory swelling
farthest from, the healthy circulation. When the attack of
septic inflammation is very acute, death of the tissue occurs en
masse, as in the core of a boil or carbuncle. Sometimes, however,
no such mass of dead tissue is to be observed, and all that escapes
when the skin is lanced or gives way is the creamy pus. In the
latter case the tissue has broken down in a molecular form. After
the escape of the core or slough along with a certain amount of
pus, a space, the abscess-cavity, is left, the walls of which are
linea with new vascular tissue which has itself escaped destruc-
tion. This lowly organized material is called granulation tissue,
and exactly resembles the growth which covers the floor of an
ulcer. These granulations eventually fill the contracting cavity
and obliterate it by forming interstitial scar-tissue. This is
called healing by second intention. Pus may accumulate in a
normal cavity, such as a joint or bursa, or in the cranial, thoracic
or abdominal cavity. In all these situations, if the diagnosis
is clear, the principle of treatment is evacuation and drainage.
When evacuating an abscess it is often advisable to scrape away
the lining of unhealthy granulations and to wash out the cavity
with an antiseptic lotion. If the after-drainage of the cavity is
thorough the formation of pus ceases and the watery discharge
from the abscess wall subsides. As the cavity contracts the
discharge becomes less, until at last the drainage tube can be
removed and the external wound allowed to heal. The large
collections of pus which form in connexion with disease of the
spinal column in the cervical, dorsal and lumbar regions are
now treated by free evacuation of the tuberculous pus, with
careful antiseptic measures. The opening should be in as de-
pendent a position as possible in order that the drainage may be
thorough. If tension recurs after opening has been made, as
by the blocking of the tube, or by its imperfect position, or by
its being too short, there is likely to be a fresh formation of pus,
and without delay the whole procedure must be gone through
again- (E. <X # )
ABSCISSA (from the Lat abscissus, cut off), in the Cartesian
system of co-ordinates, the distance of a point from the axis
of y measured parallel to the horizontal axis j.
(axis of x). Thus PS (or OR) is the abscissa «7 . . m •
of P. The word appears for the first time in *" " ~
a Latin work written by Stefano degli Angeli
(1623-1607), a professor of mathematics in
Rome. (See Geometry, § Analytical.)
ABSCISSION (from Lat abscindcrc), a tearing away, or cut-
ting off; a term used sometimes in prosody for the elision of
a vowd before another, and in surgery especially for abscission
of the cornea, or the removal of that portion of the eyeball
situated in front of the attachments of the recti muscles; in
botany, the separation of spores by elimination of the connexion.
ABSCOND (Lat abscondere, to hide, put away), to depart in
a secret manner; in law, to remove from the jurisdiction of the
courts or so to conceal oneself as to avoid their jurisdiction. A
person may " abscond " either for the purpose of avoiding arrest
for a crime (see Arrest), or for a fraudulent purpose, such as
the defrauding of his creditors (see Bankruptcy).
ABSENCE (Lat absentia), the fact of being "away," either
in body or mind; " absence of mind " being a condition in
which the mind is withdrawn from what is passing. The special
occasion roll-call at Eton College is called " Absence,'* which the
boys attend in their tall hats. A soldier must get permission or
" leave of absence " before he can be away from his regiment.
Seven years' absence with no sign of life either* by letter or
ABSENTEEISM— ABSOLUTE
75
message a fadd presumptive evidence of death in the law
ABSEaTDXSM, a term used primarily of landed proprietors
who absent themselves from their estates, and live and spend
their incomes elsewhere; in its more extended meaning it in-
dades all those (in addition to landlords) who live out of a
country or locality but derive their income from some source
within it. Absenteeism is a question which has been much de-
bated, and from both the economic and moral point of view
there is littk doubt that it has a prejudicial effect. To it has
bees attributed in a great measure the unprosperous condition
of the rural districts of France before the Revolution, when
it was unusual for the great nobles to live on their estates unless
compeDed to do so by. a sentence involving their " exile " from
Paris. It has also been an especial evil in Ireland, and many
attempts were made to combat it. Asearly as 1727 a tax of four
shillings in the pound was imposed on all persons holding offices
tod employments in Ireland and residing in England. This tax
was discontinued in 1753, but was re-imposed in 1760. In 1774
the tax was reduced to two shillings in the pound, but was
dropped after some years. It was revived by the Independent
Parliament in 1782 and for some ten years brought in a sub-
stantial amount to the revenue, yielding in 1790 as much as
£6*080.
AtrrnoftiTiES. — For a discussion of absenteeism from the economic
pain! of view see N. W. Senior, Lectures on the Rate of Wages, Political
Economy; J. S Mill. Political Economy; J. R. McCulloch, Treatises
end Essays o» Money, Sfc, article "Absenteeism " ; A. T Hadley,
Economics; 00 absenteeism in Ireland see A. Young, Tour tn
Imani (1780); T. Prior, List of Absentees (1729); E. Wakefield,
Aaennt of Ireland (1812); W. E. H. Lecky, Ireland in the i&th
Centurj (1892); A. E. Murray, History of the Commercial and
Financial Relations between England and Ireland (1903); Parlia-
France contemporaine, Vancien Rigtme (1876).
ABSDTTHE, a liqueur or aromatized spirit, the characteristic
raTOuring matter of which is derived from various species of
wo r m wo o d {A rtemisia absinthium). Among the other substances
generally employed in its manufacture are angelica root, sweet
tag, dittany leaves, star-anise fruit, fennel and hyssop. A
colourless" alcohols te " (see Liqueuks) is first prepared, and to
this the well-known green colour of the beverage is imparted by
maceration with green leaves of wormwood, hyssop and mint.
Inferior varieties are made by means of essences, the distillation
process being omitted. There are two varieties of absinthe, the
French and the Swiss, the latter of which is of a higher alcoholic
strength than the former. The best absinthe contains 70 to 80%
of akohoL It is said to improve very materially by storage.
There is a popular belief to the effect that absinthe is frequently
adulterated with copper, indigo or other dye-stuffs (to impart
the green colour), but, in fact, this is now very rarely the case.
There is some reason to believe that excessive absinthe-drinking
tads to effects which are specifically worse than those assoc-
iated with over-indulgence in other forms of alcohol.
ABSOLUTE (Lat. absolvere, to loose, set free), a term having
the general signification of independent, self-existent, uncondi-
tioned. Thus we speak of " absolute " as opposed to " limited "
or " constitutional " monarchy, or, in common parlance, of an
" absolute failure/ 1 i.e. unrelieved by any satisfactory circum-
stances. In philosophy the word has several technical uses.
(1) In Logic, it has been applied to non-connotative terms which
do not imply attributes (see Connotation), but more commonly,
10 opposition to Relative, to terms which do not imply the exist-
ence of some other (correlative) term; e.g. " father " implies
"son,'* •• tutor " " pupil," and therefore each of these terms is
relative. In fact, however, the distinction is formal, and, though
convenient in the terminology of elementary logic, cannot be
strictly maintained. The term " man," for example, which, as
compared with " father," " son," " tutor," seems to be absolute,
«s obviously relative in other connexions; in various contexts
it implies its various possible opposites, e.g. " woman," " boy,"
" auster," "brute." In other words, every term which is
susceptible of definition is ipsa facto relative, for definition is
precisely the segregation of the thing defined from all other
things which it is not, i.e. implies a relation. Every term which
has a meaning is, therefore, relative, if only to its contradictory.
(2) The term is used in the phrase " absolute knowledge " to
imply knowledge per se. It has been held, however, that, since
all knowledge implies a knowing subject and a known object,
absolute knowledge is a contradiction in terms (see Relativity).
So also Herbert Spencer spoke of "absolute ethics," as opposed
to systems of conduct based on particular local or temporary
laws and conventions (see Ethics).
(3) By far the most important use of the word is in the phrase
" the Absolute " (see Metaphysics). It is sufficient here to
indicate the problems involved in their most elementary form.
The process of knowledge in the sphere of intellect as in that of
natural science is one of generalization, ix. the co-ordination of
particular facts under general statements, or in other words, the
explanation of one fact by another, and that other by a third,
and so on. In this way the particular facts or existences are
left behind in the search for higher, more inclusive conceptions;
as twigs are traced to one branch, and branches to one trunk,
so, it is held, all the plurality of sense-given data is absorbed
in a unity which is all-inclusive and self-existent, and has no
" beyond." By a metaphor this process has been described as
the 606s area (as of tracing a river to its source). Other phrases
from different points of view have been used to describe the
idea, e.g. First Cause, Vital Principle (in connexion with the
origin of life), God (as the author and sum of all being), Unity,
Truth (i.e. the sum and culmination of all knowledge), Causa
Causans,6ic The idea in different senses appears both in ideal-
istic and realistic systems of thought.
The theories of the Absolute may be summarized briefly as
follows. (1) The Absolute does not exist, and is not even in any
real sense thinkable. This view is held by the empiricists, who
bold that nothing is knowable save phenomena. The Absolute
could not be conceived, for all knowledge is susceptible of defini-
tion and, therefore, relative. The Absolute includes the idea of
necessity, which the mind cannot cognize. (2) The Absolute
exists for thought only. In this theory the absolute is the un-
known x which the human mind is logically compelled to postu-
late a priori as the only coherent explanation and justification
of its thought. (3) The Absolute exists but is unthinkable,
because it is an aid to thought which comes into operation, as
it were, as a final explanation beyond which thought cannot go.
Its existence is shown by the fact that without it all demonstra-
tion would be a mere circulus in probando or verbal exercise,
because the existence of separate things implies some one thing
which includes and explains them. (4) The Absolute both exists
and is conceivable. It is argued that we do in fact conceive it
in as much as we do conceive Unity, Being, Truth. The concep-
tion is so clear that its inexplicability (admitted) is of no account.
Further, since the unity of our thought implies the absolute,
and since the existence of things is known only to thought, it
appears absurd that the absolute itself should be regarded as
non-existent The Absolute is substance in itself, the ultimate
basis and matter of existence. All things are merely manifesta-
tions of it, exist in virtue of it, but are not identical with it.
(5) Metaphysical idealists pursue this line of argument in a dif-
ferent way. For them nothing exists save thought; the only
existence that can be predicated of any thing and, therefore, of
the Absolute, is that it is thought. Thought creates God, things,
the Absolute. (6) Finally, it has been held that we can conceive
the Absolute, though our conception is only partial, just as our
conception of all things is limited by the imperfect powers of
human intellect. Thus the Absolute exists for us only in our
thought of it (4 above). But thought itself comes from the
Absolute which, being itself the pure thought of thoughts,
separates from itself individual minds. It is, therefore, perfectly
natural that human thought, being essentially homogeneous
with the Absolute, should be able by the consideration of the
universe to arrive at some imperfect conception ot the source
from which all is derived.
7 6
ABSOLUTION— ABSORPTION OF LIGHT
The whole controversy is obscured by inevitable difficulties
in terminology. The fundamental problem is whether a thing
which is by hypothesis infinite can in any sense be defined, and
if it is not defined, whether it can be said to be cognized or
thought It would appear to be almost an axiom that anything
which by hypothesis transcends the intellect (i.e. by including
subject and object, knowing and known) is ipso facto beyond the
limits of the knower Only an Absolute can cognize an absolute.
ABSOLUTION (Lat. absolulio 'from absoivo, loosen, acquit),
a term used in civil and ecclesiastical law, denoting the act of
setting free or acquitting. In a criminal process it signifies the
acquittal of an accused person on the ground that the evidence
has either disproved or failed to prove the charge brought against
him. In this sense it is now little used, except in Scottish law
in the forms assoiisie and absolvitor. The ecclesiastical use of the
word is essentially different from the civil It refers not to an
accusation, but to sin actually committed (after baptism); and
it denotes the setting of the sinner free from the guilt of the sin,
or from its ecclesiastical penalty (excommunication), or from
both. The authority of the church or minister to pronounce
absolution is based on John xx. 23; Matt xviii. 18; James v. 16,
&c. In primitive times, when confession of sins was made before
the congregation, the absolution was deferred till the penance
was completed; and there is no record of the use of any special
formula. Men were also encouraged, e.g by Chrysostom, to
confess their secret sins secretly to God. In course of time
changes grew up. (1) From the 3rd century onwards, secret
(auricular) confession before a bishop or priest was practised.
For various reasons it became more and more common, until
the fourth Lateran council (12 15) ordered all Christians of the
Roman obedience to make a confession once a year at least. In
the Greek church also private 'confession has become obligatory.
(2) In primitive times the penitent was reconciled by imposition
of hands by the bishop with or without the clergy: gradually
the office was left to be discharged by priests, and the outward
action more and more disused. (3) It became the custom to give
the absolution to penitents immediately after their confession
and before the penance was performed. (4) Until the Middle
Ages the form of absolution after private confession was of the
nature of a prayer, such as " May the Lord absolve thee ";
and this is still the practice of the Greek church. But about the
13th century the Roman formula was altered, and the council
of Trent (1551) declared that the " form " and power of the
sacrament of penance lay in the words Ego It absoivo t &c, and
that the accompanying prayers are not essential to it Of the
three forms of absolution in the Anglican Prayer Book, that in
the Visitation of the Sick (disused in the church of Ireland by
decision of the Synods of 1871 and 1877) runs "I absolve thee',"
tracing the authority so to act through the church up to Christ:
the form in the Communion Service is precative, while that in
Morning and Evening Prayer is indicative indeed, but so general
as not to imply anything like a judicial decree of absolution.
In the Lutheran church also the practice of private confession
survived the Reformation, together with both the exhibitive
(I forgive, &c.) and declaratory (I declare and pronounce) forms
of absolution. In granting absolution, even after general con-
fession, it is in some places still the custom for the minister,
where the numbers permit of it, to lay his hands on the head of
each penitent ( W O. B.)
ABSOLUTISM, in aesthetics, a term applied to the theory that
beauty is an objective attribute of things, not merely a subjec-
tive feeling of pleasure in him who perceives It follows that
there is an absolute standard of the beautiful by which all ob-
jects can be judged. The fact that, in practice, the judgments
even of connoisseurs are perpetually at variance, and that the
so-called criteria of one place or period are more or less opposed
to those of all others, is explained away by the hypothesis that
individuals are differently gifted in respect of the capacity to
appreciate. (See Aesthetics.)
In political philosophy absolutism, as opposed to constitu-
tional government, is the despotic rule of a sovereign unrestrained
by laws and based directly upon force. In the strict sense such
governments are rare, but it is customary to apply the term to a
state at a relatively backward stage of constitutional develop-
ment
ABSORPTION OF LIGHT. The term "absorption" (from
Lat absorbere) means literally " sucking up " or " swallowing/'
and thus a total incorporation in something, literally or figura-
tively, it is technically used in animal physiology for the
function of certain vessels which suck up fluids; and in light
and optics absorption spectrum and absorption band are terms
used in the divimion of the transformation of rays in various
media.
If a luminous body is surrounded by empty space, the light
which it emits suffers no loss of energy as it travels outwards.
The intensity of the light dimini^h^ merely because the total
energy, though unaltered, is distributed over a wider and wider
surface as the rays diverge from the source. To prove this, it
will be sufficient to mention that an exceedingly small deficiency
in the transparency of the free aether would be sufficient to pre-
vent the light of the fixed stars from reaching the earth, since
their distances are so immense. But when light is transmitted
through a material medium, it always suffers some loss, the
light energy being absorbed by the medium, that is, converted
partially or wholly into other forms of energy such as heat,
a portion of which transformed energy may be re-emitted as
radiant energy of a lower frequency. Even the most transparent
bodies known absorb an appreciable portion of the light trans-
mitted through them. Thus the atmosphere absorbs a part of
the sun's rays, and the greater the distance which the rays have
to traverse the greater is the proportion which is absorbed, so
that on this account the sun appears less bright towards sunset
On the other hand, light can penetrate some distance into all
substances, even the most opaque, the absorption being, however,
extremely rapid in the latter case.
The nature of the surface of a body has considerable influence
on its power of absorbing light Platinum black, for instance,
in which the metal is in a state of fine division, absorbs nearly
all the light incident on it, while polished platinum reflects the
greater part In the former case the light penetrating between
the particles is unable to -escape by reflexion, and is finally
absorbed.
The question of absorption may be considered from either of
two points of view. We may treat it as a superficial effect,
especially in the case of bodies which are opaque enough or thick
enough to prevent all transmission of light, and we may investi-
gate how much is reflected at the surface and bow much is ab-
sorbed; or, on the other hand, we may confine our attention
to the light which enters the body and inquire into the relation
between the decay of intensity and the depth of penetration.
We shall take these two cases separately
Absorptive Power. — When none of the radiations which fall on
a body penetrates through its substance, then the ratio of the
amount of radiation of a given wave-length which is absorbed
to the total amount received is called the " absorptive power "
of the body for that wave-length. Thus if the body absorbed
half the incident radiation its absorptive power would be \,
and if it absorbed all the incident radiation its absorptive power
would be 1 A body which absorbs all radiations of all wave-
lengths would be called a "perfectly black body." No such
body actually exists, but such substances as lamp-black and
platinum-black approximately fulfil the condition. The frac-
tion of the incident radiation which is not absorbed by a body
gives a measure of its reflecting power, with which we are not here
concerned. Most bodies exhibit a selective action on light, that
is to say, they readily absorb light of particular wave-lengths,
light of other wave-lengths not being largely absorbed All
bodies when heated emit the same kind of radiations which they
absorb — an important principle known as the principle of the
equality of radiating and absorbing powers. Thus black sub-
stances such as charcoal are very luminous when heated. A
tile of white porcelain with a black pattern on it will, if heated
red-hot, show the pattern bright on a darker ground. On the
other hand, those substances which either are good reflectors or
ABSTEMH— ABSTRACTION
77
food transmitters, ire not so luminous at the same temperature,
for instance, melted silver, which reflects well, is not so luminous
si carbon at the same temperature, and common salt, which is
wry transparent for most hinds of radiation, when poured in a
fused condition out of a bright red-hot crucible, looks almost
like water, showing only a faint red glow for a moment or two.
Bet all such bodies appear to lose their distinctive properties
when heated in a vessel which nearly encloses them, for in that
case those radiations which they do not emit are either trans-
saited through them from the walls of the vessel behind, or else
refected from their surface. This fact may be expressed by
string that the radiation within a heated enclosure is the same
at that of a perfectly black body
deficient of Absorption, and Lam of Absorption.— -The law
which governs the rate of decay of light intensity in passing
through any medium may be readily obtained. If Id represents
the intensity of the light which enters the surface, Ii the intensity
after passing through i centimetre, It the intensity after passing
through a centimetres, and so on, then we should expect that
whatever fraction of I* is absorbed in the first centimetre, the
sunt fraction of I t will be absorbed in the second. That is, if an
UDooat/It is absorbed in the first centimetre, jli is absorbed in
the second, and so on. We have then
Ii«l.(i-fl
sod so on. so that if I is the intensity after passing through a
ihickaewi t in centimetres
We might call j, which is the proportion absorbed in one
centimetre, the "coefficient of absorption " of the medium. It
would, however, not then apply to the case of a body for which
the whole light is absorbed in less than one centimetre. It is
better then to define the coefficient of absorption as a quantity
k soch that kfu of the light is absorbed in i/ath part of a centi-
metre, where n may be taken to be a very large number The
formula (t) then becomes
I-Ur* (a)
where e is the base of Napierian logarithms, and k is a constant
which is practically the same as j for bodies which do not absorb
my rapidly .
There is another coefficient of absorption (k) which occurs in
Helmholtx's theory of dispersion (see Dispersion) It is closely
related to the coefficient k which we have just denned, the
sonatina connecting the two being A-arc/XiX being the wave-
length of the incident light.
The law of absorption expressed by the formula (a) has been
verified by experiments for various solids, liquids and gases.
The method consists in comparing the intensity after trans-
nzskn through a layer of known thickness of the absorbent
with the intensity of light from the same source which has not
passed through the medium, * being thus obtained for various
thicknesses and found to be constant In the case of solutions,
if the absorption of the solvent is negligible, the effect of in-
creas&g the concentration of the absorbing solute is the same
ss that of increasing the thickness in the same ratio In a
scalar way the absorption of light in the coloured gas chlorine
is found to be unaltered if the thickness is reduced by compres-
sion, because the density is increased in the same ratio that the
thickness is reduced This is not strictly the case, however,
** saeh gases and vapours as exhibit well-defined bands of
tbmption in the spectrum, as these bands are altered in char-
ter by compression.
If white light is allowed to fall on some coloured solutions,
the transmitted light is of one colour when the thickness of the
sabtioo is small, and of quite another colour if the thickness
* greaL This curious phenomenon is known as dickromatism
(from &-, two, and XP«/"^ colour) Thus, when a strong light is
viewed through a solution of chlorophyll, the light seen is a
bnliant green if the thickness is small, but a deep blood-red
far thicker layers. This effect can be explained as follows. The
•ofejtioo is moderately transparent for a large number of rays
in the neighbourhood of the green part of the spectrum; it is,
on the whole, much more opaque for red rays, but is readily
penetrated by certain red rays belonging to a narrow region of
the spectrum. The small amount of red transmitted is at first
quite overpowered by the green, but having a smaller coefficient
of absorption, it becomes finally predominant. The effect is
complicated, in the case of chlorophyll and many other bodies,
by selective reflexion and fluorescence,
For the molecular theory of absorption, see Spectroscopy
References.— A. Schuster's Theory of Optics (1904), P. K L
Drude's Theory of Optics (Eng. trans., 1902). F H Wfillner's
Lekrbuckder Experimentalpkysik, Bd.iv (1899) (J R.C)
ABSTEMH (a Latin word, from abs, away from, temetum, in-
toxicating liquor, from which is derived the English "abste-
mious " or temperate), a name formerly given to such persons
as could not partake of the cup of the Eucharist on account of
their natural aversion to wine. Calvinists allowed these to com-
municate in the species of bread only, touching the cup with
their lip, a course which was deemed a profanation by the
Lutherans- Among several Protestant sects, both in Great
Britain and America, abstemh on a somewhat different principle
have appeared in modern times. These are total abstainers,
who maintain that the use of stimulants is essentially sinful,
and allege that the wine used by Christ and his disciples at the
supper was unfermented. They accordingly communicate in
the unfermented *' juice of the grape "
ABSTINENCE (from Lat. abs t inert, to abstain), the fact or
habit of refraining from anything, but usually from the indul-
gence of the appetite and especially from strong drink " Total
abstinence " and " total abstainer " are associated with taking
the pledge to abstain from alcoholic liquor (see Temperance)
In the discipline of the Christian Church abstinence is the term
for s less severe form of Fasting (7.9.)
ABSTRACTION (Lat abs and Irakere) the process or result of
drawing away, that which is drawn away, separated or derived
Thus the noun is used for a summary, compendium or epitome
of a larger work, the gist of which is given m a concentrated form
Similarly an absent-minded man is said to be "abstracted,"
as paying no attention to the matter in hand. In philosophy
the word has several closely related technical senses. (1) in
formal logic it is applied to those terms which denote qualities,
attributes, circumstances, as opposed to concrete terms, the
names of things, thus " fnend " is concrete, " friendship "
abstract. The term which expresses the connotation of a word
is therefore an abstract term, though it is probably not itself
connotative, adjectives are concrete, not abstract, eg " equal "
is concrete " equality '' abstract (cf Aristotle's apkaeresis and
prosthesis) (7) The process of abstraction takes an important
place both in psychological and metaphysical speculation. The
psychologist finds among the earliest of his problems the question
as to the process from the perception of things seen and heard to
mental conceptions, which are ultimately distinct from immediate
perception (see Psychology) When the mind, beginning with
isolated individuals, groups them together in virtue of perceived
resemblances and arrives at a unity in plurality, the process by
which attention is diverted from individuals and concentrated
on a single inclusive concept (i.e. classification) is one of ab-
straction All orderly thought and all increase of knowledge
depend partly on establishing a clear and accurate connexion
between particular things and general ideas, rules and principles
The nature of the resultant concepts belongs to the great contro-
versy between Nominalism, Realism and Conceptualism. Mela
physics, again, is concerned with the ultimate problems of matter
and spirit; it endeavours to go behind the phenomena of sense
and focus its attention on the fundamental truths which are the
only logical bases of natural science This, again, is a process of
abstraction, the attainment of abstract ideas which, apart from
the concrete individuals, are conceived as having a substantive
existence. The final step in the process is the conception of the
Absolute (q.v.), which is abstract in the most complete sense
Abstraction differs from Analysis, inasmuch as its object u
to select a particular quality for consideration » itself as it i*
78
ABSTRACT OF TITLE— ABU HANIFA
found in all the objects to which it belongs, whereas analysis
considers all the q ualiti es which belong to a single object.
ABSTRACT OF TITLE, in English law, an epitome of the
various instruments and events under and in consequence of
which the vendor of an estate derives his title thereto Such an
abstract is, upon the sale or mortgage of an estate, prepared
by some competent person for the purchaser or mortgagee, and
verified by his solicitor by a comparison with the original deeds
(See Conveyancing.)
ABT, FRANZ (1810-1885), German composer, was born on
the 22nd of December 18x9 at Eilenburg, Saxony, and died at
Wiesbaden on the 31st of March 1885. The best of his popular
songs have become part of the recognized art-folk-music of Ger-
many, his vocal works, solos, part-songs, &c, enjoyed an extra
ordinary vogue all over Europe in the middle of the 19th century,
but in spite of their facile tunefulness have few qualities of last-
ing beauty. Abt was kapellmeister at Bernburg in 1841, at
Zurich in the same year and at Brunswick from 1852 to 1882,
when he retired to Wiesbaden.
ABU, a mountain of Central India, situated in 24° 36' N (at.
and 72° 43' E long., within the Rajputana state of Sirohi. It is
an isolated spur of the Aravalli range, being completely detached
from that chain by a narrow valley 7 miles across, in which
flows the western Banas It rises from the surrounding plains
of Marwar like a precipitous granite island, its various peaks
ranging from 4000 to 5653 feet. The elevations and platforms of
the mountain are covered with elaborately sculptured shrines,
temples and tombs On the top of the hill is a small round plat-
form containing a cavern, with a block of granite, bearing the
impression of the feet of Data-Bhrigu, an incarnation of Vishnu.
This is the chief place of pilgrimage for the Jains, Shrawaks and
Banians The two principal temples are situated at Deulwara,
about the middle of the mountain, and five miles south-west of
Guru Sikra. the highest summit They are built of white marble,
and are pre-eminent alike for their beauty and as typical speci-
mens of Jain architecture in India The more modern of the
two was built by two brothers, rich merchants, between the years
1 197 and 1 247. and for delicacy of carving and minute beauty of
detail stands almost unrivalled, even in this land of patient and
lavish labour The other was built by another merchant prince,
Vimala Shah, apparently about a.d 1032, and, although simpler
and bolder in style, is as elaborate as good taste would allow in
a purely architectural object .It is one of the oldest as well as
one of the most complete examples of Jain architecture known.
The principal object within the temple is a cell lighted only from
the door, containing a cross-legged seated figure of the god
Parswanath. The portico is composed of forty-eight pillars, the
whole enclosed in an oblong courtyard about 140 feet by 90 feet,
surrounded by a double colonnade of smaller pillars, forming
porticos to a range of fifty-five cells, which enclose it on all sides,
exactly as they do in a Buddhist monastery (vihdra) In this
temple, however, each cell, instead of being the residence of a
monk, is occupied by an image of Parswanath, and over the door,
or on the jambs of each, are sculptured scenes from the life of
the deity The whole interior is magnificently ornamented
Abu is now the summer residence of the governor-general's
agent for Rajputana, and a place of resort for Europeans in the
hot weather It is 16 miles from the Abu road station of the
Rajputana railway The annual mean temperature is about
70°, rising to oo° in April, but the heat is never oppressive
The annual rainfall is about 68 inches The hills are laid out
with driving- roads and bridle-paths, and there is a beautiful little
lake The chief buildings are a church, club, hospital and a
Lawrence asylum school for the children of British soldiers
ABU-BEKR (573-OJ4). the name (" Father of the virgin ")
of the first of the Mahommcdan caliphs (sec Caliph) He was
originally called Abd-el-Ka'ba ("servant of the temple"),
and received the name by which he is known historically in con-
sequence of the marriage of his virgin daughter Ayesha to
Mahomet He was born at Mecca in the .year a.d 573, a
Koreishite of the tribe of Bem-Taim. Possessed of immense
wealth, which he had himself acquired in commerce, and held I
in high esteem as a judge, an interpreter of dreams and a
depositary of the traditions of his race, his early accession to
Islamism was a fact of great importance. On his conversion he
assumed the name of Abd-Alla (servant of God). His own belief
in Mahomet and his doctrines was so thorough as to procure
for him the title EI Siddik (the faithful), and his success in
gaining converts was correspondingly great. In his personal
relationship to the prophet he showed the deepest veneration
and most unswerving devotion. When Mahomet fled from
Mecca, Abu-Bekr was his sole companion, and shared both his
hardships and his triamphs, remaining constantly with him
until the day of his death. During his last illness the prophet
indicated Abu-Bekr as Bis successor by desiring him to offer up
prayer for the people. The choice was ratified by the chiefs of
the army, and ultimately confirmed, though Ali, Mahomet's son-
in-law, disputed it, asserting his own title to the dignity After
a time Ali submitted, but the difference of opinion as to his
claims gave rise to the controversy which still divides the
followers of the prophet into the rival factions of Sunnites and
Shiites Abu-Bekr had scarcely assumed his new position (63 2) .
under the title Califct-Resul-AUah {successor of the prophet of
God), when he was called to suppress the revolt of the tribes
Hejaz and Nejd of which the former rejected Islamism and
the latter refused to pay tribute. He encountered formidable
opposition from different quarters, but in every case he was
successful, the severest struggle being that with the impostor
Mosailima, who was finally defeated by Khalid at the battle of
Akraba. Abu-Bekr's zeal for the spread of the new faith was
as conspicuous as that of its founder had been When the
internal disorders had been repressed and Arabia « completely
subdued, he directed his generals to foreign conquest. The
Irak of Persia was overcome by Khalid in a single campaign,
and there was also a successful expedition into Syria. After
the hard-won victory over Mosailima, Omar, fearing that the
sayings of the prophet would be entirely forgotten when those
who had listened to them had all been removed by death,
induced Abu-Bekr to see to their preservation in a written
form The record, when completed, was deposited with Hafsa,
daughter of Omar, and one of the wives of Mahomet. It was
held in great reverence by all Moslems, though it did not possess
canonical authority, and furnished most of the materials out of
which the Koran, as it now exists, was prepared. When the
authoritative version was completed all copies of Hafsa's record
were destroyed, in order to prevent possible disputes and divi-
sions. Abu-Bekr died on the 23rd of August 634. Shortly
before his death, which one tradition ascribes to poison, another
to natural causes, he indicated Omar as his successor, after the
manner Mahomet had observed in his own case.
ABU HAMED, a town of the Anglo-Egyptian Sudan on the
right bank of the Nile, 345 m. by rail N of Khartum It stands
at the centre of the great S-shaped bend of the Nile, and from it
the railway to Wadi Haifa strikes straight across the Nubian
desert, a little west of the old caravan route to Korosko. A
branch railway, 138 m long, from Abu Hamcd goes down the
right bank of the Nile to Kareima in the Dongola mudiria. The
town is named after a celebrated sheikh buried here, by
whose tomb travellers crossing the desert used formerly to
deposit all superfluous goods, the sanctity of the saint's tomb
ensuring their safety
ABO HANlPA AN-NU'MAN IBN THABIT, Mahommedan
canon lawyer, was born at Kufa in a.h 80 (aj>. 609) of non-
Arab and probably Persian parentage. Few events of his life
are known to us with any certainty He was a silk-dealer and
a man of considerable means, so that he was able to give his
time to legal studies. He lectured at Kufa upon canon law
(fqh) and was a consulting lawyer (mufti), but refused steadily
to take any public post When al-MansOr, however, was build-
ing Bagdad (14 s- 149) Abu Hani fa was one of the four over-
seers whom he appointed over the craftsmen (G Le Strange,
Baghdad during the Abbas id Caliphate, p 17) In A.H. 150
(a.d 767) he died there under circumstances which are very
differently reported. A persistent but apparently later tradition
ABU KLEA— ABUL FAZL
79
asserts that he died in prison after severe beating, because he
refused to obey al-Mansur's command to act as a judge (cadi,
fill) This was to avoid a responsibility for which he felt unfit
—a frequent attitude of more pious Moslems. Others say that
al-Mahdl, son of al-Mansur, actually constrained him to be a
judge and that he died a few days after. It seems certain that
be did suffer imprisonment and beating for this reason, at the
hands of an earlier governor of Rflfa under the Omayyads (Ibn
Qotaiba, Ma'arif, p. 248). Also that al-Mansur desired to make
him judge, but compromised upon his inspectorship of buildings
(so in Tabarf) A late story is that the judgeship was only
a pretext with al-MansQr, who considered him a partisan of the
'AJids and a helper with bis wealth of Ibrahim ibn *Abd Allah
in his insurrection at Kufa in 145 (Weil, Gcsckickte, ii. 53 ff )
For many personal anecdotes see de Slane's transl. of Ibn
Khaftihan iiL 555 ff., iv. 272 ff For his place as a speculative
jurist in the history of canon law, see Mahommzdan Law He
was buried in eastern Bagdad, where his tomb still exists, one
of the few surviving sites from the time of al-Mansur, the founder
(Le Strange 191 ff.)
See C Brockelmann, Geschickte, 1. 169 ff. ; NawawPs Btogr Diet,
pp. 698-770; Ibn Hajar al-Haitami's Biography, publ. Cairo, a.h.
1304; legal biUiograpny under Mabosocedan Law (D B. Ma.)
ABU KLEA, a halting-place for caravans in the Bayuda
Desert, Anglo-Egyptian Sudan. It is on the road from Mcrawi
to Metemma and 20 m. N. of the Nile at the last-mentioned place.
Near this spot, on the 17th of January 1885, a British force
marching to the relief of General Gordon at Khartum was
attached by the Mahdists. who were repulsed. On the 19th.
when the British force was nearer Metemma, the Mahdists re-
newed the attack, again unsuccessfully Sir Herbert Stewart,
the commander of the British force was mortally wounded on
the 19th, and among the killed on the 17th was Col F G
Bamaby (see Egypt. Military Operations)
ABO-LVALl UlVMA'ARRl [Abu-l-'Al* Ahmad ibn Abdallfth
tbn Suhiman] (973-1057), Arabian poet and letter-writer, be-
longed to the South Arabian tribe Tanukh. a part of which had
nitrated to Syria before the time of Islam He was born in
973 st Ma'arrat un-Nu'man, a Syrian town nineteen hours'
journey south of Aleppo, to the governor of which it was subject
at that time. He lost his father while he was still an infant,
and at the age of four lost his eyesight owing to smallpox This,
however, did not prevent him from attending the lectures of
the best teachers at Aleppo, Antioch and Tripoli These teachers
were men of the first rank, who had been attracted to the court
of Saff-ud-Daula, and their teaching was well stored in the re-
markable memory of the pupiL At the age of twenty-one
Abft-l-'Alt returned to Ma'arra, where he received a pension of
thirty dinars yearly. In 1007 he visited Bagdad, where he was
admitted to the literary circles, recited in the salons, academies
aad mosques, and made the acquaintance of men to whom he
addressed some of his letters later In 1009 he returned to
Ma'arra, where he spent the rest of his life in teaching and
writing. During this period of scholarly quiet he developed
sa characteristic advanced views on vegetarianism, cremation
of the dead and the desire for extinction after death.
Of his works the chief are two collections of his poetry and
two of his letters. The earlier poems up to 1029 are of the kind
usual at the time Under the title of Saqt to- Zand they have
been published in Bulaq( 1 869), Beirut (1884) and Cairo (1886)
The poems of the second collection, known as the Ltaum ma lam
ycham. or the Uatmiyy&t, are written with the difficult rhyme
in two consonants instead of one. and contain the more original,
suture and somewhat pessimistic thoughts of the author on
csubOity, virtue, death, &c They have been published in
Bombay (1886) and Cairo ( 1889) The letters on various literary
ud social subjects were published with commentary by Shain
Lfiendi in Beirut (1894), and with English translation, &c, by
Prof D. S. Margoliouth in Oxford (1808) A second collection
of letters, known as the Risdlat ul-Gkufr&n, was summarized and
putiafly translated by R. A. Nicholson in the Journal of the Royal
Asiatic Society (1000. pp. 637 ff-; 1902. PP- 75 <*., 337 ff.. 813 ff.).
Bibliography.— C. Rieu. De Abu-LAtat Poetae Arabia vita «f
earminibus (Bonn, 1843) ; A. von Kremer, Obtr die pkilosophtscken
Cedickte des Abu4- % Ala (Vienna, 1888). d also the same writer's
articles in the Zeitsckrift der deuUchen morgenldndiscken CeseUsekoft
(vols, xxix., xxx., xxxi. and xxxviii.) For his life see the intro-
duction to D S. Margoliouth s edition of the letters, supplemented
by the same writer's articles ' Abu-l-'Ala al-Ma'arri's Correspond-
ence on Vegetarianism " in the Journal of the Royal A static Society
(190a. pp. 289 ff.). (G.W T)
ABO-L-'ATiHIYA lAbQ lsfeiq Ismail ibn Qftsim al-'AnaalJ
(748-828), Arabian poet, was born at 'Am ut-Tamar in the
Hijaz near Medina. His ancestors were of the tribe of Anaza
His youth was spent in Kufa, where he was engaged for some
time in selling pottery Removing to Bagdad, he continued his
business there, but became famous for bis verses, especially for
those addressed to 'Utba, a slave of the caliph al-Mahdl His
affection was unrequited, although al-Mahdl, and after him
HarOn al-Rashld, interceded for him. Having offended the
caliph, he was in prison for a short time. The latter part of bis
life was more ascetic. He died in 8 28 in the reign of al-Ma'mun
The poetry of AbO-1-' Atahiya is notable for its avoidance of the
artificiality almost universal in his days. The older poetry of
the desert had been constantly imitated up to this lime, al
though it was not natural to town life. Abu-1-' Atahiya was one
of the first to drop the old qasida (elegy) form He was very
fluent and used many metres. He is also regarded as one of
the earliest philosophic poets of the Arabs. Much of his poetry
is concerned with the observation of common life and morality,
and at times is pessimistic Naturally, under the circumstances,
he was strongly suspected of heresy
His poems (Diw&n) with life from Arabian sources have been
published at the Jesuit Press in Beirflt (1887, and ed. 1888) On his
position in Arabic literature see W. Ahlwardt, Diw&n des Abu Nowas
(Greifswald, 1861), pp. 21 ff ; A. von Kremer, Culturgeschtckte des
Ortents (Wien, 1877). vol. ii. pp. 372 ff. (G. W T.)
ABULFARAJ [AbO.-1-Faraj 'All ibn ul-flusain uMsbahanl)
(897-967), Arabian scholar, was a member of the tribe of the
Quraish (Korcish) and a direct descendant of Marwan, the last
of the Omayyad caliphs He was thus connected with the
Omayyad rulers in Spain, and seems to have kept up a corre-
spondence with them and to have sent them some of his works
He was born in Ispahan, but spent his youth and made his
early studies in Bagdad. He became famous for his knowledge
of early Arabian antiquities. His later life was spent in various
parts of the Moslem world, in Aleppo with Saif-ud-DauIa (to
whom he dedicated the Book of Songs), in Rai with the Buyid
vizier Ibn 'Abbad and elsewhere In his last years he lost his
reason. In religion he was a Shiite Although he wrote poetry
also an anthology of verses on the monasteries of Mesopotamia
and Egypt, and a genealogical work, his fame rests upon his
Book of Songs {Kiidb ul-Agh&nt), which gives an account of the
chief Arabian songs, ancient and modern, with the stones of the
composers and singers. It contains a mass of information as to
the life and customs of the early Arabs, and is the most valuable
authority we have for their pre-lslamic and early Moslem days
A part of it was published byj G L Kosegarten with Latin
translation (Greifswald, 1840) The text was published in 20
vols, at Bulaq in 1868 Vol. xxi was edited by R. E. Brtlnnow
(Leyden, 1888) A volume of elaborate indices was edited by
I. Guidi (Leyden, 1000), and a missing fragment of the text was
published by J Wellhausen in the Zeitsckrtft da deutscken morgen-
ldndiscken GesctlsckafL vol 50, pp 146 fl
For his life see M'G de Slanes translation of Ibn Khallikans
Biographical Dictionary, vol. ii. pp. 249 ff. (G. W T.)
ABUL FAZL, wazir and historiographer of the great Mogul
emperor. Akbar, was born in the year a.d 1551 His career
as a minister of state, brilliant though it was. would probably
have been by this time forgotten but for the record he himself
has left of it in his celebrated history The Akbar Nameh, or
Book of Akbar. as Abul FazTs chief literary work, written in
Persian, is called, consists of two parts — the first being a com-
plete history of Albans reign and the second, entitled Ain-i-
Akbari, or Institutes of Akbar, being an account of the religious
and political constitution and administration of the empire.
The style is singularly elegant, and the contents of the second
8o
ABULFEDA— ABU SIMBEL
part possess a unique and lasting interest An excellent trans-
lation of the Am by Francis Gladwin was published in Calcutta,
1783-1786 It was reprinted in London very inaccurately and
copies of the original edition are now exceedingly rare and
correspondingly valuable It was also translated by Professor
Blockmann in 1848 Abul Fax! died by the hand of an assassin,
while returning from a mission to the Deccan in 1602 The
murderer was instigated by Prince Selim, afterwards Jahangir
who had become jealous of the minister's influence
ABULFEDA [Abu-I-Fidft' Isma'Il ibn All 'lmad-ud-Dnl)
(1273-1331), Arabian historian and geographer was born at
Damascus, whither his father Malik ul-Afdal, brother of the
prince of Hamah, bad fled from the Mongols He was a de-
scendant of AyyUb, the father of Saladin In his boyhood he
devoted himself to the study of the Koran and the sciences,
but from his twelfth year was almost constantly engaged in
military expeditions, chiefly against the crusaders In 1285
he was present at the assault of a stronghold of the knights of
St John, and he took part in the sieges of Tripoli Acre and
Qal at ar Rum In 1208 he entered the service of the Mameluke
Sultan Malik al Nasir and after twelve years was invested by
him with the governorship of Hamah In 1312 he became
prince with the title Malik us-Salih, and in 1320 received the
hereditary rank of sultan with the title Malik ul-Mu'ayyad
for more than twenty years altogether he reigned in tran-
quillity and splendour, devoting himself to the duties of govern-
ment and to the composition of the works to which he is chiefly
indebted for his tame He was a munificent patron of men of
letters, who came in large numbers to his court He died in
1331 His chief historical work in A n Abridgment 0] the History
oj the Human Race, in the form of annals extending from the
creation of the world to the year 1329 (Constantinople, 2 vols
1869) Various translations of parts of it exist, the earliest
being a Latin rendering of the section relating to the Arabian
conquests in Sicily, by Dobelius. Arabic professor at Palermo
in 161 o (preserved in Mura tori's Rcrum Italtcarum Seriptores,
vol 1 ) The section dealing with the pre-lstamiuc period was
edited with Latin translation by H O Fleischer under the title
Abuljedae Hutorta Anle-Istamtca (Leipzig. 1831) The part
dealing with the Mahommedan period was edited, also with
Latin translation, by J J Reiske as Annates AfusUmtci (5 vols.,
Copenhagen 1780-1704) His Geography is, like much of the his-
tory, founded on the works of his predecessors, and so ultimately
on the work of Ptolemy A long introduction on vanous geo-
graphical matters is followed by twenty-eight sections dealing
in tabular form with the chief towns of the world. After each
name are given the longitude latitude, "climate," spelling, and
then observations generally taken from earlier authors Parts
of the work were published and translated as early as 1650
(cf Carl Brockelmann's Ceschichte der Arabucken Lttteratur,
Berlin, jqo?. vol li pp 44-46) The text of the whole was pub-
lished bv M'C de Slane and M Reinaud (Paris 1840) and a
French translation with introduction by M Reinaud and
Stanislas Guyard (Pans. 1848- 1883) (G W T )
ABO-UQASIM IKhalaf ibn 'Abbas uz-Zahrawi], Arabian
physician and surgeon, generally known in Europe as Abul-
casis, flourished in the tenth century at Cordova as physi-
cian to the caliph 'Abdur-Rahman 111 (012-061) No details
of his life are known A part of his compendium of medicine
was published in' Latin m the 16th century as Liber theoricae
net non practice* Alsaharami (Augsburg. 1510) His manual
of surgery was published at Venice in 1407, at Basel in 1541.
and at Oxford Abukasu de Chirurgta or abut et latme cur a
lohanms Channing (2 vols. 1778)
For h» other works see Carl Brockelmann. Cescktckie der arabt-
schom Litteratur (Weimar. 1898). vol. I pp. 239-240 (G W T.)
ABUNDANTIA ("Abundance'*), a Roman goddess, the
personification of prosperity and good fortune Modelled after
the Greek Demeter, she is practically identical with Copia,
Annona and similar goddesses. On the coins of the later Roman
emperors she is frequently represented holding a cornucopia,
from which she shakes her gifts, thereby at the same time in-
dicating the liberality of the emperor or empress. She may be
compared with Domina Abundia (Old Fr. Dame Habonde,
Notre Dame d'Abondance), whose name often occurs in poems
of the Middle Ages, a beneficent fairy, who brought plenty to
those whom she visited (Grimm, Teutonic Mythology, tr 1880,
L 386-287)
ABO NUWAS [Aba 'AH Hal-asan ibn Hani'al-gakaml] («.
756-810). known as Abu Nuwas, Arabian poet, was born in al-
Abwaz. probably about 756 His mother was a Persian, his
father a soldier, a native of Damascus. His studies were made
in Basra under Aba Zaid and Abo 'Ubaida (?.*.). and in
Kufa under Rhalaf al-Ahmar He is also said to have spent a
year with the Arabs in the desert to gain purity of language.
Settling in Bagdad he enjoyed the favour of Haron al-Rashld
and al-Amln. and died there probably about 81 a The greater
part of his life was characterized by great licentiousness and
disregard of religion, but in his later days he became ascetic
AbO Nuwas is recognized as the greatest poet of his time His
mastery of language has led to extensive quotation of his verses
by Arabian scholars Genial, cynical immoral, he drew on all
the varied life of his time for the material of his poems. In his
wine-songs especially the manners of the upper classes of Bagdad
are revealed. He was one of the first to ridicule the set form of
the qasida (elegy) as unnatural, and has satirized this form in
several poems. See I. Goldziher, Abkandlungen ttur Arabisthen
Phitologie (Ley den, 1896), i pp 145 ff His poems were collected
by several Arabian editors. One such collection (the MS. of
which is now in Vienna) contains nearly 5000 verses grouped
under the ten headings wine, hunting, praise, satire, love of
youths, love of women, obscenities, blame, elegies, renunciation
of the world His collected poems (Diwdn) have been published
in Cairo (i860) and in Beirut (1884) The wine-songs were
edited by W Ahlwardt under the title Diwdn des Abu Novas.
1 Die Weinlieder (Greifswald i860 (G W T.)
ABU SIMBEL, or Ipsambul. the name of a group of temples of
Rameses 11 (c 1 250 b c ) in Nubia, on the left bank of the Nile.
56 m by river S of Rorosko They are hewn in the cliffs at the
riverside, at a point where the sandstone hills on the west reach
the Nile and form the southern boundary of a wider portion of
the generally barren valley The temples are three in number
The principal temple probably the greatest and most imposing
of aU rock-hewn monuments, was discoveied by Burckhardl in
1 8 1 ? and opened by Belzoni in 1 8 1 7 (The from has been cleared
several times, most recently in 1892 but the sand is always
pressing forward from the north end ) The hillside wu recessed
to form the facade backed against which four immense seated
colossi of the king, in pairs on either side of the entrance rise
from a platform or forecourt reached from the river by a flight
of steps The colossi are no less than 65 ft in height of nobly
placid design, and are accompanied by smaller figures of Rameses
queen and their sons and daughters, behind and over them is
the cornice, with the dedication below in a line of huge hiero-
glyphs, and a long row of apes standing in adoration of the
rising sun above The temple is dedicated primarily to the solar
gods Amenre" of Thebes and Raharakht of Heliopolis. the true
sun god, it is oriented to the east so that the rays of the sun in
the early morning penetrate the whole length of two great halls
to the innermost sanctuary and fall upon the central figures of
Amenre* and Rameses, which are there enthroned with Pub of
Memphis and Raharakht on either side The interior of the
temple is decorated with coloured sculpture of fine workmanship
and in good preservation, the scenes are more than usually
interesting; some are of religious import (amongst them Ra
meses as king making offerings to himself as god), others illus-
trate war in Syria, Libya and Ethiopia another series depicts
the events of the famous battle with the Hittites and their allies
at Kadesh, in which Rameses saved the Egyptian camp and
army by his personal valour Historical stelae of the same reign
are engraved inside and outside the temple; the most interest-
ing is that recording the marriage with a Hittite princess in the
34th year Not the least important feature of the temple be-
longs to a later age, when some Greek Carian and Phoenician
ABU TAMMAM— ABYDOS
81
Amu
soldiers erf one off the kings named Psammetichus (apparently
Psammetichus II., 594-589 B.C.). inscribed their names upon the
two southern colossi, doubtless the only ones then dear of sand.
These graffiti are of the highest value for the early history of
the alphabet, and as proving the presence of Greek mercenaries
in the Egyptian armies of the period. The upper part of the
second colossus (from the south) has fallen; the third was re-
paired by Sethos II. not many years after the completion of the
temple. This great temple was wholly rock-cut, and is now
threatened by gradual ruin by sliding on the planes of stratifica-
tion- A small temple, immediately to the south of the first,
b believed to have had a built antechamber: it is 'the earliest
known namplf of a " birth chapel," such as was usually attached
to Ptolemaic temples for. the accommodation of the divine
anther-consort and her son. The third and northernmost temple,
separated from the others by a ravine, is on a large scale; the
colossi of the facade are six in number and 33 ft. high, repre-
senting Rameses and his queen Nef rere, who dedicated the temple
to the goddess Hathor. The whole group forms a singular monu-
ment of Rameses' unbounded pride and self-glorification.
See Ecrrr; J. H. Breasted, Ancient Records, Egypt, vol ul.
*% 114 et ieq.. esp. 212; "The Temples of Lower Nubia," in the
American Journal of Semitic Languages and Literatures, October
1908. (F.LL.C.)
AfO TAMHiM RJablb ibn Aus] (807-846), Arabian poet, was,
Eke Bubturf. of the tribe of Jii (though some say he was the son
ef a Ch ri stia n apothecary named Thaddeus, and that his genea-
logy was forged). He was born in Jasim (Joscm), a place to the
aoruYeast of the Sea of Tiberias or near Manbij (Hierapolis).
He seems to have spent his youth in Horns, though, according
to oae story, he was employed during his boyhood in selling
•iter in a mosque in Cairo. His first appearance as a poet
wis in Egypt, but as he failed to make a living there he went to
Daaascasand thence to MosuL From this place he madea visit
to the governor of Armenia, who awarded him richly. After
8 3j at lived mostly in Bagdad, at the court of the caliph Mo'tasim.
From Bagdad he visited Khorassan, where he enjoyed the favour
of 'AhdaDah ibn Jihu. About 845 he was in Ma'arrat un-
Xu'mln, where he met Bubturl. He died in MosuL Abu
Tiaunam is best known in literature as the compiler of the collec-
tion of early poems known as the Hamasa (q.v.). Two other
co ll ectio ns of a similar nature are ascribed to him. His own poems
km been somewhat neglected owing to the success of his com-
pilations, but they enjoyed great repute in his lifetime, and were
catingBtshed for the purity of their style, the merit of the verse
cad the excellent manner of treating subjects. His poems
(Dvds) were published in Cairo (aj>. 1875).
See Life in Ibn Khaltikan's Biographical Dictionary, trans, by
M"G. de Siane (Paris and London, 1842), vol. L pp. 348 n\: and in
tV Kaii ni-Aghini (Book of Songs) of Abulfaraj (Bulaq. 1869),
wL ir. pp. I0O-IO8. (GTw. T.)
AltmUHf (from the Arabic aubAttiHn, a name given by
Ariceaaa to this or an allied genus), in botany, a genus of plants,
titan] order Malvaceae (Mallows), containing about eighty
mecies, and widely distributed in the tropics. They are free-
froving shrubs with showy bell-shaped flowers, and are favourite
Creeahouse plants. They may be grown outside in England
daring the summer months, but a few degrees of frost is fatal to
than. They are readily propagated from cuttings taken in the
mrisg or at the end of the summer. A large number of horti-
oltaTal varieties have been developed by hybridisation, some
«f vfcfcb have a variegated foliage.
aBUTMEHT, a construction in stone or brickwork designed
to leeerve and resist the lateral pressure of an arch, vault or struL
*Vb built outside a wall it is termed a buttress.
atO UBAIDA (Ma'mar ibn ul-Muthannaj (728-825), Arabian
«hobr, was born a slave of Jewish Persian parents in Basra,
ad is his youth was a pupil of AbQ'Amr ibn ul-'AUL In 803
k vascaOed to Bagdad by HarQn al-Rashld. He died in Basra.
He «as one of the most learned and authoritative scholars of
as tiae hi all matters pertaining to the Arabic language, anti-
ques and stories, and is constantly cited by later authors and
**spfcr&. Jlhix held him to be the most learned scholar in all
branches of human knowledge, and Ibn Sahara accepted his
interpretation even of passages in the Koran. The titles of 105
of his works are mentioned in the FikrUt, and his Book of Days is
the basis of parts of the history of Ibn al-Athlr and of the Book
of Songs (see Abulfajlaj), but nothing of his (except a song) seems
to exist now in an independent form. He is often described as
a Kharijite. This, however, is true only in so far as he denied
the privileged position of the Arab people before God. He was,
however, a strong supporter of the Shu'Ubite movement, i.e.
the movement which protested against the idea of the superi-
ority of the Arab race over all others. This is especially seen in
his satires on Arabs (which made him so hated that no man
followed his bier when he died). He delighted in showing that
words, fables, customs, &c, which the Arabs believed to be
peculiarly their own, were derived from the Persians. In these
matters he was the meat rival of Asma'I (a.v.).
See Life in Ibn Khallikan's Biographical Dictionary, trans, by
M'G. de Slane (Paris and London, 1842), vol. iii. pp. 388-398; also
I. Goldziher's Mukammedaniscke Studien (HaUe, 1888). vol i. pp.
194-206. (G.W.T.)
ABYD08, an ancient city of Mysia, in Asia Minor, situated
at Nagara Point on the Hellespont, which is here scarcely a mile
broad. It probably was originally a Thracian town, but was
afterwards colonized by Milesians. Here Xerxes crossed the
strait on his bridge of boats when he invaded Greece. Abydos
is celebrated for the vigorous resistance it made against Philip V.
of Macedon (200 B.C.), and is famed in story for the loves of Hero
and Leander. The town remained till late Byzantine times the
toll station of the Hellespont, its importance being transferred
to the Dardanelles (q.v.), after the building of the " Old Castles "
by Sultan Mahommed II. (c. 1456),
See Choiaeul-Goulher, Voyage dans ? empire ottoman (Paris, 1842).
ABYDOS, one of the most ancient cities of Upper Egypt, about
7 m. W. of the Nile in lat. 26° 10' N. The Egyptian name was
Abdu, " the hill of the symbol or reliquary," in which the sacred
head of Osiris was preserved. Thence the Greeks named it Abydos,
like the city on the Hellespont; the modern Arabic name is
Arabet ef Modfunek. The history of the dty begins in the late
prehistoric age, it having been founded by the pre-Menite kings
(Petrie, Abydos, ii. 64), whose town, temple and tombs have been
found there. The kings of the 1st dynasty, and some of the Ilnd
dynasty, were also buried here, and the temple was renewed and
enlarged by them. Great forts were built on the desert behind
the town by three kings of the Ilnd dynasty. The temple and
town continued to be rebuilt at intervals down to the times of
the XXX th dynasty, and the cemetery was used continuously.
In the XHth dynasty a gigantic -tomb was cut in the rock by
Senwosri (or Senusert) III. Seti I. in the XIX th dynasty founded
a great new temple to the south of the town in honour of the
ancestral kings of the early dynasties; this was finished by
Rameses (or Ramessu) II., who also built a lesser temple of his
own. Mineptah (Merenptah) added a great Hypogeum of Osiris
to the temple of Seti. The latest building was a new temple of
Nekhtnebf in the XXXth dynasty. From the Ptolemaic times
the place continued to decay and no later works are known
(Petrie, Abydos, i. and ii.).
The worship here was of the jackal god Upuaut (Ophob,
Wepwoi), who " opened the way " to the realm of the dead, in-
creasing from the 1st dynasty to the time of the XHth dynasty
and then disappearing after the XVIIIth. Anher appears in the
Xlth dynasty; and Khentamenti, the god of the western Hades,
rises to importance in the middle kingdom and then vanishes
in the XVIIIth. The worship here of Osiris in his various forms
begins in the XII th dynasty and becomes more important in
later times, so that at last the whole place was considered as
sacred to him {Abydos, ii. 47).
The temples successively built here on one site were nine or
ten in number, from the 1st dynasty, 5500 B.C. to the XXVIth
dynasty, 500 B.C. The first was an enclosure, about 30 X 50 ft.,
surrounded by a thin wall of unbaked bricks. Covering one wall
of this came the second temple of about 40 ft. square in a wall
about 10 ft. thick. An outer temenos (enclosure) wall surrounded
the ground. This outer wall was thickened about the Ilnd or
la
82
ABYSS— ABYSSINIA
mrd dynasty. The old temple entirely vanished in the IVth
dynasty, and a smaller building was erected behind it, enclosing
a wide hearth of black ashes. Pottery, models of offerings are
found in the ashes, and these were probably the substitutes for
sacrifices decreed by Cheops (Khufu) in his temple reforms. A
great clearance of temple offerings was made now, or earlier,
and a chamber full of them has yielded the fine ivory carvings
and the glazed figures and tiles which show the splendid work
of the 1st dynasty. A vase of Menes with purple inlaid hiero-
glyphs in green glaze and the tiles with relief figures are the most
important pieces. The noble statuette of Cheops in ivory, found
in the stone chamber of the temple, gives the only portrait of
this greatest ruler. The temple was rebuilt entirely on a larger
scale by Pepi I. in the Vlth dynasty. He placed a great stone
gateway to the temenos, an outer temenos wall and gateway,
with a colonnade between the gates. His temple was about
40X50 ft inside, with stone gateways front and back, showing
that it was of the processional type. In the XI th dynasty
Menthotp (Mentuhotcp) III. added a colonnade and altars.
Soon after, Sankhkere" entirely rebuilt the temple, laying a stone
pavement over the area, about 45 ft square, besides subsidiary
chambers. Soon after Scnwosri (Senusert) I. in the Xllth
dynasty laid massive foundations of stone over the pavement
of his predecessor. A great temenos was laid out enclosing
a much larger area, and the temple itself was about three times
the earlier size.
The XVIIIth dynasty began with a large chapel of Amasis
(Ahmosi, Aahmes) I., and then Tethmosis (Thothmes, Tahutmes)
III. built a far larger temple, about 130* aoo ft He made also
a processional way past the side of the temple to the cemetery
beyond, with a great gateway of granite. Rameses HI. added
a large building; and Amasis II. in the XXVIth dynasty rebuilt
the temple again, and placed in it a large monolith shrine of red
granite, finely wrought The foundations of the successive
temples were comprised within about 18 ft depth of ruins;
these needed the closest examination to discriminate the various
buildings, and were recorded by over 4000 measurements and
1000 levelling* (Petrie, Abydos, ii.).
The temple of Scti I. was built on entirely new ground half
a mile to the south of the long series of temples just described.
This is the building best known as the Great Temple of Abydos,
being nearly complete and an impressive sight. A principal
object of it was the adoration of the early kings, whose cemetery,
to which it forms a great funerary chapel, lies behind it The
long list of the kings of the principal dynasties carved on a wall
is known as the " Table of Abydos." There were also seven
chapels for the worship of the king and principal gods. At the
back were large chambers connected with the Osiris worship
(Caulfield, Temple of the Kings); and probably from these led
out the great Hypogeum for the celebration of the Osiris mys-
teries, built by Mineptah (Murray, Osireion). The temple was
originally 550 ft long, but the forecourts are scarcely recognizable,
and the part in good state is about 250 ft long and 350 ft. wide,
including the wing at the side. Excepting the list of kings and.
a panegyric on Rameses II., the subjects are not historical but
mythological. The work is celebrated for its delicacy and re-
finement, but lacks the life and character of that in earlier ages.
The sculptures have been mostly published in hand copy, not
facsimile, by Mariette in his Abydos, i. The adjacent temple of
Rameses II. was much smaller and simpler in plan; but it had
a fine historical series of scenes around the outside, of which
the lower parts remain. A list of kings, similar to that of Seti,
formerly stood here; but the fragments were removed by the
French consul and sold to the British Museum.
The Royal Tombs of the earliest dynasties were placed about
a mile back on the great desert plain. The earliest is about
to X 20 ft. inside, a pit lined wi th brick walls, and originally roofed
with timber ahd matting. Others also before Menes are 15X25
ft. The tomb probably of Menes is of the latter size. After this
the tombs increase in size and complexity. The tomb-pit is
surrounded by chambers to hold the offerings, the actual
sepulchre being a great wooden chamber in the midst of the
brick-lined pit Rows of small tomb-pits for the servants of
the king surround the royal chamber, many dozens of such
burials being usual. By the end of the Ilnd dynasty the type
changed to a long passage bordered with chambers on cither
hand, the royal burial being in the middle of the length. The
greatest of these tombs with its dependencies covered a space
of over 3000 square yards. The contents of the tombs have
been nearly destroyed by successive plunderers; enough re-
mained to show that rich jewellery was placed on the mummies,
a profusion of vases of hard and valuable stones from the royal
table service stood about the body, the store-rooms were filled
with great jars of wine, perfumed ointment and other supplies,
and tablets of ivory and of ebony were engraved with a record
of the yearly annals of the reigns. The sealings of the various
officials, of which over 200 varieties have been found, give an
insight into the public arrangements (Petrie, Royal Tombs, i.
and iL).
The cemetery of private persons begins in the 1st dynasty with
some pit tombs in the town. It was extensive in the Xllth and
Xlllth dynasties and contained many rich tombs. In the
XVUIth-XXth dynasties a large number of fine tombs were
made, and later ages continued to bury here till Roman times.
Many hundred funeral steles were removed by Mariette's work-
men, without any record of the burials (Mariette, Abydos, ii. and
hi.). Later excavations have been recorded by Ayrton, Abydos,
iii; Maclver, El Amrah and Abydos, and Garstang, El Arabak.
The forts lay behind the town. That known as Shunet ez
Zebib is about 450X250 ft over all, and still stands 30 ft high.
It was built by Khasekhemui, the last king of the Ilnd dynasty.
Another fort nearly as large adjoined it, and is probably rather
older. A third fort of a squarer form is now occupied by the
Coptic convent; its age cannot be ascertained (Ayrton, Abydos,
iii.). (W.M.F.P.)
ABYSS (Gr. &-, privative, fivcebt, bottom), a bottomless
depth; hence any deep place. From the late popular abyssimus
(superlative of Low Latin abyssvs) through the French abisme
(i.e. abtme) is derived the poetic form abysm, pronounced as late
as 161 6 to rhyme with lime. The adjective " abyssal " or
" abysmal " has been used by zoologists to describe deep regions
of the sea; hence abysmal zone, abysmal flora and fauna, abys-
mal accumulations, the deposit on the abysmal bed of the ocean.
In heraldry, the abyss is the middle of an escutcheon. In the
Greek version of the Old Testament the word represents (1) the
original chaos (Gen. i. 2), (2) the Hebrew tehom (" a surging
water-deep ")» which is used also in apocalyptic and kabba-
listic literature and in the New Testament for hell, the place of
punishment (cf. Eurip. Phoen. for the "yawning chasm of
Tartarus "); in the Revised (not the Authorized) version abyss
is generally used for this idea. Primarily in die Septuagint
cosmography the word is applied (a) to the waters under the
earth which originally covered it, and from which the springs
and rivers are supplied, (b) to the waters of the firmament which
were regarded as closely connected with those below. Deriva-
tively, from the general idea of depth, it acquired the meaning of
the place of the dead, though apparently never quite the same as
SheoL In Revelation it is the prison of evil spirits whence they
may occasionally be let loose, and where Satan is doomed to
spend 1000 years. Beneath the altar in the temple of Jeru-
salem there was believed to be a passage which led down to the
abyss of the world, where the foundation-stone of the earth was
laid. In rabbinical cosmography the abyss is a region of
Gehenna situated below the ocean bed and divided into three or
seven parts imposed one above the other. In the Kabbalah the
abyss as the opening into the lower world is the abode of evil
spirits, and corresponds to the opening of the abyss to the world
above. In general the abyss is regarded vaguely as a place of
indefinite extent, the abode of mystery and sorrow.
See G. Schiaparelli, Astronomy in the Old Testament (Eng. transw,
Oxford. 1905).
ABYSSINIA (officially Ethiopia), an inland country and
empire of N.E. Africa lying, chiefly, between 5 and is* N.
and 35 and 42° E. It is bounded N. by Eritrea (Italian). W.
ABYSSINIA
83
ABYSSINIA
EnflLih M.ir*
by Ik Anglo-Egyptian Sudan, S. by British East Africa, S.E.
tad £ by the British, Italian and French possessions in Somali-
kad tad on the Red Sea. The coast lands held by European
powers, which ait off Abyssinia from access to the sea, vary in
*idift from 40 to 250 miles. The country approaches nearest to
the ocean on its N.E. border, where the frontier is drawn about
40 m. from the coast of the Red Sea. Abyssinia is narrowest
B the north, being here 230 m. across from cast to west. It
kmdeas out southward to a width of 900 m. along the line of
4* K., and resembles in shape a triangle with its apex to the north.
It a divided into Abyssinia proper (i*. Tigre. Amhara, Gojam,
&c). Saoa. Kaffa and Galla land— all these form a geographical
oil— and central Somaliland with Harrar. To the S.W. Abys-
»» also includes part of the low country of the Sobat tributary
•* the Nik. The area of the whole state is about 350,000 sq. m.,
«* »akb Abyssinian Somaliland covers fully a third
(1) Physical Features.— Between the valley of the Upper Nile
and the low lands which skirt the south-western shores of the
Red Sea and the Gulf of Aden is a region of elevated plateaus
from which rise various mountain ranges. These tablelands
and mountains constitute Abyssinia, Shoa, Kaffa and Galla
land. On nearly every side the walls of the plateaus rise with
considerable abruptness from the plains, constituting outer
mountain chains. The Abyssinian highlands are thus a clearly
marked orographic division. From Ras Kasar (18° N ) to
Anneslcy Bay (15° N.) the eastern wall of the plateau runs
parallel to the Red Sea. It then turns due S. and follows closely
the line of 40 E. for some 400 m. About o° N. there is a break
in the wall, through which the river Hawash flows eastward.
The main range at this point trends S.W., while south of the
Hawash valley, which is some 3000 ft. below the level of the
mountains, another massif rises in a direct line south. This
8+
ABYSSINIA
second range sends a chain (the Harrar hills) eastward to the Gulf
of Aden . The t wo chief eastern ranges maintain a parallel course
S. by W , with a broad upland valley between— in which valley
are a series of lakes— to about 3 N., the outer (eastern) spurs
of the plateau still keeping along the line of 40° £. The southern
escarpment of the plateau is highly irregular, but has a general
direction N.W. and S.E. from 6° N. to j° N. It overlooks the
depression in which is Lake Rudolf and— east of that lake —
southern Somaliland. The western wall of the plateau from 6°
N. to u° N. is well marked and precipitous. North of n° N.
the hills turn more to the east and fall more gradually to the
plains at their base. On its northern face also the plateau falls
in terraces to the level of the eastern Sudan. The eastern escarp-
ment is the best denned of these outer ranges. It has a mean
height of from 7000 to 8000 ft., and in many places rises almost
perpendicularly from the plain. Narrow and deep clefts,
through which descend mountain torrents to lose themselves in
the sandy soil of the coast land, afford means of reaching the
plateau, or the easier route through the Hawash valley may be
chosen. On surmounting this rocky barrier the traveller finds
that the encircling rampart rises little above the normal level
of the plateau.
(2) The aspect of the highlands is most impressive: The
northern portion, lying mainly between io° and 1 5° N., consists
of a huge mass of Archaean rocks with a mean height of from
7000 to 7500 ft. above the sea, and is flooded in a deep central
depression by the waters of Lake Tsana. Above the plateau
rise several irregular and generally ill-defined mountain ranges
which attain altitudes of from 12,000 to over 15,000 ft. Many
of the mountains are of weird and fantastic shape. Character-
istic of the country are the enormous fissures which divide it,
formed in the course of ages by the erosive action of water. They
are in fact the valleys of the rivers which, rising on the uplands
or mountain sides, have cut their way to the surrounding low-
lands. Some of the valleys are of considerable width; in other
cases the opposite walls of the gorges are but two or three
hundred yards apart, and fall almost vertically thousands of
feet, representing an erosion of hard rock of many millions of
cubic feet. One result of the action of the water has been
the formation of numerous isolated flat-topped hills or small
plateaus, known as ambas, with nearly perpendicular sides. The
highest peaks are found in the Simen (or Semien) and Gojam
ranges. The Simen Mountains lie N.E. of Lake Tsana and cul-
minate in the snow-covered peak of Daschan (Dajan), which
has an altitude of 15,160 ft. A few miles east and north re-
spectively of Dajan are Mounts Biuat and Abba Jared, whose
summits are a few feet only below that of Dajan. In the' Chok
Mountains in Gojam Agsias Fatra attains a height of 13,600 ft.
Parallel with the eastern escarpment arc the heights of Baila
(1 2,500 ft.), Abuna Josef (1 3,780 ft-), and Kollo (14,100 ft.), the
last-named being S.VV. of Magdala. The valley between these
hills and the eastern escarpment is one of the longest and most
profound chasms in Abyssinia. Between Lake Tsana and the
eastern hills are Mounts Guna (13.800 ft.) and Uara Sahia
(13,000 ft.). The figures given are, however, approximate only.
The southern portion of the highlands — the io° N. roughly marks
the division between north and south — has more open tableland
than the northern portion and fewer lofty peaks. Though there
are a few heights between 10,000 and 12,000 ft., the majority do
not exceed 8000 ft. But the general character of the southern
regions is the same as in the north— a much-broken hilly
plateau.
Most of the Abyssinian uplands have a decided slope td the
north-west, so that nearly all the large rivers find their way in
that direction to the Nile. Such are the Takazze in the north,
the Abai in the centre, and the Sobat in the south, and through
these three arteries is discharged about four-fifths of the entire
drainage. The rest is carried off, almost due north by the Khor
Baraka, which occasionally reaches the Red Sea south of Suakin;
by the Hawash, which runs out in the saline lacustrine district
near the head of Tajura Bay; by the Webi Shebeli (Wabi-
Shebeyli) and Juba, which flow S.E through Somaliland, though
the Shebeli fails to reach the Indian Ocean; and by the Omo,
the main feeder of the closed basin of Lake Rudolf.
The Takazzl, which is the true upper course of the Atbara,
has its head- waters in the central tableland; and falls from
about 7000 to 2500 ft. in the tremendous crevasse through
which it sweeps round west, north and west again down to the
western terraces, where it passes from Abyssinian to Sudan
territory. During the rains the Takazze 1 ( i>. the " Terrible ")
rises some 18 ft. above its normal level, and at this time forms
an impassable barrier between the northern and central provinces.
In its lower course the river is known by the Arab name Setit.
The Setit is joined (14° 10' N., 36° E.) by the Atbara, a river
formed by several streams which rise in the mountains W. and
N.W. of Lake Tsana. The Gash or Mareb is the most northerly
of the Abyssinian rivers which flow towards the Nile valley.
Its head-waters rise on the landward side of the eastern escarp-
ment within 50 miles of Annesley Bay on the Red Sea. It
reaches the Sudan plains near Kassala, beyond which place its
waters are dissipated in the sandy soil. The Mareb is dry for a
great part of the year, but like the Takazze' is subject to sudden
freshets during the rains. Only the left bank of the upper course
of the river is in Abyssinian territory, the Mareb here forming
the boundary between Eritrea and Abyssinia.
(3) The Abai — that is, the upper course of the Blue Nile —
has its source near Mount Denguiza in the Gojam highlands
(about ix° N. and 37° E.), and first flows for 70 m. nearly due
north to the south side of Lake Tsana. Tsana (9.*.), which
stands from 2500 to 3000 ft. below the normal level of the plateau,
has somewhat the aspect of a flooded crater. It has an area of
about 1100 sq. m., and a depth in some parts of 250 ft, At the
south-east corner the rim of the crater is, as it were, breached
by a deep crevasse through which the Abai escapes, and here
develops a great semicircular bend like that of the Takazze, but
in the reverse direction— cast, south and north-west — down to
the plains of Sennar, where it takes the name. of Bahr-el-Axrak
or Blue Nile. The Abai has many tributaries. Of these the
Bashilo rises near Magdala and drains eastern Amhara; the
Jamifta rises near Ankober and drains northern Shoa; the Muger
rises near Adis Ababa and drains south-western Shoa; the
Didessa, the largest of the Abai's affluents, rises in the Kaffa
hills and has a generally S. to N. course; the Yabus runs near
the western edge of the plateau escarpment. All these are
perennial rivers. The right-hand tributaries, rising mostly on the
western sides of the plateau, have steep slopes and are generally
torrential in character. The Bolassa, however, is perennial,
and the Rahad and Dindcr are important rivers in flood-time.
In the mountains and plateaus of Kaffa and Galla in the
south-west of Abyssinia rise the Baro, Gclo, Akobo and other
of the chief affluents of the Sobat tributary of the Nile. The
Akobo, in about 7° 50' N. and 33° E., joins the Pibor, which in
about 8)° N. and $f 20' E. unites with the Baro, the river below
the confluence taking the name of Sobat. These rivers descend
from the mountains in great falls, and like the other Abyssinian
streams are unnavigable in their upper courses. The Baro on
reaching the plain becomes, however, a navigable stream afford-
ing an open waterway to the Nile. The Baro, Pibor and Akobo
form for 250 m. the W. and S.W. frontiers of Abyssinia (see
Nile, Sobat and Sudan).
The chief river of Abyssinia flowing east is the Hawash
(Awash, Awasi), which rises in the Shoan uplands.and makes a
semicircular bend first S.E. and then N.E. It reaches the Afar
(Danakil) lowlands through a broad breach in the eastern
escarpment of the plateau, beyond which it is joined on its left
bank by its chief affluent, the Germama (Kasam), and then
trends round in the direction of Tajura Bay. Here the Hawash
is a copious stream nearly 200 ft. wide and 4 ft. deep, even in
the dry season, and during the floods rising 50 or 60 ft. above
low-water mark, thus inundating the plains for many miles
along both its banks. Yet it fails to reach the coast, and after
a winding course of about 500 m. passes (in its lower reaches)
through a series of badds (lagoons) to Lake Aussa, some 60 or
70 m. from the head of Tajura Bay. In this lake the river is
ABYSSINIA
85
lost This remarkable phenomenon is explained by the position
of Ansa in the centre of a saline lacustrine depression several
hundred feet below sea-level While most of the other lagoons
are highly saline, with thick incrustations of salt round their
nargiDs, Anssa remains fresh throughout the year, owing to
the great body of water discharged into it by the Hawash.
Another lacustrine region extends from the Shoa heights
sooth-west to the Samburu (Lake Rudolf) depression. In this
chain of lovely upland lakes, some fresh, some brackish, some
completely closed, others connected by short channels, the
chief links in their order from north to south are:— Zwai, com-
municating southwards with Hara and Lamina, all in the Arusi
GaOa territory; then Abai with an outlet to a smaller tarn in
the romantic Baroda and Gamo districts, skirted on the west
sides by grassy slopes and wooded ranges from 6000 to nearly
9000 ft. high; lastly, in the Asille country, Lake Stefanie, the
Chuwaha of the natives, completely closed and falling to a level
of about 1800 ft above the sea. To the same system obviously
belongs the neighbouring Lake Rudolf (?.».), which is larger
than all the rest put together. This lake receives at its northern
ead the waters of the Omo, which rises in the Shoa highlands
aad is a perennial river with many affluents. In its course of
some 370 m. it has a total fall of about 6000 ft. (from 7600 at its
source to 1000 at lake-level), and is consequently a very rapid
Jtream, being broken by the Kokobi and other falls, and navi-
gable only for a short distance above its mouth. The chief rivers
of Somaliland (q.v.), the Webi Shebeli and the Juba (?.».), have
their rise on the south-eastern slopes of the Abyssinian escarp-
nent, and the greater part of their course is through territory
belonging to Abyssinia. There are numerous hot springs in
Abyssinia, and earthquakes, though of no great severity, are not
(4) Gcsfegy. — The East African tableland is continued into
Abyssinia. Since the visit of W. T. Blanford in 1870 the geology
has received little attention from travellers. The following
farma lions are represented: —
Sedimentary and Metamorphic.
Recent. 1 Coral, alluvium, sand.
Tertiary. (?) Limestones of Harrar.
Jurassic Antalo Limestones.
Triassk (?). Adigrat Sandstones.
Archaean. Gneisses, schists, slaty rocks.
Igneous.
Recent. Aden Volcanic Series.
Tertiary, Cretaceous (?). Magdala group.
Jurassic Ashangi group.
Archaean. — The metamorphic rocks compose the main mass
of the tableland, and are exposed in every deep valley in Tigre
ud along the valley of the Blue Nile. Mica schists form the
prevalent rocks. Hornblende schists also occur and a compact
fcapathk rock in the Suris defile. The foliae of the schists
strike north and south.
Triastic (?). — In the region of Adigrat the metamorphic rocks
«re invariably overlain by white and brown sandstones, un-
taSferous, and attaining a maximum thickness of 1000 feet.
They are overlain by the fossiliferous limestones of the Antalo
swap. Around Chelga and Adigrat coal-bearing beds occur,
vhkh Blanford suggests may be of the same age as the coal-
btariag strata of India. The Adigrat Sandstone possibly
represents some portion of the Karroo formation of South
Africa.
Jurassic. — The fossiliferous limestones of Antalo are generally
soriamttl, but are in places much cUsturbed when interstratified
vita trap rocks. The fossils are all characteristic Oolite forms
«d include spedes of Hemicidaris, Pholadomya, Ceromya,
Tnpma and Alaria.
/(hw Rocks. — Above a height of 8000 ft. -the country con-
Ms of bedded traps belonging to two distinct and unconform-
•tie groups. The lower (Ashangi group) consists of basalts
•ad dokritcs often amygdaloidaL Their relation to the Antalo
limestones is uncertain, but Blanford considers them to be not
later in age than the Oolite. The upper (Magdala group) con-
tains much trachytic rock of considerable thickness, lying
perfectly horizontally, and giving rise to a series of terraced
ridges characteristic of central Abyssinia. They are inter-
bedded with unfossiliferous sandstones and shales. Of more
recent date (probably Tertiary) are some igneous rocks, rich in
alkalis, occurring in certain localities in southern Abyssinia.
Of still more recent date are the basalts and ashes west of
Massawa and around Annesley Bay and known as the Aden
Volcanic Series. With regard to the older igneous rocks, the
enormous amount they have suffered from denudation is a
prominent feature. They have been worn into deep and narrow
ravines, sometimes to a depth of 3000 to 4000 ft
(5) Climate. — The climate of Abyssinia and its dependent
territories varies greatly. Somaliland and the Danakil lowlands
have a hot, dry climate producing semi-desert conditions; the
country in the lower basin of the Sobat is hot, swampy and
malarious. But over the greater part of Abyssinia as well as
the Galla highlands the climate is very healthy and temperate.
The country lies wholly within the tropics, but its nearness to
the equator is counterbalanced by the elevation of the land. In
the deep valleys of the Takazze* and Abai, and generally in
places below 4000 ft., the conditions are tropical and fevers are
prevalent On the uplands, however, the air is cool and bracing
in summer, and in winter very bleak. The mean range of
temperature is between 6o° and 8o° F. On the higher moun-
tains the climate is Alpine in character. The atmosphere on
the plateaus is exceedingly dear, so, that objects are easily
recognizable at great distances. In addition to the variation
in climate dependent on elevation, the year may be divided
into three seasons. Winter, or the cold season, lasts from
October to February, and is followed by a dry hot period, which
about the middle of June gives place to the rainy season. The
rain is heaviest in the Takazze 1 basin in July and August. In
the more southern districts of Gojam and Wallega heavy rains
continue till the middle of September, and occasionally October
is a wet month. There are also spring and winter rains; indeed
rain often falls in every month of the year. But the rainy
season proper, caused by the south-west monsoon, lasts from
June to mid-September, and commencing in the north moves
southward. In the region of the Sobat sources the rains begin
earlier and last longer. The rainfall varies from about 30 in. a
year in Tigre and Arahara to over 40 in. in parts of Galla land.
The rainy season is of great importance not only to Abyssinia
but to the countries of the Nile valley, as the prosperity of the
eastern Sudan and Egypt is largely dependent upon the rain-
fall. A season of light rain, may be suffident for the needs
of Abyssinia, but there is little surplus water to find its way
to the Nile; and a shortness of rain means a low Nile, as
practically all the flood water of that river is derived from
the Abyssinian tributaries (sec Nile).
(6) Flora and Fauna, — As in a day's journey the traveller may
pass from tropical to almost Alpine conditions of climate, so
great also is the range of the flora and fauna. In the valleys
and lowlands the vegetation is dense, but the general appearance
of the plateaus is of a comparatively bare country with trees
and bushes thinly scattered over it The glens and ravines
on the hillside are often thickly wooded, and offer a delightful
contrast to the open downs. These conditions are particularly
characteristic of the northern regions; in the south the vegeta-
tion on the uplands is more luxuriant Among the many varie-
ties of trees and plants found are the date palm, mimosa, wild
olive, giant sycamores, junipers and laurels, the myrrh and
other gum trees (gnarled and stunted, these flourish most on
the eastern foothills), a magnificent pine (the Natal yellow pine,
which resists the attacks of the white ant), the fig, orange, lime,
pomegranate, peach, apricot, banana and other fruit trees;
the grape vine (rare), blackberry and raspberry; the cotton
and indigo plants, and occasionally the sugar cane. There are
in the south large forests of valuable timber trees; and the
coffee plant is indigenous in the Kaflfa country, whence it takes
86
ABYSSINIA
Its name. Many kinds of grasses and flowers abound. Large
areas are covered by the kussa, a hardy member of the rose
family, which grows from 8 to xo ft high and has abundant
pendent red blossoms. The flowers and the leaves of this plant
are highly prized for medicinal purposes. The fruit of the
kurarina, a tree found almost exclusively in Shoa, yields a black
grain highly esteemed as a spice. On the tableland a great
variety of grains and vegetables are cultivated A fibrous
plant, known as the sanseviera, grows in a wild state in the
semi-desert regions of the north and south-east
In addition to the domestic animals enumerated below
(§8) the fauna is very varied. Elephant and rhinoceros are
numerous in certain low-lying districts, especially in the Sobat
valley. The Abyssinian rhinoceros has two horns and its skin
has no folds. The hippopotamus and crocodile inhabit the
larger rivers flowing west, but are not found in the Hawash, in
which, however, otters of large size are plentiful. Lions abound
in the low countries and in Somaliland. In central Abyssinia
the lion is no longer found except occasionally in the river
valleys. Leopards, both spotted and black, are numerous and
often of great size; hyaenas are found everywhere and are hardy
and fierce; the lynx, wolf, wild dog and jackal are also common.
Boars and badgers are more rarely seen. The giraffe is found
in the western districts, the zebra and wild ass frequent the
lower plateaus and the rocky hills of the north. There are large
herds of buffalo and antelope, and gazelles of many varieties
and in great numbers are met with in most parts of the country.
Among the varieties are the greater and lesser kudu (both rather
rare); the duiker, gemsbuck, hartebeest, gerenuk (the most
common— it has long thin legs and a camel-like neck); klip-
springer, found on the high plateaus as well as in the lower dis-
tricts; and the dik-dik, the smallest of the antelopes, its weight
rarely exceeding xo lb, common in the low countries and the
foothills. The civet is found in many parts of Abyssinia, but
chiefly in the Galla regions. Squirrels and hares are numerous,
as are several kinds of monkeys, notably the guereza, gelada,
guenon and dog-faced baboon. They range from the tropical
lowlands to heights of 10,000 ft
Birds are very numerous, and many of them remarkable for
the beauty of their plumage. Great numbers of eagles, vultures,
hawks, bustards and other birds of prey are met with; and
partridges, duck, teal, guinea-fowl, sand-grouse, curlews, wood-
cock, snipe, pigeons, thrushes and swallows are very plentiful.
A fine variety of ostrich is commonly found. Among the birds
prized for their plumage are the marabout, crane, heron, black-
bird, parrot, jay and humming-birds of extraordinary brilliance.
Among insects the most numerous and useful is the bee, honey
everywhere constituting an important part of the food of the
inhabitants. Of an opposite class is the locust Serpents are
not numerous, but several species are poisonous. There are
thousands of varieties of butterflies and other insects.
(7) Provinces and Towns. — Politically, Abyssinia is divided into
provinces or kingdoms and dependent territories. The chief
provinces are Tigre, which occupies the N.E. of the country;
Amhara or Gondar, in the centre; Gojam, the district enclosed
by the great semicircular sweep of the Abai; and Shoa (?.v.)i
which lies east of the Abai and south of Amhara. Besides these
ancient provinces and several others of smaller size, the empire
includes the Wallcga region, lying S.W. of Gojam; the Harrar
province in the east; Kaffa (q.v.) and Galla land, S.W. and S.
of Shoa; and the central part of Somaliland.
With the exception of Harrar (q.v.), a city of Arab foundation,
there are no large towns in Abyssinia. Harrar is some 30 m.
S.E. of Dire Dawa, whence there is a railway (x88 m. long) to
Jibuti on the Gulf of Aden. The absence of large towns in
Abyssinia proper is due to the provinces into which the country
Is divided having been for centuries in a state of almost continual
warfare, and to the frequent change of the royal residences on
the exhaustion of fuel supplies. The earliest capital appears to
have been Axum (?.*>) in Tigre, where there are extensive
ruins. In the middle ages Gondar in Amhara became the capital
of the country and was so regarded up to the middle of the 19th
century. Since 189a the capital has been Adis Ababa in the
kingdom of Shoa.
The other towns of Abyssinia worthy of mention may be
grouped according to their geographical position. None of
them has a permanent population exceeding 6000, but at several
large markets are held periodically. In Tigre there are Adowa
or Adua (1 7 m. E. by N. of Axum), Adigrat, Macalle and AntaJo
The three last-named places are on the high plateau near its
eastern escarpment and on the direct road south from Massawa
to Shoa. West of Adigrat is the monastery of Debra-Domo,
one of the most celebrated sanctuaries in Abyssinia.
In Amhara there are.*— Magdala (q.v.), formerly the residence
of King Theodore, and the place of imprisonment of the British
captives in 1866. Debra-Tabor (" Mount Tabor *'), the chief
royal residence during the reign of King John, occupies a strong
strategic position overlooking the fertile plains east of Lake
Tsana, at a height of about 8,620 ft above the sea ; it has
a population of 3000, including the neighbouring station of
Samara, headquarters of the Protestant missionaries in the time
of King Theodore. Ambra-Mariam, a fortified station midway
between Gondar and Debra-Tabor near the north-east side of
Lake Tsana, with a population of 3000; here is the famous
shrine and church dedicated to St Mary, whence the name of
the place, " Fort St Mary." Mahdera-Mariam (" Mary's Rest "),
for some time a royal residence, and an important market and
great place of pilgrimage, a few miles south-west of Debra-
Tabor; its two churches of the " Mother " and the " Son " are
held in great veneration by all Abyssinians; it has a permanent
population estimated at over 4000, Gallas and Amharas, the
former mostly Mahommedan. Sokota, one of the great central
markets, and capital of the province of Waag in Amhara, at
the converging point of several main trade routes; the market
is numerously attended, especially by dealers in the salt blocks
which come from Lake Alalbed. The following towns are in
Shoa:— Ankober, formerly the capital of the kingdom; Aliu-
Amba, east of Ankober on the trade route to the Gulf of Aden;
Debra-Berhan (Debra-Bernam) (" Mountain of Light "), once
a royal residence; Licht (Lkche*), one of the largest market
towns in southern Abyssinia. Lieki, the largest market in
Galla land, has direct communications with Gojam, Shoa and
other parts of the empire. Bongs, the commercial centre of
Kaffa, and Jircn, capital of the neighbouring province of Jimma,
are frequented by traders from all the surrounding provinces, |
and also by foreign merchants from the seaports on the Gulf
of Aden. Apart from these market-places there are no settle* I
ments of any size in southern Abyssinia. 1
Communications.— The Jibuti-Dire Dawa railway has been '
mentioned above. The continuation of this railway to the capital
was begun in 1906 from the Adis Ababa end. There are few
roads in Abyssinia suitable for wheeled traffic. Transport is
usually carried on by mules, donkeys, pack-horses and (in the
lower regions) camels. From Dire Dawa to Harrar there is a
well-made carriage road, and from Harrar to Adis Ababa the
caravan track is kept in good order, the river Hawash being
spanned by an iron bridge. There is also a direct trade route
from Dire Dawa to the capital. Telegraph lines connect Adis
Ababa and several important towns in northern Abyssinia with
Massawa, Harrar and Jibuti. There is also a telephonic service,
the longest line being from Harrar to the capital
(8) Apiculture.— The soil is exceedingly fertile, as is evident
from the fact that Egypt owes practically all its fertility to the
sediment carried into the Nile by its Abyssinian tributaries.
Agriculture is extensively followed, chiefly by the Gallas, the
indolence of the Abyssinians preventing them from being good
farmers. In the lower regions a wide variety of crops are grown
—among them maize, durra, wheat, barley, rye, teff, pease,
cotton and sugar-cane— and many kinds of fruit trees are culti-
vated. Teff is a kind of millet with grains about the size of an
ordinary pin-bead, of which is made the bread commonly eaten.
The low grounds also produce a grain, tocuua, from which black
bread is made. Besides these, certain oleaginous plants, the
tuf, nuc and selite (there are no European equivalents far the
ABYSSINIA
87
a), and the ground-nut are largely grown. The
grows wild, the green castor in the low, damp
regions, the red castor at medium altitudes. The kat plant, a
■edkinsl herb which has a tonic quality, is largely grown in the
Harrar province. On the higher plateaus the hardier cereals
eery are cultivated. Here the chief crops are wheat, barley,
tef, peppers, vegetables of all kinds and coffee. Above xo,ooo
ft the crops are confined practically to barley, oats, beans and
occasionally wheat.
Coffee is one of the most important products of the country,
lad its original home is believed to be the Kaffa highlands. It
a cultivated in the S., S.E. and S.W. provinces, and to a less
extent in the central districts. Two qualities of coffee are
cultivated, one known as Abyssinian, the other as Harrar-
Mocha. The " Abyssinian " coffee ih grown very extensively
throughout the southern highlands. Little attention is paid
to the crop, the berries being frequently gathered from the
ground, and consequently the coffee is of comparatively low
grade, " Harrar- Mocha " is of first-class quality. It is grown
m the highlands of Harrar, and cultivated with extreme care.
The raising of cotton received a considerable impetus in the
early years of the aoth century. The soil of the Hawash valley
proved particularly suitable for raising this crop. In the high
plateaus the planting of seeds begins in May, in the lower pla-
tans and the plains in June, but in certain parts where the
summer is long and rain abundant sowing and reaping are going
on at the same time. Most regions yield two, many three crops
a year. The methods of culture are primitive, the plough
commonly used being a long pole with two vertical iron teeth
asd a smaller pole at right angles to which oxen are attached.
Tab implement costs about four shillings. The ploughing is
done by the men, but wpmen and girls do the reaping. The
gain b usually trodden out by cattle and is often stored in clay-
Gaed pits. Land comparatively poor yields crops eight to ten-
fold the quantity sown; the major part of .the land yields
twenty to thirtyfold. In the northern parts of the empire very
fiuk land is left uncultivated. The hillsides are laid out in
terraces and carefully irrigated in the dry season, the channels
being often two miles or more long. Of all the cereals barley
a the most widely grown. The average rate of pay to an agri-
cultural labourer b about threepence a day in addition to food,
•inch may cost another penny a day.
The Abyssinians keep a large number of domestic animals.
Among cattle the Sanga or Galla ox is .the most common. The
bells are usually kept for ploughing, the cow being preferred for
Beat. Most of the cattle are of the zebu or hump-backed variety,
bat there are abo two b ree d s one large, the other resembling
tie Jersey cattle— which are straight-backed. The horns of
(lv zebu variety are sometimes four feet long. Sheep, of which
there are very large flocks, belong to the short and fat-tailed
variety. The majority are not wool-bearing, but in one district
a my small black sheep is raised for wool The small mountain
breed of sheep weigh no more than so to 30 lb apiece. Goats
axe of both the long and short-haired varieties. The horns of the
buze goats are often thirty inches in length and stand up straight
from the head. The goats from the Arusi Galla country have
aae sflky hair which is sometimes sixteen inches long. The meat
of both sheep and goats is excellent; that of the latter is pre-
ferred by the natives. In 1004 the estimated number of sheep
sod goats in the country was 30,000,000. Large quantities of
batter, generally rancid, are made from the milk of cows, goats
tad sheep. In the Leka province small black pigs are bred in
cocsderable numbers. TTie horses (very numerous) are small
bat strong; they are generally about 14 hands in height. The
best breeds come from the Shoa uplands. The ass is also small
sad strong; and the mule, bred in large numbers, is- of excellent
<r*Btj. and both as a transport animal and as a mount is
preferred to the horse. The mule thrives in every condition of
dbate, is fever-proof, travels over the most difficult mountain
PMtes with absolute security, and can carry with ease a load of
»o lb. The average height of a mule is 12J hands. The
ceaatry b admirably adapted for stock-raising.
(9) Mi*erals.~ln the south and south-west provinces placer
gold mines by the banks of watercourses are worked by Gatlas
as an industry subsidiary to tending their flocks and fields. In
the Wallega-district are veins of gold-bearing quartz, mined to a
certain extent There are also gold mines in southern Shoa.
The annual output of gold is worth not less than £500,000. Only
a small proportion is exported. Besides gold, silver, iron, coal
and other minerals are_found._ Rock-salt is obtained from the
province of Tigr& 1" _
Trade and Curreiicy.-^Abyssinia being without seaports, the
external trade is through Massawa (Italian) in the north, Jibuti
(French)/ Zaila and Berbera (British) in the south, and for all
these ports Aden is a distributing centre. For Tigre" and
Amhara products Massawa is the best port, for the rest of the
empire, Jibuti For southern Abyssinia, Kaffa and Galla lands,
Harrar is the great entrepot, goods being forwarded thence to
Jibuti and the other Somaliland ports. There is also a con-
siderable trade with the Anglo-Egyptian Sudan through the
frontier towns of Rosaires and GaUabat At the French and
British ports there is freedom of trade, but on goods for Abys-
sinia entering Massawa a discriminating tax is levied if they
are not imported from Italy.
The chief articles of export are coffee, skins, ivory, dvet,
ostrich feathers, gum, pepper, kat plant (used by Moslems for
its stimulating properties), gold (in small quantities) and live
stock. The trade in skins is mainly with the United States
through Aden ; America also takes a large proportion of the
coffee exported. For live stock there is a good trade with
Madagascar. The chief imports are cotton goods, the yearly value
of this trade being fully £350,000; the sheetings are largely
American; the remainder English and Indian. No other
article of import approaches cotton in importance, but a con-
siderable trade is done in arms and ammunition, rice, sugar,
flour and other foods, and a still larger trade in candles and
matches (from Sweden), oil, carpets (oriental and European),
hats and umbrellas. Commerce long remained in a backward
condition; but under the Emperor Menelek II. efforts were
made to develop the resources of the country, and in 1905 the
total volume of trade exceeded £1,000,000. -<
Until the end of the 19th century the usual currency was the
Maria Theresa dollar, bars of rock-salt and cartridges. In 1894
a new coinage was. introduced, with the Menelek dollar or
talari, worth about two shillings, as the standard. This new
coinage gradually superseded the older currency. In 1905 the
Bank of Abyssinia, the first banking house in the country,
was founded, with its headquarters at Adis Ababa. The
bank, which was granted a monopoly of banking business in
the empire for fifty years, has a capital of £500,000, has the
power to issue notes, to mint the Abyssinian coinage, and
to engage in commercial operations. It was founded under
Egyptian law by the National Bank of Egypt, which insti-
tution had previously obtained a concession from the emperor
Menelek.
(xo) Government, — The political institutions are of a feudal
character. Within their provinces the rases (princes) exercise
large powers. The emperor, styled negHs negusti (king of kings),
is occasionally assisted by a council of rases. In October 1007
an imperial decree announced the constitution of a cabinet on
European lines, ministers being appointed to the portfolios of
foreign affairs, war, commerce, justice and finance. The legal
system is said to be based on the Justinian code. From the
decisions of the judges there is a right of appeal to the emperor.
The chief judicial official is known as the afa-negks (breath of
the king). The Abyssinian church (q.v.) is presided over by an
abuna, or archbishop. The land is not held in fee simple, but is
subject to the control of the emperor or the church. Revenue
is derived from an ad valorem tax on all imports; the purchase
and sale of animals; from royalties on trading concessions, and
in other ways, including fees for the administration of justice.
Education, of a rudimentary character, is given by the clergy.
In 1007 a system of compulsory education " of all male children
over the age of 1 2 " was decreed. The education was to be state
88
ABYSSINIA
provided, Coptic teachers were brought from Egypt and school
buildings were erected.
The Abyssinian calendar is as follows: — The Abyssinian year
of 365 days (366 in leap-year) begins on the zst of Ma&karram,
which corresponds to about the xoth of September. The
months have thirty days each, and are thus named: Maskarram,
Tekemt, Hadar, Tahsas, Tarr, Yekatit, Magawit, Miaziah,
Genbot, Sanni, Hamle, Naslu. The remaining five days in the
year, termed Pagmcn or Quaggimi (six in leap-year, the extra
day being named Kadis Yohannis), are put in at the end and
treated as holidays. Abyssinian reckoning is about seven years
eight months behind the Gregorian. Festivals, such as Easter,
fall a week later than in western Europe.
Army. — A small standing army is maintained in each province
of Abyssinia proper. Every able-bodied Abyssinian is expected
to join the army in case of need, and a force, well armed with
modern weapons, approaching 250,000 can be placed in the field.
The cavalry is chiefly composed of Galla horsemen. (F. R. C.)
Ethnology
(zx) The population of the empire is estimated at from
3,500,000 to 5,000,000. The inhabitants consist mainly of the
Abyssinians, the Galla and the Somali (the two last-named
peoples are separately noticed). Of non-African races the most
numerous are Armenians, Indians, Jews and Greeks. There is
a small colony of British, French, Italians and Russians. The
following remarks apply solely to Abyssinia proper and its in-
habitants. It should be remembered that the term " Abys-
sinian " is purely geographical, and has little or no ethnical
significance; it is derived from the Arabic Habesh, "mixed,"
and was a derisive name applied by the Arabs to the hetero-
geneous inhabitants of the Abyssinian plateau.
Abyssinia appears to have been originally peopled by the
eastern branch of the Hamitic family, which has occupied this
region from the remotest times, and still constitutes the great
bulk of its inhabitants, though the higher classes are now strongly
Semitizcd. The prevailing colour in the central provinces
(Amhara, Gojam) is a deep brown, northwards (Tigre, Lasta) it
is a pale olive, and here even fair complexions are seen. South-
wards (Shoa, Kobbo, Amuru) a decided chocolate and almost
sooty black is the rule. Many of the people are distinctly
negroid, with big lips, small nose, broad at the base, and frizzly
or curly black hair. The negroid element in the population is
due chiefly to the number of negro women who have been im-
ported into the harems of the Abyssinians. The majority,
however, may be described as a mixed Hamito-Semitic people,
who are in general well formed and handsome, with straight and
regular features, lively eyes, hair long and straight or somewhat
curled and in colour dark olive, approaching to black. The
Galla, who came originally from the south, are not found in
many parts of the country, but predominate in the Wollo dis-
trict, between Shoa and Amhara. It is from the Galla that the
Abyssinian army is largely recruited, and, indeed, there are few
of the chiefs who have not an admixture of Galla blood in their
veins.
As regards language, several of the indigenous groups, such as
the Khamtas of Lasta, the Agau or Agaos of Agaumeder (" Agao
land ") and the Falashas (q.v.), the so-called " Jews " of Abys-
sinia, still speak rude dialects of the old Hamitic tongue. But
the official language and that of all the upper classes is of Semitic
origin, derived from the ancient Himy antic, which is the most
archaic member of the Semitic linguistic family. Geez, as it* is
called, was introduced with the first immigrants from Yemen,
and although no longer spoken is still studied as the liturgical
language of the Abyssinian Christians. Its literature consists
of numerous translations of Jewish, Greek and Arabic works,
besides a valuable version of the Bible. (Sec Ethiopia.) The
best modern representative of Geez is the Tigrina of Tigre and
Lasta, which is much purer but less cultivated than the Amharic
dialect, which is used in state documents, is current in the central
and southern provinces and is much affected by Hamitic ele-
ments. All are written in a peculiar syllabic script which, un-
like all other Semitic forms, runs from left to right, and is derived
from that of the Sabaeans and Minaeans, still extant in the
very old rock-inscriptions of south Arabia.
The hybridism of the Abyssinians is reflected in their political
and social institutions, and especially in their religious beliefs
and practices. On a seething mass of African heathendom,
already in early times affected by primitive Semitic ideas, was
suddenly imposed a form of Christianity which became the state
religion. While the various ethnical elements have been merged
in the composite Abyssinian nation, the primitive and more ad-
vanced religious ideas have nowhere been fused in a uniform
Christian system. Foreigners are often surprised at the strange
mixture of savagery and lofty notions in a Christian community
which, for instance, accounts accidental manslaughter as wilful
murder. Recourse is still had to dreams as a means of detecting
crime. A priest is summoned, and, if his prayers and curses fail,
a small boy is drugged, and " whatever person he dreams of is
fixed on as the criminal. ... If the boy does not dream of the
person whom the priest has determined on as the criminal, he
is kept under drugs until he does what is required of him " (Count
Gleichen, With the Mission to Menelik, chap, xvi., 1898).
The Abyssinian character reflects the country's history.
Murders and executions are frequent, yet cruelty is not a marked
feature of their character; and in war they seldom kill their
prisoners. When a man is convicted of murder, he is handed
over to the relatives of the deceased, who may either put him to
death or accept a ransom. When the murdered person has no
relatives, the priests take upon themselves the office of avengers.
The natural indolence of the people has been fostered by the
constant wars, which have discouraged peaceful occupations.
The soldiers live by plunder, the monks by alms. The haughtiest
Abyssinian is not above begging, excusing himself with the
remark, " God has given us speech for the purpose of begging."
The Abyssinians are vain and selfish, irritable but easily ap-
peased; and are an intelligent bright people, fond of gaiety.
On every festive occasion, as a saint's day, birth, marriage, &c,
it is customary for a rich man to collect his friends and neigh-
bours, and kill a cow and one or two sheep. The principal parts
of the cow are eaten raw while yet warm and quivering, the re-
mainder being cut into small pieces and cooked with the favour-
ite sauce of butter and red pepper paste. The raw meat eaten in
this way is considered to be very superior in taste and much
more tender than when cold. The statement by James Bruce
respecting the cutting of steaks from a live cow has frequently
been called in question, but there can be no doubt that Bruce
actually saw what he narrates. Mutton and goat's flesh are the
meats most eaten: pork is avoided on religious grounds, and
the hare is never touched, possibly, as in other countries, from
superstition. Many forms of game are forbidden; for example,
all water-fowl. The principal drinks are mlse, a kind of
mead, and bousa, a sort of beer made from fermented cakes.
The Abyssinians are heavy eaters and drinkers, and any occasion
is seized as an excuse for a carouse. Old and young, of both
sexes, pass days and nights in these symposia, at which special
customs and rules prevail. Little bread is eaten, the Abyssinian
preferring a thin cake of durra'meal or tcjf, kneaded with water
and exposed to the sun till the dough begins. to rise, when it is
baked. Salt is a luxury; " he eats salt " being said of a spend-
thrift Bars of rock-salt, after serving as coins, are, when
broken up, used as food. There is a general looseness of morals:
marriage is a very slight tie, which can be dissolved at any time
by either husband or wife. Polygamy is by no means uncommon.
Hence there is little family affection, and what exists is only
between children of the same father and mother. Children of
the same father, but of different mothers, are said to be " always
enemies to each other." (Samuel Gobat's Journal of a Three
Years* Residence in Abyssinia, 1834.)
The dress of the Abyssinians is much like that of the Arabs.
It consists of close-fitting drawers reaching below the knees,
with a sash to hold them, and a large white robe. The Abys-
sinian, however, is beginning to adopt European clothes on the
upper part of the body, and European hats are becoming common.
ABYSSINIA
89
The Christian Abyssinians usually go barehead and barefoot, in
contrast to the Mahommedans, who wear turbans and leather
sandals. The women's dress is a smock with sleeves loose to
the wrist, where they fit tightly. The priests wear a white jacket
with loose sleeves, a head-cloth like a turban and a special type
of shoe with turned-up toes and soles projecting at the heel,
la the Woldeba district hermits dress in ochre-yellow cloths,
while the priests of some sects wear hides dyed red. Clothes
are made of cotton, though the nobles and great people wear
sQk robes presented by the emperor as a mark of honour. The
possessor of one of these is allowed to appear in the royal presence
wearing it instead of having one shoulder bared, as is the usual
Abyssinian method of showing respect A high-born man covers
himself to the mouth in the presence of inferiors. The men
either cut their hair short or plait, it; married women plait
their hair and wind round the head a black or parti-coloured silk
handkerchief; girls wear their hair short In the hot season no
Abyssinian goes without a flag-shaped fan of plaited rushes.
The Christian Abyssinians, men and women, wear a blue silk
cord round the neck, to which is often attached a crucifix. For
ornament women wear silver ankle-rings with bells, silver neck-
laces and sflver or gold rosettes in the ears. Silver rings on
infers and also on toes are common. The women are very fond
of strong scents, which are generally oik imported from India
and Ceylon. The men scarcely ever appear without a long
carved knife, generally they carry shield and spear as well.
Although the army has been equipped with modern rifles, the
common weapon of the people is the matchlock, and slings are
soil in use. The original arms. were a sickle-shaped sword,
spear and shield. The Abyssinians are great hunters and are
also clever at taming wild beasts. The nobles hunt antelopes
with leop ar d s , and giraffes and ostriches with horse and grey-
hound. In elephant-hunting iron bullets weighing a quarter of
a pound are used; throwing-clubs are employed for small game,
and lions are hunted with the spear. Lion skins belong to the
emperor, but the slayer keeps a strip to decorate his shield.
Stone and mortar are used in building, but the Abyssinian
homes are of the roughest kind, being usually circular huts, ill
■ade and thatched with grass. These huts are sometimes made
simply of straw and are surrounded by high thorn hedges, but,
ia the north, square houses, built in stories, flat-roofed, the roof
sometimes laid at the same slope as the hillside, and some with
pitched thatched roofs, are common. The inside walls are
plastered with cow-dung, day and finely chopped straw. None
of the houses have chimneys, and smoke soon colours the in-
terior a dark brown. Generally the houses are filthy and
3 ventilated and swarm with vermin. Drainage and sanitary
arrangements do not exist The caves of the highlands are often
assd as dwellings. The most remarkable buildings in Abyssinia
ue certain churches hewn out of the solid rock. The chief
aanve industries are leather-work, embroidery and filigree
Btttal-work; and the weaving of straw mats and baskets is
extensively practised. The baskets are particularly well made,
tad are frequently used to contain milk.
Abyssinian art is crude and is mainly reserved for rough
frescoes in the churches. These frescoes, however, often exhibit
considerable skill, and are indicative of the lively imagination
of their painters. They are in the Byzantine style and the colour-
ing is gaady. Saints and good people arc always depicted full
lace, the devil and all bad folk are shown in profile. Among the
aacst frescoes are those in the church of the Holy Trinity at
Adowa and those in the church at Kwarata, on the shores of
Lake Tsana. The churches are usually circular in form, the
«aQs of stone, the roof thatched.
The chief musical instruments are rough types of trumpets
aid fates, drums, tambourines and cymbals, and quadrangular
harps.
HlSTOKT
(») Abyssinia, or at least the northern portion of it, was
fcdaded in the tract of country known to the ancients as
Ethiopia, the northern limits of which reached at one time
to about Syene. The connexion between Egypt and Ethiopia
was in early times very intimate, and occasionally the two coun-
tries were under the same ruler, so that the arts and civilization
of the one naturally found their way into the other. In early
times, too, the Hebrews had commercial intercourse with the
Ethiopians; and Recording to Abyssinian tradition the queen
of Sheba who visited Solomon was a monarch of their country,
and from their son Mcnelek the kings of Abyssinia claim descent.
During the Captivity many of the Jews settled here and brought
with them a knowledge of the Jewish religion. Under the
Ptolemies, the arts as well as the enterprise of the Greeks entered
Ethiopia, and led to the establishment of Greek colonies. A
Greek inscription at Adulis, no longer extant, but copied by
Cosmas of Alexandria, and preserved in his Topographic Chris-
tiana, records that Ptolemy Euergctes, the third of the Greek
dynasty in Egypt, invaded the countries on both sides of the
Red Sea, and having reduced most of the provinces of Tigre to
subjection, returned to the port of Adulis, and there offered
sacrifices to Jupiter, Mars and Neptune. Another inscription,
not so ancient, found at Axum, states that Aizanas, king of
the Axumites, the Homcrites, &c, conquered the nation of the
Bogos, and returned thanks to his father, the god Mars, for his
victory. Out of these Greek colonies appears to have arisen
the kingdom of Auxume which flourished from the rst to the
7th century a.d. and was at one time nearly coextensive with
Abyssinia proper. The capital Auxume and the seaport Adulis
were then the chief centres of the trade with the interior
of Africa in gold dust, ivory, leather, aromatics, &c. At Axum,
the site of the ancient capital, many vestiges of its former great-
ness still exist; and the ruins of Aduh's, which was once a sea-
port on the bay of Annesley, are now about 4 m. from the shore
(see Ethiopia, The Axutnite Kingdom).
(13) Christianity was introduced into the country by Fru-
mentius (?.».), who was consecrated first bishop of Ethiopia by
St Athanasius of Alexandria about a.d. 330. From f BfrmftM1
the scanty evidence available it would appear that aoa 0/
the new religion at first made little progress, and the Cftrfttf-
Axumite kings seem to have been among the latest **4r*
converts. Towards the close of the 5th century a great company
of monks are believed to have established themselves in the
country. Since that time monachism has been a power among
the people and not without its influence on the course of events.
In the early part of the 6th century the king of the Homerites,
on the opposite coast of the Red Sea, having persecuted the
Christians, the emperor Justinian I. requested the king of
Auxume, Caleb or El-Esbaha, to avenge their cause. He ac-
cordingly collected an army, crossed over into Arabia, and con-
quered Yemen (c. 525), which remained subject to Ethiopia for
about fifty years. This was the most flourishing period in the
annals of the country. The Ethiopians possessed the richest
part of Arabia, carried on a large trade, which extended as far
as India and Ceylon, and were in constant communication with
the Greek empire. Their expulsion from Arabia, followed by
the conquest of Egypt by the Mahommedans in the middle, of
the 7th century, changed this state of affairs, and the continued
advances of the followers of the Prophet at length cut them
off from almost every means of communication with the civilized
world; so that, as Gibbon says, " encompassed by the enemies
of their religion, the Ethiopians slept for near a thousand years,
forgetful of the world by whom they were forgotten." About
a.d. 1000, a Jewish princess, Judith, conceived the design of
murdering all the members of the royal family, and of establish-
ing herself in their stead. During the execution of this project,
the infant king was carried off by some faithful adherents, and
conveyed to Shoa, where his authority was acknowledged, while
Judith reigned for forty years over the rest of the kingdom, and
transmitted the crown to her descendants. In 1 a68 the ki ngdom
was restored to the royal house in the person of Yekuno Amlak.
(14) Towards the close of the 15th century the Portuguese
missions into Abyssinia began. A belief had long prevailed
in Europe of the existence of a Christian kingdom in the far
east, whose monarch was known as Prester John, and various
9 o
ABYSSINIA
expeditions had been sent in quest of it Among others who
bad engaged in this search -was Pedro de Covilham, who
-^ arrived in Abyssinia in 1490, and, believing that he
JJUJ" had at length reached the far-famed kingdom, presented
tottueoc*. to the negOs, or emperor of the country, a letter from his
master the king of Portugal, addressed toPrester John.
Covilham remained in the country, but in 1507 an Armenian
named Matthew was sent by the negOs to the king of Portugal
to request his aid against the Mahommedans. In 1520 a
Portuguese fleet, with Matthew on board, entered the Red Sea
in compliance with this request, and an embassy from the fleet
visited the negus, Lebna Dengel Dawit (David) II., and remained
in Abyssinia for about six years. One of this embassy was Father
Francisco Alvarez, from whom we have the earliest and not the
least interesting account of the country. Between 1528 and x 540
armies of Mahommedans, under the renowned general Mahommcd
Gran (or Granye, probably a Somali or a Galla), entered Abyssinia
from the low country to the south-east, and overran the kingdom,
obliging the emperor to take refuge in the mountain fastnesses.
In this extremity recourse was again had to the Portuguese.
John Bermudez, a subordinate member of the mission of 1520,
who had remained in the country after the departure of the
embassy, was, according to his own statement (which is untrust-
worthy), ordained successor to the abuna (archbishop), and sent
to Lisbon. Bermudez certainly came to Europe, but with what
credentials is not known. Be that as it may, a Portuguese
fleet, under the command of Stephen da Gama, was sent from
India and arrived at Massawa in February 1541. Here he
received an ambassador from the negus beseeching him to send
help against the Moslems, and in the July following a force of
450 musqueteers, under the command of Christopher da Gama,
younger brother of the admiral, marched into the interior, and
being joined by native troops were at first successful against the
enemy; but they were subsequently defeated, and their com-
mander taken prisoner and put to death (August 1543)* On
the 21st of February 1543, however, Mahommed Granye* was
shot in an engagement and his forces totally routed. After
this, quarrels arose between the negus and Bermudez, who had
returned to Abyssinia with Christopher da Gama and who now
wished the emperor publicly to profess himself a convert to
Rome. This the negus refused to do, and at length Bermudez
was obliged to make his way out of the country. The Jesuits
who had accompanied or followed the da Gama expedition into
Abyssinia, and fixed their headquarters at Fremona (near Adowa),
were oppressed and neglected, but not actually expelled. In
the beginning of the 17th century Father Pedro Paez arrived at
Fremona, a man of great tact and judgment, who soon rose into
high favour at court, and gained over the emperor to his- faith.
He directed the erection of churches, palaces and bridges in
different parts of the country, and carried out many useful
works. His successor Mendez was a man of much less concili-
atory manners, and the feelings of the people became strongly
excited against the intruders, till at length, on the death of the
negus Sysenius, Socinius or Seged I., and the accession of his
son Fasilidas in 1633, they were all sent out of the country,
after having had a footing there for nearly a century
and a half. The French physician C. J. Poncet, who
went there in 1698, via Sennar and the Blue Nile, was
the only European that afterwards visited the country
before Bruce in 1769. James Brace's main object was to dis-
cover the sources of the Nile, which he was convinced lay in '
Abyssmia. Accordingly, leaving Massawa in September 1769,
he travelled via Axum to Gondar, where he was well received
by King Tekla Haimanot II. He accompanied the king on a
warlike expedition round Lake Tsana, moving S. round the
eastern shore, crossing the genuine Blue Nile (Abai) close to its
point of issue from the lake and returning via the western shore.
On a second expedition of his own he proved to his own satis-
faction that the river originated some 40 miles S.W. of the lake
at a place called Geesh (4 th of November 1770). He showed
that this river flowed into the lake, and left it by its now well-
known outlet. Bruce subsequently returned to Egypt (end of
1772) via Gondar, the upper Atbara, Sennar, the Nile and the
Korosko desert (see Bruce, James).
(15) In order to attain a clear view of native Abyssinian
history, as distinct from the visits and influence of Europeans,
it must be borne in mind that during the last three „ _ . .
hundred years, and indeed for a longer period, for ffll rill j,
the old chroniclers may be trusted to have given a nummtt
somewhat distorted view of the importance of the
particular chieftains with whom they came in contact, the coun-
try has been merely a conglomeration of provinces and districts,
ill defined, loosely connected and generally at war with each
other. Of these the chief provinces have been Tigrt (northern),
Amhara (central) and Shoa (southern). The seat of government,
or rather of overlordship, has usually been in Amhara, the ruler
of which, calling himself negus negusti (king of kings, or em-
peror), has exacted tribute, when he could, from the other
provinces. The title of negus negusti has been to a considerable
extent based on the blood in the veins of the claimant. AU the
emperors have based their claims on their direct descent from
Solomon and the queen of Sheba; but it is needless to say that
in many, if not in most, cases their success has been due more
to the force of their arms than to the purity of their lineage
Some of the rulers of the larger provinces have at times been
given, or have given themselves*, the title of negus or king, so
that on occasion as many as three, or even more, neguses have
been reigning at the same time; and this must be borne in mind
by the student of Abyssinian history in order to avoid confusion
of rulers The whole history of the country is in fact one gloomy
record of internecine wars, barbaric deeds and unstable govern-
ments, of adventurers usurping thrones, only to be themselves
unseated, and of raids, rapine and pillage. Into this chaos
enter from time to time broad rays of sunshine, the efforts of a
few enlightened monarchs to evolve order from disorder, and to
supply to their people the blessings of peace and civilization.
Bearing these matters in mind, we find that during the 18th
century the most prominent and beneficent rulers were the
emperor Yesu of Gondar, who died about 1720, SebastK, negQs
of Shoa (1703-1718), Amada Ycsusof Shoa, who extended his
kingdom and founded Ankober (1743-17 74), Tekla Giorgts of
Amhara (1770-1798?) and Asfa Nassen of Shoa (1774-1807), the
latter being especially renowned as a wise and benevolent
monarch. The first years of the 19th century were disturbed by
fierce campaigns between Guxa, ras of Gondar, and Wolda
Selassie^ ras of Tigr6, who were both striving for the crown of
Guxa's master, the emperor Eguala Izcion. Wolda Selassie'
was eventually the victor, and practically ruled the whole
country till his death in 1816 at the age of eighty.
(16) Mention must here be made of the first British mission,
under Lord Valentia and Mr Henry Salt, which was sent in
1 805 to conclude an alliance with Abyssinia, and gnu**
obtain a port on the Red Sea in case France secured mtttttom
Egypt by dividing up the Turkish empire with Russia. «•* *»'«-
This mission was succeeded by many travellers, j^S^
missionaries and merchants of all countries, and the
stream of Europeans continued until well into Theodore's reign.
For convenience' sake we insert at this point a partial list of mis*
sionaries and others who visited the country during the second
third of the 19th century— merely calling attention to the fact
that their visits were distributed over widely different parts of
the country, ruled by distinct lines of monarchs or governors.
In 1830 Protestant missionary enterprise was begun by Samuel
Gobat and Christian Kugler, who were sent out by the Church
Missionary Society, and were well received by the its Of Ttgr£.
Mr Kugler died soon after his arrival, and his place was subse-
quently supplied by Mr C. W. Isenberg, who was followed by
Dr Ludwig Krapf, the discoverer of Mount Kenya, and others.
Mr (afterwards Bishop) Gobat proceeded to Gondar, where he
also met with a favourable reception. In 1833 he returned to
Europe, and published a journal of his residence in Abyssinia*.
In 1834 Gobat went back to Tigre, but in 1836 ill health
compelled him to leave. In 1838 other missionaries wxre
obliged to leave the country, owing to the opposition of the native
ABYSSINIA
9»
prists. Messrs Isenberg and Krapf went south, and established
themselves at Shoa. The former soon after returned to England,
but Mr Krapf remained in Shoa till March 1842, when he re-
moved to Mombasa. Dr £. RQppell, the German naturalist,
rated the dbuntry in 1831, and remained nearly two years.
U. E. Combes and M. .Tamisier arrived at Massawa in 1835,
and visited districts which had not been traversed by Europeans
since the time of the Portuguese. One who did much at the time
to extend our geographical knowledge of the country was Dr
C T. Bcke ($.».), who was there from 1840 to 1843. Mr Mansfield
Parkyns was there from 1843 to 1846, and wrote the most inter-
esting book on the country since the time of Bruce. Bishop
Gobat having conceived the idea of sending lay missionaries
into the country, who would engage in secular occupations as
•ell as cany on missionary work, Dr Krapf returned to Abys-
sinia in 185s with Mr Had as pioneers of that mission; Krapf,
however, was not permitted to remain in the country. Six lay
workers came out at first, and they were subsequently joined by
others. Their secular work, however, appears to have been
more valuable to Theodore than their preaching, so that he
employed them as workmen to himself, and established them
at Gaffat, near his capital Mr Stern arrived in Abyssinia in
i860, and after a visit to Europe returned in 1863, accompanied
by Mr and Mrs Rosenthal 1
(17) WoWa Selassie* of Tigre was succeeded in 1817, through
farce of arms, by Sabagadis of Agarne, and the latter, as ras of
tftrtjuf llgre*, introduced various Englishmen, whom he much
admired, into the country. He increased the pros-
tperity of his land considerably, but by so doing
roused the jealousy of Ras Marie of Amhara-- to
1 he had refused tribute — and Ubie, son of Hailo Mariam,
a governor of Simen. In an ensuing battle (in January
1831), both Sabagadis and Marie were killed, and Ubie* retired
to watch events from bis own province. Marie was shortly
mttteded in the ras-ship of Amhara by Ali, a nephew of Guxa
and a Mahommedan. But Ubie*, who was aiming at the crown,
sooo attacked Ras Ali, and after several indecisive campaigns
proclaimed himself negQs of Tigre. To him came many French
BOBosaries and travellers, chief of whom were Lieut Lefebvre,
charged (1839) with political and geographical missions, and
fT^ftw Galim'er and Ferret, who completed for him a useful
triaagnlation and survey of Tigre and Simen (1840-1842). The
brothers Antoine and Arnaud d'Abbadie (q.v.) spent ten years
(1838-1848) in the country, making scientific investigations of
(reat value, and also involving themselves in the stormy politics
of the country. Northern Abyssinia was now divided into two
ciaps, the one, Amhara and Ras Ali, under Protestant British,
and the other, Tigre and Ubie, under Roman Catholic French,
istoenee. The latent hostility between the two factions threat-
ened at one time to develop into a religious war, but no serious
nm^vy^ took place until Kassa (later Theodore) appeared on
the scene.
(18) Iij (-Mr) Kassa was born in Kwara, a small district of
Westers Amhara, in 18x8. His father was i small local chief,
and his uncle was governor of the districts of Dembea,
***** Kwara and Chelga between Lake Tsana and the un-
Tbmtmm. defined N.W. frontier. He was educated in a monas-
tery, but preferred a more active life, and by his talents
aid energy came rapidly to the front On the death of his
cade he was made chief of Kwara, but in consequence of the
•nest of his brother BOawa by Ras Ali, he raised the standard
of revolt against the latter, and, collecting a large force, re-
peatedly beat the troops that were sent against him by the ras
(1*41-1847)- On one occasion peace was restored by his receiving
Tirsvkh, daughter of Ras Ali, in marriage; and this lady is
nid to have been a good and wise counsellor during her lifetime.
Be seat tamed his arms against the Turks, in the direction of
Xasnwa, but was defeated; and the mother of Ras Ali having
iawked him in his fallen condition, he proclaimed his independ-
ence. As his power was increasing, to the detriment of both Ras
J Since Theodore's time Protestant missionary work, except by
sums, baa been stopped.
Ali and Ubie 1 , these two princes combined against him, but were
heavily defeated by him at Gorgora (on the southern shore of
Lake Tsana) in 1853, Ubie retreated to Tigre, and Ras Ali fled
to Begemeder, where he eventually died. Kassa now ruled in
Amhara, but his ambition was to attain to supreme power, and
he turned his attention to conquering the remaining
chief divisions of the country, Gojam, Tigre and Shoa,
which still remained unsubdued. Berro, ras of Gojam,
in order to save himself, attempted to combine with
Tigre, but his army was intercepted by Kassa and totally de-
stroyed, himself being taken prisoner and executed (May 1854).
Shortly afterwards Kassa moved against Tigre, defeated Ubie's
forces at Deragie\ in Simen (February 1855), took their chief
prisoner and proclaimed himself negQs negusti of Ethiopia under
the name of Theodore III. He now turned his attention to Shoa.
(19) Retracing our steps for a moment in that direction, we
find that in 18x3 Sahela (or Sella) Selassie, younger son of the
preceding ras, Wassen Seged, had proclaimed himself negQs or
king. His reign was long and beneficent. He restored the
towns of Debra-Berhan and Angolala, and founded Entotto,
the strong stone-built town whose ruins overlook the modern
capital, Adis Ababa. In the terrible " famine of St Luke " in
1835, Selassie" still further won the hearts of his subjects by his
wise measures and personal generosity; and by extending his
hospitality to Europeans, he brought his country within the
closer ken of civilized European powers. During his reign he
received the missions of Major W. Cornwall's Harris, sent by the
governor-general of India (1841), and M. Rochet d'Htricourt,
sent by Louis Philippe (1843), with both of whom he concluded
friendly treaties on behalf of their respective governments. He
also wrote to Pope Pius IX., asking that a Roman Catholic
bishop should be sent to him. This request was acceded to,
and the pope despatched Monsignor Massaja to Shoa. But
before the prelate could reach the country, Selassie was dead
(1847), leaving his eldest son, Haeli If clicoth, to succeed him.
Melicoth at once proclaimed himself negQs, and by sending
for Massaja, who had arrived at Gondar, gave rise to the sus-
picion that he wished to have himself crowned as emperor. By
increasing his dominions at the expense of the Gallas, he still
further roused the jealousy of the northerners, and a treaty
which he concluded with Ras Ali against Kassa in 1850 deter-
mined the latter to crush him at the earliest opportunity.
Thus it was that in 1855 Kassa, under the name of the em-
peror Theodore, advanced against Shoa with a large army.
Dissensions broke out among the Shoans, and after a desperate
and futile attack on Theodore at Debra-Berhan, Haeli Melicoth
died of exhaustion and fever, nominating with his last breath
his eleven-year-old son Menelek* as successor (November 1855).
Darge, Haeli's brother, took charge of the young prince, but
after a hard fight with Angeda, one of Theodore's rases, was
obliged to capitulate. Menelek was handed over to the negQs,
taken to Gondar, and there trained in Theodore's service.
(20) Theodore was now in the zenith of his career. He is
described as being generous to excess, free from cupidity, merciful
to his vanquished enemies, and strictly continent, but subject
to violent bursts of anger and possessed of unyielding pride
and fanatical religious zeal. He was also a man of education
and intelligence, superior to those among whom he lived, with
natural talents for governing and gaining the esteem of others.
He had, further, a noble bearing and majestic walk, a frame
capable of enduring any amount of fatigue, and is said to have
been " the best shot, the best spearman, the best runner, and the
best horseman in Abyssinia." Had he contented himself with
the sovereignty of Amhara and Tigre, he might have maintained
his position; but he was led to exhaust his strength against the
W0U0 Gallas, which was probably one of the chief causes of
his ruin. He obtained several victories over that people, ravaged
their country, took possession of Magdala, which he afterwards
made his principal stronghold, and enlisted many of the chiefs
and their followers in his own ranks. As has been shown, he also
reduced the kingdom of Shoa, and took Ankober, the capital;
* Menelek means "a second self."
9 2
ABYSSINIA
but in the meantime his own people were groaning under his
heavy exactions, rebellions were breaking out in various parts
of his provinces, and his good queen Tavavich was now dead.
The British consul, Walter C. Plowden, who was strongly
attached to Theodore, having been ordered by his government
Th0odor0'$in i860 to return to Massawa, was attacked on his
f*arr»f way by a rebel named Garred, mortally wounded,
2**2**' and taken prisoner. Theodore attacked the rebels,
and in the action the murderer of Mr Plowden
was slain by his friend and companion Mr J. T. Bell, an
engineer, but the latter lost his life in preserving that of
Theodore. The deaths of the two Englishmen were terribly
avenged by the slaughter or mutilation of nearly 2000 rebels.
Theodore soon after married his second wife Terunish, the proud
daughter of the late governor of Tigre\ who felt neither affection
nor respect for the upstart who had dethroned her father, and
the union was by no means a happy one. In 1862 he made a
second expedition against the Gallas, which was stained with
atrocious cruelties. Theodore had now given himself up to
intoxication and lust. When the news of Mr Plowdcn's death
reached England, Captain C. D. Cameron was appointed to
succeed him as consul, and arrived at Massawa in February
1862. He proceeded to the camp of the king, to whom he pre-
sented a rifle, a pair of pistols and a letter in the queen's name.
In October Captain Cameron was sent home by Theodore, with a
letter to the queen of England, which reached the Foreign Office
on the 1 2th of February 1863. This letter was put aside and no
answer returned, and to this in no small degree arc to be attri-
buted the difficulties that subsequently arose with that country.
In November despatches were received from England, but no
answer to the emperor's letter, and this, together with a visit
paid by Captain Cameron to the Egyptian frontier town of
Kassala, greatly offended him; accordingly in January 1864
Captain Cameron and his suite, with Messrs Stern and Rosenthal,
were cast into prison. When the news of this reached England,
the government resolved*, when too late, to send an answer to
the emperor's letter, and selected Mr Hormuzd Rassam to be
its bearer. He arrived at Massawa in July 1864, and immedi-
ately despatched a messenger requesting permission to present
himself before the emperor. Neither to this nor a subsequent
application was any answer returned till August 1865, when a
curt note was received, stating that Consul Cameron had been
released, and if Mr Rassam still desired to visit the king, he was
to proceed by the route of Gallabat. Later in the year Theodore
became more civil, and the British party on arrival at the king's
camp in Damot, on the 25th of January 1866, were received
with all honour, and were afterwards sent to Kwarata, on Lake
Tsana, there to await the arrival of the captives. The latter
reached Kwarata on the 1 2U1 of March, and everything appeared
to proceed favourably. A month later they started for the coast,
but had not proceeded far when they were all brought back and
put into confinement Theodore then wrote a letter to the queen,
requesting European workmen and machinery to be sent to
him, and despatched it by Mr Flad. The Europeans, although
detained as prisoners, were not at first unkindly treated; but
in the end of June they were sent to Magdala, where they were
soon afterwards put in chains. They suffered hunger, cold and
misery, and were in constant fear of death, till the spring of
1868 when they were relieved by the British troops.
(21) In the meantime the power of Theodore in the country
was rapidly waning. Shoa had already shaken off his yoke;
Gojam was virtually independent; Walkeit and Simcn were
under a rebel chief; and Lasta, Waag and the country about
Lake Ashangi had submitted to Wagshum Gobassit, who had
also overrun Tigre and appointed Dejaj Rassai his governor.
The latter, however, in 1867 rebelled against his master and
assumed the supreme power of that province. This was the
state of matters when the English troops made their appearance
in the country. With a view if possible to effect the release of
the prisoners by conciliatory measures, Mr Flad was sent back,
with some artisans and machinery, and a letter from the queen,
stating that these would be handed over to his majesty on the
release of the prisoners and their return to Massawa. This.
however, failed to influence the emperor, and the English
government at length saw that they must have recourse to arms.
In July 1867, therefore, it was resolved to send an army into
Abyssinia to enforce the release of the captives, under Sir
Robert. Napier (xst Baron Napier of Magdala). The landing-
place selected was Mulkutto (Zula), on Annesley Bay, the point
of the coast nearest to the site of the ancient Adulis, and we
are told that "the pioneers of the English expedition followed
to some extent in the footsteps of the adventurous
soldiers of Ptolemy, and met with a few faint traces **J
of this old-world enterprise " (C. R. Markham). The ^^
force amounted to upwards of 16,000 men, besides
12,640 belonging to the transport service, and followers, making
in all upwards of 32,000 men. The task to be accomplished
was to march over 400 miles of a mountainous and little-known
country, inhabited by savage tribes, to the camp or fortress of
Theodore, and compel him to deliver up his captives. The com*
mander-in-chief landed on the 7 th of January 1868, and soon
after the troops began to move forward through the pass of
Senate, and southward through the districts of Agame, Ten,
Endarta, Wojerat, Lasta and Wadela. In the meantime
Theodore had been reduced to great straits. His army, which at
one time numbered over 100,000 men, was rapidly deserting him,
and he could hardly obtain food for his followers. He resolved
to quit his captial Dcbra- Tabor, which he burned, and set out
with the remains of his army for Magdala. During this march
he displayed an amount of engineering skill in the construction
of roads, of military talent and fertility of resource, that excited
the admiration and astonishment of his enemies. On the after-
noon of the 10th of April a force of about 3000 men suddenly
poured down upon the English in the plain of Arogie, a few
miles from Magdala. They advanced again and again to the
charge, but were each time driven back, and finally retired in
good order. Early next morning Theodore sent Lieut. Pridea.ua,
one of the captives, and Mr Flad, accompanied by a native chief,
to the English camp to sue for peace. Answer was returned,
that if he would deliver up all the Europeans in his hands, and
submit to the queen of England, he would receive honourable
treatment The captives were liberated and sent away, and
accompanying a letter to the English general was a present
of 1000 cows and 500 sheep, the acceptance of which would,
according to Eastern custom, imply that peace was granted.
Through some misunderstanding, word was sent to Theodore
that the present would be accepted, and he felt that he was now
safe; but in the evening he learned that it had not been received,
and despair again seized him. Early next morning he attempted
to escape with a few of his followers, but subsequently returned.
The same day (13th April) Magdala was stormed and taken,
practically without loss, and within they found the dead body
of the emperor, who had fallen by his own hand. The inhabit-
ants and troops were subsequently sent away, the fortifications
destroyed and the town burned. The queen Terunish having
expressed her wish to go back to her own country, accompanied
the British army, but died during the march, and her son Alain-
ayahu, the only legitimate son of the emperor, was brought to
England, as this was the desire of bis father. 1 The success of
the expedition was in no small degree owing to the aid afforded
by the several native chiefs through whose country it passed,
and no one did more in this way than Dejaj Kassa or Rassai of
Tigre. In acknowledgment of this, several pieces of ordnance,
small arms and ammunition, with much of the surplus stores,
were handed over to him, and the English troops left the country
in May 1868.
(22) It is now time to return to the story of the young prince
Menelek, who, as we have seen, had been nomin- M»B*Mt
ated by his late father as ruler of Shoa, but was '*'**«
in Theodore's power in Tigre. The following table •«••■■
shows his descent since the beginning of the 19th century: —
1 He was subsequently sent to school at Rugby, but died in his
nineteenth year, on the 14th ol November 1879* He w*» buried
at St George's Chapel. Windsor.
ABYSSINIA
93
Ms Num. d. 1807
Woizero Zenebe Work
Sella Selassie -Woisero Betsabesh
(i79$-i847) I
HaeK Mdkoth'-Ejigayu
(1825-1855) '
Menelek II. <
*. 1844
•Taltu
Siefu Darg*
(1826-1860) b. 1827
Mashashl
T ion Zauditu Tanina Work
(dead) (Judith) (daughter)
On the retirement of Theodore's forces from Shoa in 1855,
Siefu, brother of Haeli Mclicoth, proclaimed himself negQs of
Shoa at Ankober, and beat the local representatives of the
northern government. The emperor returned, however, in
1858, and after several repulses succeeded in entering Ankober,
where he behaved with great cruelty, murdering or mutilating
aO the inhabitants. Siefu kept up a gallant defence for two
more years, but was then killed by Kebret, one of his own chiefs.
Thus chaos again reigned supreme in Shoa. In 1865, Mcnelek,
now a dejazmack 1 of Tigre*, took advantage of Theodore's diffi-
culties with the British government and escaped to Workitu,
queen of the Wollo Galla country. The emperor, who held as
hostage a son of Workitu, threatened to kill the boy unless
Menelek were given up; but the gallant queen refused, and lost
both her son and her throne. The fugitive meanwhile arrived
safely m Shoa, and was there acclaimed as negQs. For the next
three years Menelek devoted himself to strengthening and
disciplining his army, to legislation, to building towns, such as
Lkht (near Debra-Berhan), Worra Hailu (Wollo Galla country),
fa., and to repelling the incursions of the Gallas. On the death
of Theodore (ijth April 1868) many Shoans, including Ras
Dug*, were released, and Menelek began to feel himself strong
flghto enough, after a few preliminary minor campaigns, to
«■**■_ undertake offensive operations against the northern
JJJJJ* princes. But these projects were of little avail, for
Kassai of Tigr€ t as above mentioned, had by this time
( 1872) risen to supreme power in the north. With the help of the
riles and guns presented to him by the British, he had beaten
Ras Bareya of Tigre*, Wagshum Gobassi6 of Amhara and Tekla
Gnrgis of Condar, and after proclaiming himself negus negusti
sader the name of Johannes or John, was now preparing to
earth on Shoa. Here, however, Menelek was saved from prob-
able destruction through the action of Egypt. This power had,
by the advice of Werner Munzinger (q.v.), their Swiss governor
of Massawa, seized and occupied in 1872 the northern province
of Bogos; and, later on, insisted on occupying Hamasen also,
far fear Bogos should be attacked. John, after futile protests,
collected an army, and with the assistance of Ras Walad Michael,
boedhary chief of Bogos, advanced against the Egyptian forces,
*ho were under the command of one Arendrup, a Dane. Meeting
tax the Mareb, the Egyptians were beaten in detail, and almost
aaaibjbted at Gundet (13th November 1875). An avenging
expedition was prepared in the spring of the following year, and,
umbering 14,000 men under Ratib Pasha, Loring (American),
tad Prince Hassan, advanced to Gura and fortified a position
■ the neighbourhood. Although reinforced by Walad Michael,
*ao had now quarrelled with John, the Egyptians were a second
no* (75th March 1876) heavily beaten by the Abyssinians, and
wired, losing an enormous quantity of both men and rifles.
Colonel C. G. Gordon, governor-general of the Sudan, was now
ovJered to go and make peace with John, but the king had moved
ftxah with bis army, intending to punish Menelek for having
nided Gondar whilst he, John, was engaged with the Egyptians.
'A title variously translated. A dtjatmock (4w> » * high
ofoal, laakmg immediately below a ras.
(23) Mendek's kingdom was meanwhile torn in twain by
serious dissensions, which had been instigated by his concubine
Bafana. This lady, to whom he was much attached, had been
endeavouring to secure the succession of one of her own sons to
the throne of Shoa, and had almost succeeded in getting rid of
Mashashft, son of Siefu and cousin of Menelek, who was the ap-
parent heir. On the approach of John, the Shoans united for a
time against their common enemy. But after a few skirmishes
they melted away, and Menelek was- obliged to submit and do
obeisance to John. The latter behaved with much generosity,
but at the same time imposed terms which effectually deprived
Shoa of her independence (March 1878). In 1879 Gordon was
sent on a fresh mission to John on behalf of Egypt, but he was
treated with scant courtesy, and was obliged to leave the country
without achieving anything permanent
The Italians now come on the scene. Assab, a port near the
southern entrance of the Red Sea, had been bought from the
local sultan in March 1870 by an Italian company,
which, after acquiring more land in 1879 and 1880,
was bought out by the Italian government in 1882.
In this year Count Pietro Antonelli was despatched to
Shoa in order to improve the prospects of the colony by treaties
with Menelek and the sultan of Aussa. Several missions followed
upon this one, with more ox less successful results; but both
John and Menelek became uneasy when Beilul, a port to the north
of Assab Bay, was occupied by the Italians in January 1885, and
Massawa taken over by them from Egypt in the following month.
This latter act was greatly resented by the Abyssinians, for by a
treaty concluded with a British and Egyptian mission under
Admiral Hewett and Mason Pasha * in ihe previous year, free
transit of goods was to be allowed through this port. Matters
came to a head in January 1887, when the Abyssinians, in con-
sequence of a refusal from General Gene* to withdraw his troops,
surrounded and attacked a detachment of 500 Italian troops
at Dogali, killing more than 400 of them. Reinforcements were
sent from Italy, whilst in the autumn the British government
stepped in and tried to mediate by means of a mission under Mr
(afterwards Sir Gerald) Portal. His mission, however proved
abortive, and after many difficulties and dangers he returned to
Egypt at the end of the year. In April 1888 the Italian forces,
numbering over 20,000 men, came into touch with the Abys-
sinian army; but negotiations took the place of fighting, with
the result that bdth forces retired, the Italians only leaving
some 5000 troops in Eritrea, as their colony was now called.
Meanwhile John had not been idle with regard to the dervishes,
who had in the meantime become masters of the Egyptian
Sudan. Although he had set his troops in motion too late to
relieve Kassala, Ras Alula, his chief general, had succeeded in
inflicting a handsome defeat on Osman Digna at Kufit in Sep-
tember 1885. Fighting between the dervishes and the Abys-
sinians continued, and in August 1887 the dervishes entered
and sacked Gondar. After some delay, King John took the field
in force against the enemy, who were still harassing the north-
.west of his territory. A great battle ensued at Gallabat, in which
the dervishes, under Zeki Tumal, were beaten. But a stray
bullet struck the king, and the Abyssinians decided to retire.
The king died during the night, and his body fell into the bands
of the enemy (9th March 1889).
(24) Immediately the news of John's death reached Menelek,
he proclaimed himself emperor, and received the submission of
Gondar, Gojam and several other provinces. In _
common with other northern princes, Mangasha, #m Ji Wi
reputed son and heir of King John, with the yellow-
eyed Ras Alula,' refused to acknowledge the sovereignty of
Menelek; but, on the latter marching against them in the
following January with a large army, they submitted. As it
happened, Count Antonelli was with Menelek when he claimed
* The main object of this mission was to seek John's assistance
in evacuating the Egyptian garrisons in the Sudan, which were
threatened by the dervishes.
* Ras Alula died February 1897, ***** about 5*- He had raised
himself by his military talents from being a groom and private
soldier to the position of generalissimo of the army
94
ABYSSINIA
the throne, and promptly concluded (and of May 1889) with
him on behalf of Italy a friendly treaty, to be known hereafter
as the famous Uccialli treaty. In consequence of this the
Italians occupied Asmara, made friends with Mangasha and
received Ras Makonnen, 1 Menelek's nephew, as his plenipo-
tentiary in Italy. Thus it seemed as though hostilities between
the two countries had come to a definite end, and that peace
was assured in the land. For the next three years the land was
fairly quiet, the chief political events being the convention (6th
February 1891) between Italy and Abyssinia, protocols between
Italy and Great Britain (24th March and 15th April 1891) and
a proclamation by Menelek (10th April 1891), all on the subject
of boundaries. As, however, the Italians became more and more
friendly with Mangasha and Tigrt the apprehensions of Menelek
increased, till at last, in February 1893, he wrote denouncing
the Uccialli treaty, which differed in the Italian and Amharic
versions. According to the former, the negus was bound to
make use of Italy as a channel for communicating with other
powers, whereas the Amharic version left it optional. Mean-
while the dervishes were threatening Eritrea. A fine action by
Colonel Arimondi gained Agordat for Italy (21st December
1893), and a brilliant march by Colonel Baratieri resulted in
the acquisition of Kassala (17th July 1894).
On his return Baratieri found that Mangasha was intriguing
with the dervishes, and had actually crossed the frontier with a
large army. At Koaiit and Senate (13th to 15th January 1895)
Mangasha was met and heavily defeated by Baratieri, who
occupied Adrigat in March. But as the year wore oil the Italian
commander pushed his forces unsupported too far to the south.
Menelek was advancing with a large army in national support
of Mangasha, and the subsequent reverses at Amba Alagi (7th
December 1895) and Macalle (33rd January 1896) forced the
Italians to fall back.
Reinforcements of many thousands were meanwhile arriving
at Massawa, and in February Baratieri took the field at the
head of over 13,000 men. Menelek's army, amounting
to about 90,000, had during this time advanced, and
was occupying a strong position at Abba Garima,
near Adua (or Adowa). Here Baratieri attacked him on the zst
of March, but the difficulties of the country were great, and one
of the four Italian brigades had pushed too far forward. This
brigade was attacked by overwhelming numbers, and on the
remaining brigades advancing in support, they were successively
cut to pieces by the encircling masses of the enemy. The Italians
lost over 4500 white and 2000 native troops killed and wounded,
and over 2500 prisoners, of which 1600 were white, whilst the
Abyssinians owned to a loss of over 3000. General Baldissera
advanced with a large body of reinforcements to avenge this
defeat, but the Abyssinians, desperately short of supplies, had
already retired, and beyond the peaceful relief of Adrigat no
further operations took place. It may here be remarked that
the white prisoners taken' by Menelek were exceedingly well
treated by him, and that he behaved throughout the struggle
with Italy with the greatest humanity and dignity. On the
26th of October following a provisional treaty of peace was
concluded at Adis Ababa, annulling the treaty of Uccialli and
recognizing the absolute independence of Abyssinia. This
treaty was ratified, and followed by other treaties and agree-
ments defining the Eritrcan-Abyssinian and the Abyssinian-
Italian Somaliland frontiers (see Italy, History, and Somali-
land, Italian).
(25) The war, so disastrous to Italy, attracted the attention
of all Europe to Abyssinia and its monarch, and numerous
missions, two Russian, three French and one British,
were despatched to the country, and hospitably re-
ceived by Menelek. The British one, under Mr (after-
wards Sir) Rennell Rodd, concluded a friendly treaty
with Abyssinia (15th of May 1897), but did not, except in the
direction of Somaliland, touch on frontier questions, which for
several years continued a subject of discussion. During the
1 Ras of Harrar, which province had been conquered and occupied
by Menelek in January 1887.
Bs(tk*f
same year (1897) a small French expedition under Me
Clochette and de Bonchamps endeavoured to reach the Nile,
but, after surmounting many difficulties, stuck in the marshes
of the Upper Sobat, and was obliged to return. Another expe-
dition of Abyssinians, under Dejaj Tasamma and accompan-
ied by three Europeans— Faivre (French), Potter (Swiss) and
Artomonov (Russian)— started early in 1898, and reached the
Nile at the Sobat mouth in June, a few days only before Major
Marchand and his gallant companions arrived on the scene.
But no contact was made, and the expedition returned Co
Abyssinia.
In the same year Menelek proceeded northwards with a large
army for the purpose of chastising Mangasha, who was again
rebelling against his authority. After some trilling fighting
Mangasha submitted, and Ras Makonnen despatched a force
to subdue Beni Shangul, the chief of which gold country, Wad
Tuf el Guri, was showing signs of disaffection. This effected,
the Abyssinians almost came into contact with the Egyptian
troops sent up the Blue Nile (after the occupation of Khartum)
to Famaka and towards Gallabat; but as both sides were
anxious to avoid a collision over this latter town, no hostile
results ensued: An excellent understanding was, in fact, estab-
lished between these two contiguous countries, in spite of occa-
sional disturbances by bandits on the frontier. On this frontier
question, a treaty was concluded on the 15th of May 1002
between England and Abyssinia for the delimitation of the
Sudan-Abyssinian frontier. Menelek, in addition, agreed not
to obstruct the waters of Lake Tsana, the Blue Nile or the Sobat,
so as not to interfere with the Nile irrigation question, and he
also agreed to give a concession, if such should be required, for
the construction of a British railway through his dominions, to
connect the Sudan with Uganda. A combined British-Abys-
sinian expedition (Mr A. E. Butter's) was despatched in ioox to
propose and survey a boundary between Abyssinia on the one
side and British East Africa and Uganda on the other; and the
report of the expedition was made public by the British govern-
ment in November 1904. It was followed in 1908 by an agree-
ment defining the frontiers concerned.
(26) In 1899 the rebellion of the so-called "mad" mullah
(Hajji Mahommed Abdullah) began on . the borders of
British Somaliland. An Abyssinian expedition was,
at Great Britain's request, sent against the mullah, JJ^Jj
but without much -effect. In the spring and J
summer of 1001 a fresh expedition from Harrar was \
undertaken against the mullah, who was laying waste •
the Ogaden country. Two British officers accompanied
this force, which was to co-operate with British troops advancing
from Somaliland; but little was achieved by the Abyssinians,
and after undergoing considerable privations' and losses, and
harassing the country generally, including that of some friendly
tribes, it returned to Harrar. During the 1902-3 campaign of
General (Sir) W. H. Manning, Menelek provided a force of 5000
to co-operate with the British and to occupy the Webi Shebeli
and south-western parts of the Haud. This time the Abyssinians
were more successful, and beat the rebels in a pitched fight; but
the difficulties of the country again precluded effective co-opera-
tion. During General Egerton's campaign (1903-4) yet another
force of 5000 Abyssinians was despatched towards Somaliland.
Accompanied by a few British officers, it worked its way south-
ward, but did not contribute much towards the final solution.
In any case, however, it is significant that the Abyssinians have
repeatedly been willing to co-operate with the British away
from their own country.
Regarding the question of railways, the first concession for a
railway from the coast at Jibuti (French Somaliland) to the
interior was granted by Menelek to a French company
in 1804. The company having met with numberless
difficulties and financial troubles, the French govern- imn—ac*.
ment, on the extinction of the company's funds, came
to the rescue and provided money for the construction. (In the
alternative British capitalists interested in the company would
have obtained control of the line.) The French government's
ABYSSINIAN CHURCH
95
help enabled the railway to be completed to Dire Dawa, 28 m.
from Harrar, by the last day of 1902. Difficulties arose over
the continuation of the railway to Adis Ababa and beyond,
and the proposed internationalization of the line. These diffi-
culties, whkh hindered the work of construction for years, were
composed (so far as the European Powers interested were con-
cereed) in 1006. By the terms of an Anglo-French-Italian
agreement, signed in London on the 13th of December of that
year, it was decided that the French company should build the
railway as far as Adis Ababa, while railway construction west
cf that place should be under British auspices, with the stipula-
tion that any railway connecting Italy's possessions on the Red
Sea with its Somaliland protectorate should be built under
Italian auspices. A British, an Italian and an Abyssinian
representative were to be appointed to the board of the French
company, and a French director to the board of any British or
Italian company formed. Absolute equably of treatment on
the railway and at Jibuti was guaranteed to the commerce of all
the Powers.
Meanwhile the country slowly developed in parts and opened
out cautiously to European influences. Most of the Powers
appointed represen tatives at Menelek's capital— the British
chaster-plenipotentiary and consul-general, Lieut.-Coloncl Sir
J. L. Harrington, having been appointed shortly after the British
ausuoa in 1807. In December 1903 an American mission visited
Adb Ababa, and a commercial treaty between the United States
and Abyssima was signed. A German mission visited the
country early in 1005 and also concluded a treaty of commerce
with the negus. Later in the year a German minister was ap-
pointed to the court of the emperor.
After 1897 British influence in Abyssinia, owing largely no
doubt to the conquest of the Sudan, the destruction of the
dervish power and the result of the Fashoda incident, was
stssibrf on the increase. Of the remaining powers France
occupied the most important position in the country. Ras
Makounen, the most capable and civilized of Menelek's probable
successors, died in March 1006, and Mangasha died later in the
same year; the question of the succession therefore opened up
the possibility that, in spite of recent civilizing influences,
Abrssinia might still relapse in the future into its old state
of conflict. The Anglo-French-Italian agreement of December
1906 contained provisions in view of this contingency. The
preamble of the document declared that it was the common
interest of the three Powers "to maintain intact the integrity
of Ethiopia/' and Article I. provided for their co-operation in
maintaining "the political and territorial status qua in Ethiopia."
Should, however, the status qua be disturbed, the powers were to
concert to safeguard their special interests. The terms of the
apetmeat were settled in July 1906, and its text forthwith
communicated to the negus. After considerable hesitation
Nenelek sent, early in December, a note to the powers, in which,
after thanking them for their intentions, he stipulated that the
agreement should not in any way limit his own sovereign rights.
In June 1008, by the nomination of his grandson, Lij Yasu (b.
ilqb), as bis heir, the emperor endeavoured to end the rivalry
between various princes claiming the succession to the throne.
(See Mcnujtjc.) A convention with Italy, concluded in the
*me year, settled the frontier questions outstanding with that
coutry. (G^ # )
BiBLJOCSAMiy.— For general information «ec A, B. Wykle'a Mod-
srn Akyistmia (London, i<joi), a volume giving l ^ c result of many
y*ar»' acquaintance with i he too ntry a nd people ; Voyage en A byssinte
■ • 1*39-43. Po* H commission seientijiqvc, by Th. Lefebvre
and othert (6 vote, and t < las, 3 voh- , Pari 1. 1 *4 5 - u • ; Elite* Reel us,
S"* thgr*P*i* umTrrirUt, vol. il chap v (Pjris, 1885). For
■tot geographical and kind red information consult the Geographical
J****** (London), especially "A Journey through Abyssinia,"
*•*■ tv. (1900). and "Lsploratinn in the Abai Bj^in," vol. xxvii.
JW. both by H. Weld BlundelL and 'From the Somali Coaat
™»f> S. Ethiopia to 1 he Sudan/ 1 vol. xx. f ioo?l , by C. Neumann;
J««ne d'Abbadie, GtcgT 9 phie dt i Ethiapt, (Paris. 1890). The
f™ 1 ** parliamentary fupcr Africa, No. 1 \ ( 1 904). b a report on the
■w*ey of the S.E. frontier by Cipt. P. Maud, RE., and contains.
*J*habte nan. For g«*Ky, Ac, see W. T. Stanford. Obstna-
■■*» sn He CmUfj «•** Zootogj <$ Abyssinia (London,
1870);
C. Futterer, "Bdtrlge sur Kenntnita des Jura in Ost-Afrika." ZtiL
Deutsek. (kol. GeteiL xlix. p. 568 (1897); C. A. Raisin. "Rocks from
Southern Abyssinia," Quart Jouru. dot. Sac voL Ik. pp. 292-506
(1903).
Among work* by travellers describing the country are-— Tame*
Bruce - travels to discover th* Source of ike Nile (1768-1773] fed in*
burgh, 1813, 3rd ed., 8 vota) ; The Hirhlandt of Aethiopta, \\ vol*.,
Londi .. 1 841), by Sir W. Com waWii Harris, dealing with the Danaki)
country, JLjrrar and Shoa; Mansfield Parkyns, Life in Abyssinia;
being ••• 1mm tolieiled during there pars' residence and travels (2nd ed\ t
Londt . 18&S): Antoinc d'Abbadie. Deuit ans dans la Hank*
Etkio t *e (Parii. 1868); P + H + G. Powell-Cotton. A Sporting Tup
Ikroui Abyssinia (London, iooj); A. Donaldson Smith, fhtough
Unkn .1 African Countries (London* 1807) ■ M. S, Wellby, 'TVijJ
Sirdat and Sfeneiik (London, 1901 ) r For history tee — A. M. H- J.
Stokvi .' Manuel d' hi stein, voh I pp. 439-46, and vol. ii. pp. Ijmv-v
(Leid 1. iflS8-fl9). which contains lists of the sovereign.* el Aby«inia,
Shoa r:l Ibrrar, from the earliest times, with brief notes. Tents
of tre lies between Abyssinia and the European Powers up to J 896
will b found in vol. L. of Sir E + He mulct's The Afat of Africa by
Treat: 1 London, 1^6), L, J, Morie'i Ilisteitt de tEikwpie: Torn*
ii, "L I f-yssini* " (Paris, looj } H is a comprehensive turvcy (.the view*
on m km affairs being coloured by a strong an ti- British bias),
For r re detailed historical nudy consult C* Beccari's Nolisia f
Saggi .ii cpert r dacummii inedtii rieuardanii ta 5toria di FMopia
duran 1 SrcotiXVL. XVII. e XV II L (Rome, tooj), a valuable
guide 1 1 the period indicated; E, Claser, Die Abtiiinit* in Atobien
und A frit a (Munich, JS95); The Penvtvcs* Expedition to Abys*
sinia 1 1541-1545 as narrated by Caslanhoso (with the account of
Berm ki). translated and edited by R. S. Wbiieway (London,
Hakli ( Society, iooj), whkh contains a bibliography; Ful£h el-
Haboi j, a corncmporary Arab chronicle of the wars of Mahommed
Gran, mnslited into French by Anidhe d'Abbadie and P, Pan*
litschl j Paris, 1 flofi ) ; A Voyage to A bytsinia by father Jtfome Lcbo,
from r?ii? French [by SamueT Johnson] {London, 1735); Record of
the Ei : JUfcn to Abytsiuw, 1 volg., an official history of the war of
1868, Major T J. Ifulland and Capt. H. Ho^er (London, 1&70);
Horm J Rassam, Nartatip* $f the British Afisn&n, to Theodora
I1865 iS68\ {2 vols.. London » 1*169): Henry Rlanc, A Narrative of
Captn tiyinA by s six ia (London, 1 ft6&} t by one of Theodore's prisoners :
Sir Gerald 11. Portal, A/y Mission to Abyssinia (London, 1 89a ),
an ac mt of the authors embassy to King John in 1JIB7; Count
A. E. W. Cleichen. Wtih th* Mission to Mendik. 1^97 ( London,
1898). containing the story of the Rennell Rodd mk&ion: R. P.
Skinn r, Ahypima of To-Day (London, 1006), a Tecor<J of the first
Amer *n mission to the country; G. F. H. Berkeley, The Cam-
paign ■ A daivao nd the R isr of MtnrJ ik ( Lo rid on . 1 ooj >. Rooks deal-
ing * I h mi^^ionary enterprise arc — Journal of a Thrte Yean'
Resia\ r in Abyirinio, by Bishop Samuel Cobat {London, tS^);
J. L Krapf, Travels. Researches aud Missionary Labour i durine
an 18 ycati residence in Eastern Africa (London. 1660); Cardinal
G. M jja, / mitt Trenttxrinqu* anni di Missioni nclf AH& Eiiopia
(10 vt . Mil. in. iSS6-ifli}3) Political questions an; referred fo by
T. L ■ lilmour, Abyssinia,' the Eihietfian Railway and ik*
Powet < London, if>o6): H. ]e Rau\, Menchlt el fffl*J (Paris, tuoih
Charles Mieket La question d'Eikiopi* (Parif, 1905), {F. R. C.)
ABYSSINIAN CHURCH. As the chronicle of Axum relates,
Christianity was adopted in Abyssinia in the 4th century.
About a.d. 330 Frumentios was made first bishop of Ethiopia
by Athanasius, patriarch of Alexandria. Cedrenus and Nice-
phorus err in dating Abyssinian Christianity from Justinian,
c. 542. From Frumentius to the present day, with one break,
the Metropolitan (Abuna) has always been appointed from
Egypt, and, oddly enough, he is always a foreigner. Little is
known of church history down to the period of Jesuit rule,
which broke the connexion with Egypt from about 1500 to
1633. But the Abyssinians rejected the council of Chalcedon,
and still remain monophysites. Union with the Coptic Church
(q.v.) continued after the Arab conquest in Egypt. AbQ Silih
records (12th century) that the patriarch used always to send
letters twice a year to the kings of Abyssinia and Nubia, till Al
Hakim stopped the practice. Cyril, 67 th patriarch, sent ^everus
as bishop, with orders to put down polygamy and to enforce
observance of canonical consecration for all churches. These
examples show the close relations of the two churches in the
Middle Ages. But early in the 16th century the church was
brought under the influence of a Portuguese mission. In 1439,
in the reign of Zara Yakub, a religious discussion between an
Abyssinian, Abba Giorgis, and a Frank had led to the despatch
of an embassy from Abyssinia to the Vatican; but the initiative
in the Roman Catholic missions to Abyssinia was taken, not by
Rome, but by Portugal, as an incident in the struggle with the
Mussulmans for the command of the trade route to India by the
9 6
ACACIA
Red Sea. In 1 507 Matthew, or Matheus, an Armenian, had been
sent as Abyssinian envoy to Portugal to ask aid against the
Mussulmans, and in 1520 an embassy under Dom Rodrigo de
Lima landed in Abyssinia. An interesting account of this
mission, which remained for several years, was written by
Francisco Alvarez, the chaplain. Later, Ignatius Loyola wished
to essay the task of conversion, but was forbidden. Instead,
the pope sent out Joao Nunca Barreto as patriarch of the East
Indies, with Andre de Oviedo as bishop; and from Goa envoys
went to Abyssinia, followed by Oviedo himself, to secure the
king's adherence to Rome. After repeated failures some measure
of success was achieved, but not till 1604 did the king make
formal submission to the pope. Then the people rebelled and
the king was slain. Fresh Jesuit victories were followed sooner
or later by fresh revolt, and Roman rule hardly triumphed
when once for all it was overthrown. In 1633 the Jesuits were
expelled and allegiance to Alexandria resumed.
There are many early rock-cut churches in Abyssinia, closely
resembling the Coptic. After these, two main types of archi-
tecture are found— one basilican, the other native. The cathe-
dral at Axum is basilican, though the early basilicas are nearly
all in ruins — e.g. that at Adulis and that of Martula Mariam in
Gojam, rebuilt in the z6th century on the ancient foundations.
These examples show the influence of those architects who, in
the 6th century, built the splendid basilicas at Sanaa and else-
where in Arabia. Of native churches there are two forms — one
square or oblong, found in Tigre"; the other circular, found in
Amhara and Shoa. In both, the sanctuary is square and stands
dear in the centre. An outer court, circular -or rectangular,
surrounds the body of the church. The square type may be
due to basilican influence, the circular is a mere adaptation of
the native hut: in both, the arrangements are obviously based
on Jewish tradition. Church and outer court are usually
thatched, with wattled or mud-built walls adorned with rude
frescoes. The altar is a board on four wooden pillars having
upon it a small slab (tabut) of alabaster, marble, or shittim
wood, which forms its essential part At Martula Mariam, the
wooden altar overlaid with gold had two slabs of solid gold, one
500, the other 800 ounces in weight The ark kept at Axum is
described as 2 feet high, covered with gold and gems. The
liturgy Was celebrated on it in the king's palace at Christmas,
Epiphany, Easter and Feast of the Cross.
Generally the Abyssinians agree with the Copts in ritual and
practice. The LXX. version was translated into Geez, the
literary language, which is used for all services, though hardly
understood. Saints and angels are highly revered, if not adored,
but graven images are forbidden. Fasts are long and rigid.
Confess : on and absolution, strictly enforced, give great power to
the priesthood. The clergy must marry, but once only. Pil-
grimage to Jerusalem is a religious duty and covers many sins.
Authorities.— Tcllez. Historic de Ethiopia (Coimbra. 1G60);
Alvarez, translated and edited for the Hakluyt Soc by Lord Sianlcy
of Alderley, under the title Narrative of the /WwgMtif Embauy to
Abyssinia (London. 1881); Ludolphus, History *>} Ethic pia (Lomlon,
I684, ar >d other works); T. Wright, Christianity a] Arabia (Lorn Ion,
1855); C. T Beke. "Christianity among the Gatlas" Brti. Mat.
(London, 1847); J. C. Hotten, Abyssinia Dcscrihcd (London, i*t>8);
"Abyssinian church Architecture," Royal Inst Bnt. Arch. Trans-
actions, 1869. Ibid Journal, March 1897; Arch irelog ia, voL xxxii.;
J. A. de Graca Barreto, Documenta historian* ect it not Habeiw.uriim
Ulustrantia (Olivipone, 1879); E. F. Kromrci, GlaubtnLehr* una*
Cebrducheder alteren Abessmischen Kirch* (Leipzig. 1S0O ■ F, M. E.
Pereira, Vida do Abba Samuel (Lisbon. 1894); Idem, Vida do Abba
Daniel (Lisbon, 1897) ; Idem. Historia dos Martyr ti de Afafa* (Lisbon,
1899); Idem, Chronica de Susenyos (Lisbon, text 1 Hig 2 . tr. and notes
1900) ; Idem, Martyrio de Abba Isaac (Coimbra. 1903} ^ Idem, V*mi de
S. Paulo de Thebas (Coimbra, 1904); Archdeacon Dowling, The
Abyssinian Church, (London, 1909), and periodicals as under Coptic
Church. (A. J. B.)
ACACIA, a genus of shrubs and trees, belonging to the family
Leguminosae and the sub-family Mimoseae. The small flowers
are arranged in rounded or elongated clusters. The leaves are
compound pinnate in general (see fig.). In some instances,
however, more especially in the Australian species, the leaflets
are suppressed and the leaf-stalks become vertically flattened,
and serve the purpose of leaves. The vertical position protects
the structure from the intense sunlight, as with their edges
towards the sky and earth they do not intercept light so fully as
ordinary horizontally placed leaves. There are about 4 50 species
of acacia widely scattered over the warmer regions of the globe.
They abound in Australia and Africa. Various species yield
gum. True gum-arabic is the product of Acacia Senegal, abun-
dant in both east and west tropical Africa, Acacia arabica is
the gum-arabic tree of India, but yields a gum inferior to the
true gum-arabic. An astringent medicine, called catechu (q.v.)
or cutch, is procured from several species, but more especially
from Acacia catechu, by boiling down the wood and evaporating
the solution so as to get an extract. The bark of Acacia arabica,
under the name of babul or baboot, is used in Scinde for tanning.
The bark of various Australian species, known as wattles, is
also very rich in tannin and forms an important article of export.
Such are Acacia pycnanlha, golden wattle, A. decurrens, tan
wattle, and A. dcalbata, silver wattle. The pods of Acacia
nilolica, under the name of neb-neb, and of other African species
Acacia Senegal, flowering branch, natural size (after A. Meyer
and SchumannJ'
From SttMburger't Ukrlmck 4tr BtUmiM.
are also rich in tannin and used by tanners. The seeds of
Acacia niopo are roasted and used as snuff in South America.
Some species afford valuable timber; such are Acacia melan-
oxyhn, black wood of Australia, which attains a great size; its
wood is used for furniture, and takes a high polish ; and Acacia
komalopkylla (also Australian), myall wood, which yields a
fragrant timber, used for ornamental purposes. Acacia formasa
supplies the valuable Cuba timber called sabicu. Acacia seyai
is supposed to be the shit tan tree of the Bible, which supplied
shittim- wood. A cacia helerophylla, from Mauritius and Bourbon,
and Acacia hoa from the Sandwich Islands are also good timber
trees. The plants often bear spines, especially those growing in
arid districts in Australia or tropical and South Africa. These
sometimes represent branches which have become short, hard
and pungent, or sometimes leaf-stipules. Acacia armata is the
kangaroo-thorn of Australia, A. girafae, the African camel-
thorn. In the Central American Acacia sphaerocephala (bull-
thorn acacia) and A. spadicigera, the large thorn-like stipules
are hollow and afford shelter for ants, which feed on a secretion
of honey on the leaf-stalk and curious food-bodies at the tips of
the leaflets; in return they protect the plant against leaf-cutting
insects. In common language the term Acacia is often applied
to species of the genus Robinia (?.v.) which belongs also to the
ACADEMIES
97
i family, but is placed in a different section. Robinia
PsemUatacia, or false acacia, is cultivated in the milder parts of
Britain, and forms a large tree, with beautiful pearlike blossoms.
The tree is sometimes called the locust tree.
ACADEMIES. The word "academy"- is derived from "the
©five grove of Academe, Plato's retirement, " the birthplace
of the Academic school of philosophy (see under Academy,
Gieex). The schools of Athens after the model of the Academy
continued to flourish almost without a break for nine centuries
ull they were abolished by a decree of Justinian. It was not
without significance in tracing the history of the word that
Cicero gave the name to his villa .near PuteoU. It was there
that he entertained his cultured friends and held the symposia
which he afterwards elaborated in Academic Questions and other
philosophic and moral dialogues.
"Academy," in its modern acceptation, may be defined as a
society or corporate body having for its object the cultivation
sad promotion of literature, of science and of art, either sever-
ally or in combination, undertaken for the pure love of these
pursuits, with no interested motive. Modern academies, more-
over, have, almost without exception, some form of public
recognition; they are either founded or endowed r or subsidized,
or at least patronized, by the sovereign of the state. The term
" academy" is very loosely used in modem times; and, in
essentials, other bodies with the title of " society " or " college,"
or even "school, " often embody the same idea; we are only
concerned here, however, with those which, bearing the title of
academy, are of historical importance in their various spheres.
Early History. — The first academy, as thus defined, though it
might with equal justice claim to be the first of universities,
was the museum of Alexandria founded at the beginning of the
3rd century B.C. by the first of the Ptolemies. There all the
sciences then known were pursued, and the most learned men
of Greece and of the East gathered beneath its spacious por-
ticos. Here, too, was the nucleus of the famous library of
Alexandria.
Passing over the state institute for the promotion of science
bunded at Constantinople by Caesar Bardas in the 9th century,
aid the various academics established by the Moors at Granada,
at Corduba and as far cast as Samarkand, we come to the
academy over which Alcuin presided, a branch of the School
of tat Palace established by Charlemagne in 782. This academy
was the prototype of the learned coteries of Paris which Moliere
afterwards satirized. It took all knowledge for its province;
it included the learned priest and the prince who could not
write bis own name, and it sought to solve all problems by witty
The David of Alcuin's academy (such was the-name that the
emperor assumed) found no successors or imitators, and the
tradition of an Oxford academy of Alfred the Great has been
proved to rest on a forgery. The academy of arts founded at
Florence in 1*70 by Brunetto Latini was short-lived and has left
no mories, and modern literary academies may be said to
trace their lineage in direct descent from the troubadours of the
early 14th century. The first Floral Games were held at Tou-
loBse in May 1324, at the summons of a gild of troubadours,
•ho invited " honourable lords, friends and companions who
posvss the science whence spring joy, pleasure, good sense,
■erit and pol it eness " to assemble in their garden of the " gay
«eace " and recite their works. The prize, a golden violet,
vtt awarded to Vidal de Castelnaudary for a poem to the glory
^tbc Virgin. In spite of the English invasion and other
■oVeniues the Floral Games survived till, about the year 1500,
feu- permanence was secured by the munificent bequest of
Cfcnence Isaure, a rich lady of Toulouse. In 1604 the A cadtmie
m Jnx Fleraux was constituted an academy by letters patent
•f loub XIV.; its statutes were reformed and the number of
■when raised to 36. Suppressed during the Revolution it
•w revived in 1806, and still continues to award amaranths of
PM sad silver lilies, for which there is keen competition.
ftovence led the way, but Italy of the Renaissance is the soil
a which acad em i es most grew and flourished. The Accademia
Pontaniana, to give it its subsequent title, was founded at Flor-
ence in 1433 by Antonio Beccadelli of Palermo and fostered by
Laurentius Valla. Far more famous was the Accademia Pla-
tonica, founded c. 1442 by Cosimo de' Medici, which numbered
among its members Marsilio Fidno, Pico della Mirandola, Machia-
velli and Angelo Poliziano. It was, as the name implies, chiefly
occupied with Plato, but it added to its objects the study of
Dante and the purification of the Italian language, and though it
lived for barely half a century, yet its influence as a model for
similar learned societies was great and lasting.
Modern Academies. — Academies have played an important
part in the revival of learning and in the birth of scientific
inquiry. They mark an age of aristocracies when letters were
the distinction of the few and when science had not been differ-
entiated into distinct branches, each with its own specialists.
Their interest is mainly historical, and it cannot be maintained
that at the present day they have much direct influence on the
advancement of learning either by way of research or of publi-
cation. For example, the standard dictionaries of France,
Germany and England are the work, not of academies, but of
individual scholars, of Littre*, Grimm and Murray. Matthew
Arnold's plea for an English academy of letters to save his
countrymen from the note of vulgarity and provinciality has
met •with no response. Academies have been supplanted,
socially by the modern dub, and intellectually by societies
devoted to special branches of science. Those that survive from
the past serve, like the Heralds' College, to set an official stamp
on literary and sdentific merit The principal academies of
Europe, past and present, may be dealt with in various classes,
according to the subjects to which they are devoted.
I. Scientific Academies
Austria.— The Kaiseriicke AkademU der Wissensckaften at
Vienna, originally projected by Leibnitz, was founded by the
emperor Ferdinand I. in 1846, and has two classes— mathe-
matics and natural science, and history and philology.
Belgium and the Netherlands. — A literary society was founded
at Brussels in 1769 by Count Cobenzl, the prime minister of
Maria Theresa, which after various changes of name and con-
stitution became in 1816 the Acadimie imperiale el royale da
sciences el beUes4ettres t under the patronage of William I. of the
Netherlands. It has devoted itself principally to natural his-
tory and antiquities. The Royal Institute of the Low Countries
was founded in 1808 by King Louis Bonaparte. It was replaced
in 185 1 by the Royal Academy of Sciences at Amsterdam, to
which in 1856 a literary section was added.
Denmark. — The Kongelige danske videnskabernes sdskab (Royal
Academy of Sciences) at Copenhagen owes its origin to
Christian VI., who in 1742 invited six Danish numismatists to
arrange his cabinet of medals. Historians and antiquaries were
called in to assist at the sittings, and the commission devdoped
into a sort of learned club. The king took it under his protec-
tion, enlarged its scope by the addition of natural history,
physics and mathematics, and in 1743 constituted it a royal
academy with an endowment fund.
France.— The old Acadimie des sciences had the same origin
as the more celebrated Acadimie Jran^aist. A number of men
of science had for some thirty years met together, first at the
house of P. Marsenne, then at that of Montmort, a member of
the Council of State, afterwards at that of Mclchisedec Thevenot,
the learned traveller. It induded Descartes, Gassendi, Blaise
and Etienne Pascal. Hobbes> the author of Leviathan, was
presented to it during his visit to Paris in 1640. Colbert con-
ceived the idea of giving an official status to this learned club.
A number of chemists, physicians, anatomists and eminent
mathematicians, among whom were Christian Huyghens and
Bernard Frenicle de Bessy (1605-167 5), the author of a famous
treatise on magic squares, were chosen to form the nucleus of
the new society. Pensions were granted by Louis XIV. to each
of the members, and a fund for instruments and experiment
was placed at their disposal. They began their session on the
22nd of December 1666 in the Royal Library, meeting twice a
9«
ACADEMIES
week — the mathematicians on Wednesdays, the physicists on
Saturdays. Duhamel was appointed permanent secretary, a
post he owed more to his polished Latinity than to his scientific
attainments, all the proceedings of the society being recorded
in Latin, and C. At Couplet was made treasurer. At first the
academy was rather a laboratory and observatory than an
academy proper. Experiments were undertaken in common
and results discussed. Several foreign savants, in particular the
Danish astronomer Roemer, joined the society, attracted by
the liberality of the Grand Monarque; and the German physi-
cian and geometer Tschirnhausen and Sir Isaac Newton were
made foreign associates. The death of Colbert, who was suc-
ceeded by Louvois, exercised a disastrous effect on the fortunes
of the academy. The labours of the academicians were diverted
from the pursuit of pure science to such works as the construc-
tion of fountains and cascades at Versailles, and the mathema-
ticians were employed to calculate the odds of the games of
lansquenet and basset In 1699 the academy was reconstituted
by Louis Phelypeaux, corate de Pontchartrain, under whose
department as secretary of state the academies came. By its
new constitution it consisted of twenty-five members, ten
honorary, men of high rank interested in science, and fifteen
pensionaries, who were the working members. Of these three
were geometricians, three astronomers, three mechanicians,
three anatomists, and three chemists. Each of these three had
two associates, and, besides, each pensionary had the privilege
of naming a pupil. There were eight foreign and four free
associates. The officers were, a president And a vice-president,
named by the king from among the honorary members, and a
secretary and treasurer chosen from the pensionaries, who held
office for life. Fontenelle, a man of wit, and rather a popularizer
of science than an original investigator, succeeded Duhamel as
secretary. The constitution was purely aristocratical, differing
in that respect from that of the French Academy, in which the
principle of equality among the members was never violated.
Science was not yet strong enough to dispense with the patronage
of the great. The two leading spirits of the academy at this
period were Clairault and Rtaumur. To trace the subsequent
fortunes of this academy would be to write the history of the
rise and progress of science in France. It has reckoned among
its members Laplace, Buffon, Lagrange, D'Alembert, Lavoisier,
and Jussieu, the father of modern botany. On the 21st of
December 1792 it met for the last time, and it was suppressed
with its sister academies by the act of the Convention on the
8th of April 1793. Some of its members were guillotined, some
were imprisoned, more were reduced to poverty. The aristo-
cracy of talent was almost as much detested and persecuted by
the Revolution as that of rank.
In 1795 the Convention decided on founding an Institul
National which was to replace all the academies, and its first
class corresponded closely to the old academy of sciences. In
1816 the Acadimie des sciences was reconstituted as a branch.
of the Institute. The new academy has reckoned among its
members, besides many other brilliant men, Carnot the engineer,
the physicists Fresnel, Ampere, Arago, Biot, the chemists Gay-
Lussac and Thinard, the zoologists G. Cuvier and the two
Geoffroy Saint-Hihures. In France there were also considerable
academies in most of the large towns. Montpellier, for example,
had a royal academy of sciences, founded in 1706 by Louis XIV.,
on nearly the same footing as that of Paris, of which, indeed, it
was in some measure the counterpart. It was reconstituted in
1847, and organized under three sections— medicine, science
and letters. Toulouse also has an academy, founded in 1640, -
under the name of SociitS de lanternistes; and there were analo-
gous institutions at Nlmes, Aries, Lyons, Dijon, Bordeaux and
elsewhere.
Germany.— The Collegium Cwiosum was a scientific society,
founded by J. C. Sturm, professor of mathematics and natural
philosophy in the university of Altorf, in Franconia, in 1672, on
the plan of the Accademia del Cimento. It originally consisted
of twenty members, and continued to flourish long after the
death of its founder. The early labours of the society were
devoted to the repetition (under varied conditions) of the most
notable experiments of the day, or to the discussion of the re-
sults. Two volumes (1676-1685) of proceedings were published
by Sturm. The former, Collegium Experimentale sive Curiosmm,
begins with an account of the diving-bell, "a new invention";
next follow chapters on the camera obscura, the Torricellian
experiment, the air-pump, microscope, telescope, &c
The Akademie. der Wissenschaften %u Berlin, if judged by the
work it has produced, holds the first place in Germany. Its
origin was the Socielas Regia Scientiarum, constituted in 1700 by
Frederick I. on the comprehensive plan of Leibnitz, who was
its first president Hampered and restricted under Frederick
William I., it was reorganized under Frederick II. on the French
model furnished by Maupertuis, and received its present con-
stitution in 181 2. It is divided into two classes and four sections
— physical and mathematical, philosophical and historical.
Each section has a permanent secretary with a salary of 1200
marks, and each of the 50 regular members is paid 600 marks 4
year. Among the contributors to its transactions (first volume
published in 1710), to name only the dead, we find ImmannH
Bekker, BOckling, Bernoulli, F. Bopp, P Buttmann, Encke (of
comet fame), L. Euler, the brothers Grimm, the two Humboklts,
Lachmann, Lagrange, Leibnitz, T. Mommsen, J. Muller, G.
Niebuhr, C. Ritter (the geographer), Savigny and Zumpt
Frederick II. presented in 1768.4 Dissertation on Ennui. To
the Berlin Academy we owe the Corpus Inscriptionum Grae-
carum, the Corpus Inscriptionum Latinarum, and the Monumenta
Germaniae Historica.
The Akademie der Wissenschaften su Mannheim was founded
by the elector Palatine in x 755. Since 1780 it has devoted itself
specially to meteorology, and has published valuable observa-
tions under the title of Ephemerides Societatis Meteorological
Theodoro-Palatinae.
The Bavarian Akademie der Wissenschaften tu MUnchen was
founded in 1759. It is distinguished from other academies by
the part it has played in national education. Maximilian Joseph,
the enlightened elector (afterwards king) of Bavaria, induced
the government to hand over to it 'the organization and super-
intendence of public instruction, and this work was carried oat
by Privy-councillor Jacobi, the president of the academy. In
recent years the academy has specially occupied itself with
natural history.
The Kbnigliche Akademie der Wissenschaften, at Erfurt, which
dates from 1754 and devotes itself to applied science, and the
Hessian academy of sciences at Giessen, which publishes medical
transactions, also deserve mention.
Great Britain and Ireland. — In 1616 a scheme for founding a
royal academy was started by Edmund Bolton, an eminent
scholar and antiquary, who in his petition to Ring James J.,
which was supported by George Villiers, marquis'Of Buckingham,
proposed that the title of the academy should be "King James,
his Academe or College of honour." A list of the proposed
original members is still extant, and includes the names of
George Chapman, Michael Drayton, Ben Jonson, John Seiden,
Sir Kenelm Digby and Sir Henry Wotton. The constitution is
of interest as reflecting the mind of the learned king. The
academy was. to consist of, three classes,— tutelaries, who were
to be Knights of the Garter,* auxiliaries, all noblemen or ministers
of state, and the essentials, "called from out of the most famous
lay gentlemen of England, and either living in the light of things,
or without any title of profession or art of life for lucre." Among
other duties to be assigned to this academy was the licensing of
all books other than theological. The death of King James put
an end to the undertaking. In 1635 a second attempt to found
an academy was made under the patronage of Charles I., with
the title of "Minerva's Museum," for the instruction of young
noblemen in the liberal arts and sciences, but the project was
soon dropped. (For the "British Academy 11 see III. below.)
About 1645 the more ardent followers of Bacon used to meet,
some in London, some at Oxford, for the discussion of subjects
connected with experimental science. This was the original of
the Royal Society (?.».), which received its charter in 166a.
ACADEMIES
99
A society was formed in Dublin, similar to the Royal Society
tn London, as early as J 683; but the distracted state of the
country proved unpropitious to the cultivation of philosophy
and literature. The Royal Irish Academy grew from a society
established in Dublin about 1782 by a number of gentlemen,
most of whom belonged to the university. They held weekly
nettings, and read, in turn, essays on various subjects. They
professed to unite the advancement of science with the history
of mankind and polite literature. The first volume of transac-
tions appeared in 1788.
Hungary. — The Magyar Tudomdnyos Akademia (Hungarian
Academy of Sciences) was founded in 1825 by Count Stephen
Sstchenyi for the encouragement of the study of the Hungarian
language and the various sciences. It has about 300 members
and a fine building in Budapest containing a picture gallery and
boosing various national collections.
Itotj.— The Academia Secretorum Naturae was founded at
Naples in 1560 by Giambattista della Porta. It arose like the
French Academy from a little club of friends who met at della
Porta'* house and called themselves the Otiasi. The condition
of membership was to have made some discovery in natural
science. Delia Porta was suspected of practising the black arts
tad summoned t& Rome to justify himself before the papal
court He was acquitted by Paul V., but commanded to close
as academy.
The Accademia dei Lined, to which della Porta was admitted
when at Rome.^nd of which he became the chief ornament, had
been founded in 1603 by Federigo Cesi, the marchese di Monti-
cefli. Galileo and Colonna were among its earliest members.
fa device was a lynx with upturned eyes, tearing a Cerberus
with its daws. As a monument the Lincei have left the magni-
ficent edition of Fernandez de Oviedo's Natural History of
Mexico (Rome, 1651J0I.), printed at the expense of the founder
and elaborately annotated by the members. This academy
was resuscitated in 1870 under the title of Reale Accademia del
Laud, with a literary as well as a scientific side, endowed in
1*78 by King Humbert; and in 1883 it received official recog-
nition from the Italian government, being lodged in the Corsini
palace, whose owner made over to it his Library and collections.
The Accademia del Cimento was founded at Florence in 1657
by Leopold de' Medici, brother of the grand duke Ferdinand II.,
st the instigation of Vincenzo Viviani, the geometrician. It
was an academy of experiment, a deliberate protest against the
deductive science of the quadrivium. Its founder left it when he
was made a cardinal, and it lasted only ten years, but the grand
folio published in Italian (afterwards translated into Latin) in
1667 is a landmark in the history of science. It contains ex-
periments on the pressure of the air (Torricelli and Borelli were
among its members), on the ^compressibility of water and on
anmrsal gravity.
Science in Italy is now represented by the Reale Accademia
ieUe Sciemu (Royal Academy of Sciences), founded in 1757 as
a private society, and incorporated under its present name by
royal warrant in 1783. It consists of 40 full members, who
Bast be residents of Turin, 90 non-resident, and 20 foreign
members. It publishes a yearly volume of proceedings and
swards prizes to learned works. There are, besides, royal
srtd eimes of science at Naples, Lucca and Palermo.
Portugal. — The Academia Real das Sciencias (Royal Academy
of Sciences) at Lisbon dates from 1779. It was reorganized
is 1851 and since then has been chiefly occupied in the publication
of Pmtug aliae Monumenta Historica.
Kktw.— The Acadtmie lmptriole des sciences de Saint-Peters-
*nvf, Inperatorskaya Akademiya naUk, was projected by Peter
the Great The advice of Wolff and Leibnitz was sought, and
**eral learned foreigners were invited to become members.
Peter himself drew the plan, and signed it on the 10th of February
1*14; but his sudden death delayed its fulfilment. On the
"st of D ecem b er 1725, however, Catherine I. established it
"wording to his plan, and on the 27th the society met for the
ant bine. On the 1st of August 1726, Catherine honoured the
■aning with her presence, when Professor G. B. Bilfinger, a
German scientist, delivered an oration upon the determination
of magnetic variations and longitude. Shortly afterwards the
empress settled a fund of £4982 per annum for the support of
the academy; and 15 eminent members were admitted and
pensioned, under the title of professors in the various branches
of science and literature. The most distinguished of these
were Nicholas and Daniel Bernoulli, the two Delisles, Bilfinger,
and Wolff. •
During the short reign of Peter II. the salaries of members
were discontinued, and the academy neglected by the Court;
but it was again patronized by the empress Anne, who added a
seminary under the superintendence of the professors. Both
institutions flourished for some time under the direction of
Baron Johann Albrecht Korff (1697-1766). At the accession
of Elizabeth the original- plan was enlarged and improved;
learned foreigners were drawn to St Petersburg; and, what
was considered a good omen for the literature of Russia, two
natives, Lomonosov and Rumovsky, men of genius who had
prosecuted their studies in foreign universities, were enrolled
among its members. The annual income was increased to
£10,659, and sundry other advantages were conferred upon the
institution. Catherine II. utilized the academy for the advance-
ment of national culture. She altered the court of directors
greatly to the advantage of the whole body, corrected many of
its abuses, added to its means, and infused a new vigour and
spirit into its researches. By her recommendation the most
intelligent professors visited all the provinces of her vast do-
minions, with most minute and ample instructions to investigate
the natural resources, conditions and requirements, and report
on the real state of the empire. The result was that no country
at that time could boast, within so few years, such a number of
excellent official publications on its internal state, its natural
productions, its topography, geography and history, and on
the manners, customs and languages of the different tribes that
inhabited it, as came from the press of this academy. In its
researches in Asiatic languages, oriental customs and religions,
it proved itself the worthy rival of the Royal Asiatic Society
In England. The first transactions, Commentarii Academiae
Scientiarum Imperialis PetropolUanae ad annum 1726, with a
dedication to Peter II., were published in 1728. This was con-
tinued until 1747, when the transactions were called Novi
Commentarii Academiae , &c; and in 1777, Acta Academia*
Scientiarum Imperialis PetropolUanae, with some alteration in
the arrangements and plan of the work. The papers, hitherto in
Latin only, were now written indifferently in Latin or in French,
and a preface added, Partie Historique, which contains an ac-
count of the society's meetings. Of the Commentaries, fourteen
volumes were published: of the New Commentaries (1750-1776)
twenty. Of the Acta Academiae two volumes are printed every
year. In 1872 there was published at St Petersburg in 2 vols.,
Tableau ghUral des matures contenues dans les publications de
V Acadtmie Impiriale des Sciences de St Petersbourg. The
academy is composed, as at first, of fifteen professors, besides
the president and director. Each of the professors has a house
and an annual stipend of from £200 to £600. Besides the pro-
fessors, there are four pensioned adjuncts, who are present at
the meetings of the society, and succeed to the first vacancies.
The buildings and apparatus of this academy are on a vast scale.
There is a fine library, of 36,000 books and manuscripts; and
an extensive museum, considerably augmented by the collections
made by Pallas, Gmclin, Guldenstadt and other professors,
during their expeditions through the Russian empire. The motto
of the society is Paulalim.
Spain.— The Real Academia Espafiola at Madrid (see below)
had a predecessor in the Academia Naturae curiosorum (dating
from 1657) modelled on that of Naples. It was reconstituted
in 1847 after the model of the French academy.
Sweden.— The Kongliga Svenska Velenskaps Akademien owes
its institution to six persons of distinguished learning, among
whom was Linnaeus. They met on the 2nd of June 1739, and
formed a private society, the Collegium Curiosorum; and at
the end of the year their first publication made its appearance.
IOO
ACADEMIES
As the meetings continued and the members increased the
society attracted' the notice of the king; and on the 31st of
March 1 741 it was incorporated as the Royal Swedish* Academy.
Though under royal patronage and largely endowed, it is, like
the Royal Society in England, entirely self-governed. Each of
the members resident at Stockholm becomes in turn president,
and continues in office for three months. The dissertations
read at each meeting are published in the Swedish language,
quarterly, and make an annual volume. The first forty volumes,
octavo, completed in 1779, are called the Old Transactions.
United Slates of America. — The oldest scientific association
in the United States is the American Philosophical Society
Held at Philadelphia fof Promoting Useful Knowledge. It
owed its origin to Benjamin Franklin, who in 1743 published
"A Proposal for Promoting Useful Knowledge among the
British Plantations in America," which was so favourably
received that in the same year the society was organized, with
Thomas Hopkinson (1709-1751) as president and Franklin as
secretary: In 1769 it united with another scientific society
founded by Franklin, called the American Society Held at
Philadelphia for Promoting Useful Knowledge, and adopted its
present name, adding the descriptive phrase from the title of
the American Society, and elected Franklin president, an office
which he held until his death (1700). The American Philo-
sophical Society is national in scope and is exclusively scien-
tific; its Transactions date from 1771, and its Proceedings from
1838. It has a hall in Philadelphia, with meeting-rooms and a
valuable library and collection of interesting portraits and relics.
David Rittenhouse was its second and Thomas Jefferson was
its .third president In 1786 John Hyacinth de. Magellan, of
London, presented a fund, the income of which was to supply
a gold medal for the author of the most important discovery
"relating to navigation, astronomy or natural philosophy
(mere natural history excepted)." An annual general meeting
is held.
The American Academy of Arts and Sciences (Boston), the
second oldest scientific organization in the United States, was
chartered in Massachusetts in 1780 by some of the most promi-
nent men of that time. James Bowdoin was its first president,
John Adams its second. The Academy published Memoirs
beginning in 1785, and Proceedings from 1846. The Rumford
Premium awarded through it for the most " important discovery
or useful improvement on Heat, or on Light " is the income of
$5000 given to the Academy by Count Rumford.
The National Academy of Sciences (1863) was incorporated
by Congress with the object that it " shall, whenever called upon
by any department of the Government, investigate, examine,
experiment and report upon any subject of science or art." Its
membership was first limited to 50; after the amendment of
the act of incorporation in 1870 the limit was placed at 100;
and in 1007 it was prescribed that the resident membership
should not exceed 1 50 in number, that not more than 10 members
be elected in any one year, and that the number of foreign
associates be restricted to 50. The Academy is divided into six
committees: mathematics and astronomy; physics and en-
gineering; chemistry; geology and palaeontology; biology;
and anthropology. It gives several gold medals for meritorious
researches and discoveries. It publishes scientific monographs
(at the expense of the Federal Government). Its presidents have
been Alexander D. Bache, Joseph Henry, Wm. B. Rogers,
Othniel C Marsh, Wolcott Gibbs, Alexander Agassiz and Ira
Remsen.
The Academy of Natural Sciences of Philadelphia was or-
ganized in 181 2. It has a large library, very rich in natural
history, and its museum, with nearly half a million specimens,
h particularly strong in conchology and ornithology. The
society has published Journals since 1817, and Proceedings since
1841; it also has published the American Journal of Conchology.
The American Entomological Society (in 1 8 50- 1 867 the Entomo-
logical Society of Philadelphia, and since 1876 part of this
academy) has published Proceedings since 1861, and the Entomo-
logical News (a monthly).
There are'also other scientific organizations like the American
Association for the Advancement of Science (chartered in 1874,
as a continuation of the American Association of Geologists,
founded in 1840 and becoming in 1842 the American Association
of Geologists and Naturalists), which publishes its Proceedings
annually; the American Geographical Society (1852), with
headquarters In New York; the National Geographic Society
(1888), with headquarters in Washington, D.C.; the Geological
Society of America (1888), the American Ornithologists' Union
(1883), the American Society of Naturalists (1883), the Botanical
Society of America (1893), the American Academy of Medicine
(1876); and local academies of science, or of special sciences, in
many of the larger cities. The Smithsonian Institution at
Washington is treated in a separate article,
H Academies oj Belles Lettkes
Belgium. — Belgium has always been famous for its literary
societies. The little town of Diest boasts that it possessed a
society of poets in 1302, and the Cathcrinists of Alost date from
1 107. It is at least certain that numerous Chambers of Rhetoric
(so academies were then called), existed in the first years of the
rule of the house of Burgundy.
France. — The French Academy (I' Academic franchise) was
established by order of the king in the year 1635, but in, its
original form existed four or five years earlier. About the year
1620 certain literary friends in Paris agreed to meet informally
each week at the house of Valentin Courart, the king's secretary.
The con venation, turned mostly on literary topics; and when
one of the number had finished some literary work, he read it to
the rest, and they gave their opinions upon it. The fame of these
meetings, though the members were bound to secrecy, reached
the ears of Cardinal Richelieu, who promised his protection and
offered to incorporate the society by letters patent Nearly all
the members would have preferred the charms of privacy, but,
considering the risk they would run in incurring the cardinal's
displeasure, and that by the letter of the law all meetings of any
sort were prohibited, they expressed their gratitude for the high
honour the cardinal thought fit to confer on them, proceeded at
once to organize their body, settle their laws and constitution,
appoint officers and choose a name. Letters patent were granted
by the king on the 29th of January 1635. The officers consisted
of a director and a chancellor, chosen by lot, and a permanent
secretary, chosen by vote. They elected also a publisher, not
a member of the body. The director presided at the meetings,
being considered as primus inter pares. The chancellor kept the
scab and sealed all the official documents of the academy. The
cardinal was ex officio protector. The meetings were held weekly
as before.
The object for which the academy was founded, as set forth
in its statutes, was the purification of the French language.
" The principal function of the academy shall be to labour with
all care and diligence to give certain rules to our language, and
to render it pure, eloquent and capable of treating the arts and
sciences " (Art. 24). They proposed " to cleanse the language
from the impurities it has contracted in the mouths of the
common people, from the jargon of the lawyers, from the mis-
usages of ignorant courtiers, and the abuses of the pulpit"
(Letter of A cademy to Cardinal Richelieu) .
The number of members was fixed at forty. The origins]
members formed a nucleus of eight, and it was not till 1639 that
the full number was completed. Their first undertaking con-
sisted of essays written by the members in rotation. To judge
by the titles and specimens which have come down to us, these
possessed no special originality or merit, but . resembled the
InAtLfrit of the Greek rhetoricians. Next, at the instance of
Cardinal Richelieu, they undertook a criticism of Comeille's Cid t
the most popular work of the day. It was a rule of the academy
that no work could be criticized except at the author's request,
and fear of incurring the cardinal's displeasure wrung from
Corneille an unwilling consent. The critique of the academy
was re-written several times before it met with the cardinal's
approbation. After six months of elaboration, it was published
ACADEMIES
101
under the title, Sentiments de V academie francaise sur U Cid.
This judgment did not satisfy Coraeflle, as a saying attributed
to aim od the occasion shows. "Horatius" he*said, referring to
fas fast play, " was condemned by the Duumviri, but he was
absolved by the people." But the crowning labour of the
academy, begun hi 1630, was a dictionary of the French language.
By the twenty-sixth article of their statutes, they were pledged
to compose a dictionary, a grammar, a treatise on rhetoric and
one on poetry. Jean Chapelain, one of the original members
and leading spirits of the academy, pointed out that the diction-
ary would naturally be the first of these works to be undertaken,
and drew up a plan of the work, which was to a great extent
carried out. A catalogue was to be made of all the most ap-
proved authors, prose and verse: these were to be distributed
among the members, and all approved words and phrases were
to be marked for incorporation in the dictionary. For this they
resolved themselves into two committees, which sat on other
than the regular days. C. F. de Vaugelas was appointed editor
in chief. To remunerate him for his labours, he received from
the cardinal a pension of 2000 francs. The first edition of this
dictionary appeared in 1604, the sixth and last in 1835, since
when compliments have been added.
This old Academie franchise perished . with the other pre-
revolutionary academies in 1793, and it has little but the name
in common with the present academy, a section of the Institute.
That Jean Baptiste Suard, the first perpetual secretary of the
new, bad been a member of the old academy, is the one con-
The chronicles of the Institute down to the end of 1895 have
been given in full by the count de Franqueville in Le premier
stick de PlnsHlmt de France, and from it we extract a few lead-
is* facts and dates. Before the Revolution there were in exist-
ence the following institutions:— (1) the Academic de paisie el
at m*siawe t founded by Charles IX. in 1570 at the instigation of
Balf, which counted among its members Ronsard and most of
the Pleasde; (2) the Academie dee inscriptions ei medaiUes,
founded in 1701; (3) the Academie des inscriptions el belles-
faflrer; (4) the oH Academie des sciences; (5) the Academie
it pemmre el de sculpture, a school as well as an academy; (6)
the Academie d'orckUechtre.
The object of tne Convention in 1795 was to rebuild all the
institutions that the Revolution had shattered and to combine
them in an organic whole; in the words of the preamble: —
"11 y a pour tonte la RtpuHique un Inslilul national chargi de
recoaBer les dScoueerles, de perfectionner les arts el Us sciences"
As Reaan has remarked, the Institute embodied two ideas,
one disputable, the other of undisputed truth:— That science
and art are a state concern, and that there is a solidarity between
all bfanehes of knowledge and human activities. The Institute
•as at first composed of 184 members resident in Paris and an
equal number living in- other parts of France, with 24 foreign
■embers, divided into three classes, (1) physical and mathe-
matical science,. (2) moral and political science, (3) literature
aid the fine arts. It held its first sitting on the 4th of April
iTyfi. Napoleon as first consul suppressed the second class, as
■tbvecsive of government, and reconstituted the- other' classes
as nOows: (1) as before, (2) French language and literature,
(3) ancient history and literature, (4) fine arts. The class of
aval and political science was restored on the proposal of M.
Gaunt in 1832, and the present Institute consists of the five
chases named above. Each class or academy has its own
special jurisdiction and work, with special funds; but there is
ateaeral fund and a common library, which, with other common
afairs, are managed by a committee of the Institute— two
cfcosa bom each academy, with the secretaries. Each member
ef the Institute receives an annual allowance of 1200 francs,
tad the secretaries of the different academies have a salary of
faeo bancs.
The dam of the Institute which deals with the language and
feerature takes precedence, and is known as the Academie
fancjise. There was at first no perpetual secretary, each
leaetsfy of sections presiding in turn. Shortly afterwards
J. B. Suard was elected to the post, and ever since the histoiy
of the academy has been determined by the, reigns of its succes-
sive perpetual secretaries. The secretary, to borrow an epigram
of Sainte-Beuve, both reigns and governs. There have been in
order: Suard (13 years), .Francois Juste Raynouard (9 years),
Louis Simon Auger, Francois Andrieux, Arnault, Vlllemain (34
years), Henri Joseph Patin, Charles Camille Doucet (19 years),
Gaston Boissier. Under Raynouard the academy ran a tilt
against the abbe Delille and his followers. Under Auger it did
battle with romanticism, " a new literary schism." Auger did
not live to see the election of Lamartine in 1829, and it needed
ten more years for Victor Hugo after many vain assaults to
enter by the breach. The academy is professedly non-political
It accepted and even welcomed in succession the empire, the
restoration and the reign of Louis Philippe, and it tolerated
the republic of 1848; but to the second empire it offered a
passive resistance, and no politician of the second empire, what-
ever his gifts as an orator or a writer, obtained an armchair.
The one seeming exception, Emile Ow'vier, confirms the rule.
He was elected on the eve of the Franco-German war, but his
discours de reception, a eulogy of the emperor, was deferred and
never delivered. Tne Institute appears in the annual budget
for a grant of about 700,000 fr.. It has also large vested funds
in property, including the magnificent estate and library of
Chantilly bequeathed to it by the due d'Aumale. It awards
various prises, of which the most considerable are the ^lontyon
prizes, each of 20,000 fr., one for the poor Frenchman who has
performed the most virtuous action during the year, and one for
the French author who has published the book of most service
to morality. The conditions are liberally interpreted; the first
prize is divided among a number of the deserving poor, and the
second has been assigned for lexicons to Moliere, CorneiUe and
Madame de Sevigni.
One alteration in the methods of the French Academy has to
be chronicled: in 1869 it became the custom to discuss the
claims of the candidates at a preliminary meeting of the members.
In 1880, on the instance of the philosopher Caro, supported by
A. Dumas fils t and by the aged Desire Nisard, it was decided to
abandon this method.
A point of considerable interest is the degree in which, since
its foundation, the French Academy has or has not represented
the best literary life of France. It appears from an examination
of the lists of members that a surprising number of authors of
the highest excellence have, from one cause or another, escaped
the honour of academic " immortality." When the academy
was founded in 1634, the moment was not a very brilliant one
in French letters. Among the forty original members we find
only ten who are remembered in literary history; of these four
may reasonably be considered famous still — Balzac, Chapelain,
Racan and Voiture, In that generation Scarron was never one
of the forty, nor do the names of Descartes, Malebranche or
Pascal occur; Descartes lived in Holland, Scarron was paralytic,
Pascal was best known as a mathematician — (his Lettres pro-
vinciates was published anonymously) — and when his fame was
rising he retired to Port Royal, where he lived the life of a
recluse. The due de la Rochefoucauld declined the honour from
a proud modesty, and Rotrou died too soon to be elected. The
one astounding omission of the 17 th century, however, is the
name of Moliere, who was excluded by bis profession as an
actor. 1 'On the- other hand, the French Academy was never
more thoroughly representative of letters than when Boileau,
Corndlle, La Fontaine, Racine, and Quinault were all members.
Of the great theologians of that and the subsequent age, the
Academy contained Bossuet, Flechier, Fendon, and Massillon,
but not Bourdaloue. La Bruyere and Fontenelle were among
the forty, but not Saint-Simon, whose claims as a man of letters
were unknown to bis contemporaries. Early in the 18th century
almost every literary personage of eminence found his place
naturally in the Academy. The only exceptions of importance
1 The Academy has made the amende honorable by placing in the
Salle des stances a butt of Moliere, with the inscription "Riemnt
manque a sa ffovv, U manquait a la noire,"
102
ACADEMIES
were Vauvenargues, who died too early for the honour, and
two men of genius but of dubious social position, Le Sage and
the abb* Prevost d'Exiles. The approach of the Revolution
affected gravely the personnel of the Academy. Montesquieu
and Voltaire belonged to it, but not Rousseau or Beaumarchais.
Of the Encyclopaedists, the French Academy opened its doors
to D'Alembert, Condorcet, Volney, Marmontel and La Harpe,
but not to Diderot Rollin, Condillac, Helvetia* or the Baron
d'Holbach. Apparently the claims of Turgot and of Quesnay
did not appear to the Academy sufficient, since neither was
elected. In the transitional period, when the social life of Paris
was distracted and the French Academy provisionally dosed,
neither Andre" Clienier nor Benjamin Constant nor Joseph de
Maistre became a member. In the early years of the 19th
century consideration! of various kinds excluded from the ranks
of the forty^he dissimilar names of Lainennais, Prudhon, Comte
and Beranger. Critics of the French Academy are fond of point-
ing out that neither Stendhal,, nor Balzac, nor Thecphile Gautier,
nor Flaubert, nor Zola penetrated into the Mazarine Palace.
It is not so often remembered that writers so academic as Thierry
and Michelet and Quinet suffered the same exclusion. In later
times neither Alphonse Daudet nor Edmond de Goncourt, neither
Guy de Maupassant nor Ferdinand Fabre, has been among the
forty immortals. The non-election, after a long life of distinc-
tion, of the scholar Fustel de Coulanges is less easy to account
for. Verlaine, although a poet of genius, was of the kind that no
academy can ever be expected to recognize.
Concerning the influence of the French Academy on the lan-
guage and literature, the most opposite opinions have been
advanced. On the one hand, it has been asserted that it has
corrected the judgment, purified the taste and formed the lan-
guage of French writers, and that to It we owe the most striking
characteristics of French literature, its purity, delicacy and flexi-
bility. Thus Matthew Arnold, in his Essay on the Literary Influence
of Academies, has pronounced a glowing panegyric on the French
Academy as a high court of letters, and a rallying-point for
educated opinion, as asserting the authority of a master in
matters of tone and taste. To it he attributes in a great measure
that thoroughness, that openness of mind, that absence of
vulgarity which he finds everywhere in French literature; and
to the want of a similar institution in England he traces that
eccentricity, that provincial spirit, that coarseness which, as
he thinks, are barely compensated by English genius. Thus, too,
Renan, one of its most distinguished members, says that it is
owing to the academy " qu'on pent tout dire sans appareil
schoUulique avec la langue dies' gens du monde." " Ah ne dites"
he exclaims, " qu'ils n*ont Hen fait, ces obscures beaux esprits dont
la vie se pdsse a instruire le prods des mats, a peser Us syllables,
lis out fait un ckef-* n euvre-4a langue franfaise" On the other
hand, its inherent detects have been well summed up by P.
Lanfrey in his Histoire de NapoUon: " This institution had never
shown itself the enemy of despotism. Founded by the monarchy
and for the monarchy, eminently favourable to the spirit of
intrigue and favouritism, incapable of any sustained or combined
labour, a stranger to those great works pursued in common
which legitimize and glorify the existence of scientific bodies,
occupied exclusively with learned trifles, fatal to emulation,
which it pretends to stimulate, by the compromises and calcu-
lations to which it subjects it, directed in everything by petty
considerations, and wasting all its energy in childish tourna-
ments, in which the flatteries that it showers on others are only
a foretaste of the compliments it expects in return for itself, the
French Academy seems to have received from its founders the
special mission to transform genius into bd esprit, and it would
be hard to produce a man of talent •whom it has not demoralized.
Drawn in spite of itself towards politics, it alternately pursues
and avoids them; but it is specially attracted by the gossip of
politics, and whenever it has so far emancipated itself as to go
into opposition, it does so as the champion of ancient prejudices.
If we examine its influence on the national genius, we shall see
that it has given it a flexibility, a brilliance, a polish, which it
never possessed before; but it has done so at the expense of its
masculine qualities, its originality, its spontaneity, its vigour,
its natural grace. It has disciplined it, but it has emasculated,
impoverished and rigidified it It sees fn taste, not a sense of
the beautiful, but a certain type of correctness, an elegant form
of mediocrity. It has substituted pomp for grandeur, school
routine for individual inspiration, elaborateness for simplicity,
fadeur and the monotony of literary orthodoxy for variety, the
source and spring of intellectual life; and in the works produced
under its auspices we discover the rhetorician and the writer,
never the man. By all its traditions the academy was made to
be the natural ornament of a monarchical society. Richelieu
conceived and created it as a sort of superior centralization
applied to intellect, as a high literary court to maintain intel-
lectual unity and protest against innovation. Bonaparte, aware
of all this, had thought of re-establishing its ancient privileges;
but it had in his eyes one fatal defect— esprit. Rings of France
could condone a wittidsm even against themselves, a fortes*
could not."
On the whole the influence of the French Academy has been
conservative rather than creative. It has done much by its
example for style, but its attempts to impose its laws on lan-
guage have, from the nature of the case, failed. For, however
perfectly a dictionary or a grammar may represent the rmting
language of a nation, an original genius is certain to arise—a
Victor Hugo or an Alfred de Musset— who will set at defiance all
dictionaries and academic rules.
Germany.— Of the German literary academies the most cele-
brated was Die Frucktbringende Gesellsckaft (the Fruitful Society),
established at Weimar in 161 7. Five princes were among the
original members. The object was to purify the mother tongue.
The German academies copied those of Italy in their quaint
titles and petty ceremonials, and exercised little permanent
influence on the language or literature of the country.
Italy.— Italy in the 16th century was remarkable for the
number of its literary academies. Tiraboschi, in his History
of Italian Literature, has given a list of 171; and Jarkius, in
his Specimen Historiae Academiarum Conditarum, enumerates
nearly 700. Many of these, with a sort of Socratk irony, gave
themselves ludicrous names, or names expressive of ignorance.
Such were the Lunalici of Naples, the EstraoaganU, the Ful-
minates, the TrapessaU, (he Drowsy, the Sleepers, the Anxious,
the Confused, the Unstable, the Fantastic, the Transformed, the
Ethereal. '' The first academies of Italy chiefly directed their
attention to classical literature; they compared manuscripts;
they suggested new readings or new interpretations; they de-
ciphered inscriptions or coins, they sat in judgment on a Latin
ode or debated the propriety of a phrase. Their own poetry*
had, perhaps, never been neglected; but it was not till the
writings of Bembo furnished a new code of criticism in the Italian
language that they began to study it with the same minuteness
as modern Latin." " They were encouragers of a numismatic
and lapidary erudition, elegant in itself, and throwing for ever
little specks of light on the still ocean of the past, but not very
favourable to comprehensive observation, and tending to bestow
on an unprofitable pedantry the honours of real learning." 1
The Italian nobility, excluded as they mostly were from politics,
and living in cities, found in literature a consolation and a careen
Such academies were oligarchical in their constitution; they
encouraged culture, but tended to hamper genius and extinguish
originality. Far the most celebrated was the A cc a demia delta
Crusca or Furfuratorum; that is, of bran, or of the sifted,
founded in 1583. The title was borrowed from a previous
society at Perugia, the Accademia degli Scossi, of the welt-shaken.
Its device was a sieve; its motto, " II piu bel fior ne coglie " (it
collects the finest flower); Its principal object the purification of
the language. Its great work was the Vocabulario delta Crusca,
printed at Venice in 161 a. It was composed avowedly on Tuscan
principles, and regarded the 14th century as the Augustan period
of the language. Paul Beni assailed it in his Anti-Crusca, and
this exclusive Tuscan purism has disappeared in subsequent
editions. The Accademia delta Crusca is now incorporated with
1 Hatlam's InLtoLiLof Europe, vol. L p. 654. and vol. fi. r> 50a.
ACADEMIES
103
two older societies— the Accaiemia de%H ApaHci (the Impartial*)
and the Accaiemia Florentina.
Among the numerous other literary academics of Italy we
nay ment io n the academy of Naples, founded about 1440 by
Alpbonso, the king; the Academy of Florence, founded 1540,
to illustrate and perfect the Tuscan tongue, especially by the
dote study of Petrarch; the Introneti of Siena, 1525; the
Ufammad of Padua, 1534; ttje Rous of Siena, suppressed by
Cosimo, 156a.
The Academy of Humorists arose from a casual meeting of
witty noblemen at the marriage of Lorenzo Mardni, a Roman
gentleman. It was carnival time, and to give the ladies some
diversion they recited verses, sonnets and speeches, first im-
promptus and afterwards set compositions. This gave them
the name, Belli Humori, which, after they resolved to form an
academy of beDes lettres, they changed to Humoristi.
In 1690 the Accadcmia degii Arcadi was founded at Rome,
for the purpose of reviving the study of poetry, by Cresdmbeni,
the author of a history of Italian poetry. Among its members
•ere princes, cardinals 'and other ecclesiastics; and, to avoid
dispute* about pre-eminence, all came to its meetings masked
and dressed like Arcadian shepherds. Within ten years from
its fV a h fw hm ent the number of academicians was 600.
The Royal Academy of Savoy dates from 1719, and was made
a royal academy by Charles Albert in 1848. Its emblem is a
gold orange tree full of flowers and fruit; its motto " Flores
fnxuaque perennes," the same as that of the famous Florimen-
tane Academy, founded at Annecy by St Francis de Sales. It
has published valuable memoirs on the history and antiquities
of Savoy,
Spam.— The Real Academia EspaMota at Madrid held its
first meeting in July 1713, in the palace of its founder, the duke
d'Escaloaa. It consisted at first of 8 academicians, including
the duke, to which number 14 others were afterwards added,
the founder being chosen president or director. In 17 14 the
king granted them the royal confirmation and protection. Their
device is a crucible in the middle of the fire, with this motto.
Limpid fix*, y da esplendor—" It purifies, fixes, and gives bright-
ness." The number of its members was limited to 24; the duke
<TEscalona was chosen director for life, but bis successors were
elected yearly, and the secretary for life. Their object, as
narked out by the royal declaration, was to cultivate and im-
prove the national language. They were to begin with choosing
carefully such words and phrases as have been used by the best
Spanish writers; noting the low, barbarous or obsolete ones;
and composing a dictionary wherein these might be distinguished
bom the former.
5»eir*.— The Svenska Akademien was founded in 1786, for
the purpose of purifying and perfecting the Swedish language.
A medal is struck by its direction every year in honour of some
■hstrious Swede. This academy does not publish its transact
(ions.
HL Academies or Archaeology and History
Franc*.— The old Academic da inscriptions et belles-lettres (or
"Pttiie Academic," founded in 1663) was an offshoot of the
French Academy, which then at least contained the Hite of
French learning. Louis XIV. was of all French kings the one
most occupied with his own aggrandisement. Literature, and
m science, he only encouraged so far as they redounded to
h» ova glory. Nor were literary men inclined to assert their
■dependence. Boileau well represented the spirit of the age
vhea, in dedicating his tragedy Berenice to Colbert, he wrote:
"The least things become important if in any degree they can
save the glory and pleasure of the king." Thus it was that
the Academy of Inscriptions arose. At the suggestion of Colbert
• company (a committee we should now -call it) had been ap-
Wed by the king, chosen from the French Academy, charged
•ah the office of furnishing inscriptions-, devices and legends
l» medals. It consisted of four academicians: Chapclain,
«» considered the poet laureate of France, one of the authors
« the critique on the Cid; the abbe Amable de Bourzeis (1606-
1671); Francois Charpentier (1630-1702), an antiquary of high
repute among his contemporaries;. and the abbe Jacques de
Cassagnes (1636-1679), .who owed his appointment more to the
fulsome flattery of his odes than to his really learned translations
of Cicero and Sallust This company used to meet in Colbert's
library in the winter, at his country-house at Sceaux in the
summer, generally on Wednesdays, to serve the convenience of
the minister, who was always present Their meetings were
principally occupied with discussing the inscriptions, statues
and pictures intended for the decoration of Versailles; but
Colbert, a really learned man and an enthusiastic collector
of manuscripts, was often pleased to converse with them on
matters of art, history and antiquities. Their first published
work was a collection of engravings, accompanied by descrip-
tions, designed for some of the tapestries at Versailles. f Louvois,
who succeeded Colbert as a superintendent of buildings, revived
the company, which had begun to relax its labours. Felibien,
the learned architect, and the two great poets Racine and
Bofleau. were added to their, number. A scries of medals was
commenced, entitled MidaiUcs de la Grande Hitfm, or, in other
words, the history of the Grand Monarque.
But it was to M. de Pontchartrain, comptroller-general of
finance and secretary of state, that the academy owed its in-
stitution. He added to the company Renaudot and Jacques
Tourreil, both men of vast learning, the latter tutor to his son,
and put at its head his nephew, the abbe Jean Paul Bignon,
librarian to the king. By a 'new regulation, dated the 16th
of July 1 701, the Academic rayale des inscriptions et mtdaiUes
was instituted, being composed of ten honorary members, ten
pensioners, ten associates, and ten pupils. Its constitution was
an almost exact copy of that of the Academy of Sciences. Among
the regulations we find the following, which indicates clearly
the transition from a staff of learned officials to a learned body.
44 The academy shall concern itself with all that can contribute
to the perfection of inscriptions and legends, of designs for such
monuments and decorations as may be submitted to its judg-
ment; also with the description of all artistic works, present
and future, and the historical explanation of the subject of such
works; and as the knowledge of Greek and Latin antiquities,
and of these two languages) is the best guarantee for success in
labours of this class, the academicians shall apply themselves
to all that this division of learning includes, as one of the most
worthy objects of their pursuit"
Among the first honorary members we find the indefatigable
Mabillon (excluded from the pensioners by reason of his orders),
Pere La Chaise, the king's confessor, and Cardinal Rohan;
among the, associates Fontenelle and Rollin, whose Ancient
History was submitted to the academy for revision. In 17 n
they completed L'Histoire mitallique du roi t of which Saint-
Simon was asked to write the preface. In 17x6 the regent
changed its title to that of the Academic des inscriptions et belles-
lettres, a title which better suited its new character.
In the great battle between the Ancients and the Moderns
which divided the learned world in the first half of the 18th
century, the Academy of Inscriptions naturally espoused the
cause of the Ancients, as the Academy of Sciences did that of
the Moderns. During the earlier years of the French Revolu-
tion the academy continued its labours uninterruptedly, and
on the 22nd of January 1793, the day after the death of Louis
XVI., we find in the Proceedings that M. Brequigny read a paper
on the projects of marriage between Queen Elizabeth and the
dukes of Anjou and Alencon. In the same year were published
the 45th and 46th vols, of the Mimoircs de l' academic On the
and of August of the same year the last seance of the old academy
was held. More fortunate than its sister Academy of Sciences,
it lost only three of its members by the guillotine. One of these
was the astronomer Sylvain Bailly. Three others sat as members
of the Convention; but for the honour of the academy, it should
be added that all three were distinguished by their moderation.
In the first draft of the new Institute, October 25, 1705.
no class corresponded exactly to the old Academy of Inscrip-
tions; but most of the members •who survived found themselves
104
ACADEMIES
re-elected either in the class of moral and political science, under
which history and geography were included as sections, or more
generally under the class of literature and fine arts, which em-
braced ancient languages, antiquities and monuments.
In x8i6 the academy received again its old name. The Pro-
ceedings of the society embrace a vast field, and are of very
various merits. Perhaps the subjects on which it has shown
most originality are comparative mythology, the history of
science among the ancients, and the geography and antiquities
of France. The old academy has reckoned among its members
De Sacy the orientalist, Dansse de Villoison (1750-1805) the
philologist, Anquetfl du Perron the traveller, GuUlaume J. de
C. L. Sainte-Croix and du Theil the antiquaries, and Le Beau,
who has been named the last of the Romans. The new academy
has inscribed on its lists the names of ChampoUion, A. Remusat,
Raynouard, Burnouf and Augustin Thierry.
In consequence of the attention of several literary men in
Paris having been directed to Celtic antiquities, a Celtic Academy
was established in that city in r8o5. Its objects were, first, the
elucidation of the history, customs, antiquities, manners and
monuments of the Celts, particularly in France; secondly, the
etymology of all the European languages, by the aid of the
Celto-British, Welsh and Erse ; and, thirdly, researches relating
to Druidism. The attention of the members was also particu-
larly called to the history and settlements of the Galatae in Asia.
Lenoir, the keeper of the museum of French monuments, was
appointed president The academy still exists as La sociiti
nationale des aniiquaires de France.
Great Britain.— The British Academy was the outcome of a
meeting of the principal European and American academies, held
at Wiesbaden in October 1809. A scheme was drawn up for an
international association of the academies of the world under the
two sections of natural science and literary science, but while the
Royal Society adequately represented Englandinscience there was
then no existing institution that could claim to represent England
in literature, and at the first meeting of the federated academics
this chair was vacant A plan was proposed by Professor H.
Sidgwick to add a new section to the Royal Society, but after
long deliberation this was rejected by the president and council.
The promoters of the plan thereupon determined to form a
separate society, and invited certain persons to become the
first members of a new body, to be called "The British Academy
for the promotion of historical, philosophical and philological
studies." The unincorporated body thus formed petitioned for
a charter, and on the 8th of August 1902 the royal charter
was granted and the by-laws were allowed by order in council.
The objects of the academy are therein defined— "the promo-
tion of the study of the moral and political sciences, including
history, philosophy, law, politics and economics, archaeology
and philology." The number of ordinary fellows (so all members
are entitled) is restricted to one hundred, and the academy is
governed by a president (the first being Lord Reay) and a council
of fifteen elected annually by the fellows.
Italy. — Under this class the Accademia Ercolanese {Academy of
Herculaneum) properly ranks. It was established at Naples
about 1755, at which period a museum was formed of the anti-
quities found at Herculaneum, Pompeii and other places, by
the marquis Tanucci, who was then minister of state. I ts object
was to explain the paintings, &c, discovered at those places.
For this purpose the members met every fortnight, and at each
meeting three paintings were submitted to three academicians,
who made their report at their next sitting. The first volume
of their labours appeared in 1775, and they have been continued
under the title of A ntichitd di Ercolano. They contain engravings
of the principal paintings, statues, bronzes, marble figures,
medals, utensils, &c, with explanations. In the year 1807 an
academy of history and antiquities, on a new plan, was estab-
lished at Naples by Joseph Bonaparte. The number of members
was limited to forty, twenty of whom were to be appointed by
the king; and these twenty were to present to him, for his choice,
three names for each of those needed to complete the full number.
Eight thousand ducats were to be annually allotted for the
current expenses, and two thousand for prises to the authors oj
four works which should be deemed by the academy most
deserving of such a reward. A grand meeting was to be held
every year, when the prizes were to be distributed and analyses
of the works read. The first meeting took place on the 25th off
April 1807; but the subsequent changes in the political state of
Naples prevented the full and permanent establishment of this
institution. In the same year an academy was established at
Florence for the illustration of Tuscan antiquities, which pub-
lished some volumes of memoirs.
IV. Academies or Medicine and Sorcery
Austria. — The defunct Academy of Surgery at Vienna was
instituted in 1784 by the emperor Joseph II. under the direction
of the distinguished surgeon, Giovanni Alessandro Brambilla
( 1 728-1800). For many years it did important work, and though
closed in 1848 was reconstituted by the emperor Francis Joseph
in 1854. In 1874 it ceased to exist; its functions had become
mainly military, and were transferred to newer schools.
France. — Academic de Midecine. Medicine is a science which
has always engaged the attention of the kings of France. Charle-
magne established a school of medicine in the Louvre, and various
societies rhave been founded, and privileges granted to the
faculty by his successors. The Acadimie de midecine succeeded
to the old Academic royale de chirurgie et sociiti royale de midecine.
It was erected by a royal ordinance, dated December so, 1810.
It was divided into three sections — medicine, surgery and
pharmacy. In its constitution it closely resembled the Acadtmie
des sciences. Its function was to preserve or propagate vaccine
matter, and answer inquiries addressed to it by the government
on the subject of epidemics, sanitary reform and public health
generally. It has maintained an enormous correspondence in
all quarters of the globe and published extensive minutes.
Germany.— The Academia Naturae Curiosi, afterwards called
the Academia Caesaraca Leopoldino, was founded in 1662 by
J. L. Bausch, a physician of Leipzig, who published a general
invitation to medical men to communicate all extraordinary
cases that occurred in the course of their practice. The works
of the Naturae Curiosi were at first published separately ; but
in 1770 a new arrangement was planned for publishing a volume
of observations annually. From some cause, however, the first
volume did not make its appearance until 1784, when it was
published under the title of Ephemerides. In 1687 the emperor
Leopold took the society under his protection, and its name was
changed in his honour. This academy has no fixed abode, but
follows the home of its president Its library remains at Dresden.
By its constitution the Leopoldine Academy consists of a presi-
dent, two adjuncts or secretaries and unlimited colleagues or
members. At their admission the last come under a twofold
obligation — first, to choose some subject for discussion out of the
animal, vegetable or mineral kingdoms, not previously treated
by any colleague of the academy ; and, secondly, to apply them-
selves to furnish materials for the annual Ephemerides.
V. Academies or the Fine Arts
France.— The Academic royale de peinture et de sculpture at
Paris was founded by Louis XIV. in 1648, under the title of
Acadimie royale des beaux arts, to which was afterwards united
the Acadimie d 'architecture, founded 1671. It is composed of
painters, sculptors, architects, engravers and musical composers.
From among the members of the society who are painters,
is chosen the director of the French Acadimie des beaux arts at
Berne, also instituted by Louis XIV. in 1677. The director's
province is to superintend the studies of the painters, sculptors,
&c, who, chosen by competition, are sent to Italy at the expense
of the government, to complete their studies in that country.
Most of the celebrated French painters have begun their career
in this way.
The Acadimie nationale de musique is the official and adminis-
trative name given in France to the grand opera. In 1570 the
poet Balf established in his house a school of music, at which
ballets and masquerades were given. In 1645 Mazarin brought
ACADEMY
105
from Italy a troupe of actors, and established them in the rue
da Petit Bourbon, where they gave Jules Strozzi's Aekitle in
&*>•, the first opera performed in France. After Moliere's
death in 1673, his theatre in the Palais Royal was given to Sulli,
and there were performed all duck's great operas; there
Vcstm danced, and there was produced Jean Jacques Rousseau's
Detmdu Village.
Great Britain.— The Royal Academy of Arts in London,
founded in 1768, is described in a separate article. (See
Acaowiy, Royal.)
The Academy of Ancient Music was established in London
in 1710, with the view of promoting the study and practice of
vocal and instrumental harmony. This institution had a fine
musical library, and was aided by the performances of the
geatkmen of the Chapel Royal and the choir of St Paul's, with
the boys frfHrgfng to each, and continued to flourish for many
yeanv About 1734 the academy became a seminary for the
instruction of youth in the principles of music and the laws of
harmony. The Royal Academy of Music was formed for the
performance of operas, composed by Handel, and conducted by
aim at the theatre in the Haymarket, The subscription
amounted to £50,000, and the king, besides subscribing £1000,
allowed the society to assume the title Royal It consisted of
a governor, deputy-governor and twenty directors. A contest
between Handel and Senesino, one of the performers, in which
the directors took the part of the latter, occasioned the dis-
fohtikm of the academy after it had existed with honour for
nore than nine years. The present Royal Academy of Music
dates from 1832, and was incorporated in 183a It instructs
jrapfls of both- sexes in music. (See also the article Consuva-
toue for colleges of music.)
Italy.— la 1778 an academy of painting and sculpture was
established at Turin. The meetings were held in the palace of
the king, who distributed prizes among the most successful
Bembers, In Milan an academy of architecture was established
so early as 1380, by Gian Galeazso Visconti. About the middle
of the iSth century an academy of the*arts was established there,
after the example of those at Paris and Rome. The pupils were
famished with originals and models, and prizes were distributed
by competent judges annually. The prize for painting was a
gold medal Before the effects of the French Revolution reached
Italy this was one of the best establishments of the kind in that
kingdom. In the ball of the academy were some admirable
examples of Correggio, as well as several statues of great merit,
particularly a small bust of Vitellius, and a torso of Agrippina,
of most exquisite beauty. The academy of the arts, which had
been long established at Florence, fell into decay, but was
restored in the end of the 28th century. In it there are halls for
fl&de and plaster figures, for the use of the sculptor and the
painter, with models of all the finest statues in Italy. But the
treasures of this and the other institutions for the fine arts were
greatly diminished during the occupancy of Italy by the French.
The academy of the arts at Modena, after being plundered by the
French, dwindled Into a petty school for drawing from living
■odds, There is also an academy of the fine arts in Mantua,
tad another at Venice.
Uteris.— The academy of St Petersburg was established in
1757 by the empress Elizabeth, at the suggestion of Count
Sasvalov, and annexed to the academy of sciences. The fund
for its support was £4000 per annum, and the foundation ad-
mitted forty scholars. Catherine II. formed it into a separate
institution, augumented the annual revenue to £u,ooo, and
increased the number of scholars to three hundred; she built
for it a large circular building, which fronts the Neva. The
scholars are admitted at the age of six, and continue until they
hm attained that of eighteen. They are clothed, fed and
Wged at the expense of the crown; and are instructed in read-
fee writing, arithmetic, French, German and drawing. At the
age of fourteen they are at liberty to choose any of the following
vts; first, painting in all its branches, architecture, mosaic,
cuneOing, &c; second, engraving, on copper-plates, seal-
cattiag; fcc; third, carving on wood, ivory and amber; fourth,
watch-making, turning, instrument-making, casting statues
in bronze and other metals, imitating gems and medals in paste
and other compositions, gilding and varnishing. Prizes are
annually distributed, and from those who have obtained four
prizes, twelve are selected, who are sent abroad at the chargo
of the crown. A certain sum is paid to defray their travelling
expenses; and when they are settled in any town, they receive
during four years an annual salary of £60. The academy has a
small gallery of paintings for the use of the scholars; and those
who have made great progress are permitted to copy the pictures
in the imperial collection. For the purpose of design, there are
full-size models of the best antique statues in Italy.
South America. — There are several small academies in the
various towns of South America, the only one of note being
that of Rio de Janeiro, founded by John VI. of Portugal in
18 16 and now known as the Escola National de Bellas Arte*.
Spain.— In Madrid an academy for painting, sculpture and
architecture, the Academia de Bellas Artes de San Fernanda, was
founded by Philip V. The minister for foreign affairs is presi-
dent. Prizes are distributed every three years. In Cadiz a few
students are supplied by government with the means of drawing
and modelling from figures; and such as are not able to purchase
the requisite instruments are provided with them.
Sweden.— An academy of the fine arts was founded at Stock-
holm in the year 1733 by Count Tessin. In its hall are the
ancient figures of plaster presented by Louis XIV. to Charles XI.
The works of the students are publicly exhibited, and prizes are
distributed annually. Such of them as display distinguished
ability obtain pensions from government, to enable them to
reside in Italy for some years, for the purposes of investigation
and improvement. In this academy there are nine professors
and generally about four hundred students.
Austria.— In the year 1705 an academy of painting, sculpture
and architecture was established at Vienna, with the view of
encouraging and promoting the fine arts.
United Slates of America. — In America the institution similar
to the Royal Academy of Arts in London is the National Academy
of Design (1826), which in 1006 absorbed the Society of American
Artists, the members of the society becoming members of the
academy.
The volume of e xc e r p ts from the general catalogue of books in
the British Museum, "Academies," 5 parts and index, furnishes a
complete bibliography. (F. S.)
ACADEMY, GREEK or Academe (Gr. axa^iuua or Uairjula),
the name given to the philosophic successors of Plato. The
name is derived from a pleasure-garden or gymnasium situated
in the suburb of the Ceramicus on the river Cephissus about a
mile to the north-west of Athens from the gate called Dipylum.
It was said to have belonged to the ancient Attic hero Academus,
who, when the Dioscuri invaded Attica to recover their sister
Helen, carried off by Theseus, revealed the place where she was
hidden. Out of gratitude the Lacedaemonians, who reverenced
the Dioscuri, always spared the Academy during their invasions
of the country. It was walled in by Hipparchus and was adorned
with walks, groves and fountains by Cimon (Plut. Cim. 13), who
bequeatheM it as a public pleasure-ground to his fellow-citizens.
Subsequently the garden became the resort of Plato («;.*.), who
had a small estate in the neighbourhood. Here he taught for
nearly fifty years till his death in 348 B.C., and his followers
continued to make it their headquarters. It was closed for teach-
ing by Justinian in AJ>. 529 along with the other pagan schools.
Cicero borrowed the name for his villa near Puteoli, where he
composed his dialogue The Academic Questions. .
The Platonic Academy (proper) lasted from the days of Plato
to those of Cicero, and during its whole course there is traceable
a distinct continuity of thought which justifies its examination
as a real intellectual unit. On the other hand, this continuity
of thought is by no means an identity. The Platonic doctrine
was so far modified in the hands of successive scholarchs that the
Academy has been divided into either two, three or five main
sections (Sext. Empir. Pyrrh. Hyp. I. j jo). Finally, in the days
of Philo, Antiochus and Cicero, the metaphysical dogmatism
io6
ACADEMY
of Plato had been "changed into an ethical syncretism which
combined elements from the Scepticism of Cameadea and the
doctrines of the Stoics; it was a change from a dogmatism
which men found impossible to defend, to a probabilism which
afforded a retreat from Scepticism and intellectual anarchy.
Cicero represents at once the doctrine of the later Academy
and the general attitude of Roman society when he says, " My
words do not proclaim the truth, like a Pythian priestess; but
I conjecture what is probable, like a plain man; and where, I
ask, am I to search for anything more than verisimilitude?"
And again: "The characteristic of the Academy is never to
interpose one's judgment, to approve what seems most probable,
to compare together different opinions, to see what may be
advanced on either side and to leave one's listeners free to judge
without pretending to dogmatixe."
The passage from Sextus Empiricus, dted above, gives the
general view that there were three academies: the first, or Old,
academy under Speusippus and Xenocrates; the second, or
Middle, academy under Arcesilaus and Polemon; the third, or
New, academy under Cameades and Clitomachus. Seztus
notices also the theory that there was a fourth, that of Philo of
Larissa and Charmidas, and a fifth, that of Antiochus. Diogenes
Laertius says that Lacydes was the founder of the New Academy
(i. 19, iv. 59). Cicero (de Orat. iii. 18, &c.) and Varro Insist that
there were only two academies, the Old and the New. Those
who maintain that there is no justification for the five-fold
division hold that the agnosticism of Cameades was really latent
in Plato, and became prominent owing to the necessity of re-
futing the Stoic criterion.
The general tendency of the Academic thinkers was towards
practical simplicity, a tendency due in large measure to the
inferior intellectual capacity of Plato's immediate successors.
Cicero (de Fin. v. 3) says generally of the Old Academy: " Their
writings and method contain all liberal learning, all history, all
polite discourse; and besides they embrace such a variety of
arts, that no one can undertake any noble career without their
aid. ... In a word the Academy is„as it were, the workshop of
every artist." It is true that these men turned to scientific
investigation, but in so doing they escaped from the high alti-
tudes in which Plato thought, and tended to lay emphasis on
the mundane side of philosophy. Of Plato's originality and
speculative power, of his poetry and enthusiasm they inherited
nothing, " nor amid all the learning which has been profusely
lavished upon investigating their tenets is there a single deduc-
tion calculated to elucidate distinctly the character of their
progress or regression" (Archer Butler, Ltd. on Anc, Phil.
»• 3is).
The modification of Academic doctrine from Plato to Cicero
may be indicated briefly under four heads.
(1) Plato's own theory of Ideas was not accepted even by
Speusippus and Xenocrates. They argued that the Good cannot
be the origin of things, inasmuch as Goodness is only found as
an attribute of things. Therefore, the idea of Good must be
secondary to some other more fundamental principle of exist-
ence. This unit Speusippus attempted to find in the Pytha-
gorean number-theory. From it he deduced three principles,
one for numbers, one for magnitude, one for the soul. The
Deity he conceived as that living force which rules all and
resides everywhere. Xenocrates, though like Speusippus in-
fected with Pythagoreanism, was the most faithful of- Plato's
successors. He distinguished three' spheres, the sensible, the
intelligible, and a third compounded of the two, to which corre-
spond respectively, sense, intellect and opinion (*6£a). Cicero
notes, however, that both Speusippus and Xenocrates abandon
the Socratic principle of hesitancy.
(2) Up to Arcesilaus, the Academy accepted the principle
of finding a general unity in all things, by the aid of which a
principle of certainty might be found. Arcesilaus, however,
broke new ground by attacking the very possibility of certainty.
Socrates had said, " This alone I know, that I know nothing."
But Arcesilaus went farther and denied the possibility of even
the Socratic minimum of certainty: "I cannot know even
whether I know or not." Thus from the dogmatism of the
master the Academy plunged into the extremes of agnostic
criticism.
(3) The next stage in the Academic succession was the moder-
ate scepticism of Cameades, which owed its existence to his
opposition to Chrysippus, the Stoic. To the Stoical theory of
perception, the fywraala xaraXvrruri), by which they expressed a
conviction of certainty arising from impressions so strong as to
amount to science, he opposed the doctrine of acatalepsia, which
denied any necessary correspondence between perceptions and
the objects perceived. He saved himself, however, from absolute
scepticism by the doctrine of probability or verisimilitude, which
may serve as a practical guide in life. Thus his criterion of
imagination (jtayraoia) is that it must be credible, irrefutable
and attested by comparison with other impressions; it may be
wrong, but for the person concerned it is valid. In ethics he
was an avowed sceptic During his official visit to Rome, be
gave public lectures, in which he successively proved and dis-
proved with equal ease the existence of justice.
(4) In the last period we find a tendency not only to reconcile
the internal divergences of the Academy itself, but also to con-
nect It with parallel growths of thought. Philo of Larissa en-
deavours to show that Cameades was not opposed to Plato,
and further that the apparent antagonism between Plato and
Zeno was due to the fact that they were arguing from different
points of view. From this syncretism emerged the prudent
non-committal eclecticism of Cicero, the last product of Aca-
demic development.
For detailed accounts of the Academicians tee Snusirrus,
Xenocrates, Ac; also Stoics' and Neoplatonism. Consult his-
tories of philosophy by Zeller and Windelband, and Th. Gompers,
Creek Thinkers, iL 270 (Eng. tr. t London, 1905).
ACADEMY, ROYAL. The Royal Academy of Arts In London,
to give it the original title in full, was founded in X768, " for the
purpose of cultivating and improving the arts of painting, sculp-
ture and architecture." Many attempts had previously been
made in England to form a society which should have for its
object the advancement of the fins* arts. Sir James Thornhill,
his son-in-law Hogarth, the Dilettanti Society, made efforts
in this direction, but their schemes were wrecked by want of
means. Accident solved the problem.- The crowds that attended
an exhibition of pictures held in 1758 at the Foundling Hospital
for the benefit of charity, suggested a way of making money
hitherto unsuspected. Two societies were quickly formed, one
calling itself the " Society of Artists " and the other the " Free
Society of Artists." The latter ceased to exist in 17 74- The
former flourished, and in 1765 was granted a royal charter
under the title of the " Incorporated Society of Artists of Great
Britain." But though prosperous it was not united. A number
of the members, including the most eminent artists of the day,
resigned in 1768, and headed by William Chambers the archi-
tect, and Benjamin West, presented on 28th November in that
year to George III., who had already shown his interest in the
fine arts, a memorial soliciting his " gracious assistance, patron-
age and protection," in " establishing a society for promoting
the arts of design." The memorialists stated that the two prin-
cipal objects they had in view were the establishing of " a well-
regulated school or academy of design for the use of students in
the arts, and an annual exhibition open to all artists of distin-
guished merit; the profit arising from the last of these Institu-
tions " would, they thought, " fully answer all the expenses of
the first," and, indeed, leave something over to be distributed
" in useful charities." The king expressed his agreement with
the proposal, but asked for further particulars. These were
furnished to him on the 7th of December and approved, and on
the 10th of December they were submitted in form, and the docu-
ment embodying them received his signature, with the words,
" I approve of this plan; let it be put into execution." This
document, known as the " Instrument," defined under twenty-
seven" heads the constitution and government of the Royal
Academy, and contained the names of the thirty-six original
members nominated by the king. Changes and modifications
ACADEMY
107
» the lavs tad regulations laid down In it have of course been
made, bat none of them without the sanction of the sover-
eign, and the " Instrument " remains to this day in all essential
particulars the Magna Charta of the society. Four days after
the signing of this document — on the 14th of December— twenty-
eight of the first nominated members met and drew up the Form
of Obligation which is still signed by every academician on receiv-
ing bis diploma, and also elected a president, keeper, secretary,
council and visitors in the schools; the professors being chosen
it a further meeting held on the 17th. No time was lost in
fstaMMiihg the schools, and on the and of January 1769 they
were opened at some rooms in Pall Mall, a little eastward of the
ale now occupied by the Junior United Service Club, the presi-
dent, Sir Joshua Reynolds, delivering on that occasion the first
of his famous " discourses." The opening of the first exhibition
at the same place followed on the 26th of April.
The king when founding the Academy undertook to supply
out of his own privy purse any deficiencies between the receipts
derived from the exhibitions and the expenditure incurred on
the schools, charitable donations for artists, &c. For twelve
rears be was called upon to do so, and contributed in all some-
thing over £5000, but in 1 781 there was a surplus, and no further
call has ever been made on the royal purse. George III. also
gave the Academy rooms in what was then his own palace of
Somerset House, and the schools and offices were removed there
in 1771, but the exhibition continued to be held in Pall Mall,
ull the completion in 1780 of the new Somerset House, when the
Academy took possession of the apartments in it which the king,
on giving up the palace for government offices, had expressly
stipulated should be provided. Here it remained till 183 7, when
the government, requiring the use of these rooms, offered in
exchange a portion of the National Gallery, then just erected
in Trafalgar Square. The offer, which contained no conditions,
•as accepted. But it was not long before the necessity for a
farther removal became imminent. Already in 1850 notice was
given by the government that the rooms occupied by the Aca-
demy would be required for the purposes of the National Gallery,
aod that they proposed to give the Academy £40,000 to provide
themselves with a building elsewhere. The matter slumbered,
however, till 185S, when the question was raised in the House of
Commons as to whether it would not be justifiable to turn the
Academy out of the National Gallery without making any pro-
vision for it elsewhere. Much discussion followed, and a royal
commission was appointed in 1863 " to inquire into the present
position of the Royal Academy in relation to the fine arts, and
into the circumstances and conditions under which it occupies
a portion of the National Gallery, &c." In their report, which
contained a large number of proposals and suggestions, some of
them since carried out, the commissioners stated that they had
"come to the dear conclusion that the Royal Academy have
do legal, but that they have a moral claim to apartments at
the public expense." Negotiations had been already going on
between the government and the Academy for the appropriation
to the latter of a portion of the site occupied by the recently
Purchased Burlington House, on which the Academy offered to
cert suitable buildings at its own expense. The negotiations
«ere renewed in 1866, and in March in the following year a lease
of old Burlington House, and a portion of the garden behind it*
was granted to the Academy for 000 years at a peppercorn rent,
object to the condition that " the premises shall be at all times
odttsvdy devoted to the purpose of the cultivation of the fine
arts." The Academy immediately proceeded to erect, on the
garden portion of the site thus acquired, exhibition galleries and
xhoob, which were opened in i860, further additions being made
m 1884. An upper storey was also added to old Burlington
House, in which to place the diploma works, the Gibson statuary
sad other works of art. Altogether the Academy, out of its
vramulated savings, has spent on these buildings more than
{160,000. They are its own property, and arc maintained
«wirely at hs expense.
The government of the Academy was by the " Instrument "
vested in u a president and eight other persons, who shall form
a council" Four of these were to retire every year, and the
seats were to go by rotation to every academician. The number
was increased in 1870 to twelve, and reduced to ten in 1875.
Trie rules as to retirement and rotation are still in force. Newly
elected academicians begin their two years' service as soon as
they have received their diploma. The council has, to quote
the "Instrument," "the entire direction and management of
the business " of the Academy in all its branches; and also the
framing of new laws and regulations, but the latter, before
coming into force, must be sanctioned by the general assembly
and approved by the sovereign. The general assembly consists
of the whole body of academicians, and meets on certain fixed
dates and at such other times as the business may require;
also at the request to the president of any five members. The
principal executive officers of the Academy are the president,
the keeper, the treasurer, the librarian and the secretary, all
now elected by the general assembly, subject-to the approval of
the sovereign. The president is elected annually on the founda-
tion day, 10th December, but the appointment is virtually for
life. No change has ever been made in the conditions attached
to this office, with the exception of its being now a salaried
instead of ah unsalaried post. The treasurership and librarian-
ship, both offices originally held not by election but by direct
appointment from the sovereign, are now elective, the holders
being subject to re-election every five years, and the keepership
is also held upon the same terms; while the secretaryship,
which up to 1873 had always been filled like the other offices
by an academician, has since then been held by a layman.
Other officers elected by the general assembly are the auditors
(three academicians, one of whom retires every year), the
visitors in the schools (academicians and associates), and the
professors of painting, sculpture and architecture — who must
be members— and of anatomy and chemistry. There are also
a registrar, and curators and teachers in the schools, who are
appointed by the council.
The thirty-six original academicians were named by George
III. Their successors have been elected, up to 1867, by academi-
cians only— since that date by academicians and associates
together. The original number was fixed in the " Instrument "
at forty, and has so remained. Each academician on his election
has to present an approved specimen of his work— called his
diploma work— before his diploma is submitted to the sovereign
for signature. On receiving his diploma he signs the Roll of
Institution as an academician, and takes his seat in the general
assembly. The class of associates, out of whom alone the academi-
cians can be elected, was founded in 1769 — they were " to be
elected from amongst the exhibitors, and be entitled to every
advantage enjoyed by the royal academicians, excepting that of
having a voice in the deliberations or any share in the govern-
ment of the Academy." Those exhibitors who wished to be-
come candidates had to give in their names at the close of the
exhibition. This condition no longer exists, candidates having
since 1867 merely to be proposed and seconded by members of
the Academy. On election, they attend at a council meeting
to sign the Roll of Institution as. an associate, and receive a
diploma signed by the president and secretary. In 1867 also
associates were admitted to vote at all elections of members;
in 1868 they were made eligible to serve as visitors in the schools,
and in 1886 to become candidates for the professorships of
painting, sculpture and architecture. At first the number of
associates was limited to twenty; in 1866 the number was
made indefinite with a minimum of twenty, and in 1876 the
minimum was raised to thirty. Vacancies in the lists of academi-
cians and associates caused by death or resignation can be
filled up at any time within five weeks of the event, except in
the months of August, September and October, but a vacancy
in the associate list caused by election only dates from the day
on which the new academician receives his diploma. The mode
of election is the same in both cases, first by marked lists and
afterwards by ballot. All who at the first marking have four
or more votes are marked for again, and the two highest then go
I to the ballot. Engravers have always constituted a separate
io8
ACADEMY
data, and up to 1855 they were admitted to the assodateship
only, the number, six, being in addition to the other associates;
now the maximum is four, of whom not more than two may be
academicians. A class of honorary retired academicians was
established in 1862, and of honorary retired associates in 1884.
The first honorary foreign academicians were elected in 1869.
The honorary members consist of a chaplain, an antiquary, a
secretary for foreign correspondence, and professors of ancient
history and ancient literature. These posts, which date from
the foundation of the Academy, have always been held by
distinguished men.
Academy Schooli. — One of the most important function! of the
Royal Academy, and one which for nearly a century it discharged
alone, was the instruction of students in art. The hr±,t act h as has
been shown, of the newly founded Academy was to establish school*
— " an Antique Academy/' and a " School for the Living Model " for
patntera, sculptors and architects. In the first year, 1709, no fewer
than seventy -seven students entered. A school of painting was
added in 181 ;, and special schools of sculpture and architecture in
1871. It would occupy too much space to follow the various changes
that have been made in the schools since tl eir establishment. In
One important respect, however, they remain the iame, viz, in the
instruction being gratuitous— no fees have ever been charged. Up
to the removal of the Academy to its present quarters the schools
could not be kepi permanently open, as the rooms occupied by them
were wanted for the exhibition. They are now open all the year
round with the exception of a fortnight at Christmas, and the months
of August and September. They carts Ui of an antique school, upper
and lower school of painting, a school of drawing from the life, a
school of m< 1 Mine from the life and an architectural school. Ad-
mission is giined by submitting certain specimens of drawing or
modelling, and the successful candidates, called probationers, have
then to undergo a further test in the schools, on passing which they
are admitted as students (pr three year*. At the end of that time
they are again examined, and if qualified admitted for a further term
of two years. These examinations arc held twice a year, jnjanuary
and July. Fcmate students were first admitted in 1 86o, There are
many scholarships, money prizes and medals to be gained by (he
various classes of students during the time of studentship, including
travelling st lentships of the value of £500 for one year, gold and
silver medals, and prires varying from I50 to (10. There are per-
manent curators and teachers in all the schools, but the principal
teaching is done by the visitors, academicians and associates, elected
to serve in each school. i«c average cost of maintaining these
schools, including salaries, fees, cost of models, prizes, books, main-
tenance of building, &c. is from £5000 to £6000 a year, apart from
certain scholarships and prizes derived from moneys given or be-'
2ueathed for this purpose, such as the Landseer scholarships, the
reswick prize, the Armitage prizes and the Turner scholarship
and gold medal.
Charities.— Another of the principal objects to which the profits
of the Royal Academy have been devoted has been the relief of dis-
tressed artists and their families. From the commencement of the
institution a fund was set apart for this purpose, and subsequently
a further sum was allotted to provide pensions for necessitous
members of the Academy and their widows. Both these funds were
afterwards merged in the general fund, and various changes have
from time to time been made in the conditions under which pensions
and donations have been granted and in their amount. At the
present time pensions not exceeding a certain fixed amount may be
given to academicians and associates, sixty years of age, who nave
retired and whose circumstances show them to be in need, provided
the sum given does not make their total annual income exceed a
certain limit, and the same amounts can be given to their widows
subject to the same conditions. No pensions are granted without
very strict inquiry into the circumstances of the applicant, who is
obliged to make a yearly declaration as to his or her income. The
average annual amount of these pensions has been latterly about
£2000. Pensions are also given according to the civil service scale
to certain officers on retirement. It may be stated here that with the
exception of these pensions and of salaries and fees for official services,
no member of the Academy derives any pecuniary benefit from the
funds of the institution. Donations to distressed artists who are or
have been exhibitors at (he Royal Academy, their widows and
children under twenty-one years of age, are made twice a year in
February and August. The maximum amount that can be granted
to any one applicant in one donation is £100, and no one can receive
a grant more than once a year. The average yearly amount thus
expended is from £1200 to £1500. In addition to these charities from
its general funds, the Academy administers for the benefit of artists,
not members of the Academy, certain other funds which have been
bequeathed to it for charitable purposes, viz. the Turner fund, the
Cousins fund, the Cooke fund, the Newton bequest and the Edwards
fund (see below).
Exhibitions.— The source from which have been derived the funds
for carrying on the varied work of the Royal Academy, its schools,
its charities and general cost of administration, and which has
enabled it to spend large sums on building, and provided it with the
means of maintaining the buildings, has been the annual exhibitions.
With the exception of the money left by John Gibson, R.A.. some of
which was spent in building the gallery containing the statues and
bas-reliefs bequeathed by him, these exhibitions have provided the
sole source of revenue, all other moneys that have come to the
Academy having been either left in trust, or been constituted trusts,
for certain specific purposes. The first exhibition in 1769 contained
136 works, of which more than one-half were contributed by members,
and brought in £609: 17: 6. In 1780, the first year in which the.
receipts exceeded the expenditure, the number of works waa 489, of
which nearly one-third were by members, and the sum received was
£3060: is. This increase continued gradually with fluctuations,
and m 1836, the last year at Somerset House, the number of works
waa 1 154, and the receipts were £5179: 19s. No great addition to
the number of works exhibited took place at Trafalgar Square, but
the receipts steadily grew, and their careful management enabled
the Academy, when the time came for moving, to erect its own
buildings and become no longer dependent on the government for a
home. The greater space afforded by the galleries at Burlington
House rendered it possible to increase the number of works exhibited,
which of late years has reached a total of over aooo, while the receipts
have also been such as to provide the means for further building, and
for a largely increased expenditure of all kinds. It may be noted
that the number of works sent for exhibition soon began to exceed
the space available. In i868 t the last year at Trafalgar Square, the
number sent was 301 1. This went on increasing, with occasional
fluctuations, at Burlington House, and in the year 1900 it reached
the number of 13462. The annual winter exhibition of works by
old masters and deceased British artists was begun in 187a It jras
never intended to be a source of revenue, but appreciation by the
public has so far prevented it from being a cause of loss. The summer
exhibition of works by living artists opens on the first Monday in May,
and closes on the first Monday in August. The winter exhibition of
works by deceased artists opens on the first Monday in -January, and
clc"~* <">n the 9e*-««* ^»t«F«ay In Marrh. Th* ^^lf*»ries containing
the diploma works, the Gibson statuary' and other works of art are
open daily* free.
Prtsuftnis of the Royal Academy.— Sir Joshua Reynolds, 1768-
1702; Benjamin West (resigned), 1792-180$; James Wyatt
(president-elect J, 1605; Benjamin West (re-elected), 1806-1820;
Sir Thomas Lawrence, 1820-1810; Sir Martin Archer Shee, 1830-
1850; Sir Charles Lock East lake* 1850-1165; Sir Francis Grant,
1866-1878; Frederick, Lord Leigh ton of Strctton H 1878-185)6; Sir
John Everett MiLlais, 1806; Sir Edward John Poynter, 1896.
The library contains about 700c volumes, dealing with the history,
the theory and the practice of the various branches of the fine arts,
some of them of Rival rarity and value, ft is open daily to the
Students and members, and to other persons on a proper mtroductioo.
The trust funds administered by the Royal Academy are: —
The Turner fund {J. M. W. Turner, FLA. J. which provides sixteen
annuities of £50 each, for artists of repute not members of the
Academy, also a bknnial scholarship of £50 and a gold medal for a
landscape painting.
The Chantrey fund (Sir Francis Chantrey, R.A), the income of
which, paid over by the Chantrey trustees, is spent on pictures and
sculpture. (See Chantrey.)
The Creswich fund (Thomas Creswick, FLA), which provides an
annual prize of £30 for a landscape painting in oil.
The Cooke fund (E. W. Cooke, K.A.), which provides two annuities
of £35 each Tor painters not members of the Academy, over sixty
years of age and in need.
The Landseer fund (Charles Landseer, R.A), which provides four
scholarships of £40 each, two in painting and two in sculpture,
tenable for two years, open to students at the end of the first two
years of studentship, and given for the best work done during the
second year.
Tht Armitage fund (E. Armitage, R.A), which provides two annual
prizes of £30 and £ to, for a design in monochrome for a figure picture.
The Cousins fund (S. Cousins, R.A.), which provides seven annuities
of £80 each for deserving artists, not members of the Academy, in
need of assistance.
The Newton bequest (H. C. Newton), which provides an annual
sum of £60 for the indigent widow of a painter.
The Bizofund (John Bizo), to be used in the scientific investigation
into the nature of pigments and varnishes, fix.
The Edwards fund (W. J. Edwards), producing £40 a year for the
benefit of poor artists or artistic engravers.
The Lettkton bequest (Lord Leighton, P.R.A.). received from Mrs
Orr and Mrs Matthews in memory of their brother, the income from
which, about £300, is expended on the decoration of public places
and buildings.
The literature concerning the Royal Academy consists chiefly of
pamphlets and articles of more or less ephemeral value. More senous
works are: William Sandby, The History of the Royal Academy of
Arts (London, 1862) (withdrawn from circulation on a question df
copyright); Report from the Select Committee on Arts and their Con-
nexion with Manufactures, with the Minutes 0/ Evidence and Appendix
(London, 1836) ; Report of the Royal Commission on the Royal Academy,
with Minutes of Evidence and Appendix (London, 1863); Jttarata
ACADIAN— ACANTHOCEPHALA
109
Aider Si**. Tho Ufe ofSir M. A. She*, PJtA. (London, i860);
C R. Leslie. ILA.. and Tom Taylor, Ltft and Tunes of Sir Joshua
XeymekU. PJLA. (London. 1865); j. E. Hodgson, R.A. (the late),
aad Fred. A. Eaton. Sec- R.A.. " The Royal Academy in the Last
Ceatury," Art Journal, 1880-1891. But the chief sources of informa-
uon oa the subject are the minute-books of the council and of
u* general assembly, and the annual reports, which, however, only
date from 1859. (F- A- E -)
ACADIAN, in geology, the name given by Sir J. W. Dawson in
1S67 to a series of black, red and green shales and slates, with
dark grey limestones, which are well developed at St John, New
Brunswick; Avalon in E. Newfoundland, and Braintree in E.
Massachusetts. These rocks are of Middle Cambrian age and
possess a ParadoxuUs fauna. They have been correlated with
Emestose beds in Tennessee, Alabama, Central Nevada and
British Columbia (St Stephen).
Set Cambuah System; also C. D. Walcort, Butt. US. Cool.
Suney. No. 81. 1891; and Sir J. W. Dawson, Acadian Geology,
I* ed. 1855. yd ed. 1878.
ACADIE, or Acadia, a name given by the French in 1603 to
that part of the mainland of North America lying between the
latitudes 4©° and 46°. In the treaty of Utrecht (1713) the
words used in transferring the French possessions to Britain
were " Nova Scotia or Acadia." See Nova Scotia for the limits
iadnd edat t hat da te under the term.
ACAJrTHOCEPHALA, a compact group of cylindrical, para-
sitic worms, with no near allies in the animal kingdom. Its
nembers are quite devoid of any mouth or alimentary canal,
bat have a well-developed body cavity into which the eggs
are dehisced and which communicates with the exterior by
The skin is peculiar. Externally is a thin cuticle; this covers
the epidermis, which consists of a syncytium with no cell
limits. The syncytium is traversed by a series of branching
tubules containing fluid and is controlled by a few wandering,
amoeboid nuclei (fig. 2). Inside the syncytium is a not very
regular layer of circular muscle fibres, and within this again
some rather scattered longitudinal fibres; there is no endo-
thelium. In their minute structure the muscular fibres resemble
those of Nematodes. Except for the absence of the longi-
tudinal fibres the skin of the proboscis resembles that of the
body, but the fluid-containing tubules of the latter are shut
off from those of the body. The canals of the proboscis open
ultimately into a circular vessel which runs round its base.
From the circular canal two sac-like diverticula called the
f*a CmHiff NoJmwl Bi+ry. vri. B, "Won* *c,» by
Mini aCaXd.
Fig. 1.
A, Five specimens of Echinorhynchus oats, Rud., attached to a
piece of intestinal wall.
B, The proboscis of one still more highly m ag nifi e d.
means of an oviduct. The size of the animals varies greatly,
from forms a few millimetres in length to Cigantorhynchus
fifw, which measures from 10 to 65 cms. The adults live in
great numbers in the alimentary canal of some vertebrate,
asuaQy fish, the larvae are as a rule encysted in the body cavity
of some invertebrate, most often an insect or crustacean, more
rarely a small fish. The body is divisible into a proboscis and
a trunk with sometimes an intervening neck region. The
proboscis bears rings of recurved hooks arranged in horizontal
lows, and it is by means of these hooks' that the animal attaches
itself to the tissues of its host. The hooks may be of two or
three shapes. Like the body, the proboscis is hollow, and its
cavity is separated from the body cavity by a septum or pro-
boscis sheath. Traversing the cavity of the proboscis are
nusde-strands inserted into the tip of the proboscis at one end
ud into the septum at the other. Their contraction causes
the proboscis to be invaginated into its cavity (fig. 2). But
tkt whole proboscis apparatus can also be, at least partially,
withdrawn into the body cavity, and this is effected by two
fttractor muscles which run from the posterior aspect of the
septum to the body wall (fig. 3).
From CemMdgt NSmtl Butmy,
M*oaiU*naCo. UA
Fic. 2. — A longitudinal section through the anterior end of
Echinorhynchus haeruca, Rud. (from Hamann).
a. The proboscis not fully ex-
b. Proboscis-sheath. Ipandcd.
c. Retractor muscles of the pro-
d. Cerebral ganglion. [boscis.
Retinaculum enclosing a
f,. One of the retractors of the
g t A lemniscus. [sheath.
h, One of the spaces in the sub-
cuticular tissue.
t, Longitudinal muscular layer.
f, Circular muscular layer.
A, Line of division between the
sub-cuticular tissue of the
trunk and that of the pro-
boscis with the lemnisd.
" lemnisd " depend into the cavity of the body (fig. 2). Each
consists of a prolongation of the syncytial material of the
proboscis skin, penetrated by canals and sheathed with a scanty
muscular coat. They seem to act as reservoirs into which the
fluid of the tense, extended proboscis can withdraw when it
is retracted, and from which the fluid can be driven out when
it is wished to expand the proboscis.
There are no alimentary canal or specialized organs for circula-
tion or for respiration. Food is imbibed through the skin from
the digestive juices of the host in which the Acantbocepbala
live.
J. Kaiser has described as kidneys two organs something like
minute shrubs situated dorsally to the generative ducts into
which they open. At the end of each twig is a membrane
pierced by pores, and a number of cilia depend into the lumen
of the tube; these cilia maintain a constant motion.
The central ganglion of the nervous system lies in the proboscis-
sheath or -septum. It supplies the proboscis with nerves and
gives off behind two stout trunks which supply the body (fig. 2).
Each of these trunks is surrounded by muscles, and the com-
plex retains the old name of " retinaculum." In the male at
no
ACANTHUS— ACAPULCO
least there Is also a genital ganglion. Some scattered papillae
may possibly be sense-organs.
The Acanthocephala are dioecious. There is a " stay " called
the "ligament " which runs from the hinder end of the proboscis-
sheatb to the posterior end of the body. In this the two testes
lie (fig. 3). Each opens in a vas deferens which bears three
diverticula or vesiculae seminales, and three pairs of cement
glands also are found which pour
their secretions through a duct into
the vasa deferentia. The latter
unite and end in a penis which opens
posteriorly.
The ovaries arise like the testes as
rounded bodies in the ligament. From
these masses of ova dehisce into the
body cavity and float in its fluid.
Here the eggs are fertilized and here
they segment so that the young em-
bryos are formed within their mother's
body. The embryos escape into the
uterus through the " bell," a funnel-
like opening continuous with the
uterus. Just at the junction of the
" bell " and the uterus there is a
second small opening situated dorsally.
The " bell " swallows the matured em-
bryos and' passes them on into the
uterus, and thus out of the body via
the oviduct, which opens at one end
into the uterus and at the other on
to the exterior at the posterior end of
the body. But should the "bell''
swallow any of the ova, or even one of
the younger embryos, these are passed
back into the body cavity through the
second and dorsal opening.
The embryo thus passes from the
body of the female into the alimentary
canal of the host and leaves this with
From CamUUgi N<*mrd nit- the faeces. It is then, if lucky, eaten
S^VmSSB^cS! b X so™ crustacean, or insect, more
ud. rarely by a fish. In the stomach it
Fie. 3.— An optical sec- casts its membranes and becomes
tion through a male Neo- mobile, bores through the stomach
rhynckus ctevaeceps, Zed. wa n s a nd encysts usually in the body-
i/KobeS cavity of its first and invertebrate host .
6,' Proboscis sheath. By this time the embryo has all the
c. Retractor of the pro- organs of the adult perfected save
a r.SSH^f'cr,n«,i;«n onl y &* reproductive ; these develop
/vJrSSSSS'SIpw. only when the first host isswallowed
boscis sheath. by the second or final host, in which
g, g, Lem nisei, each with case the parasite attaches itself to
a. Spat? ft^uLlar £ ™» <* *j* •»«*•* canal * nd
layer of the skin. becomes adult.
/, Ligament. A curious feature shared by both
m, m. Testes. larva and adult is the large size of
'p. %£)££:£%?■ ™K«»? ""■» «* ,ht Derve ""*
g. Opening of vas deferens, and the bell.
O. Hamann has divided the group
into three families, to which a fourth must be added.
(L) Fam. Echinorhynchidae. This is by far the largest family
and contains the commonest species; the larva of Echino-
rhynckus proteus lives in Gammaru's pulex and in small fish,
the adult is common in many fresh-water fish: E. polymorph**,
larval host the crayfish, adult host the duck: E. angustetus
occurs as a larva in A stilus aquaticus, as an adult in the
perch, pike and barbel: E. moniliformis has for its larval
host trie larvae of the beetle Blaps mucronata, for its final
host certain mice, if introduced into man it lives well: E. acus
is common in whiting: E. porrigeus in the fin- whale, and E.
strumosus in the seal. A species named E. hominis has been
described from a boy.
(ii.) Fam. Giganlorhynckidae. A small family of large forms
with a ringed and flattened body. Gigantorhynchus gigas lives
normally in the pig, but is not uncommon in man in South Russia,
its larval host is the grub of Melolontha vulgaris, Cetonis auraius,
and in America probably of LachnosUrna arcuate: C. echini-
discus lives in the intestine of ant-eaters: G. spire in that of the
Pram Ctmbridgj titmral UuUmy,
MicmiUanfc Co, Ltd.
FlC. 4.
A, The larva of Echinorkynckus frokus from the body cavity of
Pkoxinus teevis, with the proboscis retracted and the whole still
enclosed in a capsule.
B, A section through the same; a, the invaginatcd proboscis;
b, proboscis sheath ; c, beginning of the neck; d, lemniscus. Highly
magnified (both from Hamann).
king vulture, Sarcorhampus papa, and G. teeniodes in Dichplopus
cr is talus, a cariama.
(iii.) Fam. Neorhynchidae. Sexually mature whilst still in
the larval stage. Neorhynchus clavaeceps in Cyprinus carpio
has its larval form in the larva of Sialis
lularia and in the leech Nephelis oclocula:
N. agilis is found in Mugil ouratus and
M. cephalus.
(iv.) Apororhynchidae. With no pro-
boscis. This family contains the single
species Apororhynchus hemignathi,
found near the anus of Hemignathus
procerus, a Sandwich Island bird.
Authorities. — O. Hamann, 0. Jen.
Zeitsck*. xxv., 1801, p. 111; Zoo/. Ant. xv.,
1892, 195; 1. Kaiser, Bibl. Zwd. ii., 1^03;
A. E. Shipley, Quart. Journ. iiicr. Sci.
xxxix., 1806; ibid, xlii., 1899, P- 3<>i;
Villot, Z00L Anx. viii., 1885, p. 19.
(A. E. S.)
ACANTHUS (the Greek and Latin
name for the plant, connected with
6xii, a sharp point), a genus of plants
belonging to the natural order Acan-
thaceae. The species arc natives of
the southern parts of Europe and the
warmer parts of Asia and Africa. The
best -known is Acanthus mollis (brank-
ursine, or bears' breech), a common
From CambriJt
species throughout the Mediterranean b» u Sr^'oi ii^4£5"i
itt
Won
region, having large, deeply cut, hairy, <
shining leaves. Another species, Acan- f F,G - ^•Z"fM n y i { ™? J
thus spinosus, is so called from its spiny ££,? ^'"SS^
leaves. They are bold, handsome cavity of Pkoxinus teens
plants, with stately spikes, 2 to 3 ft. (from Hamann). Highly
high, of .flowers with spiny bracts. A. J"*^'!^- a « Pw>ho«cis;
mollis, A. latijolius and A. longifolius h^'^JEsdl
are broad-leaved species; A, spinosus
and A. spinosissimus have narrower, spiny toothed leaves. In
decoration, the acanthus was first reproduced in metal, and subse-
quently carved in stone by the Greeks. It was afterwards, with
various changes, adopted in all succeeding styles of architecture
as a basis of ornamental decoration. There are two types, that
found in the Acanthus spinosus, which was followed by the
Greeks, and that in the Acanthus mollis, which seems to have
been preferred by the Romans.
ACAPULCO, a city and port of the state of Guerrero on the
Pacific coast of Mexico, 100 m. S.S.W. of the city of Mexico,
Pop. (1000) 4932 It is located on a deep, semicircular bay,
ACARNANIA— ACCENT
in
almost land-locked, easy of access, and with so secure an anchor-
age that vends can safely lie alongside the rocks that fringe the
shore. It is the best harbour on the Pacific coast of Mexico,
tad it is a port of call for steamship lines running between
Panama sad San Francisco. The town is built on a narrow strip
of low land, scarcely half a mile wide, between the shore line and
the lofty mountains that encircle the bay. There is great nat ural
beauty in the surroundings, but the mountains render the town
difficult of access from the interior, and give it an exceptionally
hot and unhealthy climate.. The effort to admit the cooling sea
hreeses by cutting through the mountains a passage called the
Abra de San Nicolas had some beneficial effect. Acapulco was
tag the most important Mexican port on the Pacific, and the
oaly depot for the Spanish fleets plying between Mexico and
Spain's East Indian colonies from 1778 until the independence
of Mexico, when this trade was lost. The town has been chosen
as the terminus for two railway lines seeking s Pacific port —
the Iateroceank and the Mexican Central. The town suffered
considerably from earthquakes in July and August 1909. There
are exports of hides, cedar and fruit, and the adjacent district of
Tabares produces cotton, tobacco, cacao, sugar cane, Indian
corn, beans and coffee.
ACARMAJfIA, a district of ancient Greece, bounded on the
W. by the Ionian Sea, on the N. by the Ambradan Gulf, on the
E. and S. by Mt. Thyamus and the Achelous. The Echinades
islands, off the S.W. coast, are gradually being joined up to
the mainland. Its most populous region was the plain of the
Achelous, commanded by the principal town Stratus; com-
munication with the coast was impeded by mountain ridges
and lagoons. Its people long continued in semi-barbarism,
having little intercourse with the rest of Greece. In the 5th
century bjC. with the aid of Athens they subdued the Corinthian
factories on their coast. In 391 they submitted to the Spartan
king Agcsilaus; in 371 they passed under Theban control. In
the Hellenistic age the Acarnanians were constantly assailed by
their Aetohan neighbours. On the advice of Cassander they
atade effective their ancient cantonal league, apparently after the
pattern of Aetolia. In the 3rd century they obtained assistance
from the IUyrians, and formed a close alliance with Philip V.
of Macedonia, whom they supported in his Roman wars, their
new federal capital, Leucas, standing a siege in his interest.
For their sympathy with his successor Perseus they were de-
prived of Leucas and required to send hostages to Rome (167).
The country was finally desolated by Augustus, who drafted
its inhabitants into Nicopolis and Patrae. Acarnania took a
prominent part in the national uprising of 182 1; it is now
joined with Aetolia as a nome. The sites of several ancient
towns in Acarnania are marked by well-preserved walls, especially
those of Stratus, Oeniadae and Limnaea.
Arraoarms.— Strabo vii. 7, x. 2; Thucydides; Polybius iv.
so; Livy xxxiiL 16-17; Corpus Inscr. Craecarum, no. 1739: E.
Oberinnnmer. Akamanum im A Iter turn (Munich, 1887); Heuzey,
ML Otympe et VAcamani* (Paris, i860). (M. O. B. C. ; E. Ga.)
ACA1US (from Gr. oxapt, a mite), a genus of Arachnids, repre-
sented bythe cheese mite and other forms.
ACASTUS, in Greek legend, the son of Pelias, king of Iolcus
iaThessaly (Ovid, Metam. viii. 306; Apollonius Rhodius i. 224;
Radar, Name*, jv. 54, v. 26). He was a great friend of Jason,
aad took part in the Calydonian boar-hunt and the Argonaulic
expedition. After his father's death he instituted splendid
funeral games in his honour, which were celebrated by artists
sad poets, such as Stesicborus. His wife Astydameia (called
Hippolyte in Horace, Odes, iii. 7. 17) fell in love with Peleus
(f».), who had taken refuge at Iolcus, but when her advances
*ere rejected accused him. falsely to her husband. Acastus, to
avenge his fancied wrongs, left Peleus asleep on Mount Pelion,
hiring first hidden his famous sword. On awaking, Peleus was
•Hack ed by the Centaurs, but saved by Cheiron. Having re-
°*ered bis sword he returned to Iolcus and slew Acastus and
tetvcUmeU. Acastus was represented .with his famous horses
■ the painting of the Argonautic expedition by Micon in the
tenpk of the Dioscuri at Athens.
ACATALEPSY (Gr. &-, privative, and KaraXaiifiara*, to seise),
a term used in Scepticism to denote incomprehensibility.
ACAULESCENT (Lat. acaulescens, becoming stemless, from
a, not, and caul is, a stem), a term used of a plant apparently
stemless, as dandelion, the stem being almost suppressed.
ACCA LARBNTIA (not Laurentia), in Roman legend, the
wife of the shepherd Faustulus, who saved the lives of the twins
Romulus and Remus after they had been thrown into the Tiber.
She had twelve sons, and on the death of one of them Romulus
took his place, and with the remaining eleven founded the
college of the Arval brothers (Fratres Arvales). The tradition
that Romulus and Remus were suckled by a wolf has been
explained by the suggestion that Larentia was called lupa
(" courtesan," literally " she-wolf ") on account of her immoral
character (Livy i. 4; Ovid, Fasti, iii 55). According to another
account, Larentia was a beautiful girl, whom Hercules won in
a game of dice (Macrobius i. ,10; Plutarch, Romulus, 4, 5,
Quaest. Rom. 35; Aulus Gellius vL 7). The god advised her
to marry the first man she met in the street, who proved to be a
wealthy Etruscan named Tarutius. She inherited all his property
and bequeathed it to the Roman people, who out of gratitude
instituted in her honour a yearly festival called Larentalia (Dec.
23). According to some, Acca Larentia was the mother of the
Lares, and, like Ceres, Tellus, Flora and others, symbolized the
fertility of the earth— in particular the city lands and their
crops.
See Mommsen, '* Die echte und die falsche Larentia," in Romisckt
Forsckungen, ii. 1879; E. Pais, Ancient Legends of Roman History
(Eng. trans. 1906), whose views on the subject are criticized by
W. W. Fowler in W. H. D. Rouse's The Year's Work in Classical
Studies (1007); C. Pascal. Studii di antichita t Mitologia (1896).
ACCELERATION (from Lat. accelerate, to hasten, celer, quick),
hastening or quickening; in mechanics, a term employed to
denote the rate at which the velocity of a body, whose motion
is not uniform, either increases or decreases. (See Mechanics
and Hodockaph.)
ACCENT. The word " accent " has its origin in the Lat.
accent us, which in its turn is a literal translation of the Gr.
TpooyUa. The early Greek grammarians used this term for the
musical accent which characterized their own language, but later
the term became specialized for quantity in metre, whence comes
the Eng. prosody. Besides various later developments of usage
it is important to observe that " accent " is used in two different
and often contrasted senses in connexion with language. In all
languages there are two kinds of accent: (1) musical chromatic
or pitch accent; (2) emphatic or stress accent. The former
indicates differences in musical pitch between one sound and
another in speech, the latter the difference between one syllable
and another which is occasioned by emitting the breath in the
production of one syllable with greater energy than is employed
for the other syllables of the same word. These two senses, it is
to be noticed, are different from the common usage of the word
in the statement that some one talks with a foreign or with a
vulgar accent. In these cases, no doubt, both differences of
intonation and differences of stress may be included in the
statement, but other elements are frequently no less marked,
e.g. the pronunciation of / and d as real dentals, whereas the
English sounds so described are really produced not against the
teeth but against their sockets, the inability to produce the
interdental th whether breathed as in thin or voiced as in this
and its representation by d or s, the production of as a uniform
sound instead of one ending as in English in a slight u sound,
or such dialect changes as lydy (laidy) for lady, or toimc for time
(taime).
In different languages the relations between pitch and stress
differ very greatly. In some the pitch or musical accent pre-
dominates. In such languages if signs are employed to mark
the position of the chief accent in the word it will be the pitch
and not the stress accent which will be thus indicated. Amongst
the languages of ancient times Sanskrit and Greek both indicate
by signs the position of the chief pitch accent in the word, and
the same method has been employed in modern times for lan-
guages in which pitch accent is well marked, as it is, for example,
112
ACCENT
in Lithuanian, the language still spoken by some two millions
of people on the frontier between Prussia and Russia in the
neighbourhood of KOnigsberg and Vilna. Swedish also has a
well-marked musical accent. Modern Greek has changed from
pitch to stress, the stress being generally laid upon, the same
syllable in modern as bore the pitch accent in ancient Greek.
In the majority of European languages, however, stress is
more conspicuous than pitch, and there is plenty of evidence
to show that the original language from which Greek, Latin,
Celtic, Teutonic, Slavonic and other languages of Europe are
descended, possessed stress accent also in a marked degree.
To the existence of thb accent must be attributed a large part
of the phenomena known as Ablaut or Gradation (see Indo-
European Languages). In modern languages we can see the
tame principle at work making Acton out of the O. Eng. (Anglo-.
Saxon) dc-tOn (oak-town), and in more recent times producing
the contrast between New Town and Newton. In French, stress
is less marked than it is in English, but here also there is evidence
to show that in the development from Latin to French a very
strong stress accent must have existed. The natural result of
producing one syllable of a word with greater energy than the
others is that the other syllables have a less proportion of breath
assigned to them and therefore tend to become indistinct or
altogether inaudible. Thus the strong stress accent existing in
the transition period between Latin and French led to the
curtailing of long Latin words like latrociniutn or kospitdle into
the words which we have borrowed from French into English as
larceny and hold. It will be observed that the first syllable and
that which bears the accent are the two which best withstand
change, though the strong tendency in English to stress heavily
the first syllable bids fair ultimately to oust the e in the pro-
nunciation of larceny. No such changes arise when a strong
pitch accent is accompanied by a weaker stress accent, and
hence languages like ancient Sanskrit and ancient Greek, where
such conditions existed, preserve fuller forms than their sister
languages or than even their own descendants, when stress takes
the place of pitch as the more important clement in accent.
In both pitch and stress accent different gradations may be
observed. In pitch, the accent may be uniform, rising or
falling. Or there may be combinations of rising and falling or
of falling and rising accents upon the same syllable. In ancient
Greek, as is well known, three accents are distinguished — (i) the
acute ('), & rising accent; (2) the grave ('), apparently merely the
indication that in particular positions in the sentence the acute
accent is not used where it would occur in the isolated word;
and (j) the circumflex, which, as its form (*) shows, and as the
ancient grammarians inform us, is a combination of the rising
and the falling accent upon the same syllable, this syllable being
always long. Different Greek dialects, however, varied the
syllables of the word on which the accent occurred, Aeolic Greek,
for example, never putting the acute on the last syllable of a
word, while Attic Greek had many words so accented.
The pitch accent of the Indo-European languages was origin-
ally free, i.e. might occur on any syllable of a word, and this
condition of things is still found in the earliest Sanskrit literature.
But in Greek before historical times the accent had become
limited to the last three syllables of a word, so that a long word
like the Homeric genitive fapopivoio could in no circumstances
be accented on either of its first two syllables, while if the final
syllable was long, as in the accusative plural fcpoit&ovs, the
accent could go back only to the second syllabic from the end.
As every vowel has its own natural pitch, and a frequent inter-
change between e ( a high vowel) and (a low vowel) occurs in the
Indo-European languages, it has been suggested that e originally
went with the highest pitch accent, while appeared in syllables
of a lower pitch. But if there is any foundation for the theory,
which is by no means certain, its effects have been distorted
and modified by all manner of analogical processes. Thus mnidfr
with acute accent and balputr with the acute accent on the
preceding syllable would correspond fo the rule, so would dXqflts
and Wot, but there are many exceptions like 666s where
the acute accent accompanies an vowel. Somewhat similar
distinctions characterize syllables which are stressed. The
strength of the expiration may be greatest either at the begin-
ning, the end or the middle of the syllable, and, according as it i%
so, the accent is a falling, a rising, or a rising and falling one.
Syllables in which the stress is produced continuously whether
increasing or decreasing are called single-pointed syllables,
thpsc in which a variation in the stress occurs without being
strong enough to break the syllable into two are called double-
pointed syllables. These last occur in some English dialects,
but are commonest in languages like Swedish and Lithuanian,
which have a " sing-song " pronunciation. It is* often not easy
to decide whether a syllable is double-pointed or whether what
we hear is really two-singlc-pointed syllables. There is no separ-
ate notation for stress accent, but the acute (') is used for the
increasing, the grave (') for the decreasing stress, and the circum-
flex (*) for the rising and falling (increasing and decreasing) and
(*) for the opposite. A separate notation is much to be desired,
as the nature of the two accents is so different, and could easily
be devised by using S for the falling, (') for the rising stress,
and *°* for the combination of the two in one syllable. This
would be clearer than the upright stroke ( ) preceding the stressed
syllable, which is used in some phonetic works.
The relation between the two accents in the same language
at the same time is a subject which requires further investiga-
tion. It is generally assumed that the chief stress and the duel
pitch in a word coincide, but this is by no means certain for all
cases, though the incidence of the chief stress accent in modern
Greek upon the same syllable as had the chief pitch accent in
ancient times suggests that the two did frequently fall upon the
same syllable. On the other hand, in words like the Sanskrit
sapid, the Gr. Arrd, the pitch accent which those languages
indicate is upon a syllable which certainly, in the earliest times
at least, did not possess the principal stress. For forms in other
languages, like the Lat. septem or the Gothic sibun, show that
the of the final syllables in Sanskrit and Greek is the repre-
sentative of a reduced syllable in which, even in the earliest
times, the nasal alone existed (see under N for the history of
these so-called sonant nasals). It is possible that sporadic
changes of accent, as in the Gr. iihrqp compared with the Sanskrit
maid, is owing to the shifting of the pitch accent to the same
syllable as the stress occupied.
There is no lack of evidence to show that the stress accent also
may shift its position in the history of a language from one
syllabic to another. In prehistoric times the stress in Latin
must have rested upon the first syllable in all cases. Only on
this hypothesis can be explained forms like peperci (perfect of
parco) and collldo (a compound of lacdo). In historical times,
when the stress in Latin was on the second syllable from the end
of the word if that syllable was long, or on the third syllable
from the end if the second from the end was short, we should have
expected to find *peparci and *coUaedo t for throughout the
historical period the stress rested in these words upon the second
syllable from the end. The causes for the change of position
are not always easy to ascertain. In words of four syllables
with a long penult and words of five syllables with a short
penult there probably developed a secondary accent which
in course of time replaced the earlier accent upon the first
syllable. But the number of such long words in Latin is com-
paratively small. It is no less possible that relations between
the stress and pitch accents were concerned. For unless we
are to regard the testimony of the ancient Latin grammarians
as altogether untrustworthy there was at least in classical Latin a
well-marked pitch as well as a stress accent. This question,
which had long slumbered, has been revived by Dr J. Vendryes
in his treatise entitled Recherches sur Vhistoire ei Us ejfets de
Vintensiti initiate en latin (Paris, 1002).
In English there is a tendency to throw the stress on to the first
syllable, which leads in time to the modification of borrowed words.
Thus throughout the 1 8th century there was a struggle going 00
over the word balcony, which earlier was pronounced bakSny.
S»ift is the fin»t author quoted for the pronunciation bdtcony, and
Cowper's balcSny in "John Gilpin" is among the latest instance* of the
old pronunciation. Disregarding the Latin quantity of ordlor and
ACCEPTANCE— ACCESSORY
"3
Eoelish by throwing the stress on tlie first syllable has
converted them into ir&tor and sin&tor, while Scots lawyers speak
ibo of a cmriurr. How far French influence plays a part here is not
Besides the accent of the syllable and of the word, which have
bees already discussed, there remains the accent of the sentence.
Here the problem is much more complicated. The accent of a
word, whether pitch or stress, may be considerably modified in the
nttence. From earliest times some words have become parasitic
or enclitic upon other words. Pronouns more than most words are
nodtned from this cause, but conjunctions like the Gr. r« ("and "),
the Lat. que, have throughout their whole history been enclitic
epos the preceding word. A very important word may be enclitic,
» in English don f, skan'L It is to be remembered that the unit
of language b rather, the sentence than the word, and that the form
wfekh b given to the word in the dictionary is very often not the
(am which it takes in actual speech. The divisions of words in
neech are quite different" from the divisions on the printed page.
Samkrit alone amongst languages has consistently recognized this,
asd preserves in writing the exact combinations that are spoken.
Accent, whether pitch or stress, can be utilized in the sentence to
express a great variety of meanings. Thus in English a sentence
kke Yen rode to Newmarket yesterday, which contains five words,
euy be made to express five different statements by putting the
area upon each of the words in turn. By putting the stress on
w* the person addressed is marked out as distinct from certain
others, by putting it upon rode other means of locomotion to New-
nickel ire excluded, and so on. With the same order ol words five
i^rrrofarive sentences may also be expressed r and a third series of
< iriatory sentence* expressing anger, increduliiyt E'c, may be
I from the same words. It i* to be noticed I hat for these
t a different intonation, a different musical (pitch) accent
* from that which is found in the same ward* when employed
tt* nuke a matter-of-fact statement.
Iwsjmge< like Chinese, which have neither compound wards
mr inflection, accent plays a very important part. As the words
vrafl mmwy liable* stress couM obviously not be so important as
;.'-h as a help to distinguish different sense? attached to the &
>9cablc. and in no ot hrr language Is variety of pitch so well devek
a* ifi Chines*. In Languages which, like English, show com |>;irm
titk prtdi accent it is to be noticed that the lenience tend
» I more musical character unoVr the influenrr of i-moi
r is raised and at the wme time grratcr stress is gmcr
irlien the speaker is carried away by emotion, the „
on is not essential and strong emotion may be enpn-ijed
ng as well as by a raising of I he voice- In cither case,
w. the stress will be greater than the normal*
aAFHY.— HL Sweet, Primer of Fhenrtut (iSoo, no* in
■L f 06 ff*. tti&ry 0/ English Sounds (iSHR), J 1 10 fl. F and
: E. Siew*, Grmutsurt dtr Phoruiik (1893)1 I tta ff«;
j, Lrkrtmck drr fhoneiib (1904). an abbreviated <*i-rman
of the author's larger work in Danah, I J toff. The books
and Jespersen give (especially Ssffvera) full rrfcrences to
of the subject. For the accent system of (Ml Jmlo-
9 see ■ Ektoflunf" in Brugmanns GrmdHti der
\malik der indvtcrmaniwhrn $pr&tken r Vti\.i. ( 1 FUJ7),
:tm»derabk mod i neat iorui, his K urse t* rgi* k Hind* Gram mntik
itr iit* Sprmtken (1902). H 33-65 and 34335"* (P- Cl -)
ACCEPTANCE (Lat. ecceptore t frequentative form of ace i per c,
to recehre), generally, a receiving or acknowledgment of receipt;
xa bw, the act by which a person binds himself to comply with
the request contained in a bill of exchange (q.v.) f addressed to him
by the drawer. In all cases it is understood to be a promise to
pay the bill in money, the law not recognizing an acceptance in
vhkh the promise is to pay in some other way, e.g. partly in
money and partly by another bill. Acceptance may be either
general or qualified A general acceptance is an engagement to
pay the bill strictly according to its tenor, and is made by the
drawee subscribing his name, with or without the word " ac-
cepted,'* at the bottom of the bill, or across the face of it. Quali-
fied acrrptance may be a promise to pay on a contingency occur-
ring, e.g. on the sale of certain goods consigned by the drawer to
the acceptor. No contingency is allowed to be mentioned in the
body of the bill, but a qualified acceptance is quite legal, and
cqoally binding with a general acceptance upon the acceptor
when the contingency has occurred. It is also qualified accept-
ance where the promise is to pay only part of the sum mentioned
« the bifl, or to pay at a different time or place from those
■peofed. As a qualified acceptance is so far a disregard of the
*wer*s order, the holder is not obliged to take it; and if he
cfcxaei to take it be must give notice to antecedent parties,
fctiftf at his own risk if they dissent. In all cases acceptance
invokes the signature of the acceptor cither by himself or by
L Z*
some person duly authorized on his behalf. A bill can be accepted
in the first instance only by the person or persons to whom it
is addressed; but if be or they fail to do so, it may, after being
protested for non-acceptance, be accepted by some one else
" supra protest," for the sake of the honour of one or more
of the parties concerned in it, and he thereupon acquires a
claim against the drawer and all those to whom he could have
resorted.
ACCEPTILATlpN (from Lat. acceptUalio), in Roman and
Scots law, a verbal release of a verbal obligation. This formal
mode of extinguishing an obligation contracted verbally received
its name from the book-keeping term acceptilatio, entering a
receipt, i.e, carrying it to credit. The words conveying the
release had to correspond to, or strictly cover, the expressed
obligation. Figuratively, in theology, the word acceptation
means free remission or forgiveness of sins.
ACCESS (Lat. accessus), approach, or the means of approach-
ing. In law, the word is used in various connexions. The pre-
sumption of a child's legitimacy is negatived if it be proved
that a husband has not had access to his wife within such a period
of time as would admit of his being the father. (See Legiti-
macy.) In the law of easements, every person who has land
adjoining a public road or a public navigable river has a right
of access to it from his land. So, also, every person has a right
of access to air and light from an ancient window. For the right
of access of parents to children under the guardianship of the
court, see Infant.
ACCESSION (from Lat. acccdere, to go to, to approach), in
law, a method of acquiring property adopted from Roman law, by
which, in things that have a close connexion with or dependence
on one another, the property of the principal draws after it the
property of the accessory, according to the principle, acccssio
cedet principal*. Accession may take place either in a natural
way, such as the growth of fruit or the pregnancy of animals, or
in an artificial way. The various methods may be classified as
(1) land to land by accretion or alluvion; (2) moveables to land
(see Fixtures); (3) moveables to moveables; (4) moveables
added to by the art or industry of man; this may be by speci-
fication, as when wine is made out of grapes, or by confusion,
or commixture, which is the mixing together of liquids or solids,
respectively. In the case of industrial accession ownership is
determined according as the natural or manufactured substance
is of the more importance, and, in general, compensation is pay-
able* to the person who has been dispossessed of his property.
In a historical or constitutional sense, the term " accession "
is applied to the coming to the throne of a dynasty or line ot
sovereigns or of a single sovereign.
" Accession " sometimes likewise signifies consent or acquies-
cence. Thus, in the bankruptcy law of Scotland, where there
is a settlement by a trust-deed, it is accepted on the part of each
creditor by a " deed of accession."
ACCESSORY, a person guilty of a felonious offence, not as
principal, but by participation; as by advice, command, aid
or concealment. In certain crimes, there can be no accessories;
all concerned being principals, whether present or absent at the
time of their commission. These are treason, and all offences
below the degree of felony, as specified in the Offences against the
Person Act 1861.
There are two kinds of accessories— before the fact, and after
it. The first is he who commands or procures another to commit
felony, and is not present himself; for if he be present, he is a
principal. The second is he who receives, harbours, assists, or
comforts any man that has done murder or felony, whereof he
has knowledge. An accessory before the fact is liable to the
same punishment as the principal; and there is now indeed no
practical difference between such an accessory and a principal
in regard either to indictment, trial or punishment. Acces-
sories after the fact are in general punishable with imprisonment
(with or without hard labour) for a period not exceeding two
years, but in the case of murder punishable by penal servitude
for life, ot not less than three years, or by imprisonment (with
or without hard labour) to the extent of two years.
ACCIAJUOLI— ACCLIMATIZATION
ii 4
The law of Scotland makes no distinction between the acces-
sory to any crime and the principal (see Art and Pa*t). Except
in the case of treason, accession after the fact is not noticed by
the law of Scotland, unless as an element of evidence to prove
previous accession.
ACCIAJUOLI, DONATO (142&-1478), Italian scholar, was
born at Florence in 1428. He was famous for his learning,
especially in Greek and mathematics, and for his services to
his native state. Having previously been entrusted with
several important embassies, he became Gontalonicr of Florence
in 1473. He died at Milan in 1478, when on his way to Paris to
ask the aid of Louis XI. on behalf of the Florentines against Pope
Sixtus IV. His body was taken back to Florence, and buried
in the church of the Carthusians at the public expense, and his
daughters were portioned by his fellow-citizens, the fortune he
left being, owing to his probity and disinterestedness, very small.
He -wrote a Latin translation of some of Plutarch's Lives (Flor-
ence, 1478); Commentaries on Aristotle's Ethics and Polities',
and the lives of Hannibal, Scipio and Charlemagne. In the work
on Aristotle he had the co-operation of his master Argyropulus.
ACCIDENCE (a mis-spelling of " accidents," from the Latin
neuter plural accidentia, casual events), the term for the gram-
matical changes to which words arc subject in their inflections
as to gender, number, tense and case. It is also used to denote
a book containing the first principles of grammar, and so of the
rudiments of any subject or art.
ACCIDENT (from Lat. accidere, to happen), a word of widely
variant meanings, usually something fortuitous and unexpected;
a happening out of the ordinary course of things. In the law of
tort, it is denned as " an occurrence which is due neither to
design nor to negligence "; in equity, as " such an unforeseen
event, misfortune, loss, act or omission, as is not the result of
any negligence or misconduct." So, in criminal law, " an effect
is said to be accidental when the act by which it is caused is
not done with the intention of causing it, and when its occurrence
as a consequence of such act is not so probable that a person
of ordinary prudence ought, under the 'circumstances, to take
reasonable precaution against it " (Stephen, Digest of Criminal
Law, art. a 10). The word may also have in law the more
extended meaning of an unexpected occurrence, whether caused
by any one's negligence or not, as in the Fatal Accidents Act 1846,
Notice of Accidents Act 1804. See also Contract, Criminal
Law, Employers' Liability, Insurance, Tost, &c.
In logic an " accident " is a quality which belongs to a subject
but not as part of its essence tin Aristotelian language «ard
ovfifkfadfi, the scholastic per accidens). Essential attributes
arc necessarily, or causally, connected with the subject, e.g.
.the sum of the angles of a triangle; accidents are not deducible
from the nature, or are not part of the necessary connotation,
of the subject, e.g. the area of a triangle. It follows that In-
creased knowledge, e.g. in chemistry, may show that what was
thought to be an accident is really an essential attribute, or
vice versa. It is very generally held that, in reality, there is no
such thing as an accident, inasmuch as complete knowledge
would establish a causal connexion for all attributes. An
accident is thur merely an unexplained attribute. Accidents
have been classed as (1) " inseparable," i.e. universally present,
though no causal connexion is established, and (a) " separable,"
where the connexion is neither causally explained nor universal.
Propositions expressing a relation between a subject and' an
accident are classed as " accidental," " real " or " ampliative,"
as opposed to " verbal " or "^analytical," which merely express
a known connexion, e.g. between a subject and its connotation
(q.v.).
ACCIDENTALISM, a term used (1) in philosophy for any system
of thought which denies the causal nexus and maintains that
events succeed one another haphazard or by chance (not in
the mathematical but in the popular sense). In metaphysics,
accidentalism denies the doctrine that everything occurs or re-
sults from a definite cause. In this connexion it is synonymous
with Tychism (rfatj, chance), a term used by C. S. Peirce for
the theories which make chance an objective factor in the
process of the Universe. Opponents of this accidentalism main*
tain that what seems to be the result of chance is in reality due
to a cause or causes which, owing to the lack of imagination,
knowledge or scientific instruments, we are unable to detect
In ethics the term*is used, like indeterminism, to denote the
theory that mental change cannot always be ascribed to
previously ascertained psychological states, and that volition is
not causally related to the motives involved. An example of
this theory is the doctrine of the liberum arbiirium indijerentiae
(" liberty of indifference "), according to which the choice of
two or more alternative possibilities is affected neither by con-
temporaneous data of an ethical or prudential kind nor by
crystallized habit (character). (2) In painting, the term is used
for the effect produced by accidental lights (Ruskin, Modern
Painters, I. 11. 4, iii. § 4, 287). (3) In medicine, it stands for
the hypothesis that disease is only an accidental modification
of the healthy condition, and can, therefore, be avoided by
modifying external conditions.
ACCIUS, a Latin poet of the 16th century* to whom is attri-
buted a paraphrase of Aesop's Fables, of which Julius Scaliger
speaks with great praise.
ACCIUS, LUCIUS, Roman tragic poet, the son of a freedman,
was born at Pisaurum in Umbria, in 170 B.C. The year of his
death is unknown, but he must have lived to a great age, since
Cicero (Brutus, 28) speaks of having conversed with him on
literary matters. He was a prolific writer and enjoyed a very
high reputation j[Horace, Epistles, ii. 1, 56; Cicero; PrS Plancio,
24). The titles and considerable fragments (about 700 lines) of
some fifty plays have been preserved. Most of these were free
translations from the Creek, his favourite subjects being the
legends of the Trojan war and the house of Pelops. The national
history, however, furnished the theme of the Brutus and Deans,
'—the expulsion of the Tarquins and the self-sacrifice of Publius
Decius Mus the younger. The fragments are written in vigorous
language and show a lively power of description.
Accius wrote other works of a literary character: DidascalicSn
and Pragmalkdn libri, treatises in verse on the history of Greek
and. Roman poetry, and dramatic art in particular; Parerga
and Praxidica (perhaps identical) on agriculture; and an
Annales. He also introduced innovations in orthography and
grammar.
See Boissier, Le PoHe Accius, 1856; L. Matter, Do Aecii faMit
DispUatio ( 1 890) ; Ribbeck, Gesckichte der rdmischen Dichtung (1892) :
editions of the track fragments by Ribbeck (1897), of the others by
Bahreiu (1886); Ptessis. Poiste latint (1909).
. ACCLAMATION (Lat. acclamalio, a shouting at), in delibera*
tive or electoral assemblies, a spontaneous shout of approval or
praise. Acclamation is thus the adoption of a resolution or the
passing of a vote of confidence or choice unanimously, in direct
distinction from a formal ballot or division. In the Roman senate
opinions were expressed and votes passed by acclamation in
such forms as Omnes, omncs, Aequum est, Justum est, Ac; and
the praises of the emperor were celebrated in certain pre-arranged
sentences, which seem to have been chanted by the whole body
of senators. In ecclesiastical councils vote by acclamation is
very common, the question being usually put in the form, placet
or turn placet. The Sacred College has sometimes elected popes
by acclamation; when the cardinals simultaneously and without
any previous consultation "acclaimed" one of their number
as pontiff. A further ecclesiastical use of the word is in its
application to set forms of praise or thanksgiving in church
services, the stereotyped responses of the congregation. In
modern parliamentary usage a motion is carried by acclamation
when, no amendment being proposed, approval is expressed by
shouting such words as A ye or Agreed.
ACCLIMATIZATION, the process of adaptation by which
animals and plants are gradually rendered capable of surviving
and flourishing in countries remote from their original habitats,
or under meteorological conditions different from those whkb
they have usually to endure, and at first injurious to them.
The subject of acclimatization is very little understood, and
some writers have even denied that it can ever take place. It
ACCLIMATIZATION
"5
k often confounded with domestication or with naturalisation;
but these are both very different phenomena. A domesticated
aauual or a cultivated plant need not necessarily be acclimatised;
thai is, it need not be capable of enduring the severity of the
seasons without protection. The canary bird is domesticated
btl not ocdimathtd, and many of our most extensively culti-
vated plants are in the same category. A naturalised animal or
plant, on the other hand, must be able (o withstand all the
vkntudes of the seasons in its new home, and it may therefore
be thought that it must have become acclimatized. But in
■any, perhaps most cases of naturalisation (see Appendix below)
there is no evidence of a gradual adaptation to new conditions
which were at first injurious, and this is essential to the idea
of acdmaiisaUem. On the contrary, many species, in a new
country and under somewhat different climatic conditions,
stem to find a more congenial abode than in their native land,
aad at once flourish and increase in it to such an extent as
often to exterminate the indigenous inhabitants. Thus* L.
Agassis (in his work on Lake Superior) tells us that the road-
side weeds of the north-eastern United States, to the number
oi 130 species, are all European, the native weeds having dis-
appeared westwards; while in New Zealand there are, according
to T. Kirk (Transactions of the New Zealand Institute^ vol. ii.
p. 131), no less than 250 species of naturalized plants, more than
100 of which spread widely over the country and often displace
the native vegetation. Among animals, the European rat, goat
aad pig arc naturalized in New Zealand, where they multiply
to such an extent as to injure and probably exterminate many
aative productions. In none of these cases is there any indica-
tioa that automatization was necessary or ever took place.
On the other hand, the fact that an animal or plant cannot be
mturalised is no proof that It is not acclimatised. It has been
shown by C Darwin that, in the case of most animals and plants
is a state of nature, the competition of other organisms is a far
■ore efficient agency in limiting their distribution than the mere
jaiaeace of climate. We have a proof of this in the fact that so
fcw, comparatively, of our perfectly hardy garden plants ever
rea wild; and even the most persevering attempts to naturalize
the* usually fail. Alphonse de Candolle (Ciografkie botanique,
p. 708) informs us that several botanists of Paris, Geneva, and
especially of MontpeUier, have sown the seeds of many hundreds
of specks of exotic hardy plants, in what appeared to be the
■ost favourable situations, but that in hardly a single case has
say one of them become naturalized. Attempts have also been
node to. naturalize continental insects in Britain, in places
•here the proper food-plants abound and the conditions seem
geaeraDy favourable, but in no case do they seem to have
ssrrredcd. Even a plant like the potato, so largely cultivated
ttd so perfectly hardy,, has not established itself in a wild state
a aay part of Europe.
Difcrcmt Degrees of Oimalal Adaptation in Animals and
/haft.— Plants differ. greatly from animals in the closeness
of their adaptation to meteorological conditions. Not only
*3 Boat tropical plants refuse to Eve in a temperate climate,
bst nany species are seriously injured by removal a few degrees
of latitude beyond their natural limits, This is probably due to
the fact, established by the experiments of A. C Becquerel,
thtf plants possess no proper temperature, but are wholly de-
pendent on that of the surrounding medium.
Aamals, especially the higher forms, are much less sensitive
to chaage of temperature, as shown by the extensive range from
■orth to south of many species. Thus, the tiger ranges from
the equator to northern Asia as- far as the river Amur, and to
the aothermal of 32° Fahr. The mountain sparrow (Passer
■■* ■) is abundant in Java and Singapore in a uniform
Vftatorial climate, and also inhabits Britain and a con-
"dnabk portion of northern Europe. It is true that most
tentorial animals are restricted to countries not possessing a
pot range of temperature or very diversified climates, but
fe* is reason to befieve that this is due to quite a different set
tf cuues, such as the presence of enemies or deficiency of appro-
Pute food. When supplied with' food and partially protected
from enemies, they often show a wonderful capacity of enduring
climates very different from that in which they originally flour-
ished. Thus, the horse and the domestic fowl, both natives of
very warm countries, flourish without special protection in almost
every inhabited portion of the globe. The parrot tribe form
one of the most pre-eminently tropical groups of buds, only a
few species extending into the warmer temperate regions; yet
even the most exclusively tropical genera are by no means
delicate birds as regards climate. In the Annals and Magasine
of Natural History for z868 (p. 381) is a most interesting account,
by Charles Buxton, of the naturalization of parrots at Northreps
Hall, Norfolk. A considerable number of African and Ama-
zonian parrots, Bengal parroquets, four species of white and rose
crested cockatoos, and two species of crimson lories, remained
at large for many years. Several of these birds bred, and they
almost all lived in the woods the whole year through, refusing
to take shelter in a house constructed for their use. Even when
the thermometer fell 6° below zero, all appeared in good spirits
and vigorous health. Some of these birds have lived thus ex-
posed for many years, enduring the English cold easterly winds,
rain, bail and snow, all through the winter— a marvellous
contrast to the equable equatorial temperature (hardly ever less
than 70°) to which many of them had been accustomed for the
first year or years of their existence. Similarly the recent ex-
perience of zoological gardens, particularly in the case of parrots
and monkeys, shows that, excluding draughts, exposure to
changes of temperature without artificial heat is markedly
beneficial as-compared with the older method of strict protection
from cold.
Hardly any group of Mammalia, is more exclusively tropical
than the Quadrumana, yet, if other conditions are favourable,
some of them can withstand a considerable degree of cold.
SemnopitMecus schistaceus was found by Captain Hutton at «n
elevation of 11,000 feet in the Himalayas, leaping actively
among fir-trees whose branches were laden with snow-wreaths.
In Abyssinia a troop of dog-faced baboons was observed by
W. T. Blanford at 9000 feet above the sea. We may therefore
conclude that the restriction of the monkey tribe to warm
latitudes is probably determined by other causes than tempera-
ture alone.
Similar indications are given by the fact of closely allied species
inhabiting very extreme climates. The recently extinct Siberian
mammoth and woolly rhinoceros were closely allied to species
now inhabiting tropical regions exclusively. Wolves and foxes
are found alike in the coldest and hottest parts of the earth, as
are closely allied species of falcons, owls, sparrows and numerous
genera of waders and aquatic birds.
A consideration of these and many analogous facts might
induce us to suppose that, among the higher animals at least,
there Is little constitutional adaptation to climate, and that in
their case acclimatization is not required. But there are numer-
ous examples of domestic animals which show that such adapta-
tion does exist in other cases. The yak of Thibet cannot long
survive in the plains of India, or even on the hills below a certain
altitude; and that this is due to climate, and not to the increased
density of the atmosphere, is shown by the fact that the same
animal appears to thrive well in Europe, and even breeds there
readily. The Newfoundland dog will not live in India, and the
Spanish breed of fowls in this country suffer more from frost
than most others. When we get lower in the scale the adapta-
tion is often more marked. Snakes, which are so abundant in
warm countries, diminish rapidly as we go north, and wholly
cease at lat. 62°. Most insects are also very susceptible to cold,
and seem to be adapted to very narrow limits of temperature.
From the foregoing facts and observations we may conclude,
firstly, that some plants and many animals are not constitution-
ally adapted to the climate of their native country only, but arc
capable of enduring and flourishing under a more or less exten-
sive range of temperature and other climatic conditions; and,
secondly, that most plants and some animals are, more or less
closely, adapted to climates similar to those of their native
habitats. In order to domesticate or naturalize the former
n6
ACCLIMATIZATION
class in countries not extremely differing from that from which
the species was brought, it will not be necessary to acclimatize,
in the strict sense of the word. In the case of the latter class,
however, acclimatization is a necessary preliminary to natural-
ization, and in many cases to useful domestication, and we have
therefore to inquire whether it is possible.
Acclimatization by Individual Adaptation. — It is evident that
acclimatization may occur (if it occurs at all) in two ways, either
by modifying the constitution of the individual submitted to
the new conditions, or by the production of offspring which may
be better adapted to those conditions than their parents. The
alteration of the constitution of individuals in this direction is
not easy to detect, and its possibility has been denied by many
writers. C. Darwin believed, however, that there were indica-
tions that it occasionally occurred in plants, where it can be best
observed, owing to the circumstance that so many plants are
propagated by cuttings or buds, which really continue the
existence of the same individual almost indefinitely. He ad-
duced the example of vines taken to the West Indies from
Madeira, which have been found to succeed better than those
taken directly from France. But in most cases habit, however
prolonged, appears to have little effect on the constitution of the
individual, and the fact has no doubt led to the opinion that
acclimatization is impossible. There is indeed, little or no evi-
dence to show that any animal to which a new climate is at
first prejudicial can be so acclimatized by habit that, after sub-
jection to it for a few or many seasons, it may live as healthily
and with as little care as in its native country; yet we may,
on general principles, believe that under proper conditions such
an acclimatization would take place.
Acclimatisation by Variation. — A mass of evidence exists
showing that variations of every conceivable kind occur among
the offspring of all plants and animals, and that, in particular,
constitutional variations are by no means uncommon. Among
cultivated plants, for example, hardier and more tender varieties
often arise. The following cases are given by C. Darwin: —
Among the numerous fruit-trees raised in North America some
are well adapted to the climate of the northern States and
Canada, while others only succeed well in the southern States.
Adaptation of this kind is sometimes very close, so that, for
example, few English varieties of wheat will thrive in Scotland.
Seed-wheat from India produced a miserable crop when planted
by the Rev. M. J. Berkeley on land which would have produced
A good crop of English wheat. Conversely, French wheat taken
to the West Indies produced only barren spikes, while native
wheat by its side yielded an enormous harvest. Tobacco in
Sweden, raised from home-grown seed, ripens its seeds a month
earlier than plants grown from foreign seed. In Italy, as long
as orange trees were propagated by grafts, they were tender;
but after many of the trees were destroyed by the severe frosts
of 1709 and 1763, plants were raised from seed, and these were
found to be hardier and more productive than the former kinds.
Where plants are raised from seed in large quantities, varieties
always occur differing in constitution, as well as others differing
in form or colour; but the former cannot be perceived by us
unless marked out by their behaviour under exceptional con-
ditions, as in the following cases. After the severe winter of
1860-1861 it was observed that in a large bed of araucarias some
plants stood quite unhurt among numbers killed around them.
In C. Darwin's garden two rows of scarlet runners were entirely
killed by frost, except three plants, which had not even the tips
of their leaves browned. A very excellent example is to be
found in Chinese history, according to E. R. Hue, who, in his
V Empire chinois (torn. ii. p. 359), gives the following extract
from the Memoirs of the Emperor Kkang: — " On the xst day of
the 6th moon I was walking in some fields where rice had been
sown to be ready for the harvest in the 9th moon. I observed
by chance a stalk of rice which was already in ear. It was
higher than all the rest, and was ripe enough to be gathered.
I ordered it to be brought to me. The grain was very fine and
well grown, which gave me the idea to keep it for a trial, and see
if the following year it would preserve its precocity. It did so.
All the stalks which came from it showed ear before the usual
time, and were ripe in the 6th moon. Each year has multiplied
the produce of the preceding, and for thirty years it is this rice
which has been served at my table. The grain is elongate and
of a reddish colour, but it has a sweet smell and very pleasant
taste. It is called Yu-mi, Imperial rice, because it was first
cultivated in my gardens. It is the only sort which can ripen
north of the great wall, where the winter ends late and begins
very early; but in the southern provinces, where the climate
is milder and the land more fertile, two harvests a year may be
easily obtained, and it is for me a sweet reflection to have
procured this advantage for my people." Hue adds his testi-
mony that this kind of rice flourishes in Manchuria, where no
other will grow. We have here, therefore, a perfect example
of acclimatization by means of a spontaneous constitutional
variation.
That this kind of adaptation may be carried on step by step
to more and more extreme climates is illustrated by the following
examples. Sweet-peas raised in Calcutta from seed imported
from England rarely blossom, and never yield seed; plants from
French seed flower better, but are still sterile; but those raised
from Darjceling seed (originally imported from England) both
flower and seed profusely. The peach is believed to have been
tender, and to have ripened its fruit with difficulty, when first
introduced into Greece; so that (as Darwin observes) in travelling
northward during two thousand years it must have become
much hardier. Sir J. Hooker ascertained the average vertical
range of flowering plants in the Himalayas to be 4000 ft., while*
in some cases it extended to 8000 ft. The same species can
thus endure a great difference of temperature; but the important
fact is, that the individuals have become acclimatized to the
altitude at which they grow, so that seeds gathered near the
upper limit of the range of a species will be more hardy than
those gathered near the lower limit. This was proved by Hooker
to be the case with Himalayan conifers and rhododendrons,
raised in Britain from seed gathered at different altitudes.
Among animals exactly analogous facts occur. When geese
were first introduced into Bogota they laid few eggs at long
intervals, and few of the young survived. By degrees the
fecundity improved, and in about twenty years became equal to
what it is in Europe. The same author tells us that, according
to Garcilaso, when fowls were first introduced into Peru they
were not fertile, whereas now they arc as much so as in Europe.
C. Darwin adduced the following examples. Merino sheep
bred at the Cape of Good Hope have been found far belter
adapted for India than those imported from England; and
while the Chinese variety of the Ailanthus silk-moth is quite
hardy, the variety found in Bengal will only flourish in warm
latitudes. C. Darwin also called attention to the circumstance
that writers of agricultural works generally recommend that
animals should be removed from one district to another as little
as possible. This advice occurs even in classical and Chinese
agricultural books as well as in those of our own day, and proves
that the close adaptation of each variety or breed to the country
in which it originated has always been recognized.
Constitutional Adaptation often accompanied by External
Modification. — Although in some cases no perceptible alteration
of form or structure occurs when constitutional adaptation to
climate has taken place, in others it is very marked. C. Darwin
collected a large number of cases in his Animals and Plants under
Domestication.
In his Contributions to the Theory of Natural Selection (p. 167),
A. R. Wallace has recorded cases of simultaneous variation among
insects, apparently due to climate or other strictly local causes.
He found that the butterflies of the family Popilianidoe, and some
others, became similarly modified in different islands and groups
of islands. Thus, the species inhabiting Sumatra, Java and
Borneo are almost always much smaller than the closely allied
species of Celebes and the Moluccas; the species or varieties of
the small island of Amboyna are larger than the same species or
closely allied forms inhabiting the surrounding islands; the
species found in Celebes possess a peculiar form of wing, quite
ACCLIMATIZATION
117
distinct from that of the same or closely allied species of ad-
jacent islands; and, lastly, numerous species which have tailed
wings in India and the western islands of the Archipelago,
fiadnaQy lose the tail as we proceed eastward to New Guinea
and the Pacific.
Many of these curious modifications may, it is true, be due to
otter causes than climate only, but they serve to show how
powerfully and mysteriously local conditions affect the form
tad structure of both plants and animals; and they render it
probable that changes of constitution are also continually pro-
duced, although we have, in the majority of cases, no means of
detecting them. It is also impossible to determine how far the
effects described are produced by spontaneous favourable varia-
tions or by the direct action of local conditions; but it is prob-
able that in every case both causes are concerned, although in
constantly varying proportions.
StUaiem and Survival of the Fittest as Agents in Naturalisation.
—We may now take it as an established fact that varieties of
aaimab and plants occur, both in domesticity and in a state of
nature, which are better or worse adapted to special climates.
There is no positive evidence that the influence of new climatal
conditions on the parents has any tendency to produce variations
in the offspring better adapted to such conditions. Neither does
it appear that this class of variations are very frequent. It is,
however, certain that whenever any animal or plant is largely
propagated constitutional variations will arise, and some of these
wffl be better adapted than others to the climatal, and other
conditions of the locality. In a state of nature, every recurring
severe winter or otherwise unfavourable season weeds out those
individuals of tender constitution or imperfect structure which
■ay have got on very well during favourable years, and it is
thus that the adaptation of the species to the climate in which
it has to exist is kept up. Under domestication the same thing
occurs by what C. Darwin has termed "unconscious selection."
Each cultivator seeks out the kinds of plants best suited to his
so3 and climate and rejects those which are tender or otherwise
assaiuble. The farmer breeds from such of his stock as he finds
to thrive best with him, and gets rid of those which suffer from
cold, damp or disease. A more or less close adaptation to local
conditions is thus brought about, and breeds or races are pro-
duced which are sometimes liable to deterioration on removal
even to a short distance in the same country, as in numerous
casts quoted by C. Darwin (Animals and Plants under Domesti-
csnm).
Tie Method of Acclimatisation— Taking into consideration
the foregoing facts and illustrations, it may be considered as
proved— iri, That habit has little (though it appears to have
some) definite effect in adapting the constitution of animals to
a new dimate; but that it has a decided, though still slight,
iafloeoce in plants when, by the process of propagation by buds,
shoots or grafts, the individual can be kept under its influence
far long periods; ntd, That great and sudden changes of climate
often check reproduction even when the health of the individuals
dees not appear to Suffer. In order, therefore, to have the best
dance of acclimatizing any animal or plant in a climate very dis-
sadar from that of its native country, and in which it has been
proved that the species in question cannot live and maintain itself
without acclimatization, we must adopt some such plan as the
1. We must transport as large a number as possible of adult
keahay individuals to some intermediate station, and increase
fern as much as possible for some years. Favourable varia-
nces of constitution will soon show themselves, and these should
be artfully selected to breed from, the tender and unhealthy
wfrriduals being rigidly eliminated
3. As soon as the stock has been kept a sufficient time to pass
through all the ordinary extremes of climate, a number of the
tadiest may be removed to the more remote station, and the
&ae process gone through, giving protection if necessary while
tk stock is being increased, but as soon as a large number of
^ahby individuals are produced, subjecting them to all the
*aukudei of the climate,
It can hardly be doubted that in most cases this plan would
succeed. It has been recommended by C. Darwin, and at one
of the early meetings of the SocitU Zoologique 0" Acdimatotion, at
Paris, Isodore Geoffroy St Hilaire insisted that it was the only
method by which acclimatization was possible. But in looking
through the long series of volumes of Reports published by this
society, there is no sign that any systematic attempt at acclimat-
ization has even once been made. A number of foreign animals
have been introduced, and more or less domesticated, and some
useful exotics have been cultivated for the purpose of testing
their applicability to French agriculture or horticulture; but
neither in the case of animals nor of plants has there been any sys-
tematic effort to modify the constitution of the species, by breed-
ing largely and selecting the favourable variations that appeared.
Take the case of the Eucalyptus globulus as an example. This
is a Tasmanian gum-tree of very rapid growth and great beauty,
which will thrive in the extreme south of France. In the Bulletin
of the society a large number of attempts to introduce this tree
into general cultivation in other parts of France are recorded in
detail, with the failure of almost all of them. But no precautions
such as those above indicated appear to have been taken in any
of these experiments; and we have no intimation that either the
society or any of its members are making systematic efforts to
acclimatize the tree. The first step would be, to obtain seed from
healthy trees growing in the coldest climate and at the greatest
altitude in its native country, sowing these very largely, and in
a variety of soils and situations, in a part of France where the
climate is somewhat but not much more extreme. It is almost
a certainty that a number of trees would be found to be quite
hardy. As soon as these produced seed, it should be sown in the
same district and farther north in a climate a little more severe.
After an exceptionally cold season, seed should be collected from
the trees that suffered least, and should be sown in various dis-
tricts all over France. By such a process there can be hardly any
doubt that the tree would be thoroughly acclimatized in any
part of France, and in many other countries of central Europe;
and more good would be effected by one well-directed effort of
this kind than by hundreds of experiments with individual
animals and plants, which only serve to show us which are the
species that do not require to be acclimatised.
Acclimatization of Man. — On this subject we have, unfortu-
nately, very little direct or accurate information. The general
laws of heredity and variation have been proved to apply to
man as well as to animals and plants; and numerous facts in the
distribution of races show that man must, in remote ages at
least, have been capable of constitutional adaptation to climate.
If the human race constitutes a single species, then the mere fact
that man now inhabits every region, and is in each case consti-
tutionally adapted to the climate, proves that acclimatization
has occurred. But we have the same phenomenon in single
varieties of man, such as the American, which inhabits alike the
frozen wastes of Hudson's Bay and Tierra del FuegO, and the
hottest regions of the tropics, — the low equatorial valleys and
the lofty plateaux of the Andes. No doubt a sudden transfer-
ence to an extreme climate is often prejudicial to man, as it is
to most animals and plants; but there is every reason to believe
that, if the migration occurs step- by step, man can be acclimat-
ized to almost any part of the earth's surface in comparatively
few generations. Some eminent writers have denied this. Sir
Ranald Martin, from a consideration of the effects of the climate
of India on Europeans and their offspring, believed that there is no
such thing as acclimatization. Dr Hunt, in a report to the
British Association in x86x, argued that " time is no agent/'
and—" if there is no sign of acclimatization in one generation,
there is no such process." But he entirely ignored the effect of
favourable variations, as well as the direct influence of climate
acting on the organization from infancy.
Professor Theodor Waits, in his Introduction to Anthropology,
adduced many examples of the comparatively rapid constitu-
tional adaptation of man to new climatic conditions. Negroes,
for example, who have been for three or four generations acclimat-
ized in North America, on returning to Africa become subject to
n8
ACCLIMATIZATION
the same local diseases as other unacclimatized individuals.
He well remarked that the debility and sickening of Europeans
in many tropical countries are wrongly ascribed to the climate,
but are rather the consequences of indolence, sensual gratifica-
tion and an irregular mode of life. Thus the English, who
cannot give up animal food and spirituous liquors, are less able
to sustain the heat of the tropics than the more sober Spaniards
and Portuguese. The excessive mortality of European troops
in India, and the delicacy of the children of European parents,
do not affect the real question of acclimatization under proper
conditions. They only show that acclimatisation is in most
cases necessary, not that it cannot take place. The best examples
of partial or complete acclimatisation are to be found where
European races have permanently settled in the tropics, and
have maintained themselves for several generations. There are,
however, two sources of inaccuracy to be guarded against, and
these are made the most of by the writers above referred to,
and are supposed altogether to invalidate results which are
otherwise opposed to their views. In the first place, we have the
possibility of a mixture of native blood having occurred; in the
second, there have almost always been a succession of immigrants
from the parent country, who continually intermingle with the
families of the early settlers. It is maintained that one or other
of these mixtures is absolutely necessary to enable Europeans
to continue long to flourish in the tropics.
There are, however, certain cases in which the sources of error
above mentioned are reduced to a minimum, and cannot seri-
ously affect the results; such as those of the Jews, the Dutch at
the Cape of Good Hope and in the Moluccas, and the Spaniards
in South America.
The Jews are a good example of acclimatization, because they
have been established for many centuries in climates very
different from that of their native land; they keep themselves
almost wholly free from intermixture with the people around
them; and they are often so populous in a country that the inter-
mixture with Jewish immigrants from other lands cannot seri-
ously affect the local purity of the race. They have, for instance,
attained a population of millions in such severe climates as
Poland and Russia; in the towns of Algeria they have succeeded
so conspicuously as to bring about an outburst of anti-semi tism;
and in Cochin-China and Aden they succeed in rearing children
and forming permanent communities.
In some of the hottest parts of South America Europeans
are perfectly acclimatized, and where the race is kept pure it
seems to be even improved. Some very valuable notes on this
subject were furnished to the present writer by the well-known
botanist, Richard Spruce, who resided many years in South
America, but who was prevented by Hi-health from publishing
his researches (see A. R. Wallace, Notes of a Botanist, 1008).
As a careful, judicious and accurate observer, both of man and
nature, he had few superiors. He says:
The white inhabitants of Guayaquil flat. 2* l$' S.) are kept pure
by careful selection. The slightest tincture of red or black blood bars
entry into any of the old families who are descendants of Spaniards
from the Provindas Vascongadas or those bordering the Bay of
Biscay, where the morals are perhaps the purest (as regards the inter-
course of the sexes) of any in Europe, and where for a girl, even of
the poorest class, to have a child before marriage is the rarest thing
possible. The consequence of this careful breeding is, that the
women of Guayaquil are considered (and justly} the finest along the
whole Pacific coast. They are often tall, sometimes very handsome,
deckkdlyhealthy.althougnpale.andassuredlyprolincenough. Their
sons are big, stout men, but when they lead inactive lives are apt to
become fat and sluggish. Those of them, however, who have farms
In the savannahs and are accustomed to take long rides in all
weathers, and those whose trade obliges them to take frequent
journeys in the mountainous interior, or even to Europe and North
America, are often as active and as little burdened with superfluous
flesh as a Scotch farmer.
The oldest Christian town in Peru b Piura (lat. **S.), which was
founded by Pizarro himself. The climate is very hot, especially in
the three or four months following the southern solstice. In March
1843 the temperature only once tell as low as 83* during the whole
month, the usual lowest night temperature being 85*. Yet people
of all colours find it very healthy, and the whites are very prolific. I
resided in the town itself nine months, and in the neighbourhood
seven months more. The population (in 1863-1864) wasabout 10,000,
of which not only a considerable proportion was white, but was mostly
descended from the first emigrants after the conquest. Purity of
descent was not, however, quite so strictly maintained as at Guaya-
quil. The military adventurers, who have often risen to high or even
supreme rank in Peru, have not seldom been of mixed race, and fear
or favour hasof ten availed to procure them an alliance with the oldest
and purest-blooded families.
These instances, so well stated by Spruce, seem to demonstrate
the complete acclimatization of Spaniards in some of the hottest
parts of South America. Although we have here nothing to do
with mixed races, yet the want of fertility in these has been often
taken to be a fact inherent in the mongrel race, and has been
also sometimes held to prove that neither the European nor his
half-bred offspring can maintain themselves in the tropics. The
following observation is therefore of interest: —
At Guayaquil for a lady of good family — married or
to be of loose morals is so uncommon, that when it does hai
1 happen it is
felt as a calamity by the whole community. But here, and perhaps
in most other towns in South America, a poor girl of mixed race —
especially if good-looking — rarely thinks 01 marrying one of her own
class until she has— as the Brazilians say^— "approvettada de soa
mocidadc " (made the most of her youth) in receiving presents from
gentlemen. If she thus bring a good dowry to her husband, be does
not care to inquire, or is >not sensitive, about the mode in which it
was acquired. The consequence of this indiscriminate sexual inter-
course, especially if much prolonged, is to diminish*, in some cases to
paralyse, the fertility of the female. And as among people of mixed
race it is almost universal, the population of these must fall off both
in numbers and quality.
The following example of divergent acclimatization of the
same race to hot and cold zones is very interesting, and will
conclude our extracts from Spruce's valuable notes: —
One of the most singular cases connected with this subject that
have fallen under my own observation, is the difficulty, or apparent
impossibility, of acclimatizing the Red Indian in a certain zone of
the Andes. Any person who has compared the physical characters
of the native races of South America must be convinced that these
have all originated in a common stirps. Many local differences
exist, but none capable of invalidating this conclusion. The warmth
yet shade-loving Indian of the Amazon: the Indian of the hot, dry
and treeless coasts of Peru and Guayaquil, who expose s his bare head
to the sun with as much zest as an African negro; the Indian of the
Andes, for whom no cold seems too great, who goes constantly bare-
legged and often bare-headed, through whose rude straw hut the
piercing wind of the paramos sweeps and chills the white man to the
very bones; — all these, in the colour and texture of the skin, the hair
and other important features, are plainly of one and the same race.
Now there b a zone of the equatorial Andes, ranging between
about 4000 and 6000 feet altitude, where the very best flavoured
coffee is grown, where cane b less luxuriant but more saccharine than
In the plains, and which b therefore very desirable to cultivate, but
where the red man sickens and dies. Indians taken down from the
sierra get ague and dysentery. Those of (he plains find the tempera-
ture chilly, and are stricken down with influenza and pains in the
limb*. I have seen 1 " difficulty experienced in getting farms culti-
vatcd in thit tone, on both sides of the Cordillera. The permanent
residents are generally limited to the major-domo and nb family:
and in 1 he dry season Labourers are hired, of any colour that can be
obtained — »mr from the low country, others from the highlands —
for three, four, or five months, who gather in and grind the cane,
and plant for the harvest of the following year; but the staff of
resident 1 nd tan labourers, such as exists in the farms of the sierra,
cannot be kept up m the Yungas, as these half-warm valleys are
called. White men, who take proper precautions, and are not
chronically soaked with cane-spirit, stand the climate perfectly, but
the ereole whites are still too much cabaUeros to devote themselves
to agricultural work.
I n what it. now (he republic of Ecuador, the only peopled portions
ar£ the central valley, between the two ridges of the Andes— height
7000 to 12.000 feet— and the hot plain at their western base; nor
do the wooded slopes appear to have been inhabited, except by
scattered savage hordes, even in the time of the Incas. The Indians
of the highlands are the descendants of others who have inhabited
that- region exclusively for untold ages; and a similar affirmation
may be made of the Indians of the plain. Now, there b little doubt
that the progenitors of both these sections came from a temperate
region (in North America); so that here we have one moiety ac-
climatized to endure extreme heat, and the other extreme cold ; and
at thb day exposure of either to the opposite extreme (or even, as we
have seen, to the climateof an intermediate zone) b always pernicious
and often fatal. But if thb great difference has been brought about
in the red man, might not the same have happened to the white man?
Plainly it might, time being given; for one cannot doubt that the
inherent adaptability is the same In both, or (if not) that the white
man p o s s e ss e i H in a higher degree.
ACCLIMATIZATION
119
The obsetvatkms of Spruce are of themselves almost conclu-
sive as to the possibility of Europeans becoming acclimatized
m the tropics; and if it is objected that this evidence applies
only to the dark-haired southern races, we are fortunately able
to point to facts, almost equally well authenticated and con-
drive, in the case of one of the typical Germanic races. In
Sooth Africa the Dutch have been settled and nearly isolated
for over joo years, and have kept themselves almost or quite
fate from native intermixture. They are still preponderatingly
fair in complexion, while physically they are tall and strong,
they marry young and have large families. The population,
according to a census taken in 1798, was under 22,000. In
1865 it was near 182,000, the majority being of " Dutch, German
or French origin, mostly descendants of original settlers." In
note recent times, the conditions have been so greatly changed
by immigration, that the later statistics cease to have a definite
Bcaomg with regard to acclimatisation. We have here a
population which doubled itself every twenty-two years; and
the greater part of this rapid increase must certainly be due
to the old European immigrants. In the Moluccas, where the
Dutch have had settlements for a$o years, some of the inhabit-
ant! trace their descent to early immigrants; and these, as
veil as most of the people of Dutch descent in the east, are
qaite as fair as their European ancestors, enjoy excellent health,
tod are very prolific But the Dutch accommodate themselves
admirably to a tropical climate, doing much of their work early
ii the morning, dressing very lightly, and living a quiet, tem-
perate and cheerful life. They also pay great attention to
drainage and general cleanliness. In addition to these examples,
it k obvious that tbe rapid increase of English-speaking popula-
tions in the United States and in Australia is far greater than
as be explained by immigration, and shows two conspicuous
examples of acclimatisation.
On the whole, we seem justified in concluding that, under
favorable conditions, and with a proper adaptation of means
to the end in view, man may become acclimatised with at least
a much certainty and rapidity (counting by generations rather
tan by years) as any of the lower animals. The greatest
£ficulty in his way is not temperature, but the presence of
parasitic diseases to resist which his body has not been prepared,
ud modern knowledge is rapidly defining these dangers and the
aodes of avoiding them. (A. R. W.)
Appendix
The task of collecting information as to animals which
^ave become permanently naturalised away from their native
basts is anything but easy, as few regular records have
been kept by acdimatizers. Moreover, recorders of local fauna
save been almost unanimous in ignoring the introduced forms,
exrxpt when they have had occasion to comment on the effects,
real or supposed, of these immigrants on aboriginal faunas.
McmmoU.— It is unnecessary here to dwell upon the world-
wide distribution of the two rats Mus rattus and M. decumanus,
ud of the house-mouse U. musculus; their introduction has
ilvays been involuntary. Similarly nearly all our domestic
amausab except the sheep have become feral somewhere or
other, whether by intentional liberation or by escape; but the
matter ones more than the larger, such as pigs, goats, dogs and
<*** This has been especially the case in Hawaii and New
Zeahad; m America, Australia and Hawaii, horses and cattle
«e aho feral. Feral pigs are numerous in New Zealand.
The domestic Indian buffalo (Bos bubalus) exists as a wild
•anal in North Australia; it is very liable to revert to a wild
*■», bring little altered from its still-existing wild ancestor.
A ewe carious case is that of the one-humped camel (Camclus
***i*rbu) t a beast only known in domestication, and that in
*|d countries; yet a number of these have become feral in the
Spun* marshes, where they wade about like quadrupedal
T* red deer (Cams dapkus) is now widely distributed as a
*M »*mal over New Zealand, where also the fallow-deer (C.
•<**) and the Indian sambar (C. arislotdis or unuotor) have been
introduced locally. The sambar, or one or other of its sub-
species, has also been naturalized in Mauritius, and in the
Marianne Islands in the open Pacific
The wide introduction of the rabbit, as a wild animal, is well
known. Amounting to a serious pest in Australasian colonies, it
is also established in the Falkland* and Kerguelen; its presence
in much of Europe is attributed to early acclimatization, as it
seems anciently to have been confined to the Iberian peninsula.
The hare has been established in New Zealand and Barbadoes.
Few other rodents have been designedly naturalised, but the
North American grey squirrel (Sciurus cinereus) appears to be
established as a wild animal in Woburn Park, Bedfordshire,
England, and may probably spread thence.
To check the increase of the rabbit, stoats, weasels and pole-
cats (the last in the form of the domesticated ferret) were intro-
duced into New Zealand on a very large scale in the last quarter
of the 10th century. They have spread widely, and have not
confined their depredations to the rabbits, so that the indigenous
flightless birds have suffered largely.
Another carnivore of very similar habits, thelhdian mongoose
(Herpestus griseus or H. mungo), has been naturalized in Jamaica,
whence it has been carried to other West Indian Islands, and in
the Hawaiian group. It has also been tried, but unsuccessfully,
in Australia. The first introduction into Jamaica took place in
187s, and ten years later the animal was credited with saving
many thousands of pounds annually by its destruction of rats.
But before an equal space of time had further elapsed, it had
itself become a pest; the most recent information, however, is
to the effect that its numbers are now on the decline, and that
the disturbed fauna! equilibrium is being readjusted
The civets, being celebrated for their odoriferous secretion,
are likely animals to have been naturalized. W. T. Blanford
(Fauna of British India, " Mammals ") thinks that the presence
of the Indian form, Vneniada malaccensis, in Socotra, the
Comoro Islands and Madagascar is due to the assistance of
man.
The common fox of Europe has been introduced into Australia,
where ft is destructive to the native fauna and to Iambs.
Among primates, -a Ceylonese monkey (Macacus pileatus) has
been naturalised in Mauritius for centuries, the circumstances
of introduction being unknown.
The common Australian " opossum " or phalangcr (Tricko-
surus vulpecuia) has been naturalized in New Zealand, although
very destructive to fruit trees; the value of its fur being probably
the motive. It is said that the pelage of the New Zealand
specimens is superior, as might be expected from the colder
climate.
Birds. — The introduction of mammals has been largely in-
fluenced by economic conditions, when, indeed, it was not
absolutely accidental and unavoidable; but in the case of birds
it has been more gratuitous, so to speak, in many cases, and
hence is looked upon with especial dislike by naturalists. The
domestic birds have comparatively seldom become feral, doubt-
less, as C. Darwin points out, from the reduction of their powers
of flight in many cases. The guinea-fowl, however, has long
been in this condition in Jamaica and St Helena, and the fowl
in Hawaii and other Polynesian islands. The pheasant has been
naturalized in the United States, New Zealand, Hawaii and
St Helena. Its naturalization in western Europe is very ancient,
but the race supposed to have been introduced by the Romans
(Phasianus colckicus) has been much modified within the last
century or two by the introduction of the ring-necked Chinese
form (P. torquatus), which produces fertile hybrids with the old
breed. Thus those acclimatized were usually, no doubt, of
mixed blood, and further introductions of pure Chinese stock
have tended to make the latter the dominant form, at any rate
in the United States (where it is erroneously called Mongolian')
and in New Zealand. In Hawaii and St Helena the ring-neck
appears to have been the only pheasant introduced pure, but in
the former the Japanese race (P. versicolor) is also naturalized.
1 The true Mongolian pheasant (P. mongoiicus), a very different
bird, has recently been introduced into England.
120
ACCLIMATIZATION
The golden pheasant (Ckrysobpkus pictus) is locally estab-
lished in the United States, as appear to be other pheasants of
less common species. The Reeves' pheasant (P. reevest) is at
large on some English estates. Of the partridges, the continental
red-leg (Caccabis rufa) is established in England, and its ally,
the Asiatic chukore (C. chukar), in St Helena, as is the Cali-
fornian quail {Lophortyx calif omica ) in New Zealand and Hawaii.
The latter, however, though thriving as an aviary bird, has
failed at large in England, as did the bob-white (Oriyx virginianus)
both there and in New Zealand.
The desirable character of the grouse as game-birds has led
to many attempts at their acclimatization, but usually these
have been unsuccessful; the red grouse (Lagopus scoticus), how-
ever, the only endemic British bird,, is naturalized in some parts
of Europe.
Of waterfowl, the Canada goose (Bronta canadensis) is natural-
ized to a small extent in Britain, and also, to a less degree, the
Egyptian goose (Ckenalopex aegyptiacus); the latter bird also
occurs wild in New Zealand. The modern presence of the black
swan of Australia (Ckenopis atrata) in New Zealand appears to be
due to a natural irruption of the species about half a century
ago as much as to acclimatization by man, if not more so.
Birds of prey are, unjustly enough, regarded with so little favour
that few attempts have been made to naturalize them; the
continental little owl {Athene noctua), however, has for some
time been well established in England, where it has hardly, if
over, appeared naturally.
Pigeons have been very little naturalized; the tame bird has
become feral locally in various countries, and the Chinese turtle-
dove (Turtur ckinensis) is established in Hawaii, as is the small
East Indian zebra dove (Geopdia striata) in the Seychelles, and
the allied Australian (G. tranquilla) in St Helena. There has
also been very little naturalization of parrots, but the rosella
parrakeet of Australia (Platycercus eximius) is being propagated
by escaped captives in the north island of New Zealand, and its
ally the mealy rosella (P. paUidiceps) is locally wfld in Hawaii,
the stock in this case having descended from a single pair in-
tentionally liberated. Attempts to naturalize that well-known
Australian grass-parrakeet the budgerigar (Melopsiltacus un-
dulates) in England have so far proved abortive, and none of
the species experimented with in Norfolk and Bedfordshire
effected a settlement. The greyheaded love-bird (Agapornis
carta) of Madagascar is established in the Seychelles. Some
of the passerine birds have been the most widely distributed,
especially the house-sparrow (Passer domesticus), which is now
an integral, and very troublesome, part of the fauna in the
Australasian States and in North America. It is, in fact, as
notorious an example of over-successful acclimatization as the
rabbit, but in Hutton and Drummond's recent work on the
New Zealand animals (London, 1005) it is not regarded in this
light, considering that some very common exotic birds were
needed to keep down the insects, which it certainly did. Even
in the United States also, it has been found a useful destroyer
of weed-seeds. The house-sparrow is also feral in Argentina,
some of the West Indian islands, Hawaii and the Andamans.
The allied tree-sparrow (P. montanus) has been locally
naturalized in the United States; it is a more desirable bird,
being less prolific and pugnacious, but it is expelled from towns
by the house-sparrow.
The so-called Java sparrow {Munia orytivoro), although a
destructive bird to rice, has been widely distributed by accident
or design, and is now found in several East Indian islands besides
Java, in south China, St Helena, India, Zanzibar and «ic east
African coast. An allied but much smaller weaver-finch, a form
of the spice-bird (Munia nisoria punctata) , is introduced and
well distributed over the Hawaiian islands. The little rooibek
of South Africa (Estrilda astrild) has been so long and well
established in St Helena that it is known in the bird trade as
the St Helena waxbill, and the brilliant scarlet weaver of Mada-
gascar (Foudia madagascariensis) inhabits as an imported bird
Mauritius, the Seychelles and even the remote Chagos Islands.
Returning to the true finches, the only one which can compete
with the house-sparrow in the extent of its distribution by man
is the goldfinch (Cardudis carduelis), now established all over
New Zealand, as well as in Australia, the United States and
Jamaica. It bears a good character, and is one of the marked
successes of naturalization. The redpoll (Acantkis linaric),
chaffinch (Fringilla codebs) and greenfinch (Chloris ckloris) are
established in New Zealand, the last named being a pest there,
as is also the drl-bunting (Emberua cuius) — the yellow-hammer
(E. citrineUa) being perhaps confused with this also.
Among starlings, the Indian mynah (generally the house mynah,
Acridotkeres tristis, but some other species seem to have been
confused with this) has been naturalized in the Andamans,
Seychelles, Reunion, Australia, Hawaii and parts of New Zealand
Its alleged destructiveness to the Hawaiian avifauna seems open
to doubt
The European starling (Stumus vulgaris) is naturalized in
New Zealand, Australia and to some extent in the United
States. Thrushes have not been widely introduced, but the
song-thrush and blackbird (Turdus musieus and Merula merula)
are common in New Zealand; attempts were made, but unsuc-
cessfully, to establish the latter in the United States. The
so-called hedge-sparrow (Accentor nodularis), really a member
of this group, is one of the successful introductions into New
Zealand. The robin (Eritkacus rubecula) failed there.
Rooks iCortus frugUegus) and the Australian "magpie 1 * or
piping crow (Gymnorkina) are to be found in New Zealand, but
only locally, especially the former.
Reptiles and Amphibians. — Very little naturalization has been
effected, or indeed apparently attempted, in regard to these
groups, but the occurrence of the edible frog of the continent
of Europe (Rana esculenta) as an introduced animal in certain
British localities is well known. An Australian tree-frog (Hyia
peronii) is naturalized in many parts of .the north island of New
Zealand.
Fish. — The instances of naturalization in this class are few,
but important. The common carp (Cyprinus carpio), originally
a Chinese fish, has for centuries been acclimatized in Europe,
where indeed it is in places a true domestic creature, with
definite variations. It is, however, quite feral also, and has
been introduced into North America.
The Prussian carp (Carassius vulgaris) is established in New
Zealand, and the nearly-allied goldfish, a domestic form (C.
auratus) of Chinese origin, has been widely distributed as a pet,
and is feral in some places.
The gourami (Ospkromenus oljax) of the East Indies has been
established in Mauritius and Cayenne, being a valuable food-
fish.
The most important case of naturalization of fish is, however,
the establishment of some Salmonidae in Tasmania and New
Zealand. These are the common trout and sea-trout (Salmo
fario and 5. trutta)\ they attain a great size. So far, attempts
to establish the true salmon in alien localities have been un-
successful, but the American rainbow trout (S. irideus) has
thriven in New Zealand, and the brook char of the same conti-
nent (5. fontinalis) inhabits at least one stream there to the
exclusion of the common trout
Invertebrates.— Many insects and other invertebrates, mostly
noxious, have been accidentally naturalized, and some have
been deliberately introduced, like the honey-bee, now feral in
Australasia and North America, and the humble-bee, imported
into New Zealand to effect the fertilization of red clover.
The spread of the European house-fly has been deliberately
encouraged in New Zealand, as wherever it penetrates the native
flesh-fly, a more objectionable pest, disappears.
The wide distribution of three common cockroaches (Peri-
planeta amcricana, Blatta oricnialis and Ectobia germanica) is
well known, but these are chiefly house-insects.
The common small white butterfly of Europe (Pontic or
Pieris rapae) is now established in North America; and the
march of the jigger, or foot-infesting flea (SarcopsyUa penetrans)
of tropical America, across Africa, has taken place in quite
recent years.
ACCOLADE— ACCOMMODATION
121
The Romans are credited with having purposely introduced
the edible snail (Helix pomatia) into England, and the common
garden snail and sings (Helix aspersa, Umax ogrestis and
Aria* hortensis) have been unwittingly established in New
Zealand. In that country, also, the earthworms of Europe are
oocked to replace native forms as the ground is broken.
Centred Remarks.— A great deal has been said about the up-
setting of the balance of nature by naturalisation, and as to the
1-doing of exotic forma. But certain considerations should be
borne in mind in this connexion. In the first place, naturaliza-
i fail at least as often as they succeed, and often
Jy. Thus, the linnet and partridge have failed
to rmabnth themselves in New Zealand. This may ultimately
throw some light on tbe disappearance of native forms; for
these have at times declined without any assignable cause.
Secondly, native forms often disappear with the clearing off
of the original forest or other vegetation, in which case their
recession is to a certain extent unavoidable, and the fauna which
bat nfaMwhrd itself in the presence of cultivation is needed to
replace them.
Thirdly, the ill effect of introduced forms on existing ones
■my often be due rather to the spread of disease and parasites
than to actual attack; thus, in Hawaii the native birds have
been found suffering from a disease which attacks poultry And
the recession of the New Zealand earthworms and flies before
exotic forms probably faOs under this category. As man can-
sot easily avoid introducing parasites, and must keep domestic
animals and till the land, a certain disturbance in aboriginal
faunas is absolutely unavoidable. Under certain circumstances,
however, the native animals may recover, for in some cases
tbey even profit by man's advent, and at times themselves
become pests, like the Kea parrot (Nestor notabilis), which
attacks sheep in New Zealand, and the bobolink or rice-bird
[DetkJumyx orysnorus) in North America. Finally, it should
sever be forgotten that the worst enemies of declining forms have
been collectors who have not given these species the chance of
recovering themselves. (F. FN.)
ACCOLADE (from Ital. acceiata, derived from Lat. collum,
the neck), a ceremony anciently used in conferring knighthood;
bat whether it was an actual embrace (according to the use of
the modern French word accolade), or a slight blow on the
seek or cheek, is not agreed. Both these customs appear to be
of great antiquity. Gregory of Tours writes that the early kings
of France, in conferring the gilt shoulder-belt, kissed the knights
oa the left cheek; and William the Conqueror is said to have
made use of the blow in conferring the honour of knighthood
oa bis son Henry. At first it was given with the naked fist, a
veritable box on the ear, but for this was substituted a gentle
itroke with the flat of the sword on the side of the neck, or on
either shoulder as well. In Great Britain the sovereign, in
conferring knighthood, still employs this latter form of accolade.
M Accolade " is also a technical term in music-printing for a
sort of brace joining separate staves; and in architecture it
denotes a form of decoration on doors and windows.
ACC0L11, BENEDETTO (14x5-1466), Italian jurist and his-
torian, was bom at Arexao, in Tuscany, of a noble family, several
■tubus of which were distinguished like himself for their attain-
■eats in law. He was for some time professor of jurisprudence
m the mnverafty of Florence, and on the death of the celebrated
Poggio, m 1459, became chancellor of the Florentine republic
He died at Florence. In conjunction with his brother Leonardo,
he wrote in Latin a history of the first crusade, entitled De
BeOo a Cmishauis contra Barbaras gesto pro Christi Sepulchro et
!**** recuperomdis tibri ires (Venice, 1433, translated into
Italian, 1543, and into French, 1620), which, though itself of
frtk interest, is said to have furnished Tasso with the historic
baa for his Jerusalem Delivered. Another work of Accolti's—
Ot PraestamUa Virorum sui A est— was published at Parma in
1689. His brother Francesco (14x8-1483) was also a distin-
Phhed jurist, and was the author of ConsiUa sen responsa (Pisa,
MSi); Commentaria super Kb, ii. decretalium (Bologna, 1481);
1 (Pavia, 1403); ** Balneis Puteoloms (1475).
ACCOLTI. BERHARDO (1465-1536), Italian poet, born at
Arezzo, was the son of Benedetto Accolti. Known in his own
day as F Umco ArcHno, he acquired great fame as a reciter of
impromptu verse. He was listened to by large crowds, com-
posed of the most learned men and the most distinguished
prelates of the age. Among others, Cardinal Bembo has left
on record a testimony to his extraordinary talent His high
reputation with his contemporaries seems scarcely justified by
tbe poems he published, though they give evidence of brilliant
fancy' It is probable that he succeeded better in his ex-
temporary productions than in those which were the fruit of
deliberation. His works, under the title Virginia, Comedia,
CapiUAi e Strambotti di jiesser Bernardo Accolti Aretino, were
published at Florence in 15x3, and have been several times
reprinted.
ACCOLTI, PIETRO (1455-1532), brother of the preceding,
known as the cardinal of Ahcona, was born in Florence on the
15th of March 1455, and died at Rome on the 12th of December
1532 (Ciaconi, Vilae Pontificum, 1677, iii. 395). "He was made
bishop of Ancbna, 1505, and cardinal on the 17th of March 1511,
by Julius IL He was abbreviate* under Leo X., and in that
capacity drew up in 1520 the bull against Luther (L. Cardella,
Memorie Storiette do* Cardinal*, 1793, iii. 450). He held succes-
sively the suburban sees of Albano and Sabina, also the sees
of Cadiz, Maillezais, Arras and Cremona, and was made arch-
bishop of Ravenna, X524, by Clement VII.
F. Cristofori (Storia dei Cardinal*, 1888) and others have
confused him with his nephew Benedetto (1497-1549)* son of
Michaele; who followed him in several of his preferments, was
made cardinal, 1527, by Clement VII., and is known as a writer
in behalf of papal claims and as a Latin poet
ACCOMMODATION (Lat. accommodate, to make fit, from ad,
to, cum, with, and modus, measure), the process of fitting,
adapting, adjusting or supplying with what is needed (e.g.
housing).
In theology the term " accommodation " is used rather loosely
to describe the employment of a word, phrase, sentence or idea,
in a context other than that in which it originally occurred; the
actual wording of the quotation may be modified to a greater or
lesser extent. Such accommodation, though sometimes purely
literary or stylistic, generally has the definite purpose of instruc-
tion, and is frequently used both in the New Testament and
in pulpit utterances in all periods as a means of producing a
reasonably accurate impression of a complicated idea in the
minds of those who are for various reasons unlikely to compre-
hend it otherwise. There are roughly three main kinds, (x)
A later Biblical passage quotes from an earlier, partly as a
literary device, but also with a view to demonstration. Some-
times it is plain that the writer deliberately " accommodates "
a quotation (cf. John xviii. 8, 9 with xvii. 12). But New
Testament quotations of Old Testament prediction* are often
for us accommodations — striking or forced as the case may be
— while the New Testament writer, " following tbe exegetical
methods current among the Jews of his time, Matthew ii. 15,
18, xxvi. 31, xxviL 9 " (S. R. Driver in Zechariah in Century
Bible, pp. 259, 271), puts them forward as arguments. To say
that he is merely " describing a New Testament fact in Old
Testament phraseology " may be true of the result rather than
of his design. (2). Much besides in the Bible— parable, metaphor,
&c — has been called an "accommodation," or divine conde-
scension to human weakness. (3) German 18th-century rational-
ism (see Apolocetics) held that the Biblical writers made great
use of conscious accommodation— intending moral common-
places when they seemed to be enunciating Christian dogmas.
Another expression for this, used, e.g., by J. S. Sender, is " econ-
omy," which also occurs in the kindred sense of " reserve " tor
of Discipline Arcani—v. modern term for the supposed early
Catholic habit of reserving esoteric truths). Isaac Williams on
Reserve in Religious Teaching, No. 80 of Tracts for the Times,
made a great sensation; see R. W. Church's comments in The
Oxford Movement. Strictly, accommodation (2) or (3) modifies,
in form or in substance, the content- of religious belief; reserve.
122
ACCOMMODATION BILI^ACCORSO
from prudence or cunning, withholds port. " Ec onomy * b
used in both senses.
ACCOMMODATION BILL. An accommodation bill, as its
name implies, is a. trill of exchange accepted and sometimes
endorsed without any receipt of indue in order to afford tem-
porary pecuniary aid to the person accommodated. (See Bill
of Exchange.)
ACCOMPANIMENT {U. that which " accompanies "), a
musical term for that part of a vocal or instrumental compo-
sition added to support and heighten the principal vocal or
instrumental part; either by means of other vocal parts, single
instruments or the orchestra. The accompaniment may be
obbligato or ad libitum, according as it forms an essential part
of the composition or not The term obbligato or obbligato
accompaniment is also used for an independent instrumental
solo accompanying a vocal piece. Owing to the early custom
of only writing the accompaniment in outline, by means of a
" figured bassy to be filled in by the performer, and to the
changes in the number, quality and types of the instruments of
the orchestra, " additional " accompaniments have been written
for the works of the older masters; such are Mozart's " addi-
tional " accompaniments to Handel's M essiak or those to many of
the elder Bach's works by Robert Franz. In common parlance
any support given, e.g. by the piano, to a voice or instrument
is loosely called an accompaniment, which may be merely
" vamped " by the introduction of a few chords, or may rise
to the dignity of an artistic composition. In the history of song
the evolution of the art side of an accompaniment is important,
and in the higher forms the vocal and instrumental parts practi-
cally constitute a duet, in which the instrumental part may be at
least as important as that of the voice.
ACCOMPLICE (from Fr. complice, conspirator, Lat complex,
a sharer, associate, complicate, to fold together; the ac~ is
possibly due to confusion with " accomplish," to complete, Lat
comptere, to fill up), in law, one who is associated with another
or others in the commission of a crime, whether as principal
or accessory. The term is chiefly important where one of
those charged with a crime turns king's evidence in the expect-
ation of obtaining a pardon for himself. Accordingly, as "his
evidence is tainted with self-interest, it is a rule of practice
to direct a' jury to acquit, where the evidence of an accomplice
is not corroborated by independent evidence both as to the
circumstances of the offence and the participation of the accused
in it An accomplice- who has turned king's evidence usually
receives a pardon, but has no legal right to exemption from
punishment till he has actually received it
ACCORAMBONI, VITTORIA (1557-1585), an Italian lady
famous for her great beauty and accomplishments and for her
tragic history. She was born in Rome of a family belonging to
the minor noblesse of Gubbio, which migrated to Rome with a
view to bettering their fortunes. After refusing several offers of
marriage for Vittoria, her father betrothed her to Francesco
Peretti (1573), a man of no position, but a nephew of Cardinal
Montalto, who was regarded as likely to become pope. Vittoria
was admired and worshipped by all the cleverest and most
brilliant men in Rome, and being luxurious and extravagant
although poor, she and her husband were soon plunged in debt
Among her most fervent admirers was P. G. Orsini, duke of
Bracdano, one of the most powerful men in Rome, and her
brother Marcello, wishing to see her the duke's wife, had Peretti
murdered (1 581). The duke himself .was suspected of complicity,
inasmuch as he was believed to have murdered his first wife,
Isabella de' Medici Now that Vittoria was free he made her
an offer of marriage, which she willingly accepted, and they
were married shortly after. But her good fortune aroused much
jealousy, and attempts were made to annul the marriage; she
was even imprisoned, and only liberated through the interfer-
ence of Cardinal Carlo Borromeo. On the death of Gregory
Xm., Cardinal Montalto, her first husband's uncle, was elected
In his place as Sixtus V. (1585); he vowed vengeance on the
duke of Bracdano and Vittoria, who, warned in time, fled first
to Venice and thence to Said in Venetian territory. Here the
duke died in November 1585, bequeathing all Ins personal
property (the duchy of Bracdano helefttohtssonbyhisntst
wife) to his widow Vittoria, overwhelmed with grief, went to
live in retirement at Padua, where she was followed by Lodovico
Orsini, a relation of her late husband and a servant of Che Vene-
tian republic, to arrange amicably for the division of the pro-
perty But a quarrel having arisen in this connexion Lodovico
hired a band of braves and had Vittoria assassinated (22nd of
December 1585) He himself and nearly all bis
were afterwards put to death by order of the republic
About Vittoria Accoramboni much has been written, and she has
been greatly maligned by some biographers. Her story formed
the basis of Webster's drama. The Tragedy of Pacta Giordano
Ursini (1612), and of Ludwig Tieck's novel, Vittoria Accoramboni
(1840); it b told more accurately in D. Gnoli's volume, Vittoria
Accoramboni (Florence, 1870), and an excellent sketch of her IHe
is given in Countess E. Martinengo-Cessiesco's Lombard Stadia
(London, 1902). QU V.*)
ACCORD (from Fr. accord er, to agree), in law, an agreement
between two parties, one of whom has a right of action against
the other, to give and accept in substitution for such right any
good legal consideration. Such an agreement when executed
discharges the cause of action and is called Accord and Satis-
faction.
ACCORDION (Fr. accordion; Ger. Handharmonica, ZiekAar-
monica), a small portable teed wind instrument with keyboard,
the smallest representative of the organ family, invented in
1820 by Damian, in Vienna.
The accordion consists of a bellows of many folds, to which
is attached a keyboard with from 5 to 50 keys. The .keys on
being depressed, while the bellows are being worked, open
valves admitting the wind to free reeds, consisting of. narrow
tongues of metal riveted some to the upper, some to the
lower board of the bellows, having their free ends bent, some
inwards, some outwards. Each key produces two notes, one
from the inwardly bent reed when the bellows are compressed,
the other from the outwardly bent reed by suction (as in the
American organ; see Harmonium) when the bellows are ex-
panded. The pitch of the note is determined by the length and
thickness of the reeds, reduction of the length tending to sharpen
the note, while reduction of the thickness lowers it The right
hand plays the mdody on the keyboard, while the left works
the bellows and manipulates the two or three bass harmony
keys, which sound the simple chords of the tonic and' dominant
The archetype of the accordion is the cheng (9.1.), or Chinese
organ, between which and the harmonium it forms a connecting
link structurally, although not invented for some thirty years
after the harmonium. The timbre of the accordion is coarse
and devoid of beauty, but in the hands of a skilful performer
the best instruments are not entirely without artistic merit
Improvements in the construction of the accordion produced the
concertina fo.t.), mdodion and melophone.
See Adolf Mueller, Accordion-Schnle oder ootUtdndige Anleihrmt.
das Accordion in kurur Zeit ricktig spiekn an erlernen (Wien, 1834).
See also Free Rbsd Vibrator. (K. S.)
ACC0R80 (Accursxus), MARIANOBLO (c 1400-1544), ItaBan
critic, was born at Aquila, in the kingdom of Naples. He was
a great favourite with Charles V., at whose court he resided for
thirty-three years, and by whom he was employed on various
foreign missions. To a perfect knowledge of Greek and Latin
he added an intimate acquaintance with several modern lan-
guages. In discovering and collating ancient manuscripts, for
which his travels abroad gave him special opportunities, he
displayed uncommon diligence. His work entitled Diatribae in
Ausonium, Solinum el Otidium (1524) is a monument of erudi-
tion and critical skill. He was the first editor of the Letters of
Cassiodorus, with his Treatise on the Soul (1538); and bis edition
of Ammianus MarceUinus (1533) contains five hooks more than
any former one. The affected use of antiquated terms, introduced
by some of the Latin writers of that age, is humorously ridiculed
by him, in a dialogue in which an Oscan, a Volsdan and a
Roman are introduced as interlocutors (1531). Accorso was
accused of plagiarism in his notes on Ausonius, a charge which
he most solemnly and energetically repudiated.
ACCOUNT— ACCOUNTANTS
123
AOeOOVr (through O. Fr. acont, Late LaL c om ptu m , com-
fmwt, to calculate), counting, reckoning, especially of money*
slid and received, hence a etatement made as to the receipt
tad payment of moneys; also any statement as to acts or con-
Act, or quite simply any narrative report of events, &c A
farther sense-development is that of esteem, consideration.
Asasteck-eTrhangeterm" accoont "is used in several senses,
(t) The pe ri od ic al settlements occurring, in London, monthly
lor British government and a few other first-class securities, and
forunghtly for all others. The settlement extends over four
dsjs in mining shares and three days in other securities. The
tut day is the carry-over, M contango," or making-up, day, on
vhkk sp e culati v e commitments are carried over, or continued:
that is, the bolls, who have bought stock for the rise, arrange
the rate of interest that they have to give on their stock to a
sxnwyknder, or bear, who will pay for it or take it in for them;
sad the bean, who have sold for the fall, arrange the rate that
they receive from the bulls or, if the stock is scarce and oversold,
the backwardation or rate that they have to pay to holders of
the stock who will lend it them to enable them to complete their
bngaia*. On the second day, called ticket-day or name day, a
ticket giving the name and address of the ultimate buyer and
the fern which wSH pay for the stock is passed through the
various intermediaries to the ultimate seller, so that the actual
tanner of the stock can be made directly. In the mining
■nrket the passing of names takes two days. On the last day,
acooust day, pay day or settling day, cheques are paid to meet
speouative differences, or against the delivering of stock. (2)
The period b e t we en two settlements. A nineteen-day account
■ eat in which nineteen days elapse between one pay-day and
•aother. (3) The volume or condition of commitments. A
speedster is said to have a large account open when he has dealt
hetffuy either for the rise or fall A bull account exists in a stock
or grasp of stocks when it or they have been bought for the rise
by tlsxge number of operators; in the contrary case, when there
km been heavy sales for the fall, a bear account is developed.
UXOOWTAWT-QamiukAU formerly an officer in the English
CWt of Chancery, who received all moneys lodged in court, and
by whom they were deposited in bank and disbursed. The office
1 by the Chancery Funds Act 187a* and the duties
paymaster-general (?.v.).
The term " accountant " is one to which,
of hue years, its original meaning has been more generally at-
tributel-Mhat of an expert in the science of book-keeping. It
BwmrHinn adopted by book-keepers, but this is an erroneous
sppfcrarion of the term ; it properly describes those competent
to design and control the systems of accounts required for the
record of the multifarious and rapid transactions of trade and
aaaace. It assumes the possession of a wide knowledge of the
principles upon which accountancy is based, which may be
shortly described as constituting a science by means of which
sO nsfrantile and financial transactions, whether in money or
■ BMsey's worth, inducting operations completed and engage-
sjeats usdrftaken to be fulfilled at once or in a future, however
Rswte, may be recorded; and this science comprises a know-
ledge of the methods of preparing statistics, whether relating
to finance or to any transactions or circumstances which can
be stated by numeration, and of ascertaining or estimating on
comet bases the cost of any operation whether in money, in
fMSimwIilin, in time, in life or in any wasting property. Gener-
*h>, accountancy may be described as being the science by means
at which aB operations, as far as they are capable of being shown
■ fgares, are accurately recorded and their results ascertained
The origin of the profession of accountancy in Great Britain
aduncate to trace; auditors of accounts were naturally of very
aMssv etr *y existence, being mentioned as officers of im-
portance in the statutes of Westminster in the reign of
Edward L The art of accountancy on a scientific principle
■est certainly have been understood in Italy before 149s,
•tea Friar Luca dal Borgo published at Venice bis treatise on
•Ms-keeping; but the first known English book on the science
was published in London by John Gouge or Gonghin 1545. It is
described as A Profitable Treatyce catted Ike Instrument or Bok*
to learn to knowe Ik* good order of Ikt kepyng of the famous* recon-
yngs, called in Latin, Dor* and Habere, and, in Bngfyske, Debitor
and Creditor, A short book of instruction was also published in
1588 by John Mellis of Southwark, in which he says, " I am but .
the rentier and reviver of an aundent old copie printed here in
London the 14 of August 1543: collected, published, made, and
set forth by one Hugh Oldcastle, Scholemaster, who, as appeareth
by his treatise, then taught Arithmetike, and this booke in
Saint OUaves parish in hfarke Lane." John MdUs refers to the
fact that the principle of accounts he explains (which is a simple
system of double entry) is " after the forme of Venice." The
very interesting and able book described as The Merchants M incur,
or directions for Ike perfect ordering and keeping of Ms accounts;
framed by way of Debitor and Creditor, after Ike (so tearmed) Italian
manner, by Richard Dafforne, accountant, published in 1635,
contains many references to early books on the science of ac-
countancy. In a chapter in this book, headed " Opinion of
Book-keeping's Antiquity," the author states, on the authority
of another writer, that the form of book-keeping referred to had
then been in use in Italy about two hundred years, "but that the
same, or one in many parte very like this, was used in the time
of Julius Caesar, and in Rome long before." He gives quotations
of Latin book-keeping terms in use in ancient times, and refers
to' " ex Oratione Ciceronis pro Rosdo Comaedo "; and he adds:
" That the one side of their booke was used for Debitor, the other
for Creditor, is manifest in -a certaine place, Naturalia Historian
Plinii, lib. s, cap. 7, where bee, speaking of Fortune, saith thus:
HuicC
Huic Omnia Feruntur accepts e* in tote Rations mnrtellnm sola
Utramque Paginam facte."
An early Dutch writer appears to have suggested that double-
entry book-keeping was even in existence among the Greeks,
pointing to scientific accountancy having been invented in remote
There were several editions of Richard Dafforne's book
printed — the second edition having been published in 1636,
the third in 1656, and another was issued in 1684. The book
is a very complete treatise on scientific accountancy, it was
beautifully prepared and contains elaborate explanations; the
numerous editions tend to prove that the science was highly
appreciated in the 17th century. From this time there has been
a continuous supply of literature on the subject, many of the
authors styling themselves accountants and teachers of the art,
and thus proving that the professional accountant was then
known and employed. Very early in the 18th century the
services of an accountant practising in the dty of London were
made use of in the course of an investigation into the trans-
actions of a director of the South Sea Company, who had been
dealing in the company's stock. During this investigation the
accountant appears to have examined the books of at least two
firms of merchants. His report is described Observations made
upon examining Ike books of Sawbridg* and Company, by Charles
Snell, Writing Master and Accountant in Foster Lane, London.
In 1799, when Holden's Triennial Directory of London, West-
minster and Soutkwark was first published, 11 individuals and
firms were therein described as accountants; in the same direc-
tory, for the period 1800-1811, the number had risen to 34;
and in that for i8n-i8s4, there were 73 firms of practising
accountants recorded.
The earliest English books dealing with scientific book-keeping
were written at a time when the English and Dutch were very
actively engaged in foreign trade, in succession to the
Italian merchants of the 14th, 15th and 16th cen-
turies; but it was not until the beginning of the 19th
century that, in consequence of the adoption of
improved methods of manufacture and transit, resulting from
the application of water and steam power to manufactures and
methods of conveyance which largely increased the trade of
Great Britain, the profession of an accountant became one
which men of scientific knowledge and capacity adopted for
124
ACCOUNTANTS
their business career. Corporations and companies were formed
to carry out large operations previously either left to the state*
or not undertaken, and for the development of trades and manu-
factures which were becoming less profitable when carried on by
hand labour and with limited capital; and, for these, the services
of public accountants were necessarily required to devise systems
of accounts and methods of control, and to enable the results of
the various transactions carried on to be ascertained with the
least waste of power or chance of loss, by negligence or fraud.
The large number of companies formed in 1843 and 1844, when
a great amount of capital was invested in railways and extensive
speculation resulted, also added to the demand for the services
of professional accountants. The Companies' Clauses .Consoli-
dation Act 1845 made provision for the audit of the accounts
of companies regulated by act of parliament, and gave some
extensive powers to the auditors, who are now, to a very large
extent, selected from among professional accountants. The
Companies Act of 1862 led to a large extension of the business
of accountants, both as auditors and liquidators of companies;
and the acts relating to* bankruptcy passed between the years
1831 and 1883 added to the work devolving on professional
accountants. The Companies Act 1879, which affected banking
companies, made provision for the audit of their accounts, and
it has been found desirable, in most cases, to appoint professional
accountants to this duty. The experience and professional
knowledge of trained accountants have, in fact, been utilised
by their appointment as auditors in the majority of joint-stock
companies, whether manufacturing, banking, trading or created
for any other purpose. Until the Companies Act 1000 was passed
there was no general obligation upon limited companies to have
auditors; this act not only requires that auditors shall be ap-
pointed in all cases, but provides for their remuneration, and
to a limited extent defines their rights and duties. The legis-
lature evidently did not find it easy to formulate at all clearly
the duties of auditors, and it seems reasonable to suppose that
any general definition will prove an impossibility, as the work
which auditors undertake must vary very widely, and depends
largely upon the scope of the operations the accounts of which
are to be examined.
The duties of practising accountants cover a very wide area:
they act as trustees, liquidators, receivers and managers of
P r r ^ r r businesses, the owners of which are in default or their
affairs in liquidation, both under the direction of the
courts and by appointment of creditors and others; they are
largely engaged as arbitrators, umpires and referees in differ-
ences relating to matters of account or finance; they prepare
the accounts of executors and trustees, and the necessary'
statements of affairs in cases of bankruptcy, both of firms and
companies; they prepare accounts for prosecutions in cases of
fraud and misconduct; and they are constantly called upon to
unravel and properly state the accounts- of complicated trans-
actions. Their services are commonly required to certify the
profits of businesses intended to be sold, either privately or to
companies by means of a published prospectus; and, in cases
of compulsory purchases of businesses by railway companies
and public bodies, the statements of the profits of the businesses
to be acquired are generally made by them. In a very large
number of financial operations they are called upon to give ad-
vice and prepare accounts, and in few business matters requiring
arithmetical calculations or involving the investigation of figures,
and particularly where a considerable acquaintanceship with
the principles of law is needed, are their services not utilized.
One of the most important duties undertaken by accountants
is the audit of accounts, and this duty has, of late years, been
widely extended. Originally, auditors were appointed to ex-
amine and vouch statements of receipts and payments; but the
provisions made in acts of parliament in relation to audit, and
the requirements of most articles of association of limited com-
i,^ii, panics, put much graver responsibilities on auditors,
who are now generally required to certify to the
accuracy of balance sheets and of revenue and other accounts,
the performance of which duties involves far more knowledge
of accounts than was once required. The efficiency, in -most
cases, of audita conducted by skilled acceuntants has led the
public to attach exceptional value to their audit certificates,
and to demand extensive knowledge and ability in the conduct
of the audit of the accounts of public companies. One other
requirement which is generally regarded as indispensable, is
that the work of audit should be very expeditiously performed;
for it is easy to understand that, were the presentation of the
-accounts of a company and the distribution of dividends materi-
ally delayed in consequence of the audit, much faconwenience
would result; while the value of the criticism of the accounts of
business operations would be much deteriorated if it could not
be made very shortly after the accounts were dosed. In these
circumstances, in the cases of large concern s with wide ramifica-
tions and numerous transactions, it is necessary that auditors
should have the help of trained assistants, and thus the personal
examination of details by the auditor himself is, to a large
extent, rendered unnecessary and the cost of audit materially
reduced. This delegation of duty by auditors is generally well
understood, and is in accordance with the requirements of
those concerned; but there has been a tendency of late years
to enlarge the responsibilities of auditors to an extent which,
if persisted in, might render it dangerous for men of reputation
and means to accept the duties.
While the number of practising accountants has of late years
been steadily increasing and their services are co t i rsponrlin g t y
appreciated, the necessity for controlling those exer- ft
rising the profession and for improving its status has ttmUm
naturally become apparent The first important steps
in this direction were taken by the accountants in s™>»'«n4 —
the Society of Accountants in Edinburgh being incorporated
by royal charter in 1854; similar societies in Glasgow and
Aberdeen being also incorporated by charter in 1855 and 1867.
The Institute of Accountants was formed in London in 1870,
but did not receive a royal charter until the nth May 1880,
when all the then existing accountants' societies and institutes
in England were incorporated as the Institute of Chartered
Accountants in England and Wales, and means were provided
by which all the then practising accountants in these countries
could claim membership thereof . In the year 1885 the Society
of Accountants and Auditors was incorporated, but has obtained
no charter; this body, while numbering among its members
a considerable number of practising accountants in the United
Kingdom, also includes treasurers and accountants to dtiea and
boroughs in England, as well as clerks to chartered and other
accountants. A large proportion of its members also consists
of accountants practising abroad. In x888 an Institute of
Chartered Accountants was formed in Ireland, and a great many
institutes and societies have been formed in the British colonies
and in the United States, some of which have local charters.
It is curious to note, however, that, outside the United Kingdom,
it was only In the British colonies that associations of practising
accountants' existed, until, in 1895, an Institute of Accountants
{Nedertands Instituut van Accountants) was founded in Utrecht
for Dutch accountants; when, although the principles of ac-
countancy have been well understood and practised in Holland
since the 1 6th century, and probably earlier, it was found
necessary to borrow the words " accountant " and M account-
ancy " from the English language to convey to the Dutch an
idea of the meaning of the terms. Three others have since been
formed, the Nedertandscke Academie van Accountants (xooa),
the National* OrganisaUt van Accountants (1003), and the
Nedertandscke Bond tan Accountants (1002) Sweden has a
society, Svtnska Remscrsamfundet, formed in 1809, Belgium,
the Chambre Syndicate des Experts CemptabUs, founded in 1003
In South America, accountants have acquired a certain status
in Argentina, Uruguay and Peru.
In the United States the organization of professional account-
ants is of quite recent growth. The first society formed in
America was " The New York State Society of Certified Public
Accountants," and shortly afterwards (in 1806) the New York
'state legislature passed an act authorising the State university
ACCOUTREMENT— ACCUMULATION
125
to cooler the degree of certified public accountant (C.P.A.) on
the members of the society, while requiring all subsequent
eatxants to pan an examination. This degree, however, can
be obtained, like other university degrees, without being a
member of the society Other states, notably Pennsylvania,
Maryland, California, Illinois, Washington and New Jersey,
have followed the example of New York. In 1003 the various
state societies formed themselves into a federation. There is
also an independent society of practising accountants, the
American Association of Public Accountants, with objects
similar to those of the federation, but steps have been taken to
bnng about an amalgamation between the two in order to form
one central society to look after their common interests, without,
however, interfering with, the individual organization of the
various state societies.
See R. Brown. Htsiory of Accounting and Actouniamtt (Edin-
burgh). 1905, the most comprehensive book upon the subject; also
C. W. Hasinas, Accountancy, its Past and Present (U.S.A., 1900);
S. S. Dawson. Accountants Compendium; G. Liale, Accounting tn
Theory and Practice (1809); F. W. Pixley. Auditors and their Lia>
Hum (1901). The professional periodicals. The A aauntant (vol. i.,
H77); Accountants Journal (vol. L, 1 883- 1 884V The Accountants'
Jfefsscse (voL L, 1897); Incorporated Accountant' Juunud (vol. i.,
1889-1S90); Accounttcs (U.S.A., vol. L, 1897) nu., u. u^^-jd,
and also the Year-books of the Society of Accountants and Auditors,
and of the Institute of Chartered Accountants. (J. G. Ga.)
ACCOUTREMENT (a French word, probably derived from &
and coustre or coutre, an old word meaning one who has charge
of the vestments in a church), clothing, apparel; a term used
especially, in the plural, of the military equipment of a soldier
other than his arms and clothing.
ACCRA, a port on the Gulf of Guinea in 5 31' N., o* 12' W.,
noce 1876 capital of the British Gold Coast colony. Population
about 20,000, including some 150 Europeans. Accra is about
80 m. EL of Cape Coast (o.».), the former capital of the colony.
The name b derived from the Fanti word Nkran (an ant), by
which designation the tribe inhabiting the surrounding district
was formerly known. The town grew up around three forts
fstahfahed in dose proximity— St James (British), Crevecoeur
(Dutch) and Christiansborg (Danish). The last named was
ceded to Britain in 1850, Crevecoeur not till 187 1. Fort St
James b now used as a signal station, lighthouse and prison.
Accra preserves the distinctions of James Town, Ussher Town
aed Christiansborg, indicative of its tripartite origin. Ussher
Town represents Crevecoeur, the fort being renamed after H T
Ussher, administrator of the Gold Coast (1867-187 2). The sea
frontage extends about three miles, there b, however, no har-
bour, and steamers have to lie about a mile out, goods and
passengers being landed in surf boats. The streets formerly
consisted largely of mud hovels, but since a great fire in 1804,
which destroyed large parts of James Town and Ussher Town,
awe substantial buildings have been erected. Christiansborg,
the finest of the three forts, b the official residence of the governor
of the colony Westwards of the landing-place, where b the
customs house, lies James Town. Beyond the fort are various
pabhc buildings leading to Otoo Street, the main thoroughfare,
which mas two miles in a straight line to Christiansborg. Thb
street contains a fine stone church built in 1895 for the use of
the Angbcan community, a branch of the Bank of British West
Ames, telegraph offices and the establishments of the principal
trading firms. In Victoriaborg, a suburb of Ussher Town, are
the residences qf the principal officiate, and here a racecourse
has been laid out. (Accra b almost the only point along the
Gold Coast where horses thrive.) Behind the town b rolling
grass and, which gives place to the highlands of Aquapim and
Akhn, At Aburi in the Aquapim hills, 26 m. N. by £. of
Accra, are the government sanatorium and botanical gardens.
Accra, the first town in the Gold Coast colony to be raised
(J^r 1, 1896) to the rank of a municipality, b governed by a
toro council with power to raise and spend money The council
consists in equal proportions of nominated and elected members,
so racial distinctions being made. Accra is connected by cable
•its Europe and South Africa, and b the sea terminus of a railway
tron* the districts N.E., where are flourishing cocoa plantations.
ACCRETION (from Lat. no*, to, and crcscere, to grow), an
addition to that which already exists; increase in any substance
by the addition of particles from the outside. In law, the term
b used for the increase of property caused by gradual natural
additions, as on a river bank or seashore.
ACCRINGTON, a market town and municipal borough in the
Accrington parliamentary division of Lancashire, England,
208 m. N.W. by N. from London, and a& m. N. by W. from
Manchester, on the Lancashire and Yorkshire railway. Pop.
(1891) 38,603; (1001) 43,122. It lies in a deep valley on the
Hindburn, a feeder of the Calder. Cotton spinning and printing
works, cotton-mill machinery works, dye-works and chemical
manufactures, and neighbouring collieries maintain the industrial
population. The church of St James dates from 1763, and the
other numerous places of worship and public buildings are all
modern. The borough b under a mayor, 8 aldermen and 24
councillors. Area 3427 acres.
Accrington (Akerenton, Alkerington, Akerington) was granted
by Henry de Lacy to Hugh son of Leofwine in Henry II. 's reign,
but came again into the bands of the Lacys, and was given by
them about 1200 to the monks of Kirkstall, who converted it
into a grange. It again returned, however, to the Lacys in 1 287,
was granted in parcels, and like their other lands became merged
in the duchy of Lancaster. In 1553 the commissioners of
chantries sold the chapel to the inhabitants to be continued
as a place of divine service. In 1836 Old and New Accrington
were merely straggling villages with about 5000 inhabitants. By
1 86 1 the population had grown to 17,688, chiefly owing to its
position as an important railway junction. A charter of in-
corporation was granted in 1878. The date of the original
chapel b unknown, but it was probably an oratory which was
an offshoot of Kirkstall Abbey. Ecclesiastically the place was
dependent on Altham till after the middle of the 19th century.
ACCUMULATION (from Lat accumulare, to heap up), strictly
a piling-up of anything; technically, in law, the continuous
adding of the interest of a fund to the principal, for the benefit
of some person or persons in the future. Previous to 1800,
thb accumulation of property was not forbidden by English
law, provided the period during which it was to accumulate
did not exceed that forbidden by the law against perpetuities,
viz the period of a life or lives in being, and twenty-one years
afterwards. In 1800, however, the law was amended in conse-
quence of the eccentric will of Peter Thellusson (i737"i797)» *n
English merchant, who directed the income of hb property,
consisting of real estate of the annual value of about £5000 and
personal estate amounting to over £600,000, to be accumulated
during the lives of hb children, grandchildren and great-grand-
children, living at the time of hb death, and the survivor of them
The property so accumulated, which, it b estimated, would have
amounted to over £14,000,000, was to be divided among such
descendants as might be alive on the death of the survivor of
those lives during which the accumulation was to continue.
The bequest was held valid {Thellusson v. Woodford, 1798, 4
Vesey, 237). In 1856 there was a protracted lawsuit as to who
were the actual heirs. It was decided by the House of Lords
(June 9, 1859) ln favour of Lord Rendlesham and Charles
Sabine Augustus Thellusson. Owing, however, to the heavy
expenses, the amount inherited was not much larger than that
originally bequeathed.
To prevent such a disposition of property in the future, the
Accumulations Act 1800 (known also as the "Thellusson Act")
was passed, by which it was enacted that no property should
be accumulated for any longer term than either (1) the life of
the settlor; or (2) the term of twenty-one years from hb death;
or (3) during the minority of any person living or en ventre sa
mere at the time of the death of the grantor; or (4) during the
minority of any person who, if of full age, would be entitled to
the income directed to be accumulated. The act, however, did
not extend to any provision for payment of the debts of the
grantor or of any other person, nor to any provision for raising
portions for the children of the settlor, or any person interested
under the settlement, nor to any direction touching the produce
126
ACCUMULATOR
of timber or wood upon any lands or tenements. The act was
extended to heritable property in Scotland by the Entail Amend-
ment Act 1848, but does not apply to property in Ireland.
The act was further amended by the Accumulations Act 1892,
which forbids accumulations for the purpose of the purchase
of land for any longer period than during the minority of any
person or persons who, if of full age, would be entitled to receive
the income. (See also Trust and Perpetuity.)
ACCUMULATOR, the term applied to a number of devices
whose function is to store energy in one form or another, as, for
example, the hydraulic accumulator of Lord Armstrong (see
Hydraulics, $ 179). In the present article the term is re-
stricted to its use in electro-technology, in which it describes
a special type of battery. The ordinary voltaic cell is made
by bringing together certain chemicals, whose reaction main-
tains the electric currents taken from the cell. When exhausted,
such cells can be restored by replacing the spent materials,
by a fresh " charge " of the original substances. But in some
cases it is not necessary to get rid of the spent materials, because
they can be brought back to their original state by forcing a
reverse current through the cell. The reverse current reverses
the chemical action and re-establishes the original conditions,
thus enabling the cell to repeat its electrical work. Cells-which
can thus be " re-charged " by the action of a reverse current are
called accumulators because they " accumulate " the chemical
work of an electric current An accumulator is also known as
a "reversible battery," "storage battery" or "secondary
battery." The last name dates from the early days of electro-
lysis. When a liquid like sulphuric add was electrolysed for a
moment with the aid of platinum electrodes, it was found that
the electrodes could themselves produce a current when de-
tached from the primary battery. Such a current was attri-
buted to an ""electric polarization " of the electrodes, and was
regarded as having a secondary nature, the implication being
that the phenomenon was almost equivalent to a storage of
electricity. It is now known that the platinum electrodes stored,
not electricity, but the products of electro-chemical decomposi-
tion. Hence if the two names, secondary and storage cells, are
used, they are liable to be misunderstood unless the interpreta-
tion now put on them be kept in mind. " Reversible battery "
is an excellent name for accumulators.
Sir W. R. Grove first used "polarization" effects in his gas
battery, but R. L. G. Plant* (1834-1889) laid the foundation of
modern methods. That he was dear as to the function of an
accumulator is obvious from his declaration that the lead-
sulphuric acid cell could retain its charge for a long time, and
had the power d'emmagasiner ainsi le travail ckimique de la
pile voltaique: a phrase whose accuracy could not be excelled
Plante began his work on electrolytic polarization in 1859, his
object being to investigate the conditions under which its maxi-
mum effects can be produced. He found that the greatest storage
and the most useful electric effects were obtained by using lead
plates in dilute sulphuric acid. After some " forming " opera-
tions described below, he obtained a cell having a high electro-
motive force, a low resistance, a large capacity and almost
perfect freedom from polarization.
The practical value of the lead-peroxide-sulphuric-acid cell
arises largely from the fact that not only are the active materials
(lead and lead peroxide, PbOj) insoluble in the dilute add, but
that the sulphate of lead formed from them in the course of dis-
charge is also insoluble. Consequently, it remains fixed in the
place where it is formed; and on the passage of the charging
current, the original PbOj and lead are reproduced in the places
they originally occupied. Thus there is no material change in
the distribution of masses of active material. Lastly, the active
materials are in a porous, spongy condition, so that the add is
within reach of all parts of them.
Plant* carefully studied the changes which occur In the formation,
charge and discharge of the cell. . In forming, he placed two sheets
of lead in sulphuric add, separating them by narrow strips
of caoutchouc (fig. I), when a charging current is
sent through the cell, the hydrogen liberated at one plate
escapes, a small quantity possibly being spent in reducing the sur-
face film of oxide generally found on lead. Some of the oxygen b
always fixed on the other (positive) plate, forming a surface fttai of
peroxide. After a few minutes the current is reversed so chat
the first plate is peroxidised, and the peroxide previously formed
on the second plate is reduced to metallic lead in a., spongy
state. By repeated reversals, the surface of each plate is alter-
nately peroxidized and reduced to metallic lead. In '—
oxidations, the action pene-
trates farther into the plate,
furnishing each time a larger
quantity of spongy PbOi on
one plate and of spongy lead
on the other. It follows that
the duration of the successive
charging currents also in-
creases. At the beginning, a
few minutes suffice; at the «
end, many hours are required.
After the first six or eight Fig. i.
cycles, Plante allowed a period
of repose before reversing. He claimed that the PbOi formed by
reversal after repose was more strongly adherent, and also more
crystalline than if no repose were allowed. The following figures
show the relative amounts of oxygen absorbed by a given plate in
successive charges (between one charge and the next the plate stood
in repose for the time stated, then was reduced, and again charged
as anode) : —
Separate Periods of
Repose.
Charge.
Relative Amount of
Peroxide formed.
18 hours
2 days
4 "
2 M
First
Second
Third
Fourth
Fifth
"•57
1-71
2-14
a-43
and so on for many days (Gladstone and Tribe, Chemistry ef
Secondary Batteries) Seems that each plate is in turn oxidised and
then reduced, it b evident that the spongy lead will increase at the
same rate on the other plate of the cell. The process of " forming "
thus briefly described was not continued indefinitely, but only till
a fair proportion of the thickness of the plates was converted into
the spongy material, PbOi and Pb respectively. After this, reversal
was not permitted, the cell being put into use and always charged in
a given direction. If the process of forming by reversal be continued ,
the positive plate is ultimately all converted into PbOi and falls to
pieces.
Plant6 made excellent cells by this method, yet three objections
were urged against them. They required too much time to " form **;
the spongy masses (PbOi more especially) fell off for want of me-
chanical support, and the separating strips of caoutchouc were not
likely to have a long life. The first advance was made by C. A. Faure
(1881), who greatly short-
ened the time required for
" forming " by giving the
plates a preliminary coat-'
ing of red leatL whereby
the slow process of biting
into the metal was avoided.
At the first charging, the
red lead on the + electrode
is changed to PbOi, while
that on the — electrode is
reduced to spongy lead..
Thus one continuous opera-
tion, lasting perhaps sixty
hours, takes the place of
many reversals, which, with
periods of repose, last as
'much as three months.
Faure used felt as a sepa-
rating membrane, but its
sa^p ™«™& t '°- *-™°< p*^ «-»«
due to E. Volckmar, J. S. Sellon, T. W. Swan and others. These
inventors put the paste not on to plates of lead, but into the holes
of a grid, which, when carefully designed, affords good mechanical
support to the spongy masses, and does away with the necessity
for felt, &c. They are more satisfactory, however, as supporters of
spongy lead than of the peroxide, since at the point of contact in
the latter case the add gives rise to a local action, which slovly
destroys the grid. Disintegration follows sooner or later, though the
best makers are able to defer the failure for a fairly long time.
Efforts have been made by A Tnbe, D. G. Fitzgerald and other*
to dispense with a supporting grid for the positive plate, but these
attempts have not yet been successful enough to enable them to
compete with the other forms.
For many years the battle between the " Plante* *' type and
ACCUMULATOR
127
the Pamt or M pasted " type lias been one in which the issue
was doubtful, hot the general tendency is towards a mixed type
it the present time. There are many good ceils, the value of
iD resting on the care exercised during the manufacture and
also in the choice of pure materials. Increasing emphasis is
bid on the purity of the water used to replace that lost by
evaporation, distilled water generally being specified. The
following descriptions will give a good idea of modern practice.
The " chloride cell " has a Plant* positive with a pasted
negative. For the positive a lead casting is made, about 0*4
inch thick pierced by a number of circular holes about
2" b*H *° tat m diameter. Into each of these holes
is thrust a roll or rosette of lead ribbon, which has
been cut to the right breadth (equal to the thickness of the
plate), then ribbed or
gimped, and finally coiled
into a rosette. The
rosettes have sufficient
spring to fix themselves
in the holes of the lead
plate, but are keyed in
position by a hydraulic
press. The plates are
then " formed " by pass-
ing a current for a long
time. In a later pattern
a kind of discontinuous
longitudinal rib is put in
the ribbon, and increases
the capacity and life by
strengthening the mass
without interfering with
the diffusion of acid.
Iff
Fie. 3.— Tudor negative plate.
The negative plate was formerly obtained by reducing pastilles
of lead chloride, but by a later mode of construction it is
■ade by casting a grid with thin vertical ribs, connected
horizontally by small bars of triangular section. The bars on
the two faces are " staggered, " that is, those on one face are
«ot opposite those on the other. The grid is pasted with a lead
oxide paste and afterwards reduced; this is known as the
" aide " negative.
The larger sizes of negative plate are of a " box " type, formed
by riveting together two grids and filling the intervening space
F*G. 4- Fie. 5. Fie 6.
with paste. A feature of the " chloride " cells is the use of
separators made of thin sheets of specially prepared wood.
These prevent short circuits arising from scales of active material
or from the formation of " trees " of lead which sometimes
grow across in certain forms of battery
The Tudor cell has positives formed of lead plates cast in one
piece with a large surface of thin vertical ribs, intersected at
Tattrag. intervals by horizontal ribs to give the plates strength
to withstand buckling in both directions (fig. 2) The
thickness of the plates is about 0-4 inch, and the developed
ssrface is about eight times that of a smooth plate of the same
■st. A thoroughly adherent and homogeneous coating of
peroxide of lead is formed on this large surface by an improved
Plant* process. The negative plate (fig. 3) is composed of two
grids riveted together to form a shallow box; the outer surfaces
are smooth sheets pierced with many small holes. The space
between them is intersected by ribs and pasted (before riveting).
Many of the E.P.S. cells, made by the Electrical Power
Storage Company, are of the Faure or pasted type, but the
Plant* formation is used for the positives of two
kinds of celL The paste for the positive plates is a £J
mixture of red lead with sulphuric acid; for the
negative plates, litharge is substituted for red lead. Figs. 4 and
Fio. 7.
5 roughly represent the grids employed for the negative and
positive plates respectively of a type used for lighting. Fig. 6
is the cross section of the casting used for the Plant* positive
of the larger cells for rapid discharge. Finer indentations on the
side expose a large surface. Fig. 7 shows a complete cell.
The Hart cell, as used for lighting, is a combination of the Plant*
and Faure (pasted) types. The plates hang by side lugs on glass
slats, and are separated by three rows of glass tubes m lmrtta m
I inch diameter (fig. 8). The tubes rest in grooved *"""•
teak wood blocks placed at the bottom of the glass boxes.
The blocks also serve as base for a skeleton framework of the
same material which surrounds and supports the section. Of
course the wood has to be specially treated to withstand the add
A special non-corrosive terminal is used. A coned bolt draws
the lug ends of adjacent cells
together, fitting in a corresponding
tapered hole in the lugs, and thus
increasing the contact area. The
positive and negative tapers being
different, a cell cannot be con-
nected up in the wrong way.
In America, in addition to some
of the cells already described, there
are types which are not
found in England. Two uom " cta '
may be described. The Gould cell
is of the Plant* type. A special
effort is made to reduce local and [
other deleterious action by starting «
with perfectly homogeneous plates.
They are formed from sheet lead
blanks by suitable machines, which
gradually raise the surface into a
scries of ribs and grooves. The sides and middle of the blank are
left untouched and amply suffice to distribute the current over
the surface of the plate. The grooves are very fine, and when the
active material is formed in them by electro-chemical action
they hold it very securely
The Hatch cell has its positive enclosed in an envelope A
very shallow porous tray (made of kaolin and silica) is filled with
Fie 8. — Hart Accumulator
128
ACCUMULATOR
red lead paste, an electrode of rolled sheet lead is placed on its
surface, and over this again is placed a second porous tray filled
Hatch nO. with paste. The whole then looks like a thin earthen-
ware box with the lug of the electrode projecting from
one end. The negatives consist of sheet lead covered by active
material. On assembling the plates, each negative is held
between two positive " boxes," the outsides of which have pro-
jecting vertical ribs. These press against the active material
on the negative plates, and help to keep it in position. At the
same time, the clearance between the ribs allows room for acid
to circulate freely between the negative plate and the outer face
of the positive envelope. Diffusion of the acid through this
envelope is easy, as it is very porous and not more than jfr inch
thick.
Traction Cells. — Attempts to run tramcars by accumulators
have practically all failed, but traction cells are employed for
electric broughams and light vehicles for use in towns. There
are no large deviations in manufacture except those imposed
by limited space, weight and vibration. The plates are gener-
ally thinner and placed closer together. The Plante positive
is not used so much as in lighting types. The acid is generally
a little stronger in order to get a higher electromotive force
(e.ii.f.). To prevent the active material from being shaken out
of the grids, corrugated and perforated ebonite separators are
placed between the plates. The " chloride " traction cell uses
a special variety of wood separator: the " cxide " type of
plate is used for both positive and negative. Cells are now
made to run 3000 or more miles before becoming useless. The
specific output can be made as high as 10 or 11 watt-hours .per
pound of cell, but this involves a chance of shorter life. The
average working requirement for heavy vehicles is about 50
watt-hours per 1000 lb per mile.
Ignition Cells for motor cars are made on the same lines as
traction cells, though of smaller capacity. As a rule two cells are
put up in ebonite or celluloid boxes and joined in series so as to
give a 4-volt battery, the pressure for which sparking coils are
generally designed. The capacity ranges from 20 to 100 ampere-
hours, and the current for a single cylinder engine will average
one to one and a half amperes during the running intervals.
General Features. — The tendency in stationary cells is to allow
plenty of space below the plates, so that any active material
which falls from the plates may collect there without risk of
short-circuit, &c. More space is allowed between the plates,
which means that (a) there is more add within reach, and (b)
a slight buckling is not so dangerous, and indeed is not so likely
to occur. The plates are now generally made thicker than
formerly, so as to secure greater mechanical rigidity. At the
same time, the manufacturers aim at getting the active materials
in as porous a state as possible.
The figures with regard to specific output are difficult to
classify. It would be most interesting to give the data in the
form of watt-hours per pound of active material, and then to
compare them with the theoretical values, but such figures arc
impossible in the nature of the case except in very special in-
stances. For many purposes, long life and trustworthiness are
more important than specific output. Except in the case of
traction cells, therefore, the makers have not striven to reduce
weight to its lowest values. Table I. shows roughly the weight
of given types of cells for a given output in ampere hours.
Table I.
Capacity in ampere-hours if
discharged in
Type of Cell.
Weight of Cell.
Qhrs.
6hrs.
3hrs.
ihr.
Ordinary light-
ing . . .
200
182
153
IOI
100 pounds.
•t t»
420
380
i£
210
200 „
„ „
1200
1080
600
670 „
Central station
and High Rate
3500
6000
3»oo
2500
1700
2000 „
.. t>
5400
4400
3000
3200 „
Traction . . .
220
185
440
»55
125
40 ,.
00
Influence of Temperature on Capacity. — These figures are true
only at ordinary temperatures. In winter the capacity is
diminished, in summer it is increased. The differences are due
partly to change of liquid resistance but more especially to the
difference in the rate at which acid can diffuse into or out of the
pores: obviously this is greater at higher temperatures. The
increase in capacity on warming is appreciable, and may amount
to as much as 3% per degree centigrade (Gladstone and
Hibbert, J own. Inst. Elec. Eng. xxi. 441; Heim, Electrician,
Nov. xooi, p. 55; Liagre, L'£clairage tiectrique, iooi,xxix. 150).
Notwithstanding these results, it is not advisable to warm
accumulators appreciably. At higher temperatures, local action
is greatly increased and deterioration becomes more rapid. It
is well, however, to avoid low winter temperatures.
Working of Accumulators. — Whatever the type of cell may be. it is
important to attend to the following working requirements: — <i)
The cell* must be fully equal to the maximum demand, both in dis-
charge rate and capacity. (2) All the cells in one series ought to be
equal in discharge rate and capacity. This involves similarity of
treatment. (3) The cells are erected on strong wooden stands.
Where floor space is too expensive, they can be erected in tiers; but.
if possible, this should be avoided They ought to lie in rows, so ar-
ranged that it is easy to get to one «irfe (at least) of every cell, for
examination -in* I U p siing h and if need be to detach and remove it or
its plates- Where a second licr w placed over the first, sufficient
clearance &pate must be allowed for ihe plates to be lifted out of the
lower bones. The eellj arc insulated by supporting them on glass
or mushroom shaped oil insulators. If the containing vessels are
made of etas*, it is desirable to put them in wooden trays which dis-
tribute the weight between the vessel and insulators. To prevent
acid spray from filling the air of the rrom, a glass plate is arranged
over each celL The positive and negative sections axe fixed in posi-
tion with insulating forks or tubes, and the positive terminal of one
cell is joined to the negative of the nrct by burning or bolting. If
tht lj.-„. iutu.u„ ii adwjAud, the iufiatc* ought to be very clean and
well pressed home. The joint ought to be covered by vaseline or
varnish. When this has been done, examination ought to be made
of each cell to see that the plates are evenly spaced, that the
separators (glass tubes or ebonite forks between the plates) are in
position and vertical, and that there are no scales or other adventi-
tious matter connecting the plates. The floor of the cell ought to be
quite clear; if anything lies there it must be removed. (4) To mix
the solution a gentle stream of sulphuric acid must be poured into the
water (not the other way, lest too great heating cause an accident).
It is necessary to stir the whole as the mixing proceeds and to arrange
that the density is about 1 190, or according to the recommendation
of the maker. About five volumes of water ought to be taken to one
volume of acid. After mixing, allow to cool for two or three hours.
The strong acid ought to be free from arsenic, copper and other
similar impurities. The water ought to be as pure as can be obtained,
distilled water being best ; rain water is also good. If potable water
be employed, it will generally be improved by boiling, which removes
some of the lime held in solution. The impurity in ordinary drinking
water is very slight ; but as all cells lose by evaporation and require
additions of water from time to time, there is a tendency for it to
increase. The acid must not be put into the cells till everything is
ready for charging. (5) A shunt-wound or separately-excited dynamo
being ready and running so as to give at will 2-6 or 2-7 volts
per cell, the acid is run into the cells. As soon as this is done, the
dynamo must be switched on and charging commenced. The positive
terminal of the dynamo must be joined to the positive terminal of the
battery If necessary, the f end of the machine must be found by
a trial cell made of two plain lead sheets in dilute acid. It is im-
portant also to maintain this first charging operation for a long time
without a break. Twelve hours is a minimum time, twenty-four not
too much The charging is not even then complete, though a short
interval is not so injurious as in the earlier stage. The full charge
required varies with the cells, but in all types a full and practically
continuous first charge is imperatively necessary. During the early
part of this charge the density of the acid may fall; but alter a time
ought to increase, and finally reach the value desired for permanent
working. Towards the end of the " formation " vigilant observation
must be exercised. It is important to notice whether any cells are
appreciably behind the others in voltage, density or gassing. Such
cells may be faulty, and in any case they must be charged ana tended
till their condition is like that of the others. They ought not to go
on the discharge circuit till this is assured. The examination of
the cells before passing them as ready for discharge includes. — (a)
Density of acid as shown by the hydrometer, (b) Voltage. This
may be taken when charging or when idle. In the first case it ought
to be from 2-4 to 2-6 volts, according to conditions. In the second
case it ought to be just over 2 volts, provided that the observation
is not taken too soon after switching off the charging .current. For
about half an hour after that is done, the e.m.f. has a transient high
value, so that, if it be desired to get the proper a.M.r. of the cell, the
observation must be taken thirty minutes after the charging ceases.
ACCUMULATOR
129
(c) Eye observations of the plates and the acid between them. The
positive plates ought to aha* a rich dark brown colour, the negatives
• dull slate-blue, and the space between ought to be quite clear arid
(ice from anything like m id matter, All the positive* ou^ht tn be
alike, and similarly all the negative*. If the ceil a »how si mil a city in
that r espe cts they will probably be in good working order.
As to management, it is important to keep to certain simple rules.
of which these are the chid i — f 1 ) Never discharge below a potential
dfl ertnee of 1*85 (or in rapid discharge. i-8) volt. (?) Never leave
the cdb discharged, if it be avoidable, (j) Give the cells a special
fafl charging once a month. (4) M a ke a periodic exam i nation of each
ceH, determining its E-M-F . densi t y of ac id . t he cond ition of Its pi j t cs
and freedom from growth. Any incipient growth, however small,
Bast be carefully watched, (5) If any cell show 9 signs of weakness,
keep it off discharge till it ha* been brought back to full condition.
See that it is free from any con nexion bet ween t he plat cs w hie h w u Id
caase short-circuiting; the frame or support which carries the 1 '
etimes gets co v ered by a conducting layer- To restore the cell,
two methods can be adopted. In private installations it may be ui*-
rrtn i m :ted and charged by one or two cells reserved for the purpose;
or. as b preferable, it may be left in circuit, and a cell in good order
pot ia parallel with it. This acts as a " milking " cell, not only pre-
venting the faulty one from discharging, but keeping it supplied
with a charging current till its potential difference (p.d.) is normal.
Every battery attendant should be provided with a hydrometer and
• vo ltm eter. The former enables him to determine from time to
time the density of the add in the cells; instruments specially con-
structed for the purpose are now easily procurable, and it is desir-
able that one be provided for every 20 or 25 cells. The voltmeter
should read up to about 3 volts and be fitted with a suitable con-
nector to enable contacts to be made quickly with any desired cell.
A portable glow lamp should also be available, so that a full light
can be thrown into any ceil; a frosted bulb b rather better than a
dear one for this purpose. He must also have tome form of wooden
r to remove any growth from the plates. The scraping roust
e gently, with as little other disturbance as possible. By the
onxaary operations which go on in the cell, small portions of the
pistes become detached. It b important that these should fall
below the plates, lest they short-circuit the cell, and therefore suffi-
cient space ought to be left between the bottom of the plates and
fit* kw *£ thm rail frtr th— " mmIi'ium " ♦« */<nnHtiUt» m»ti/Mi»
touching the plates. It b desirable that they be disturbed as- little
ss possible tfll their increase seriously encroaches on the free space.
It snmrthnes happens that brass nuts or bolts, Ac., are dropped
into a cell; these should be removed at once, as their partial solu-
two would greatly endanger the negative plates. The level of the
Squid most be kept above the top of the plates. Experience shows
the sdvismbifity of using distilled water tor this purpose. It may
—1 li as es be necessary to replenish the solution with some dilute
acid, bat strong acid must never be added.
The chief faults are buckling, growth, sulphating and dudntegra-
boa. Buckling of the plates generally follows excessive discharge,
earned by abnormal load or by accidental short-circuiting. At
sach times asymmetry in the ecu b apt to make some part of the
phte take much more than its share of the current. That part then
emends vnduiy, as explained later, and curvature b produced. The
onk/ remedy b to remove the plate, and press it back into shape as
fcestly as possible. Growth arises generally from scales from one
put falling on some other— say, on the negative. In the next charg-
■C the scale b reduced to a projecting bit of lead, which grows still
futber because other particles rest on it. The remedy is, gently to
■crane off any incipient growth. Sulphating, the formation of a
shite hard surface on the active material, b due to neglect or exces-
sive discharge. It often yields if a small quantity of sulphate of soda
he added to the liquid in the ceB. Disintegration b due to local
action, and there b no ultimate remedy. The end can be deferred
by care in- working, and by avoiding strains and excessive discharge
as much as possible.
Acammkkrs s« Repose. — Accumulators contain only three
active suD3Unces--spongy lead on the negative plate, spongy
had peroxide on the positive, and dilute sulphuric add between
Tabli II.
Substance.
Colour.
Density.
Spedfic Resistance
Lead ... .
Peronde of lead
Sulphuric acid
after charge
Sulphuric add
after discharge
Sulphuric aad
JiupGnTof lead
slate blue
dark brown
dear liquid
wjute
lf ' 3 o
9*28
1-2 IO
1-170
below
103
6-3
0-0000195 ohm
5-6 to 6-8 „
1-37
l'*8
80 „
non-conductor.
charge, and there ia a consequent change in the strength of add
during every cyde. The chief properties of these substances
axe shown in Tabic II.
The curve in fig. 9 shows the relative conductivity (redprocal
of resistance) of all the strengths of sulphuric add solutions,
and by its aid and the
figures in the preceding ""
table, the specific resist-
ance of any given strength
can be determined.
The lead accumulator
is subject to three kinds %m^_
of local action. First and
chiefly, local action on
the positive plate, because
of the contact between «•*
lead peroxide and the lead
grid which supports it
In carelessly made or
roughly handled ceUs this
may be a very serious Fig. 9.
matter. It would be so
in all circumstances if the lead sulphate formed on the exposed
lead grid did not act as a covering for it It explains why Plants
found "repose" a useful help in "forming," and also why
positive plates slowly disintegrate; the lead support is gradu-
ally eaten through. Secondly, local action on the negative plate
when a more electro-negative metal settles on the lead. Thb
often arises when the original paste or add contains metallic
impurities. Similar impurity b also introduced by scraping copper
wire, &c, near a battery. Thirdly, local action due to the add
varying in strength indifferent parts of a plate. This may arise
on either plate and b set up because two specimens of other the
same lead or the same peroxide give an E.M.F. when placed in adds
of different strengths. J. H. Gladstone and W. Hibbert found
that the e.m.f. depends on the difference of strength. With two
lead plates, a maximum of about quarter volt was obtained,
the lead in the weaker add being positive. With two peroxide
plates the maximum voltage was about 0*64, the plate in stronger
add being positive tp that in weaker. The dectromotive force
till:
IkZUllLli
lata. Sulphate of lead b formed on both plates during dis-
charge and brought back to lead and lead peroxide again during
nr**w
Fig. xo.
of a cell depends chiefly on the strength of the add, as maybe
seen from fig. 10 taken from Gladstone and Hibbert 's paper
(Joum. Inst. Elec Eng. t 1892). The observations with very
strong add were difficult to obtain, though even that with
98% add marked X b believed to be trustworthy. C. Heira
(Elek. Zeit, 1889), F. Streintz (Ann, Phys. Ckem. xlvL p. 449)
and F. Dolezalek (Theory of Lead Accumulators, p. 55) have
also given tables.
It b only necessary to add to these results the facts illustrated
by the following diffusion curves, in order to get a complete
due to the behaviour of an accumulator in active work. Fig
xi shows the rate of diffusion from plates soaked in t 175 add
and then placed in distilled water. It b from a paper by L
Duncan and H. Wiegand (EUc. World, N Y., 1889), who were
130
ACCUMULATOR
the first to show the importance of diffusion. About one hall
the acid diffused out in 30 minutes, a good illustration of the
slowness of this process. The rate of diffusion is much the same
for both positive and negative plates; but slower for discharged
plates than for charged ones. Discharge affects the rate of
diffusion on the lead plate more than on the peroxide plate.
This is in accordance with the density values given in Table I.
For while lead sulphate is formed in the pores of both plates,
the consequent expansions (and obstructions) are different;
100 volumes of Jead form aoo volumes of sulphate (a threefold
M
* •
y
1
f
%
J
-■
H
-■
c--
^
>
- J
a
--
^
■
^
--
i
i
I
j
1
1
I
■1
*
i
m
Fio. 11.
expansion), and xoo volumes of peroxide form x86 volumes of
sulphate (a twofold expansion). The influence of diffusion on
the electromotive force is illustrated by fig. 12. A cell was
prepared with 20% add. It also held a porous pot contain-
ing stronger add, and into this the positive plate was suddenly
transferred from the general body of liquid. The I.M.F. rose
by diffusion of stronger add into the pores. Curve I. in fig. z 2
shows the rate of rise when the porous pot contained 34% add;
curve II. was obtained with the stronger (58%) add (Gladstone
and Hibbert, Phil. Mag., 1800). Of these two curves the first
is more useful, because its conditions are nearer those which
occur in practice.
At the end of a discharge it is a common thing for the plates
to be standing in 25% add, while inside the pores the add may
not exceed 8% or zo%. If the discharge be stopped, we have
conditions somewhat like fig. 12, and the cm.?, begins to rise.
In one minute it has gone up by about 0*08 volt, &c.
Charge and Discharge.— The most important practical ques-
tions concerning an accumulator are: — its maximum rate of
working; its capacity at various discharge rates; its efficiency;
and its length of life. Apart from mechanical injury all these
T depend primarily on the
ay the cell is made, and
i ten on the method of
targing and discharging.
For each type and size
of cell there is a normal
maximum discharging cur-
rent. Up to this limit any
- current may be taken;
:yond it, the cell may
suffer if discharge be con-
tinued for any appreciable
time. The most important
point to attend to is the voltage at which discharge shall
The potential difference at terminals must not fall
i-8o volt during discharge at ordinary rates (zo
hours) or 1-75 to 1*70 volt for z or 2 hour rate. The reason
underlying the figures is simple. These voltages indicate that
the add in the pores is not being renewed fast enough, and
that if the discharge continue the chemical action will change:
sulphate will' not be formed in situ for want of add. Any such
change in action is fatal to reversibility and therefore to life
and constancy in capacity. To illustrate: when at slow dis-
charge rates the voltage is z*8o volt, the add in the pores has
weakened to a mean value of about 2*5% (see fig. tx),
which is quite consistent with some part of the interior being
practically pure water. With high discharge rates, something
FlO. 13.
Like oj volt may he lost in the cells, by ordinary oh rate fall, so
Lb at a voltage reading of 1*75 means an e.h.f. of a Little Over
tS volt, and a very weak density of the acid inside the pores.
Guided by these figures, an engineer can determine what ought
to be the permissible drop in terminal volts for any given working
cob di dons. Messrs W* E* AyTton, C G, Lamb, E, W. Smith]
and M. W. Woods were the first to trace the wot Icing of a cell
through varied conditions (J own. Inst. Eltc. Eng., 1S90), and a
brief risumi of their results is given below.
They began by charging and discharging between the limits of 2-4
and 1 -6 volts.
Fig. tj show* a typical discharge curve. Noteworthy points
are: — (1) At the beginning and at the end there U a rapid fall in r_p_,
with an intermediate period oJ fairly uniform value- (t) When the
"
Wi r*i
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rZ at c. >f
Di, -CA li^ v?
u
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Fig. ij.
p. n, reaches t-6 vott the fall is so rapid that there Is no advantage
in continuing the action. When the P.n. had fallen to ['6 volt tne
cell was automatically switched into a charging circuit, and wit h a
current of 9 amperes yielded the curve in fig. 14. Here again there'
11 a rapid variation in r.D. (in thc^c cases a rise) at the beginning and
end of the opera t kith The crib were now carried through the tame
cycle several times, giving almost identical values for each cycle.
After some days, however, they became more and more difficult to
charge, and the return on discharge was proportionately less. It
became impossible to charge up to a F r n. of 2^4 volts, and finally the
capacity fill away to half its first value. Examination showed that
thr plate* wprc badly scaled, and that some of the sea lea had partially
conttecT&tJ the plates. These scales were cleared away ana the ex-
periments resumed, I i mi ting the fall of P.O. to i'& volt* Tne diffi-
j.
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cullies then disappeared, showing that discharge to i+fi yolt caxitrd)
injury that did not afta at a Limit of X*&. Before describing the new
rr-.nl is it will be useful tq examine these two cases in the light of the*
theory of t m.i . already given,
(a) Fail in e.h.f, at M-fiKmn; of dischargc^At the moment when.
prr . i.ius charging cea-vs the pores of the positive plate contain strong
acid, brought there by the chaining current. There is consequently
a high E-M.F- But the strong acid begins to diffuse away at once
a nd 1 h e F- M- f. fa Els ra pid ly . Even if the cell were not d itcharged 1 him
fall would uccur, anrl if it were allowed to rest for thirty minutes or
so the discharge would havx beguri with the dotted line (fig. t j).
{b)Fi7ial rapid fall-— The pores being clogged by sulphate the plug*
cannot get acid by diffusion , ana when 5% is reached the fall
In E.H.F. is disproportionately large (see fig, 10). If discharge: be
stopped, there 19 an almost instantaneous diffusion inwards and a
rapid rise in e.m.f. U)The Htf in e,m,f, at frrfinfifnf and end oj th*
charging U due to acii^ in the pores being strengthened, partly by
diffusion, partly by formation of sulphuric acid from sulphate, and
partly by elect rolvtic carrying: of itrong acid to the positive plate.
The injurious results at 1-6 volt arise because then the pores contains
water. The chemical reaction ia altered, oxide or hydrate is formed!,
whkh will jiartLilly dissolve, to be changed to sulphate when the
lulnhnric acid subsequently diffuses in. But formed in this way it
will not appear miied wfth the active masses in the electrolytic
paths, but more or less alone in the pores. In this position it mill
own or less block the passage and isolate tome ol the \
ACCUMULATOR
*3»
Flutter, when forming in the narrow passage its disruptive action
wttl tend to force off the outer layers. It is evident that limitation
of r.o. to 1*4 volt ought to prevent these injuries, because it pre-
sents exhaustion of aad in the plugs.
Fie. t< shows the results obtained by study of successive periods
of rest, the observations being taken between the limits of a»4 and 1-8
volts. Curves A and B show the state and capacity at the beginning.
After a 10 days' rest the capacity was smaller, but repeated cycles
B » 'i'/ij
*, -V* I04^ff*
.
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Fig. is
of work brought it back to C and D. A second rest (io days), followed
by natty cycles, then gave E and F. After a third rest( 16 days) and
y qrdea, G and FT were obtained. After a fourth rest (16 days)
su*vqrc
*** v* discharge gave I and the first charge J. Repeated cycles
^KckttheceUsbacktoKandL. Curves M and N show first cycle
sftera fifth rest (16 days); O and P show the final restoration
wwght about by repeated cycles of work. The numbers given by
the tategratioa of some of these curves are stated in Table III.
Table III.
Capacity and Efficiency under Various
Conditions of Working.
Experiment
Discharge.
Charge.
Efficiency.
Am-
Hours.
Watt
Hours.
Am-
Hours.
Watt
Hours.
Quan-
tity.
Energy.
Jonsalcyde.
lUttoratioa
rteriatrest
Ditto, aftei
*»drest. .
Ditto, after
J"J«st . .
fccha-ge )
aratdiatefy 1
man* )
buoratiofl
J-t«8cycle«
I02
too
91
83-6
56-5
56-3
8o
201*7
179
1767
161-3
110*5
1 10-5
1569
1045
1038
96-8
86-2
86-2
711
838
230-7
aa8«a
2132
190*5
1905
1583
1846
97a
968
941
95-8
65s
790
955
874
858
8a-8
84-7
696
85
fte table shows that the efficiency in a normal cycle may be as
y *» *7-4%: that during a rest of sixteen days the charged
Taj* discharge b here compared with the charge that preceded
™* "wt; in the next line the same discharge is compared with the
*** following the rest.
accumulator is so affected that about 30% of its charge is not
available, and in subsequent cycles it shows a diminished capacity
and efficiency; and that by repeated charges and discharges the
capacity may be partially restored and the efficiency more completely
so. These changes might be due to— (o) leakage or short-circuit, (0)
some of the active material having fallen to the bottom of the cell or
(c) some change in the active materials, fo) is excluded by the fact
that the subsequent charge is smaller, and (a) by the continued in-
crease of capacity during the cycles that follow the rest Hence the
third hypothesis is the one which must be relied upon. The change
in the active materials has already been given. The formation of
Fig. 16.
lead sulphate by local action on the peroxide plate and by direct
action 01 add on spongy metal on the lead plate explains the loss of
energy shown in curve M. fig. 15, while the fact that it is probably
formed, not in the path of the regular currents, but on the wall of the
grid (remote from the ordinary action), gives a probable explanation
of the subsequent slow recovery. The action of the acid on the lead
during rest must not be overlooked.
We have seen that capacity diminishes as the discharge rate
increases; that is, the available output increases as the current
diminishes. R. E. B. Crompton's diagram illustrating this fact is
given in fig. 16. At the higher rates the consumption of add is too
rapid, diffusion cannot maintain its strength in the pores, and the
fall comes so much earlier.
The resistance varies with the condition of the cell, as shown by the
curves in fig. 1 7. It may be unduly increased by long or narrow lugs,
and especially by dirty joints between the lugs. It is interesting
to note that it increases at the end of both charge and discharge, ana
h
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Fio. 17.
much more for the first than the second. Now the composition of the
active materials near the end of charge is almost exactly the same
as at the beginning of discharge, and at first sight there seems
nothing to account for the great fall in resistance from 0*0115 to
O'Ooa ohm ; that is, to about one-third the value. There is, however,
one difference between charging and discharging— namely, that due
to the strong add near the positive, with a corresponding weaker add
near the negative electrode. The curve of conductivity for sulphuric
acid shows that both strong and weak add have much higher resist-
ances than the liquid usually employed in accumulators, and it is
therefore reasonable to suppose that local variations in strength of
add cause the changes in resistance. That these are not due to the
constitution of the plugs is shown by the fact that, while the plugs
i3«
ACCUMULATOR
in almost identical at end of discharge and beginning or charge, the
resistance Ml* from 00055 ia 0-00 jj ohm*
While a current flows through a cell, heat is produced at the rate
of (7 ft Xo-24 calories (wateF-gTam -degree) per second. Ab a cense*
quence the temperature tends tu rise But the change of tempera*
tore Actually observed is much greater during charge, and much Jest
during discharge, than the
foregoing expression would
iUKfjest; and it is evident
that, besides the heat pro-
duced according to Joule's
law, then? aire oihef actions
which warm the Cell during
charge and cool it during
discharge. Duncan and
J Wiegand (fee. cii\ who
first observed^ the thermal
changes,, ascribe the chief
influence to the electro*
chemical addition of IUISOi
to the liquid during charge
and its removal during dis-
charge. Fig, 18 gives some
results obtained by Ayrton,
Lamb, &c, This elevation
of temperature (due to
elect rol >iic eT rcngi h rning
Fig- iS.
of add and local action] is a measure of the energy lost in a cycle, and
ought to be minimized as much as poisible,
Z'ktmtstry. — The chemical theory adopted in the foregoing page*
is very dimple. It declares that sulphate of lead is formed on both
plates during discharge, the chemical action being reversed in charg*
ing. The following equations express the experimental results.
Condition before discharge: —
+pUte Uquid -plate
*PbO. + [\»^]+.. «>
After discharge *—
+plate Liquid —plate
[(x-p). PbO,-| , fCy-stf. H*SOn . ["(•-*) Pbl
L o.PbSOj + L(»+a/>).H-0 J + U«>SO« J
During charge, the substances are restored to their original con-
dition: the equation is therefore reversed. An equation of this
Sneral nature was published by Gladstone and Tribe in 1882, when
ey first suggested the " sulphate " theory, which was based on very
numerous analyses. Confirmation was given by E.Frankland in 1883 ,
£. Reynier 1884, A. P. P. Grova and P. Garbe 1885, C Heim and
W. F. Kohlrausch 1889, W. E. Ayrton, Ac. with G. H Robertson
1890, C H. J. B. Lkbenow 1897, r. Dolezalek 1897, and M. Mugdan
1899. Yet there has been, as Dolezalek says, an incomprehensible
unwillingness to accept the theory, though no suggested alternative
could offer good verifiable experimental foundation. Those who
seek a full discussion will find it in Dolezalek's Theory of Ike Lead
Accumulator. We shall take it that the sulphate theory is proved,
and apply it to the conditions of charge and discharge.
From the chemical theory it will be obvious that the add In the
pores of both plates will be stronger during charge than that outside.
During discharge the reverse wilfbe the case. Fig. 19 shows a curve
Fig. 19.
of potential difference during charge, with others showing the con-
current changes in the percentage of PbOi and the density of acid.
These increase-almost in proportion to the duration of the current,
and indicate the decomposition of sulphate and liberation of sul-
phuric and. There are breaks in the p.d. curve at A. B, C, D where
the current was stopped to extract samples for analysis, Ac The
fall in S.M.F. in this short interval is- noteworthy; it arises from the
diffusion of stronger acid out of the pores. The final rise of pressure
is due to increase in resistance and the effect of stronger add in the
pores, this last arising partly from reduced sulphate and partly from
the electrolytic convection of SO* (see also Dolexalek, Theory, p. 1 13).
Fig 20 gives the data for discbarge. The percentage of PbOi and
the density here Tall almost In. proportion to the duration of the
current. The special feature is the rapid Tall of voltage at the end.
Several suggestions have been made about this phenomenon.
The writer holds that it is due to the exhaustion of the add in the
pores. Plant 6, and afterwards Gladstone and Tribe, found a possible
cause in the formation of a him of peroxide on the spongy lead.
El J. Wade has suggested a sudden readjustment of the spongy mass
into a complex lulonate. To rebut the&e hypotheses it is only neces-
sary to say that the fat! can be deferred for a long time by pressing
fresh atid into the pores hy dramatically (see Liebcnow, Ztits. Jitr
Eiel.it vt he m. t 1H97. iv. 61 J. or by working at A higher temperature.
Thin increases the diffusion inwards of strong acid, and tike the
increase due to hydrostatic pressure maintains the E.wr. The other
suggr-sted causes of the faff therefore fail. Fig. 20 also shows that
when the discharge current was stopped at points A. 8, C, D to
extract samples, the voltage immediately rose, owing to inward
dill:- >n of stronger aeid. + The inward diffusion of fresh acid also
accounts far the recuperation found after a. rest which follow* either
a complete discharge or a partial discharge at a very rapid rate. If
the discharge be complete the recuperation refers only to the electro-
motive forcer t the pressure falls at once on closed circuit. If dis-
charge has been rapid, a rest will enable the cell to resume work
because it brings fit&h acid into the active regions.
_XX
■
■+J — :■■■■
■o^iftf i
^ Lai
■ 5
: TT =S! ~***
, k
-£L "
1
.■
;is* 2.
1_ ^ c *
4
■1 ^ 1 x "~ *
:±±zz
h '^..^ 1 •
1 '
IT
m *- - ^
• t . t -
...
.X ■■"-
■.F, „. 1 1 -H J*,
h* „4r -jf < 'nf>i *#* i'> r m 'XT T]
1 1
■ I t 4 - j 4 J . 1 .
a ans - sr
Fig. 20.
As to the effect of repose on a charged cell, Gladstone and Tribe's
experiments showed that peroxide of lead lying on its lead support
suffers from a local action, which reduces one molecule of PbO» to
sulphate at the same time that an atom of the grid below it is also
changed to sulphate. There is thus not only a loss of the available
peroxide, but a corrosion of the grid or plate. It is through this
action that the supports gradually give way. On the negative plate
an action arises between the finely divided lead and the sulphuric
acid, with the result that hydrogen is set free:—
Pb+H,SO«-PbSO«+H».
This involves a diminution of available spongy lead, or loss of capacity,
occasionally with serious consequences. The capacity of the lead
plate is reduced absolutely, of course, but its relative value is more
seriously affected. In the discharge it gets sulpha ted too much,
because the better positive keeps up the B.M.P. too long. In the
succeeding charge, the positive is f ully charged before the negative,
and the differences between them tend to increase in each cycle
Kelvin and Hdmhottx have shown that the B.M.P. of a voltaic ceB
can be calculated from the energy developed by the chemical action.
For a dyad gram equivalent ( -a grams of hydrogen* 207 grams of
lead, Ac.), the equation connecting them is
where E is the B.11.F. in volts, H is the heat developed by a dyad
The thermal values for the various substances formed and decom-
posed are:— For PbOi, 62400; for PbSO v ai&to; for H»SO«.
193930; and for HgO, 68400 calories. Writing the equation in
its simplest form for strong add, and ignoring the temperature co-
efficient term,
PbOi+2H,SO«+Pb-2PbSO«+3rM>
—63440—385840 +432430+136730
leaving a balance of 130860 calories. Dividing by 46000 gives
3*637 volts. The experimental value in strong add, according to
Gladstone and Hibbert, ia 3*607 volts, a very dose approximation
For other strengths of add, the energy will be lest by the quantity
of heat evolved by dilution of the add, because the chemical action
must take the H-SO* from the diluted liquid. The dotted curve
in fig. 10 indicates the calculated E.11.F. at various points when
this is taken into account. The difference between it and the con-
tinuous curve must, if the chemical theory be correct, depend on the
second term in the equation. The figure shows that the observed
e.m.f. is above the theoretical for all strengths from 100 down to 5 %.
"Tie question remains. Can the
This b difficult, because the
Below 5 the position is reversed. The
temperature coefficient be obtained?
ACCUMULATOR
133
value is to small, and it is not easy to secure a good cycle of obser-
vatMM*, Strdntz has given the following values:—
E 1-9223 I 1-9828 1 20031 I 2-0084 1 2-0105 I 2078 1 2-2070
^.io* i4o| 228 J 335 I 285 I »5S | >3© | 73
Unpublished experiments by the writer give ^. io««350 for
acid of density 1 156. With stronger add, a true cycle could not
be obtained. Taking Stretntt's value. 335 for 25% acid, the second
term of the equation is T^«290X -000335 -0-0971 volt The first
term gives 88800 calories* 1-9304 volt. Adding the seconcLterm,
1-9304+0-0971 -2-2075 volts. The observed valnr n 7 ^10 volts
(see 6g. 10). a remarkably good agreement. Thi* calculi an and
the general relation shown in fig. to re mi err it highly p rotable that,
if the temperature coefficient were known for all Sbnengtha of acid,
the result would be equally good. It is worth observing that the
reversal of relationship between the observed ami cakul.ir^j curves,
which takes place at 5% or 6%. suggests that the chemitiry must
be on the point of altering as the add jjfrts weak, a conclusion which
has been already arrived at on purcty chemical grounds. The
thermodynamical relations are thus teen to confirm very strongly
the chemical and physical analyses. 1
Accumulators in Central Stations.— As the efficiency of ac-
cumulators is not generally higher than 75%. and machines
oaust be used to charge them, it is not directly economical to
use cells alone for public supply. Yet they play an important
and an increasing part in public work, because they help to
maintain a constant voltage on the. mains, and can be used to
distribute the load on the running machinery over a much
greater fraction of the day. Used in paralld with the dynamo,
they quickly yield current when the load increases, and immedi-
ately begin to charge when the load diminishes, thus largely
reducing the fluctuating stress on dynamo and engine for sudden
variations in load Their use is advantageous if they can be
charged and discharged at a time when the steam plant would
otherwise be working at an uneconomical load.
Regulation of the potential difference is managed in various
nays. More cells may be thrown in as the discharge proceeds,
and taken out during
charge; but this method
often leads to trouble, as
some cells get unduly dis-
charged, and the unity of
the battery is disturbed.
Sometimes the number of
cells is kept fixed for
supply, but the P.O. they
put on the mains is re-
duced during charge by
employing regulating cells
in opposition. Both these
plans have proved unsatis-
factory, and the battery
is now preferably joined
acrossthemainsin parallel
with the dynamo. The
cells take the peaks of the
load and thus relieve the
dynamo and engine of
sudden changes, as shown
in fig. 31. Here the line
~m current (shown by the
erratic curve) varied spas-
modically from o to 375
amperes, yet the dynamo current varied from 100 to 150
anperes only (see line A). At the same time the line voltage
($35 volts normal) was kept nearly constant. In the late
"tmog the cells became exhausted and the dynamo charged
them. Extra voltage was required at the end of a " charge "
•** *as provided by a "booster." Originally a booster
ns an auxiliary dynamo worked in series with the chief
"■chine, and driven in any convenient way. It has de-
JFor the discussion of later electrolytic theories as applied to
•ttasttUaiors, set DokasJek. TkmrycfQ* Uad AummulaUr.
Fig. 21
Fie. 22.
vdoped into a machine with two or more exciting coils, and
having its armature in series with the cells (see fig. 22). The
*Tfi»ing coils act in opposition; the one carrying the main
current sets up an z.u.r. in the same direction as that of the
cells, and helps the cells to discharge as the load rises. When
the load is small, the voltage on the mains is highest and the
shunt exdting current greatest. The booster e.ii.f. now acts
with the dynamo and against the cells, and causes them to take
a full charge. Even this arrangement did not suffice to keep
the line voltage as constant as seemed desirable in some cases,
as where lighting and traction work were put on the same
plant Fig. 23 is a diagram of a complex booster which gives
very good regulation. The booster B has its armature in series
with the accumulators A,
and is kept running in a I * \QL\ '
given direction at a con- ■ • ■ ^^
slant speed by means of
a shunt-wound motor
(not shown), so that the
e.m.j. induced in the
armature depends on the
exdtation. This is made
to vary in value and in
direction by means of
four independent exciting coils, C, Ct, Ci, Ci* The last is not
essential, as it merely compensates for the small voltage drop
in the armature. It is obvious that the excitation C» will be
proportionate to the difference in voltage between the battery
and the mains, and it is arranged that battery volts and booster
volts shall equal the volts on the mains. Under this exdtation
there is no tendency for the battery to charge or discharge. But
any additional excitation leads to strong currents one way or
the other. Excitation Ci rises with the load on the line, and
gives an e m.t. helping the battery to discharge most when the
load is greatest. C» is dependent on the bus-bar voltage, and is
greatest when the generator load is small: it opposes Q and
therefore excites the booster to charge the battery. The exact
generator load at which the booster shall reverse its E.M.F. from
a charging to a discharging value is adjusted by the resistance
Rt in scries with C«. A similar resistance Rj allows the exdta-
tion of C« to be adjusted. Very remarkable regulation can be
obtained by reversible boosters of this type. In traction and
lighting stations it is quite possible to keep the variation of
bus-bar pressure within 2% of the normal value, although the
load may momentarily vary from a few amperes up to 200 or
300.
J. B. Entz has introduced an auxiliary device which enables
him to use a much more simple booster. The Entz booster has
no series coil and only one shunt coil x the direction and value
of exdtation due to this bdng
controlled by a carbon regulator,
having two arms, the resistance
of each of which can be varied
by pressure due to the magnet-
izing action of a solenoid. The
main current from the generator
passes through the solenoid and
causes one or other of the two
carbon arms to have the less
resistance. This change in resist- Fig. 23.
ance determines the direction
of the exciter field current, and therefore the direction of the
boost A photograph of the switchboard at Greenock where
this booster is in use shows the voltmeter needle as if it had been
hdd rigid, although the exposure lasted 00 minutes. On the
same photograph the ammeter needle does not appear, its in-
cessant and large movements preventing any picture from being
formed.
Alkaline Accumulators.— Owing to the high electro-chemical
equivalent of lead, a great saving in wdght would be secured
by using almost any other metal. Unfortunately no other
metal and its compounds can resist the add. Hence inventors
«34
ACCURSIUS— ACENAPHTHENE
have been incited to try alkaline liquids as electrolytes. Many
attempts have been made to construct accumulators in this way,
though with only moderate success. Hie Lalande-Chaperon,
Desmazures, Waddell-Entz and Edison are the chief cells.
T. A. Edison's cell has been most developed, and is intended for
traction work. He made the plates of very thin sheets of nickel-
plated steel, in each of which 24 rectangular holes were stamped,
leaving a mere framework of the metal. Shallow rectangular
pockets of perforated nickel-steel were fitted in the holes and
then burred over the framework by high pressures. The pockets
contained the active material. On the positive plate this con-
sisted of nickel peroxide mixed with flake graphite, and on the
negative plate of finely divided iron mixed with graphite. Both
kinds of active material were prepared in a special way. The
graphite gives greater con-
ductivity. The liquid was
a 20% solution of caustic
£. potash. During discharge
j the iron was oxidized,
I arid the nickel reduced to
li
Fie. 24. — Edison Accumulator.
I a lower state of oxidation.
This change was reversed
during charge. Fig. 24 shows
j the general features.
The chief results obtained
I by European experts showed
[that the e.m.f. was 1-33
! volt, with a transient higher
value following charge. A
cell weighing 17-8 lb had
a resistance of 0-0013 ohm,
and an output at 60 amperes of 210 watt-hours, or at
120 amperes of 177 watt-hours. Another and improved cell
weighing 12*7 lb gave 14-6 watt-hours per pound of cell
at a 20-ampere rate, and 13-5 watt-hours per pound at a 60-
ampere rate. The cell could be charged and discharged at
almost any rate. A full charge could be given in x hour, and
it would stand a discharge rate of 200 amperes (Jour*. Inst.
EJec. Eng. t 1004, pp. 1-36).
Subsequently Edison found some degree of falling-off in capa-
city, due to an enlargement of the positive pockets by pressure
of gas. Most of the faults have been overcome by altering the
form of the pocket and replacing the graphite by a metallic
conductor in the form of flakes.
HErgREtrCES.— C. Plant*, RcthtnUi sur ntetlrkitt (Paris, 1879);
Gladstone and Tribe. Chemttiry ej Setendary Boiler net (London,
1884): Rcynirr. VAteujaul^ient vcUaujue (Paris. JB8S); Hrim,
Pit Akkumuloiaren (Berlin, iflSgj; Hoppc, Die Akk.Jur BitttneitAI
f Gcrtiti, 1 So. a) ; 5c hoop r Randbueh fur AkL (Stuttgart, FS9A) ; Sir
E. FrantUnd. " Chemistry of Storage Batteries," Prtrc. Roy. Sac.,
1S83; Revhier, Jour, 5e*. Frane. dt Fhys,. i88jj Heim, f4 t). d.
Einflus* dcr Sauredkhte auf die Kapatuat der AUi.,." Ehk. Zeits.,
1889; KohTraufrch and Heim, " Ergebntssc von Versuehen art Akk.
fiir Staiiqfebctrieb," Ekk< Zeiti, m iSSo; Darrieus. Bull. Sx. In-
tern, des £Utt t 1892; F, Dofeulck, The Theory of the Lead Atmmu-
lai&r f London, 1900) I Sir D. Salomons, Manage ment e/ Accumulators
(London, 1900); E* L Wade, Secondary Batteries (London, i*7i)l
LJumau, LesAccumuIaieuri electriquei (Paris, tjaj). (W. HrJ
ACCURSIUS(/to/.Acc0RS0),FRA}ICISCUS(ii82-i36o) t Iulian
jurist, was born at Florence about 1182. A pupil of Azo,
he first practised law in his native city, and was afterwards
appointed professor at Bologna, where he had great success as
a teacher. He undertook the great work of arranging into
one body the almost innumerable comments and remarks upon
the Code, the Institutes and Digests, the confused dispersion
of which among the works of different writers caused much
obscurity and contradiction. This compilation, bearing the title
Clossa ordinarta or magistrate, but usually known as the Great
Gloss, though written in barbarous Latin, has more method
than that of any preceding writer on the subject. The best
edition of it is that of Denis Godefroi (1549-1621), published at
Lyons in 1589, in 6 vols, folio. When Accursius was employed
in this work, it is said that, hearing qf a similar one proposed
and begun by Odofred, another lawyer of Bologna, he feigned
indisposition, interrupted his public lectures, and shut himsett
up, till with the utmost expedition he had accomplished his
design. Accursius was greatly extolled by the lawyers of his
own and the immediately succeeding age, and he was even called
the idol of jurisconsults, but those of later times formed a much
lower estimate of bis merits. There can be no doubt that he
disentangled the sense of many laws with much skill, but it i*
equally undeniable that his ignorance of history and antiquities
often led him into absurdities, and was the cause of many defects
in his explanations and commentaries. He died at Bologna, in
1260.* His eldest son Franciscus (1225-1293), who also filled
the chair of law at Bologna, was invited to Oxford by King
Edward I., and in 1275 or 1276 read lectures on law in the
university.
ACCUSATION (Lat. aecusalio, accusare, to challenge to a
causa, a suit or trial at law), a legal term signifying the charging
of another with wrong-doing, criminal or otherwise. An accusa-
tion which is made in a court of justice during legal proceedings
is privileged (see Privilege), though, should the accused have
been maliciously prosecuted, he will have a right to bring an
action for malicious prosecution. An accusation made outside a
court of justice would, if the accusation were false, render the
accuser liable to an action for defamation of character, while,
if the accusation be committed to writing, the writer of it is
liable to indictment, whether the accusation be made only to
the party accused or to a third person. A threat or conspiracy
to accuse another of a crime or of misconduct which does not
amount to a crime for the purpose of extortion is in itself
indictable.
ACCUSATIVE (Lat. accusativus, sc. casus, a translation of
the Gr. ainanxl) rrCxns, the case concerned with cause and
effect, from alrla, a cause), in grammar, a case of the noun,
denoting primarily the object of verbal action or the destination
of 4notion.
ACS (derived through the Lat> as, from the Tarentine form
of the Gr. els), the number one at dice, or the single point
on a die or card; also a point in the score of racquets, lawn-
tennis, tennis and other court games.
ACELDAMA (according to Acts i. 19, " the field of blood "),
the name given to the field purchased by Judas Iscariot with the
money he received for the betrayal of Jesus Christ. A different
version is given in Matthew xxvii. 8, where Judas is said to have
cast down the money in the Temple, and the priests who had paid
it to have recovered the pieces, with which they bought " the
potter's field, to bury strangers in." The MS. evidence is greatly
in favour of a form Aceldamach. This would seem to mean
" the field of thy blood," which is unsuitable. Since, however,
we find elsewhere one name appearing as both Sirach and Sirs
(ch-ir), Aceldamach may be another form of an original
Aceldama (nej Spq), the " field of blood." A. Klostennann,
however, takes the ck to be part of the Aramaic root demeuk,
" to sleep "; the word would then mean " field of sleep " or
cemetery (Problcme im ApostdUxte, x-8, 1883), an explanation
which fits in well with the account in Matthew xxvii. The
traditional site (now Hak el-Dum), S. of Jerusalem on the N.E.
slope of the "Hill of Evil Counsel" (Jebel Deir Abu Tor), was
used as a burial-place for Christian pilgrims from the 6th
century aj>. till as late, apparently, as 1697, and especially in the
time of the Crusades. Near it there is a very ancient charnel-
house, partly rock-cut, partly of masonry, said to be the work of
Crusaders.
ACENAPHTHENE, CuH n , a hydrocarbon isolated from the
fraction of coal-tar boiling at 2oo°-270 4 by M. P. E. Berthelot,
who, in conjunction with Bardy, afterwards synthesized it from
o-ethyl naphthalene (Ann. Ctictn. Pkys., 1873, vol. xxix.). It
forms white needles (from akohol), melts at 95° and boils at
278°. Oxidation gives naphthalic acid (i-8 naphthalene
dicarboxylic acid).
Acenaphlhatcnc, d% Hi, a hydrocarbon crystallizing in yellow
tables and obtained by passing the vapour of accnaphthene
over heated litharge. Sodium amalgam reduces it to acenaph-
thene; chromic acid oxidizes it to naphthalic acid.
ACEPHALI— ACETO-ACETIC ESTER
'35
ACBPHAII (from oV, privative, and «+aX4, head), a term
tppfied to several sects as having no head or leader; and in
particular to a strict monophysite sect that separated itself,
a the end of the $th century, from the rule of the patriarch of
Alexandria (Peter Mongus), and remained "without king or
bshop " till they were reconciled by Mark L (790-8 19V The
term is also used to denote clerici vagranUs, i.e. clergy without
title or benefice, picking up a living anyhow (cf . Hinschius i.
pt 64). Certain persons in England during the reign of King
Bear/ L were called Aufkali because they had no lands by
virtue of which they could acknowledge a superior lord. The
aunt is abo given to certain legendary races described by
indent naturalists and geographers as having no heads^ their
aooths and eyes being in their breasts, generally identified
wit h Pliny 's Blemmyae.
ACEPHALOUS, headless, whether literally or metaphorically,
ktderiess. The word is used literally in biology; and meta-
phorically in prosody or grammar for a verse or sentence with
1 beginning wanting. In zoology, the moUusca are divided into
cephakws and acephalous (Acephala), according as they have
or have not an organised part of their anatomy as the seat of the
brain and special senses. The Acephala, or LameUibranehiata
(ft.), are commonly known as bivalve shell-fish. In botany
the word is used for ovaries not terminating in a stigma.
Aaphalocyst is the name given by R. T. H. Laennec to the
hydatid, immature or larval tapeworm.
ACEREMZA (anc Aceruntia), a town of the province, of
Pbteiua, Italy, the seat of an archbishop, 15) m. N.E. of the
station of Pfctragalla, which is 9 m. N.W. of Potensa by rail,
1730 ft above sea-level. Pop. (1001) 4409. Its situation is
oae of great strength, and it has only one entrance, on the
•oath. It was occupied as a colony at latest by the end of the
Bepublic, and its importance as a fortress was specially ap-
preciated by the Goths and Lombards in the 6th and 7th cen-
tarks. It has a fine Norman cathedral, upon the gable of which
is one of the best extant busts of Julian the Apostate.
ACEROSB (from Lat acus, needle, or acer, sharp), needle-
shaped, a term used in botany (since Linnaeus) as descriptive of
the leaves, e.g., of pines. From Lat. acus, chaff, comes also the
distinct meaning of " mixed with chaff."
ACFARA, a town and episcopal see of Campania, Italy, in the
province of Caserta, 9 m. N.E. from Naples by rail Pop. (1901)
16^443. The town lies on the right bank of the Agno, which
divides the province of Naples from that of Caserta, 00 ft. above
the sea, in a fertile but somewhat marshy district, which in the
ntiddle ages was very malarious. The ancient name (Acerrae)
•as also borne by a town in Umbria and another in Gallia
Tnaspadana (the latter now Pizxighettonc on the' Adda, 13 m.
Wjf.W. of Cremona). It became a city with Latin rights in
WicuidUXeiAmuHkipiiiM. It was destroyed by Hannibal
a zt6 bjc, but restored in 210; in 90 B.C. it served as the
Roman headquarters in the Social war, and was successfully held
•jainst the insurgents. It received a colony under Augustus, but
appears to have suffered much from floods of 'the river Clanis.
Under the Empire we hear no more of it, and no traces of
eatiquity, beyond inscriptions, remain.
ACBJM, in Roman antiquity, a small box or pot for holding
Boease, as distinct from the turibulum (thurible) or censer in
vfckh incense was burned. The name was also given by the
koouns to a little altar placed near the dead, on which incense
was offered every day till the -buriaL In ecclesiastical Latin the
ton acerra is still applied to the incense boats used in the
Koman ritual
ACETABULUM, the Latin word for a vinegar cup, an ancient
kofflaa vessel, used as a liquid measure (equal to about half a
|3); it is also a word used technically in zoology, by analogy
far certain cup-shaped parts, e.g. the suckers of a mollusc, the
socket of the thigh-bone, ft c; and in botany for the receptacle
of FaagL
ttRIC ACQ) (acidum acetiatm), CHa-COiH, one of the most
■Variant organic acids. It occurs naturally in the juice of
1 Set Gibbon, ch. xML (vol. v. p. 129 in Bury's ed.).
many plants, and as the esters of n-hexy! and n-octyl alcohols
in the seeds of Heradeum giganteum, and in the fruit of Hera*
cleum sphondylium, but is generally obtained, on the large scale,
from the oxidation of spoiled wines, or from the destructive
distillation of wood. In the former process it is obtained in the
form of a dilute aqueous solution, in which also the colouring
matters of the wine, salts, &c, are dissolved; and this impure
acetic add is what we ordinarily term vinegar (q.v.). Acetic
add (in the form of vinegar) was known to the ancients, who
obtained it by the oxidation of alcoholic liquors. Wood-
vinegar was discovered in the middle ages. Towards the dose
of the 1 8th century, A. L. Lavoisier showed that air was necessary
to the formation of vinegar from alcohol. In 1830 J. B. A.
Dumas converted acetic add into trichloracetic add, and in
1 842 L. H. F. Melsens reconverted this derivative into the original
acetic add by reduction with sodium amalgam. The synthesis
of trichloracetic add from its elements was accomplished in
1843 by H. Kolbe; this taken in conjunction with Melsens's
observation provided the first synthesis of acetic add. An-
hydrous acetic add-^gladal acetic add— is a leafy crystalline
mass melting at 16-7° C., and possessing an exceedingly pungent
smdl. It boils at n 8°, giving a vapour of abnormal- specific
gravity. It dissolves in water in all proportions with at first
a contraction and afterwards an increase in volume. It is
detected by heating with ordinary alcohol and sulphuric add,
which gives rise to acetic ester or ethyl acetate, recognized
by its fragrant odour; or by heating with arsenious oxide,
which forms the pungent and poisonous cacodyl oxide. It is a
monobasic add, forming one normal and two add potassium
salts, and basic salts with iron, aluminium, lead and copper.
Ferrous and ferric acetates are used as mordants; normal lead
acetate is known in commerce as sugar of lead (q.v.); basic
copper acetates are known as verdigris (q.v.).
Pharmacology and Therapeutics. — Glacial acetic add is occa-
sionally used as a caustic for corns. The dilute add, or vinegar,
may be used to bathe the skin in fever, acting as a pleasant
refrigerant. Acetic add has no valuable properties for internal
administration. Vinegar, however, which contains about 5 %
acetic add, is frequently taken as a cure for obesity, but there
is no warrant for this application. Its continued employment
may, indeed, so injure the mucous membrane of the stomach
as to interfere with digestion and so cause a morbid and
dangerous reduction in weight.
The acetates constitute a valuable group of medidnal agents,
the potassium salt being most frequently employed. After
absorption into the blood, the acetates are oxidized to car-
bonates, and therefore are remote alkalies, and are administered
whenever it is desired to increase the alkalinity of the blood
or to reduce the acidity of the urine, without exerting the dis-
turbing influence of alkalies upon the digestive tract. The
citrates act in precisely similar fashion, and may be substituted.
They are somewhat more pleasant but more expensive.
ACETO-ACETIC ESTER, QH M Q> or CHrCO CH, COOCH*. a
chemical substance discovered in 1863 by A. Geuther, who
showed that the chief product of the action of sodium on ethyl
acetate was .a sodium compound of composition G»H»Qi^a,
which on treatment with adds gave a colourless, somewhat oily
liquid of composition CftH»Qi. E. Frankland and fc. F. Duppa in
1865 examined the reaction and conduded that Geuther's sodium
salt was a derivative of the ethyl ester of acetone carboxylic
add and possessed the constitution CH3CO CHNa-COOOH*.
This view was not accepted by Geuther, who looked upon
his compound C*H»Oj as being an add. J. Wislicenus also
investigated the reaction very thoroughly and accepted the
Frankland-Duppa formula (AnnaUn, 1877, 186, p. 163; 1877,
100, p. 257)-
The substance is best prepared by drying ethyl acetate over
caltium chloride and treating it with sodium wire, which is
best introduced in one operation; the liquid boils and is then
heated on a water bath for some hours, until the sodium all
dissolves. After the reaction is completed, the liquid is
addificd with dilute sulphuric add (1:5) and then shaken
136
ACETONE— ACETOPHENONE
with salt solution, separated from the salt solution, washed,
dried and fractionated. The portion boiling between 175° and
i8s°C. is redistilled. The yield amounts to about jo% of that
required by theory.
A. Ladenburg and J. A. Wanklyn have shown that pure ethyl
acetate free from alcohol will not react with sodium to produce
aceto-acetic ester. L. Claisen, whose views are now accepted,
studied the reactions of sodium ethylate and showed that if
sodium ethylate be used in place of sodium in the above re-
action the same result is obtained. He explains the reactions
thus: CH,-C^ c>Hi +NaOC.H,-CH,.C^C,H».
this reaction being foDowed by
CH,.Cc^ c t a Ht+">C H COOC t H,-aC,H»OH+
N)C,H, H CHrC«)Na):CHCOOC,H.;
and - • acidification this last substance gives aceto-acetic ester.
Aceto-acetic ester is a colourless liquid boiling at i8i°C; it
is slightly soluble in water, and when distilled undergoes
some decomposition forming dehydracetic acid CaHgOi. It
undoubtedly contains a keto-group, for it reacts with hydro-
cyanic add, hydroxylamine, phenylhydrazine and ammonia;
sodium bisulphite also combines with it to form a crystalline
compound, hence it contains the grouping CH.-CO-. J. Wis-
licenus found that only one hydrogen atom in the -CH« - group
is directly replaceable by sodium, and that if the sodium be
then replaced by an alky! group, the second hydrogen atom
in the group can be replaced in the same manner. These alkyl
substitution products are important, for they lead to the syn-
thesis of many organic compounds, on account of the fact
that they can be hydrolysed in two different ways, barium
hydroxide or dilute sodium hydroxide solution giving the so-
called ketone hydrolysis, whilst concentrated sodium hydroxide
gives the add hydrolysis.
Ketone hydrolysis,'—
CH,COC(XY)CQiC,H.-»CHrCOCH(XY)+C,Hrf)H+CQi;
Acid hydrolysis.-—
CH,COC(XY)CQiC,H»->CHyCOkH+CH*OH+CH(3CY).COOH;
(where X and Y "alkyl groups).
Both reactions occur to some extent simultaneously. Aceto-
acetic ester is a most important synthetic reagent, having been
used in the production of pyridines (?.».)» quinolines (?.«.),
pyrazolones, furfurane iq.v.), pyrrols (?.*.), uric add (q.v.) t and
many complex adds and ketones.
For a discussion as to the composition, and whether it is to
be regarded as posaessinethe " keto " form CH r COCH,COOCtH,
or the "enol" form CH,C(OH) : CH-COOGH*, see Isomerism, and
also papers by J. Wislicenus (Ann., 1877, 186. p. 163; 1877. 190, p.
257), A. Michael (Journ. Prak. Chem., 1887, (2) 37, p. 473), L. Knorr
(Ann., 1886, 238. p. 147), W. H. Perkin, senr. (Journ. of Chem. Soc.,
189a. 61, p. 800) and J. U. Nef (Ann., 1891, 366, p. 70; 189a, 270,
PP- 389. 333; >893. 276, p. 21a).
ACETONE, or Dimethyl Ketone, CHtCO*CH», in chemistry,
the simplest representative of the aliphatic ketones. It is present
in very small quantity in normal urine, in the blood, and in
larger quantities in diabetic patients. It is found among the
products formed in the destructive distillation of wood, sugar,
cellulose, &c, and for this reason it is always present in crude
wood spirit, from which the greater portion of it may be re-
covered by fractional distillation. On the large scale it is pre-
pared by the dry distillation of caldum acetate (CHaCOOaCa—
CaCQi+CH,COCH». E. R. Squibb (Journ. Amer. Chem. Soc.,
1895, 17, p. 187) manufactures it by passing the vapour of acetic
add through a rotating iron cylinder containing a mixture of
pumice and predpitated barium carbonate, and kept at a
temperature of from 500° C to 6oo° C. The mixed vapours of
acetone, acetic add and water are then led through a condensing
apparatus so that the acetic add and water are first condensed,
and then the acetone is condensed in a second vessel The
barium carbonate used in the process acts as a contact substance,
since the temperature at which the operation is carried out
is always above the decomposition point of barium acetate.
Crude acetone may be purified by converting it into the crystal*
line sodium bisulphite compound, which is separated by filtration
and then distilled with sodium carbonate.
,CH,
CH,
^ c xOH
.SaNa+^-'cH
>
>CO+2Na,SO.+CO»* HsO.
It is then dehydrated and redistilled.
Acetone is largely used in the manufacture of cordite (?.».).
For this purpose the crude distillate is redistilled over sulphuric
add and then fractionated.
Acetone is a colourless mobile liquid of pleasant smell, boiling
at 56- 53°C, and has a specific gravity o*8io(oY4*C). It is readily
soluble in water, alcohol, ether, &c In addition to its applica-
tion in the cordite industry, it is used in the manufacture of
chloroform (q.v.) and sulphonal, and as a solvent It forms a
hydrazone with phenyl hydrazine, and an oxime with hydroxyl-
amine. Reduction by sodium amalgam converts it into iso-
propyl alcohol; oxidation by chromic add gives carbon dioxide
and acetic add. With ammonia it reacts to form di- and tri-
acetoncamines. It also unites directly with hydrocyanic add
to form the nitrile of a-oxyisobutyric add.
By the action of various reagents such as lime, caustic potash,
hydrochloric add, &c, acetone is converted into condensation
products, mesityl oxide C*H M 0, phorone C9H14O, &c, being
formed. On distillation with sulphuric add, it is converted
into mesitylene CgHit(symraetrical trimethyl benzene). Acetone
has also been used in the artificial production of indigo. In
the presence of iodine and an alkali it gives iodoform. Acetone
has been employed medidnally in cases of dyspnoea. With
potassium iodide, glycerin and water, it forms the preparation
spirone, which has been used as a spray inhalation in paroxysmal
sneezing and asthma.
ACETOPHENONE, or Phenyl-Methyl Ketone, C»H»0 or
CiHtCOCHj, in chemistry, the- simplest representative of the
class of mixed aliphatic-aromatic ketones. It can be prepared
by distilling a mixture of dry caldum benzoate and acetate,
Ca(0,CC»H4).+(CH,CO,),Ca-2CaC()i+2C»H,COCH^ or by
condensing benzene with acetyl chloride in the presence of anhy-
drous aluminium chloride (C. Friedel and J. M. Crafts), CsH«+
CH,COCl-HCl+CtH»COCHs. It crystallizes in colourless
plates melting at 2o°C. and boiling at 202°C; it is insoluble in
water, but readily dissolves in the ordinary organic solvents.
It is reduced by nascent hydrogen to the secondary alcohol
CftHrCH*OH-CH» phcnyl-methyl-carbinol, and on oxidation
forms benzoic add. On the addition of phenylhydrazine it
gives a ohenylhydrazone, and with hydroxylamine furnishes an
oxime c}{|>C-N-OH melting at 5o°C This oxime under-
goes a peculiar rearrangement when it is dissolved in ether and
phosphorus pentachloride is added to the ethereal solution,
the excess of ether distilled off and water added to the residue
being converted into the isomeric substance acctaniUde,
C*HftNHCOCHj, a behaviour shown by many ketoximes and
known as the Beckmann change (see BcrichU, 1886, 19, p. 988).
With sodium ethylate in ethyl acetate solution it forms the
sodium derivative of benzoyl acetone, from which benzoyl
acetone, QHi-COCHfCOCHj, can be obtained by addification
with acetic add. When heated with the halogens, acetophenone is
substituted in the aliphatic portion of the nucleus; thus bromine
gives phenacyl bromide, C*H*CO CH*Br. Numerous derivatives
of acetophenone have been prepared, one of the most import-
ant being orthoaminoacetophenone, NHt-CtH^CO-CHj, which is
obtained by boiling orthoaminophenylpropiolic add with water.
It is a thick yellowish oil boiling between 242° C. and *so* C
It condenses with acetone in the presence of caustic soda to
aquinoline. Acetoyl^ofhenon*, C*H> CO CHtCHtC&CH^
is produced by condensing phenacyl bromide with sodium accto-
acetate with subsequent elimination of carbon* dioxide, and on
dehydration gives aa-phenyl-methyl-furfurane. Oxazolcs (?.«.)
are produced on condensing phenacyl bromide with add-amides
(M. Lewy, BcrichU, 1887, 20, p. 2578). K. L. Paal has also ob-
tained pyrrol derivatives by condensing acetophenone-aceto
acetic-ester with substances of the type NH a R.
ACETYLENE
137
ACETTLKKE. klumene or ethine, a gaseous compound of
carbon and hydrogen, represented by the formula Csti*. It is
a colourless gas, having a density of 0-92. When
prepared by the action of water upon calcium carbide,
it has a very strong and penetrating odour, but when
it is thoroughly purified from sulphuretted and phosphuretted
hydrogen, which are invariably present with it in minute traces,
this extremely pungent odour disappears, and the pure gas has
a not unpleasant ethereal smelL It can be condensed into the
Squid state by cold or by pressure, and experiments by G.
AfisdeD show that if the gas be subjected to a pressure of 21-53
stmniphrT es at a temperature of o* C, it is converted into the
Eqotd state, the pressure needed increasing with the rise of
temperature, and decreasing with the lowering of the tempera-
tut, until at —8a* C. it becomes liquid under ordinary atmo-
spheric pressure. The critical point of the gas is 37 C, at which
temperature a pressure of 68 atmospheres is required for lique-
faction. The properties of liquid and solid acetylene have been
imtigated by D. Mcintosh (Jour Chem. Soc., Abs., 1907, i.
458). A great future was expected from its use in the liquid
state, since a cylinder fitted with the necessary reducing valves
would supply the gas to light a house for a considerable period,
the Squid occupying about t^j the volume of the gas, but in the
United States and on the continent of Europe, where liquefied
acetylene was made on the large scale, several fatal accidents
occurred owing to its explosion under not easily explained con-
ditioua As a result of these accidents M. P. E. Berthelot and
L J. G. Vieffie made a series of valuable researches upon the
explosion of acetylene under various conditions. They found
that if liquid acetylene in a steel bottle be heated at one point
by s platinum wire raised to a red heat, the whole mass decom*
poses and gives rise to such tremendous pressures that no cylinder
would be able to withstand them. These pressures varied from
71,000 to iocsooo lb. per square inch. They, moreover, tried the
elect of shock upon the liquid, and found that the repeated
drooping of the cylinder from a height of nearly 30 feet upon a
luge sted anvil gave no explosion, but that when the cylinder
vis crashed under a heavy blow the impact was followed, after
a short interval of time, by an explosion which was manifestly
due to the fracture of the cylinder and the ignition of the escap-
ing gas, mixed with air, from sparks caused by the breaking of
the oKtaL A similar explosion will frequently follow the breaking
is the same way of a cylinder charged with hydrogen at a high
prewrre. Continuing these experiments, they found that in
scetykne gas under ordinary pressures the decomposition
brought about in one portion of the gas, either by heat or the
ariag in it of a small detonator, did not spread far beyond the
point at which the decomposition started, while if the acetylene
was compressed to a pressure of more than 30 lb on the square
inch, the decomposition travelled throughout the mass and
became in reality detonation. These results showed clearly that
hquefied acetylene was far too dangerous for general introduction
for domestic purposes, since, although the occasions would be
me in which the requisite temperature to bring about detonation
would be reached, still, if this point were attained, the results
would be of a most disastrous character. The fact that several
accidents had already happened accentuated the risk, and in
Great Britain the storage and use of liquefied acetylene are
praUbited.
When liquefied acetylene is allowed to escape from the cylinder
n which it is contained into ordinary atmospheric pressure,
some of the liquid assumes the gaseous condition with such
npidity as to cool the remainder below the temperature of
-oo" C., and convert it into a solid snow-like mass.
Acetylene is readily soluble in water, which at normal tem-
perature ai>d pressure takes up a little more than its own volume
j^— of the gas, and yields a solution giving a purple-red
«r^ precipitate with ammoniacal cuprous chloride and
«*tm a white precipitate with silver nitrate, these precipi-
tates consisting- of acetylides of the metals. The
•■ability of the gas in various liquids, as given by different
I too Volumes of
Brine
Volumes of Acetylene,
absorb 5
Water „ no
Alcohol „ 600
Paraffin * 150
Carbon dinilphide „ 100
Fusel oil „ 100
Benzene „ 400
Chloroform „ 400
Acetic acid „ 600
Acetone „ asoo
It will be seen from this table that where it is desired to collect
and keep acetylene over a liquid, brine, i.e. Water saturated
with salt, is the best for the purpose, but in practice it is found
that, unless water is agitated with acetylene, or the gas bubbled
through, the top layer soon gets saturated, and the gas then
dissolves but slowly. The great solubility of acetylene in acetone
was pointed out by G. Claude and A. Hess, who showed that
acetone will absorb twenty-five times its own volume of acety-
lene at a temperature of is* C. under atmospheric pressure,
and that, providing the temperature is kept constant, the liquid
acetone will go on absorbing acetylene at the rate of twenty-
five times its own volume for every atmosphere of pressure to
which the gas is subjected.
At first it seemed as if this discovery would do away with all
the troubles connected with the storage of acetylene under
pressure, but it was soon found that there were serious diffi-
culties still to be overcome. The chief trouble was that acetone
expands a small percentage of its own volume while it is absorb-
ing acetylene \ therefore it is impossible to fill a cylinder with
acetone and then force in acetylene, and still more impracticable
only partly to fill the cylinder with acetone, as in that case the
space above the liquid would be filled with acetylene under high
pressure, and would have all the disadvantages of a cylinder
containing compressed acetylene only. This difficulty was
overcome by first filling the cylinder with porous briquettes
and then soaking them with a fixed percentage of acetone, so
that after allowing for the space taken up by the bricks the
quantity of acetone soaked into the brick will absorb ten times
the normal volume of the cylinder in acetylene for every atmo-
sphere of pressure to which the gas is subjected, whilst all danger
of explosion is eliminated.
This fact having been fully demonstrated, acetylene dissolved
in this way was exempted from the Explosives Act, and conse-
quently upon this exemption a large business has grown up in
the preparation and use of dissolved acetylene for lighting
motor omnibuses, motor cars, railway carriages, lighthouses,
buoys, yachts, &c, for which it is particularly adapted.
Acetylene was at one time supposed to be a highly poisonous
gas, the researches of A. Bistrow and O. Liebreich having
apparently shown that it acts upon the blood in the
same way as carbon monoxide to form a stable com- '
pound. Very extensive experiments, however, made by
Drs N. Grehant, A. L. Brociner, L. Crismer, and others, all con-
clusively show that acetylene is much less toxic than carbon
monoxide, and indeed than coal gas.
When acetylene was first introduced on a commercial scale
grave fears were entertained as to its safety, it being repre-
sented that it had the power of combining with
certain metals, more especially copper and silver, to j
form acetylides of a highly explosive character, and
that even with coal gas, which contains less than 1%, such
copper compounds had been known to be formed in cases where
the gas-distributing mains were composed of copper, and
that accidents had happened from this cause. It was there-
fore predicted that the introduction of acetylene on a large scale
would be followed by numerous accidents unless copper and
its alloys were rigidly excluded from contact with the gas.
These fears have, however, fortunately proved to be unfounded,
and ordinary gas fittings can be used with perfect safety with
this gas.
Acetylene has the property of Inflaming spontaneously when
brought in contact with chlorine. If a few pieces of carbide be
dropped into saturated chlorine water the bubbles of gas take
138
ACETYLENE
£re as they reach the surface, and if a jet of acetylene be passed
up into a bottle of chlorine it takes fire and burns with a heavy
red flame, depositing its carbon in the form of soot If chlorine
be bubbled up into a jar of acetylene standing over water,
a violent explosion, attended with a flash of intense light and
the deposition of carbon, at once takes place. When the gas is
kept in a small glass holder exposed to direct sunlight, the sur-
face of the glass soon becomes dimmed, and W. A. Bone has
shown that when exposed for some time to the sun's rays it
undergoes certain polymerisation changes which lead to the
deposition of a film of heavy hydrocarbons on the surface of the
tube. It has also been observed by L. Cailletet and later by
P. Villard that when allowed to stand in the presence of water
at a low temperature a solid hydrate is formed. Acetylene is
Ttopotr- readily decomposed by heat, polymerizing under its
■MrfMtfM influence to form an enormous number of organic
«# compounds; indeed the gas, which can itself be directly
•■■fr*** prepared from its constituents, carbon and hydrogen,
under the influence of the electric arc, can be made the starting-
point for the construction of an enormous number of different
organic compounds of a complex character. In contact with
nascent hydrogen it builds up ethylene; ethylene acted upon by
sulphuric acid yields ethyl sulphuric add; this can again be
decomposed in the presence of water to yield alcohol, and it
has also been proposed to manufacture sugar from this body.
Picric acid can also be obtained from it by first treating acety-
lene with sulphuric add, converting the product into phenol by
solution in potash and then treating the phenol with fuming
nitric add.
Acetylene is one of those bodies the formation of which is
attended with the disappearance of heat, and it is for this reason
EudO0 termed an " endothermic " compound, in contradis-
ttfrmh tinction to those bodies which* evolve heat in their
MM> L2f formation, and which are called " exothermic." Such
mctytm. en< j otnerm j c bodies are nearly always found to show con-
siderable violence in their decomposition, as the heat of formation
stored up within them is then liberated as sensible heat, and it b
undoubtedly this property of acetylene gas which leads to its easy
detonation by either heat or a shock from an explosion of ful-
minating mercury when in contact with it under pressure. The
observation that acetylene can be resolved into its constituents
by detonation is due to Berthdot, who started an explosive
wave in it by firing a charge of ol gram of mercury fulminate.
It has since been shown, however, that unless the gas is at a
pressure of more than two atmospheres this wave soon dies out,,
and the decomposition is only propagated a few inches from the
detonator. Heated in contact with air to a temperature of
480° C, acetylene ignites and burns with a flame, the appearance
of which varies with the way in which it is brought in contact
with the air. With the gas in excess a heavy lurid flame emitting
dense volumes of smoke results, whilst if it be driven out in a
sufficiently thin sheet, it burns with a flame of intense brilliancy
and almost perfect whiteness, by the light of which colours can
be judged as well as they can by daylight Having its ignition
point below that of ordinary gas, it can be ignited by any red-
hot carbonaceous matter, such as the brightly glowing end of a
cigar. For its complete combustion a volume of acetylene needs
approximatdy twdve volumes of air, forming as products of
combustion carbon dioxide and water vapour. When, however,
the air is present in much smaller ratio the combustion is incom-
plete, and carbon, carbon monoxide, carbon dioxide, hydrogen
and water vapour are produced. This is well shown by taking a
cylinder one-half full of acetylene and one-half of air; on apply-
ing a light to the mixture a lurid flame runs down the cylinder,
and a cloud of soot is thrown up, the cylinder also being thickly
coated with it, and often containing a ball of carbon. If now,
after a few moments' interval to allow some air to diffuse into
the cylinder, a taper again be applied, an explosion takes place,
due to a mixture of carbon monoxide and air. It is probable
that when a flame is smoking badly, distinct traces of carbon
monoxide are being produced, but when an acetylene flame
bums properly the products are as harmless as those of coal
gas, and, Hght for light, less b amount Mixed with air, like
every other combustible gas, acetylene forms an explosive
mixture. F. Clowes has shown that it has a wider range of ex-
plosive proportions when mixed with air than any of the other
combustible gases, the limiting percentages being as follow*:—
Acetylene 3 to 8a
Hydrogen. 5107*
Carbon monoxide 13 to 75
Ethylene 4 to as
Methane ....... 5 to 13
The methods which can be and have been employed from time
to time for the formation of acetylene in small quantities are
exceedingly numerous. Before the commercial pro- „_^_^
duction of calcium carbide made it one of the most Jjjww-
easily obtainable gases, the processes which were most isnrrta
largely adopted for its preparation in laboratories
were: — first, the decomposition of ethylene bromide by dropping
it slowly into a boiling solution of alcoholic potash, and purifying
the evolved gas from the volatile bromethylene by washing it
through a second flask containing a boiling solution of 'alcoholic
potash, or by passing it over moderately heated soda lime;
and, second, the more ordinarily adopted process of passing the
produces of incomplete combustion from a Bunsen burner, the
flame of which had struck back, through an ammoniacal solution
of cuprous chloride, when the red copper acetylide was produced.
This on being washed and decomposed with hydrochloric acid
yielded a stream of acetylene gas. This second method of pro-
duction has the great drawback that, unless proper precautions
are taken to purify the gas obtained from the copper acetylide,
it is always contaminated with certain chlorine derivatives of
acetylene. Edmund Davy first made acetylene in 1836 from a
compound produced during the manufacture of potassium from
potassium tartrate and charcoal, which under certain conditions
yidded a black compound decomposed by water with consider-
able violence and the evolution of acetylene. This compound
was afterwards fully investigated by J. J. Berzelius, who showed
it to be potassium carbide. He also made the corresponding
sodium compound and showed that it evolved the same gas,
whilst in 1862 F. WOhler first made caldum carbide, and found
that water decomposed it into lime and acetylene. It was not,
however, until 1892 that the almost simultaneous discovery was
made by T. L. Willson in America and H. Moissan in France
that if lime and carbon be fused together at the temperature of
the dectric furnace, the lime is reduced to caldum, which unites
with the excess of carbon present to form caldum carbide.
The cheap production of this material and the easy liberation
by its aid of acetylene at once gave the gas a position of com-
mercial importance. In the manufacture of caldum carbide
in the dectric furnace, lime and anthradte of the aimfcii
highest possible degree of purity are employed. A a wrf
good working mixture of these materials may be taken J* 11 *"*
as being 100 parts by weight of lime with 68 parts
by wdght of carbonaceous material. About 1 -8 lb of this is
used up for each pound of carbide produced. The two principal
processes utilized in making caldum carbide by electrical
power are the ingot process and the tapping process. In
the former, the anthracite and lime are ground and carefully
mixed in the right proportions to suit the chemical actions
involved. The arc is struck in a crudble into which the mixture
is allowed to flow, partially filling it. An ingot gradually builds
up from the bottom of the crucible, the carbon dectrode being
raised from time to time automatically or by hand to suit the
diminution of resistance due to the shortening of the arc by the
rising ingot The crudble is of metal and considerably larger
than the ingot, the latter being surrounded by a mass of un-
reduced material 'which protects the crudble from the intense
heat When the ingot has been made and the crudble is full,
the latter b withdrawn and another substituted. The process
is not continuous, but a change of crudbles only takes two or
three minutes under the best conditions, and only occurs every
ten or fifteen hours. The essence of this process is that the coke
and lime are only heated to the point of combination, and are not
ACETYLENE
*39
•WW" after being formed It it found that the ingot of
cation carbide formed in the furnace, although itself consisting
of pare crystalline calcium carbide, is nearly always surrounded
by a crust which contains a certain proportion of imperfectly
aerated constituents, and therefore gives a lower yield of
acetylene than the carbide itself. In breaking up and sending
oat the carbide for commercial work, packed in air-tight drums,
the outfit removed by a sand blast A statement of the amount
made per kilowatt hour may be misleading, since a certain
amount of loss is of necessity entailed during this process. For
instance, in practical working it has been found that a furnace
Ktarn of 0*504 lb per kilowatt hour is brought down to 0*406
ft per kilowatt hour when the material has been broken up,
sorted and packed in air-tight drums. In the tapping process a
find crucible is used, lined with carbon, the electrode is nearly
at big as the crucible and a much higher current density is used.
The carbide is heated to complete liquefaction and tapped at
abort intervals. There is no unreduced material, and the process
is considerably simplified, while less expensive plant it required.
The run carbide, however, is never so rich as the ingot carbide,
ante an excess of lime fa nearly always used in the mixture to
act at a flux, and this remaining in the carbide lowers its gas-
yiddmg power. Many attempts have been made to produce the
tnhtfiBcr without electricity, but have met with no commercial
Cakmm carbide, at formed in the electric furnace, it a beautl-
fd crystalline semi-metallic solid, having a density of a«M, and
„ showing a fracture which n often shot with iridescent
•rSSam coloura - It can be kept unaltered in dry air, but the
Mtatj, smallest trace of moisture in the atmosphere leads to
the evolution of minute quantities of acetylene and
gives it a distinctive odour. It is infusible at temperatures up to
-coo* C, but can be fused in the electric arc When heated to
a temperature of 345* C in a stream of chlorine gas it becomes
xxaadescent, forming calcium chloride and liberating carbon,
tad it can also be made to burn in oxygen at a dull red heat,
having behind a residue of caJdum carbonate. Under the same
maditi ons it b ec om es incandescent in the vapour of sulphur,
yielding calcium sulphide and carbon disulphide; the vapour of
p a o sp huiu s will also unite with it at a red heat Acted upon by
vater it is at once decomposed, yielding acetylene and calcium
bydrate. Pure crystalline calcium carbide yields 5*8 cubic feet
of acetylene per pound at ordinary temperatures, but the carbide
as sold commercially, being a mixture of the pure crystalline
stateml with the crust which in the electric furnace surrounds
the ingot, yields at the best s cubic feet of gas per pound under
proper conditi on s of generation. The volume of gat obtained,
however, depends very hugely upon the form of apparatus used,
tad while some will give the full volume, other apparatus will
oar/ yield, with the same carbide, 3 J feet The purity of the
carbide entirely depends on the purity of the material used in
its anumfacture, and before this fact had been fully grasped by
a wa aftctu rers, and only the purest material obtainable em-
ployed, it rontsined notable quantities of compounds which
daring its decomposition by water yielded a somewhat high pro-
awsam. portion of impurities in the acetylene generated from
it Although at the present time a marvellous im-
provement has taken place all round in the quality of the
esrbide pro duced , the acetylene nearly always contains minute
taces of hydrogen, ammonia, sulphuretted hydrogen, phos-
pkuretted h y d r ogen, silicon hydride, nitrogen and oxygen, and
•"w t tisaci minute traces of carbon monoxide and dioxide. The
farnatioo of hydrogen is caused by small traces of metallic
akina occasionally found free in the carbide, and cases have
beta known where this was present in such quantities that the
wowed gas contained nearly so % of hydrogen. This takes
phw when m the manufacture of the carbide the material is
yp* t oo long in contact with the arc, since this overheating
*■» the dissoci a t i on of tome of the calcium carbide and the
■haiaa of metallic calcium in the remainder The presence
of hit hydrogen is nearly always accompanied by silicon hydride
"BMd by the combination of the nascent hydrogen with the
silicon in the carbide. The ammonia found b the acetylene b
probably partly due to the presence of magnesium nitride in
the carbide.
On decomposition by water, ammonia is produced by the action
of steam or of nascent hydrogen on the nitride, the quantity
formed depending very largely upon the temperature at which
the carbide is decomposed. The formation of nitrides and
cyanamides by actions of this kind and their easy conversion
into ammonia is a useful method for fixing the nitrogen of the
atmosphere and rendering it available for manurial purposes.
Sulphuretted hydrogen, which is invariably present in com-
mercial acetylene, is formed by the decomposition of aluminium
sulphide. A. Mourlot has shown that aluminium sulphide, sine
sulphide and cadmium sulphide are the only sulphur compounds
which can resist the heat of the electric furnace without decom-
position or volatilisation, and of these aluminium sulphide is
the only one which is decomposed by water with the evolu-
tion of sulphuretted hydrogen. In the early samples of carbide
this compound used to be present in considerable quantity, but
now rarely more than tV % is to be found. Pbosphuretted
hydrogen, one of the most important impurities, which has been
blamed for the haze formed by the combustion of acetylene
under certain conditions, is produced by the action of water upon
traces of calcium phosphide found in carbide. Although at first
it was no uncommon thing to nod i % of pbosphuretted
hydrogen present in the acetylene, this has now been so reduced
by the use of pure materials that the quantity is rarely above
0*15 %, and it is often not one-fifth of that amount
In the generation of acetylene from caldum carbide and
water, all that has to be done is to bring these two Q9mn .
compounds into contact, when they mutually react ew«/
upon each other with the formation of lime and acety- aest/feee
lene, while, if there be sufficient water present, the lime £w*W
combines with it to form caldum hydrate.
Caldum carbide. Water. Acetylene. Lime.
CaC, + HiO - CiH, + CaO
Lime. Water. Caldum hydrate.
CaO + HjO « Ca(HO),
The decomposition of the carbide by water may be brought
about either by bringing the water slowly into contact with an
excess of carbide, or by dropping the carbide into an excess of
water, and these two main operations again may be varied by
innumerable ingenious devices by which the rapidity of the
contact may be modified or even eventually stopped. The result
is that although the forms of apparatus utilised for this purpose
are all based on the one fundamental prindple of bringing about
the contact of the carbide with the water which is to enter into
double decomposition with it, they have been multiplied in
number to a very large extent by the methods employed in order
to ensure control in working, and to get away from the dangers
and ^conveniences which are inseparable from a too rapid
generation.
In attempting to classify acetylene generators some authori-
ties have divided them into as many as six different
classes, but this is hardly necessary, as they may be tSU 9
divided into two main Humes first, those in which
water is brought in contact with the carbide, the carbide being in
excess during the first portion of the operation ; and, second, those
in which the carbide is thrown into water, the amount of water
present being always in excess. The first class may again be
subdivided into generators in which the water rises in contact
with the carbide, in which it drips upon the carbide, and in which
a vessel full of carbide is lowered into water and again with-
drawn as generation becomes excessive. Some of these generators
are constructed to make the gas only as fast as it is consumed
at the burner, with the object of saving the expense and room
which would be involved by a storage-holder. Generators with
devices for regulating and stopping at will the action going on
are generally termed " automatic." Another set merely aims at
developing the gas from the carbide and putting it into a storage-
holder with as little Ion as possible, and. these arc termed
140
ACHAEA
The pointf to be attained In a food
"non-automatic. J
generator are: —
1. Low temperature of generation.
a. Complete decomposition of the carbide*
3. Maximum evolution of the gas.
4. Low preasure in every part ol the apparatus,
5. Ease in charging and removal of residues.
6. Removal of all air from the apparatus before generation of
the gas.
When carbide is acted upon by water considerable heat b
evolved; indeed, the action develops about one-twentieth of
the heat evolved by the combustion of carbon. As. however,
the temperature developed b a function of the time needed to
complete the action, the degree of heat attained varies with
every form of generator, and while the water in one form may
never reach the boiling-point, the carbide in another may become
red-hot and give a temperature of over 8oo° C Heating in a
generator is not only a source of danger, but also lessens the
yield of gas and deteriorates its quality. The best forms of
generator are either those in which water rises slowly in contact
with the carbide, or the second main division in which the car-
bide falls into excess of water.
It is clear that acetylene, if it is to be used on a large scale as
a domestic illuminant, must undergo such processes of purifica-
tion as will render it harmless and innocuous to health
and property, and the sooner it is recognised as ab-
solutely essential to purify acetylene before consuming
it the sooner will the gas acquire the popularity it deserves.
The only one of the impurities which offers any difficulty in
removal is the phosphuretted hydrogen. There are three sub-
stances which can be relied on more or less to remove this com-
pound, and the gas to be purified may be passed either through
acid copper salts, through bleaching powder or through chromic
add. In experiments with these various bodies it is found
that they are all of them effective in also ridding the acetylene
of the ammonia and sulphuretted hydrogen, provided only that
the surface area presented to the gas is sufficiently large. The
method of washing the gas with acid solutions of copper has
been patented by A. Frank of Charlottenburg, who finds that a
concentrated solution of cuprous chloride in an add, the liquid
being made into a paste with kieselguhr, is the most effective.
Where the production of acetylene is going on on a small scale
this method of purification is undoubtedly the most convenient
one, as the add present absorbs the ammonia, and the copper
salt converts the phosphuretted and sulphuretted hydrogen
into phosphates and sulphides. The vessel, however, which
contains this mixture has to be of earthenware, porcelain or
enamelled iron on account of the free acid present; the gas
must be washed after purification to remove traces of hydro-
chloric add, and care must be taken to prevent the complete
neutralisation of the add by the ammonia present in the gas.
The second process is one patented by Fritz Ullmann of Geneva,
who utilises chromic add to oxidize the phosphuretted and
sulphuretted hydrogen and absorb the ammonia, and this method
of purification has proved the most successful in practice, the
chromic add being absorbed by kieselguhr and the material
sold under the name of "Heratd."
The third process owes its inception to G. Lunge, who recom-
mends the use of bleaching powder. Dr P. Wolff has found that
when this is used on the large scale there is a risk of the ammonia
present in the acetylene forming traces of chloride of nitrogen
in the purifying-boxes, and as this is a compound which deton-
ates with considerable local force, it occasionally gives rise to
explosions in the purifying apparatus. If, however, the gas be
first passed through a scrubber so as to wash out the ammonia
this danger n avoided. Dr Wolff employs purifiers in which
the gas is washed with water containing caldum chloride, and
then passed through bleaching-powder solution or other oxidizing
material.
When acetylene b burnt from a 000 union jet burner, at all
ordinary pressures a smoky flame is obtained, but on the pres-
sure being increased to 4 inches a magnificent flame results, free
from smoke, and developing an illuminating value of 140 candles
per 5 cubic feet of gas consumed. Slightly higher values have
been obtained, but 240 may be taken as the average value under
these conditions. When acetylene was first introduced as a
commercial illuminant in England, very small union jet nipples
were utilized for its consumption, but after burning ^ mmmmm
for a short time these nipples began to carbonize,
the flame being distorted, and then smoking occurred with the
formation of a heavy deposit of soot. While these troubles
were being experienced in England, attempts had been made in
America to use acetylene diluted with a certain proportion of
air which permitted it to be burnt in ordinary flat flame nipples;
but the danger of such admixture being recognized, nipples of
the same class as those used in England were employed, and the
same troubles ensued. In France, single jets made of glass
were first employed, and then P. Resener, H. Luchaire, G. Ragot
and others made burners in which two jets of acetylene, coming
from two tubes placed some little distance apart, impinged and
splayed each other out into a butterfly flame. Soon afterwards,
J. S. Billwiller introduced the idea of sucking air into the flame
at or just below the burner tip, and at this juncture the Naphey
or Dolan burner was introduced in America, the prindple em-
ployed being to use two small and widely separated jets instead
of the two openings of the union jet burner, and to make each
a minute bunsen, the acetylene dragging in from the base of
the nipple enough air to surround and protect it while burning
from contact with the steatite. This class of burner forms a
basis on which all the later constructions of burner have been
founded, but had the drawback that if the flame was turned
low, insufficient air to prevent carbonization of the burner tips
was drawn in, owing to the reduced flow of gas. This fault has
now been reduced by a cage of steatite round the burner tip,
which draws in sufficient air to prevent deposition.
When acetylene was first introduced on a commercial scale
attempts were made to utilize its great heat of combustion by
using it in conjunction with oxygen in the oxy-
hydrogen blowpipe. It was found, however, that when **Tij
using acetylene under low pressures, the burner tip
became so heated as to cause the decomposition of some
of the gas before combustion, the jet being choked up by the
carbon which deposited in a very dense form; and as the use of
acetylene under pressures greater than one hundred inches of
water was prohibited, no advance was made in this direction.
The introduction of acetylene dissolved under pressure in
acetone contained in cylinders filled with porous material drew
attention again to this use of the gas, and by using a special
construction of blowpipe an oxy-acetylene flame is produced,
which is far hotter than the oxy-hydrogen flame, and at the
same time is so redudng in its character that it can be used
for the direct autogenous welding of steel and many minor
metallurgical processes.
RsrsasifCBS.— F. H. Leeds and W. A. ButterfiekJ. Calcium
Carbide and Acetylene (1903); F. Dommer, VAcitytene eLses appH-
cations (1896); V. B. Lewes. Acetylene (1900); F. Ltebetaoa,
Cokium-carbid %nd Acetylen (I899); G. PeGaster, L'Edaircge *
Facitylene (1897) ; C. de Perrodil, Le carbure de calcium et FacHyUme
(1897). For a complete list of the various papers and memoirs on
Acetylene, see A. Ludwig'a Fiber dunk die gesammte Calcium*-
carb&und-Acetylen-Lileratur. Berlin. (V. B. L.)
ACHAEA, a district on the northern coast of the Pdoponnese,
stretching from the mountain ranges of Erymanthus and Cyllene
on the S. to a narrow strip of fertile land on the N., border-
ing the Corinthian Gulf, into which the mountain Panachaicus
projects. Achaea is bounded on the W. by the territory of Elia,
on the E. by that of Sicyon, which, however, was sometimes
included in it. The origin of the name has given rise to
much speculation; the current theory is that the Achaeans
(f.t.) were driven back into this region by the Dorian invaders
of the Pdoponnese. Another Achaea, in the south of Thessary,
called sometimes Achaea Phthiotis, has been supposed to be
the cradle of the race. In Roman times the name of the province
of Achaea was given to the whole of Greece, except Thessary,
Epirus, and Acarnania. Herodotus (i. 145) mentions the twelve
dties of Achaea ; these met as a religious confederacy in the
ACHAEAN LEAGUE— ACHAEANS
141
temple of Poseidon Heliconius at Helice; for their later history
see Achaean League. During the middle ages, after the Latin
conquest of the Eastern Empire, Achaea was a Latin princi-
pality, the first prince being William de Champlitte (d. 1209).
It survived, with various dismemberments, until 1430, when
the last prince, Centurione Zaccaria, ceded the remnant of it to
ks son-in-law, Theodoras IL, despot of Mistra. In 1460 it was
cwquered, with the rest of the Morea, by the Turks. In modern
times the coast of Achaea is mainly given up to the currant
industry; the currants'are shipped from Patras, the second town
of Greece, and from Aegion (Vostitza).
ACHAEAN LEAGUE, a confederation of the ancient towns of
Achaea. Standing isolated on their narrow strips of plain, these
towns were always exposed to the raids of pirates issuing from
the recesses of the north coast of the Corinthian Gulf. It was no
doabt as a protection against such dangers that the earliest
league of twelve Achaean dries arose, though we are nowhere
exphatly informed of its functions other than the common
worship of Zeus Amarius at Aegium and an occasional arbitra-
tion between Greek belligerents. Its importance grew in the
4th century, when we find it fighting in the Theban wars (368-
jfa B.C.), against Philip (338) and Antipater (330). About 288
Antigonus Gonatas dissolved the league, which had furnished
a useful base for pretenders against Cassander's regency; but
by 280 four towns combined again, and before long the ten
surviving rides of Achaea had renewed their federation. Anti-
gonus' preoccupation during the Celtic invasions, Sparta's
prostration after the Chremonidean campaigns, the wealth
amassed by Achaean adventurers abroad and the subsidies of
Egypt, the standing foe of Macedonia, all enhanced the league's
importance. Most of all did it profit by the statesmanship of
Aratus («*.), who initiated its expansive policy, until in 228 it
comprised Arcadia, Argolis, Corinth and Aegina.
Aratus probably also organised the new federal constitution,
the character of which, owing to the scanty and somewhat
perplexing nature of our evidence, we can only approximately
determine. The league embraced an indefinite number of city-
states which maintained their internal independence practically
mdimnished, and through their several magistrates, assemblies
ud law-courts exercised all traditional powers of self-govern-
ment. Only in matters of foreign politics and war was their
competence restricted.
Ihe central government, like that of the constituent dries, was
of a democratic cast. The chief legislative powers resided in a
popular assembly in which every member of the league over
thirty years of age could speak and vote. This body met for
three days in spring and autumn at Aegium to discuss the league's
pofcy and elect the federal magistrates. Whatever the number
of its attendant burgesses, each dry counted but one on a
division. Extraordinary assemblies could be convoked at any
time or place on spedal emergendes. A council of 1 20 unpaid
delegates, selected from the local councils, served partly as a
committee for preparing the assembly's programme, partly as
as administrative board which received embassies, arbitrated
between contending dries and exercised penal jurisdiction over
offenders against the constitution. But perhaps some of these
dsties concerned the dicastae and gerousia, whose functions are
fiovbere described. The chief magistracy was the strategia
(tenable every second year), which combined with an unre-
stricted command in the field a large measure of tivil authority.
Besides being authorized to veto motions, the strategus (general)
bad practically the sole power of introducing measures before
the assembly. The ten elective demivrgi, who presided over
tau body, formed a kind of cabinet, and perhaps acted as
departmental chiefs. We also hear of an under-strategus, a
•tretary, a cavalry commander and an admiral. All these higher
fl&ers were unpaid. Fhflopoemen (q.v.) transferred the seat of
"oeobry from town to town by rotation, and placed dependent
^Bssonities on an equal footing with their former suzerains.
The league prescribed uniform laws, standards and coinage;
8 "©mooed contingents, imposed taxes and' fined or coerced
■factory members.
The first federal wars were directed against Macedonia; in 266-
263 the league fought in the Chremonidean league, in 243-241
against Antigonus Gonatas and Aetolia, between 239 and 220
with Aetolia against Demetrius. A greater danger arose (227-2 23)
from the attacks of Qeomenes III. (?.t.). Owing to Aratus's
irresolute generalship, the indolence of the rich burghers and
the inadequate provision for levying troops and paying mercen-
aries, the league lost several battles and much of its territory;
but rather than compromise with the Spartan Gracchus the
assembly negotiated with Antigonus Doson, who recovered the
lost districts but retained Corinth for himself (223-221). Simi-
larly the Achaeans could not check the incursions of Aetolian
adventurers in 220-2x8, and when Philip V. came to the rescue
he made them tributary and annexed much of the Peloponnese.
Under Philopoemen the league with a reorganized army routed
the Aetolians (azo) and Spartans (207, 201). After their bene-
volent neutrality during the Macedonian war the Roman general,
T. Quinctius Flamininus, restored all their lost possessions and
sanctioned the incorporation of Sparta and Messene (191), thus
bringing the entire Peloponnese under Achaean control. The
league even sent troops to Pergamum against Antiochus (100).
The annexation of Aetolia and Zacynthus was' forbidden by
Rome. Moreover, Sparta and Messene always remained un-
willing members. After Philopoemen's death the aristocrats
initiated a strongly philo-Roman policy, dedared war against
King Perseus and denounced all sympathizers with Macedonia.
This agitation induced the Romans to deport 1000 prominent
Achaeans, and, failing proof of treason against Rome, to detain
them seventeen years. These hostages, when restored in 150,
swelled the ranks of the proletariate opposition, whose leaders,
to cover their maladministration at home, predpitated a war
by attacking Sparta in defiance of Rome. The federal troops
were routed in central Greece by Q. Caecilius Metellus Mace-
donian, and again near Corinth by L. Mummius Achaicus (146).
The Romans now dissolved the league (in effect, if not in name),
and took measures to isolate the communities (see Polybfus).
Augustus instituted an Achaean synod comprising the dependent
dries of Peloponnese and central Greece; this body sat at Argos
and acted as guardian of Hellenic sentiment
The chief defect of the league lay in its lack of proper provision
for securing efficient armies and regular payment of imposts,
and for dealing with disaffected members. Moreover, owing to
difficulties of travel, the assembly and magbtrades were practi-
cally monopolized by the rich, who shaped the federal policy in
their own interest. But their rule was mostly judidous, and when
at last they lost control the ensuing mob-rule soon ruined the
country. On the other hand, it is the glory of the Achaean
league to have combined dty autonomy with an organized
central administration, and in this way to have postponed the
entire destruction of Greek liberty for over a century.
Chief Sources. — Polybius (esp. bks. ii., iv., v. f xxiii., xxviii.),who
is followed by Livy (bks. xxxii.-xxxv., xxxviii., &c.) ; Pausanias vii.
0-24; Strabo viii. 384; E. Freeman, Federal Government, i. (ed. 1893,
London), cha. v.-ix.; M. Dubois, Les ligues Etolienne et.Achienne
(Paris, 1885): A. Holm, Greek History, iv.; G. Hertzberg, Ge-
sckickte Gruckenlands inter den Romern, 1. (Leipzig, 1866); L.
Warren, Greek Federal Coinage (London, 1863); E. Hicks, Greek
Historical Inscriptions (Oxford, 1892), 169, 187, 198, 201; W.
Dittenberger. SyBoge InscripHonum Uraeearum (Leipzig, 1 898-1901),
236, 282, 316; H. Francotte in Mush Beige (1006), pp. 4-20. See
also art. Rons, History, ii. " The Republic," sect. B(b).
(M. O. B. C.)
ACHAEANS fAxcuof, LaL Achivi), one of the four chief
divisions of the andent Greek peoples, descended, according
to legend, from Achaeus, son of Xuthus, son of Hellen. This
Hesiodic genealogy connects the Achaeans dosely with the
Ionians, but historically they approach nearer to the Aeolians.
Some even hold that Aeolus is only a form of Achaeus. In the
Homeric poems (xooo B.C.) the Achaeans are the master race in
.Greece; they are represented both in Homer and in all later
traditions as having come into Greece about three generations
before the Trojan war (1x84 B.C.), i.e. about 1300 B.C. They
found the land occupied by a people known by the ancients as
Pelasgians, who continued down to classical times the main
H2
ACHAEMENES— ACHENWALL
element In the population even in the states under Achaean
and later under Dorian rule. In some cases it formed a serf
class, e.g. the Penestae in Thessaly, the Helots in Laconia -and
the Gymnesii at Argos, whilst it practically composed the whole
population of Arcadia and Attica, which never came under
either Achaean or Dorian rule. This people had dwelt in the
Aegean from the Stone Age, and, though still in the Bronze Age
at the Achaean conquest, had made great advances in the useful
and ornamental arts. They were of short stature, with dark
hair and eyes, and generally dolichocephalic. Their chief centres
were at Cnossus (Crete), in Argolis, Laconia and Attica, in each
being ruled by ancient lines of kings. In Argolis Proetus built
Tiryns, but later, under Perseus, Mycenae took the lead until
the Achaean conquest All the ancient dynasties traced their
descent from Poseidon, who at the time of the Achaean conquest
was the chief male divinity of Greece and the islands. The
Pelasgians probably spoke an Indo-European language adopted
by their conquerors with alight modifications. (See further
Pelasgians for a discussion of other views.)
The Achaeans, on the other hand, were tall, fair-haired and
grey-eyed, and their chiefs traced their descent from Zeus, who
with the Hyperborean Apollo was their chief male divinity.
They first appear at Dodona, whence they crossed Pindus into
Phthiotis. The leaders of the Achaean invasion were Pelops,
who took possession of Elis, and Aeacus, who became master of
Aegina and was said to have introduced there the worship of
Zeus Panhellenius, whose cult was also set up at Olympia. They
brought with them iron, which they used for their long swords
and for their cutting implements; the costume of both sexes
was distinct from that of the Pelasgians; they used round
shields with a central boss instead of the 8-shaped or rectangular
shields of the latter; they fastened their garments with brooches,
and burned their dead instead of burying them as did the Pelas-
gians. They introduced a special style of ornament ("geo-
metric ") instead of that of the Bronze Age, characterised by
spirals and marine animals and plants. The Achaeans, or
Hellenes, as they were later termed, were on this hypothesis
one of the fair-haired tribes of upper Europe known to the
ancients as Kelloi (Celts), who from time to time have pressed
down over the Alps into the southern lands, successively as
Achaeans, Gauls, Goths and Franks, and after the conquest of
the indigenous small dark race in no long time died out under
climatic conditions fatal to their physique and morale. The
culture of the Homeric Achaeans corresponds to a large extent
with that of the early Iron Age of the upper Danube (Hall stall)
and to the early Iron Age of upper Italy (Villanova).
See W. Ridgeway, The Early Age of Greece (loot), for a detailed
discussion of the evidence; articles by Ridgeway and J. L. My res
in the Classical Review, vol. xvi., 1902, pp. 68-03. 135. See also
J. B. Bury's History of Greece (1903), and art. in Journal of Hellenic
Studies, xv., 1895, pp. 217 foil.; G. G. A. Murrey, Rise of the Greek
Epic (1907), chap. ii.; Andrew Lang, Homer and his Age (1906);
G. Busolt, Griech. Gesch. ed. 2, vol. i. p. 190 (1893); D. B. Monro's
ed. of the Iliad (1901), pp. 484-488. (W. Ri.)
ACHAEMENES (HakhAuani), iht eponymous ancestor of
the royal house of Persia, the Achaemenidae, " a clan <t>PVrpv
of the Pasargadae" (Herod, i. 125), the leading Persian tribe.
According to Darius in the Behistun inscription and Herod,
iii. 75, vii. n, he was the father of Tebpes, the great-grandfather
of Cyrus. Cyrus himself, in his proclamation to the Babylonians
after the conquest of Babylon, does not mention his name.
Whether he really was a historical personage, or merely the
mythical ancestor of the family, cannot be decided. According
to Aelian (Hist. anim. xii. ai), he was bred by an eagle. We
learn from Cyrus's proclamation that Tebpes and his successors
had become kings of Anshan, i.e. a part of Elam (Susiana),
where they ruled as- vassals of the Median kings, until Cyrus
the Great in 550 B.C. founded the Persian empire. After the
death of Cambyses, the younger line of the Achaemenidae came
to the throne with Darius, the son of Hystaspes, who was, like
Cyrus, the great-grandson of Tdspes. Cyrus, Darius and all the
later kings of Persia call themselves Achaemenides (Hokkd-
manishiya). With Darius TIL Codomannus the dynasty became
extinct and the Persian empire came to an end (330). The ad-
jective Achaemenius is used by the Latin poets as the equivalent
of " Persian " (Horace, Odes, iL 12, 21). See Persia.
The name Achaemenes is borne by a son of Darius I., brother
of Xerxes. After the first rebellion of Egypt, he became satrap
of Egypt (484 B.C.) ; he commanded the Persian fleet at Saiamis,
and was (460 B.C.) defeated and slain by Inarus, the leader of
the second rebellion of Egypt.
ACHARD, FRANZ CARL (1753*1821), Prussian chemist, was
born at Berlin on the 28th of April 1753, and died at Kunern.
in Silesia, on the 20th of April x8ai. He was a pioneer in turn-
ing to practical account A. S. Marggraf 's discovery of the presence
of sugar in beetroot, and by the end of the x8th century he was
producing considerable quantities of beet-sugar, though by a very
imperfect process, at Kunern, on an estate which was granted
him about 1800 by the king of Prussia. There too he carried
on a school of instruction in sugar-manufacture, which had aa
international reputation. For a time 'he was director of the
physics class of the Berlin Academy of Sciences, and he published
several volumes of chemical and physical researches, discovering
among other things a method of working platinum.
ACHARIUS, ERIK (1757-1819), Swedish botanist, was born
on the 10th of October 1757, and in 1773 entered TJpsala Uni-
versity, where he was a pupil of Linnaeus. He graduated M.D.
at Lund in 1782, and in 1801 was appointed professor of botany
at Wadstena Academy. He devoted himself to the study of
lichens, and all his publications were connected with that class
of plants, his Lichenographia Universalis (Gottingen, 1804)
being the most important. He died at Wadstena on the 13 th of
August 1819
ACHATES, the companion of Aeneas in Virgil's Aeneid. The
expression " fidus Achates " has become proverbial for a loyal
and devoted companion.
ACHELOUS (mod. Aspropotamo, " white river "), the largest
river in Greece (130 m.). It rises in Mt. Pindus, and, dividing
Aetolia from Acarnania, falls into the Ionian Sea. In the lower
part of its course the river winds through fertile, marshy plains.
Its water is charged with fine mud, which is deposited along its
banks and at its mouth, where a number of small islands (EchT-
nades) have been formed. It was formerly called Thoas, from its
impetuosity; and its upper portion was called by some iMrnm.
the name Achelous being restricted to the shorter eastern
branch. Achelous is coupled with Ocean by Homer (//. »»L
193) as chief of rivers, and the name is given to several other
rivers in Greece. The name appears in cult and in mythology
as that of the typical river-god; a familiar legend is that of his .
contest with Heracles for Deianira.
ACHENBACH. ANDREAS (18x5- ), German landscape
painter, was born at Cassel in i8x 5. He began his art education
in 1827 in Diisseldorf under W. Schadow and at the academy.
In his early work he followed the pseudo-idealism of the German
romantic school, but on removing to Munich in 1835, the stronger
influence of L. Gurlitt turned his talent into new channels, and
he became the founder of the German realistic schooL Although
his landscapes evince too much of his aim at picture-making and
lack personal temperament, he is a master of technique, and is
historically important as a reformer. A number of his finest
works are to be found at the Berlin National Gallery, the New
Pinakothek in Munich, and the galleries at Dresden, Darmstadt,
Cologne, Diisseldorf, Leipzig and Hamburg.
His brother, Oswald Achenbach (1827-1905), was born at
Dttsseldorf and received his art education from Andreas. His
landscapes generally dwell on the rich and glowing effects of
colour which drew him to the Bay of Naples and the neighbour-
hood of Rome. He is represented at most of the important
German galleries of mod ern art.
ACHENWALL, GOTTFRIED (1710-1772), German statistician,
was born at Elbing, in East Prussia, in October 1710- He
studied at Jena, Halle and Leipzig; and took a degree at the
last-named university. He removed to Marburg in 1746, where
for two years he read lectures on history and on the law of
nature and of nations. Here, too, he commenced those inquiries
ACHERON— ACHILLES
H3
fa statistics by which his name became known. In 1748 he was
ghea a professorship at Gftttingen, where he resided till his
doth in 177a. His chief works were connected with statistics.
The SUaSsoafassmng der hemtigen tomehmsten ewopdischen
Rod* appeared first in 1749, and revised editions were pub-
lish ed m 1 76a and 1768.
ACHERON, in Greek mythology, the son of Gaea or Demeter.
As a puushment for supplying the Titans with water in their
contest with Zeus, he was turned into a river of Hades, over
which departed souk were ferried by Charon. The name (mean-
iag the river of M woe ") was eventually used to designate the
whole of the lower world (Stobaeus, Ed. Phys. L 41, §§ 50, 54).
ACHUCHARUS, a name occurring in the book of Tobit (i.
21 (.) as that of a nephew of Tobit and an official at the court of
Esarhaddon at Nineveh. There are references in Rumanian,
ShTonk, Armenian, Arabic and Syxiac literature to a legend, of
whkh the hero is Abifcar (for Armenian, Arabic and Syriac, see
The Story of Ahikar, F. C. Conjrbeare, Rendel Harris and Agnes
Levis, Camb. 1898), and it was pointed out by George Hoffmann
in 1880 that this Abifcar and the Achiacharus of Tobit are iden-
tical It has been contended that there are traces of the legend
even in the New Testament, and there is a striking similarity
between it and the Life of Aesop by Manmus Planudes (ch.
niL-ran.). An eastern sage AchaJcania b mentioned by
Suabo. It would seem, therefore, that the legend was un-
doubtedly oriental in origin, though the relationship of the
various versions can scarcely be recovered-
See the Jewish ^cyclopaedia end the Encyclopaedia Bihlica;
thn M. R. James in The Guardian, Feb. a, 1898, p. 163 f.
iCHOL ("Eagle"), the largest island off Ireland, separated
from the Curraun peninsula of the west coast by the narrow
Achifl Sound. Pop. (xoox) 4939. It is included in the county
Mayo, in the western parliamentary division. Its shape is
trsugukr, and its extent is 15 m. from E. to W. and za from
N. to S. The area is 57 sq. m. The island is mountainous, the
kijtwt point* being Slieve Croaghaun (2192 ft.) in the west, and
SBtvemore (2204 ft.) in the north; the extreme western point
ii the bold and rugged promontory of Achfll Head, and the north-
western and south-western coasts consist of ranges of magnifi-
cent cans, reaching a height of 800 ft. in the cliffs of Minaun,
■ear the village of Keel on the south. The seaward slope of
Ciotgasun is abrupt and in parts precipitous, and its jagged
inks, together with the serrated ridge of the Head and the view
wet the broken coast-line and islands of the counties Mayo and
Galvay, attract many visitors to the island during summer.
Deviate bogs, incapable of cultivation, alternate with the
auuntains; and the inhabitants earn a scanty subsistence by
fishing and tillage, or by seeking employment in England and
Scotland during the harvesting. The Congested Districts
Board, however, have made efforts to improve the condition of
the people, and a branch of the Midland Great Western railway
to Achiil Sound, together with a swivel bridge across the sound,
improved communications and make for prosperity. Dugort,
ik pebtipoj village, contains several hotels. Here is a Protest-
sat colony, known as " the Settlement " and founded in 1834.
These are antiquarian remains (cromlechs, stone circles and the
Kke) at SHevemore and elsewhere.
ACH1UO (Gr. 'AxiXfefe), one of the most famous of the
leneadaiy heroes of ancient Greece and the central figure of
Boner's Iliad. He was said to have been the son of Petals,
kiagof the Myrmidoncs of Fhthia in Thessafy, by Thetis, one of
the Nereids. His grandfather Aeacus was, according to the
hgmd, the son of Zeus himself. The story of the childhood of
AchuVs in Homer differs from that given by later writers. Ac-
carting to Homer, he was brought up by his mother at Phthia with
as covin and intimate friend Patroclus, and learned the arts
«f *ar and eloquence from Phoenix, while the Centaur Chiron
feajnt hhn musk and medicine. When summoned to the war
■twast Troy, he set sail at once with his Myrmidoncs in fifty
fwHomeric sources add to the legend certain picturesque
•**» whkh bear all the evidence of their primitive origin, and
which jn some cases belong to the common stock of Indo-Ger-
manic myths. According to one of these stories Thetis used to
lay the infant Achilles every night under live coals, *~ w '"t^
him by day with ambrosia, in order to mike him immortal.
Peleus, having surprised her in the act, in alarm snatched the
boy from the flames; whereupon Thetis fled back to the sea
in anger (ApoUodorus iff. 13; Apollonius Rhodius iv. 869).
According to another story Thetis dipped the child in the waters
of the river Styx, by which his whole body became invulnerable,
except that part of his heel by which she held him; whence the
proverbial " heel of Achilles " (Statins, AcMiUois, L 969). With
this may be compared the similar story told of the northern hero
Sigurd. The boy was afterwards entrusted to the care of Chiron,
who, to give him the strength necessary for war, fed him with
the entraQs of lions and the marrow of bean and wild boars. To
prevent his going to the siege of Troy, Thetis dlsgiriVrt him in
female apparel, and hid him among the maidens at the court of
King Lycomedes in Scyros; but Odysseus, coming to the island
in the disguise of a pedlar, spread his wares, including a spear
and shield, before the king's daughters, among whom was
Achilles. Then he caused an alarm to be sounded; whereupon
the girls fled, but Achilles seised the arms, and so revealed him-
self, and was easily persuaded to follow the Greeks (Hyginus,
Fob. 96; Statins, AcL L; ApoUodorus, l.c). This story may
be compared with the Celtic legend of the boyhood of Peredur
or Perceval
During the first nine years of the war as described In the Iliad,
Achilles ravaged the country round Troy, and took twelve cities.
In the tenth year occurred the quarrel with Agamemnon. In
order to appease the wrath of Apollo, who had visited the camp
with a pestilence, Agamemnon had restored Chrysds, his prise
of war, to her father, a priest of the god, but as a compensation
deprived Achilles, who had openly demanded this restoration,
of his favourite slave Briseis. Achilles withdrew in wrath to his
tent, where he consoled himself with music and singing, and
refused to take any further part in the war. During bis absence
the Greeks were hard pressed, and at last he so far relaxed bis
anger as to allow his friend Patroclus to personate him, lending
him his chariot and armour. The slaying of Patroclus by the
Trojan hero Hector roused Achilles from his indifference; eager
to avenge his beloved comrade, he sallied forth, equipped with
new armour fashioned by Hephaestus, slew Hector, and, after
dragging his body round the walls of Troy, restored it to the aged
King Priam at his earnest entreaty. The Iliad concludes with
the funeral rites of Hector. It makes no mention of the death
of Achilles, but hints at its taking place "before the Scaean
gates." In the Odyssey (xxiv. 36. 72) his ashes are said to have
been buried in a golden urn, together with those of Patroclus,
at a place on the Hellespont, where a tomb was erected to his
memory; his soul dwells in the lower' world, where it is seen by
Odysseus. The contest between Ajax and Odysseus for his arms
is also mentioned. The Aelhiopis of Arctium of Miletus took up
the story of the Iliad. It told how Achilles, having slain the
Amazon Penthesileia and Memnon, king of the Aethiopians, who
had come to the assistance of the Trojans, was himself slain by
Paris (Alexander), whose arrow was guided by Apollo to his
vulnerable heel (Virgil, Aen. vL 57; Ovid, Met. xii. 600).
Again, it is said that Achilles, enamoured of Polyxena, the
daughter of Priam, offered to join the Trojans on condition that
he received her hand in marriage. This was agreed to; Achilles
went unarmed to the temple of Apollo Thymbraeus, and was
slain by Paris (Dictys iv. n). According to some, he was slain
by Apollo himself (Quint. Smyrn. Hi. 61 ; Horace, Odes, iv. 6, 3).
Hyginus (Fab. 107) makes Apollo assume the form of Paris.
Later stories say that Thetis snatched his body from the
pyre and conveyed it to the island of Leuke, at the mouth of the
Danube, where he ruled with Iphigeneia as his wife; or that
he was carried to the Etysian fields, where his wife was Medea
or Helen. He was worshipped in many places: at Leuke, where
he was honoured with offerings and games; in Sparta, Elis. and
especially Sigeum on the Hellespont, where his famous tumulus
was erected.
144
ACHILLES TATIUS— ACHIN
Achilles is a typical Greek hero; handsome, brave, celebrated
for his fleetness of foot, prone to excess of wrath and grief, at
the same time he is compassionate, hospitable, full of affection
for his mother and respect for the gods. In works of art he is
represented, like Ares, as a young man of splendid physical pro-
portions, with bristling hair like a horse's mane and a slender
neck. Although the figure of the hero frequently occurs in
groups— such as the work of Scopas showing his removal to the
island of Leuke by Poseidon and Thetis, escorted by Nereids
and Tritons, and the combat over his dead body in the Aeginetan
sculptures— no isolated statue or bust can with certainty be
identified with him; the statue in the Louvre (from the Villa
Borghese), which was thought to have the best claim, is generally
taken for Ares or possibly Alexander. There are many vase and
wall paintings and bas-reliefs illustrative of incidents in his life.
Various etymologies of the name have been suggested: " with-
out a lip " (a, X«ttas), Achilles being regarded as a river-god, a
stream which overflows its banks, or, referring to the story that,
when Thetis laid him in the fire, one of his lips, which he had
licked, was consumed (Tzetzes on Lycophron, 178); " restrainer
of the people " (*x*-Xooi); " healer of. sorrow " (Axe-X&o*),
"the obscure" (connected with AxXw, "mist"); "snake-
born " (lx")» the snake being One of the chief forms taken
by Thetis. The most generally received view makes him a god
of light, especially of the sun or of the lightning.
See E. H. Meyer, Jndogermanische Mytken, ii., Achillas, 1887;
F. G. Wekker, Der epixke Cyclus, 1865-1882; articles in Pauly-
Wissowa, Rtal-EncydoMdU der classischen AUertumswissenschaft,
Paremberg and Saglios Dictionnaire des AntiquiUt and Reseller's
Lexikon der Mythotogie; tee also T. W. Allen in Classical Review,
May 1906; A. E. Crawley, J. G. Frazer. A. Lang, Ibid., June. July
1893. on Achilles in Scyroa. In the article Greek Art, fig. 12 re-
presents the conflict over the dead body of Achillea.
ACHILLES TATIUS, of Alexandria, Greek rhetorician, author
of the erotic romance, the Adventures of Leucippe and CUUcphon,
flourished about a.d. 450, perhaps later. Suidas, who alone calls
him Statius, says that he became a Christian and eventually
a bishop— -like Heliodorus, whom he imitated— but there is no
evidence of this. Photius, while severely criticizing his lapses
into indecency, highly praises the conciseness and clearness of
his style, which, however, is artificial and laboured. Many of the
incidents of the romance are highly improbable, and the char-
acters, except the heroine, fail to enlist sympathy. The descrip-
tive passages and digressions, although tedious and introduced
without adequate reasons, are the best part of the work. The
large number of existing MSS. attests its popularity. (Edtiio
princeps, 1601; first important critical edition by Jacobs, 1821;
later editions by Hirschig, 1856; Hercher, 1858. There are
translations in many languages; in English by Anthony H[odges],
2638, and R. Smith, 1855. See also Romance.)
Suidas also ascribes to this author an Etymology, a Miscel-
laneous History of Famous Men, and a treatise On the Sphere.
Part of the last is extant under the title of An Introduction to the
Phaenomena of Aratus. But if the writer is the prudentissimus
Achilles referred to by Firmicus Maternus (about 336) in his
Matheseos libri, iv. xo, 17 (ed. Kroll), he must have lived long
before the" author of Leucippe. The fragment was first pub-
lished in 1567, then in the Uranologion of Petayius, with a Latin
translation, 1630. Nothing definite is known as to the author-
ship of the other works, which are lost.
ACHILUNI, ALESSANDRO (1463-1513)1 Italian philosopher,
born on the 20th of October 1463 at Bologna, was celebrated as
a lecturer both in medicine and in philosophy at Bologna and
Padua, and was styled the second Aristotle. His philosophical
works were printed in one volume folio, at Venice, in 1508, and
reprinted with considerable additions in 1545* 1551 and x£68.
He was also distinguished as an anatomist (see Anatomy),
among his writings being Corporis humani Anatomia (Venice,
1 5 1 6- 1 5 24) , and A natomicae A nnotationes (Bologna, 1 5 20). He
died at Bologna on the 2nd of August 1512.
His brother, Giovanni Filoteo Achillxni (1466-1533), was
the author of // Vtridarto and other writings, verse and prose, and
his grand-nephew, Claudio Acuxluni (1 574-1640), was a lawyer
who achieved some notoriety as a versifier of the school of the
Secentisti.
ACHIMBHBS (perhaps from the Gr. dxaijierfs, an Indian
plant used in magic), a genus of plants, natural order Gesutracect
(to which belong also Gloxinia and Streptocarpus), natives of
tropical America, and well known in cultivation as stove or
warm greenhouse plants. They are herbaceous perennials,
generally with hairy serrated leaves and handsome flowers.
The corolla is tubular with a spreading limb, and varies widely
in colour, being white, yellow, orange, crimson, scarlet, blue or
purple. A large number of hybrids exist in cultivation. The
plants are grown in the stove till the flowering period, when they
may be removed to the greenhouse. They are propagated by
cuttings, or from the leaves, which are cut off and pricked in well-
drained pots of sandy soil, or by the scales from the underground
tubes, which are rubbed off and sown like seeds, or by the seeds,
which are very smalL
ACHIN (Dutch Atjck), a Dutch government forming the
northern extremity of the island of Sumatra, having an esti-
mated area of 20,544 sq. m. The government is divided into
three assistant-residencies— the east coast, the west coast and
Great Achin. The physical geography (see Sumatra) is imper-
fectly understood. Ranges of mountains, roughly parallel to
the long axis of the island, and characteristic of the whole of it,
appear to occupy the interior, and reach an extreme height of
about x 2,000 ft. in the south-west of the government. The coasts
are low and the rivers insignificant, rising in the coast ranges
and flowing through the coast states (the chief of which are
Pedir, Gighen and Samalanga on the N.; Edi, Perlak and
Langsar on the E.; Kluwah, Rigas and Melabuh on the W).
The chief ports are Olehleh, the port of Kotaraja or Achin
(formerly Kraton, now the seat of the Dutch government),
Segli on the N., Edi on the E», and Analabu or Melabuh on
the W. Kotaraja lies near the northern extremity of the island,
and consists of detached houses of timber and thatch, clustered
in enclosed groups called kam pongs, and buried in a forest of
fruit-trees. It is situated nearly 3 m. from the sea, in the
valley of the Achin river, which in its upper part, near Seli-
mun, is 3 m. broad, the river having a breadth of 99 ft. and a
depth of 1 J ft.; but in its lower course, north of its junction
with the Krung Daru, the valley broadens to xaj m. The
marshy soil is covered by rice-fields, and on higher ground by
hampongs full of trees. The river at its mouth is 327 ft. broad
and 20-33 ft. deep, but before it lies a sandbank covered at low
water by a depth of only 4 ft. The Dutch garrison in Kotaraja
occupies the old Achinese citadel The town is connected by
rail with Olehleh, and the line also extends up the valley. The
construction of another railway has been undertaken along the
east coast. The following industries are of some importance
— gold-working, weapon-making, silk-weaving, the making of
pottery, fishing and coasting trade. The annual value of the
exports (chiefly pepper) is about £58,000; of the imports, from
£165,000 to £250,000. The population of Achin in x8o8 was
estimated at 53 5,43 2, of whom 3 28 were Europeans, 3933 Chinese,
30 Arabs, and 372 other foreign Asiatics.
The Achinese, a people of Malayan stock but darker, some-
what taller and not so pleasant-featured as the true Malays,
regard themselves as distinct from the other Sumatrans. Their
nobles claim Arab descent. They were at one time Hinduixed,
as is evident from their traditions, the many Sanskrit words in
their language, and their general appearance, which suggests
Hindu as well as Arab blood. They are Mahommcdans, and
although Arab influence has declined, their nobles still wear the
Moslem flowing robe and turban (though the women go un-
veiled), and they use Arabic script. The chief characteristic is
their love of fighting; every man is a soldier and every village
has its army. They are industrious and skilful agriculturists,
metal-workers and weavers. They build excellent ships. Their
chief amusements are gambling and opium-smoking. Their
social organization is communal. They live in kam pongs, which
combine to form muhims, districts or hundreds (to use the nearest
English term), which again combine to form sagis, of which
ACHOLI— ACID
»45
there ice Urn
tifdy Malay; it includes poetry, a good deal of theology and
several chronicles. Northern Sumatra was visited by several
European travellers in the middle ages, such as Marco Polo,
Fnar Odorico and Nicolo Conti. Some of these as well as
Asiatic writers mention Lambri, a state which must have nearly
occupied the position of Achin. But the first voyager to visit
Achin, by that name, was Alvaro Telle*, a captain of Tristan
d'Acanha's fleet, in 1 506. It was then a mere dependency of the
adjoining state of Pedir; and the latter, with Pasei, formed the
oaly states on the coast whose chiefs claimed the title of sultan.
Yet before twenty years had passed Achin had not only gained
isdependence, but had swallowed up all other states of northern
Sanatra. It attained its climax of power in the time of Sultan
Iskaadar Muda (1607-1636), under whom the subject coast
extended from Aru opposite Malacca round by the north to
Benkulen on the west coast, a sea-board of not less than 1100
aifesj and besides this, the king's supremacy was owned by
the brge island of Nias, and by the continental Malay states of
Johor, Pahang, Redan and Perak.
The chief attraction' of Achin to traders in the 17th century
mat have been gold, tyo place in the East, unless Japan, was
to abundantly supplied with gold. The great repute of Achin
as a place of trade is shown by the fact that to this port the
lot Dutch (1599) and first English (1602) commercial ventures
to the Indies were directed. Sir James Lancaster, the English
coauDodore, carried letters from Queen Elizabeth to the king
of Achin, and was well received by the prince then reigning,
Alauddia Shah. Another exchange of letters took place be-
tveea King James I. and Iskandar Muda in 1613. But native
caprice and jealousy of the growing force of the European nations
ia these seas, and the rivalries between those nations themselves,
*oe destructive of sound trade; and the English factory,
thoogh several times set up, was never long maintained. The
French made one great effort (1621) to establish relations with
Ackia, but nothing came of it Still the foreign trade of Achin,
thoogh subject to interruptions, was important William
Danpier (c 1688) and others speak of the number of foreign
neiehaats settled there— English, Dutch, Danes, Portuguese,
Coisese, tx. Dampaer says the anchorage was rarely without
tea or fifteen sail of different nations, bringing vast quantities
of rice, as well as silks, chintzes, muslins and opium. Besides
the Chinese me rch ants settled at Achin, others used to come
loneafly with the junks, ten or twelve in number, which arrived
ia Jone. A regular lair was then established, which, lasted two
■oaths, and was known as the China camp, a great resort of
Hostilities with the Portuguese began from the time of the
am iadependjent king of Achin; and they bad little remission
tffl the power of Portugal fell with the loss of Malacca (1641).
Not less than ten times before that event were armaments
dnpatrhed from Achin to reduce Malacca, and more than once
its garrison was hard pressed. One of these armadas, equipped
07 Iskaadar Muda in 161 5, gives an idea of the king's resources.
It consisted of 500 sail, of which 250 were galleys, and among
laest a hundred were greater than any then used in Europe.
Saty thousand men were embarked.
Oo the death of Iskandar's successor in 1641, the widow was
Pond on the throne; and as a female reign favoured the
o fi p r rh ic al tendencies of the Malay chiefs, three more queens
vere stowed to reign successively. In 1699 the Arab or fana-
tical party suppressed female government, and put a chief of
Anb blood on the throne. The remaining history of Achin was
^ of rapid decay.
* tKtty of friendship was concluded with the Calcutta govern-
"** watch excluded other European nationalities from fixed
**omce in Achin. When the British government, in 1824,
■** a treaty with the Netherlands) surrendering the remaining
«*aa settlements in Sumatra in exchange for certain posses-
sions on the continent of Asia, no reference was made in the
articles to the Indian treaty of 1819; but an understanding was
exchanged that it should be modified, while no proceedings
hostile to Achin should be attempted by the Dutch.
This reservation was formally abandoned by the British
government in a convention signed at the Hague on the and
of November 1871; and in March 1873 the government of
Batavia declared war upon Achin. Doubtless there was provo-
cation, for the sultan of Achin had not kept to the understanding
that he was to guarantee immunity from piracy to foreign
traders; but the necessity for war was greatly doubted, even in
Holland. A Dutch force landed at Achin in April 1873, and
attacked the palac$. It was defeated with considerable loss,
including that of the general (Kohler). The approach of the
south-west monsoon precluded the immediate renewal of the
attempt; but hostilities were resumed, and Achin fell in January
1874. The natives, however, maintained themselves in the
interior, inaccessible to the Dutch troops, and carried on a
guerilla warfare. General van der Heyden appeared to have
subdued them in 1878-81* but they broke out again in 1896
under the traitor Taku Umar, who had been in alliance with
the Dutch. He died shortly afterwards, but the trouble was
not ended. General van Hentsz carried on a successful campaign
in 1898 seq., but in 1901, the principal Achincse chiefs on the
north coast having surrendered, the pretender-sultan fled to
the Gajoes, a neighbouring inland people. Several expeditions
involving heavy fighting were necessary against these in 1901-4,
and a certain amount of success was achieved, but the pretender
escaped, revolt still smouldered and hostilities were continued.
See P. I. Veth, Atckin en mine betrekkingen lot Nederland
(Leyden, 1873); J. A. Kruijt, Atjek en de Atjekers (Leyden, 1877);
Kielstra, Besckrtjving van den Atiek-oorlot (The Hague, 1885);
Van Langen, Atjek' $ Wesskust, Tijdsckrift Aardrijko, Genotktsck.
(Amsterdam, 1888), p. 226; Renaud, Jaarboek van kit Mynvesen
(1882); J. Jacobs, net famiUe-en Kampongleven op Croot Atjek
(Leyden, 1894); C. Snouck Hurgronje, De Atjekers (Batavia, 1894).
ACHOLI* a negro people of the upper Nile valley, dwelling on
the east bank of the Banr-cl-Jebel, about a hundred miles north
of Albert Nyanza. They are akin to the Shilluks of the White
Nile. They frequently decorate the temples or cheeks with
wavy or zigzag scars, and also the thighs with scrolls; some
pierce the ears. Their dwelling-places are circular huts with a
high peak, furnished with a mud sleeping-platform, jars of
grain and a sunk fireplace. The interior walls are daubed with
mud and decorated with geometrical or conventional designs
in red, white or grey. The Acholi are good hunters, using nets
and spears, and keep goats, sheep and cattle. In war they use
spears and long, narrow shields of giraffe or ox hide. Their
dialect is closely allied to those of the Alur, Lango and Ja-Luo
tribes, all four being practically pure Nilotic. Their religion is
a vague fetishism. By early explorers the Acholi were called
Shuli, a name now obsolete.
ACHROMATISM (Gr. a-, privative, xpujia, colour), in optics,
the property of transmitting white light without decomposing
it into the colours of the spectrum; " achromatic lenses " are
lenses which possess this property. (See Lens, Aberration
and Photography.)
ACID (from the Lat root ac-, sharp; acere, to be sour), the
name loosely applied to any sour substance; in chemistry it has
a more precise meaning,denoting a substance containing hydrogen
which may be replaced by metals with the formation of salts.
An acid may therefore be regarded as a salt of hydrogen. Of
the general characters of acids we may here notice that they
dissolve alkaline substances, certain metals, &c, neutralize
alkalies and redden many blue and violet vegetable colouring
matters,
The ancients probably possessed little knowledge indeed of
acids. Vinegar (or impure acetic acid), which is produced when
wine is allowed to stand, was known to both the Greeks and
Romans, who considered it to be typical of acid substances;
this is philologically illustrated by the words 6£in, acidus, sour,
and 6£os, acetus, vinegar. Other acids became known during
the alchemistic period; and the first attempt at a generalized
146
ACID
conception of these substances was made by Paracelsus,
who supposed them to contain a principle which conferred the
properties of sourness and solubility. Somewhat similar views
were promoted by Becher, who named the principle acidum
primogenium, and held that it was composed of the Para-
celsian elements " earth " and " water." At about the same time
Boyle investigated several acids; he established their general
reddening of litmus, their solvent power of metals and basic
substances, and the production of neutral bodies, or salts, with
alkalies. Theoretical conceptions were revived by Stahl, who
held that acids were the- fundamentals of all salts, and the
erroneous idea that sulphuric add was the principle of all adds.
The phlogistic theory of the processes of calcination and com-
bustion necessitated the view that many adds, such as those
produced by combustion, e.g. sulphurous, phosphoric, carbonic,
&c, should be regarded as elementary substances. This prin-
ciple more or less prevailed until it was overthrown by Lavoisier's
doctrine that oxygen was the add-produdng element; Lavoisier
being led to this conclusion by the almost general observation
that adds were produced when non-metallic elements were
burnt The existence of adds not containing oxygen was, in
itself, suffident to overthrow this idea, but, although Berthollet
had shown, in 1789, that sulphuretted hydrogen (or hydro-
sulphuric add) contained no oxygen, Lavoisier's theory held its
own until the researches of Davy, Gay-Lussac and Thenard on
hydrochloric add and chlorine, and of Gay-Lussac on hydro-
cyanic add, established beyond all cavil that oxygen was not
essential to addic properties.
In the Lavoisierian nomendature adds were regarded as
binary oxygenated compounds, the assodated water being
relegated to the position of a mere solvent Somewhat similar
views were held by Berzelius, when devdoping his dualistic
conception of the composition of substances. In later years
Berzelius renounced the " oxygen add " theory, but not before
Davy, and, almost simultaneously, Dulong, had submitted Uiat
hydrogen and not oxygen was the addifying prindple. Oppo-
sition to the " hydrogen-add " theory centred mainly about the
hypothetical radicals which it postulated; moreover, the electro-
chemical theory of Berzelius exerted a stultifying influence on
the correct views of Davy and Dulong. In Berzelius' system
+ -
potassium sulphate is to be regarded as KjO.SOj; electrolysis
should simply effect the disruption of the positive and negative
components, potash passing with the current, and sulphuric add
against the current Experiment showed, however, that instead
of only potash appearing at the negative electrode, hydrogen is
also liberated; this is inexplicable by Berzelius's theory, but
readily explained by the "hydrogen-add" theory. By this
theory potassium is liberated at the negative dectrode and
combines immediatdy with water to form potash and hydrogen.
Further and stronger support was given when J. Liebig
promoted his doctrine of polybasic adds. Dalton's idea that
dements preferentially combined in equiatomic proportions
had as an immediate inference that metallic oxides contained
one atom of the metal to one atom of oxygen, and a simple ex-
pansion of this conception was that one atom of oxide combined
with one atom of add to form one atom of a neutral salt This
view, which was spedally supported by Gay-Lussac and Leopold
Graelin and accepted by Berzelius, necessitated that all adds
were monobasic. The untenability of this theory was proved
by Thomas Graham's investigation of the phosphoric adds; for
he then showed that the ortho- (ordinary), pyro- and meta-
phosphoric adds contained respectivdy 3, a and 1 molecules of
" basic water " (which were replaceable by metallic oxides) and
one molecule of phosphoric oxide, P1O1. Graham's work was
devdoped by Liebig, who called into service many organic
adds— dtric, tartaric, cyanuric, comenic and meconic— and
showed that these resembled phosphoric add; and he estab-
lished as the criterion of polybasidty the existence of com-
pound salts with different metallic oxides. In formulating' these
facts Liebig at first retained the dualistic conception of the
structure of adds; but he shortly afterwards perceived that I
this view lacked generality since die halogen adds, which con-
tained no oxygen but yet formed salts exactly similar in prop-
erties to those containing oxygen, could not be so regarded.
This and other reasons led to his rejection of the dualistic hypo-
thesis and the adoption, on the ground of probability, and much
more from convenience, of the tenet that " adds are parti-
cular compounds of hydrogen, in which the latter can be re-
placed by metals "; while, on the constitution of salts, he held
that " neutral salts are those compounds of the same dass in
which the hydrogen is replaced by its equivalent in metal The
substances which we at present term anhydrous adds (add
oxides) only become, for the most part, capable of forming salts
with metallic oxides after the addition of water, or they are
compounds which decompose these oxides at somewhat high
temperatures."
The hydrogen theory and the doctrine of polybasidty as
enundated by Liebig is the fundamental characteristic of the
modern theory. A polybasic acid contains more than one atom
of hydrogen which is replaceable by metals; moreover, in such
an add the replacement may be entire with the formation of
normal salts, partial with the formation of add salts, or by two
or more different metals with the formation of compound salts
(see Salts). These facts may be illustrated with the aid of
orthophosphoric-add, which is tri basic: —
Add. Normal salt. Acid salts.
H,PO* Ag.PO.. Na.HPO.; NaH,PO+
Phosphoric Silver phosphate. Add sodium
aad. phosphates.
Compound salts.
Mg(NH,)PO«; Na(NH,)HPO«.
Magnesium ammonium Microcosmic
phosphate; salt
Reference should be made to the articles Chemical Action,
Thermochemistry and Solutions, for the theory of the
strength or avidity of adds.
Organic Acids. — Organic adds are characterised by the
presence of the monovalent group— CO -OH, termed the carboxyl
group, in which the hydrogen atom is replaceable by metals
with the formation of salts, and by alkyl radicals with the
formation of esters. The basidty of an organic add, as above
defined, is determined by the number of carboxyl groups present
Oxy-adds are carboxyh'c adds which also contain a hydroxy!
group; similarly we may have aldehyde-adds, ketone-arids, &c
Since the more important adds are treated under their own
headings, or under substances dosdy allied to them, we shall
here confine oursdves to general relations.
Classification. — It is convenient to distinguish between ali-
phatic and aromatic adds; the first named being derived from
open-chain hydrocarbons, the second from ringed hydrocarbon
micld. Aliphatic monobasic acids are further divided according
to the nature of the parent hydrocarbon. Methane and its
homologues give origin to the " paraffin " or " fatty series " of
the general formula C.Hk+iCOOH, ethylene gives origin to the
acrylic add series, CH„-,COOH, and soon. Dibasic adds of
the paraffin series of hydrocarbons have the general formula
C»H t (COOH)t"; malonic and sucdnic adds are important
members. The isomerism which occurs as soon as the molecule
contains a few carbon atoms renders any dassification based 00
empirical molecular formulae somewhat ineffective; on the other
hand, a scheme based on molecular structure would involve
more detail than it is here possible to give. For further informa-
tion, the reader is referred to any standard work on organic
chemistry. A list of the adds present in fats and oils is given
in the artide Oils.
Syntheses of Organic Acids.— The simplest syntheses are un-
doubtedly those in which a carboxyl group is obtained directly
from the oxides of carbon, carbon dioxide and carbon monoxide.
The simplest of all indude: (1) the synthesis of sodium oxalate
by passing carbon dioxide over metallic sodium heated to 350*—
360°; (2) the synthesis of potassium formate from moist carbon
dioxide and potassium, potassium carbonate bring obtained
simultaneously; (3) the synthesis of potassium acetate and
propionate from carbon dioxide and sodium methide and sodium
ACIDALIUS— ACINACES
147
etUde; (4) the synthesis of aromatic adds by the inunction of
carbon dioxide, sodhun and a bromine substitution derivative;
and (5) the synthesis of aromatic oxy-adds by the interaction of
carbon cboaride and sodium phenolates (see Salicylic Acid).
Carbon monoxide takes part in the syntheses of sodium formate
from sodium hydrate, or soda lime (at soo°-220°), and of sodium
acetate and propionate from sodium methylate and sodium
etaylate at i6o°-aoo*. Other reactions which introduce carb-
oxyl groups into aromatic groups are: the action of carbonyl
chloride cm aromatic hydrocarbons in the presence of aluminium
chloride, acid-chlorides being formed which are readily decom-
posed by water to give the acid; the action of urea chloride
aCO-NHi, cymnuric add (CONHh, nascent cyanic add, or
arbaaile on hydrocarbons in the presence of aluminium chloride,
acktanrides being obtained which are readily decomposed to
pre the add. An important nudeus-synthetic reaction is the
a^oamcarjon of nitriks, which may be obtained by the interac-
tion of potassium cyanide with a halogen substitution derivative
or a sdpbonic add.
Adds frequently result as oxidation products, bdng almost
hmiiably formed in all cases of energetic oxidation. There are
certain reactions, however, in which oxidation can be success-
raty appfied to the synthesis of adds. Thus primary alcohols
sad aldehydes, both of the aliphatic and aromatic series, readily
yield on oxidation acids containing the same number of carbon
atoms. These reactions may be shown thus:—
R-OfcOH -> R-CHO -» RCO-OH.
la the case of aromatic aldehydes, adds are also obtained by
Betas of " Cannbuaro's reaction " (see Benzaldehyde). An
important oxidation synthesis of aromatic acids is from hydro-
carbons with aliphatic side chains; thus toluene, or methyl-
benzene, yklds benzoic add, the xylenes, or dimethyl-benzene,
yield methyl-benzoic adds and phthalic acids. Ketones,
Mcondary alcohols and tertiary alcohols yield a mixture of
adds on oxidation, We may also notice the disruption of un-
suarated adds at the double linkage into a mixture of two adds,
vbea fused with potash.
la ths preceding instances the carboxyl group has been
qtathtsised or introduced into a molecule; we have now to
' ' r syntheses from substances already containing carboxyl
Of foremost importance are the reactions termed the
acid and the aceto-acetic ester syntheses; these are
d under their own headings. The dectrosyntheses call
for mention here. It b apparent that metallic salts of organic
adds would, in aqueous solution, be ionized, the positive ion bring
tbe metal, and the negative ion the add residue. Esters, how-
ever, are not ionized. It is therefore apparent that a mixed salt
■ad ester, for example KChC-CH, CH, CChGH*, would give only
two ions, via. potassium and the rest of the molecule. If a solu-
tioa of potassium acetate be electrolysed the products are ethane,
carbon dioxide, potash and hydrogen; in a similar manner,
normal potassium sucdnate gives ethylene, carbon dioxide,
potash and hydrogen; these reactions may be represented: —
CHrCO£C CH, CO, K* CHrCOtTC CH, CO, K*
CHrCoJK CH, CO, K' CHsCoJk CH, CO, K"
By dectrotysing a solution of potassium ethyl sucdnate,
KCVC^CHiKCQidrU, the KO,C- groups are split off and
the two residues •(CH s ) t COiC,Hi combine to form tbe ester
(CHdfCCC^CfHft)*- In the same way, by dectrotysing a mix-
ture of a metallic salt and an ester, other nuclei may be con-
densed; thus potassium acetate and potassium ethyl succinate
yield CH,-CH,CHrCO|CsH».
*«cfi«w.— Organic adds yield metallic salts with bases,
**d ethereal salts or esters ( ¥ .».), R CO OR', with alcohols,
f^bons chlorides give add chlorides. RCOC1, the hy-
^*y1 group bdng replaced by chlorine, and add anhydrides,
C*C%0, a molecule of water being split off between two
< * f botyl groups. Tbe ammonium salts when heated lose one
"dacsJeof water and are converted intoadd-amides, R CO NH,,
**& by further dehydration yield nitriles, R- CN. The caldum
salts distilled with caldum formate yidd aldehydes ($.».);
distilled with soda-lime, ketones (9.9.) result.
ACIDAUUS, VALBNS (1567-1595), German scholar and critic,
was born at Wittstock in Brandenburg. After studying at
Rostock, Greifswald and Helmstedt, and residing about three
years in Italy, he settled at Brealau, where he is said to have
embraced the Roman Catholic religion. Early in 1595 he ac-
cepted an invitation to Neisse, about fifty miles from Brealau,
where he died of brain fever on tbe 25th of May, at the age
of twenty-eight. His excessive application to study, and the
attacks made upon him in connexion with a pamphlet of which
he was reputed the author, doubtless hastened his premature end.
Addalius wrote notes on Vellrius Paterculus (1500)1 Curtius
(1504), the panegyrists, Tadtus and Plautus, published after his
death.
See Leuschner, OmmtnUxtio d* A. V. Vila, Moribus, et Scripts
(1757); F. Adam, " Der Ndsser Rektor," in Btrickt dtr Pkilcmatkit
w Utust (187a).
ACUVAMDB8, chemical compounds which may be considered
as derived from ammonia by replacement of its hydrogen with
addyl residues, tbe substances produced being known as
primary, secondary or tertiary amides, according to the number
of hydrogen atoms replaced. Of these compounds, the primary
amides of the type RCO NH, are the most important They
may be prepared by the dry distillation of the ammonium salts
of the adds (A. W. Hofmann, Ber. t 188a, 15, p. 977), by the partial
hydrolysis of the nitriles, by the action of ammonia or ammonium
carbonate on add chlorides or anhydrides, or by heating the
esters (?.».) with ammonia. They are solid crystalline compounds
(formamide excepted) which are at first soluble in water, the
solubility, however, decreasing as the carbon content of the
molecule increases. They are easily hydrolysed, breaking up
into their components when boiled with adds or alkalies. They
form compounds with hydrochloric acid when this gas is passed
into their ethereal solution; these compounds, however, are
very unstable, bdng readily decomposed by water. On the
other hand, they show faintly add properties since the hydrogen
of the amido group can be replaced by metals to give such com-
pounds as mercury acetamide (CH,CONH)»Hg. Nitrous add
decomposes them, with elimination of nitrogen and the formation
of the corresponding add,
RCONH,+ONOH . RCOOH+N,+HA
When distilled with phosphoric anhydride they yidd nitriles.
By the action of bromine and alcoholic potash on the amides,
they are converted into amines containing one carbon atom
less than the original amide, a reaction which possesses great
theoretical importance (A. W. Hofmann),
RCONH, -> RCONHBr -> RNH,+K,CO,+KBr+H,0.
Formamide, H-CONH,, is a liquid readily soluble in water,
boiling at about 195 C. with partial decomposition. Acetamide,
CH4CONH1, is a white deliquescent crystalline solid, which
melts at 82-83° C. ud boils at 222° C. It is usually prepared
by, distilling ammonium acetate. It is readily soluble in water
and alcohol, but insoluble in ether. Benzamide, C»HVCONH,,
crystallizes in leaflets which mdt at 130 C. It is prepared by
the action of ammonium carbonate on benzoyl chloride. It
yields a silver salt which with ethyl iodide forms beruimido-
ethyl ether, C«H«C : (NH) OC,H», a behaviour which points to
the silver salt as being derived from the tautomeric imido-
benzoic add, C,H»C : (NH)OH (J Tafel, Ber., 1890, 23, p. 104).
On the preparation of the substituted amides from the corre-
sponding sodamides see A. W. Titherley {J own. Ckem. Soc., 1901,
59, p. 391) The secondary and tertiary amides of the types
(RCO)iNH and (RCO)»N may be prepared by heating the
primary amides or the nitriles with acids or acid anhydrides to
200 s C. Thiamides of the type RCSNH, are known, and result
by the addition of sulphuretted hydrogen to the nitriles, or
by tbe action of phosphorus pentasulphide on the acid-amides.
They readily decompose on heating, and are easily hydrolysed
by alkalies; they possess a somewhat more add character than
the arid-amides.
ACINACES (from the Greek), an ancient Persian sword, short
148
ACINETA— ACKNOWLEDGMENT
and straight, and worn, contrary to the Roman fashion, on the
right side, or sometimes in front of the body, as shown in the
bas-reliefs found at Persepolis. Among the Persian nobility
it was frequently made of gold, being worn as a badge of dis-
tinction. The acinaces was an object of religious worship with
the Scythians and others (Herod, iv. 62).
ACINETA (so named by C. G. Ehrenberg), a genus of suctorial
Infusoria characterized by the possession of a stalk and cup-
shaped sheath or theca for the body, and endogenous budding.
O. BUtschli has separated off the genus Metacineta (for A. mysta-
cina), which reproduces by direct bud-fission.
ACINUS (Lat for a berry), a term in botany applied to such
fruits as the blackberry or raspberry, composed of small seed-
like berries, and also to those berries themselves, or to grape-
stones. By analogy, acinus is applied in anatomy to similar
granules or glands, or lobules of a gland.
ACIREALB, a town and episcopal see of the province of
Catania, Sidly; from the town of the same name it is distant
9 m. N. by E. Pop. (1901) 35,418. It has some importance as
a thermal station, and the springs were used by the Romans.
It takes its name from the river Ads, into which, according to
the legend, Ads, the lover of Galatea, was changed after he had
been slain by Polyphemus. The rocks which Polyphemus hurled
at Ulysses are identified with the seven Scogli de* Ciclopi, or
Faraglioni, a little to the south of Adreale.
ACIS, in Greek mythology, the son of Pan (Faunus) and the
nymph Symaethis, a beautiful shepherd of Sidly, was the lover
of the Nereid Galatea. His rival the Cydops Polyphemus sur-
prised them together, and crushed him to pieces with a rock.
His blood, gushing forth from beneath, was metamorphosed by
Galatea into the river bearing his name (now Fiume di Jad),
which was celebrated for the coldness of its waters (Ovid, Met.
xiii. 750; Silius Italicus, Punka, riv. 221).
ACKERMAN, FRANCIS (c. 1335-1387), Flemish soldier and
diplomatist, was born at Ghent, and about 1380 became promi-
nent during the struggle between the burghers of that town and
Louis IL (de Male), count of Flanders. He was partly respon-
sible for indudng Philip van Artevelde to become first captain
of the dty of Ghent in 1382, and at the head of some troops
scoured the surrounding country for provisions and thus saved
Ghent from being starved into submission. By his diplomatic
abilities he secured the assistance of the citizens of Brussels,
Louvain and Lidge, and, having been made admiral of the
Flemish fleet, visited England and obtained a promise of help
from King Richard II. After Artevelde's death in November
1382, he acted as leader of the Flemings, gained several victories
and increased his fame by skilfully conducting a retreat from
Damme to Ghent in August 1385. He took part in the conclu-
sion of the treaty of peace between Ghent and Philip the Bold,
duke of Burgundy, the successor of Count Louis, in December
1385. Trusting in Philip, and ignoring the warnings of his
friends, Ackerman remained in Flanders, and was murdered at
Ghent on the 22nd of July 1387, leaving a memory of chivalry
and generosity.
See Jean Froissart, Chroniques, edited by S. Luce and G. Raynaud
(Paris, 1869-1897); Johannes Brandon, Ckronodromon, edited by
K. de Lettenhove in the Ckroniques relatives a Vhistoire de la Belgique
sous la domination des dues de Bourgogne (Brussels, 1870).
ACKERMANN, JOHANN CHRISTIAN GOTTLIEB (1756-1801),
German physician, was born at Zeulenroda, in Upper Saxony, on
the 1 7th of February 1 7 56, and died at Altdorf on the 9th of March
1 801 At the age of fifteen he became a student of medirine
at Jena under E. G. Baldinger, whom be followed to Gttttingen
in 1773, and afterwards he studied for two years at Halle.
A few years' practice at Stendal (1 778-1 799), where there were
numerous factories, enabled him to add many valuable original
observations to his translation (1 780-1 783) of Bernardino
Ramazzini's ( 1 633- 1 7 1 4) treatise on diseases of artificers. In 1 786
he became professor of medicine at the university of Altdorf, in
Franconia, occupying first the chair of chemistry, and then, from
1794 till his death in 1801, that of "pathology and therapeutics.
He wrote Institutiones Hisloriae Medicinae (Nuremberg, 1792)
and Institutiones Therapiae Centralis (Nuremberg and Altdorf,
x 784-1 795), besides various handbooks and translations.
ACKERMANN, LOUISE VICTORINB CHOQUET (1813-1890),
French poet, was born in Paris on the 30th of November 1813.
Educated by her father in the philosophy of the Encyclopaedists,
Victorine Choquet went to Berlin in 1838 to study German, and
there married in 1843 P aul Ackermann, an Alsatian philologist
After little more than two years of happy married life her
husband died, and Madame Ackermann went to live at Nice
with a favourite sister. In 1855 8fie published Ccntes m vers, and
in 1862 Contes ct potsies. Very different from these simple and
charming contes is the work on which Madame Ackermann's seal
reputation rests. She published in 1 874 Potsies, premieres poesies,
potsies philosophiques, a volume of sombre and powerful verse,
expressing her revolt against human suffering. The volume
was enthusiastically reviewed in the Revue des deux mondes for
May 1871 by E. Caro, who, though he deprecated the impiiU
dtsesptrte of the verses, did full justice to their vigour and the
excellence of their form. Soon after the publication of this
volume Madame Ackermann removed to Paris, where she gathered
round her a drele of friends, but published nothing further
except a prose volume, the Penstes d'un solitaire (1883), to which
she prefixed a short autobiography. She died at Nice on the
2nd of August 189a
See also Anatole France, La vie litttraire, 4th series (1892) ; the
comte d'Haussonville, Mm*. Ackermann (1882); M. Citoletix. La
poisie pkilosophique au XlXe. Steele (vol. i., Mme. Ackermann fapres
de nombreux documents inidils, Paris, 1906).
ACKERMANN, RUDOLPH (1764-1834), Anglo-German in-
ventor and publisher, was born on the 20th of April 1764 at
Schneeberg, in Saxony. He had been a saddler and coach-
builder in different German dries, Paris and London for ten years
before, in 1795, he established a print-shop and drawing-school
in the Strand. Ackermann set up a lithographic press, and
applied it in 1817 to the illustration of his Repository of Arts.
Literature, Fashions, hrc. (monthly until 1828 when forty volumes
had appeared). Rowlandson and other distinguished artists
were regular contributors. He also introduced the fashion of
the once popular English Annuals, beginning in 1825 with
Forget-me-not; and he published many illustrated volumes of
topography and travel, The Microcosm of London (3 vols., 1808-
181 1), Westminster Abbey (2 vols., 1812), The Rhine (1820), The
World in Miniature (43 vols., 1821-1826), &c. Ackermann was
an enterprising man ; he patented (1801) a method for rendering
paper and doth waterproof, erected a factory at Chelsea for the
purpose and was one of the first to illuminate his own premises
with gas. Indeed the introduction of lighting by gas owed
much to him. After the battle of Leipzig Ackermann collected
nearly a quarter of a million sterling for the German sufferers.
He died at Finchley, near London, on the 30th of March 1834.
ACKNOWLEDGMENT (from the old ocknow, a compound of
on- and know, to know by the senses, which passed through the
forms oknow, aknow and ocknow; acknowledge is formed on
analogy of "knowledge"), an admission that something has
been given or done, a term used in law in various connexions.
The acknowledgment of a debt, if in writing signed by the debtor
or his agent, is sufficient to take it out of the Statutes of Limita-
tions. The signature to a will by a testator, if not made in the
presence of two witnesses, may be afterwards acknowledged in
their presence. The acknowledgment by a woman married before
1882 of deeds for the conveyance of real property not her separate
property, requires to be made by her before a judge of the High
Court or of a county court or before a perpetual or special
commissioner. Before such an acknowledgment can be received,
the judge or commissioner is required to examine her apart
from her husband, touching her knowledge of the deed, and to
ascertain whether she freely and voluntarily consents to it An
acknowledgment to the right of the production of deeds of
conveyance is an obligation on the vendor, when he retains any
portion of the property to which the deeds relate, and is entitled
to retain the deeds, to produce them from time to time at the
request of the person to whom the acknowledgment is given.
ACLAND— ACNE
149
to aBow copies to be made, and to undertake for their safe
custody (Conveyancing Act 1881, s. 9)- The term "acknow-
ledgment " is, in the United States, applied to the certificate
of a public officer that an instrument was acknowledged before
ah* to be the deed or act of the person who executed it.
"Acknowledgment money " is the sum paid in some parts
of England by copyhold tenants on the death of the lord of the
1CLAJTO. CHUftTIAM HEHRIETTA CAROLINE (1750-1815).
asoalrjr called Lady Harriet Adand, was born on the 3rd of
January 1750, the daughter of the first earl of Ilchester. In
1770 ihe married John Dyke Adand, who as a member of parlia-
ment became a vigorous supporter of Lord North's policy
towards the American colonies, and, entering the British army
m 1774, served with Burgoyne's expedition as major in the aoth
regiment of foot. Lady Harriet accompanied her husband, and,
«hea be was wounded at TSconderoga, nursed him in hit tent at
the front in the second battle of Saratoga Ma jor Adand was
again badly wounded and subsequently taken prisoner. Lady
Harriet was determined to be with him, and underwent great
hardship to accomplish her object, proving herself a courageous
and devoted wife. A story has been told that being provided
with a letter from General Burgoyne to the American general
Gates, she went up the Hudson river in an open boat to the
enemy's lines, arriving late in the evening. The American out-
posts threatened to fire into the boat if its occupants stirred,
and Lady Harriet had to wait eight " dark and cold hours,"
anul the sun rose, when she at last received permission to join
her husband. Major Adand died in 177ft, *»* Laxly Harriet on
thenstof Jury 1815.
AOajrn, mi hdtry wbrtworth. Bast. (1815-1900),
Eaghm physician and man of learning, was born near Exeter on
the »3rd of August 18x5, and was the fourth son of Sir Thomas
Dyke Adand (1787-1871). Educated at Harrow and at Christ
Church, Oxford, he was elected fellow of All Souls in 1840, and
then studied medicine in London and Edinburgh. Returning
to Oxford, he was appointed Lee's reader in anatomy at Christ
Chum in 1845, *nd in 1851 Raddiffe librarian and physician to
the Kaddhfe infirmary. Seven years later he became regiua
professor of medicine, a post which he retained till 1804. He
vas also a curator of the university galleries and of the Bodleian
Lfauy, and from 1858 to 1887 he represented his university
«a the General Medical Council, of which he served as president
tram 1S74 to 1887. He was created a baronet in 1800, and ten
yean later, on the 16th of October 1000, he died at his house in
Brad Street, Oxford. Adand took a leading part in the revival
of the Oxford medical school and in introducing the study of
aatanl science into the university. As Lee's reader he began
to form a collection of anatomical and physiological preparations
on the plan of John Hunter, and the establishment of the Oxford
ttuveisity museum, opened in 1861, as a centre for the en-
ooaagemrnt of the study of science, especially in relation to
wdidne, was largely due to his efforts. " To Henry Adand,"
•id his lifelong friend, John Ruskin, " physiology was an en-
trusted gospel of which he was the solitary preacher to the
heathen," but on the other band his thorough classical training
Preserved science at Oxford from too abrupt a severance from
the humanities In conjunction with Dean Liddell, he revolu-
tionised the study of art and archaeology, sd that the cultivation
of these subjects, for which, as Ruskin declared, no one at Oxford
cared before that time, began to flourish in the university.
Adand was also interested in questions of public health. He
■ntd on the royal commission on sanitary laws in England
ud Wale* in 1869,. and published a study of the outbreak of
cWta st Oxford in 1854, together with various pamphlets on
«*tarjr matters/ His memoir on the topography of the Troad,
*** panoramic plan (1839), was among the fruits of a cruise
vhkh he made in the Mediterranean for the sake of his health.
ACH (Gr. Ut4, point), the highest point attainable; first
" djsan English word by Ben Jonson.
*CHTI, or Ascnm, a mineral of the pyroxene (9.9.) group,
•**■ amy be described as a soda-pyroxene, being essentially a
sodium and ferric metasilicate, NaFc(SiOj)* In its crystallo-
graphic characters it is close to ordinary pyroxene (augite and
diopside), being monodinic and having nearly the same angle
between the prismatic cleavages. There are, however, important
differences in the optical characters: the birefringence of acmite
is negative, the pleochroism is strong and the extinction angle
on the plane of symmetry measured to the vertical axis is small
(j°-5°). The hardness is 6-6J, and the specific gravity 3-55.
Crystals are elongated in the direction of the vertical axis, and
are blackish green (aegirite) or dark brown (acmite) in colour.
Being isomorphous with augite, crystals intermediate in com-
position between augite or diopside and aegirite are not un-
common, and these are known as aegirine-augite or aegirine-
diopside.
Acmite is a characteristic constituent of igneous rocks rich in
soda, such as nepheline-syeuites, phonolites, &c. It was first
discovered as slender crystals, sometimes a foot in length, in
the pegmatite veins of the granite of Rundemyr, near Kongsberg
in Norway, and waa named by F. Stromeyer in 182 1 from the
Gr. dx/rft a point, in allusion to the pointed terminations of
the crystals. Aegirite (named from Aegir, the Scandinavian
sea-god) was described in 1835 fr° m the elaeolite-ayenite of
southern Norway. Although exhibiting certain varietal differ-
ences, the essential identity of acmite and aegirite has long been
established, but the latter and more recent name is perhaps in
more general use, especially among penologists.
ACNB, a skin eruption produced by inflammation of the
sebaceous glands and hair follicles, the essential point in the
disease being the plugging of the mouths of the sebaceous
follicles by a " comedo/' familiarly known as " blackhead." It
is now generally acknowledged that the cause of this disease is
the organism known as bacillus acnes. It shows itself in the
form of red pimples or papules, which may become pustular and
be attended with considerable surrounding irritation of the
skin. This affection is likewise most common in early adult life,
and occurs on the chest and back as well as on the face, where it
may, when of much extent, produce considerable disfigurement
It is apt to persist for months or even years, but usually in time
disappears entirely, although slight traces may remain in the
form of scars or stains upon the skin. Eruptions of this kind
are sometimes produced by the continued internal use of certain
drugs, such as the iodide or bromide of potassium. In treating
this condition the face should first of all be held over steaming
water for several minutes, and then thoroughly bathed. The
blackheads should next be removed, not with the finger-nail,
but with an inexpensive little instrument known as the " comedo
expressor." When the more noticeable of the blackheads have
been expressed, the face should be firmly rubbed for three or
four minutes with a lather made from a special soap composed
of sulphur, camphor and balsam of Peru. Any lather remaining
on the face at the end of this time should be wiped off with a
soft handkerchief. As this treatment might give rise to some
irritation of the skin, it should be replaced every fourth night
by a simple application of cold cream. Of drugs used internally
sulphate of calcium, in pill, i grain three times a day, is a very
useful adjunct to the preceding. The patient should take plenty
of exercise in the fresh air, a very simple but nourishing diet,
and, if present, constipation and anaemia must be suitably treated.
Rosacea, popularly known as acne rosacea, is a more severe
and troublesome disorder, a true dermatitis with no relation to
the foregoing, and in most cases secondary to seborrhea of the
scalp. It is characterized by great redness of the nose and
cheeks, accompanied by pustular enlargements on the surface
of the skin, which produce marked disfigurement. Although
often seen in persons who live too freely, it is by no means con-
fined to such, but may arise in connexion with disturbances of
the general health, especially of the function of digestion, and
in females with menstrual disorders. It is apt to be exceed-
ingly intractable to treatment, which is here too, as in the pre-
ceding form, partly local and partly constitutional. Of internal
remedies preparations of iodine and of arsenic ate sometimes
found of service.
'5<>
ACOEMETI— ACOMINATUS
ACOEHETI (Gr. axoijrirrof, sleepless), an order of Eastern
monks who celebrated the divine service without intermission
day or night This was done by dividing the communities into
choirs, which relieved each other by turn in the church. Their
first monastery was established on the Euphrates, in the begin-
ning of the 5th century, and soon afterwards one was founded in
Constantinople. Here also, c. 460, was founded by the consular
Studius the famous monastery of the Studjum, which was put
in the hands of the Acoemeti and became their chief house, so
that they were sometimes called Studites. At Agaunum (St
Maurice in the Valais) a monastery was founded by the Bur-
gundian king Sigismund, in 515, in which the perpetual office
was kept up; but it is doubtful whether this had any connexion
with the Eastern Acoemeti.
The Constantinopolitan Acoemeti took a prominent part in
the Christological controversies of the 5th and 6th centuries, at
first strenuously opposing Acadus, patriarch of Constantinople,
in his attempted compromise with the monophysites; but after-
wards, in Justinian's reign, falling under ecclesiastical censure
for Nestorian tendencies.
See the article in Dictionary of Christian Antiquities; Wetter und
Welte, KirckenUxicon (2nd ed.J; and Herzog-Hauck, RealencykUh
pddie (3rd ed.);alao the general histories of the time. (E.CB.)
AOOLTTB (Gr.&xoXotriof , follower), the last of the four minor
orders in the Roman Church. As an office it appears to be of
local origin, and is.entirely unknown in the Eastern Church, with
the exception of the Armenians who borrowed it from the West
Before the council of Nicaea (325) it was only to be found at
Rome and Carthage. When in 251 Pope Cornelius, in a letter to
Fabius of Antioch, mentions among the Roman clergy forty-two
acolytes, placing them after the subdeacons and before the other
minor officials (see Eusebius, Hist. Ece. lib. v. cap. 43), he gives
no hint that the office was a new one, but speaks of them as hold-
ing an already established position. Their institution has there-
fore to be sought for at an earlier date than his pontificate. It
is possible that the Liber Pontificalis refers to the office under
the Latin synonym, when it says of Pope Victor (186-197) that
he made sequentes cleros, a term — sequent — which Pope Gaius
(283-293) uses in the sense of acolyte. While the office was well
known in Rome, there is nothing to prove that it was also an
order through which, as to-day, every candidate to the priest-
hood must pass. The contrary is a fact proved by many monu-
mental inscriptions and authentic statements. Though the
office is found at Carthage, and St Cyprian (200?-as8) makes
many references to acolytes, whom he used to carry his letters,
this seems to be the only place in Africa where they were known.
Tertullian, while speaking of readers and exorcists, says nothing
about acolytes; neither does St Augustine. The Irish Church
did not know them; and in Spain the council of Toledo (400)
makes no mention either of the office or of the order. The
Statute Ecdesiae Antigua (falsely called the Canons of the Fourth
Council of Carthage in 397), a Gallican collection, originating in
the province of Aries at the beginning of the 6th century,
mentions the acolyte, but does not give, as in the case of the
other orders, any form for the ordination. The Roman books are
silent, and there is no mention of it in the collection known as
the Leonine Sacramentary; while in the so-called Gelasian Mass-
book, which, as we have it, is full of Gallican additions made to
St Gregory's reform, there is the same silence, though in one MS.
of the 10th century given by Muratori we find a form- for the
ordination of an acolyte. While there is frequent mention of
the acolyte's office in the Ordines Romani, it is only in the Ordo
VOL (which is not earlier than the 7th century) that we find the
very simple form for admitting an acolyte to his office. At the
end of the mass the cleric, clad in chasuble and stole, and bearing
a linen bag on one arm, comes before the pope or bishop and
receives a blessing. There is no collation of power or order but
a simple admission to an office. The evidence available, there-
fore, points to the fact that the acolyte was only a local office
and was not a necessary step or order for every candidate.
In England, though the ecclesiastical organization came from
Rome and was directed by Romans, we find no trace of such
an office or order until the time of Ecgbert of York (767). the
friend of Alcuin and therefore subject to Gallican influence. The
Pontifical known as Ecgbert's shows that it was then in use both
as an office and as an order, and Aelfric (1006) in both his pastoral
. epistle and canons mentions the acolyte. The conclusion, then,
which seems warranted by the evidence, is that the acolyte was
an office only at Rome, and, becoming an order in the Gallican
Church, found its way as such into the Roman books at some
period before the fusion of the two rites under Charlemagne,
The du/es of the acolyte, as given in the Roman Pontifical,
are identical with those mentioned in tbtt- Statute Ecdesiae
Antiqua of Aries: " It is the duty of acolytes to carry the candle-
sticks, to light the lamps of the church, to administer wine and
water for the Eucharist" It might seem, from the number forty-
two mentioned by Pope Cornelius, that at Rome the acolytes
were divided among the seven ecclesiastical regions of the city;
but we have no proof that, at that date, there were six acolytes
attached to each region. From the ancient division of the Roman
acolytes into Palatini, or those in attendance on the pope at the
Lateran palace, Statianarii, or those who served at the churches
where there was a " station," and RegionarU, or those attached
directly to the regions, it would seem that the number forty-two
was only the actual number then existing and not an official
number. We get a glimpse of their duties from the Ordines
Roman*. When the pope rode in procession to the station an
acolyte, on foot, preceded him, bearing the holy chrism; and
at the church seven regionary acolytes with candles went before
him in the piocession to the altar, while two others, bearing the
vessel that contained a pre-consecrated Host, presented it for his
adoration. During the mass an acolyte bore the thurible (Qrde
\t) and three assisted at the washing of the hands. At the
moment of communion the acolytes received in linen bags the
consecrated Hosts to carry to the assisting priests. This office
of bearing the sacrament is an ancient one, and is mentioned in
the legend of Tarcisius, the Roman acolyte, who was martyred
on the Appian Way while carrying the Hosts from the cata-
combs. The official dress of the acolyte, according to Ordo V.,
was a close-fitting linen garment (camisia) girt about him, a
napkin hanging from the left side, a white tunic, a stole (orarittm)
and a chasuble (planete) which he took off when he sang on the
steps of the ambone.
At the present day, despite the earnest wish of the council of
Trent (Sees, xxiii. cap. 17 d.r.), the acolyte, while remaining an
order, has ceased to be essentially a clerical office, since, the duties
are now performed, almost everywhere, by laymen. The office
has been revived, though unofficially, in the Church of England,
as a result of the Tractarian movement
See Morin, Commentarius in sacris Ecdesiae ordinaHtmibus
(Antwerp, 1685), ii. p. 209, iii. p. 15a; Martcne. De AmUquis Ec-
desiae ritibus (Antwerp, 1739). ti. pp. 47 and 86; Mabilkxi, Mmsaemm
Ilalicum II. for the Ordines Romani; Muratori, Litmrgta Remtana
Vetus; Cabrol, Dietionnaire Sarchhtep* chritienne et de lUmrgie.
vol. i. col. 348-M6. (E. T*.J
ACOMINATUS (Akootnatos), MICHAEL (c. 1 140-1230),
Byzantine writer and ecclesiastic, was bora at Chonae (the
ancient Cblossae). At an early age he studied at Constantinople,
and about 1 1 75 was appointed archbishop of Athens. After the
capture of Constantinople by the Franks and the establishment
of the Latin empire (1 204), he retired to the island of Ceos, where
he died. He was a versatile writer, and composed homilies,
speeches and poems, which, with his correspondence, throw
considerable light upon the miserable condition of Attica and
Athens at the time. His memorial to Alexis in. Angelus on the
abuses of Byzantine administration, the poetical lament over the
degeneracy of Athens and the monodes on his brother Nicetas
and Eustathius, archbishop of Thessalonica, deserve special
mention.
Edition of his works by S. Lambros (1870-1880) : Mtgne, PaA-aforis
Graeca, cxl.; see also A. Ellisien, Michael Akomtnatos (1646), con-
taining several pieces with German translation; F. Cregorovius.
taining
Geschtchte der
Aihen im MiltelaUer, i. (1889); G?°FinE!y
History of Qreece, iv. pp. 133-134 (1877).
His younger brother Nicetas (Niketas), sometimes called
Chonxates, who accompanied him to Constantinople, took up
ACONCAGUA— ACONITE
i5»
pofitks as a oner. He held several appointments under the
Aafdns emperon (amongst them that of M great logothete " or
chancellor) and was g o vernor of the " theme " of Philippopolis
at a critical period. After the fall of Constantinople he fled to
Kicaea, where he settled at the court of the emperor Theodoras
Lascaris, and devoted himself to literature. He died between
moandisao. His chief work hhsm History, in ax books, of the
period from 1180 to faoo. In spite of its florid and bombastic
style, it is of considerable value as a record (on the whole im-
partial) of events of whkh he was either an eye-witness or bad
heard at first hand. Its most interesting portion is the de-
scription of the capture of Constantinople, which should be read
with VlUehaidouin's and Paolo Rannusio's works on the same
abject. Hie little treatise On Ike Statues destroyed by the
Latins (perhaps, as we have it, altered by a later writer) is of
special interest to the archaeologist. His dogmatic work(Oqtfavpot
TMb*s$«s v Tkaomnu Orikodoxat Fides), although it is extant in
a complete form in MS., has only been published in part It Is
one of the chief authorities for the heresies and heretical writers
of the 12th century.
Editions: History* edWo princepe, H. Wolf (1557); and in the
BjmnCerpusScr iftonu n BisL By*. ± 1st ecL.Bekker (1835^; "'
• BisL By*., ist ed.,Bekker (1835): Rhetorical
. IwiMbf AlXtoAfo. u (1873); Thesaurus in
1 Grotty aaaax., ad. ; see also C. A. Sainte-Beuve,
yde VtiUtmr&omn"inCauseri€sduLundi, ix.;S. Reinach,
" La an da rempire grec " in Esgnisses ArdUaloriquts (1888); C.
Nomina. Critdusekt GesckuklssckrtiUr im 12. Jahrbundert (1888) ;
Gbboe, Dodmt and PaB, ch. la. : and (for both Michael and Nfcetaa)
C Kraaabacher, Cesehiekte der oysantmischen LUtoratur (1897).*
aCUTCAvUA, a small northern province of central Chile,
bounded N. fay Coquimbo, E. by Argentina, S. by Santiago and
Valparaiso and W. by the Pacific Its area is officially com-
puted at $487 sq. m. Bop. (1895). 113,16s; (ioos, official esti-
■ste based on civil registry returns) 131,355. The province is
vny mountainous, and is traversed from east/to west by the broad
vaUey of the Aconcagua river. The climate is hot and dry, the
nouall being too small to influence climatic conditions. The
nDeys are highly fertile, and where irrigation is employed large
oops are easily raised. Beyond the limits of irrigation the
coaafry is semi-barren. Alfalfa and grapes are the principal
products, and considerable attention is given to the cultivation
of other fruits, such as figs, peaches and melons. The "Vale of
Qnfllota/* through which the railway passes between Valparaiso
tad Santiago, is celebrated for its gardens. The Aconcagua
river rises on the southern slope of the volcano Aconcagua, flows
eastward through a broad valley, or bay in the mountains, and
eaters the Pacific ia m. north of Valparaiso. The river has a
onme of about aoo m., and its waters irrigate the best and
Mist populous part of the province. Two other rivers— the
Liana aid Choapa traverse the province, the latter forming
the northern boundary line. The capital is San Felipe, on the
Aconcagua river; it had a population of 11,315 in 1895. *nd an
estimated population of 11,660 in 190s. The other chief town
is Santa Rota tk los Andes^est pop. 6854), which is a principal
nation on the Transandine branch of the state railway. The
oily port in the province is Los VDos, in lat 3a S., from which
a rauway 40 m. long runs north-east to the valley of the Choapa.
Another short line connects Cabildo> in the valley of the Ugua,
wit h the sta ^e railway.
ACOrao, OlACOHO (1499-1566?), pioneer of religious tolera-
tion, was born at Trent, it is said, on the 7th of September
149a. He was one of the Italians like Peter Martyr and Bernar-
tiaefekino-who repudiated papal doctrine and ultimately found
nrnjr in England Like them, his revolt against Romanism
r form than Lutheranism, and after a temporary
(endeace in Switzerland and at Strassburg, he arrived in England
tan after Elisabeth's accession. He had studied law and
unalsfy, but ma profession was that of an engineer, and in this
opacity he found empfoyinent with the English government.
Be vss granted an annuity of £60 on the 17th of February 1560,
ud letters of nrnturauanrJon on the 8th of October 1561 (Cat.
&* Papers, Don. Ser., Addenda, 1 547-1 566, p. 495) , and was for
*** tune occupied with draining Plumstead marshes, for which
object various acts of parliament were passed at this time (Lords'
Journals, voL L, and Commons' Journals, vol. i., passim). In
1564 he was sent to report on the fortifications of Berwick (Cal.
St. Paf. For. Ser. 1 564-1 565, passim; Ads P.C., 155&-1570,
p. 146); his report is now in the Record Office (C*S.P. For.,
1564-1565* No. 512).
But his real importance depends upon his contribution to the
history of religious toleration. Before reaching England he had
pubtjued a treatise on the methods of investigation, De Mtthodo,
rations (Basel, 1558, 8vo); and his critical spirit placed him
outside all the recognised religious societies of his time. On his
arrival in London he bad joined the Dutch Reformed Church
in Austin Friars, but he was " infected with Anabaptistical and
Arian opinions " and was- excluded from the sacrament by
Grindal, bishop of I<ondon. The real nature of his heterodoxy
is revealed in his Stralogemala Satanae, published in 1565 and
translated into various languages. The " stratagems of Satan "
are the dogmatic creeds which rent the Christian church. Acondo
sought to find the common denominator of the various creeds;
this was essential doctrine, the rest was immaterial To arrive
at this common basis, he bad to reduce dogma to a low level,
and his result was generally repudiated. Even Selden applied
to Acondo the remark ubi bene, nil melius; ubi male, nemo
pejus. The dedication of such a work to Queen Elisabeth illus-
trates the tolerance or rehgtous laxity during the early years of
her reign. Acondo found another patron in the earl of Leicester,
and died about 1566.
AuTHOnmBS.— Cough's Index to Parker Sec PubL; Strvpe'a
Grindal, pp. 6a, 66; Bayle's DicHonnaire; G. Tiraboachi, Storia
delta letL haUana (Florence, 1805-1813); Ostorreiemisckes Biotr.
Lexiken; NeumUe ou&. tfiuemto; titcL Nat, Biofr. (A. F. P.)
ACONITE (AconUum), a genus of plants belonging to the
natural order Ranunculaceae, the buttercup family, commonly
known as aconite, monkshood or wolfsbane, and embradng
about 60 specks, chiefly natives of the mountainous parts of the
northern hemisphere. They are distinguished by having one
of the fivetblue or yellow coloured sepals (the posterior one) in
the form of a helmet; hence the English name monkshood.
Two of the petals placed under the hood of the calyx are sup-
ported on long stalks, and have a hollow spur at their apex,
containing honey. They are handsome plants, the tall stem
being crowned by racemes of showy flowers. AconUum NapcUus,
common monkshood, is a doubtful native of Britain, and is of
therapeutic and toxicologies! importance. Its roots have occa-
sionalry been mistaken for horse-radish. The aconite has a short
underground stem, from which dark-coloured tapering roots
descend. The crown or upper portion of the root gives rise to
new plants. When put to the lip, the juice of the aconite root
produces a feeling of numbness and tingling. The horse-radish
root, which belongs to the natural order Crurifcrae, is much
longer than that of the aconite, and it is not tapering; its colour
is yellowish, and the top of the root has the remains of the leaves
on it.
Many species of aconite are cultivated in gardens, some having
blue and others yellow flowers. A conitum lycoctonum, wolfsbane,
is a yellow-flowered spedes common on the Alps of Switzerland.
The roots of AconUum ferox supply the famous Indian (Hepal)
poison called bikh, bish or nabee. It contains considerable
quantities of the alkaloid pseudaconitine, which is the most
deadly poison known. AconUum palmatum yields another of
the celebrated bikh poisons. The root of AconUum luridum, of
the Himalayas, is said to be as virulent as that of A. ferox or
A . Napdlus. As garden plants the aconites are very ornamental,
hardy perennials. They thrive well in any ordinary garden soil,
and will grow beneath the shade of trees. They are easily propa-
gated by divisions of the root or by seeds; great care should be
taken not to leave pieces- of the root about owing to its very
poisonous character.
Chemistry.— -The active principle of AconUum Napdlus is the
alkaloid aconitine, first examined by P. L. Gdger and Hesse
(Ann., 1834, 7, p. 267). Alder Wright and A. P Luff obtained
152
ACONTIUS— ACORN
apoaconitine, aconine and benzoic add by hydrolysis; while, in
189a, C. Ehrcnbcrg and A. Purftlrst (Journ. Prat. Ckem., 189a,
45, p. 604) observed acetic add as a hydrolytic product This, and
allied alkaloids, have formed the subject of many investigations
by Wyndham Dunstan and his pupils in England, and by Martin
Freund and Paul Beck in Berlin. But their constitution is not
yet solved, there even bang some divergence of opinion as to
thdr empirical formulae. Aconitine (CuH^NOu, according to
Dunstan; CmHoNOu, according to Freund) is a crystalline
base, soluble in alcohol, but very sparingly in water; its alco-
holic solution is dextrorotatory, but its salts are laevorotatory.
When heated it loses water and forms pyraconitine. Hydrolysis
gives acetic add and benzaconine, the chief constituent of the
alkaloids picraconitine and napelline; further hydrolysis gives
aconine. Pseudaconitine, obtained from Aconitum fcrox, gives
on hydrolysis acetic add and veratrylpseudaconine, the latter
of which suffers further hydrolysis to veratric add and pseud-
aconine. Japaconitine, obtained from the Japanese aconites,
known locally as " kuza-uzu," hydrolyses to japbenzaconinc,
which further breaks down to benzoic add and japaconine.
Other related alkaloids are lycaconitine and myoctonine which
occur in wolfsbane, Aconitum lycoctonum. The usual test for
solutions of aconitine consists in slight addulation with acetic
add and addition of potassium permanganate, which causes the
formation of a red crystalline predpitate. In 1 905 , Dunstan and
his collaborators discovered two new aconite alkaloids, indaconi-
tine in "mohri" (Aconitum ckasmantkum t Stapf), and bikh-
aconitine in " bikh " (Aconitum spicatum); he also proposes to
classify these alkaloids according to whether they yield benzoic
or veratric add on hydrolysis (Jour. Ckem. Soc., 1905, 87, pp.
1620, 1650).
From the root of Aconitum NapeUus are prepared a liniment
and a tincture. The dose of the latter (Brit Pharmacop.) is of
importance as being exceptionally small, for it is not advisable
to give more than at most five drops at a time. The official
preparation is an ointment which contains one part of the alka-
loid in fifty. It must be used with extreme care, and in small
quantities, and it must not be used at all where cuts or cracks are
present in the skin.
Pharmacology of Aconite and Aconitine. — Aconite first stimu-
lates and later paralyses the nerves of pain, touch and tempera-
ture, if applied to the skin, broken or unbroken, or to a mucous
membrane; the initial tingling therefore gives place to a long-
continued anaesthetic action. Taken internally aconite acts
very notably on the rirculation, the respiration and the nervous
system. The pulse is slowed, the number of beats per minute
bring actually reduced, under considerable doses, to forty, or
even thirty, per minute. The blood-pressure synchronously
falls, and the heart is arrested in diastole. Immediately before
arrest the heart may beat much faster than normally, though
with extreme irregularity, and in the lower animals the auricles
may be observed occasionally to miss a beat, as in poisoning by
veratrine and colchicum. The action of aconitine on the circu-
lation is due to an initial stimulation of the cardio-inhibitory
centre in the medulla oblongata (at the root of the vagus nerves),
and later to a directly toxic influence on the nerve-ganglia and
muscular fibres of the heart itself. The fall in blood-pressure is
not due to any direct influence on the vessels. The respiration
becomes slower owing to a paralytic action on the respiratory
centre and, in warm-blooded animals, death is due to this action,
the respiration being arrested before the action of the heart
Aconite further depresses the activity of all nerve-terminals,,
the sensory being affected before the motor. In small doses it
therefore tends to relieve pain, if this be present The activity
of the spinal cord is similarly depressed. The pupil is at first
contracted, and afterwards dilated. The cerebrum is totally
unaffected by aconite, consciousness and the intelligence re-
maining normal to the last The antipyretic action which con-
siderable doses of aconite display is not spedfic, but is the
result of its influence on the circulation and respiration and of its
alight diaphoretic action.
Therapeutics .— The indications for its employment are limited,
but definite. It is of undoubted value as a local anodyne in
sciatica and neuralgia, especially in ordinary fatial or trigeminal
neuralgia. The best method of application is by rubbing in a
small quantity of the aconitine ointment until numbness b fdt,
but the costliness of this preparation causes the use of the
aconite liniment to be commonly resorted to. This should be
painted on the affected part with a camel's hair brush dipped in
chloroform, which facilitates the absorption of the alkaloid.
Aconite is indicated for internal administration whenever it is
desirable to depress the action of the heart in the course of a
fever. Formerly used in every fever, and even in the septic states
that constantly followed surgical operations in the pre-Listerian
epoch, aconite is now employed only in the earliest stage of the
less serious fevers, such as acute tonsilitis, bronchitis and,
notably, laryngitis. The extreme pain and rapid swelling of the
vocal cords — with threatened obstruction to the respiration —
that characterize acute laryngitis may often be relieved by the
sedative action of this drug upon the rirculation. In order to
reduce the pulse to its normal rate in these cases, without at the
same time lessening the power of the heart, the drug must be
given in doses of about two minims of the tincture every half-
hour and then every hour until the pulse falls to the normal rate.
Thereafter the drug must be discontinued. It is probably never
right to give aconite in doses much larger than that named.
There is one condition of the heart itself in which aconite is
sometimes useful. Whilst absolutely contra-indicated in all
cases of valvular disease, it is of value in cases of cardiac hyper-
trophy with over-action. But the practitioner must be assured
that neither valvular lesion nor degeneration of the myocardium
is present
Toxicology.— In a few minutes after the introduction of a
poisonous dose of aconite, marked symptoms supervene. The
initial signs of poisoning are referable to the alimentary canal.
There is a sensation of burning, tingling and numbness in the
mouth, and of burning in the abdomen. Death usually super-
venes before a numbing effect on the intestine can be observed.
After about an hour there is severe vomiting. Much motor
weakness and cutaneous sensations similar to those above de-
scribed soon follow. The pulse and respiration steadily faO,
death occurring from asphyxia. As in strychnine poisoning,
the patient is conscious and dear-minded to the last The
only post-mortem signs are those of asphyxia. The treatment
is to empty the stomach by tube or by a non-depressant emetic
The physiological antidotes are atropine and digitalin or
strophanthin, which should be injected subcutaneously in
maximal doses. Alcohol, strychnine and warmth must also
be employed.
ACONTIUS (Gr. Akontios), in Greek legend, a beautiful youth
of the island of Ceos, the hero of a love-story told byCallimachus
in a poem now lost, which forms the subject of two of Ovid's
Her aides (xx., xxi.). During the festival of Artemis at Delos,
Acontius saw Cydippe, a well-born Athenian maiden of whom
he was enamoured, sitting in the temple of the goddess. He
wrote on an apple the words, " I swear by the sacred shrine of
the goddess that I will marry you," and threw it at her feet She
picked it up, and mechanically read the words aloud, which
amounted to a solemn undertaking to carry them out Unaware
of this, she treated Acontius with contempt; but, although she
was betrothed more than once, she always fell ill before the wed-
ding took place. The Delphic oracle at last declared the cause
of her illnesses to be the wrath of the offended goddess; where-
upon her father consented to her marriage with Acontius (Aris-
taenetus, Epistolat, i. 10; Antoninus Liberalis, Metamorphoses,
i., tells the story with different names).
ACORN, the fruit of the oak-tree; a word also used, by
analogy with the shape, in nautical language, for a piece of wood
keeping the vane on the mast-head. The etymology of the word
(earlier okerne, and acharn) is well discussed in the New English
Dictionary. It is derived from a word (Goth, ahran) which
meant " fruit," originally " of the unendowed land," and so of
the most important forest produce, the oak. Chaucer speaks of
" achornes of okes." By degrees, popular etymology connected
ACORUS CALAMUS— ACOUSTICS
»53
the word both with " corn " and " oak-horn/' and the spelling
changed accordingly.
ACORUS CALAMUS, sweet-sedge or sweet-flag, a plant of the
natural order Araccae, which shares with the Cuckoo Pint (Arum)
the representation in Britain of that order of Monocotyledons.
The name is derived from acorus, Gr. &xopot, the classical
aime for the plant. It was the Calamus aromaticus of the
medieval druggists and perhaps of the ancients, though the latter
has been referred by some to the Citron grass, Andropogon
Nsrivs. The spice " Calamus " or " Sweet-cane " of the Scrip-
tures, one of the* ingredients of the holy anointing oil of the Jews,
•as perhaps one of the fragrant species of A ndropogon. The plant
b a herbaceous perennial with a long, branched root-stock
creeping through the mud, about } inch thick, with short joints
and large brownish leaf-scars. At the ends of the branches are
tufts of flat, sword-like, sweet-scented leaves 3 or 4 ft. long
ud about an inch wide, closely arranged in two rows as in the
true Flag (/ro); the tall, flowering stems (scapes), which very
mack resemble the leaves, bear an apparently lateral, blunt,
tapering spike of densely packed, very small flowers. A long
leaf (spathic) borne immediately below the spike forms an appar-
ent continuation of the scape, though really a lateral outgrowth
from it, the spike of flowers being terminal. The plant has a wide
distribution, growing in wet situations in the Himalayas, North
America, Siberia and various parts of Europe, including Eng-
land, and has been naturalized in Scotland and Ireland. Though
regarded as a native in most counties of England at the present
day, where it is now found thoroughly wild on sides of ditches,
poods and rivers, and very abundantly in some districts, it is
probably not indigenous. It seems to have been spread in western
and central Europe from about the end of the 16th century by
neaos of botanic gardens. The botanist Clusius (Charles de
ITsdase or Ltduse, 1526-1609) first cultivated it at Vienna
from a root received from Asia Minor in 1574, and distributed
it to other botanists in central and western Europe, and it was
probably introduced into England about 1596 by the herbalist
Gerard. It is very readily propagated by means of its branch-
ing root-stock. It has an agreeable odour, and has been used
aedicinauy. The starchy matter contained in its rhizome is
associated with a fragrant oil, and it is used as hair-powder.
Sir J. E. Smith (Eng. Flora, ii. 158, 2nd ed., 1828) mentions it as
a popular remedy in Norfolk for ague. In India it is used as an
iasectifuge, and is administered in infantile diarrhoea. It is an
iagredieat in pot-pourri, is employed for flavouring beer and is
chewed to dear the voice; and its volatile oil is employed by
Bakers of snuff and aromatic vinegar. The rhizome of Acorus
CsL*.m is sometimes adulterated with that of Iris Pseudacorus,
takh, however, is distinguishable by its lack of odour, a stringent
taste and dark colour.
ACOCTA, JOSft DB (i$39?-i6oo), Spanish author, was born
at Medina del Campo about the year 1 539. He joined the Jesuits
» 1551, and in 1571 was sent as a missionary to Peru; he acted
as provincial of his order from 1576 to 1581, was appointed
theological adviser to the council of Lima in 1582, and in 1583
pnbhshed a catechism in Quichua and Aymara— the first book
printed in Peru. Returning to Spain in x 587, and placing him-
self at the head of the opposition to Acquaviva, Acosta was im-
prisoned in 1 592-1 593; on his submission in 1504 he became
superior of the Jesuits at Valladolid, and in 1598 rector of the
Jesflit college at Salamanca, where he died on the 15th of Feb-
nvy 1600. His treatise De naiura novi orbis libri duo (Sala-
■anea, 1588-1589) may be regarded as the preliminary draft of
■a celebrated Historic natural y moral de las Jndias (Seville,
1 S9o) which was speedily translated into Italian (1506), French
Oft;), Dutch (1598), German (1601), Latin (1602) and English
(ta*). The Bistoria is in three sections: books I. and II. deal
•ah generalities; books III. and IV. with the physical geography
*»d natural history of Mexico and Peru; books V., VI. and VII.
**h the religious and political institutions of the aborigines.
Apart from his sophistical defence of Spanish colonial policy,
•tatfa deserves high praise as an acute and diligent observer
those numerous new and valuable data are set forth in a vivid
style. Among his other publications are De procuranda salute
Indorum libri sex (Salamanca, 1588), De Chris to revelaio libri
novem (Rome, 1500), De Umporibus notissimis libri quatuor
(Rome, 1500), and three volumes of sermons issued respectively
in 1596, 1597 and 1599.
Authorities.— Tort R. Carricido, El P. Josi de Acosta y su
importancia en la liUratum cientifica cspaHola (Madrid, 1899); C.
Sommervogel, Bibliotheque de la Compagnie de Jisus, Premiere
Parlie (Brussels and Paris, 1890), vol. i., col. 31-42; and Edward
Grimston's translation of the Historic reprinted (1880) for the
Hakluyt Society with introduction and notes by Sir Clements R.
Markham. (J- F-K.)
ACOSTA, URIEL (d. 1647), * Portuguese Jew of noble family,
was born at Oporto towards the close of the 16th century. His
father being a convert to Christianity, Uriel was brought up in
the Roman Catholic faith, and strictly observed the rites of the
church till the course of his inquiries led him, after much painful
doubt, to abandon the religion of his youth for Judaism. Passing
over to Amsterdam, he was received into the synagogue, having
his name changed from Gabriel to Uriel. His wayward dis-
position found, however, no satisfaction in the Jewish fold. He
came into conflict with the authorities of the synagogue and was
excommunicated. Unlike Spinoza (who was about fifteen at
the time of Acosta 's death), Acosta was not strong enough to
stand alone. Wearied by his melancholy isolation, he was
driven to seek a return to the Jewish communion. Having re-
canted his heresies, be was readmitted after an excommunication
of fifteen years, but was soon excommunicated a second time.
After seven years of exclusion, he once more sought admission,
and, on passing through a humiliating penance, was again
received. His vacillating autobiography, Exemplar Humanae
Vitae, was published with a " refutation " by Limborch in 1687,
and republished in 1847. In this brief work Acosta declares his
opposition both to Christianity and Judaism, though he speaks
with the more bitterness of the latter religion. The only authority
which he admits is the lex naturae. . Acosta was not an original
thinker, but he stands in the direct line of the rational Deists.
His history forms the subject of a tale and of a tragedy by
Gutzkow. Acosta committed suicide in 1647. The significance
of his career has been much exaggerated.
AGOTYLEDONES, the name given by Antoine Laurent de
Jussieu in 1789 to the lowest class in his Natural System of
Botany, embracing flowerless plants, such as ferns, lycopods,
horse-tails, mosses, liverworts, sea-weeds, lichens and fungi.
The name is derived from the absence of a seed-leaf or cotyledon.
Flowering plants bear a seed containing an embryo, with usually
one or two cotyledons, or seed-leaves; while in flowerless plants
there is no seed and therefore no true cotyledon. The term is
synonymous with Cryptogams, by which it was replaced in later
systems of classification.
ACOUSTICS (from the Gr. SjcoOuv to hear), a title frequently
given to the science of sound, that is, to the description and
theory of the phenomena which give rise to the sensation
of sound (q.v.). The term " acoustics " might, however, with
advantage be reserved for the aspect of the subject more im-
mediately connected with hearing. Thus we may speak appro-
priately of the acoustic quality of a room or hall, describing it
as good or bad acoustically, according as speaking is heard in it
easily or with difficulty. When a room has bad acoustic quality
we can almost always assign the fault to large smooth surfaces
on the walls, floor or ceiling, which reflect or echo the voice of
the speaker so that the direct waves sent out by him at any
instant are received by a hearer with the waves sent out previ-
ously and reflected at these smooth surfaces. The syllables
overlap, and the hearing is confused. The acoustic quality of
a room may be improved by breaking up the smooth surfaces
by curtains or by arrangement of furniture. The echo is then
broken up into small waves, none of which may be sufficiently
distinct to interfere with the direct voice. Sometimes a sound-
ing-board over the head of a speaker improves the hearing
probably by preventing echo from a smooth wall behind him.
A large bare floor is undoubtedly bad for acoustics, for when
a room is filled by an audience the hearing is much improved
»54
ACQUI— ACRE
Wires are frequently stretched across a room overhead, probably
with the idea that they will prevent the voice from reaching the
roof and being reflected there, but there is no reason to suppose
that they are efficient. The only cure appears to consist in
breaking up the reflecting surfaces so that the reflexion shall be
much less regular and distinct Probably drapery assists by
absorbing the sound to some extent, and thus it lessens the echo
besides breaking it up. 0- H. P.)
ACQUI, a city and episcopal see of Piedmont, Italy, in the
province of Alessandria; from the town of that name it is ax m.
S.S.W. by rail. Pop. (iooz) 13,786. Its warm sulphur springs
are still resorted to; under the name of Aquae Statiellae they
were famous in Roman times, and Paulus Diaconus and Liut-
praiid speak of the ancient bath establishment In the neigh-
bourhood of the town are remains of the aqueduct which sup-
plied it The place was connected by road with Alba Pompeia
and Augusta Taurinorum. The tribe of the Statielli, to whom
the district belonged, had joined the Romans at an early period,
but was attacked in 173 and in part transferred to the north of
the Po. The town possesses a fine Gothic cathedral
ACR&, or Aquiey, a river of Brazil and principal tributary of
the Purus, rising on the Bolivian frontier and flowing easterly
and northerly to a junction with the Purus at 8* 4 5* S. lat The
name is also applied to a district situated on the same river
and on the former (1867) boundary line between Bolivia and
Brazil. The region,. which abounds in valuable rubber, forests,
was settled by Bolivians between 1870 and 1878, but .was in-
vaded by Brazilian rubber collectors during the next decade and
became tributary to the rubber markets of Manaos and -Para.
In x8oo the Bolivian government established a custom-house at
Puerto Alonso, on the Acre* river, for the collection of export
duties on rubber, which precipitated a conflict with the Brazilian
settlers and finally brought about a boundary dispute between
the two republics. In July z8oo the Acreanos declared their
independence and set up a republic of their own, but in the
following March they were reduced to submission by Brazil.
Various disorders followed until Brazil decided to occupy Puerto
Alonso with a military force. The boundary dispute was finally
settled at Petropolis on the 17th of November 1903 through the
purchase by. Brazil of the rubber-producing territory south to
about the nth parallel, estimated at more than 60,000 sq.xn.
ACRE, 'Akka, or St Jean d'Acre, the chief town of a govern-
mental district of Palestine which includes Haifa, Nazareth and
Tiberias. It stands on a low promontory at the northern ex-
tremity of the Bay of Acre, 80 m. N. N.W. from Jerusalem, and
25 m. S. of Tyre. The population is about 11,000; 8000 being
Moslems, the remainder Christians, Jews, &c It was long
regarded as the " Key of Palestine," on account of its command-
ing position on the shore of the broad plain that joins the inland
plain of Esdraelon, and so affords the easiest entrance to the
interior of the country. But trade is now passing over to Haifa,
at the south side of the bay, as its harbour offers a safer road-
stead, and is a regular calling place for steamers. Business,
rapidly declining, is still carried on in wheat, maize, oil, sesame,
&c, in the town market There are few buildings of interest,
owing to the frequent destructions the town has undergone.
The wall, which is now ruinous and has but one gate, dates from
the crusaders: the mosque was built by Jezzar Pasha (d. 1804)
from materials taken from Caesarea Palaestina: his tomb is
within. Acre is the seat of the head of the Babist religion.
History.— -Few towns have had a more chequered or calami-
tous history. Of great antiquity, it is probably to be identified
with the 'A&k of the tribute-lists of Tethmosis (Thothmes) III.
(e. 1500 b.c), and it is certainly the Akka of the Tell el-Amarna
correspondence. To the Hebrews it was known as Acco (Re-
vised Version spelling), but it is mentioned only once in the
Old Testament, namely Judges i. 31, as one of the places from
which the Israelites did not drive out the Canaanite inhabitants.
Theoretically it was in the territory of the tribe of Asher, and
Josephus assigns it by name to the district of one of Solomon's
provincial governors. Throughout the period of Hebrew domina-
tion, however, its political connexions were always with Syria
rather than with Palestine proper: thus, about 725 B.C. it joined
Sidon and Tyre in a revolt against Shalmaneser IV. It had a
stormy experience during the three centuries preceding the
Christian era. The Greek historians name it Ake (Josephus
calls it also Akre); but the name was changed to Ptolemais,
probably by Ptolemy Soter, after the partition of the kingdom
of Alexander. Strata refers to the city as once a rendezvous for
the Persians in their expeditions against Egypt About 165 b.c.
Simon Maccabaeus defeated the Syrians in many battles in
Galilee, and drove them into Ptolemais. About 153 B.C. Alex-
ander Balas, son of Antiochus Epiphanes, contesting the Syrian
crown with Demetrius, seized the city, which opened its gates
to him. Demetrius offered many bribes to the Maccabees to
obtain Jewish support against his rival, including the revenues
of Ptolemais for the benefit of the Temple, but in vain. Jonathan
threw in his lot with Alexander, and in 150 b.c. he was received
by him with great honour in Ptolemais. Some years later,
however, Tryphon, an officer of the Syrians, who had grown
suspicious of the Maccabees, enticed Jonathan into Ptolemais
and there treacherously took him prisoner. The city was also
assaulted and captured by Alexander Jannaeus, by Cleopatra
and by Tlgranes. Here Herod built a gymnasium, and here the
Jews met Petronius, sent to set up statues of the emperor in
the Temple, and persuaded him to turn back. St Paul spent a
day in Ptolemais. The Arabs captured the dty in aj>. 638,
and lost it to the crusaders in xtxo. The latter made the town
their chief port in Palestine. It was re-taken by Saladin in
1 187, besieged by Guy de Luaignan in 1x89 (see below), and
again captured by Richard Cceur de Lion in 1x91. In 1229 it
was placed under the control of the knights of St John (whence
one of its alternative names), but finally lost by the Franks in
x 29X. The Turks under Sultan Selim I. captured the dty in x 51 7,
after which it fell into almost total decay. Maundrell in 1697
found it a complete ruin, save for a khan occupied by some
French merchants, a mosque and a few poor cottages. Towards
the end of the x8th century it seems to have revived under
the comparatively beneficent rule of Dhahar el-Amir, the local
sheikh: his successor, Jezzar Pasha, governor of Damascus,
improved and fortified it, but by heavy imposts secured for him-
self all the benefits derived from his improvements. About x 780
Jezzar peremptorily banished the French trading colony, in
spite of protests from the French government, and refused to
receive a consul. In x 709 Napoleon, in pursuance of bis scheme
for raising a Syrian rebellion against Turkish domination, ap-
peared before Acre, but after a siege of two months (March-May)
was repulsed by the lurks, aided by Sir W. Sidney Smith and a
force of. British sailors. Jezzar was succeeded on his death by
his son Suleiman, under whose milder rule the town advanced in
prosperity till 183 x, when Ibrahim Pasha besieged and reduced
the town and destroyed its buildings. On the 4th of November
1840 it was bombarded by the allied British, Austrian and French
squadrons, and in the following year restored to Turkish rule.
BatiU of Acre.— The battle of 1189, fought on the ground
to the east of Acre, affords a good example of battles of the
Crusades. The crusading army under Guy of Lusignan, king of
Jerusalem, which was besieging Acre, gave battle on the 4th of
October 1x89 to the relieving army which Saladin had collected.
The Christian army consisted of the feudatories of the kingdom
of Jerusalem, numerous small contingents of European crusaders
and the military orders, and contingents from Egypt, Turkestan,
Syria and Mesopotamia fought under Saladin. The Saracens
lay in a semicircle east of the town facing inwards towards Acre.
The Christians opposed them with crossbowmen in first line and
the heavy cavalry in second* At Arsuf the Christians fought
coherently; here the battle began with a disjointed combat
between the Templars and Saladin's right wing. The crusaders
were so far successful that the enemy had to send up reinforce-
ments from other parts of the field. Thus the steady advance of
the Christian centre against Saladin's own corps, in which the
crossbows prepared the way for the charge of the men-at-arms,
met with no great resistance. But the victors scattered to
plunder. Saladin rallied his men, and, when the Christiana
ACRE— ACRON
'55
begin to retire with their booty, let loose his light horse upon
them. No connected resistance was offered, and the Turks
slaughtered the fugitives until checked by the fresh troops of the
Christian right wing. Into this fight Guy's reserve, charged
with holding back the Saracens in Acre, was also drawn, and,
thus freed, 5000 men sallied out from the town to the north"
ward; uniting with the Saracen right wing, they fell upon the
Tenptars^ who suffered severely in their retreat In the end the
crusaders repulsed the relieving army, but only at the cost of
7000 men. (R. A. S. M.)
ACRB, a land measure used by English-speaking races.
Derived from the Old Eng. acer and cognate with the Lat agar,
Gr. aVypor, Sans, ajras, it has retained its original meaning
" open country," in such phrases as " God's acre," or a church-
yard, M broad acres," &c. As a measure of land, it was first
defined as the amount a yoke of oxen could plough in a day;
statutory values were enacted in England by acts of Edward L,
Edward III., Henry VIII. and George IV., and the Weights
and Measures Act 1878 now defines it as containing 4840 sq.
yds. In addition to this " statute " or " imperial acre," other
"acres" are still, though rarely, used in Scotland, Ireland,
Wales and certain English counties. The Scottish acre con-
tains 6150-4 sq. yds.; the Irish acre 7840 sq. yds.; in Wales,
the land measures arm (4320 sq. yds.), slang (3240 sq. yds.) and
fdeir are called " acres "; the Leicestershire acre (2308} sq.
yds.), Westmoreland acre (6760 sq. yds.) and Cheshire acre
(10,240 sq. yds.) are examples of local values.
ACRIDIHE, CuH»N, in chemistry, a heterocyclic ring com-
pound found in crude coal-tar anthracene. It may be separated
by shaking out with dilute sulphuric acid, and then precipitating
the sulphuric add solution with potassium bichromate, the
resulting acridine bichromate being decomposed by ammonia.
It was first isolated in 1890 by C Graebe and H. Caro (Ann.,
1871, 158, p. 265). Many synthetic processes are known for the
production of acridine and its derivatives. A. Bernthsen (Ann.,
1884, 224, p. x) condensed diphenylamine with fatty adds, in the
presence of zinc chloride. Formic add yields acridine, and the
higher homologues give derivatives substituted at the tneso
N N
^+HCOOH-»aH./Kc.Hr»GH«<|> CH«
N N
+CHiCOOH->aH,/|\C.H,-»C,HKC;|>CH«
tOCH. C(CH,)
Acridine may also be obtained by passing the vapour of phenyl-
erthe-tduidine through a red-hot tube (C Graebe, Bar., 1884,
*7. P 1370); by condensing diphenylamine with chloroform, in
presence of aluminium chloride (O. Fischer, Ber., 1884, 17, p.
ioa); by passing the vapours of orthoaminodiphenylmethane
over heated litharge (O. Fischer); by heating salicylic aldehyde
vith amline and zinc chloride to 260° C. (R. Mohlau, Bar., x886,
i* p, 2451) ; and by distilling acridone over zinc dust (C Graebe,
3*., 1892, 25, p. 1735).
Acridine and its homologues are very stable compounds of
feebly basic character. They combine readily with the alkyl
iodides to form alkyl acridinium iodides, which are readily trans-
formed by the action of alkaline potassium ferricyanide to
N-alkyiacridones. Acridine crystallizes in needles which melt at
no* C. It is characterized by its irritating action on the skin,
and by the blue fluorescence shown by solutions of its salts. On
oxidation with potassium permanganate it yields acridinic add
(qunobne -a-0-dicarboxylic add) CtH»N(COOH)* Numerous
derivatives of acridine are known and may be prepared by
■ttthods analogous to those used for the formation of the
prat base. For the preparation of the naphthacridines, see
F.Uumann, German Patents 11747a* 118439, 127586, 128754, and
■ho Btr., 1002, 35, pp. 316, 2670. Phenyl-acridine is the parent
•tse of chrysaniline, which is the chief constituent of the dye-
sdl phosphine (a bye-product in the manufacture of rosaniline).
Ckryiaauine (diamino-phenylacridinc) forms red-coloured salts.
which dye silk and wool a fine yellow; and the solutions of the
salts are characterized by thdr fine yellowish-green fluorescence.
It was synthesized by O. Fischer and G. Koerner {Btr., 1884,
17, p. 203) by condensing ortho-nitrobenzaldehyde with aniline,
the resulting C4tho-nitro-para-diamino-triphenylmethane being
reduced to the corresponding orthoamino compound, which on
oxidation yidds chrysaniline. Benzoflavin, an isomer of chrys-
aniline, is also a dye-stuff, and has been prepared by K. Oehler
(English Patento6x4)from meU-phenylenediamine and benzalde-
hyde. These substances condense to form tetra-aminotriphenyl-
methane, which, on heating with adds, loses ammonia and yields
diaminodihydrophenylacridine, from which benzoflavin is ob-
tained by oxidation. It is a yellow powder, soluble in hot water.
The formulae of these substances are:—
CXpO"- "0$0*
NH,
Chrysaniline.
Benzoflavin.
ACRO (or Acbon), HBLENIUS, Roman grammarian and com-
mentator, probably flourished at the end of the 2nd century a.d.
He wrote commentaries on Terence and perhaps Persius. A
collection of scholia on Horace, originally anonymous in the
earlier MSS., and on the whole not of great value, was wrongly
attributed to him at a much later date, probably during the
15th century. It has been published by Pauly (1861) and
Hauthal (1866), together with the other Horace scholia.
See Pseudoaaronis Scholia in Horaiium Vetustiora, ed. O. Keller
(1902— 1904).
ACROBAT (Gr. bxpofaruv, to walk on tiptoe), originally
a rope-dancer; the word is now used generally to cover pro-
fessional performers on the trapeze, &c, contortionists, balancers
and tumblers. Evidence exists that there were very skilful
performers on the tight-rope (funambult) among the andent
Romans. Modern rope-walkers (e.g. Blondin) or wire-dancers
generally use a pole, loaded at the ends, or some such assistance
in balandng, and by shifting this are enabled to maintain, or
readily to recover, their equilibrium.
ACROOENAB (" growing at the apex "), an obsolete botanical
term, originally applied to the higher Cryptogams (mosses and
ferns), which were erroneously distinguished from the lower
(Algae and Fungi) by apical growth of the stem. The lower
Cryptogams were contrasted as Amphigenae ("growing all
over "), a misnomer, as apical growth is common among them.
ACR0UTH8 (Gr. dxpoAtfa, ix. ending in stone), statues
of a transition period in the history of plastic art, in which the
trunk of the figure-was of wood, and the head, hands and feet of
marble. The wood was concealed dther by gilding or, more
commonly, by drapery, and the marble parts alone were exposed.
Acroliths are frequently mentioned by Pausanias, the best known
specimen being the Athene Areia of the Plataeans.
ACROMEGALY, the name given to a disease characterized
by a true hypertrophy (an overgrowth involving both bony and
soft parts) of the terminal parts of the body, especially of the
face and extremities (Gr. bepov, point, and /tevas, large).
It is more frequent in the female sex, between the ages of 25
and 40. Its causation is generally assodated with disturbances
in the pituitary gland, and an extract of this body has been tried
in the treatment, as one of the recent developments in organo-
therapeutics; thyroid extract has also been used, but without
marked success, on the apparent analogy of acromegaly with
myxoedema.
ACRON, a Greek physician, bora at Agrigentum in Sicily,
was contemporary with Empedoclcs, and must therefore have
lived in the 5th century before Christ. The successful measure of
lighting large fires, and purifying the air with perfumes, to put
a stop to the plague in Athens (430 B.C.), is said to have origin-
ated with him; but this has been questioned on chronological
'56
ACROPOLIS— ACT
grounds. Suidas gives the titles of several medical works written
by him in the Doric dialect.
ACROPOLIS (Gr. eUrpot, top, iroXtr, city), literally the upper
part of a town. For purposes of defence early settlers naturally
chose elevated ground, frequently a hill with precipitous sides,
and these early citadels became in many parts of the world the
nuclei of large cities which grew up on the surrounding lower
ground. The word Acropolis, though Greek in origin and asso-
ciated primarily with Greek towns (Athens, Argos, Thebes,
Corinth), may be applied generically to all such citadels (Rome,
Jerusalem, many in Asia Minor, or even Castle Hill at Edin-
burgh). The most famous is that of Athens, which, by reason
of its historical associations and the famous buildings erected
upon it, is generally known without qualification as the Acropolis
(see Athens).
ACROPOLlTA (AKROPOLlrts), GEORGE (1217-1282), Byzan-
tine historian and statesman, was born at Constantinople. At an
early age he was sent by his father to the court of John Ducas
Batatzes (Vatatzes), emperor of Nicaea, by whom and by his
successors (Theodoras II. Lascaris and Michael VIII. Palaeo-
logus) he was entrusted with important state missions. The
office of " great logothete " or chancellor was bestowed upon him
in 1244. As commander in the field in 1257 against Michael
Angelus, despot of Epirus, he showed little military capacity.
He was captured and kept for two years in prison, from which
he was released by Michael Palaeologus. Acropolita's most
important political task was that of effecting a reconciliation
between the Greek and Latin Churches, to which he had been
formerly opposed. In 1273 he was sent to Pope Gregory X.,
and in the following year, at the council of Lyons, in the
emperor's name he recognized the spiritual supremacy of Rome.
In 1282 he was sent on an embassy to John IL, emperor of
Trebizond, and died in the same year soon after his return. His
historical work (Xpovucfi Zvyypa&i, Annates) embraces the period
from the capture of Constantinople by the Latins (1204) to its
recovery by Michael Palaeologus (1261), thus forming a con-
tinuation of the work of Nicetas Acominatus. It is valuable
as written by a contemporary, whose official position as great
logothete, military commander and confidential ambassador
afforded him frequent opportunities of observing the course of
events. Acropolita is considered a trustworthy authority as far
as the statement of facts is concerned, and he is easy to under-
stand, although he exhibits special carelessness in the construc-
tion of his sentences. He was also the author of several shorter
works, amongst them being a funeral oration on John Batatzes,
an epitaph on his wife Eirenc and a panegyric of Theodoras II.
Lascaris of Nicaea. While a prisoner at Epirus he wrote two
treatises on the procession of the Holy Ghost ('Emropcixris, Pro-
cessio Spiritus Sancti).
Editio princeps by Leo Allatius (1651), with the editor's famous
treatise De Ceorgiis eorumque Script is; editions in the Bonn Corpus
Scriptorum Hist. By*., by I. Bekker (1836). and Migne, Patrologia
Cratca, ex!.; in the Teubner series by A. Heiscnberg (1903), the
second volume of which contains a full life, with bibliography; see
also C. Krumbacher. Ceschickte der bytantinischen LiUeratur (1897).
ACROSTIC (Gr. Axpor, at the end, and oHxos, line or verse), a
short verse composition, so constructed that the initial letters
of the lines, taken consecutively, form words. The fancy for
writing acrostics is of great antiquity, having been common
among the Greeks of the Alexandrine period, as well as with
the Latin writers since Ennius and Plautus, many of the argu-
ments of whose plays were written with acrostics on their respec-
tive titles. One of the most remarkable acrostics was contained
in the verses cited by Lactantius and Euscbius in the 4th century,
and attributed to the Erythraean sibyl, the initial letters of
which form the words 'ItjctoO* Xpurrdt 6<ou Uds oorrhp: "Jesus
Christ, the Son of God, the Saviour." The initials of the shorter
form of this again make up the word Ixfivs (fish), to which a
mystical meaning has been attached (Augustine, De CivitaU Dei,
18, 23), thus constituting another kind of acrostic.
The monks of the middle ages, who wrote in Latin, were fond
of acrostics, as well as the poets of the Middle High German
period, notably Gottfried of Strassburg and Rudolph of Ems.
The great poets of the Italian renaissance, among them Boc-
caccio, indulged in them, as did also the early Slavic writers.
Sir John Davies (1 560-1626) wrote twenty-six elegant Hymns to
Astraea, each an acrostic on " Elisabetha Regina "; and Mistress
Mary Page, in Fame's Route, 1637, commemorated 420 cele-
brities of her time in acrostic verses. The same trick of com-
position is often to be met with in the writings of more recent
versifiers. Sometimes the lines are so combined that the final
letters as well as the initials are significant. Edgar Allan Poe
worked two names— one of them that of Frances Sargent
Osgood — into verses in such a way that the letters of the names
corresponded to the first letter of the first line, the second letter
of the second, the third letter of the third, and so on.
Acrostic verse has always been held in slight estimation from a
literary standpoint. Dr Samuel Butler says, in his "Character of
a Small Poet," " He uses to lay the outsides of his verses even, like
a bricklayer, by a line of rhyme and acrostic, and fill the middle
with rubbish." Addison (Spectator, No. 60) found it impossible
to decide whether the inventor of the anagram or the acrostic
were the greater blockhead; and, in describing the latter, says,
" I have seen some of them where the verses have not only been
edged by a name at each extremity, but have had the same name
running down like a seam through the middle of the poem."
And Dryden, in Mac Flecknoe, scornfully assigned Shadwell the
rule of
Some peaceful province in acrostic land.
The name acrostic is also applied to alphabetical or " abece-
darian" verses. Of these we have instances in the Hebrew
psalms (e.g. Ps. xxv. and xxxiv.), where successive verses begin
with the letters of the alphabet in their order. The structure of
Ps. cxix. is still more elaborate, each of the verses of each of the
twenty-two parts commencing with the letter which stands at
the head of the part in our English translation.
At one period much religious verse was written in a form
imitative of this alphabetical method, possibly as an aid to the
memory. The term acrostic is also applied to the formation of
words from the initial letters of other words. Txftf, referred to
above, is an illustration of this. So also is the word " Cabal,"
which, though it was in use before, with a similar meaning, has,
from the time of Charles II., been associated with a particular
ministry, from the accident of its being composed of Clifford,
Ashley, Buckingham, Arlington and Lauderdale. Akin to this
are the names by which the Jews designated their Rabbis; thus
Rabbi Moses ben Maimon (better known as Maimonides) was
styled " Rambam," from the initials R.M.B.M.; Rabbi David
Kimchi (R.D.K.), " Radak," &c.
Double acrostics are such as are so constructed, that not only
initial letters of the lines, but also the middle or last letters,
form words. For example:-— 1. By Apollo was my first made.
2. A shoemaker's tool. 3. An Italian patriot. 4. A tropical
fruit. The initials and finals, read downwards, give the name
of a writer and his nom de plume. Answer: Lamb, EUa.
x. L yr E
2. A w L
3. M azzin I
4. B anan A
ACROTERIUM (Gr. dxpcjr^piov, the summit or vertex), in archi-
tecture, a statue or ornament of any kind placed on the apex of
a pediment. The term is often restricted to the plinth, which
forms the podium merely for the acroterium.
ACT (Lat. actus, actum), something done, primarily a volun-
tary deed or performance, though any accomplished fact is often
included. The signification of the word varies according to the
sense in which it is employed. It is often synonymous with
" statute " (see Act of Parliament). It may also refer to the
result of the vote or deliberation of any legislature, the decision
of a court of justice or magistrate, in which sense records, decrees,
sentences, reports, certificates, &c, are called acts.
In law it means any instrument in writing, for declaring or
justifying the truth of a bargain or transaction, as: " I deliver
this as my act and deed." The origin of the legal use of the word
" act " is in the acta of the Roman magistrates or people, of their
ACTA DIURNA— ACTINOMYCOSIS
157
courts of lav, or of the senate, meaning (1) what was done before
the magistrates, the people or the senate; (a) the records of
such public proceedings.
In connexion with other words " act " is employed in many
phases, e.g. act of Cod, any event, such as the sudden, violent
or overwhelming occurrence of natural forces, which cannot
be foreseen or provided against. This is a good defence to a suit
for non-performance of a contract. Act of honour denotes the
acceptance by a third party of a protested bill of exchange for
the honour of any party thereto. Act of grace denotes the grant-
ing, of some special privilege.
In universities, the presenting and publicly maintaining a
thesis by a candidate for a degree, to show his proficiency, is an
icL u The Act " at Oxford, up to 1856 when it was abolished,
•as the ceremony held early in July for this purpose, and the
expressions " Act Sunday," " Act Term " still survive.
In dramatic literature, act signifies one of those parts into which
a play b divided to mark the change of time or place, and to give
a respite to the actors and to the audience. In Greek plays there
are no separate acts, the unities being strictly observed, and the
action being continuous from beginning to end. If the principal
actors left the stage the chorus took up the argument, and con-
tributed an integral part of the play, though chiefly in the form
of comment upon the action. When necessary, another drama,
which is etymologically the same as an act, carried on the history
to a later time or in a different place, and thus we have the Greek
trilogies or groups of three dramas, in which the same characters
reappear. The Roman poets first adopted the division into acts,
and suspended the stage business in the intervals between them.
Their number was usually five, and the rule was at last laid down
by Horace in the Ars Poetica—
Neve minor, neu sit quinto production- actu
Fabula, quae poaci vult, et spectata reponi.
• If you would have your play deserve success,
Give it five acts complete, nor more nor less." (Francis.)
Ob the revival of letters this rule was almost universally observed
by dramatists, and that there is an inherent convenience and
fitness in the number five is evident from the fact that Shake-
speare, who refused to be trammelled by merely arbitrary rules,
adopts it in all his plays. Some critics have laid down rules as to
the part each act should sustain in the development of the plot,
but these are not essential, and are by no means universally
recognized. In comedy the rule as to the number of acts has not
been so strictly adhered to as in tragedy, a division into two acts
or three acts being quite usual since the time of Moliere, who
first introduced it. It may be well to mention here Milton's
Semen Agonistes as a specimen in English literature of a
dramatic work founded on a purely Greek model, in which,
consequently, there is no division into acts.
For " acting," as the art and theory of dramatic representation
(or histrionics, from LaL kistrio, an actor), see the article Drama.
ACTA DIURNA (LaL acta, public acts or records; diurnus,
feuy, from dies), called also Acta Populi, Acta Publico and
simply Acta or Diurna, in ancient Rome a sort of daily gazette,
coQuuning an officially authorized narrative of noteworthy
events at Rome. Its contents were partly official (court news,
decrees of the emperor, senate and magistrates), partly private
(aotices of births, marriages and deaths). Thus to some extent
it filled the place of the modern newspaper (q.v.). The origin of
the Acta is attributed to Julius Caesar, who first ordered the keep-
ing and publishing of the acts of the people by public officers
(50 bxl; Suetonius, Caesar, 20). The Acta were drawn up from
<fcy to day, and exposed in a public place on a whitened board
free Album). After remaining there for a reasonable time they
•we taken down and preserved with other public documents,
» that they might be available for purposes of research. The
44s differed from the Annals (which were discontinued in 133
S.C.) in that only the greater and more important matters were
gHtn in the latter, while in the former things of less note were
worded. Their publication continued till the transference of
°* seat of the empire to Constantinople. There are no genuine
fragments extant.
Leclerc, Des joumaux ches Us Romains (1838); Renssen, Do
Diurnis aliisque Romanorum Actis (1857); Hubncr, De Senatus
Popnlique Romani Actis (i860); Gaston Boissier, Tacitus and other
Roman Studies (Eng. trans., W. G. Hutchison, 1906), pp. 197-229.
ACTAEON, son of Aristaeus and AutonoS, a famous Theban
hero and hunter, trained by the centaur Cheiron. According to
the story told by Ovid (Metam. iii. 131; sec also Apollod iii. 4),
having accidentally seen Artemis (Diana) on Mount Cithacron
while she was bathing, he was changed by her into a stag, and
pursued and killed by his fifty hounds. His statue was often
set up on rocks and mountains as a protection against excessive
heat. The myth itself probably represents the destruction of
vegetation during the fifty dog-days. Aeschylus and other tragic
poets made use of the story, which was a favourite subject in
ancient works of art. There is a well-known small marble group
in the British Museum illustrative of the story.
ACTA SENATUS, or Commzntarii Senatus, minutes of
the discussions and decisions of the R^oman senate. Before the
first consulship of Julius Caesar (59 B.C.), minutes of the pro-
ceedings of the senate were written and occasionally published,
but unofficially; Caesar, desiring to tear away the veil of mystery
which gave an unreal importance to the senate's deliberations,
first ordered them to be recorded and issued authoritatively.
The keeping of them was continued by Augustus, but their
publication was forbidden (Suetonius, Augustus, §6). A young
senator (ab actis senatus) was chosen to draw up these Acta,
which were kept in the imperial archives and public libraries
(Tacitus, Ann. v. 4). Special permission from the city pracfect
was necessary in order to examine them. For authorities see
Acta Diurna.
ACTINOMETER (Gr. axrlt, ray, pernor, measure), an instru-
ment for measuring the heating and chemical effects of light
The name was first given by Sir John Herschel to an apparatus
for measuring the heating effect of solar rays (Edin. Journ.
Science, 1825); Herschcl's instrument has since been discarded
in favour of the pyrheliometer (Gr. rvp, fire, {Xtoc, sun).
(See Radiation.) The word actinometer is now usually applied
to instruments for measuring the actinic or chemical effect
of luminous rays; their action generally depends upon photo-
chemical changes (see Photo-Chemistry). Certain practical
forms are described in the article Photography.
ACTINOMYCOSIS (Streptotrichosis), a chronic infective dis-
ease occurring in both cattle and man. In both these groups it
presents the same clinical course, being characterized by chronic
inflammation with the formation of granulomatous tumours,
which tend to undergo suppuration, fibrosis or calcification.
It used to be believed that this disease was caused by a single
vegetable parasite, the Ray-Fungus, but there is now an over-
whelming mass of observations to show that the clinical features
may be produced by a number of different species of parasites,
for which the generic name Streptothrix has been generally
adopted. In 1809 the committee of the Pathological Society of
London recommended that the term Streptotrichosis should be
used as the appropriate clinical epithet of the large class of
Streptothrix infections. And since that year the name Actino-
mycosis has been falling into disuse, and in any case is only used
synonymously with Streptotrichosis. For a further account
of these parasites see the articles on Bacteriology and on
Parasitic Diseases.
Pathological Anatomy. — The naked-eye appearance of the
different organs affected by Streptothrix infection varies accord-
ing to the duration and acuteness of the disease. In some
tissues the appearance is that of simple inflammation, whereas
in others it may be characteristic. The liver when affected
shows scattered foci of suppuration, which may become aggre-
gated into spheroidal masses, surrounded by a zone of inflam-
mation. In the lungs the changes may be any that are produced
by the following conditions. (1) An acute bronchitis, (a) A
phthisical lung, grey nodules being scattered here and there
almost exactly simulating tuberculous nodules. (3) An acute
broncho-pneumonia with some interstitial fibrosis and a tend-
ency to abscess formation. The most characteristic lesions are
i 5 8
ACTINOZOA— ACTION
in the skin. These appear as nodules,, sarcoma tous-looking,
soft and pulpy. Their colour is mottled, yellow and purplish
red. The skin over them is thinned out, and broken down in
places to form one or two crateriform ulcers from which a clear
sticky fluid exudes. The size varies from that of a pea to a
small orange. The pus is characteristic, varying in consistency
though usually viscid, and containing numerous minute specks.
The disease is more common in males than in females, and
more prevalent in Germany and Russia than in England. The
infection is probably spread by grain (com or barley), on which
the fungus may often be found. In a great number of recorded
cases the patient has been following agricultural pursuits. The
disease can only be transmitted from one individual to another
with considerable difficulty, and no case of direct transmission
from animal to man has yet been noted.
Clinical History. — The course of actinomycosis is usually a
chronic one, but occasionally the fungus gets into the blood,
when the course is that of an acute infective disease or even
pyaemia. The symptoms are entirely dependent on the organ
attacked, and are in no way specially characteristic During
life a diagnosis of phthisis is continually made, and only a micro-
scopic examination after death renders the true nature of the
disease apparent The nature of the skin lesion is the most
evident, and here the parasite can be detected early in the
illness. The only drug which appears to have any beneficial
influence on the course of the disease is potassium iodide, and
this has occasionally been used with great benefit. Surgical
interference is usually needed, either excision of the part affected,
or, where possible, a thorough scraping of the lesion and free
application of antiseptics.
ACTINOZOA, a term in systematic zoology, first used by
H. M. D. de BlainviHe about 1834, to designate animals the
organs of which were disposed radially about a centre. De
Blainville included in his group many unicellular forms such as
Nocliluca (see Protozoa), sea-anemones, corals, jelly-fish and
hydroid polyps, echinoderms, polyzoa and rotifera. T. H.
Huxley afterwards restricted the term. He showed that in dec
Blainville's group there were associated with a number of
heterogeneous forms a group of animals characterized by being
composed of two layers of cells comparable with the first two
layers in the development of vertebrate animals. Such forms he
distinguished as Coclentera, and showed that they bad no special
affinity with echinoderms, polyzoa, &c He divided the Coelen-
tera into a group Hydrozoa, in which the sexually produced
embryos were usually set free from the surface of the body,
and a group Actinozoa, in which the embryos are detached from
the interior of the body and escape generally by the oral aper-
ture. Huxley's Actinozoa comprised the sea-anemones, corals
and sea-pens, on the one hand, and the Ctenophora on the other.
Later investigations, whilst confirming the general validity of
Huxley's conclusions, have slightly altered the limits and
definitions of his groups. (See Anthozoa, Coelentera, Cteno-
phora and Hydrozoa.) (P. CM.)
ACTION, in law, a term used by jurists in three different
senses: (1) a right to institute proceedings in a court of justice
to obtain redress for a wrong {actio nihil aliud est quam jus
prosequendi in judicio quod alicui debet ur, Brae ton, de Legions
A ngliae, bk. iii. ch. i., f. 98 0) ; (2) the proceeding itself {action n'est
outer chose que loyall demande die son droit, Co. Litt 285 (a)); (3)
the particular form of the proceeding. The term is derived from
the Roman law (actio), in which it is used in all three senses. In
the history of Roman law, actions passed through three stages.
The first period (terminated about 170 B.C. by the Lex Aebutio)
is known as the system of legis actiones, and was based on the
precepts of the XII. tables and used before the praetor urbanus.
These actiones were five in number— sacramenti, perjudicis pos-
tulationem, per condictionetn, per menus injectionem, per pignoris
captionem. The first was the primitive and characteristic action
of the Roman law, and the others were little more than modes
of applying it to cases not contemplated in the original form,
or of carrying the result of it into execution when the action had
been decided. The legis actiones were superseded by the formulae,
originated by the praetor peregrinus for the determination of
controversies between foreigners, but found more flexible than
the earlier system and made available for citizens by the Lex
Aebuiia. Under both these systems the praetor referred the
matter in dispute to an arbiter (judex), but in the later he settled
the formula (i.e. the issues to be referred and the appropriate
form of relief) before making the order of reference. In the third
stage, the formulary stage fell into disuse, and after a.d. 342 the
magistrate himself or his deputy decided the controversy alter
the defending party bad been duly summoned by a libeUus.
The classifications of actiones in Roman law were very numer-
ous. The division which is still most universally recognized is
that of actions in rem and actions in personam (Sohm, Roman
Law, tr. by Ledlie, 2nd ed. 2 7 7). An action in rem asserts a right
to a particular thing against all the world. An action in per-
sonam asserts a right only against a particular person. Perhaps
the best modern example of the distinction is that made in
maritime cases between an action against a ship after a collision
at sea, and an action against the owners of the ship.
In English law the term " action " at a very early date became
associated with civil proceedings in the Court of Common Pleas,
which were distinguished from pleas, of the crown, such as in-
dictments or informations and for suits in the Court of Chancery
or in the Admiralty or ecclesiastical courts. The English action
was a proceeding commenced by writ original at the common law.
The remedy was of right and not of grace. The history of actions
is the history of civil procedure in the courts of common law.
As a result of the reform of civil procedure by the Judicature Acts
the term " action " in English law now means at the High Court of
Justice " a civil proceeding commenced by writ of summons or
in such other manner as may be prescribed by rules of court "
(e.g. by originating summons). The proceeding thus commenced
ends by judgment and execution. This definition includes pro-
ceedings under the Chancery, Admiralty and Probate jurisdic-
tion of the High Court, but excludes proceedings commenced by
petition, such as divorce suits and bankruptcy and winding-op
matters, as well as criminal proceedings in the High Court or
applications for the issue of the writs of mandamus, prohibition,
habeas corpus or certiorari. The Judicature Acts and Rules
have had the effect of abolishing all the forms of " action " used
at the common law and of creating one common form of legal
proceeding for all ordinary controversies between subjects in
whatever division of the High Court. The stages in an English
action are the writ, by which the persons against whom relief
is claimed are summoned before the court; the pleadings and
interlocutory steps, by which the issues between the parties are
adjusted; the trial, at which the issues of fact and law involved
are brought before the tribunal; the judgment, by which the relief
sought is granted or refused; and execution, by which the law
gives to the successful party the fruits of the judgment.
The procedure varies according as the action is in the High
Court, a county court or one of the other local courts of record
which still survive; but there is no substantial difference in the
incidents of trial, judgment and execution in any of these courts.
The initial difference between actions in the High Court and the
county court is that the latter are commenced by plaint lodged
in the court, on which a summons is prepared by the court and
served by its bailiff, whereas in the High Court the party pre-
pares the writ and lodges it in court for sealing, and when it is
sealed, himself effects the service.
An action is said to " lie " when the law provides a remedy
for some particular act or omission by a subject which infringes
the legal rights of another subject. An act of such a character
is said to give a " cause of action." In the action the person who
alleges himself aggrieved claims a judgment of the court in his
favour giving an adequate and appropriate remedy for the injury
or damage which he has sustained by the infraction of his rights.
As to the time within which an action must be brought, see
Limitation, Statutes op. When the rights of a subject are in-
fringed by the illegal action of the state, an action lies in England
against the officers who have done the wrong, unless the claim
be one arising out of breach of a contract with the state, or out
ACTIUM— ACTON
159
of an " Act of State." For a breach by the state of a contract
made between the state and a subject the remedy of the subject
if, as a general rule, not by action against the agents of the state
who acted for the state with reference to the making or breach of
the contract, but against the Crown itself by the proceeding
cafied Petition of Right (see Petition).
While as a generic term " action " in its proper legal sense
udttdes suits by the Crown and " criminal actions " (see Co. Litt.
384b; Bracton, de Legions Anrliae, bk. iii. ch. v. f. 1046; Brad-
Jnf* v. Clarke, 1883, 8 App. Cas. 354, 361, 374), in popular
language it is taken to mean a proceeding by a subject and is
aov rarely applied in England even by lawyers to criminal pro-
ceedings. What are now known as " penal actions," i.e. pro-
ceedings in which an individual who has not suffered personally
by a breach of the law sues as a common informer for the statu-
tory penalty either on his own benefit or on behalf also of the
Crown {qui lam pro rege quam pro se ipso), bear some analogy to
the actio pofmUsris of Roman law, from which they are derived
(see the statute 4 Hen. VII. 1488); but they are now treated
for most purposes as civil and not as criminal proceedings. The
law of Scotland follows the lines of the civil law, and the ex-
pression " criminal action " is in use to distinguish proceedings to
punish offences against the public as distinguished from civil
action, brought to enforce a private right
In the United States, and the British colonies in which English
hw runs by settlement, charter, proclamation or statute, the
nature of an action is substantially the same as in England. The
differences between one state of the Union and another, and one
colony and another, depend mainly on the extent to which the
old procedure of the common law has been abolished, simplified
or reformed by local legislation.
AvTHoamcs. — Roman Law: Sohm, Institutes of Roman Law,
W G. Ledlie (and ed.. 1901). English Law : Pollock and Maitland,
EMfiuk Lam; Holmes, The Common Law, Bullen and Leake,
Pnc Pleadings (3rd ed.; 6th ed. 1905).
hCTUJM (mod. Punta), the andent name of a promontory in
the north of Acarnania (Greece) at the mouth of the Sinus
Ambracius (Gulf of Arta) opposite NicopoUs, built by Augustus
on the north side of the strait. On the promontory was an
indent temple of Apollo Actius, which was enlarged by
Augustus, who also, in memory of the battle, instituted or
renewed the quinquennial games called Actia or Ludi Actiaci.
AcHaco Aero was a computation of time from the battle of
Aetium. There was on the promontory a small town, or rather
village, also called Aetium.
History.— Aetium belonged originally to the Corinthian
colonists of Anactorium, who probably founded the worship of
ApoRo Actius and the Actia games; in the 3rd century it fell
to the Acarnanians, who subsequently held their synods there.
Aetium b chiefly famous as the site of Octavian's decisive
victory over Mark Antony (and of September 31 B.C.). This
tatk ended a long series of ineffectual operations. The final
conflict was provoked by Antony, who is said to have been per-
waded by Cleopatra to retire to Egypt and give battle to mask
ha retreat; but lack of provisions and the growing demoralization
of his army would sufficiently account for hb decision. The
Beets met outside the gulf, each over 200 strong (the totals given
or ancient authorities are very conflicting). Antony's heavy
battleships endeavoured to close and crush the enemy with their
<niHery; Octavian's light and mobile craft made skilful
** of skirmishing tactics. During the engagement Cleopatra
suddenly withdrew her squadron and Antony slipped away
behind her. His flight escaped notice, and the conflict remained
"decided, until Antony's fleet was set on fire and thus
unihuated.
AiTnoairrBs>— DioCassius, 50.1 2-51.3; Plutarch, j4 ntonius, 62-68 ;
»efchis Pateiculus. fi. 84-85. C. Merivale, History of the Romans
"*» the Empire, iii. pp. 313-325 (London, 1851); V. Gardthausen,
jiipuhu rnnd seine Zest. i. pp. 369-386. ii. pp. 189-201 (Leipzig, 1 89 1 ) :
J» Ferrero in the Rewme de Paris, Mar. 15, 1906, pp. 225-243; J.
Kreaayw. in Hermes, axxiv. (1899), pp. I-54. (M. O. B. C.)
ACT OF PARLIAMENT. An act of parliament may be re-
tried as a declaration of the legislature, enforcing certain rules
of conduct, or defining rights and conferring them upon or with-
holding them from certain persons or classes of persons. The
collective body of such declarations constitutes the statutes of
the realm or written law of the British nation, in the widest sense,
from Anglo-Saxon times to the present day. It is not, however,
till the earlier half of the 13th century that, in a more limited
constitutional sense, the statute-book is generally held to open,
and the parliamentary records only begin to assume distinct out-
lines late in the reign of Edward I. It gradually became a fixed
constitutional principle that an act of parliament, to be valid,
must express concurrently the will of the entire legislature.
It was not, however, till the reign of Henry VI. that it became
customary, as now, to introduce bills into parliament in the form
of finished acts; and the enacting clause, regarded by constitu-
tionalists as the first perfectassertion, In words, of popular right,
came into general use as late as the reign of Charles II. It is
thus expressed in the case of all acts other than those granting
money to the crown: — "Be it enacted by the King's most
excellent Majesty, by and with the advice and consent of the
Lords Spiritual and Temporal and Commons in this present
Parliament assembled, and by the authority of the same."
Where the act is a money grant the enacting clause is prefaced
by the words, " Most gracious Sovereign, we, Your Majesty's
most dutiful and loyal subjects, the Commons of the United
Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland, in Parliament assembled,
towards making good the supply 1 which we have cheerfully
granted to Your Majesty in this session of Parliament, have
resolved to grant unto Your Majesty the sums hereinafter
mentioned ; and do therefore most humbly beseech Your
Majesty that it may be enacted, &c." The use of the pre-
amble with which acts are usually prefaced is thus quaintly
set forth by Lord Coke: " The rehearsal or preamble of the
statute is a good meane to find out the meaning of the statute,
and, as it were, a key to open the understanding thereof " (Co.
Litt. 70a). Originally the collective acts of each session formed
but one statute, to which a general title was attached, and for
this reason an act of parliament was up to 1892 generally cited
as the chapter of a particular statute, e.g. 24 and 25 Vict. c. 101.
Titles were, however, prefixed to individual acts as early as 1488.
Now, by the Short Titles Act 1892, it is optional to cite most
important acts up to that date by their short titles, either indi-
vidually or collectively. Most modern acts have borne short titles
independently of the act of 1892. (See Parliament; Statute.)
ACTON (JOHN BMBRICH EDWARD DALBERO ACTON).
xst Baron (1834-1902), English historian, only son of Sir Richard
Acton, 7th baronet, and grandson of the Neapolitan admiral,
Sir J. F. E. Acton, 6th baronet (q.v.), was born at Naples on the
10th of January 1834. His grandfather, who had succeeded
in 1 791 to the baronetcy and family estates in Shropshire,
previously held by the English branch of the Acton family,
represented a younger branch which had transferred itself first
to France, and then to Italy, but by the extinction of the elder
branch the admiral became head of the family; his eldest son,
Richard, had married Marie Louise Pclline, the daughter and
heiress of Emerich Joseph, due de Dalbcrg (q.v.), a naturalized
French noble of ancient German lineage who had entered the
French service under Napoleon and represented Louis XVIII.
at the congress of Vienna in 1814, and after Sir Richard Acton's
death in 1837 she became (1840) the wife of the 2nd Earl Gran-
ville. Coming of a Roman Catholic family, young Acton was
educated at Oscott till 1848 under Dr (afterwards Cardinal)
Wiseman, and then at Edinburgh, and at Munich under Dol-
linger, whose lifelong friend he became. He had wished to go to
Cambridge, but for a Roman Catholic this was then impossible.
By Dollinger he was inspired with a deep love of historical re-
search and a profound conception of its functions as a critical
instrument He was a master of the chief foreign languages,
and began at an early age to collect a magnificent historical
library, with the object, never in fact realized, of writing a great
History of Liberty. In politics he was always an ardent Liberal.
1 Where the grant is not of supply, the preamble varies a little.
e.g. in the Prince of Wales's Children Act 1889.
i6o
ACTON
Without being a notable traveller, he spent much time in the
chief intellectual centres of Europe, and in the United States,
and numbered among his friends such men as Montalembert,
De Tocqueville, Fustel de Coulanges, Bluntschli, von Sybel
and Ranke. He was attached to Lord Granville's mission to
Moscow, as British representative at the coronation of Alexander
II. in 1856. In 1859 Sir John Acton settled in England, at his
country house, Aldenham, in Shropshire. He was returned to
the House of Commons in that year for the Irish borough of
Carlow, and became a devoted admirer and adherent of Mr
Gladstone; but he was practically a silent member, and his
parliamentary career came to an end after the general election
of 1865, when, having headed the poll for Bridgnorth, he was
unseated on a scrutiny ; he contested Bridgnorth again in 1868,
but without success. Meanwhile he had become editor of the
Roman Catholic monthly paper, the Rambler, in 1859, on J. H.
Newman's retirement from the editorship; and in 1862 he
merged this periodical in the Home and Foreign Review. His
contributions at once gave evidence of his remarkable wealth of
historical knowledge. But though a sincere Roman Catholic,
his whole spirit as a historian was hostile to ultramontane
pretensions, and his independence of thought and liberalism
of view speedily brought him into conflict with the Roman
Catholic hierarchy. As early as August 1862, Cardinal Wiseman
publicly censured the Review; and when in 1864, after Ddllinger's
appeal at the Munich Congress for a less hostile attitude towards
historical criticism, the pope issued a declaration that the
opinions of Catholic writers were subject to the authority of the
Roman congregations, Acton felt that there was only one way of
reconciling his literary conscience with his ecclesiastical loyalty,
and he stopped the publication of his monthly periodical. He
continued, however, to contribute articles to the North British
Review, which, previously a Scottish Free Church organ, had
been acquired by friends in sympathy with him, and which for
some years (until 1872, when it ceased to appear) actively pro-
moted the interests of a high-class Liberalism in both temporal
and ecclesiastical matters; he also did a good deal of lecturing
on historical subjects. In 1865 he married the Countess Marie,
daughter of the Bavarian Count Arco-Valley, by whom he had
one son and three daughters. In 1869 he was raised to the
peerage by Gladstone as Baron Acton; he was an intimate
friend and constant correspondent of the Liberal leader, and the
two men had the very highest regard for one another. Matthew
Arnold used to say that "Gladstone influences all round him
but Acton; it is Acton who influences Gladstone."
In 1870 came the great crisis in the Roman Catholic world
over the promulgation by Pius IX. of the dogma of papal infalli-
bility. Lord Acton, who was in complete sympathy on this
subject with Dollinger (q.v.), went to Rome in order to throw
all his influence against it, but the step he so much dreaded was
not to be averted. The Old Catholic separation followed, but
Acton did not personally join the seccders, and the authorities
prudently refrained from forcing the hands of so competent
and influential an English layman. In 1874, when Gladstone
published his pamphlet on The Vatican Decrees, Lord Acton
wrote during November and December a series of remarkable
letters to The Times, illustrating Gladstone's main theme by
numerous historical examples of papal inconsistency, in a way
which must have been bitter enough to the ultramontane party,
but demurring nevertheless to Gladstone's conclusion and in-
sisting that the Church itself was better than its premisses
implied. Acton's letters led to another storm in the English
Roman Catholic world, but once more it was considered prudent
by the Vatican to leave him alone. In spite of his reservations,
he regarded "communion with Rome as dearer than life."
Thenceforth- he steered clear of theological polemics. He de-
voted himself to persistent reading and study, combined with
congenial society. With all his capacity for study he was a man
of the world, and a man of aflairs, not a bookworm. Little in-
deed came from his pen, his only notable publications being a
masterly essay in the Quarterly Review of January 1878 on
"Democracy in Europe"; two lectures delivered at Bridgnorth in
1877 on " The History of Freedom in Antiquity" and "The His-
tory of Freedom in Christianity " — these last the only tangible
portions put together by him of his long-projected "History of
Liberty"; and an essay on modern German historians in the
first number of the English Historical Review, which he helped
to found (1886). After 1879 he divided his time between London,
Cannes and Tegernsee in Bavaria, enjoying and reciprocating
the society of his friends. In 1872 he had been given the hono-
rary degree of doctor of philosophy by Munich University; in
1888 Cambridge gave him the honorary degree of LL.D., and in
1889 Oxford the D.C.L.; and in 1890 he was made a fellow
of All Souls. His reputation for learning had gradually been
spread abroad, largely through Gladstone's influence. The Utter
found him a valuable political adviser, and in 1892, when the
Liberal government came in, Lord Acton was made a lord-in-
waiting. Finally, in 1895, on the death of Sir John Seeley, Lord
Roscbery appointed him to the Regius Professorship of Modern
History at Cambridge. The choice was an excellent one. His
inaugural lecture on "The Study of History," afterwards pub-
lished with notes displaying a vast erudition, made a great im-
pression in the university, and the new professor's influence on
historical study was felt in many important directions. He
delivered two valuable courses of lectures, on the French Revolu-
tion and on Modern History, but it was in private that the
effects of his teaching were most marked. The great Cambridge
Modern History, though he did not live to see it, was planned
under his editorship, and all who came in contact with him
testified to his stimulating powers and his extraordinary range of
knowledge. He was taken ill, however, in 1901, and died on
the 19th of June 1002, being succeeded in the title by his son,
Richard Maximilian Dalberg Acton, 2nd Baron Acton (h.1870).
Lord Acton has left too little completed original work to rank
among the great historians; his very learning seems to have
stood in his way; he knew too much and his literary conscience
was too acute for him to write easily, and his copiousness of
information overloads his literary style. But he was one of the
most deeply learned men of his time, and he will certainly be
remembered for his influence on others. His extensive library,
formed for use and not for display, and composed largely of books
full of his own annotations, was bought immediately after his
death by Mr Andrew Carnegie, and presented to Mr John Morley,
by whom it was forthwith given to the university of Cambridge.
Sec Mr Herbert Paul's excellent Introductory Memoir to the
interc^tirr: volume of Lord Acton's Letters to Mrs Drew (1904). and
the authorities cited there: also Dom Gasquet's Lord Acton and his
Circle 1 1906). A Bibliography of the Works of Lord Acton, by W. A.
Shaw, was published by the Royal Historical Society in 1903. The
Edinburgh Review of April 1003 contains a luminous essay; and
Mr Hryrt has a chapter on Acton in his Studies of Cont e m p or ar y
ButcT<iphy i 1903). Lord Acton's Lectures on Modern History, edited
S l ■ j. N.' Figgis and R. V. Laurence, appeared in 1906; and his
r r,r v -V /■ *eedom and other Essays and Historical Essays and Studies
(by the tame editors) in 1907. (H. Cm.)
ACTON, SIR JOHN FRANCIS EDWARD, Bart. (1736-1811).
prime minister of Naples under Ferdinand IV., was the son of
Edward Acton, a physician at Besancon, and was born there in
1736, succeeding to the title and estates in 1791, on the death of
his cousin in the third degree, Sir Richard Acton of Aldenham
Hall, Shropshire. He served in the navy of Tuscany, and in
1775 commanded a frigate in the joint expedition of Spain and
Tuscany against Algiers, in which he displayed such courage
and resource that he was promoted to high command. In 1779
Queen Maria Carolina of Naples persuaded her brother the Grand-
Duke Leopold of Tuscany to allow Acton, who had been recom-
mended to her by Prince Caramenico, to undertake the re-
organization of the Neapolitan navy. The ability displayed by
him in this led to his rapid advancement He became com-
mander-in-chief of both services, minister of finance, and finally
prime minister. His policy was devised in concert with the
English ambassador, Sir William Hamilton, and aimed at sub-
stituting the influence of Austria and Great Britain for that of
Spain, at Naples, and consequently involved open opposition
to France and the French party in Italy. The financial and
administrative measures which were the outcome of a policy
ACTON— ACTS OF THE APOSTLES
161
which necessitated a great inmate of armament made him
intensely unpopular, and in December 1798 he shared the flight
of the king and queen. For the reign of terror which followed
(he downfall of the Parthenopean Republic, five months later,
Acton has been held responsible. In 1 804 he was for a short time
deprived of the reins of government at the demand of France;
but be was speedily restored to his former position, which he held
UK, io February 1806, on the entry of the French into Naples,
he had to flee with the royal family into Sicily. He died at
Palermo on the nth of August 181 1.
He bad married, by papal dispensation, the eldest daughter
of brs brother, General Joseph Edward Acton (b. 1737)1 *ho
was in the Neapolitan service, and left three children, the elder
son, Sir Richard, being the father of the first Lord Acton.
The second son, Charles Januarius Edward (1803-1847), after
being educated in England and taking his degree at Magdalene
College, Cambridge, in 1823, entered the Academia Ecdesiastica
it Rome. He left this with the rank of prelate, in 1828 was
secretary to the nundo at Paris and was made vice-legate
of Bologna shortly afterwards. He became secretary of the
congregation of the Disciplina Regolare, and auditor of the
Apostolic Chamber under Gregory XVI., by whom he was
nade t cardinal in 1842. Cardinal Acton was protector of the
English College at Rome, and had been mainly instrumental
in the increase, in 1840, of the English vicariates-general
to eight, which paved the way for the restoration of the
hierarchy by Pius IX. in 185a He died on the 23rd of June
1847.
ACTOV, an urban district in the Ealing parliamentary division
of Middlesex, England, suburban to London, 9 m. W. of St.
Paul's Cathedral Pop. (1861) 3151; (1001) 37,744. Its ap-
pearance is now wholly that of a modern residential suburb.
The derivation offered for its name is from Oak-town, in refer-
ence to the extensive forest which formerly covered the locality.
The land belonged from early times to the see of London, a grant
being recorded in 1220. Henry III. had a residence here. At
the time of the Commonwealth Acton was a centre of Puritanism.
Philip Nye (d. 1672) was rector; Richard Baxter, Sir Matthew
Hale (Lord Chief- Justice), Henry Fielding the novelist and
John Landley the botanist (d. 1865) are famous names among
residents here. Acton Wells, of saline waters, had considerable
reputation in the 1 8th century.
ACT 0V PETITION, the term for a part of the procedure in
the Probate, Divorce and Admiralty Division, now of infrequent
occurrence. It was more freely used in the old Admiralty and
Divorce courts before the Judicature Acts. (See Pleading.)
ACTS OP THE APOSTLES. This book of the Bible, which
bow stands fifth in the New Testament, was read at first as the
companion and sequel of the Gospel of Luke. Its separation was
due to growing consciousness of the Gospels as a unit of sacred
records, to which Acts stood as a sort of appendix. Historically
it is of unique interest and value: it has no fellow within the
New Testament or without it. The so-called Apocryphal Acts
of certain apostles, while witnessing to the impression produced
by our Acts as a type of edifying literature, only emphasize this
(set. It is the one really primitive Church history, primitive in
spirit as in substance; apart from it a connected picture of
the Apostolic Age would be impossible. With it, the Pauline
Epistles are of priceless historical value; without it, they would
remain bafflingry fragmentary and incomplete, often even mis-
leading.
1. Plan and its*.— All agree that the Acts of the Apostles is
tat work of an author of no mean skill, and that he has exercised
careful selection in the use of his materials, in keeping with a
definite purpose and plan. It is of moment, then, to discover
boat his emphasis, whether by iteration or by fulness of scale,
■hat objects he had in mind in writing. Here it is not needful
to go farther back than F. C. Baur and the Tubingen school, with
fe theory of sharp antitheses between Judaic and Gentile Chris-
*■*&! , of which they took the original apostles and Paul respect-
Mr u typical. Gradually their statement of this position
•dement serious modifications, as it became realised that
neither Jewish nor Gentile Christianity was a uniform genus,
but included several species, and that the apostolic leaders
from the first stood for mutual understanding and unity. Hence
the Tubingen school did its chief work in putting the needful
question, not in returning the correct answer. Their answer
could not be correct, because, as Ritschl showed (in his Altkolk.
Kir eke, 2nd ed., 1857), their premisses were inadequate. Still the
attitude created by the Tubingen theory largely persists as a
biassing element in much that is written about Acts. On the
whole, however, there is a disposition to look at the book more
objectively and to follow up the hints as to its aim given by the
author in his opening verses. Thus (1) his second narrative is
the natural sequel to his first As the earlier one set forth in
orderly sequence (calces) the providential stages by which Jesus
was led, " in the power of the Spirit," to begin the establishment
of the consummated Kingdom of God, so the later work aims
at setting forth on similar principles its extension by means of
His chosen representatives or apostles. This involves emphasis
on the identity of the power, Divine and not merely human,
expressed in the great series of facts from first to last. Thus (2)
the Holy Spirit appears as directing and energizing throughout
the whole struggle with the powers of evil to be overcome in
either ministry, of Master or disciples. But (3) the continuity
is more than similarity of activity resting on the same Divine
energy. The working of the energy in the disciples is condi-
tioned by the continued life and volition of their Master at His
Father's right hand in Jieaven. The Holy Spirit, " the Spirit of
Jesus," is the living link between Master and disciples. Hence
the pains taken to exhibit (i. 2, 4 f. 8, ii. x ff., cf. Luke xxiv. 49)
the fact of such spiritual solidarity, whereby their activity means
His continued action in the world. And (4) the scope of this
action is nothing less than humanity (ii. 5 ff.), especially within
the Roman empire. It was foreordained that Messiah's witnesses
should be borne by Divine power through all obstacles and to
ever-widening circles, until they reached and occupied Rome
itself for the God of Israel— now manifest (as foretold by Israel's
own prophets) as the one God of the one race of mankind.
(5) Finally, as we gather from the parallel account in Luke xxiv.
46-48, the divinely appointed method of victory is through
suffering (Acts xiv. 22). This explains the large space devoted
to the tribulations of the witnesses, and their constancy amid
them, after the type of their Lord Himself. It forms one side
of the virtual apologia for the absence of that earthly prosperity
in which the pagan mind was apt to see the token of Divine
approval. Another side is the recurring exhibition of the fact
that these witnesses were persecuted only by those whose action
should create no bias against the persecuted. Their foes were
chiefly Jews, whose opposition was due partly to a stiff-necked
disinclination to bow to the wider reading of their own religion
— to which the Holy Spirit had from of old been pointing (cf.
the prominence given to this idea in Stephen's long speech) —
and partly to jealousy of those who, by preaching the wider
Messianic Evangel, were winning over the Gentiles, and particu-
larly proselytes, in such great numbers.
Such, then, seem to be the author's main motifs. They make
up an account fairly adequate to the manifoldness of the book;
yet they may be summed up in three ideas, together constituting
the moral which this history of the expansion of Christianity
aims at bringing home to its readers. These are the universality
of Ike Gospel, the jealousy of national Judaism, and the Divine
initiative manifest in the gradual stages by which men of Jewish
birth were led to recognize the Divine will in the setting aside
of national restrictions, alien to the universal destiny of the
Church. The practical moral is the Divine character of the
Christian religion, as evinced by the manner of its extension in
the empire, no less than by its original embodiment in the
Founder's life and death. Thus both parts of the author's work
alike tend to produce assured conviction of Christianity as of
Divine origin (Luke i. 1, 4; Acts i. 1 f.).
This view has the merit of giving the book a practical religious
aim— a sine qua non to any theory of an early Christian writing.
Though meant for men of pagan birth in the first instance, it is
l62
ACTS OF THE APOSTLES
to them as inquirers or even converts, such as " Thcophilus, "
that the argument is addressed. In spite of all difficulties, this
religion is worthy of personal belief, even though it mean oppo-
sition and suffering. Among the features of the occasion which
suggested the need of such an appeal was doubtless the existence
of persecution by the Roman authorites, perhaps largely at the
instigation of local Judaism. To meet this special perplexity,
the author holds up the picture of early days, when the great
protagonist of the Gospel constantly enjoyed protection at the
hands of Roman justice. It is implied that the present distress
is but a passing phase, resting on some misunderstanding;
meantime, the example of apostolic constancy should yield strong
reassurance. The Acts of Ike Apostles is in fact an Apology for
the Church as distinct from Judaism, the breach with which is
accordingly traced with great fulness and care.
From this standpoint Acts no longer seems to end abruptly.
Whether as exhibiting the Divine leading and aid, or as recording
the impartial and even kindly attitude of the Roman State
towards the Christians, the writer has reached a climax. " He
wished, " as Harnack well remarks, " to point out the might of
the Holy Spirit in the apostles, Christ's witnesses; and to show
how this might carried the Gospel from Jerusalem to Rome and
gained for it entrance into the pagan world, whilst the Jews in
growing degree incurred rejection. In keeping with this, verses
26-28 of chapter xxviiL are the solemn closing verses of the work.
But verses 30, 31 are an appended observation. "
Yet the writer is, in fact, ending up most fitly on one of his
keynotes, in that he leaves Paul preaching in Rome itself, " un-
molested. " " Paulus Romae, apex Evangelii. "
The full force of this is missed by those who, whQe rejecting
the idea that the author had in reserve enough Pauline history
to furnish another work, yet hold that Paul was freed from the
imprisonment amid which Acts leaves him (see Paul). But for
those, on the other hand, who see in the writer's own words in
xx. 38, uncontradicted by anything in the sequel, a broad hint
that Paul never saw his Ephesian friends again, the natural view
is open that the sequel to the two years' preaching was too well
known to call for explicit record. Nor would such silence touch-
ing Paul's speedy martyrdom be disingenuous, any more than
on the theory that martyrdom overtook him several years later.
The writer views Paul's death (like the horrors of Nero's Vatican
Gardens in 64) as a mere exception to the rule of Roman policy
heretofore illustrated. Not even by the Roman authorities were
some of Nero's acts regarded as precedents.
2. A uthorskip. — External evidence, which is relatively early and
widespread (e.g. Muratorian Canon, Irenaeus, Tertullian,Clement
and Origen), all points to Luke, the companion and fellow-
worker of Paul (Philem. 24), who probably accompanied him
as physician also (Col. iv. 14). It must be noted too that evidence
for his authorship of the third Gospel counts also for Acts. This
carries us back at least to the second quarter of the 2nd century
(Justin, Dial. 103, and most probably Martion), when Aovkop
no doubt stood at the head of the Gospel, especially where
it was used side by side with the others. We have every reason
to trust the Church's tradition at this time, particularly as Luke
was not prominent enough as an associate of Paul to suggest the
theory as a guess. Nor does Eusebius, who knew the ante-
Niccne literature intimately, seem to know of any other view
ever having been held. If, then, the traditional Lucan author-
ship is to be doubted, it must be on internal evidence only. The
form of the book, however, in all respects favours Luke, who
was of non- Jewish birth (see Col. iv. 12-14 compared with 10 f.),
and as a physician presumably a man of culture. The medical
cast of much of its language, which is often of a highly technical
nature, points strongly the same way; 1 while the early tradition
that Luke was born in the Syrian Antxoch admirably suits the
•This argument, first worked out by Dr W. K. Hobart, The
Medical Languor of St Luke (Dublin. 1882). but hitherto neglected
by many Continental scholars, has been urged afresh by Harnack,
Lukas der Ant (Leipzig. 1906; Eng. trans., London. 1907), to which
reference may be made for all matter* connected with Lucan author-
ship; comp. also R. J. Knowling in The Expositor's Creek Testa-
fulness with which the origin of the Antiochene Church and Ha
place in the further extension of the Gospel are described (see
Luxe). Again, the attitude of Acts towards the Roman Empire
rs just what would be expected from a close comrade of Paul
(cf. Sir W. M. Ramsay, St Paul the Traveller and Roman Ciltxen,
1895), but was hardly likely to be shared by one of the next
generation, reared in an atmosphere of resentment, first at Nero's
conduct and then at the persecuting policy of the Flavian Caesars
(see Revelation). Finally, the book itself seems to claim to
be written by a companion of Paul. In chap. xvi. 10 the writer,
without any previous warning, passes from the third person to
the first. Paul had reached Troas. There he saw a vision invit-
ing him to go to Macedonia. " But when he saw the vision,
straightway we sought to go forth into Macedonia. " Thence-
forth " we " re-emerges at certain points in the narrative until
Rome is reached Irenaeus (iii. 14. 1) quotes these passages as
proof that Luke, the author, was a companion of the apostle.
The minute character of the narrative, the accurate description
of the various journeyings, the unimportance of some of the
details, especially some of the incidents of the shipwreck, are
strong reasons for believing that the narrative is that of an eye-
witness. If so, we can scarcely help coming to the conclusion
that this eye-witness was the author of the work; for the style
of this eye-witness is exactly the style of the writer who
composed the previous portions (see Harnack, op. cit. t reinforc-
ing the argument as already worked out by B. Weiss, 1803, and
especially by Sir J. C. Hawkins in Horae Synoptkae, 1890, pp.
143-147). Most scholars admit that the " we " narrative is that
of a personal companion of Paul, who was probably none other
than Luke, in view of his traditional authorship of Acts. But
many suppose that the tradition arose from confused remem-
brance of the use by a later author of Luke's " we " document
or travel-diary. This supposition would compel us to believe
either that the skilful writer of Acts was so careless as to incor-
porate a document without altering its form, or that '* we " is
introduced intentionally. In the latter case we must suppose
either that the writer was an eye-witness, or that he wished to
be thought an eye-witness, £. Zeller, a follower of Baur, adopted
this latter alternative, and P. W. Schmiedel adheres to it. In-
deed it is hard to see how it can be avoided on the theory that
the author of Acts used a travel-document by another hand
(see below, Sources). On the whole, then, the most tenable
theory is that the writer of the " we " sections was also the
author of Acts ; and that he was Luke, Paul's companion during
most of his later ministry, and also his " counterpart," "as a
Hellene, who yet had personal sympathy with Jewish primitive
Christianity " (Harnack, op. cit. p. 103; see also Luke).
3. Sources. — So far from the recognition of a plan in Acts
being inimical to a quest after the materials used in its composi-
tion, one may say that it points the way thereto, while it keeps
the literary analysis within scientific limits. The more one
realizes the standpoint of the mind pervading the book as a
whole, the more one feels that the speeches in the first part of
Acts (e.g. that of Stephen) — and indeed elsewhere, too— are not
" free compositions " of our author, the mere outcome of dra-
matic idealization such as ancient historians like Thucydidcs
or Polybius allowed themselves. The Christology, for instance,
of the early Petrine speeches is such as a Gentile Christian writing
c. 80 aj>. simply could' not have imagined. Thus we are forced
to assume the use of a certain amount of early Judaeo-Christtan
material, akin to that implied also in the special parts of the
Third Gospel. Paul Feine (Eine vorkanoniscke Ueberlieferumg
des Lukas, 1801) suggested that a single document explains this
material in both works, as far as Acts xii. Others maintain
that at any rate two sources underlie Acts i.-xii., or even L-xv.
(see A. Harnack, Die Apostelgesckickte, p. 131 ff.). In particular
we can recognize a source embodying the traditions of the
largely Hellenistic Church of Antioch, a secondary gloss from
which may survive in the Bezan addition to xi. 27, " when ure
were assembled. " Further, if our author was a careful inquirer
(Luke i. 3), especially if he was in the habit of taking down in
writing what he heard from different witnesses, this may explain
ACTS OF THE APOSTLES
163
mow of the phenomena. Such a man as Luke would have rmre
facilities lor collecting Palestinian materials, varying no doubt
m accuracy, but all relatively primitive, whether in Antioch or
ia Caesarea, where he probably resided for some two years in
contact with men like Philip the Evangelist (xxi. 8). There and
elsewhere he might also learn a good deal from John Mark, Peter's
mad (1 Pet. v. 13; Acts ai. 12). In any case the study of
sources (QmtOemkritik) is a comparatively new one, and the
resources of analysis, linguistic in particular, are by no means
exhausted. One important analogy exists for the way in which
ear author would handle any written sources he may have had
by him, namely, the manner in which he uses Mark's Gospel
sanative in compiling his own GospeL Guided by this objective
criterion, and safeguarded by growing insight into the author's
plastic aim, we need not despair of reaching large agreement as
to the nature of the sources lying behind the first half of Acts.
Ia the second or strictly Pauline half we are confronted by
the so-called "we" passages. Of these two main theories are
passible: (1) that which sees in them traces of an earlier docu-
ment—whether entries in a travel-diary, or a more or less
consecutive narrative written later; and (2) that which would
regard the "we" as due to the author's breaking instinctively
into the first person plural at certain points where he felt himself
mnally identified with the history. On the former hypothesis,
it is still in debate whether the "we" document does or does
aot lie behind more of the narrative than is definitely indicated
by the formula in question (e.g. cc xiii-xv., xxL 19-xxvi.).
Os the latter, it may well be questioned whether the presence or -
absence of "we" be not due to psychological causes, rather
than to the writer's mere presence or absence. 1 That is, he may
be writing sometimes as a member of Paul's mission at the
critical stages of onward advance, sometimes rather as a witness
absorbed in his hero's words and deeds (so "we" ceases between
n. 15 and xxL 1). Naturally he would fall into the former
attitude mostly when recording the definitive transition of Paul
and ha party from one sphere of work to another (xvi 10 ff.,
n. 5 ff., xxvii. 1 ff.). At such times the whole "mission" was
as one man in its movements.
4. Historical Value.— The question of authorship is largely
bound up with that as to the quality of the contents as history.
Ads n divided into two distinct parts. The first (L-xii.) deals
with the church in Jerusalem and Judaea, and with Peter as
central figure— at any rate in cc L-v. " Yet in cc vL-xii.," as
Harnack' observes, "the author pursues several lines at once.
(0 He has suH in view the history of the Jerusalem community
tnd the original apostles (especially of Peter and his missionary
labours); (a) he inserts in vL 1 ff. a history of the Hellenistic
Christians in Jerusalem and of the Seven Men, which from the
first tends towards the Gentile Mission and the founding of the
Aauochene community; (3) he pursues the activity of Philip
n Samaria and on the coast . • . ; (4) lastly, he relates the
history of Paul up to- bis entrance on the service of the young
tatiocbene church. In the small space of seven chapters he
pursues aD these lines and tries also to connect them together,
•t the same time preparing and sketching the great transition
of the Gospel from Judaism to the Greek world. As historian,
he has here set himself the greatest task." No doubt gaps abound
b these seven chapters. "But the inquiry as to whether what
is narrated does not even in these parts still contain the main
bets, and is not substantially trustworthy, is not yet con-
rinded." The difficulty is that we have but few external means
of testing this portion of the narrative (see below, Date). Some
of it nay well have suffered partial transformation in oral tradi-
tion before reaching our author; t.g. the nature of the Tongues
« Pentecost does not accord with what we know of the gift
•f "tongues" generally. The second part pursues the history
1 This view has received Harnack's support, op. cit. 89 f.
'JaadafcucMcaw (190ft), p. 46. Harnack finds that our sense of
the trustworthiness of the book " b enhanced by a thorough study
*tht chronological procedure of its author, both where he speaks
**o *here he keeps silence." In this aspect the book " as a whole
onfing to the aims of the author and in reality a historical
" (n. 41 ; cf. pp. 1-20. 222 ff.).
of the apostle Paul; and here we can compare the statements
made in the Acts with the Epistles. The result is a general
harmony, without any trace of direct use of these letters; and
there art -many minute coincidences. But attention has been
drawn to two remarkable exceptions. These are, the account
given by Paul of bis visits to Jerusalem in Galatians as com-
pared with Ads; and the character and mission of the apostle
Paul, as they appear in his letters and in Ads.
In regard to the first point, the differences as to Paul's move-
ments until he returns to his native province of Syria-Cibaa
(see Paul) do not really amount to more than can be explained
by the different interests of Paul and our author respectively.
But it is otherwise as regards the visits of Gal. ii. i-xo and Acts
xv. If they are meant to refer to the same occasion, as is usually
assumed,* it is hard to see why Paul should omit reference to
the public occasion of the visit, as also to the public vindication
of his policy. But in fact the issues of the two visits, as given
in Gal ii. o f . and Acts xv. 20 f., are not at all the same. 4 Nay
more, if Gal ii. x-io=»Acts xv., the historicity of the "Relief
visit" of Acts xs. 30, xii. 25, seems definitely excluded by Paul's
narrative of events before the visit of Gal. ii. 1 ff. Accordingly,
Sir W. M. Ramsay and others argue that the latter visit itself
coincided with the Relief visit, and even see in Gal ii. 10 witness
thereto.
But why, then, does not Paul refer to the public charitable
object of his visit? It seems easier therefore to admit that the
visit of Gal ii. 1 ff . is one altogether unrecorded in Ads, owing
to its private nature as preparing the way for public develop-
ments—with which Acts is mainly concerned. In that case it
would fall shortly before the Relief visit, to which there may be
tadt explanatory allusion, in Gal ii 10 (see further Paul);
and it will be shown below that such a conference of leaders in
Gal iL x ff. leads up excellently both to the First Mission Journey
and to Acts xv.
We pass next to the Paul of Acts. Paul insists that he was
appointed the apostle to the Gentiles, as Peter was to the Cir-
cumcision; and that circumcision and the observance of the
Jewish law were of no importance to the Christian as such. His
words on these points in all his letters are strong and decided.
But in Acts it is Peter who first opens up the way for the Gentiles.
It is Peter who uses the strongest language in regard to the in-
tolerable burden of the Law as a means of salvation(xv. 10 f. t
cf. x). Not a word is said of any difference of opinion between
Peter and Paul at Antioch (Gal ii. 11 ff.). The brethren in
Antioch send Paul and Barnabas up to Jerusalem to ask the
opinion of the apostles and elders: they state their case, and
carry back the decision to Antioch. Throughout the whole of
Acts Paul never stands forth as the unbending champion of the
Gentiles. He seems continually anxious to reconcile the Jewish
Christians to himself by personally observing the law of Moses.
He circumcises the semi- Jew, Timothy; and he performs his
vows in the temple. He is particularly careful in his speeches
to show how deep is his respect for the law of Moses. In all this
the letters of Paul are very different from Acts. In Galatians
he claims perfect freedom in principle, for himself as for the
Gentiles, from the obligatory observance of the law; and neither
in it nor in Corinthians does he take any notice of a decision to
which the apostles had come in their meeting at Jerusalem. The
narrative of Ads, too, itself implies something other than what
it sets in relief; for why should the Jews hate Paul so much, if
he was not in some sense disloyal to their Law?
There is, nevertheless, no essential contradiction here, only
such a difference of emphasis as belongs to the stand-
points and aims of the two writers amid their respective
'Though this view had the support of T. B. Lightfoot, it should
be remembered that this was before the South Galatian " theory
as to the date of Paul's work among the Galatians came to prevail.
• Harnack, indeed, argues (op. ctL pp. 188 ff.) that the Abstinences
defined for Gentiles were in the original text of Acts xv. 20 purely
moral, and had no reference to Jewish scruples as to eating blood.
He regards " what is strangled (tmtU) as originally a mistaken
gloss, which crept into the.text. External evidence is against this,
nor does it seem demanded by the context; in fact zv. 21 rather
goes against it.
164.
ACTS OF THE APOSTLES
historical conditions. Peter's function in relation to the Gentiles
belongs to the early Palestinian conditions, before Paul's dis-
tinctive mission had taken shape. Once Paul's apostolate— a
personal one, parallel with the more collective apostolate of
" the Twelve " — has proved itself by tokens of Divine approval,
Peter and his colleagues frankly recognize the distinction of the
two missions, and are anxious only to arrange that the two shall
not fall apart by religiously and morally incompatible usages
(Acts xv.). Paul, on his side, dearly implies that Peter felt
with him that the Law could not justify (GaL ii. 15 ff.)> and
argues that it could not now be made obligatory in principle
(cf "a yoke," Acts xv. 10); yet for Jews it might continue for
the time (pending the Parousia) to be seemly and expedient,
especially for the sake of non-believing Judaism. To this he
conformed his own conduct as a Jew, so far as his Gentile apos-
tolate was not involved (1 Cor. ix. zo ft.). There is no reason
to doubt that Peter largely agreed with him, since he acted in this
spirit in Gal. ii. n f., until coerced by Jerusalem sentiment to
draw back for expediency's sake. This incident it simply did
not fall within the scope of Acts (see below) to narrate, since
it had no abiding effect on the Church's extension. As to Paul's
submission of the issue in Acts xv. to the Jerusalem conference,
Acts does not imply that Paul would have accepted a decision
in favour of the Judaizers, though he saw the value of getting a
decision for his own policy in the quarter to which they were
most likely to defer. If the view that he already had an under-
standing with the " Pillar " Apostles, as recorded in Gal. ii. 1-10
(see further Paul), be correct, it gives the best of reasons why he
was ready to enter the later public Conference of Acts xv. Paul's
own " free " attitude to the Law, when on Gentile soil, is just
what is implied by the hostile rumours as to his conduct in
Acts xxi. 21, which be would be glad to disprove as at least
exaggerated (ib. 24 and 26). What is clear is that such lack of
formal accord as here exists between Acts and the Epistles, tells
against its author's dependence on the latter, and so favours his
having been a comrade of Paul himself.
The speeches in Acts deserve special notice. Did its author
follow the plan adopted by all historians of his age, or is he an
£j p(CcftM< exception? Ancient historians (like many of modern
times) used the liberty of working up in their own
language the speeches recorded by them. They did not dream
of verbal fidelity; even when they had more exact reports before
them, they preferred to mould a speaker's thoughts to their own
methods of presentation. Besides this, some did not hesitate to
give to the characters of their history speeches which were never
uttered. The method of direct speech, so useful in producing
a vivid idea of what is supposed to have passed through the mind
of the speaker, was used to give force to the narrative. Now
bow far has the author of Acts followed the practice of his con-
temporaries? Some of his speeches are evidently but summaries
of thoughts which occurred to individuals or multitudes. Others
claim to be reports of speeches really delivered. But all these
speeches have to a large extent the same style, the style also of
the narrative. They have been passed though one editorial
mind, and some mutual assimilation in phraseology and idea
may well have resulted. They are, moreover, all of them, the
merest abstracts. The speech of Paul at Athens, as given by
Luke, would not occupy more than a minute or two in delivery.
But these circumstances, while inconsistent with verbal accuracy,
do not destroy authenticity; and in most of the speeches (e.g.
xiv. 15-17) there is a varied appropriateness as well as anallusive-
ness, pointing to good information (see under Sources). There
is no evidence that any speech in Acts is the free composition of
its author, without either written or oral basis; and in general
he seems more conscientious than most ancient historians
touching the essentials of historical accuracy, even as now
understood.
Objections to the trustworthiness of Acts on the ground of its
miracles require to be stated more discriminately than has some-
Irthmht times been the case. Particularly is this so as regards
the question of authorship. As Haraack observes
(Luios dew Ant % p. 24), the " miraculous" or supernormal ele-
ment is hardly, if at all, less marked in the " we " sections, which
are substantially the witness of a companion of Paul (and where
efforts to dissect out the miracles are fruitless), than in the rest
of the work. The scientific method, then, is to consider each
" miracle " on its own merits, according as we find reason to I
suppose that it has reached our author more or less direct ly. But
the record of miracle as such cannot prejudice the question of
authorship. Even the form in which the gift of Tongues at
Pentecost is conceived does not tell against a companion of Paul,
since it may have stood in his source, and the first outpouring
of the Messianic Spirit may soon have come to be thought of as
unique in some respects, parallel in fact to the Rabbinic tradition
as to the inauguration of the Old Covenant at Sinai (cf. Pbilo,
De decern oraculis, 9, zi, and the Midrash on Ps. lxviii. 11).
Finally as to such historical difficulties in Acts as still perplex
the student of the Apostolic age, one must remember the possi-
bilities of mistake intervening between the facts and the accounts
reaching its author, at second or even third hand. Yet it must
be strongly emphasized, that recent historical research at the
hands of experts in classical antiquity has tended steadily to
verify such parts of the narrative as it can test, especially' those
connected with Paul's missions in the Roman Empire. That is
no new result; but it has come to light in greater degree of
recent years, notably through Sir W. M. Ramsay's researches.
The proofs of trustworthiness extend also to the theological
sphere. What was said above of the Christology of the Petrine
speeches applies to the whole conception of Messianic salvation,
the eschatology, the idea of Jesus as equipped by the Holy Spirit
for His Messianic work, found in these speeches, as also to titles
like " Jesus the Nazarene " and " the Righteous One " both in
and beyond the Petrine speeches. These and other cases in
which we are led to discern very primitive witness behind Acts,
do not indeed give to such witness the value of shorthand notes or
even of abstracts based thereon. But they do support the theory
that our author meant to give an unvarnished account of such
words and deeds as had come to his knowledge. The perspective
of the whole is no doubt his own; and as his witnesses probably
furnished but few hints for a continuous narrative, this perspec-
tive, especially in things chronological, may sometimes be faulty.
Yet when one remembers that by 70-80 a.d. it must have been
a matter of small interest by what tentative stages the Messianic
salvation first extended to the Gentiles, it is surely surprising
that Acts enters into such detail on the subject, and is not content
with a summary account of the matter such as the mere logic of
the subject would naturally suggest. In any case, the very differ-
ence of the perspective of Acts and of Galatians, in recording the
same epochs in Paul's history, argues such an independence in
the former as is compatible only with an early date.
Qucllenkritik, then, a distinctive feature of recent research
upon Acts, solves many difficulties in the way of treating it as
an honest narrative by a companion of Paul. In addition, we
may also count among recent gains a juster method of judging
such a book. For among the results of the Tubingen criticism
was what Dr W. Sanday calls " an unreal and artificial standard,
the standard of the 19th century rather than the xst, of Germany
rather than Palestine, of the lamp and the study rather than of
active life.' 1 This has a bearing, for instance, on the differences
between the three accounts of Paul's conversion in Acts. In
the recovery of a more real standard, we owe much to men like
Mommsen, Ramsay, Blass and Harnack, trained amid other
methods and traditions than those which had brought the con-
structive study of Acts almost to a deadlock.
5. Dak.— External evidence now points to the existence of
Acts at least as early as the opening years of the and century.
As evidence for the Third Gospel holds equally for Acts, its
existence in Marcion's day (120-140) is now assured. Further,
the traces of it in Polycarp * and Ignatius,* when taken together,
are highly probable; and it is even widely admitted that the
resemblance of Acts xiii. 22, and x Clem, xviii. 1, in features not
Polyc. ad PhUipt. i. a. Acts ii. 24; ii. 1, Acts x. 42; ii. 3. Acts
fl5; vi. 3, Acts vii. 52.
gn. ad Mag*, v. 1, Acts L 25; ad Smyrn. Hi. 3, Acts x. 41.
ACTS OF THE APOSTLES
165
found in the Psalm (Itttji. 10) quoted by each, can hardly be
afridmfil That is, Ads was probably current in Antioch and
Smyrna not later than c. a.d. 115, and perhaps in Rome as early
asc. ad. 06,
With this view internal evidence agrees. In spite of some
advocacy of a date prior to a.d. 70, the bulk of critical
opinion is decidedly against it. The prologue to Luke's Gospel
itself implies the dying out of the generation of eye-witnesses
is a dass. A strong consensus of opinion supports a date about
ah. 80; some prefer 75 to 80; while a date between 70 and 75
seems no less possible. Of the reasons for a date in one of the
earlier decades of the 2nd century, as argued by the Tubingen
school and its heirs, several are now untenable. Among these
are the supposed traces of md-century Gnosticism and " hier-
archical " ideas of organization; but especially the argument
from the relation of the Roman state to the Christians, which
Ramsay has reversed and turned into proof of an origin prior
to Pliny's correspondence with Trajan on the subject. Another
fact, now generally admitted, renders a and-century date yet
more incredible; and that is the failure of a writer devoted to
Pauls memory to make palpable use of his Epistles. Instead of
tab he writes in a fashion that seems to traverse certain things
recorded in them. If, indeed, it were proved that Acts uses the
later works of Josephus, we should have to place the book
about A.D. 100. But this is far from being the case.
Three points of contact with Josephus in particular are dted.
" " ;-Ae Y " rtT
lo. 14. Here Acts xii. 21-23 t „ . .....
& 2; but the latter adds an omen of coming doom, while Acts alone
(i)Tbe circumstances attending
a-o. -- " — *— -" — — -
_ . r . . death of Herod Agrippa I. in
Here Acts xii. 21-23 is largely parallel to Jos* AntL xix.
jives a circumstantial account of the occasion of Herod's public
appearance. Hence the parallel, when analysed, tells against de-
pendence on Josephus. So also with (2) the cause of the Egyptian
reodo-prophet in Acts xxi. 37 f.. Jos. Jewish War, ii. 13. 5, AntL xx.
6; for the numbers of his followers do not agree with either of
Kodo-prophet in Acts xxi. 37 f.. Jos. Jewish War, ii. 13.
6; for the numbers of his followers do not agree wit
Josephus's rather divergent accounts, while Acts alone calls them
StcssiL With these instances in mind, it is natural to regard (3)
tie curious resemblance as to the (non-historical) order in which
Tfaeodas and Judas of Galilee are referred to in both as accidental,
Use more so that again there is difference as to numbers. Further,
ip make out a case for dependence at all, one must assume the
aisuken order (as it may be) in Gamaliel's speech as due to gross
ctrefesMess in the author of Acts — an hypothesis unlikely in itself.
Ssch a mistake was far more likely to arise in oral transmission of
the speech, before it reached Luke at all.
6. Place.— The place of composition is still an open question.
For some time Rome and Antioch have been in favour; and
Blast combined both views in his theory of two editions (see
bdov, Text). But internal evidence points strongly to the
Roman province of Asia, particularly the neighbourhood of
Ephesus. Note the confident local allusion in xix. 9 to " the
school of Tyrannus " — not " a certain Tyrannus," as in the in-
ferior text— and in xix- 33 to " Alexander "; also the very minute
topography in xx. 13-15. At any rate affairs in that region,
inducting the future of the church of Ephesus (xx. 28-30), are
tretted as though they would specially interest " Theophilus "
sad his circle; also an early tradition makes Luke die in the
adjacent Bithynia. Finally it was in this region that there
anise certain early glosses (e.g. on xix. 9, xx. 15), probably the
artiest of those referred to below. How fully in correspondence
vith such an environment the work would be, as apologia for the
Chorea against the Synagogue's attempts to influence Roman
pohty to its harm, must be dear to all familiar with the strength
of Judaism in " Asia " (cf. Rev. ii. 9, hi. 9, and see Sir W. M.
kammy, The Letters lo the Seven Churches, ch. xii.).
7- real.— The apparatus critkus of Acts has grown consider-
ably of recent years; yet mainly in one direction, that of the so-
called* Western text." This term, which our growing knowledge,
especially of the Syriac and other Eastern versions, is rendering
■me and more unsatisfactory, stands for a text which used to
be connected almost exclusively with the " eccentric " Codex
Base, and is comparable to a Targum on an Old Testament book.
Bat H is now recognized to have been very widespread, in both
nut and west, for some 200 years or more from as early as the
Buddie of the and century. The process, however, of sifting out
lie readings of all our present witnesses— MSS., versions, Fathers
—has not yet gone far enough to yield any sure or final result as
to the history of this text, so as to show what in its extant forms
is primary, secondary, and so on. Beginnings have been made
towards grouping our authorities; but the work must go on
much further before a solid basis for the reconstruction of its
primitive form can be said to exist. The attempts made at such
a reconstruction, as by Blass (1895, 1897) and Hilgenfeld (1809),
are quite arbitrary. The like must be said even of the contribu-
tion to the problem made by August Pott, 1 though he has helped
to define one condition of success — the classification of the strata
in '* Western " texts — and has taken some steps in the right
direction, in connexion with the complex phenomena of one
witness, the Harklean Syriac.
Assuming, however, that the original form of the " Western "
text had been reached, the question of its historical value, i.e.
its relation to the original text of Acts, would yet remain. On this
point the highest claims have been made by Blass. Ever since
1804 he held that both the " Western " text of Acts (which he
styles the text) and its rival, the text of the great uncials
(which he styles the a text), are due to the author's own hand.
Further, that the former (Roman) is the more original of the two,
being related to the latter (Antiochehe) as fuller first draft to
severely pruned copy. But even m its later form, that " stands
nearer the Grundschrift lhan a, but yet is, like a, a copy from it,"
the theory is really untenable. In sober contrast of Blass's
sweeping theory stand the views of Sir W. M. Ramsay. Already
in The Church in the Roman Empire (1893) he held that the Codex
Besae rested on a recension made in Asia Minor (somewhere
between Ephesus and S. Galatia), not later than about the middle
of the 2nd century. Though " some at least of the alterations
in Codex Besae arose through a gradual process, and not through
the action of an individual reviser," the revision in question
was the work of a single reviser, who in his changes and additions
expressed the local interpretation put upon Acts in his own time.
His aim, in suiting the text to the views of his day, was partly to
make it more intelligible to the public, and partly to make it more
complete. To this end he " added some touches where surviving
tradition seemed to contain trustworthy additional particulars,"
such as the statement that Paul taught in the lecture-room of
Tyrannus " from the fifth to the tenth hour." In his later work,
on St Paul the Traveller and the Roman Citisen (1895), Ramsay's
views gainboth in precision and in breadth. The gain lies chiefly
in seeing beyond the Beaan text to the " Western " text as *
whole.
Generally speaking, then, the text of Ads as printed by West-
cott and Hort, on the basis of the earliest MSS. («B), seems as near
the autograph as that of any other part of the New Testament;
whereas the " Western " text, even in its earliest traceable forms,
is secondary. This does not mean that it has no historical value
of its own. It may well contain some true supplements to the
original text, derived from local tradition or happy inference —
a few perhaps from a written source used by Luke. Certain of
these may even date from the end of the lit century, and the
larger part of them are probably not later than the middle of the
2nd. But its value lies mainly in the light cast on ecclesiastical
thought in certain quarters during the epoch in question. The
nature of the readings themselves, and the distribution of the
witness for them, alike point to a process involving several stages
and several originating centres of diffusion. The classification
of groups of " Western " witnesses has already begun. When
completed, it will cast light, not only on the origin and growth of
this type of text, but also on the exact value of the remaining
witnesses to the original text of Acts— and further on the early
handling of New Testament writings generally. Acts, from its
very scope, was least likely to be viewed as sacrosanct as regards
its text. Indeed there are signs that its undogmatic nature caused
it to be comparatively neglected at certain times and places, as,
e.g., Chrysostom explicitly witnesses.
Literature. — An account of the extensive and varied literature
that has gathered round Acts may be found in two representative
1 Der abendldndische Text der Apostelgesckickte u. die Wir-cueUt
(Leipzig, 1900). See a review in the Journal of Theol. Studies, ii. 439 II
1 66
ACTUARY— ADAIR
commentaries, vis.. H. H. Wendfs edition of Meyer (1899). and
thatby R. J. Knowling in The Expositor's Creeh Testament, vol.
ii. (1900). supplemented by his Testimony of St Paul to Christ
(I005)T See also J. Moffatt. The Historical New Testament (1901).
41a ff„ 655 ft*.; C Clemen. Die Apostdgesch. im Lichle der neueren
Forschungen (Giessen, 1905); and A. Harnack, Dte Aposteltescktchte
(1908). 0- V. B.)
ACTUARY. The name of actuarius, ac. scriba, in ancient
Rome, was given to the clerks who recorded the Ada PtMica of
the senate, and also to the officers who kept the military accounts
and enforced the due fulfilment of contracts for military supplies.
In its English form the word has undergone a gradual limita-
tion of meaning. At first it seems to have denoted any clerk or
registrar; then more particularly the secretary and adviser of any
joint-stock company, but especially of an insurance company;
and it is now applied specifically to one who makes those calcula-
tions as to the probabilities of human life, on which the practice
of life assurance and the valuation of reversionary interests,
deferred annuities, &c, are based. The first mention of the word
in law is in the Friendly Societies Act of 18 19, where it is used
in the vague sense, " actuaries, or persons skilled in calculation,"
but it has received still further recognition in the Friendly
Societies Act of 1875 and the Life Assurance Companies Act of
1 870. The word has been used with precision since the establish-
ment of the " Institute of Actuaries of Great Britain and Ire-
land " in 1848. The Quarterly Journal, Charter of Incorporation,
and by-laws of this society may be usefully consulted for particu-
lars as to the requirements for membership (see also Annuity).
The registrar in the Lower House of Convocation is also called
the actuary.
ACUMINATE 1 (from Lat. acumen, point), sharpened or
pointed, a word used principally in botany and ornithology, to
denote the narrowing or lance-shaping of a leaf or of a bird's
feather into a point, generally at the tip, though sometimes
(with regard to a leaf) at the base. The poet William Cowper
used the word to denote sharp and keen despair, but other
authors, Sir T. Browne, Bacon, Bulwer, &c, use it to explain
a material pointed shape.
ACUftA, CHR1ST0VAL DB (1597-*. 1676), Spanish missionary
and explorer, was born at Burgos in 1597. He was admitted
a Jesuit in 1612, and afterwards sent on mission work to Chile
and Peru, where he became rector of the college of Cuenca. In
1639 he accompanied Pedro Texiera in his second exploration
of the Amazon, in order to take scientific observations, and draw
up a report for the Spanish government. The- journey lasted
ten months; and on the explorer's arrival in Peru, Acufia pre-
pared his narrative, while awaiting a ship for Europe. The king
of Spain, Philip IV., received the author coldly, and it is said
even tried to suppress his book, .fearing that the Portuguese,
who* had just revolted from Spain (1640), would profit by its
information. After occupying the positions of procurator of
the Jesuits at Rome And censor {calificador) of the Inquisition
at Madrid, Acufia returned to South America, where he died,
probably soon after 1675. His Nuevo Descubrimiento del Gran
Rio de las Anuaonas was published at Madrid in 1641; French
and English translations (the latter from the French, appeared
in 1682 and 1608.
ACUPRESSURE (from Lat. acus, a needle, and premere, to
press), the name given to a method of restraining haemorrhage,
introduced by Sir J. Y. Simpson, the direct pressure of a metallic
needle, either alone or assisted by a loop of wire, being used to
dose the vessel near the bleeding point
ACUPUNCTURE (from Lat acus, a needle, and pungere, to
prick), a form of surgical operation, performed by pricking the
part affected with a needle. It has long been used by the Chinese
in cases of headaches, lethargies, convulsions, colics, &c. (See
Surgery.)
ADABAJZAr, an important commercial town in the Khoja Hi
sanjak of Asia Minor, situated on the old military road from
Constantinople to the east, and connected by a branch line with
the Anatolian railway. Pop. 18,000 (Moslems, 10,000; Chris-
tians, 8000). It was founded in 1540 and enlarged in 1608 by
the settlement in it of an Armenian colony. There are silk and
linen industries, and an export of tobacco, walnut-wood, cocoons
and vegetables for the Constantinople market Imports axe
valued at £80,000 and exports at £480,000
See V. Cuinet, Turqute aVAsie (Paris, 1890-1900)
ADAD, the name of the storm-god in the Babylonian-Assyrian
pantheon, who is also known as Ramman (" the thunderer ").
The problem involved in this double name has not yet been
definitely solved. Evidence seems to favour the view that
Ramman was the name current in Babylonia, whereas Adad was
more common in Assyria. To judge from analogous instances
of a double nomenclature, the two names revert to two different
centres for the cult of a storm-god, though it must be confessed
that up to the present it has been impossible to determine
where these centres were. A. god Hadad who was a prominent
deity in ancient Syria is identical with Adad, and in view of this
it is plausible to assume— for which there is also other evidence
— that the name Adad represents an importation into Assyria
from Aramaic districts. Whether the same is the case with
Ramman, identical with Rimmon, known to us from the Old
Testament as the chief deity of Damascus, is not certain though
probable. On the other hand the cult of a specific storm-god
in ancient Babylonia is vouched for by the occurrence of the sign
Im — the " Sumerian " or ideographic writing for Adad-Ramman
— as an element in proper names of the old Babylonian period.
However this name may have originally been pronounced, so
much is certain, — that through Aramaic influences in Baby-
lonia and Assyria he was identified with the storm-god of the
western Semites, and a trace of this influence is to be seen in
the designation Amurru, also given to this god in the religious
literature of Babylonia, which as an early name for Palestine
and Syria describes the god as belonging to the Amorite
district
The Babylonian storm-god presents two aspects in the hymns,
incantations and votive inscriptions. On the one hand he
is the god who, through bringing on the rain in due season,
causes the land to become fertile, and, on the other hand, the
storms that he sends out bring havoc and destruction. He is
pictured on monuments and seal cylinders with the lightning
and the thunderbolt, and in the hymns the sombre aspects of
the god on the whole predominate. His association with the
sun-god, Shamash, due to the natural combination of the two
deities who alternate in the control of natare, leads to imbuing
him with some of the traits belonging to a solar deity. In Syria
Hadad is hardly to be distinguished from a solar deity. Hie
process of assimilation did not proceed so far in Babylonia and
Assyria, but Shamash and Adad became in combination the
gods of oracles and of divination in general. Whether the will
of the gods is determined through the inspection of the liver of
the sacrificial animal, through observing the action of oO bubbles
in a basin of water or through the observation of the movements
of the heavenly bodies, it is Shamash and Adad who, in the ritual
connected with divination, are invariably invoked. Similarly
in the annals and votive inscriptions of the kings, when orades
are referred to, Shamash and Adad are always named as the
gods addressed, and their ordinary designation in such instances
is bill bin, " lords of divination." The consort of Adad-Ramman
is Shala, while as Amurru his consort is called Aschratum. (See
Babylonian and Assyrian Religion.) (M. J a.)
ADAQIO (Ital ad agio, at ease), a term in music to indicate
slow time; also a alow movement in a symphony, sonata, dec,
or an independent piece, such as Mozart's pianoforte " Adagio
in B minor."
ADAIR, JOHN (d. 1722), Scottish surveyor and map-maker
of the 17th century. Nothing is known of his parentage, birth*
place or early life. His name first came before the public in
1683, when a prospectus was published in Edinburgh entitled An
Account of the Scottish Atlas, stating that " the Privy Council of
Scotland has appointed John Adair, mathematician and skilfull
mechanick, to survey the shires." In 1686 an act of tonnage
was passed in Adair's favour. He was then employed on a survey
of the Scottish coast and two years later was made a fellow of
the Royal Society. Two other acts of tonnage were passed for
ADALBERON— ADAM
167
Adair, one in 1695 and the other in 1705. In 1 703 he published
the first part of his Description of the Soa Coasts and Islands of
Sudani, for the use of seamen. The second part never appeared.
He is thought to have died in London about the end of 1722.
He oust have lost a considerable amount of money in the execu-
tion 0* his work, and in 1723 some remuneration was made to his
widow by the government Some of his work is preserved in
the Advocates* Library at Edinburgh and in the King's Library
of the British Museum, London.
ADALBEROM, or Asceun (d. 1030 or 1031), French bishop
tod poet, studied at Reims and became bishop of Laon in 977.
Warn Laon was taken by Charles, duke of Lorraine, in 088, he
vis pat into prison, whence he escaped and sought the protec-
tion of Hugh Capet, king of France. Winning the confidence
of Charles of Lorraine and of Arnulf , archbishop of Reims, he
wit restored to his see; but he soon took the opportunity to
betray Laon, together with Charles and Arnulf, into the hands
of Hugh Capet Subsequently he took an active part in ecclesi-
astical affairs, and died on the 19th of July 1030 or 1031. Adal-
beron wrote a satirical poem in the form of a dialogue dedicated
to Robert, king of France, In which he snowed his dislike of Odilo,
abbot of Cluny, and bis followers, and his objection to persons
of bumble birth being made bishops. The poem was first pub-
Eahed by H. Valois in the Carmen panegyricum in laudem Beren-
fnro (Firis, 1663), and in modern times by J. P. Migne in the
fekelopa Latino, tome cxli. (Paris, 1844). Adalberon must
sot be confounded with his namesake, Adalberon, archbishop
of ft wmf (d. 988 or 989).
See Richer. Historiarum libri III. et IV., which appears In the
Mtnwmenta Grrm am a t historic*. Scriptores. Band lii. (Hanover
aid Bedin. 1826-1892) ; A. Olleris, (Euores do Cerberi pope sous le
urn is Sjhestre II. (Paris, 1667); Uistoire HUtraire do la France,
tow TS -tParia , 1865-1869).
ADALBERT, or Adklbkkt (c. 1000-1072), German arch-
bishop, the most famous ecclesiastic of the nth century, was
the ton of Frederick, count of Goseck, a member of a noble Saxon
family. He was educated for the church, and began his clerical
oner at Halberstadt, where he attained to the dignity of provost
Having attracted the notice of the German king, Henry III.,
Adalbert probably served as chancellor of the kingdom of Italy,
tad ia 1045 was appointed archbishop of Hamburg-Bremen,
•is province including the Scandinavian countries, as well as
a larger part of North Germany. In 1046 he accompanied
Henry to Rome, where he is said to have refused the papal chair;
ssd in 1052 he was made legate by Pope Leo IX., and given the
right to nominate bishops in his province. He sought to increase
tat influence of his archbishopric, sent missionaries to Finland,
Grecalaad and the Orkney Islands, and aimed at making Bremen
a patriarchal sec for northern Europe, with twelve suffragan
bishoprics. He consolidated and increased the estates of the
dnoth, exercised the powers of a count, denounced simony and
initiated financial reforms. The presence of this powerful and
active personality, who was moreover a close friend of the
operor, was greatly resented by the Saxon duke, Bernard II.,
*ao regarded him as a spy sent by Henry into Saxony. Adalbert,
who wished to free his lands entirely from the authority of the
dike, aroused further hostility by an attack on the privileges of
the great abbeys, and after the emperor's death in 1056 his lands
•we ravaged by Bernard. He took a leading part in the govern-
Best of Germany during the minority of King Henry IV., and
*as styled patronus of the young king, over whom he appears
to bsve exercised considerable influence. Having accompanied
Henry on a campaign into Hungary in 1063, he received large
tfu of crown esUtes> and obtained the office of count palatine in
Saxony . His power aroused so much opposition that in 1066
the king was compelled to assent to his removal from court. In
to** be was recalled by Henry, when be made a further attempt
to establish a northern patriarchate, which failed owing to the
botulty of the papacy and the condition of affairs in the Scan-
dinavian kingdoms. He died at Goslar on the 16th or 17th of
■fob 1072, and was buried in the cathedral which he had built
at Bremen. Adalbert was a man of proud and haughty bearing,
■ub large ideas and a strong, energetic character. He
Bremen a city of importance, and it was called by his biographer,
Adam of Bremen, the New Rome.
See Adam of Bremen, Cesta Hammeuburgeusis e c d es ia e ponti/Uum,
edited by J. M. Lappenberg, in the Monumenta Germanios kistorica.
Scriptores. Band vii. (Hanover and Berlin, 1826-1892) ; C. Grflnhagen,
Adalbert Ersbisckof von Hamburg und die Idee sines Nordiscken
Patriarchats (Leipzig, 1854).
ADALBERT (originally Voytech), (c* 956-997), known as
the apostle of the Prussians, the son of a Bohemian prince, was
born at Libice (Lobnik, Lubik), the ancestral seat near the
junction of the Cidlina and the Elbe. He was educated at the
monastery of Magdeburg; and in 983 was chosen bishop of
Prague. The extreme severity of his rule repelled the Bohemians,
whom he vainly strove to wean from their national customs and
pagan rites. Discouraged by the ill-success of his ministry, he
withdrew to Rome until 093, when, in obedience to the command
of the pope, he returned to his own people. Finding little amend-
ment, however, in their course of living, he soon afterwards went
again to Rome, and obtained permission from the pope to devote
himself to missionary labours, which he carried on chiefly in
North Germany and Poland. While preaching in Pomerania
(097) he was assassinated by a heathen priest
See U. Chevalier, Ripertoire des sources mstoriques du moyen die,
Bio.-Bibl. (190s); Bolland, Acta Sanctorum, April 23; H. G. Voigt.
Adalbert von Prog (1898), a thoroughly exhaustive monograph.
ADAUA (med. Antaliyak; the crusaders' Satalio), the ancient
Attalia (q.i.) t the largest seaport on the south coast of Asia
Minor, though in point of trade it is now second to Mersina.
The unsuitability of the harbour for modern steamers, the bad
anchorage outside and the extension of railways from Smyrna
have greatly lessened its former importance as an emporium for
west central Anatolia. It is not connected by a chausste with any
point outside its immediate province, but it has considerable
importance as the administrative capital of a rich and isolated
sanjak. Adalia played a considerable part in the medieval
history of the Levant. Kilij Arslan had a palace there, The
army of Louis VII. sailed thence for Syria in 1148, and the fleet
of Richard of England rallied there before the conquest of Cyprus.
Conquered by the Seljuks of Konia, and made the capital of the
province of Tekke 1 , it passed after their fall through many hands,
including those of the Venetians and Genoese, before its final
occupation by the Ottoman Turks under Murad II. (1432). In
the 18th century, in common with most of Anatolia, its actual
lordwasaDereBey. The family of Tekke Oglu, domiciled near
Perga, though reduced to submission in 1812 by Mahmud II.,
continued to be a rival power to the Ottoman governor till within
the* present genesation, surviving by many years the fall of the
other great Beys of Anatolia. The records of the Levant (Turkey)
Company, which maintained an important agency here till 1825,
contain curious information as to the local Dere Beys. The
present population of Adalia, which includes many Christians
and Jews, still living, as in the middle ages, in separate quarters,
the former round the walled mina or port, is about 25,000. The
port is served by coasting steamers of the local companies only.
Adalia is an extremely picturesque, but ill-built and backward
place. The chief thing to see is the ci ty wall, outside which runs
a good and clean promenade. The government offices and the
houses of the better class are all outside the walls.
See C. Lanckoronski. VtUes de la Pampkylie et de la Pisidie. \.
(1890). (D. G. H.f
ADAM, the conventional name of the first created man
according to the Bible.
1. The Name.— The use of M Adam " (07s) as a proper name
is an early error. Properly the word Adam designated man as
a species; with the article prefixed (Gen. ii. 7, 8, 16, iv. 1 ; and
doubtless ii. 20, iii. 17) it means the first man. Only in Gen. iv.
25 and v. 3-5 is dddm a quasi-proper name, though LXX. and
Vulgate use " Adam " (A&Mi) in this way freely. Gen. ii. 7
suggests a popular Hebrew derivation from id amok, •• the
ground." Into the question whether the original story did not
give a proper name which was afterwards modified into " Adam "
—important as this question is —we cannot here enter.
2. Creation of Adam.— For convenience, we shall take " Adam"
i68
ADAM
as a symbol for " the first man/* and inquire first, what does
tradition say of his creation? In Gen. ii. 40S we read thus. —
"At the time when Yahweh-Elohim 1 made earth and heaven,—
earth was as yet without bushes, no herbage was as yet sprouting,
because Yahweh-Elohim had not caused it to rain upon the earth,
and no men were there to till the ground, but a stream' used to
go up from the earth, and water all the face of the ground, — then
Yahweh-Elohim formed the man of dust of the ground, 1 and
blew into his nostrils breath of life, 4 and the man became a living
being. And Yahweh-Elohim planted a garden' in Eden, east-
ward; and there he put the man whom he had formed." (See
Eve.)
How greatly this simple and fragmentary tale of Creation
differs from that in Gen. i. i-ii. 4a (see Cosmogony) need hardly
be mentioned. Certainly the priestly writer who produced the
latter could not have said that God modelled the first man out
of moistened clay, or have adopted the singular account of the
formation of Eve in ii. 21-23. Th e latter story in particular (see
Eve) shows us bow childlike was the mind of the early men,
whose God is not " wonderful in counsel " (Isa. xxviii. 29), and
fails in his first attempt to relieve the loneliness of his favourite.
For no beast however mighty, no bird however graceful, was a
fit companion for God's masterpiece, and, apart from the serpent,
the animals had no faculty of speech. All therefore that Adam
could do, as they passed before him, was to name them, as a
lord names his vassals. But here arises a difficulty. How came
Adam by the requisite insight and power of observation? For
as yet he had not snatched the perilous boon of wisdom. Clearly
the Paradise story is not homogeneous.
3. How the Animals were named. — Some moderns, e.g. von
Bohlen, Ewald, Driver (in Genesis, p. 55, but cp. p. 42), have
found in ii. 19, 20 an early explanation of the origin of language.
This is hardly right. The narrator assumes that Adam and Eve
had an innate faculty of speech.* They spoke just as the birds
sing, and their language was that of the race or people which
descended from them. Most probably the object of the story
is, not to answer any curious question (such as, how did human
speech arise, or how came the animals by their names?), but to
dchort its readers or hearers from the abominable vice referred
to in Lev. xviii. 23.' There may have been stories in circulation
like that of Ea-bani (( 8), and even such as those of the Skidi
Pawnee, in which " people " marry animals, or become animals.
Against these it is said (ver. 20b) that " for Adam he found no
helper (qualified) to match him."
4. Three Riddles. — Manifold are the problems suggested by the
Eden-story (see Eden ; Paxadise). For instance, did the original
story mention two trees, or only one, of which the fruit was
taboo? In iii. 3(cp. w. 6, xz) only " the tree in the midst of
the garden " is spoken of, but in ii. 9 and iii. 22 two trees are
referred to, the fruit of both of which would appear to be taboo.
To this we must add that in ii. 17 " the tree of the knowledge of
good and evil " appears to have the qualities of a " tree of life,"
except indeed to Adam. This passage seems to give us the key
to the mystery. There was only one tree whose fruit was for-
bidden; it might be called either " the tree of life " or " the
tree of knowledge," but certainly not " the tree of knowledge
of good and evil." i The words "life" and " knowledge "
(=»" wisdom ") are practically equivalent; perfect knowledge
1 The English Bible gives " the Lord God." This, however, does
not adequately represent the Hebrew.
' See commentaries of Gunkel and Cheyne. As in v.10, the ocean*
stream is meant. (See Eden.)
•A widely spread mythic representation. (Cp. Cosmogony.)
4 See an illustration from Navillc's Book of the Dead (Egyptian) in
Jewish Cyclopaedia, i. 174a.
* Or park. (See Paradise.)
•The later Jews, however, supposed that before the Fall the
animals could speak, and that they had all one language (Jubilees,
iii. 28: Jos. Antiquities, i. 1, 4).
1 Cheyne, Genesis and Exodus, referring to Dorsey, Traditions of
the Skidi Pawnee, pp. 2. 80 ff.
■ " Good and evil " may be a late marginal gloss. See further
Ency. Bib. col. 3578. and the commentaries (Driver leaves the
Iriirase): also Jastrow, Relit- of Bab and Ass p. 553; Sayce,
libbert Lectures, p. 242.
(so primitive man believed) would enable any being to escape
death (an idea spiritualized in Prov. iii. 18).
Next, which of the trees is the " tree of life "? Various sacred
trees were known to the Semitic peoples, such as the fig-tree
(cp. iii. 7), which sometimes appears, conventionalized, as «
sacred tree.* But clearly the tree referred to was more than a
" sacred tree "; it was a tree from whose fruit or juice, as culture
advanced, some intoxicating drink was produced. The Gao-
kerena of the Iranians " is exactly parallel. At the resurrection,
those who drink of the life-giving juice of this plant will obtain
" perfect welfare," including dcathlessness. It is not, however,
either from Iran or from India that the Hebrew tree of life is
derived, but from Arabia and Babylonia, where date-wine {cp.
Enoch xxiv. 4) is the earliest intoxicant. Of this drink it may
well have been said in primitive times (cp. Rig Veda, ix. 00. 5,
of Soma) that it ,r cheers the heart of gods " (in the speech of
the vine, Judg. ix. 13). Later writers spoke of a " tree of
mercy," distilling the " oil of life,""*.*, the oil that heals, but
4 Esdr. ii. 12 (cp. viii. 53) speaks of the " tree of life/' and Rev.
xxii 2 (virtually) of " trees of life," whose leaves have a healing
virtue (cp. Ezck. xlvii. 12). The oil-tree should doubtless be
grouped with the river of oil in later writings (see Paxadise).
Originally it was enough that there should be one tree of life, tV*.
that heightened and preserved vitality.
A third enigma— why no " fountain of life "? The references
to such a fountain in Proverbs (xiii. 14, &c.) prove that the idea
was familiar, 12 and in Rev. xxii. 1 we are told that the river of
Paradise was a " river of water of life " (see Pabadise). The
serpent, too, in mythology is a regular symbol of water. Possibly
the narrator, or redactor, desired to tone down the traces of
mythology. Just as the Gathas (the ancient Zoroastrian hymns)
omit Gaokerena, and the Hebrew prophets on the whole avoid
mythological phrases, so this old Hebrew thinker prunes the
primitive exuberance of the traditional myth.
5. The Serpent.— The keen-witted, fluently speaking serpent
gives rise to fresh riddles. How comes it that Adam's ruin is
effected by one of those very " beasts of the field " which he
had but lately named (ii. 19), that in speech he is Adam's equal
and in wisdom his superior? Is he a pale form of the Babylonian
chaos-dragon, or of the serpent of Iranian mythology who sprang
from heaven to earth to blight the " good creation "? It is true
that the serpent of Eden has mythological affinities. In iii- ra,
15, indeed, he is degraded into a mere typical snake, but iii. 1-5
shows that he was not so originally. He isperhaps best regarded,
in the light of Arabian folk-lore, as the manifestation of a demon
residing in the tree with the magic fruit" He may have been a
prince among the demons, as the magic tree was a prince
among the plants. Hence perhaps his strange boldness. For
some unknown reason he was ill disposed towards Yahweh-
Elohim (see iii. 36), which has suggested to some that he may be
akin to the great enemy of Creation. To Adam and Eve, how-
ever, he is not unkind. He bids them raise themselves in the
scale of being by eating the forbidden fruit, which he declares
to be not fatal to life but an opener of the eyes, and capable of
equalizing men with gods (iii. 4, 5). To the phrase " ye shall
be as gods " a later writer may have added " knowing good and
evil," but " to be as gods " originally meant " to live the life
of gods— wise, powerful, happy." The serpent was in the main
right, but there is one point which he did not mention, via. that
for any being to retain this intensified vitality the eating of the
•See illustration in Toy's Eukiel {Sacred Books of ike Old
Testament), p. 182.
■ Gaokerena is the mythic white haoma \>\zn\{Zendavesta,Vendidad %
xx. 4; Bundahish, xxvii. 4). It is an idealization of the yellow
haoma of the mountains which was used in sacrifices {Yasna, x.
6-10). It corresponds to the soma plant (Asclepias acida) of the
ancient Aryans of I ndia. On the illustrative value of Gaokerena see
Cheyne, Origin of the Psalter, pp. 4°°-439-
» See Life of Adam and Ete (apocryphal}, H 36. 40, Apocal. Mos.
1 Secteti of Enoch, viii. 7. xxii. 8, 9. " Oil of lite," in a Bab. hymn.
Du Keilinschriflen und das Alte Testament, ed. 3, p. 526.
" Cp. the Bab. myths of Adapa and of the Descent of Ishtar.
"W. R. Smith. Relit of Semites, pp. 133. 442; Ency. Bib n
ADAM
169
mat would have to be constantly renewed Only thus could
mo the gods escape death. 1
6. The Divine Command broken.— Tbe serpent has gone the
right my to work; he comprehends woman's nature better
than Adam comprehends that of the serpent By her curiosity
Eve is undone. She looks at the fruit; then she takes and eats;
her husband does the same (iii. 6). The consequence (ver. 7)
may seem to us rather slight: " they knew (became sensible)
that they were naked, and sewed fig-leaves together, and made
themselves girdles (aprons) ." But the real meaning is not slight ;
the sexual distinction has been discovered, and a new sense
of shame sends the human pair into the thickest shades, when
Yahweh-Elohim walks abroad. The God of these primitive
dtq b surprised: " Where art thou? " By degrees, he obtains
a foil confession — not from the serpent, whose speech might
not have been edifying, but from Adam and Eve. The sentences
which be passes are decisive, not only for the human pair and the
serpent, but for their respective races. Painful toil shall be the
lot of man; subjection and pangs that of woman.* The serpent
too (whose unique form preoccupied the early men) shall be
humiliated, as a perpetual warning to man — who is henceforth
his enemy — of the danger of reasoning on and disobeying the
wifl of God.
7- Versions of Ike Adam-story. — Theologians in all ages have
allegorized this strange narrative. 1 The serpent becomes the
inner voice of temptation, and the saying in iii. 15 becomes an
anticipation of the final victory of good over evil— a view which
probably arose in Jewish circles directly or indirectly affected
by the Zoroaslrian eschatology. But allegory was far from
the thoughts of the original narrators. Another version of the
Adam-story is given by Ezekicl (xzviii. 11-19), for underneath
the king of Tyre (or perhaps Missor)' we can trace the majestic
6|ore of the first man. This Adam, indeed, is not like the first
can of Gen. iL-iii., but more like the " bright angel " who is
the first man in the Christian Book of Adam (i. 10; Malan, p. 1 a).
He dwells on a glorious forest-mountain (cp. Esekiei xxxi. 8,
18), and is led away by pride to equalize himself with Elohim
(cp. xrviii. a, a Thess. ii 4), and punished. And with this
ptsage let us group Job xv. 7, 8, where Job is ironically de-
scribed as vying with the first man, who was " brought forth
before the hills" (cp. Prov. viii. 2 s) and "drew wisdom to him-
*H " by " hearkening in the council of Elohim." No reference is
made in Job to this hero's fall. The omission, however, is re-
paired, not only in Ezek. xzviii. 16, but also in Isa. xiv. 12-15,
*fae the king, whose name is given in the English Bible as
* Lwifer " (or margin, " day-star "), " son of the morning," and
■to, Eke the other king in Ezekiel, is threatened with death, is
* copy of the mythical Adam.
The two conceptions of the first man are widely different. The
pwsagts last referred to harmonize with the account given in
fcn. i. 26, for " in our image " certainly suggests a being equal
is brightness and in capacities to the angels — a view which, as
•e know, became the favourite one in apocryphal and Haggadic
descriptions of the Adam before the FalL And though the
Pnedy writer, to whom the first Creation-story in its present
tan is due, says nothing about a sacred mountain as the dwell-
Bf-place of the first-created man, yet this mountain belongs to
the type of tradition which the passage, Gen. i. a6-a8, imperfectly
ht truly represents. The glorious first man of Ezekiel, and the
god-like first men of the cosmogony (cp. Ps. viii. 5) .who held the
Agency of the earth,* require a dwelling-place as far above the
common level of the earth as they are themselves above the child-
like Adam of the second creation-narrative (Gen. ii.). On this
acred mountain, see Cosmogony.
Note the food and drink of the gods in the Babylonian Adapa
(»Maowi?) myth. 7 k-
'The mortality of man forms no part of the curse (cp. iii. 19,
*"t thoo art ).
,/Set H. Schalt**, AlilesL Tkeologie, ed. 4, pp. 679 n\. 7*> ;
"Jwr. Gaujit, p. 44.
ace Cheyne, Genesis and Exodus.
•Cp. the u fair shepherd " Yima of the A vesta ( Vend, ii.), the first
■*• and the founder of civilization to tbe Iranians, though not like
«**.«» of the Vedas.
8. Origin of Ike Adam-story.— Th&t the Hebrew story of the
first man in both' its forms is no mere recast of a Babylonian
myth, is generally admitted. The holy mountain is no doubt
Babylonian, and the plantations of sacred trees, one of which
at least has magic virtue, can be paralleled from the monuments
(see Eden). But there is no complete parallel to the description
of Paradise in Gen. ii., or to the story of the rib, or to that of
the serpent The first part of the latter has definite Arabian
affinities; the second is as definitely Hebrew. We may now
add that the insertion of iii. 7 (from " were opened") to 10—
a passage which has probably supplanted a more archaic and
definitely mythological passage— may well have been the conse-
quence of the change in the conception of the first man referred
to above. Still there are four Babylonian stories which may
serve as partial illustrations of the Hebrew Adam-story.
The first is contained in a fragment of a cosmogony in Berossus,
now confirmed in the main by the sixth tablet of the Creation-
epic It represents the creation of man as due to one of the in-
ferior gods who (at Bel's command) mingled with clay the blood
which flowed from the severed head of Bel (see Cosmogony).
The three others are the myths of Adapa,* Ea-bani and Etana.
As to Adapa, it may be mentioned here that Fossey has shown
reason for holding that the true reading of the name is Adamu.
It thus becomes plausible to hold that " Adam " in Gen. U.-iii.
was originally a proper name, and that it was derived from
Babylonia. More probably, however, this is but an accidental
coincidence; both adam and adamu may come from the same
Semitic root meaning " to make." Certainly Adamu (if it is not
more convenient to write " Adapa ") was not regarded as the
progenitor of the human race, like the Hebrew Adam. He was,
however, certainly a man— one of those men who were* not, of
course, rival first-men, but were specially created and endowed.
Adamu or Adapa, we are told, received from his divine father
the gift of wisdom, 7 but not that of everlasting life. He had a
chance, however, of obtaining the gift, or at least of eating the
food and drinking the water which makes the gods ageless and
immortal. But through a deceit practised upon him by his
divine father Ea, he supposed the food and drink offered to him
on a certain occasion by the gods to be " food of death," " water
of death," just as Adam and Eve at first believed that the fruit
of the magic tree would produce death (Gen. iii. 4, 5).
The second story is that of Ea-bani,* who was formed by the
goddess Arusu (-the mother-goddess Ishtar) of a lump of clay
(cp. Gen. ii. 7). This human creature, long-haired and sensual,
was drawn away from a savage mode of life by a harlot, and
Jastrow, followed by G. A. Barton, Worcester and Tennant,
considers this to be parallel to the story which may underlie
the account of the failure of the beasts, and the success of the
woman Eve, as a " help-meet " for Adam. This, however, is
most uncertain.
The third is that of Etana.* Here the main points are that
Etana is induced by an eagle to mount up to heaven, that he may
win a boon from the kindly goddess Ishtar. Borne by the eagle,
he soared high up into the ether, but became afraid. Downward
the eagle and his burden fell, and in the epic of Gilgamesb we
find Etana in the nether world. According to Jastrow, this
attempted ascension was an offence against the gods, and his fall
was his punishment. We are not told, however, that Etana
had the impious desire of EzekieTs first man, and if he fell, it was
through his own timidity (contrast Ezek. xzviii. 16). But cer-
tainly the myth docs help us to imagine a story in which, for
some sin against the gods, some favoured hero was hurled down
from the divine abode, and such a story may some day be dis-
covered.
To these illustrations it is unsafe to add the scene on a cylinder
preserved in the British Museum, representing two figures, a
•See Jastrow, Rd. of Bab* and Ass. pp. 548-554; R- J- Harper,
in Academy, May 30, 1891 : Jensen, KeUinsekr. Btbliotkek, vi. 93 ff.
1 The wisdom was probably to aualify him as a ruler. It is too
much to say with Homme! that Adapa is the archetype of the
Johannine Logos."
■ Jastrow, op. cil. p. 474 ff. ; Jensen, KeU. BibL vi. 120 ff.
* Jastrow, p. saa 1.; Jensen, vi. 11a ff.
170
ADAM
man (with horns) and perhaps a woman, both clothed, on either
side of a fruit-tree, towards which they stretch out their hands. 1
For the meaning of this is extremely problematical. Some better
monumental illustration may some day be found, for it is clear
that the Babylonian sacred literature had much to tell of offences
against the gods in the primeval age.
The student may naturally ask, Whence did 1 the Israelites (a
comparatively young people) obtain the original myth ? It is
most probable that they obtained it through the mediation either'
of the Canaanites or of the North Arabians. Babylonian influence,
as b now well known, was strongly felt, for many centuries in
Canaan, and even the cuneiform script was in common use
among the high officials of the country. When the Israelites
entered Canaan, they would learn myths partly of Babylonian
origin. North Arabian influence must also have been strong among
the Israelites, at least while they sojourned in North Arabia. From
the Kenites, at any rale, they may have received, not only a
strong religious impulse, but a store of tales of the primitive
age, and these stories too may have been partly influenced by
Babylonian traditions. We must allow for stages of development
both among the Israelites and among their tutors.
9. Biblical References to the Adam-story. — It is remarkable how
little influence the Adam-story has had on the earlier parts of the
Old Testament. The garden of Eden is referred to in Isa. li. 3,
Ezek. xxxvi. 35, Joel ii. 5; cp. Ezek. xxviii. 13, xxxi. 8, 9, 16,
18, all of which are later. And it is mostly in the " humanistic "
book of Proverbs that we find allusions to the " tree of life "
(Prov. iii. 18, xi. 30, xiii. 12, xv. 4), and to the " fountain of
life " — perhaps (see \ 4) an omitted portion of the old Paradise-
story (Prov. x. 11, xiii. 14, xiv. 27, xvi. 22), — the only other
Biblical reference (apart from Rev. xxi. 6) being in that exquisite
passage, Pa. xxxvi. 9. One can hardly be surprised at this.
The Adam-story is plainly of foreign origin, and could not please
the greater pre-exilic prophets. In late post-exilic times, how-
ever, foreign tales, even if of mythical origin, naturally came
into favour, especially as religious symbols. If even now philo-
sophers and theologians cannot resist the temptation to allegorize,
how inevitable was it that this course should be pursued by early
Jewish theologians I
10. Incipient Reflexion on the Story. — Let us give some instances
of this. In Enoch Ixix. 6 we find the story of Eve's temptation
read in the light of that of the fallen angels (Gen. vi. 1, 2, 4) who
conveyed an evil knowledge to men, and so subjected mankind
to mortality. Evidently the writer fears culture. Elsewhere
eating the fruit of the " tree of wisdom " is given as the cause of
the expulsion of the human pair. In the Wisdom of Solomon
(x. 1, 2) we find another view. Here, as in Esekiel, the first man
is pre-eminently wise and strong; though he transgressed, wisdom
rescued him, i.e. taught him repentance (cp. Life of Adam and
Eve, M 1-8). Elsewhere (ii. 24; cp. Jos. Ant. i. 1, 4) death is
traced to Che envy of the devil, still implying an exalted view of
Adam. It is held that, but for his sin, Adam would have been
immortal. Clearly the Jewish mind is exposed to some fresh
foreign influences. As in the Talmud and the Jerusalem Targum,
the serpent has even become the devil, i.e. Satan. The period of
syncretism has fully come, and Zoroastrianism in particular,
more indirectly than directly, is exercising an attractive power
upon the Jews. For all that, the theological thinking is char-
acteristically Jewish, and such guidance as Jewish thinkers
required was mainly given by Greek culture. On this subject
see further Eve, § 5.
1 1. Growth of a Theology.— Let us now turn to the Apocalypses
of Baruch and of Ezra' (both about 70 A.D.). Different views
are here expressed. According to one (xvii. 3, xix. 8, xxiii. 4)
the sin of Adam was the cause of physical death; according to
another (liv. 15, lvi 6), only of premature physical death, while
according to a third (xlviii. 42, 43) it is spiritual death which is
to be laid to his account. Of these three views, it is only the
« See Smith and Sayce. ChaJdaean Genesis, p. 88 ; Delitzach. Wo lag
das Parodies t p. 90; Babel and Bible, Ens. trans., p. 56. with note
on pp. 114-118; Zimmern. Die Keilinschr. und das A.T., ed. 3.
p. 529 ; Jeremias, Das Alte Test, im Lichle d. Allen Orient, pp. 104-106.
second which harmonizes with Gen. ii.-iii. In one of the two
passages which express it we are also told that each member of
the human race is " the Adam of his own souL" Adam, tike
Satan in Ecclus. xxi. 27, has become a psychological symbol.
Truly, a worthy development of the seed-thoughts of the original
narrator, and (must we not add ?) entirely opposed to any
doctrine of Original Sin.
In 4 Ezra, too, we find no rea\ endorsement of such a doctrine.
It is true, not only physical death (iii. 7), but spiritual, is traced
to the act of Adam (iii. 21, 22, iv. 30, 31, vii. 1 18-121). But
two modifying facts- should be noticed. One is that Adam is
said to have had from the first a wicked heart, owing to which
he fell, and his posterity likewise, into sin and guilt. All men
have the same seed of evil in them that Adam had; they sin
and die, like him. The other is that,, according to iii. 7-12,
there are at least two ages of the world. The first ended with
the Flood, so that any consequences of Adam's sin were, strictly
speaking, of limited duration. The second began with righteous
Noah and his household, " of whom came all righteous meal"
It was the descendants of these who " began again to do un-
godliness more than the former ones.*' Doubtless the problem
of evil is most imperfectly treated, even from the writer's point
of view. But it would be cruel to pick holes in a writer whose
thinking, like that of St Paul, is coloured by emotion.
At this point we might welL make more than a passing reference
to St Paul (Rom. v. 14; 1 Cor. xv. 22, 45, 47), whose doctrine of
sin is evidently of mixed origin. But we cannot find space for
this here. In compensation let it be mentioned that in Rev.
xii. 9 (cp. xx. 2) the " great dragon," who persecuted the woman
" clothed with the sun," is identified with " the old serpent, that
is called the Devil and Satan." The identification is incorrect.
But it may be noticed here that the phrase " the old serpent "
sheds some light on the Pauline phrases " the first man Adam "
and " the last Adam " (1 Cor. xv. 45, 47). The underlying idea
is that the new age (that of the new heaven and earth) will be
opened by events parallel to those which opened the first age.
As the old serpent deceived man of old, so shall it be again.
And as at the head of the first age stands the first Adam, whose
doings affected all his descendants to their harm, so at the head
of the second shall stand the second Adam, whose actions shall
be potent for good. There is reason to suspect that the expres-
sion " the second Adam " is the coinage either of St Paul or of
some one closely connected with him (as Prof. G. F. Moore has
shown), for there is no proof that such terms as " the last,** or
" the second Adam," were generally current among the Jews.
Z2. Jewish Legends. — The parallelism between the first and
second Adam in 1 Cor. xv. 45 is a parallelism of contrast. Jewish
legends, however, suggest another sort of parallelism. The
Haggadah gives the most extravagant descriptions of the glory
of Adam before his fall. The most prominent idea is that being
in the image of God—the God whose essence is light— he must
have had a luminous body (like the angels). " I made thee of
the light," says God in the Booh of Adam and Eve (Malan, p. 16),
" and I willed to bring children of light from thee." Similarly
in Baba balra, 58a, we read, " he was of extraordinary beauty
and sun-like brightness." So glorious was he that even the
angels were commanded through Michael to pay homage to
Adam. Satan, disobeying, was cast out of heaven; hence his
ill-will towards Adam (Life of Adam and Eve, f$ 13-17; cp.
Koranrjcni. 63, xx. 115, xxxviii. 74).
It only remains to give due honour to one of the most beautiful
of legends, that of the deliverance of Adam's spirit from xht
nether world by the Christ, the earliest form of which is a
Christian interpolation in Apoc. Moses, § 42 (cp. Malan, Adam and
Eve, iv. 15, end). We may compare a partly parallel passage in
§ 37, where the agent is Michael, and notice that such legendary
developments were equally popular among Jews .and Christians.
Authorities.— On the apocryphal Books of Adam, tee Hon.
Did. of Ckr. Biography, i. 37 ft". In English wc have Malan's trans-
lation of the Ethioptc Book of Adam (1 882), and Issaverden's
translation of another Book of Adam from the Armenian (Venice.
iqoi). In German, see Fuchs's translations in Kautssch's Die
Apokryphen, ii. 506 ff. For full bibliography see Schurer, Gtseh.
ADAM
171
ia jid. Votkes. ed. 4. iii. 288 f. On. Jewish and Mahommedan
Jrgeoda. see Jewish Cyclopaedia, M Adam." On the belief in the
Fall aee Tennant, The Sounes of the Doctrine of the FoM and Original
£.(1903). (T.K.C)
ADAM 0# BREMEN, historian and geographer, was probably
bora in Upper Saxony (at Meissen, according to one tradition)
before 1045. He cane to Bremen about 1067-1068, most likely
00 the invitation of Archbishop Adalbert, and in the 34th year
of the tatter's episcopate (1043M072); in 1060 he appears as
& anon of this cathedral and master of the cathedral school.
Not long after this he visited the king of Denmark, Sweyn
F.tirithson, in Zealand; on the death of Adalbert, in 107a, he
began the Historic Hammaburgensis Eccle si ae, which he finished
about 107$. He died on the 12th of October of a year unknown,
perhaps 1076. Adam's Historia—knovrn also as Gesta Hamma-
hrfauis Ecclesiae Pontificum, Bremensimm praesulum Historic,
aad Historic eccle si a st ic*— is a primary authority, not only for
the great diocese of Hamburg-and-Bremen, but for all North
German and Baltic lands (down to 1072), and for the Scandi-
aarian colonic* as far as America. Here occurs the earliest
mention of Vinland, and here are also references of great interest
to Rossis and Kiev, to the heathen Prussians, the Wends and
other Slav races of the South Baltic coast, and to Finland, Thule
or Iceland, Greenland and the Polar seas which Harald Hardrada
aod the nobles of Frisia had attempted to explore in Adam's
ova dsy (before 1066). Adam's account of North European
trade at this time, and especially of the great markets of Jumne
at the mouth of the Oder, of Birka in Sweden and of Ostrogard
(Old Novgorod?) in Russia, is also of much value. His work,
vhkfc places him among the first and best of German annalists,
consists of four books or parts, and is compiled partly from
vrittea records and partly from oral information, the latter
aainly gathered from experience or at the courts of Adalbert and
S«tya Estrithson. Of his minor informants he names several,
sach as Adetward, dean of Bremen, and William the Englishman,
" bishop of Zealand,** formerly chancellor of Canute the Great,
tad an intimate of Sweyn Estrithson. The fourth (perhaps the
most important) book of Adam's History, variously entitled
L&tBns 4e Situ Daniae et reliquarum quae trans Daniam sunt
npomm, Desaipiio Insularum Aquilonis, &c, has often been
ctflskkred, but wrongly, as a separate work.
Ten MSS. exist, of which the chief are (1-2) Copenhagen, Royal
Ubmy, Old Royal Collection, No. 2296. of 12th to 13th cents.:
No. 71a, of 15th cent.; (3) Leyden University, Vow. Lat. 123, of
nth cent.; (4) Rome. Vatican Library. 2010: (5) Vienna, Hof-
o. Stastsbfc&Ahek, 413, of 13th cent.; (6) Wouenbuttel, Ducal
library, God. 83, of 15th cent.
There are 15 editions of the Historio, in whole or part: the first
psbfaacd at Copenhagen, 1570 (the first of the Libsllus or Dcscriptio
fa- AjmL appeared at Stockholm in 1615), the best at Hanover.
1I46 (by Lappenberg. in Scriptores Rernm Germanicarum; reissued
by L weuand. 1876). and at Paris, 1884 (in Migne's Patrologia
uhm, esMX Tnere are also three German versions, and one
bash; the best is by J. C M. Laurent (and W. Wattenbach) in
Oatkkksxhreiber d. deutsch. Voneii, part vH. (1850 and 1888) . See
J. Asmnssen, Defentibus Adami Bremensts, 1834; Lappenberg
■ tots. Archie, vi, 770; Aug. Bernard, De Adamo Bremenn (Paris,
1895): Beaaley. Damn of Modem Geography, ii. 514-348 (1001).
AMI (or Adah)DB LB HALE (died c 1288), French trouWre,
•at born at Arras. His patronymic is generally modernised
to La Halle, and he was commonly known to his contemporaries
u Adam d'Arres or Adam le Bossu, sometimes simply as Le
Boms d'Arras. His father, Henri de le Hale, was a well-known
othea of Arras, and Adam studied grammar, theology and
■anc at the Cistercian abbey of Vaucelles, near Cambrai. Father
**a son had their share in the dvM discords in Arras, and for a
nort time took refuge in DouaL Adam had been destined Tor
tbr church, but renounced this intention, and married a certain
Kane, who figures in many of his songs, rondeaux, motets and
m-pertis. Afterwards he joined the household of Robert II.,
out of Artois; and then was attached to Charles of Anjou,
brother of Charles IX, whose fortunes he followed in Egypt,
Syria, Palestine and Italy. At the court of Charles, after he
teame king of Naples, he wrote his Jem de Robin et Marion, the
■on famous of his works. He died between 1285 and 1288.
Adam's shorter pieces are accompanied by music, of which a
transcript in modern notation, with the original score, is given
in Coussemaker's edition. His Jeu de Robin et Marion is cited
as the earliest French play with music on a secular subject. The
pastoral, which tells how Marion resisted the knight, and re-
mained faithful to Robert the shepherd, is based on an old
chanson, Robin m'aime, Robin m'a. It consists of dialogue varied
by refrains already current in popular song. The melodies to
which these are set have the character of folk-music, and are
more spontaneous and melodious than the more elaborate music
of his songs and motets. A modern adaptation, by Julien
Hersot, was played at Arras by a company from the Paris Opera
Comique on the occasion of a festival in 1806 In honour of Adam
de le Hale. His other play, Le jeu Adan or Lejeudela FeuilUe
(c. 1262), is a satirical drama in which he introduces himself,
his father and the citizens of Arras with their peculiarities.
His works include a Congt, or satirical farewell to the city of
Arras, and an unfinished chanson de geste in honour of Charles of
Anjou, Lc rol de SUUe, begun in 1282; another short piece, Le
jeu du ptlcr in, is sometimes attributed to htm.
The only MS* which contains the whole of Adam'i work is the
La VaUi6rc MS, {\o, 25,566) in ihe Bihliotheque Nationale, Paris*
dating from the Utter hall of the 13th century. Many of his pieces
ant al-Kj contained id Douce MS. jo$. in the Bodleian Library,
Oxford* His CEnfres CQmptftfs (1872) wrrv edited by K. de Cousse-
miiltcr. Sen a! so an article by Paulin Pari* in the Itiifoir* liiUrairt
de ia France ival. **. pp. 638-675); G. Raynaud, Recueil des motets
jt^n^aii its XII' et Xijf* siiela (iBfla); Canthtuts el partures des
, , . Adan deUe Hate (Halle, iooo). a critical edition by Rudolf
BerEcr ; an edition of Adam * two jeux in Mcnjnerque and Michel's
TheAJre fran^ais au moyen Sge (iflaj) : E- Langloi*, Le jeu de Robin
et Marian {i*kj6) + with a rran&latiuo in modern Frt-nchL A, Guesnon,
La Saitre & Arras an XllI* ititlt (1900); and a full bibliography of
works on the subject in No. 6 of the Bibiwthiqtu de bibliographies
critiques, by Henn Guy.
ADAM. ALEXANDER (1741-1800), Scottish writer on Roman
antiquities, was born on the 24th of June 1741, near Forres,
in Morayshire. From his earliest years he showed uncommon
diligence and perseverance in classical studies, notwithstanding
many difficulties and privations. In 1 757 he went to Edinburgh,
where he studied at the university. His reputation as a classical
scholar secured him a post as assistant at Watson's Hospital
and the headmastership in 1761. In 1764 he became private
tutor to Mr Kincaid, afterwards Lord Provost of Edinburgh, by
whose influence he was appointed (in 1768) to the rectorship of
the High School on the retirement of Mr Matheson, whose sub-
stitute he had been for some time before. From this period he
devoted himself entirely to the duties of his office and to the
preparation of his numerous works on classical literature. His
popularity and success as a teacher are strikingly illustrated by
the great increase in the number of his pupils, many of whom
subsequently became distinguished men, among them being Sir
Walter Scott, Lord Brougham and Jeffrey. He succeeded in
introducing the study of Greek into the curriculum of the school,
notwithstanding the opposition of the university headed by
Principal Robertson. In 1780 the university of Edinburgh
conferred upon him the honorary degree of Doctor of Laws.
He died on the 18th of December 1809, after an illness of five
days, during which he occasionally imagined himself still at
work, his last words being, " It grows dark, boys, you may go."
Dr Adam's first publication was his Principles of Latin and
English Grammar (1772), which, being written in English in-
stead of Latin, brought down a storm of abuse upon him. This
was followed by his Roman Antiquities (1701), A Summary of
Geography and History (1704) and a Compendious Dictionary of
the Latin Tongue (1805). The MS. of a projected larger Latin
dictionary, which he did not live to complete, lies in the library
of the High School. His best work was his Roman Antiquities,
which has passed through a large number of editions and received
the unusual compliment of a German translation.
See An Account of the Life and Character ofA.A.,bvA. Henderson
(1810).
ADAM, SIR FREDERICK (1781-1853), British general, was
the son of the Rt. Hon. W. Adam of Blair- A dam, lord-lieutenant
of Kinross-shire. He was gazetted an ensign at the age of four*
teen and was subsequently educated at Woolwich. He became
172
ADAM
captain in 1799, and served with the Coldstream Guards in Egypt
(1801). In 1805, having purchased the intermediate steps of
promotion, he obtained command of the 21st Foot, with which
regiment be served in the Mediterranean from 1805 to 18x3,
taking part in the battle of Maida in 1806. In 1813 be accom-
panied the British corps sent to Catalonia, in which he com-
manded a brigade. He fought a gallant action at Biar (April
12, 1813), and on the following day won further distinction at
Castalla. In the action of Ordal, on the 12th of September,
Adam received two severe wounds. He returned to England to
recover, and was made a major-general in 181 4. At Waterloo,
Adam's brigade, of which the 52nd under Colborne (see Seaton,
Lord) formed part, shared with the Guards the honour of re-
pulsing the Old Guard. For his services he was made a K.C.B.,
and received also Austrian and Russian orders. During the long
peace which followed, Sir Frederick Adam was successively
employed at Malta, in the Ionian Islands as lord high commis-
sioner (1824-183 1) and from 1832 to 183 7 as governor of Madras.
He became K.C.M.G. in .1820, G.C.M.G. four years later, lieu-
tenant-general in 1830, a privy councillor in 1831, G.C.B. in
1840, and full general in 2846. He died suddenly on the 17 th of
August 1853.
ADAM, JULIETTE (1836- ), French writer, known also
by her maiden name of Juliette Lamber, was born at Verberie
(Oise) on the 4th of October 1836. She has given an account
of her childhood, rendered unhappy by the dissensions of her
parents, in Le toman de men citfonce et de ma jcuncsse (F.ng.
trans., London and New York, 1902). In 1852 she married a
doctor named La Messine, and published in 1858 her J dies
antiproudhoniennes sur V amour, lafemme et It mortage, in defence
of Daniel Stern (Mme. d'Agoult) and George Sand. On her
husband's death she married in 1868 Antoine Edmond Adam
(1816-1877), prefect of police in 1870, and subsequently life-
senator; and she established a salon which was frequented by
Gambetta and the other republican leaders against the conserva-
tive reaction of the 'seventies. In the same interest she founded
in 1879 the NouveUe Revue, which she edited for the first eight
years, and in the administration of which she retained a pre-
ponderating influence until 1 899. She wrote the notes on foreign
politics, and was unremitting in her attacks on Bismarck and in
her advocacy of a policy of revanche. Mme. Adam was also
generally credited with the authorship of papers on various
European capitals signed " Paul Vasili," which were in reality
the work of various writers. The most famous of her numerous
novels is PaUnne (1883). Her reminiscences, Mes premieres
antes litteraires et politique* (1904) and Mes sentiments et nos
idies avant 1870 (1905), contain much interesting gossip about
her distinguished contemporaries.
ADAM, LAMBERT SIGISBERT (1 700-1 759), French sculptor,
known as Adam Paint, was born in Nancy, son of Jacob Sigisbert
Adam, a sculptor of little repute. Adam was thirty-seven when,
on his election to the Academy, he exhibited at the Salon the
model of the group of " Neptune and Amphi trite " for the centre
of the fountain at Versailles, and thereafter found much em-
ployment in the decoration of the royal residences. Among
his more important works are " Nymphs and Tritons," " The
Triumph of Neptune stilling the Waves," " Hunter with Lion
in his Net," a relief for the chapel of St Adelaide, " The Seine
and the Marne " in stone for St Cloud, " Hunting " and " Fish-
ing," marble groups for Berlin, " Mars embraced by Love " and
" The enthusiasm of Poetry." Adam restored with much ability
the twelve statues (Lycomedes) found in the so-called Villa of
Marius at Rome, and was elected a member of the Academy of
St Luke. Several of his most important works were executed
for Frederick the Great in Prussia.
His brother, also a sculptor, Nicolas Sebasttjem Adam (1705-
1778), known as Adam le jcune, born in Nancy, worked under
equal encouragement His first work of importance was his
" Prometheus chained, devoured by a Vulture," executed in
plaster in 1738, and carved in marble in 1763 as his " reception
piece " when he was elected into the Academy. He produced the
reliefs of the " Birth " and 4| Agony of Christ " for the Oratory
in Paris, but his chief works are the " Mausoleum of Cardinal
de Flcury " and, in particular, the tomb of Catherine Opalinaka.
queen of Poland (wife of King Stanislaus), at Nancy.
A third brother, Francois Gasparo BaLthasar Adam (1710-
1761), born in Nancy, became the first sculptor of Frederick the
Great and the head of the atelier of sculpture founded by that
monarch, and passed the greater part of his life in Berlin. His
chief works adorn the gardens and palaces of Sans Souci and
Potsdam.
The work of the brothers Adam was too ornate in style to win
the approval of the school that immediately followed them, and
found its principal opponents in Bouchardon and Pigalle.
See Dussicux, Artistes francais a Pitranger (Paris, 1855. 8vo);
Archives de fart francais, documents • vol. i. pp. 1 17-180, chiefly for;
works executed for the king of Prussia; Marictte, Abecedarie;
Emile de la Chavignerie and Auvray, Dictionnaire general des
artistes de VUoU francaise (Paris, 1882), mainly for works executed:
Lady Dilkc, French Architects and Sculptors of the l&th century
(London, 4to, 1900).
ADAM, MELCHIOR (d. 1622), German divine and biographer,
was born at Grotkau in Silesia after 1550, and educated in the
college of Brieg, where he became a Protestant In 1 598 he went
to Heidelberg, where he held various scholastic appointments.
He wrote the biographies of a number of German scholars of
the 1 6th century, mostly theologians, which were published in
Heidelberg and Frankfort (5 vols., 161 5-1620). He dealt with
only twenty divines of other countries. All his divines arc
Protestants. His industry as a biographer is commended by
P. Bayle, who acknowledges his obligations to Adam's labours;
and his biographies, though they have faults, are still useful.
ADAM, PAUL (1862- ), French novelist, was born in Paris
on the 7th of December 1862. He was prosecuted for his first
novel, Chair molle (1885), but was acquitted. He collaborated
with Jean Moreas in Le thi cha Miranda (1886), and with Moreas
and Gustave Kahn he founded the Symbolist* , coming forward
as one of the earliest defenders of symbolism. Among his numer-
ous novels should be noted Le mysikre des joules (2 vols., 1895),
a study in Boulangism, Lettres de MalaisU (1897), a fantastic
romance of imaginary future politics. In 1899 he began a novel-
sequence, giving the history. of the Napoleonic campaigns, the
restoration and the government of Louis Philippe, comprising
La force (1809), V enfant d'Austcrlit* (1001), La ruse (1002), and
Au soldi deJuillet (1903). In-x 900 he wrote a Byzantine romance,
Basile et Sophia.
ADAM, ROBERT (1728-1792), British architect, the second
son of William Adam of Maryburgh, in Fife, and the most cele-
brated of four brothers, John, Robert, James and William
Adam, was born at Kirkcaldy in 1 7 28. For few famous men have
we so little biographical material, and contemporary references
to him are sparse. He certainly studied at the university of
Edinburgh, and probably received his first instruction in archi-
tecture from his father, who gave proofs of his own skill and
taste in the Edinburgh Royal Infirmary (now demolished). His
mother was the aunt of Dr W. Robertson, the first English
historian of Charles V., and in 1750 we find Robert Adam living
with her in Edinburgh, and making one of the brilliant literary
coterie which adorned it at that period. Somewhere between
1750 and 1754 he visited Italy, where he spent three years study-
ing the remains of Roman architecture. There he was struck
with the circumstance that practically nothing had survived of
the Greek and Roman masterpieces except public buildings, and
that the private palaces, which Vitruvius and Pliny esteemed so
highly, had practically vanished. One example of such work,
however, was extant in the ruins of Diocletian's palace at Spala to.
in Dalmalia, and this he visited in July 1757, taking with him
the famous French architect and antiquary, C. L. Clcrisseau, and
two experienced draughtsmen, with whose assistance, after being
arrested as a spy, he managed in five weeks to accumulate a
sufficient number of measurements and careful plans and survey*
to produce a restoration of the entire building in a fine work
which he published in 1764, The Ruins of the Palace of Diocletian,
&c Considering the shortness of the time occupied and the
obstacles placed in his way by the Venetian governor and the
ADAM
»73
p opulation of the place, the result was amazing. The influence
of these studies was apparent directly and indirectly in much of
bis subsequent work, which, indeed, was in great measure founded
upon them.
After his return to England he seems to have come rapidly
to the front, and in 1762 he was appointed sole architect to the
king and the Board of Works. Six years later he resigned this
office, in which he was succeeded by bis brother James, — who
however, held the office jointly wjth another,— and entered
parliament as member for the county of Kinross. In 1768 he
tad his three brothers leased the ground fronting the Thames,
soon which the Adelphi now stands, for £1200 on a ninety-nine
years' lease, and having obtained, with the assistance of Lord
Bute, the needful act of parliament, proceeded, in the teeth of
public opposition, to erect the ambitious block of buildings
which b imperishabfy associated with their name, indicating its
joint origin by the title Adelphi, from the Greek oocX^oi, the
Brothers. The site presented attractive possibilities. A steep
hul led down Buckingham Street to the river-side, and the plan
was to raise against it, upon a terrace formed of massive arches
sod vaults and facing the river, a dignified quarter of fine streets
sod stately buildings, suggestive of the Spalato ruins. In spite
of many difficulties, pecuniary and otherwise (the undertaking
was completed from the proceeds of a lottery), money was
raised and the work pushed on; in five years the Adelphi
terrace stood complete, and the fine houses were eagerly sought
after by artists and men of letters. Splendid, however, as the
terrace and its houses are, both in conception and execution,
the underground work which upholds them is perhaps more
remarkable still. The vast series of arched vaults has been
described by a modern writer as a very town, which, during the
yean that they were open, formed subterranean streets leading
to the river and its wharves. In many places the arches stand
in double tiers: In time these " streets " obtained a bad name
st the haunt of suspicious characters, and they have long been
eadoted and let as cellars. Between 1773 and 1778 the brothers
fcssed a fine series of folio engravings and descriptions of the
dengns for many of their most important works, which included
antral great public buildings and numberless large private
houses; a fine volume was published in 1822. For the remain-
iaj yean of Robert's life the practice of the firm was the most
extensive in the country; his position was unquestioned, and
•sen he died in 1792 he was laid to rest in Westminster Abbey
almost as a matter of course.
The art of Robert Adam was extraordinarily many-sided and
prolific, and it is difficult to give a condensed appreciation of it.
As an architect he was strongly under Roman and Italian in-
fluence*, and his style and aims were exotic rather than native.
Bat ths does not detract from their merit, nor need it diminish
our estimate of his genius. It was, indeed, the most signal
trinmph of that genius that he was able so to mould and adapt
dasskal models as to create a new manner of the highest charm
■ad distinction. Out of simple curvilinear forms, of which he
priscipally preferred the oval, he evolved combinations of extra-
ordinary grace and variety, and these entered into every detail
of his work. In his view the architect was intimately concerned
with the furniture and the decorations of a building, as well as
with its form and construction, and this view he carried rigor-
ously into practice, and with astonishing success. Nothing was
too small and unimportant for him— summer-houses and dog-
banes came as readily to him as the vast facades of a terrace
■ town or a great country house. But he never permitted
BJaute details to obscure the main lines of a noble design.
Whatever care he might have expended upon the flowing curves
of a moulding or a decoration, it was strictly kept in its place;
it contributed its share and no more to the total effect. He made
1 distinct step forward in giving shape to the idea of Imparting
the anity of a single imposing structure to a number of private
kmes grouped in a block which is so characteristic a feature
of modern town building, and though at times be failed in the
bieadth of grasp needful to carry out such an idea on a large
sole, he has left us some fine examples of what can be accom-
plished in this direction. A delightful but theoretically unde-
sirable characteristic of his work is the use of stucco. Upon it
he moulded delicate forms in subtle and beautiful proportions.
His " compo " was used so successfully that the patent was in-
fringed: many of his moulds still exist and are in constant use.
That most difficult feature, the column, he handled with enthusi-
asm and perfect mastery; be studied and wrote of it with minute
pains, while his practice showed his. grasp of the subject by all
avoidance of. bare imitation of the classic masters who first
brought it to perfection. His work might be classic in form, but
it was independently developed by himself. It would be im-
possible here to give a list of the innumerable works which he
executed. In London, of course, the Adelphi stands pre-emi-
nent; the screen and gate of the Admiralty and part of Fitzroy
Square are by him, Portland Place, and much of the older
portion of Finsbury Circus, besides whole streets of nouses in
the west end. There are the famous country houses of Lord
Mansfield at Caen Wood, Highgate and Luton Hoo, and decora-
tions and additions to many more.
Robert Adam— with, there is reason to suspect, some help from
his brother James— has left as deep and enduring a mark upon
English furniture as upon English architecture. Down to his time
carving was the dominant characteristic of the mobiliary art, but
thenceforward the wood-worker declined in importance. French
influence disposed Robert Adam to the development of painted
furniture with inlays of beautiful exotic woods, and many of his
designs, especially for sideboards, are extremely attract ive, mainly
by reason of their austere simplicity. Robert Adam was no doubt
at first led to turn his thoughts towards furniture by his desire
to see his light, delicate, graceful interiors, with their large sense
of atmosphere and their refined and finished detail, filled with
plenishings which fitted naturally into his scheme. His own
taste developed as he went on, but he was usually extremely
successful, and cabinetmakers are still reproducing his most
effective designs. In his furniture he made lavish use of his
favourite decorative motives— wreaths and paterae, the honey-
suckle, and that fan ornament which he used so constantly.
Thus an Adam house is a unique product of English art. From
facade to fire-irons, from the chimneys to the carpets, every-
thing originated in the same order of ideas, and to this day an
Adam drawing-room is to English what a Louis Seize room iM
to French art. In nothing were the Adams more successful
than in mantelpieces and doors. The former, by reason of their
simplicity and the readiness with which the " compo " orna-
ments can be applied and painted, are still made in cheap forms
in great number. The latter were most commonly executed in
a rich mahogany and are now greatly sought after. The extent
to which the brothers worked together is by no means clear-
indeed, there is an astonishing dearth of information regarding
this remarkable family, and it is a reproach to English art litera-
ture that no biography of Robert Adam has ever been published.
John Adam succeeded to his father's practice as an architect in
Edinburgh. James Adam studied in Rome, and eventually was
closely associated with Robert; William is variously said to
have been a banker and an architect. (J. P.-B.)
ADAM, WILLIAM (1751-1839),. British lawyer and politician,
eldest son of John Adam of Blair-Adam, Kinross-shire, and
nephew of the architect noticed above, was born on the 2nd of
August 1751, studied at the universities of Edinburgh and
Glasgow, and passed at the Scottish bar in 1773. Soon after-
wards he removed to England, where he entered parliament
in 1774, and in 1782 was called to the common law bar. He
withdrew from parliament in 179s, entered it again in 1806
as representative of the united counties of Clackmannan and
Kinross, and continued a member, with some interruptions, till
181 1. He was a Whig and a supporter of the policy of Fox.
At the English bar he obtained a very considerable practice.
He was successively attorney and solicitor-general to the prince
of Wales, one of the managers of the impeachment of Warren
Hastings, and one of the counsel who defended the .first Lord
Melville when impeached. During his party's brief tenure of
office in 1806 he was chancellor of the duchy of Cornwall, and
»7+
ADAMANT— ADAMS
was afterwards a privy councillor and lord-lieutenant of Kinross-
shire. In 1814 he became a baron of Exchequer in Scotland,
add was chief commissioner of the newly established jury-court
for the trial of civil causes, from 1815' to 1830, when it was merged
in the permanent supreme tribunal. He died at Edinburgh on
the 17th of February 1839.
ADAMANT (from Gr. 4M/iai, untameable), the modern
diamond (q.v.), but also a name given to any very hard substance.
The Greek word is used by Homer as a personal epithet, and
by Hesiod for the hard metal in armour, while Theophrattus
applies it to the hardest crystal. By an etymological confusion
with the Lat adamore, to have an attraction for, it also came
to be associated with the loadstone; but since the term
was displaced by " diamond " it has had only a figurative and.
poetical use.
ADAMAWA, a country of West Africa, which lies roughly
between 6° and n°N., and xi° and 15° E., about midway
between the Bight of Biafra and Lake Chad. It is now divided
between the British protectorate of Nigeria (which includes the
chief town Yola, ?.?.) and the German colony of Cameroon. This .
region is watered by the Benue, the chief affluent of the Niger,
and its tributary the Faro. Another stream, the Vedseram,
flows north-east to Lake Chad. The most fertile parts of the
country are the plains near the Benue, about 800 ft. above the
sea. South and east of the river the land rises to an elevation
of 1600 ft, and is diversified by numerous hills and groups of
mountains. These ranges contain remarkable rock formations,
towers, battlements and pinnacles crowning the hills. Chief of
these formations is a gigantic pillar some 450 ft high and 150 ft.
thick at the base. It stands on the summit of a high conical
hill. Mount Alantika, about as miles south-south-east of Yola,
rises from the plain, an isolated granite mass, to the height of
6000 ft The country, which is very fertile and is covered with
luxuriant herbage, has many villages and a considerable popu-
lation. Durra, ground-nuts, yams and cotton are the principal
products, and the palm and banana abound. Elephants are
numerous and ivory is exported. In the eastern part of the
country the rhinoceros is met with, and the rivers swarm with
crocodiles and with a curious mammal called the ayu, bearing
some resemblance to the seal
Adamawa is named after a Fula Emir Adama, who in the early
years of the 19th century conquered the country. To the Hausa
and Bornuese it was previously known as Fumbina (or South-
land). The inhabitants are mainly pure negroes such as the
Durra, Batta and Dekka, speaking different languages, and all
fetish-worshippers. They are often of a very low type, and some
of the tribes are cannibals. Slave-trading was still active among
them in the early years of the 20th century. The Fula (q.v.),
who first came into the country about the 1 $th century as nomad
herdsmen, are found chiefly in the valleys, the pagan tribes
holding the mountainous districts. There are also in the country
numbers of Hausa, who are chiefly traders, as well as Arabs and
Kanuri from Bornu. The emir of Yola, in the period of Fula lord-
ship, claimed rights of suzerainty over the whole of Adamawa,
but the country, since the subjection of the Fula (e. 1900), has
consisted of a number of small states under the control of the
British and Germans. Garua on the upper Benue, 65 m. east of
Yola, is the headquarters of the German administration for the
region and the chief trade centre in the north of Adamawa. Yoko
is one of the principal towns in the south of the country, and in
the centre is the important town of Ngaundere. After Heinrich
Barth, who explored the country in 1851, the first traveller to
penetrate Adamawa was the German, E. R. Flegel (1882). It
has since been traversed by many expeditions, notably that of
Baron von Uechtriu and Dr Siegfried Passarge (1893-1894).
An interesting account of Adamawa, its peoples and history, Is
given by Heinnch Barth in his Travels in North and Central Africa
(new edition, London, 1890), and later information is contained in
S. Paaaarge's Adamawa (Berlin, 1895). (See also Cameroon and
Nigeria, and the bibliographies there given.)
ADAMITES, or Adakiams, a sect of heretics that flourished in
North Africa in the and and 3rd centuries. Basing itself prob-
ably on a union of certain gnostic and ascetic doctrines, this sect
pretended that its members were re-established in Adam's state
of original /nnocency. They accordingly rejected the form of
marriage, which, they said, would never have existed but for sin.
and lived in absolute lawlessness, holding that, whatever they
did, their actions could be neither good nor bad. During the
middle ages the doctrines of this obscure sect, which did not
itself exist long, were revived in Europe by the Brethren and
Sisters of the Free Spirit
AOAMNAK, or Adomnan (c. 624-704), Irish saint and
historian, was born at Raphoe, Donegal, Ireland, about the
year 624. In 679 he was elected abbot of Hy or lona, being
ninth in succession from the founder, St Columba. While on a
mission to the court of King Aldfrith of Northumberland in 686,
he was led to adopt the Roman rules with regard to the time for
celebrating Easter and the tonsure, and on his return to lona he
tried without success to enforce the change upon the monks. He
died on the 23rd of September 704. Adamnan wrote a Life of
St Columba, which, though abounding in fabulous matter, is of
great interest and value. Hie best editions are those published
by W. Reeves (1857, new edit Edinburgh, 1874) and by J. T.
Fowler (Oxford, 1894). Adamnan's other well-known work,
De Locis Sanctis (edited by P. Geyer, Itinera HierosoiymiSana
sacculi,w.~vtiL, Ac, 1898; voL 39 of Bienna Corpus Scrip. Ecc.
Latin) was based, according to Bede, on information received
from Arculf, a French bishop, who, on his return from the Holy
Land, was wrecked on the west coast of Britain, and was enter-
tained for a time at lona. This was first published at Ingolstadt
in 16x9 by J. Gretser, who also defended Baronius' acceptance
of Arculf s narrative against Casaubon. An English translation
by G. J. R. Macpherson, Arculfus* Pilgrimage in the Holy Land*
was published by the Pilgrim's Text Society (London, 1889).
For full bibliography see U. Chevalier, Rtpert. dot tomcat
historiques (1903), p. 4a
ADAMS, ANDREW LOTH (1827-1882), Scottish naturalist
and palaeontologist, the second son of Francis Adams of Ban*
chory, Aberdeen, was born on the aist of March 1827, and was
educated to the medical profession. As surgeon in the Army
Medical Department from 1848 to 1873, he utilised his oppor-
tunities for the study of natural history in India and Kashmir, in
Egypt, Malta, Gibraltar and Canada. His observations on the
fossil vertebrata of the Maltese Islands led him eventually to give
special study to fossil elephants, on which he became an ac-
knowledged authority. In 1872 he was elected F.R.S. In 1873
he was chosen professor of zoology in the Royal College of Science,
Dublin, and in 1878 professor of natural history in Queen's
College, Cork, a post which he held until the dose of his life. He
died at Queenstown on the 29th of July 1882.
Publications.— Notes of a Naturalist in the Nile Valley audMalta
J London, 1870); other works of travel; Monograph on the British
7 ossil Elephants (Palaeontographical Soc), (London. 1877-1881).
ADAMS. CHARLES FRANCIS (1807-1886), American diplo-
matist, son of John Quincy Adams, and grandson of John
Adams, was born in Boston on the 18th of August 1807. His
father, having been appointed minister to Russia, took him in
1809 to St Petersburg, where he acquired a perfect familiarity
with French, learning it as his native tongue. After eight years
spent in Russia and England, he attended the Boston Latin
School for four years, and in 1825 graduated at Harvard. He
lived two years in the executive mansion, Washington, during
his father's presidential term, studying law and moving in a
society where he met Webster, Clay, Jackson and Randolph.
Returning to Boston, he devoted ten years to business and study,
and wrote for the North American Review. He also undertook
the management of his father's pecuniary affairs, and actively
supported him in his contest in the House of Representatives
for the right of petition and the anti-slavery cause. In 1835 he
wrote an effective and widely read political pamphlet, entitled,
after Edmund Burke's more famous work, An* Appeal from the
New to the Old Whigs. He was a member of the Massachusetts
general court from 1840 to 1.845, sitting for three' years in the
House of Representatives and for two years in the Senate;
and in 1846- 1848 he edited a party journal, the Boston Whig.
In 1848 he was prominent in politics as a " Conscience Whig,"
ADAMS
»75
pending over the Buffalo Convention which formed the Free
Soil party and nominated Martin Van Buren for president and
himself for vice-president. He was a Republican member of
Lbe Thirty-Sixth Congress, which assembled on the 5th of
December 1850, and during the second session, from the 3rd of
December i860 to the 4th of March i86x, he represented Massa-
chusetts in the Congressional Committee of Thirty-three at the
time of the secession of seven of the Southern states. His selec-
tion by the chairman of this committee, Thomas Corwin, to
present to the full committee certain propositions agreed upon
by two-thirds of the Republican members, and his calm and able
speech of the jist of January 1861 in the House, served to make
him conspicuous before congress and the country. Together
with William H. Seward, he stood for the Republican policy of
concession; and, while he was criticized severely and charged
villi inconsistency in view of his record as a "Conscience Whig,"
he was of the same mind as President Lincoln, willing to con-
cede non-essentials, but holding rigidly to the principle, properly
understood, that there must be no extension of slavery. He
believed that as the Republicans were the victors they ought to
show a spirit of conciliation, and that the policy of righteousness
was likewise one of expediency, since it would have for its result
the holding of the border slave states with the North until the
4th of March, when the Republicans could take possession of the
government at Washington. With the incoming of the new
administration Secretary Seward secured for Adams the appoint-
ment of minister to Great Britain. So much sympathy was
shown in England for the South that his path was beset with
difficulties ; but his mission was to prevent the interference of
Great Britain in the struggle', and while the work of Lincoln,
Seward and Sumner, and the cause of emancipation, tended
10 tms end, the American minister was insistent and unyielding,
sad knew how to present his case forcibly and with dignity.
Re laboured with energy and discretion to prevent the sailing of
the ''Alabama "; and, when unsuccessful in this, he persistently
urged upon the British government its responsibility for the
destruction of American merchant vessels by the privateer. In
his own diary he shows that underneath his calm exterior
were serious trouble and keen anxiety; and, in fact, the strain
*hkh he underwent during the Civil War made itself felt in later
yean. Adams was instrumental in getting Lord John Russell
to stop the "Alexandra," and it was his industry and pertinacity
ia argument and remonstrance that induced Russell to order
the detention in September 1863 of the two ironclad rams in-
tended for the Confederate States. Adams remained in Eng-
land until May 1 868. His last important work was as a member,
in 1871-1872, of the tribunal of arbitration at Geneva which dis-
posed of the "Alabama" claims. His knowledge of the subject
and his fairness of mind enabled him to render his country and
the cause of international arbitration valuable service. He died
at Boston on the 21st of November 1886.
He edited the works of John Adams (10 vols., 1850-1856), and the
Mcm*r So fJ knQ9huyAdaMs(i2vo\B.,i&74-i877). See the excellent
phy (Boston, 1900). in the "American Statesmen Series,"
son. Charier Francis Adams, Jr. (J . F. R.)
ADAMS, HENRY (1838- ), American historian, son of
Claries Francis Adams and grandson of John Quincy Adams, was
bora in Boston, Massachusetts, on the x6th of February 1838.
He graduated at Harvard in 1858, and from 1861 to 1868 was
private secretary to his father. From 1870 to 1877 he was
aostaot professor of history at Harvard and from 1870 to 1876
*ss editor of the North American Review. He is considered to
km been the first (in 1874-1876) to conduct historical seminary
•ork m the United States. His great work is his History of the
veiled Slates (1801 to 1817) (9 vols., 1889-1891), which is incom-
FaraWy the best work yet published dealing with the administra-
te of Presidents Jefferson and Madison. It is particularly
ttabk for its account of the diplomatic relations of the United
States during this period, and for its essential impartiality.
Adams also published : Life of Albert Gallatin (1879), John
fablpk (188a) in the "American Statesmen Series," and
Rutoriut Essays (1891) ; besides editing Documents Relating
SES
to New England Federalism (1877), and the Writings of Albert
Gallatin (3 volumes, 1879). In collaboration with his elder
brother Charles Francis Adams, Jr., he published Chapters of
Erie and Other Essays (1871), and, with H. C. Lodge, Ernest
Young and J. L. Laughlin, Essays in Anglo-Saxon Law (1876).
His elder brother, John Quincy Adams (1833-1894), a
graduate of Harvard (1853), practised law, and was a Demo-
cratic member for several terms of the Massachusetts general
court. In 187a he was nominated for vice-president by the
Democratic faction that refused to support Horace Greeley.
Another brother, Charles Francis Adaics, Jr. (1835- ),
born in Boston on the 27th of May 1835, graduated at Harvard
in 1856, and served on the Union side in the Civil War,
receiving in 1865 the brevet of brigadier-general in the regular
army. He was president of the Union Pacific railroad from
1884 to x8oo, having previously become widely known as an
authority on the management of railways. In 1000-1001 he
was president of the American Historical Association. Among
his writings are : Railroads, Their Origin and Problems (1878);
Three Episodes of Massachusetts History (1892) ; a .biography
of his father, Charles Francis Adams (1000) ; Lee at Appomattox
and Other Papers (1902) ; Theodore Lyman and Robert Charles
Winthrop t Jr., Two Memoirs (1906) ; and Three Phi Beta Kappa
Addresses (1907).
Another brother, Brooks Adams (1848- ), born in Quincy,
Massachusetts, on the 24th of June 1848, graduated at Harvard
in 1870, and until x88z practised law. His writings include :
The Emancipation of Massachusetts (1887) ; The Law of Civiliza-
tion and Decay (1895) ; America's Economic Supremacy (1900) ;
and The New Empire (190a).
ADAMS, HENRY CARTER (1852- ), American economist,
was born at Davenport, Iowa, on the 31st of December 1852.
He was educated at Iowa College and Johns Hopkins University,
of which latter he was fellow and lecturer (1880-1882). He was
afterwards a lecturer in Cornell University, and in 1887 became
professor of political economy and finance in the university of
Michigan. He also became statistician to the Interstate Com-
merce Committee and was In charge of the transportation
department in the 1000 census. His principal works are The
State in Relation to Industrial Action (1887); Taxation in the
United States, 1787 to 1816 (1884) ; Public Debts (1887) ; The
Science of Finance (1888) ; Economics and Jurisprudence (1897).
ADAMS, HERBERT (1858- ), American sculptor, was
born at West Concord, Vermont, on the 28th of January 1858.
He was educated at the Worcester (Massachusetts) Institute of
Technology, and at the Massachusetts Normal Art School, and in
1885-1890 he was a pupil of Antonin Mercie in Paris. In 1800-
1898 he was an instructor in the art school of Pratt Institute,
Brooklyn, New York. In 1906 he was elected vice-president
of the National Academy of Design, New York. He experi-
mented successfully with some polychrome busts and tinted
marbles, notably in the "Rabbi's Daughter" and a portrait of
Miss Julia Marlowe, the actress ; and he is at his best in his
portrait busts of women, the best example being the study,
completed in 1887, of Miss A. V. Pond, whom he afterwards
married. Among his other productions are a fountain for Fitch-
burg, Massachusetts (1888) ; a number of works for the Con-
gressional Library, Washington, including the bronze doors
("Writing ") begun by Olin Warner, and the statue of Professor
Joseph Henry ; memorial tablets for the Boston State House ;
a memorial to Jonathan Edwards, at Northampton, Mass.;
statues of Richard Smith, the type-founder, in Philadelphia,
and of William Ellery Channing, in Boston (1902) ; and the
Vanderbilt memorial bronze doors for St Bartholomew's Church,
New York.
ADAMS, HERBERT BAXTER (1850-1901), American his-
torian and educationalist, was born at Shutcsbury (near
Amherst), Massachusetts, on the 16th of April 185a He
graduated at Amherst, at the head of his class, in 1872 ; and
between 1873 and 1876 he studied political science, history and
economics at GcHtingen, Berlin and Heidelberg, Germany, re-
ceiving the degree of Pb.D.at Heidelberg in 1876, with the highest
176
ADAMS
honours (summa cum laude). From 1876 almost until his death
he was connected with the Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore,
Maryland, being in turn a fellow, an associate in history (1878-
1883), an associate professor (1883-1891) and after 1891 pro-
fessor of American and institutional history. In addition he
was lecturer on history in Smith College, Northampton, Massa-
chusetts, in 1878-1881, and for many years took an active part
in Chautauqua work. In 1884, also, he was one of the founders of
the American Historical Association, of which he was secretary
until 1000. In 1882 he founded the " Johns Hopkins University
Studies in Historical and Political Science," and at the time of his
death some forty volumes had been issued under his editorship.
After 1887 he also edited for the United States Bureau of Educa-
tion the series of monographs entitled " Contributions to Ameri-
can Educational History," he himself preparing the College of
William and Mary (1887), and Thomas Jefferson and the University
of Virginia (1888). It was as a teacher, however, that Adams
rendered his most valuable services, and many American his-
torical scholars owe their training and to a considerable extent
their enthusiasm to him. He died at Amherst, Massachusetts,
on the 30th of July 1001.
In addition to the monographs mentioned above, he
published: Maryland?* Influence in Founding a National
Commonwealth (1877); Methods of Historical Study (1884);
Maryland's Influence upon Land Cessions to the United States
(1885); and the Life and Writings of Jared Sparks (a vols.,
Boston, 1893), his most important work.
See Herbert B. Adams: Tributes of Friends (Baltimore, 1902),
extra volume (xxiii.) of "Studies in Historical and Political Science."
ADAMS, JOHN (1735-1826), second president of the United
States of America, was born on the 30th of October 1735 in what
is now the town of Quincy, Massachusetts. His father, a farmer,
also named John, was of the fourth generation in descent from
Henry Adams, who emigrated from Devonshire, England, to
Massachusetts about 1636; his mother was Susanna Boylston
Adams. Young Adams graduated from Harvard College in 1 7 5 5,
and for a time taught school at Worcester and studied law in the
office of Rufus Putnam. In 1758 he was admitted to the bar.
From an early age he developed the habit of writing descriptions
of events and impressions of men. The earliest of these is his
report of the argument of James Otis in the superior court of
Massachusetts as to the constitutionality of writs of assistance.
This was in 1761, and the argument inspired him with zeal for
the cause of the American colonies. Years afterwards, when an
old man, Adams undertook to write out at length his recollections
of this scene; it is instructive to compare the two accounts.
John Adams had none of the qualities of popular leadership
which were so marked a characteristic of his second cousin,
Samuel Adams; it was rather as a constitutional lawyer that he
influenced the course of events. He was impetuous, intense
and often vehement, unflinchingly courageous, devoted with his
whole soul to the cause he had espoused; but his vanity, his
pride of opinion and his inborn contentiousness were serious
handicaps to him in his political career. These qualities were
particularly manifested at a later period — as, for example, during
his term as president. He first made his influence widely felt
and became conspicuous as a leader of the Massachusetts Whigs
during the discussions with regard to the Stamp Act of 1765.
In that year he drafted the instructions which were sent by the
town of .Braintree to its representatives in the Massachusetts,
legislature, and which served as a model for other towns in draw-
ing up instructions to their representatives; in August 1765 he
contributed anonymously' four notable articles to the Boston
Gazette (republished separately in London in 1768 as A Disser-
tation on the Canon and Feudal Lav), in which he argued that
the opposition of the colonies to the Stamp Act was a part of
the never-ending struggle between individualism and corporate
authority; and in December 176s he delivered a speech before
the governor and council in which he pronounced the Stamp
Act invalid on the ground that Massachusetts being without
representation in parliament, had not assented to it. In 1768
be removed to Boston. Two years later, with that degree of
moral courage which was one of his distinguishing characteristics,
as it has been of his descendants, he, aided by Josiah Quincy, Jr.,
defended the British soldiers who were arrested after the "Boston
Massacre," charged with causing the death of four persons, in-
habitants of the colony. The trial resulted in an acquittal of the
officer who commanded the detachment, and most of the soldiers;
but two soldiers were found guilty of manslaughter. These
claimed benefit of clergy and were branded in the. hand and
released. Adams's upright and patriotic conduct in fairing the
unpopular side in this case met with its just reward in the follow-
ing year, in the shape of his election to the Massachusetts House
of Representatives by a vote of 4x8 to xi8.
John Adams was a member of the Continental Congress from
1774 to 1778. In June 1775, with a view to promoting the union
of the colonies, he seconded the nomination of Washington as
commander-in-chief of the army. His influence in congress was
great, and almost from the beginning he was impatient for a
separation of the colonies from Great Britain. On the 7th of
June 1776 he seconded the famous resolution introduced by
Richard Henry Lee (?.«.) that " these colonies are, and of a right
ought to be, free and independent states," and no man
championed these resolutions (adopted on the and of July) so
eloquently and effectively before the congress. On the 8th of
June he was appointed on a committee with Jefferson, Franklin,
Livingston and Sherman to draft a Declaration of Independence;
and although that document was by the request of the committee
written by Thomas Jefferson, it was John Adams who occupied
the foremost place in the debate on its adoption. Before this
question had been disposed of, Adams was placed at the head of
the Board of War and Ordnance, and he also served on many
other important committees.
In 1778 John Adams sailed for France to supersede SDas
Deane in the American commission there. But just as he em-
barked that commission concluded the desired treaty of alliance,
and soon after his arrival he advised that the number of com-
missioners be reduced to one. His advice was followed and he
returned home in time to be elected a member of the convention
which framed the Massachusetts constitution of 1780, still the
organic law of that commonwealth. With James Bowdoin and
Samuel Adams, he formed a sub-committee which drew up the
first draft of that instrument, and most of it probably came
from John Adams's pen. Before this work had been completed
he was again sent to Europe, having been chosen on the 27th of
September 1779 as minuter plenipotentiary for negotiating a
treaty of peace and a treaty of commerce with Great Britain.
'Conditions were not then favourable for peace, however; the
French government, moreover, did not approve of the choice,
inasmuch as Adams was not sufficiently pliant and tractable
and was from the first suspicious of Vergennes; and subse-
quently Benjamin Franklin, Thomas Jefferson, John Jay and
Henry Laurens were appointed to co-operate with Adams.
Jefferson, however, did not cross the Atlantic, and Laurens took
little part in the negotiations. This left the management of
the business to the other three. Jay and Adams distrusted the
good faith of the French government. Outvoting Franklin,
they decided to break their instructions, which required them
to ' make the most candid confidential communications on all
subjects to the ministers of our generous ally, the king of France;
to undertake nothing in the negotiations for peace or truce
without their knowledge or concurrence; and ultimately to
govern yourself by their advice and opinion"; and, instead,
they dealt directly with the British commissioners, without con-
sulting the French ministers. Throughout the negotiations
Adams was especially determined that the right of the United
States to the fisheries along the British-American coast should be
recognized. Political conditions in Great Britain, at the moment,
made the conclusion of peace almost a necessity with the British
ministry, and eventually the American negotiators were able to
secure a peculiarly favourable treaty. This preliminary treaty
was signed on the 30th of November 1782. Before these
negotiations began, Adams had spent sometime in the Nether-
lands. In July 1780 he had been authorized to execute the
ADAMS
duties previously assigned to Henry Laurens, and at the Hague
wis eminently successful, securing there recognition of the
United States as an independent government (April 19, 1782),
sod negotiating both a loan and, in October 1782, a treaty of
unity and commerce, the first of such treaties between the
United States and foreign powers after that of February 1778
*ith France.
In 1785 John Adams was appointed the first of a long line
of able and distinguished American ministers to the court of
St James's. When he was presented to his former sovereign,
George HI. intimated that he was aware of Mr Adams's lack of
confidence in the French government Replying, Mr Adams ad-
mitted it, closing with the outspoken sentiment: " I must avow
to your Majesty that I have no attachment but to my own
country "—a phrase which must have jarred upon the monarch's
sensibilities. While in London Adams published a work entitled
A Defence of the Constitution of Government of the Untied Slate*
(1787). In this work he ably combated the views of Turgot
tod other European writers as to the viciousness of the frame-
work of the state governments. Unfortunately, in so doing,
be used phrases savouring of aristocracy which offended many of
ba countrymen, — as in the sentence in which he suggested that
" the rich, the well-born and the able " should be set apart from
other men in a senate. Partly for this reason, while Washing-
toe had the vote of every elector in the first presidential
election of 1789, Adams received only thirty-four out of sixty-
sine. As this was the second largest number he was declared
vice-president, but he began his eight years in that office (1789-
1797) with a sense of grievance and of suspicion of many of the
leading men. Differences of opinion with regard to the policies
to be pursued by the new government gradually led to the forma-
tion of two well-defined political groups— the Federalists and
tfce Democratk-RepobHcans— and Adams became recognized
* one of the leaders, second only to Alexander Hamilton, of the
Is 1706, on the refusal of Washington to accept another
election, Adams was chosen president, defeating Thomas Jeffer-
son; though Alexander Hamilton and other Federalists had
uked that an equal vote should be cast for Adams and Thomas
Hackney, the other Federalist in the contest, partly in order
Uut Jefferson, who was elected vice-president, might be excluded
altogether, and partly, it seems, in the hope that Pinckney should
■ ftct receive more votes than Adams, and thus, in accordance
vita the system then obtaining, be elected president, though he
vu intended for the second place on the Federalist ticket
Adams's four years as chief magistrate (1797^1801) were marked
by a recession of intrigues which embittered all his later life;
they were marked, also, by events, such as the passage of the
Afiea and Sedition Acts, which brought discredit on the Federal-
ist party. Moreover, factional strife broke out within the party
itself; Adams and Hamilton became alienated, and members
of Adams's own cabinet virtually looked to Hamilton rather
fc«a to the president as their political chief. The United States
vo, at this time, drawn into the vortex of European complica-
&«*, and Adams, instead of taking advantage of the militant
spirit wmch was aroused, patriotically devoted himself to
"caring peace with France, much against the wishes of Hamilton
lad of Hamilton's adherents in the cabinet In xSoo, Adams
*u again the Federalist candidate for the presidency, but the
aatrust of him in his own party, the popular disapproval of the
jJSen and Sedition Acts and the popularity- of his opponent,
Thomas Jefferson, combined to cause his defeat He then re-
tad into private Hfc. On the 4th of July 1826, on the fiftieth
ttaiversary of the adoption of the Declaration of Independence,
be died af Qmncy. Jefferson died on the same day. In 1764
Ataa had married Miss Abigail Smith (1744-18x8), the
**tar of a Congregational minister at Weymouth, Massa-
**tta. She was a woman of much ability, and her letters,
«Bttea m an excellent English style, are of great value to
"wents of the period in which she lived. President John
Vmxy Adams was their eldest son.
AirraoiiTras-— C F. Adams, The Works of John Adorn*, with
L 4«
177
1856) ; John and Abigail Adams, Familiar
Life (10 vols., I
Letters during the Revolution (Boston, 1875): J. T. Morse, John
Adams (Boston, 1883: later* edition, 1899), in the "American States-
men Series"; and Mellen Chamberlain, John Adams, the States-
man of the Revolution; with other Essay* and Addresses (Boston,
1898). (E. Cb.)
ADAMS, JOHN COUCH (1810-1892), British astronomer, was
born at Lidcot farmhouse, Laneast, Cornwall, on the 5th of June
1819. His father, Thomas Adams,' was a tenant farmer; his
mother, Tabitha Knill Grylls, inherited a small estate at Bad-
harlick. From the village school at Laneast he went, at the age
of twelve, to Devonport, where his mother's cousin, the Rev.
John Couch Grylls, kept a private schooL His promise as a
mathematician induced his parents to send him to the university
of Cambridge, and in October 1839 he entered as a sizar at St
John's College. He graduated B.A. in 1843 ** the senior wrangler
and first Smith's prizeman of his year. While still an under-
graduate he happened to read of certain unexplained irregularities
in the motion of the planet Uranus, and determined to investi-
gate them as soon as possible, with a view to ascertaining whether
they might not be due to the action of a remote undiscovered
planet Elected fellow of his college in 1843, he at once proceeded
to attack the novel problem. It was this: from the observed
perturbations of a known planet to deduce by calculation, assum-
ing only Newton's law of gravitation, the mass and orbit of an
unknown disturbing body. By September 1845 ne obtained his
first solution, and handed to Professor Challis, the director of
the Cambridge Observatory, a paper giving the elements of what
he described as " the new planet"
On the axst of October 1845 he left at Greenwich Observatory,
for the information of Sir George Airy, the astronomer-royal, a
similar document, still preserved among the archives. A fort-
night afterwards Airy wrote asking for information about a point
in the solution. Adams, who thought the query unessential, did
not reply, and Airy for some months took no steps to verify
by telescopic search the results of the young mathematician's
investigation. Meanwhile, Leverrier, on the xoth of November
1845, presented to the French Academy a memoir on Uranus,
showing that the existing theory failed to account for its motion.
Unaware of Adams's work, he attempted a like inquiry, and on
the xst of June 1846, in a second memoir, gave the position, but
not the mass or orbit, of the disturbing body whose existence
was presumed. The longitude he assigned differed by only x°
from that predicted by -Adams in the document which Airy
possessed. The latter was struck by the coincidence, and men-
tioned it to the Board of Visitors of the Observatory, James
Challis and Sir John Herschel being-present Herschel, at the
ensuing meeting of the British Association early in September,
ventured accordingly to predict that a new planet would shortly
be discovered. Meanwhile Airy had in July suggested to Challis
that the planet should be sought for with the Cambridge equa-
torial. The search was begun by a laborious method at the end
of the month. On the 4th and 12th of August, as afterwards
appeared, the planet was actually observed; but owing to the
want of a proper star-map it was not then recognized as planet-
ary. Leverrier, still ignorant of these occurrences, presented
on the 31st of August 1846 a third memoir, giving for the first
time the mass and orbit of the new body. He communicated
his results by letter to Dr Galle, of the Berlin Observatory, who
at once examined the suggested region of the heavens. On the
33rd of September he detected near the predicted place a small
star unrecorded in the map, and next evening found that it had
a proper motion. No doubt remained that " Leverrier's planet "
had been discovered. On the announcement of the fact, Herschel
and Challis made known that Adams had already calculated
'the planet's elements and position. Airy then at length published
an account of the circumstances, and 'Adams's memoir was
printed as an appendix to the Nautical A Imanac. A keen contro-
versy arose in France and England as to the merits of the two
astronomers. In the latter country much surprise was expressed
at the apathy of Airy; in France the claims made for an unknown
Englishman were resented as detracting from the credit due to
Leverrier's achievement As the indisputable facts became
178
ADAMS
known, the world recognized that the two astronomers had in-
dependently solved the problem of Uranus, and ascribed to each
equal glory. The new planet, at first called Leverrier by F. Arago,
received by general consent the neutral name of Neptune. Its
mathematical prediction was not only an unsurpassed intellectual
feat; it showed also that Newton's law of gravitation, which Airy
had almost called in question, prevailed even to the utmost
bounds of the solar system.
The honour of knighthood was offered to Adams when Queen
Victoria visited Cambridge in 1847; but then, as on a subsequent
occasion, his modesty led him to decline it The Royal Society
awarded him its Copley medal in 1848. In the same year the
members of St John's College commemorated his success by
founding in the university an Adams prize, to be given biennially
for the best treatise on a mathematical subject. In 1851 he
became president of the Royal Astronomical Society. His lay
fellowship at St John's College came to an end in 185a, and the
existing statutes did not permit of his re-election. But Pembroke
College, which possessed greater freedom, elected him in the
following year to a lay fellowship, and this he held for the rest
of his life. In 1858 he became professor of mathematics
at St Andrews, but lectured only for a session, when he
vacated the chair for the Lowndean professorship of astronomy
and geometry at Cambridge. Two years later he succeeded
Challis as director of the Observatory, where he resided until
his death.
Although Adams's researches on Neptune were those which
attracted widest notice, the work he subsequently performed
in relation to gravitational astronomy and terrestrial magnetism
was not less remarkable. Several of his most striking contribu-
tions to knowledge originated in the discovery of errors or
fallacies in the work of his great predecessors in astronomy.
Thus in 1852 he published new and accurate tables of the moon's
parallax, which superseded J. K. Burckhardt's, and supplied
corrections to the theories of M. C. T. Damoiseau, G. A. A.
Plana and P. G. D. de PontecoulanL In the following year his
memoir on the secular acceleration of the moon's mean motion
partially invalidated Laplace's famous explanation, which had
held its place unchallenged for sixty years. At first, Leverrier,
Plana and other foreign astronomers controverted Adams's
result; but its soundness was ultimately established, and its
fundamental importance to this branch of celestial theory has
only developed further with time. For these researches the
Royal Astronomical Society awarded him its gold medal in 1866.
The great meteor shower of 1866 turned his attention to the
Leonids, whose probable path and period had already been
discussed by Professor H. A. Newton. Using a powerful and
elaborate analysis, Adams ascertained that this cluster of
meteors, which belongs to the solar system, traverses an elon-
gated ellipse in 33 J years, and is subject to definite perturbations
from the larger planets, Jupiter, Saturn and Uranus. These
results were published in 1867. Ten years later, when Mr. G. W.
Hill of Washington expounded a new and beautiful method for
dealing with the problem of the lunar motions, Adams briefly
announced his own unpublished work in the same -field, which,
following a parallel course had confirmed and supplemented
Hill's. In 1874-1876 he was president of the Royal Astronomical
Society for the second time, when it fell to him to present the
gold medal of the year to Leverrier. The determination of the
constants in Gauss's theory of terrestrial magnetism occupied
him at intervals for over forty years. The calculations involved
great labour, and were not published during his lifetime. They
were edited by his brother, Professor W. Grylls Adams, and
appear in the second volume of the collected Scientific Papers.
Numerical computation of this kind might almost be described
as his pastime. The value of the constant known as Enter's,
and the Bernoullian numbers up to the 62nd, he worked out to
an nnimaginrd degree of accuracy. For Newton and his writings
he had a boundless admiration; many of his papers, indeed,
bear the cast of Newton's thought He laboured for many years
at the task of arranging and cataloguing the great collection of
Newton's.unpublished mathematical writings, presented in 187a
to the university by Lord Portsmouth, and wrote the 1
of them issued in a volume by the University Press in 188S.
The post of astronomer-royal was offered him in 1881, but he
preferred to pursue his peaceful course of teaching and research
in Cambridge. He was British delegate to the International
Prime Meridian Conference at Washington in 1884, when he
also attended the meetings of the British Association at Montreal
and of the American Association at Philadelphia. Five yeaxs
later his health gave way, and after a long illness he died at the
Cambridge Observatory on the 21st of January 1892, and was
buried in St Giles's cemetery, near his home. He married In
1863 Miss Eliza Bruce, of Dublin, who survived him. An inter-
national committee was formed for the purpose of erecting a
monument to his memory in Westminster Abbey; and there,
in May 1895, * portrait medallion, by Albert Bruce Joy, was
placed near the grave of Newton, and adjoining the memorials
of Darwin and of Joule. His bust, by the same sculptor, stands
opposite that of Sir John Herschd in the hall of St John's College,
Cambridge. Herkomer's portrait is in Pembroke College; and
Mogford's, painted in 1851, is in the combination room of St
John's. Another bust, taken in his youth, belongs to the Royal
Astronomical Society. .A memorial tablet, with an inscription
by Archbishop Benson, is placed in the Cathedral at Truro;
and Mr Passmore Edwards erected a public institute in his
honour at Launccston, near his birthplace.
npeon, y _ _
by tne Cambridge University Press. The first volume contains hk
previously published writings; the second those left in manuscript,
including the substance of his lectures on the Lunar Theory. A col-
lection, virtually complete, of Adams's papers regarding the dis-
covery of Neptune was presented by Mrs Adams to the library of
St John's College. A description of them by Professor Sampson
was inserted -in the Memoirs of the Royal Astronomical Society
(voL liv. p. 143). Consult: Month. Notices Roy. Astr. Sec, hu.
184; Observatory, xv. 174; Nature, xxxiv. 565. xlv. 301; Astr.
Journal, No. 254; R. Grant, HisL of Physical As'
Edinburgh Review, No. 381, p. 72.
I Astronomy, p. 168:
ADAMS, JOHN QUINCY (1767-1848), eldest son of President
John Adams, sixth president of the United States, was born on
the nth of July 1767, in that part of Braintree that is now
Quincy, Massachusetts, and was named after John Quincy (1680-
1767), his mother's grandfather, who was for many years a
prominent member of the Massachusetts legislature. In 1778,
and again in 1780, young Adams accompanied his father to
Europe; studying in Paris in 1778-1779 and at the university of
Leiden in 1780. In 1780, also, he began to keep that diary
which forms so conspicuous a record of the doings of himself
and his contemporaries. In 1781, at the age of fourteen, he
accompanied Francis Dana (1743-1811), American envoy to
Russia, as his private secretary; but Dana was not received
by the Russian government, and in 1782 Adams joined his father
at Paris, where he acted as "additional secretary" to the
American commissioners in the negotiation of the treaty of peace
which concluded the War of American Independence. Instead
of accompanying his father to London, he, of his own choice,
returned to Massachusetts, graduated at Harvard College in
1787, three years later was admitted to practise at the bar and
at once opened an office in Boston. A series of papers written
by him in which he controverted some of Thomas Palne'a doc-
trines in the Rights of Man, and later another series in which
he ably supported the neutral policy of the administration
toward France and England, led to his appointment by Wash-
ington as minister to the Netherlands in May 1704. There was
little for him to do at the Hague, but in the absence of a minister
at London, he transacted certain public business with the
English foreign secretary. In 1706 Washington appointed him
minister to Portugal, but before his departure thither his father
John Adams became president and changed his destination to
Berlin (1797). While there, he negotiated (1799) a treaty of
amity and commerce with Prussia. On Thomas Jefferson's
election to the presidency in z8oo, the elder Adams recalled his
son, who returned home in x8oi. The next year, he was elected
ADAMS
179
to the Massachusetts saute, and in 1803 was sent to Washington
as a member of the Senate of the United States.
Up to this time, John Qtrincy Adams was regarded as belong-
ing to the Federalist party, but he now found it* general policy
dwpfrawng to him, was frowned upon, as the son of his father,
by the followers of Alexander Hamilton, and found himself
nearly powerless as an unpopular member of an unpopular
minority. He was not now, and indeed never was, a strict
party man. On the first important question that came before
him in the Senate, the acquisition of Louisiana, he voted with
the Republicans, regardless of the opposition of his own section,
la December 1807 he warmly seconded Jefferson's suggestion
of an embargo and vigorously urged instant action, saying:
"The president has recommended the measure on his high
responsibility. I would not consider, I would not deliberate;
I would act!" Within five hours the Senate had passed the
Embargo Bill and sent it to the House. The support of a measure
10 QBpopuUr in New England caused him to be hated by the
Federalists there and cost him his seat in the Senate; his suc-
cessor was chosen on the 3rd of June 1808, several months before
the anal time of filling the vacancy, and five days later Adams
leaped. In the same year he attended the Republican con-
tranoaal caucus which nominated Madison for the presidency,
and thus definitely joined the Republicans. From 1806 to 1809
Adams was professor of rhetoric and oratory at Harvard.
la 1809 President Madison sent Adams to Russia to represent
the United States, He arrived at St Petersburg at the psycho-
logical moment when the tsar had made up his mind to break
with Napoleon. Adams therefore met with a favourable recep-
tion and a disposition to further the interests of American com-
merce in every possible way. On the outbreak of the war
between the United States and England in 181 a, he was still at
St Petersburg. In September of that year, the Russian govern-
ment suggested that the tsar was willing to act as mediator
between the two belligerents. Madison precipitately accepted
thh proposition and sent Albert Gallatin and James Bayard to
act as fnmmwaki pcra with Mr Adams; but England would have
aothiag to do with it. In August 18x4, however, these gentle-
■ea, with Henry Clay and Jonathan Russell, began negotiations
with English commissioners which resulted in the signature of
the treaty of Ghent on the 24th of December of that year. After
thh Adams visited Paris, where he witnessed the return of
Napoleon from Elba, and then went to London, where, with
Henry day and Albert Gallatin, he negotiated (18x5) a " Con-
gestion to Regulate Commerce and Navigation." Soon after-
wards he became U.S. minister to Great Britain, as his father
had been before him, and as his son, Charles Francis Adams,
was after him. After accomplishing little in London, he
setoraed to the United States in the summer of 1817 to become
sxretary of state in the cabinet of President Monroe.
As secretary of state, Adams played the leading part in two
most important episodes,— the acquisition of Florida and the
promulgation of the Monroe Doctrine. Ever since the acquisi-
tion of Louisiana successive administrations had sought to
iacfode a part at least of Florida in that purchase. In 18x9,
■fter bag negotiations, Adams succeeded in bringing the Spanish
■suiter to the point of signing a treaty in which the Spaniards
abandoned aO claims to territory east of the Mississippi, and the
United States relinquished all claim to what is now known as
Teas. Before the Spanish government ratified the treaty in
iSso. Mexico, including Texas, had thrown off allegiance to the
■other country, and the United States had occupied Florida by
fate of arms. The Monroe Doctrine (q.t.) rightly bears the name
«f the president who in 1823 assumed the responsibility for its
pnenagation; but it was primarily the work of John Quincy
A&uns. The eight years of Monroe's presidency (1817-1825)
** known as the " Era of Good Feeling." As his second term
**» to a close, there wss a great lack of good feeling among his
J*oal advisers, three of whom— Adams, secretary of state,
&lhova, secretary of war, and Crawford, secretary of the
**sny— aspired to succeed him In his high office. In addition,
HttfyOay and Andrew Jackson were also candidates. Calhoun
was nominated for the vice-presidency. Of the other four,
Jackson received 00 electoral votes, Adams 84, Crawford 41,
and Gay 37; as no one had a majority, the decision was made
by the House of Representatives, which was confined in its
choice to the three candidates who had received the largest
number of votes. Clay, who was speaker of the House of Repre-
sentatives, and had for years assumed a censorious attitude
toward Jackson, cast his influence for Adams and thereby
secured his election on the first ballot. A few days later Adams
offered Clay the secretaryship of state, which was accepted.
The wholly unjust and baseless charge of " bargain and corrup-
tion " followed, and the feud thus created between Adams and
Jackson greatly influenced the history of the United States.
Up to this point Adams's career had been almost uniformly
successful, but his presidency (1825-1829) was in most respects
a failure, owing to the virulent opposition of the Jacksonians;
in 1828 Jackson was elected president over Adams. It was
during his administration that irreconcilable differences devel-
oped between the followers of Adams and the followers of Jack-
son, the former becoming known as the National Republicans,
who with the Anti-Masons were the precursors of the Whigs.
In 1829 Adams retired to private life in the town of Quincy;
but only for a brief period, for in 1830, largely by Anti-Masonic
votes, he was elected a member of the national House of Repre-
sentatives. On its being suggested to him that his acceptance
of this position would degrade an ex-president, Adams replied
that no person could be degraded by serving the people as a
representative in congress or, he added, as a selectman of his
town. His service in congress from 1831 until his death is, in
some respects, the most noteworthy part of his career. Through-
out hewasconspicuous as an opponent of the extension of slavery,
though he was never technically an abolitionist, and in particular
he was the champion in the House of Representatives of the
right of petition at a time when, through the influence of the
Southern members, this right was, in practice, denied by that
body. His prolonged fight for the repeal of the so-called " Gag
Laws " is one of the most dramatic contests in the history of
congress. The agitation for the abolition of slavery, which really
began in earnest with the establishment of the Liberator by
William Lloyd Garrison in 1831, soon led to the sending of
innumerable petitions to congress for the abolition of slavery
in the District of Columbia, over which the Federal government
had jurisdiction, and for other action by congress with respect
to that institution. These petitions were generally sent to
Adams for presentation. They aroused the anger of the pro-
slavery members of congress, who, in 1836, brought about the
passage of the first " Gag Rule," the Pinckney Resolution,
presented by Henry L. Pinckney, of South Carolina. It pro-
vided that all petitions relating to slavery should be laid on the
table without being referred to committee or printed; and, in
substance, this resolution wss re-adopted at the beginning of
each of the immediately succeeding sessions of congress, the
Patton Resolution being adopted in 1837, the Atherton Resolu-
tion, or " Atherton Gag," in 1838, and the Twenty-first Rule in
1840 and subsequently until repealed. Adams contended that
these " Gsg Rules " were a direct violation of the First Amend-
ment to the Federal Constitution, and refused to be silenced on
the question, fighting for repeal with indomitable courage, in
spite of the bitter denunciation of his opponents. Each year
the number of anti-slavery petitions received and presented by
him increased; perhaps the climax was in 1837, when Adams
presented a petition from twenty-two slaves, and, when threat-
ened by his opponents with censure, defended himself with
remarkable keenness and ability. At each session, also, the
majority against him decreased until in 1844 his motion to repeal
the Twenty-first Rule was carried by a vote of 108 to 80 and his
battle was won. On the 21st of February 1848, after having
suffered a previous stroke of apoplexy, he fell insensible on
the floor of the Representatives' chamber, and two days later
died. Few men in American public life have possessed more
intrinsic worth, more independence, more public spirit end more
I ability than Adams, but throughout his political career he was
i8o
ADAMS
handicapped by a certain reserve, a certain austerity and cool-
ness of manner, and by his consequent inability to appeal to the
imaginations and affections of the people as a whole. He had,
indeed,, few intimate political or personal friends, and few men
in American history have, during their lifetime, been regarded
with so much hostility and attacked with so much rancour by
their political opponents.
Authorities.—!. T. Morse, John Quincy Adams (Boston, 188*;
new edition, 1899); Josiah Quincy, Memoir of the Life of John
Ouincy Adams (Boston, 1858); C. F. Adams (ed.), Memoirs of John
Quincy Adams, comprising portions of his diary from 1705 to 1848
(12 vols.. Philadelphia, 1 874-1 877). (E. Ch.)
ADAMS, SAMUEL (1723-1803), American statesman, was
born at Boston, Massachusetts, on the 27th of September 1722.
He was a second cousin to the elder John Adams. His father,
whose Christian name was also Samuel, was a wealthy and
prominent citizen of Boston, who took an active part in
the politics of the town, and was a member of the Caucus (or
Caulker's) Club, with which the political term "caucus" is
said to have originated; his mother was Mary Fifield. Young
Adams graduated from Harvard ^College in 1740, and three years
later, on attaining the degree of AM., chose for his thesis,
"Whether it be Lawful to resist*!* Supreme Magistrate, if the
Commonwealth cannot otherwise be preserved." Which side he
took, and how the argument proceeded, is not known, but the
subject was one which well forecasted his career. He began the
study of law in response to his father's advice; he discontinued
it in response to his mother's disapproval He repeatedly failed
in business, notably as manager of a malt-house, largely because
of his incessant attention to politics; but in the Boston town-
meeting he became a conspicuous example of the efficiency of
that institution for training in statecraft He has, indeed, been
called the "Man of the Town Meeting." About 1748 he began
to take an important part in the affairs of the town, and became
a leader in the debates of a political club which he was largely
instrumental in organizing, and to whose weekly publication,
the Public Advertiser, he contributed numerous articles. From
1756 to 1764 he was one of the town's tax-collectors, but in this
office he was unsuccessful, his easy business methods resulting
in heavy arrears.
Samuel Adams first came into wider prominence at the begin-
ning of the Stamp Act episode, in 1764, when as author of Boston's
instructions to its representatives in the general court of Massa-
chusetts he urged strenuous opposition to taxation by act of
parliament lie next year he was for the first time elected to
the lower house of the general court, in which he served until
17 74, after 1766 as clerk. As James Otis's vigour and influence
declined, Adams took a more and more prominent place in the
revolutionary councils; and, contrary to the opinion of Otis and
Benjamin Franklin, he declared that colonial representation in
parliament was out of the question and advised against any form
of compromise. Many of the Massachusetts revolutionary docu-
ments, including the famous "Massachusetts Resolves" and the
circular letter to the legislatures of the other colonies, are from
his pen; but owing to the fact that he usually acted as clerk to
the House of. Representatives and to the several committees
of which he was a member, documents were written by him
which expressed the ideas of the committee as a whole. There
can be no question, however, that Samuel Adams was one of
the first, if not the first, of American political leaders to deny
the legislative power of parliament and to desire and advocate
separation from the mother country.
To promote the ends he had in view he suggested non-im-
portation, instituted the Boston committees of correspondence,
urged that a Continental Congress be called, sought out and
introduced into public service such allies as John Hancock,
Joseph Warren and Josiah Quincy, and wrote a vast number of
articles for the newspapers, especially the Boston Gazette, over
a multitude of signatures. He was, in fact, one of the most
voluminous and influential political writers of his time. His
style is clear, vigorous and epigrammatic; his arguments are
characterized by strength of logic, and, like those of other
patriots, are, as the dispute advances, based less on precedent
and documentary authorities and more on "natural right**
Although he lacked oratorical fluency, his short speeches, like
his writings, were forceful; his plain dress and unassuming ways
helped to make him extremely popular with the common people,
in whom he had much greater faith than his cousin John had;
and, above all, he was aneminently successful manager of men.
Shrewd, wily, adroit, unfailingly tactful, an adept in all the arts
of the politician, he is considered to have done more than any
other one man, in the years immediately preceding the War
of Independence, to mould and direct public opinion in his
community.
The intense excitement which followed the "Boston Massacre 1 *
Adams skilfully used to secure the removal of the soldiers from
the town to a fort in the harbour. He it was, also, who managed
the proceedings of the "Boston Tea Party," and later he was
moderator of the convention of Massachusetts towns called to
protest against the Boston Port Bill One of the objects of the
expedition sent by Governor Thomas Gage to Lexington (g.v.)
and Concord on April 18-19, J 775» was the capture of Adams and
John Hancock, temporarily staying in Lexington, and when
Gage issued his proclamation of pardon on June zs he excepted
these two, whose offences, he said, were "of too flagitious a
Nature to admit of any other Consideration than that of condign
Punishment"
As a delegate to the Continental Congress, from 1774 to 17 8r,
Samuel Adams continued vigorously to oppose any concession to
the British government; strove for harmony among the several
colonies in the common cause; served on numerous committees,
among them that to prepare a plan of confederation; and signed
the Declaration of Independence. But he was rather a de-
structive than a constructive statesman, and his most important
service was in organizing the forces of revolution before 1775.
In 1779 he was a member of the convention which framed the
constitution of Massachusetts that was adopted in 1780, and is
still, with some amendments, the organic law of the commonweal ih
and one of the oldest fundamental laws in existence. He wis
one of the three members of the sub-committee which actually
drafted that instrument; and although John Adams is generally
credited with having performed the principal part of that task,
Samuel Adams was probably the author of most of the bill of
rights. In 1788, Samuel Adams was a member of the Massa-
chusetts convention to ratify the Constitution of the United
States. When he first read that instrument he was very much
opposed to the consolidated government which it provided, but
was induced to befriend it by resolutions which were passed at
a mass meeting of Boston mechanics or "tradesmen" — his own
firmest supporters— and by the suggestion that its ratification
should be accompanied by a recommendation of amendments
designed chiefly to supply the omission of a bill of rights. With-
out his aid it is probable that the constitution would not have
been ratified by Massachusetts. From 1789 to 1704 Adams was
lieutenant-governor of his state, and from 1704 to 1797 was
governor. After the formation of parties he became allied with
the Democratic-Republicans rather than with the Federalists.
He died on the 2nd of October 1803, at Boston.
Authorities.— Life and Public Services of Samuel Adams (3 vol*.,
Boston, 1865), by W. V. Wells, Adams's great-grandson— a valuable
biography, containing a mass of information, but noticeably biassed :
1. R. Hosmcr's Samuel Adams (Boston, 1885), an excellent short
biography in the " American Statesmen Series " ; M. C Tyler's
Literary History of the American Revolution (2 vols., New York. 1897) ,
and H. A. Cushing (ed.). The Writings of Samuel Adams (4 vols..
New York. 1904-1908). (E. Ch.)
ADAMS, THOMAS (d. c. 1655), English divine, was, in 1612,
"a preacher of the gospel at Wellington," in Bedfordshire, where
he is found until 1614, and whence issued his Heaven and Earth
Reconciled, The Devil 1 s Banquet and other works. In 1614-161 5
he was at Wingrave, in Buckinghamshire, probably as vicar, and
published a number of works in quick succession; in 1618 he held
the preachcrship at St Gregory's, under St Paul's Cathedral, and
was "observant chaplain" to Sir Henry Montague, the lord
chief justice of England. These bare facts we gather from
epistles-dedicatory and epistles to the reader, and title-pages*
ADAMS— ADAMSON
181
These epistles show him to have been on the most friendly terms
-riih some of the foremost men in state and church, though his
intent protestantism offended Laud and hindered his preferment.
His "occasionally" printed sermons, when collected in x6ao,
placed him beyond all comparison in the van of the preachers of
England, and had something to do with shaping John
Banyan. He equals Jeremy Taylor in brilliance of fancies, and
Thomas Fuller in wit Robert Southey calls him " the prose
Shakespeare of Puritan theologians." His numerous works dis-
play great learning, classical and patristic, and are unique in
then- abundance of stories, anecdotes, aphorisms and puns.
His works were edited in J. P. NichoTs Puritan Divines, by
J. Angus and T. Smith (3 vols. 8vo, 1862).
ADAMS, WILLIAM (d. 1620), English navigator, was born at
Cflfingham, near Chatham, England. When twelve years old
be was apprenticed to the seafaring life, afterwards entering
the British navy, and later serving the company of Barbary
■serchants for a number of years as master and pilot Attracted
by the Dutch trade with India, he shipped as pilot major with
a little fleet of five ships despatched from the Texel in 1598 by a
company of Rotterdam merchants. The vessels, boats ranging
from 75 to 250 tons and crowded with men, were driven to the
coast of Guinea, where the adventurers attacked the island of
Annabon for supplies, and finally reached the straits of Magellan.
Scattered by stress of weather the following spring the " Charity,"
with Adams on board, and the " Hope," met at length off the
coast of Chile, where the captains of both vessels lost their lives
b an encounter with the Indians. In fear of the Spaniards, the
remaining crews determined to sail across the Pacific. On this
TOyife the " Hope " was lost, but in April 1600 the "Charity,"
with a crew of sick and dying men, was brought to anchor off the
island of Kiushiu, Japan. Adams was summoned to Osaka and
there crammed by Iyeyasu, the guardian of the young son of
Taiko Sama, the ruler, who had just died. His knowledge of ships
tad shipbuilding, and his nautical smattering of mathematics,
raised htm in the estimation of the shogun, and he was subse-
quently presented with an estate at Hlmi near Yokosuka; but
vis refused permission to return to England. In 161 1 news
aav to him of an English settlement in Bantam, and he wrote
taking far help. In 1613 Captain John Saris arrived at Hirado in
the ship " Clove " with the object of establishing a trading factory
for the East India Company, and after obtaining the necessary
accessions from the shogun, Adams postponed his voyage home
(percussion for which had now been given him) in order to take
a leading part, under Richard Cocks, in the organization of this
&ev English settlement He had already married a Japanese
"Moan, by whom he had a family, and the latter part of his life
*as spent in the service of the English trading company, for
whom be undertook a number of voyages to Siam in 1616, and
Cochin China in 2617 and 1618. He died on the x6th of May
rtao, some three years before the dissolution of the English
hoary. His Japanese title was Anjin Sama, and his memory
«ts preserved in the naming of a street in Yedo, Anjin Cho (Pilot
Street), and by an annual celebration on June 15 in his honour.
See Eetfangt Earliest Intercourse with Japan, by C. W. Hillary
toos); Letters written by Ike English Residents in Japan, ed. by
N. Murakami (1000, containing Adams's Letters reprinted from
Uemmiais of ike Empire of Japan, ed. by T. Rundall, Hakluyt
Society. 1850); Diary of Richard Cocks, with preface by N. Mura-
kami (1890. reprinted from the Hakluyt Society ed. 1883); R.
Hddretk't Japan (1855) ' J* Harris's Nangantium atone Itinerantinm
metieea (1764). 1/850; V*W °f John Saris, ri. by Sir E. M.
Sato* (Hakluyt Society, 1000); Asiatic Society of Japan Trans-
t. xxvi. inc. 1898) pp. 1 and 194, where four more hitherto
mbfiahed fetters of Adams are given; Collection of State Papers;
tat Imdies, China and Japan. The MS. of his logs written during
»*oyage» to Siam and China is in the Bodleian Library at Oxford.
ADAMS, a township in the extreme N. of Berkshire county,
N-W. Massachusetts, U.S.A., having an area of 33 sq. m. Pop.
ttgfc) SS0I; (1890) 9213; (1900) 11,134, of whom 4376 were
*oa%D-boa; (1910, census) 13,026. It includes a portion
4 the valley of the Hoosac river, extending to the Hoosac
tap on the E., and on the W. to Mt Williams (3040 ft), and
Gstrkck Mountain (3535 ft), partly in WOliamstown, and the
highest point in the state. The valley portion is level and con-
tains several settlement centres, the largest of which, a busy
industrial village (manufactures of cotton and paper), bears the
same name as the township, and is on a branch of the Boston
and Albany railroad. The village is the nearest station to Grey-
lock, which can be easily ascended, and affords fine views of the
Hoosac and Housatonic valleys, the Berkshire Hills and the
Green Mountains; the mountain has been a state timber reser-
vation since 1808. The township's principal industry is the manu-
facture of cotton goods, the value of which in 1905 ($4,621,261)
was 84*1% of the value of the township's total factory pro-
ducts; in 1 005 no other place in the United States showed so
high a degree of specialization in this industry. The township
(originally "East Hoosuck") was surveyed and denned in 1749.
Fort Massachusetts, at one time within its bounds, was de-
stroyed in 1746 by the French. An old Indian trail between the
Hudson and Connecticut valley ran through the township, and
was once a leading outlet of the.Berkshire country. Adams was
incorporated in 1778, and was namedin honour of Samuel Adams,
the revolutionary leader. Part of Adams was included in the
new township of Cheshire in 1793, and North Adams was set off
as a separate township in 1878.
ADAH'S APPLB, the movable projection, more prominent
in males than females, formed in the front part of the throat by
the thyroid cartilage of the larynx. The name was given from a
legend that a piece of the forbidden fruit lodged in Adam's throat
The "Adam's apple" is one of the particular points of attack
in the Japanese system of self-defence known as jiu-jitsu.
ADAM'S BRIDGE, or Rama's Budge, a chain of sandbanks
extending from the island' of Manaar, near the N.W. coast of
Ceylon to the island of Rameswaram, off the Indian coast, and
lying between the Gulf of Manaar on the S. W. and Palk Strait
on the N.E. It is more than 30 m. long and offers a serious
impediment to navigation. Some of the sandbanks are dry;
and no part of the shoal has a greater depth than 3 or 4 ft at
high water, except three tortuous and intricate channels which
have recently been dredged to a sufficient depth to admit the
passage of vessels, so as to obviate the long journey round the
island of Ceylon which was previously necessary. Geological
evidence shows that this gap was once bridged by a continuous
isthmus which according to the temple records was breached
by a violent storm in 2480. Operations for removing the ob-
stacles in the channel and for deepening and widening it were
begun as long ago as 1838. A service of the British India Steam
Navigation Company's steamers has been established between
Negapatam and Colombo through Palk Strait and this narrow
passage.
ADAM SOOTTJS (fl. 1x80), theological writer, sometimes called
Adam Anglicus or Anglo-Scotus, was born in the south of
Scotland in the first half of the 12th century. About 1x50 he
was a Premonstratensian canon at St Andrews, and some
twenty years later abbot and bishop of Candida Casa (Whithorn)
in Galloway. He gained a European reputation for his writings,
which are of mystico-ascetic type, and include an account of the
Premonstratensian order, a collection of festival sermons, and
a Soliloquia dc instructione discipvli, formerly attributed to his
contemporary, Adam of St Victor.
ADAMSON, PATRICK (1537-1592), Scottish divine, arch-
bishop of St Andrews, was born at Perth. He studied philo-
sophy, and took the degree of M j\. at St Andrews. After being
minister of Ceres in Fife for three years, in 2566 he set out for
Paris as tutor to the eldest son of Sir James Macgill, the clerk-
general. In June of the same year he wrote a Latin poem on
the birth of the young prince James, whom he described as
serenissimus princeps of France and England. The French court
was offended, and he was confined for six months. He was
released only through the intercession of Queen Mary of Scotland
and some of the principal nobility, and retired with his pupil to
Bourges. He was in this city at the time of the massacre of St
Bartholomew at Paris, and lived concealed for seven months in
a public-house, the aged master of which, in reward for his
charity to a heretic, was thrown from the roof. While in this
l82
ADAMSON— ADANA
" Sepulchre," he wrote his Latin poetical version of the book
of Job, and his tragedy of Herod in the same language. In x 572
or 1573 he returned to Scotland, and became minister of Paisley.
In 1575 he was appointed by the General Assembly one of the
commissioners to settle the jurisdiction and policy of the church;
and the following year he was named, with David Lindsay, to
report their proceedings to the earl of Morton, then regent In
1576 his appointment as archbishop of St Andrews gave rise
to a protracted conflict with the Presbyterian party in the
Assembly. He had previously published a catechism in Latin
verse dedicated to the king, a work highly approved even by his
opponents, and also a Latin translation of the Scottish Confession
of Faith. In 1 578 he submitted himself to the General Assembly,
which procured him peace for a little time, but next year fresh
accusations were brought against him. He took refuge in St
Andrews Castle, where " a wise woman," Alison Pearson, who
was ultimately burned for witchcraft, cured him of a serious
illness. In 1583 he went as James's ambassador to the court of
Elizabeth, and is said to have behaved rather badly. On his
return he took strong parliamentary measures against Presby-
terians, and consequently, at a provincial synod held at St
Andrews in April 1586, he was accused of heresy and excom-
municated, but at the next General Assembly the sentence was
remitted as illegal. In 1587 and 1588, however, fresh accusa-
tions were brought against him, and he was again excommuni-
cated, though afterwards on the inducement of his old opponent,
Andrew Melville, the sentence was again remitted. Meanwhile
he had published the Lamentations of Jeremiah, and the book
of Revelation in Latin verse, which he dedicated to the king,
complaining of his hard usage. But James was unmoved by
his application, and granted the revenue of his see to the duke of
Lennox. For the rest of his life Adamson was supported by
charity; he died, in 1592. His recantation of Episcopacy (1500)
is probably spurious. Adamson was a man of many gifts,
learned and eloquent, but with grave defects of character. His
collected works, prefaced by a fulsome panegyric, in the course
of which it is said that " he was a miracle of nature, and rather
seemed to be the immediate production of God Almighty than
born of a woman," were produced by his son-in-law, Thomas
Wilson, in 1610.
ADAMSON, ROBERT (1852-1002), Scottish philosopher, was
born in Edinburgh on the 19th of January 1852. His father
was' a solicitor, and his mother was the daughter of Matthew
Buist, factor to Lord Haddington. In 1855 Mrs Adamson was
left a widow with small means; and devoted herself entirely to
the education of her six children. Of these, Robert was successful
from the first At the end of his school career he entered the
university of Edinburgh at the age of fourteen, and four years
later graduated with first-class honours in mental philosophy,
with prizes in every department of the faculty of Arts. He
completed his university successes by winning the Tyndall-
Bruce scholarship, the Hamilton fellowship (1872), the Ferguson
scholarship (1872) and the Shaw fellowship ( 1 873) . After a short
residence at Heidelberg (1871), where he began his study of
German philosophy, he returned to Edinburgh as assistant first
to Henry Caldcrwood and later to A. Campbell Fraser; he
joined the staff- of the Encyclopaedia Britannica (9th ed.) (1874)
and studied widely in the Advocates? Library. In 1876 he came
to England as successor to W. S. Jevons in the chair of logic and
philosophy, at Owens College, Manchester. In 1883 be received
the honorary degree of LL.D. In 1893 he went to Aberdeen,
and finally in 1895 to the chair of logic at Glasgow, which he
held till his death on the 5th of February 1902. His wife,
Margaret Duncan, the daughter of a Manchester merchant, was
a woman of kindred tastes, and their union was entirely happy.
It is matter for regret to the student that Adamson's active
labours in the lecture room precluded him from systematic pro-
duction. His writings consisted of short articles, of which many
appeared in the Encyclopaedia Britannica (9th ed.) and in Mind,
a volume on Kant and another on Fichte. At the time of his
death he was writing a History of Psychology, and had promised
a work on Kant and the Modem Naturalists. Both in his. life
and in his writings he was remarkable for impartiality. It was
Ills peculiar virtue that he could quote his opponents without
warping their meaning. From this point of view he would have
been perhaps the first historian of philosophy of his time, had his
professional Labours been less exacting. Except during the first
few years at Manchester, he delivered his lectures without manu-
scripts, la 1 903, under the title The Development of Modern
Philosophy and Other Essays, his more important lectures were
published with a short biographical introduction by Prof. W. R.
Sarley of Cambridge University (see Mind, atiih 1904, p. 73 foil).
Most of the matter is taken verbatim from the note-book of
one of his students. Under the same editorship there appeared,
three years later, his Development of Greek Philoscpky. In
addition to his professional work, he did much administrative
work for Victoria University and the university of Glasgow. In
the organization of Victoria University he took a foremost part,
and, as chairman of the Board of Studies at Owens College,
he presided over the general academical board of the Victoria
University* At Glasgow he was soon elected one of the repre-
sentatives on the court, and to him were due in Large measure
the extension of. the academical session and the improved
equipment of the university.
Throughout his lectures, Adamson pursued the critical md his-
torical method without fur-mutating a constructive theory o( mows.
He felt ihat any philosophical advance must be based on the iCantua
methods. It was his ha hit to make straight for the ultima te issue,
disregarding halL-trut hs and d penning compromise. He left a hypo-
thec to be worked out by others; this done, he would critic tie with
all the rigour of logic, and with a profound distrust of -nagiru-
lion, metaphor and (he anitu.de known as the wilT to twJu 1 As
he grew older hi* metaphysical optimism waned. He felt that the
increase of knowledge must come in the domains of physical science.
13 ut this empirical tendency as regards science never rtu>.1,6ed his
met a physical out look. He has been cat fed Kantian and NW Kantian.
Realist and I de.it 1st {by himself, for he held that appears :»ce and
reality are co-cut tn^ve and coincident). At the umc time, in hi*
criticism of other views he was almost typical of Hegelian 1 tealiim.
All proces&c* of reasoning: or judgment (i.e. all units oJ : jht) are
(_[) ana [viable only by abstraction, and fj) are compound of' deduc-
tion and induction^ i.e. rational and empirical. An ill j-t ition of
hia empirical tendency ii found in his attitude to the Abnfcite and
ihe Self. The " Absolute " doctrines he regarded a>> a n Jnguiae
of failure, a dishonest attempt to clothe ignorance in thr or* entioua
garb of mystery. The Self as a primary, determining en city. I e would
not therefore admit. He represented an empiricism which, so far
from rvfuting, was actually based on. ideal! sni, and yet Mfl alert to
expose the fallacies, of a particular idealist construction see his
essay in Ethuai DzmQ&acy k edited by Dr Stanton Coit).
ADAM'S PEAK, a mountain in Ceylon, about 45 miles E. from
Colombo, in N. laL o° 55', E, Jong. &o° jcA It rise* su rply to
a height of 7352 feet, and commands a magnifieej aspect.
Its conical summit terminates in an oblong platform, f+ ft. by
24, on which there is a hollow, resembling the form of a human
loot, 5 ft. 4 in. by z ft 6 in.; and this has been con crated
as the footprint of Buddha, The margin of this supposed i\> >tprint
is ornamented with gems, and a wooden canopy protects it
from the weather. 1 1 is held in high veneration by the Sir lalese,
find numerous pilgrims ascend to Lbe sacred spot, where a
priest resides to receive their offerings and bless them o:t their
departure, By the Mahommcdans the impression fi r- farded
as that of the foot of Adam h who here, according to Lbeir lr,L Jition,
fulfilled a pe net nee of one thgusand years; while the lUfidos
claim it as that of their god Siva.
ADANA. (1) A vilayet in the S.E. of Asia Minor, whkh
includes the ancient Cilicia. The mountain districts are ich in
UttCXpl oiled .mineral wealth, and the fertile coast plain, whkh
pniilur.es cotton, rice, cereals, sugar and much fruit, and Jfords
abundant pasturage, is well watered by the rivers that < : scend
from the Taurus range. Imports and caporlj pass through
Mcrsina (qs ). (1) The chief town of the vilayet, situated in the
alluvial plain about jo m. from the sea in N. Ut. 37° i\ r . long.
3> a i&', on the right bank of the Scihar* {Sihun, anc, aras) r
wHch is navigable by small craft as fax &l ihe town. A ana is
connected wiih Tersus and Mersina by a railway built in 1887,
and has a magnificent stone bridge, rhjch Carries the r ad to
Missis and the casl, and dates in parts from the time of Ju Jnian,
but was restored first in 74J A.p. and called Jisr aJ-WaL 1 alter
ADANSON— ADDAX
"83
the Omayyad caliph of that name, and again in 840 by the
Caliph Mutasm. There are; also, a ruined castle founded by
Haron al-Raabid in 78a, fine fountains, good buildings, river-side
quays, cotton nulls and an American mission- with church and
schools. Adana, which retains its ancient name, rose to import-
ance as a station on the Roman military road to the East, and
tns at one tune a rival of Tarsus. The town was largely rebuilt
by Mansur in 758, and during subsequent centuries it often
changed hands and suffered many vicissitudes. Its position,
commanding the paasage of the mountains to the north of Syria,
rendered it important as a military station in the contest between
the Egyptians and the Turks in 1832. After the defeat of the
Turkish army at Konia it was granted to Ibrahim Pasha,
sad though the firman announcing his appointment named him
only umhassU, or collector of the crown revenue, it continued to
be held by the Egyptians tfll the treaty of July 1840 restored
it to the Porte. The chief productions of the province are
cotton, corn, sesame and wool, which are largely exported. The
population of the town is greatly mixed, and, having a large
dement of nomads in it, varies much from time to time. At its
maximum it reaches nearly 50,000. (D. G. H.)
ADAJBOM, MICHEL (1727-1806), French naturalist, of
Scottish descent, was born on the 7th of April 1727, at Aix, in
Provence. After leaving the College Sainte Barbe in Paris, he
was employed in the cabinets of R. A. F. Reaumur and Bernard
de Jossieu, as well as in the Jardin des Plan tea. At the end of
1748 he left France on an exploring expedition to Senegal, which
from the nnhealthiness of its climate was a terra incognita to
naturalists. His ardour remained unabated during the five years
of las residence in Africa. He collected and described, in greater
or less detail, an immense number of animals and plants; col-
lected «p*ri«w»« of every object of commerce; delineated maps
of the country; made systematic meteorological and astrono-
mical observations; and prepared grammars and dictionaries
of the languages spoken on the banks of the Senegal. After his
retorn to Paris in 1754 he made use of a small portion of the
materials he had collected in his Histoire naturelle du Stnigal
Chris, X757)- This work has a special interest from the essay
00 shells, printed at the end of it, where Adanson proposed his
moms! method, a system of classification distinct from those
of Banco and linnaeus. He founded his classification of all
argaaued beings on the consideration of each individual organ.
As each organ gave birth to new relations, so he established a
corresponding number of arbitrary arrangements. Those beings
polarising the greatest number of similar organs were referred
to one great division, and the relationship was considered more
icswte in proportion to the dissimilarity of organs. In 1763 he
pobSshed his FamUles natureUes des plantes. In this work he
drrdoped the principle of arrangement above mentioned, which,
b its adherence to natural botanical relations, was based on the
system of J. P. Tournefort, and had been anticipated to some
extent nearly a century before by John Ray. The success of
tins work was hindered by its innovations in the use of terms,
*bxh were ridiculed by the defenders of the popular sexual
system of Linnaeus; but it did much to open the way for the
esubhshment, by means principally of A. L. de Jussieu's Genera
PlaOonm (1789), of the natural method of the classification of
poats. In 1774 Adanson submitted to the consideration of the
Academy of Sciences an immense work, extending to all known
hongs and substances. It consisted of 27 large volumes of
aaanscript, employed in displaying the general relations of all
these matters, and their distribution; 150 volumes more,
occupied with the alphabetical arrangement of 40,000 species;
a torahulary , containing 200,000 words, with their explanations;
■ad a number of detached memoirs, 40,000 figures and 30,000
specimens of the three kingdoms of nature. The committee to
vfeka the inspection of this enormous mass was entrusted strongly
leoxamended Adanson to separate and publish all that was
pecaSarly his own, leaving out what was merely compilation.
Be obstinately rejected this advice; and the huge work, at
*hkh he continued to labour, was never published. He had been
member of the Academy of Sciences in 1759, and he
latterly subsisted on a small pension ft had conferred on him.
Of this he was deprived in the dissolution of the Academy by
the Constituent Assembly, and was consequently reduced to such
a depth of poverty as to be unable to appear before the French
Institute when it invited him to take his place among its mem-
bers. Afterwards he was granted a pension sufficient to relieve
his simple wants. He died at Paris after months of severe
suffering, on the 3rd of August 1806, requesting, as the only
decoration, of his grave, a garland of flowers gathered from the
fifty-eight families he had differentiated—" a touching though
transitory image," says Cuvier, " of the more durable monument
which he has erected to himself in his works." Besides the books
already mentioned he published papers on the ship-worm, the
baobab tree, the Adansonia digitata of Linnaeus, the origin of
the varieties of cultivated plants, and gum-producing trees.
ADAPTATION (from Lat adoptare, to fit to), a process of
fitting, or modifying, a thing to other uses, and so altering its
form or original purpose. In literature there may be, e.g., an
adaptation of a novel for a drama, or in music an arrangement
of a piece for two hands into one for four, &c In biology, ac-
cording to the doctrine of evolution, adaptation plays a prominent
part as the process by which an organism or species of organisms
becomes modified to suit the conditions of its life. Every change
in a living organism involves adaptation; for in all cases life
consists in a continuous adjustment of internal to external
relations. Every living organism reacts to its environment;
if the reaction b unfavourable, disability leading to ultimate
extinction is 'the result. If the reaction is favourable, its result
is called an adaptation. How far such adaptations are produced
afresh in each generation, whether or no their effects are trans-
mitted to descendants and so directly modify the stock, to what
extent adaptations characteristic of a species or variety have
come about by selection of individuals capable, in each genera-
tion, of responding favourably, or how far by the selection of
individuals fortuitously suitable to the environment, or, how
far, possibly by the inheritance of the responses to the environ-
ment, are problems of biology not yet definitely solved.
ADDA (anc. Addita), a river of North Italy. Its true source
is in some small lakes near the head of the Fraele glen, but its
volume is increased by the union with several smaller streams,
near the town of Bormio, at the Raetian Alps. Thence it flows
first S.W., then due W., through the fertile Valtellina (?.».),
passing Tirano, where the Poschiavino falls in on the right, and
Sondrio, where is the junction with the Malero, right. It falls
into the Lake of Como, at its northern end, and mainly forms that
lake. On issuing from its south-eastern or Lecco arm, it crosses
the plain of Lombardy, and finally, after a course of about
150 m., joins the Po, 8 m. above Cremona. The lower course of
the Adda was formerly the boundary between the territories of
Venice and of Milan; and on its banks several important battles
have been fought, notably that of Lodi, where Napoleon defeated
the Austrians in 1796. (W. A. B. C.)
ADDAMS, JANB (i860- ), American sociologist, was born
at Cedarviile, Illinois, on the 6th of September i860. After
graduating at Rockford (Illinois) Female Seminary (now Rock-
ford College) in 1881, she spent several years in the study of
economic and sociological questions in both Europe and America,
and in 1889 with Miss Ellen Gates Starr established in Chicago,
Illinois, the social settlement known as Hull House, of which she
became the head-worker. The success of this settlement, which
became a great factor for good in the city, was principally due to
Miss Addams's rare executive skill and practical Common-sense
methods. Her personal participation in the life of the community
is exemplified in her acceptance of the office of inspector of streets
and alleys under the municipal government. She became widely
known as a lecturer and writer on social problems and published
Democracy and Social Ethics (1902), Newer Ideals oj Peace
(1907), and The Spirit of Youth and the City Streets (1909).
ADDAX, a genus of antelopes, with one species (A. nasomacu-
latus) from North Africa and Arabia. It is a little over 3 ft.
high, yellowish white in colour, with a brown mane and a
fringe of the same hue on the throat. Both sexes carry horns,
184
ADDER— ADDISON
which are ringed and fonn an open spiral The addax is a desert
antelope, and in habits probably resembles the gemsbuck. It is
hunted by the Arabs for its flesh and to test the speed of their
horses and greyhounds; it is during these hunting parties that
the young are captured for menagerie purposes.
ADDER, a name for the common viper ( Vipera cents), ranging
from Wales to Saghalien island, and from Caithness td the north
of Spain. The puff-adder (Bitis s. Echidna arietans) of nearly
the whole of Africa, and the death-adder {Acanthophis aniarcHcus)
from Australia to the Moluccas, are both very poisonous (see
Viper). The word was in Old Eng. noire, later rudder or
naddre\ in the 14th century " a nadder " was, like " a napron,"
wrongly divided into " an adder." It appears with the generic
meaning of " serpent " in the older forms of many Teutonic
languages, d. Old High Ger. noire; Goth. nadrs. It is
thus used in the Old Eng. version of the Scriptures for the
devil, the " serpent " of Genesis.
ADDISON, JOSEPH (1672-1719), English essayist, poet and
man of letters, eldest son of Lancelot Addison, later dean of
Lichfield, was born at his father's rectory of Milston in Wiltshire,
on the 1st of May 1672. After having passed through several
schools, the last of which was the Charterhouse, he went to
Oxford when he was about fifteen years old. He was first
entered a commoner of Queen's College, but after two years was
elected to a demyship of Magdalen College, having been recom-
mended by his skill in Latin versification. He took his master's
degree in 1603, and subsequently obtained a fellowship which
he held until 17x1. His first literary efforts were poetical, and,
after the fashion of his day, in Latin. Many of these are pre-
served in the Musae Anglicanae (1 691-1609), and obtained aca-
demic commendation from academic sources. But it was a poem
in the third volume of Dryden's Miscellanies, followed in the
next series by a translation of the fourth Georgic, which brought
about his introduction to Tonson the bookseller, and (probably
through Tonson) to Lord Somen and Charles Montagu. To both
of these distinguished persons he contrived to commend himself
by An Account of the Greatest English Poets (1694), An Address to
King William (1695), after Namur, and a Latin poem entitled
Pax Gulielmi (1697), on the peace of Ryswick, with the result
that in 1609 he obtained a pension of £300 a year, to enable
him (as he afterwards said in a memorial addressed to the crown)
" to travel and qualify himself to serve his Majesty." In the
summer of 1609 he crossed into France, where, chiefly for the
purpose of learning the language, he remained till the end of
1700; and after this he spent a year in Italy. In Switzerland,
on his way home, he was stopped by receiving notice that he was
to attend the army under Prince Eugene, then engaged in the
war in Italy, as secretary from the king. But his Whig friends
were already tottering in their places; and in March 1702 the
death of King William at once drove them from power and put
an end to the pension. Indeed Addison asserted that he never
received but one year's payment of it, and that all the other
expenses of his travels were defrayed by himself. He was able,
however, to visit a great part of Germany, and did not reach
Holland till the spring of 1703. His prospects were now suffi-
ciently gloomy: he entered into treaty, oftcner than once, for an
engagement as a travelling tutor; and the correspondence in
one of these negotiations has been preserved. Tonson had recom-
mended him as the best person to attend in this character Lord
Hertford, the son of the duke of Somerset, commonly called
" The Proud." The duke, a profuse man in matters of pomp,
was economical in questions of education. He wished Addison
to name the salary he expected; this being declined, he an-
nounced, with great dignity, that in addition to travelling
expenses he would give a hundred guineas a year; Addison
accepted the munificent offer, saying, however, that he could
not find his account in it otherwise than by relying on his Grace's
future patronage; and his Grace immediately intimated that
he would look out for some one else. In the autumn of 1703
Addison returned to England.
The works which belong to his residence on the continent
were the earliest that showed him to have attained maturity
of skill and genius. There is good reason for believing that
his tragedy of Cato, whatever changes it may afterwards have
suffered, was in great part written while he lived in France, that
is, when he was about twenty-eight years of age. In the winter
of 2701, amidst the stoppages and discomforts of a journey across
ML Cenis, he composed, wholly or partly, his rhymed Letter
from Italy to Charles Montagu. This contains some fine touches
of description, and is animated by a noble tone of classical
enthusiasm. While in Germany he wrote his Dialogues on
Medals, which, however, were not published till after his death.
These have much liveliness of style and something of the gay
humour which the author was afterwards to exhibit more
strongly; but they show little either of antiquarian learning
or of critical ingenuity. In tracing out parall e l s between passages
of the Roman poets and figures or scenes which appear in ancient
sculptures, Addison opened the easy course of inquiry which
was afterwards prosecuted by Spence; and this, with the appa-
ratus of spirited metrical translations from the classics, gave the
work a likeness to his account of his travels. This account,
entitled Remarks on Several Parts of Italy, fire. (1705), he sent
home for publication before his own return. It wants altogether
the interest of personal narrative: the author hardly ever
appears. The task in which he chiefly busies himself Ss that of
exhibiting the illustrations which the writings of the Latin poets,
and the antiquities and scenery of Italy, mutually give and re-
ceive. Christian antiquities and the monuments of later Italian
history had no interest for him.
With the year 1704 begins a second era in Addison's life,
which extends to the summer of 1710, when his age was thirty-
eight This was the first term of bis official career; and though
very barren of literary performance, it not only raised him from
indigence/ but settled definitely his position as a public man.
His correspondence shows that, while on the continent, he had
been admitted to confidential intimacy by diplomatists and
men of rank; immediately on his return he was enrolled in the
Kit-Cat Club, and brought thus and otherwise into communica-
tion with the gentry of the Whig party. Although all accounts
agree in representing him as a shy man, he was at least saved
from all risk of making himself disagreeable in society, by his
unassuming manners, his extreme caution and that sedulous
desire to oblige, which his satirist Pope exaggerated into a
positive fault His knowledge and ability were esteemed so
highly as to confirm the expectations formerly entertained of
his usefulness in public business; and the literary famt he had
already acquired soon furnished an occasion for recommending
him to public employment Though the Whigs were out of
olfice, the administration which succeeded them was, in all its
earlier changes, of a complexion so mixed and uncertain that
the influence of their leaders was not entirely lost Not long
after Marlborough's great victory at Blenheim, it is said that
Godolpbin, the lord treasurer, expressed to Lord Halifax a
desire to have the great duke's fame extended by a poetical
tribute. Halifax seized the opportunity of recommending
Addison as the fittest man for the duty; stipulating, we arc told,
that the service should not be unrewarded, and doubtless satisfy-
ing the minister that his proteg6 possessed other qualifications
for office besides dexterity in framing heroic verse. The Cam-
paign (December 1704), the poem thus written to order, was
received with extraordinary applause; and it is probably as
good as any that ever was prompted by no more worthy in*
spiration. It has, indeed, neither the fiery spirit which Drydcn
threw into occasional pieces of the sort, nor the exquisite polish
that would have been given by Pope, if he had stooped to make
such uses of his genius; but many of the details are pleasing;
and in the famous passage of the Angel, as well as in several
others, there is even something of force and imagination.
The consideration covenanted for by the poet's friends was
faithfully paid. A vacancy occurred by the death of another
celebrated man, John Locke; and Addison was appointed one
of the five commissioners of appeal in Excise. The duties of the
place must have been ss light for him as they had been for his
predecessor, for he continued to hold it with all the appointments
ADDISON
!8 5
be subsequently received from the same ministry. But there
a oo reason for believing that he was more careless than other
public servants in his time; and the charge of incompetency
as a man of business, which has been brought so positively
apinst him, cannot easily be true as to this first period of his
oScuJ career. Indeed, the specific allegations refer exclusively
to the last years of his life; and, if he had not really shown
practical ability in the period now in question, it is not easy to
set bow he, a man destitute alike of wealth, of social or fashion-
able fteliness and of family interest, could have been promoted,
for several years, from office to office, as he was, till the fall of
the administration to which he was attached. In 1 706 he became
one of the undersecretaries of state, serving first under Sir
Cbaries Hedges, who belonged to the Tory section of the govern-
not, and afterwards under Lord Sunderland, Marlborough's
soa-ia-law, and a zealous follower of Addison's early patron,
Somen. The work of this office, however, like that of the
eammwaonership, must often have admitted of performance
by deputy; for in 1707, the Whigs having become stronger,
Lord Halifax was sent on a mission to the elector of Hanover ;
lad, besides taking Vanbrugfa the dramatist with him as king-
at-arms, he selected Addison as his secretary. In 1708 Addison
catered parliament, sitting at first for Lostwithiel, but after-
wards for Malmesbury, which he represented from 17 10 till his
death. Here unquestionably he did fail. What part he may
bra taken in the details of business we are not informed; but
be «as always a silent member, unless it be true that he once
attempted to speak and sat down in confusion. In 1708 Lord
WbartoB, the father of the notorious duke, having been named
fard brotenaat of Ireland, Addison became his secretary, re-
ceiving ibo an appointment as keeper of records. This event
bapoened only about a year and a half before the dismissal of
^ministry.
Bat there are letters showing that Addison made himself
I'crptabfc to some of the best and most distinguished persons
c Dublin; and he escaped without having any quarrel with
S?~Jt, Us acquaintance with whom had begun some time before.
In his literary history those years of official service are almost
1 btaak, tiD we approach their dose. Besides furnishing a pro-
fctix to Steele's comedy of The Tender Husband (1705), he
Jdaitiedly gave him some assistance in its composition; he
defended the government in an anonymous pamphlet on The
tmnt State of Ike War (1707); he united compliments to the
^-powerful Marlborough with indifferent attempts at lyrical
poetry in Ms opera of Rosamond; and during the last few
aoatbs of Ins tenure of office be contributed largely to the Taller.
His eetrance on this new field nearly coincides with the beginning
<* * new period in his life. Even the coalition-ministry of
Godoipbia was too Whiggish for the taste of Queen Anne; and
the Tories, the favourites of the court, gained, both in parlia-
mentary power and in popularity out of doors, by a combination
of lucky accidents, dexterous management and divisions and
double-dealing among their adversaries. The real failure of the
prosecution of Addison's old friend Sacheverell completed the
run of the Whigs; and in August 17 10 an entire revolution in
the ministry had been completed. The Tory administration
*•** succeeded kept its place till the queen's death in 17 14,
a&j Addison was thus left to devote four of the best years of his
£<'e, from bs thirty-ninth year to his forty-third, to occupations
«» lucrative than those in which his time had recently been
toured away, but much more conducive to the extension of
fca own fame and to the benefit of English literature. Although
c*jt information as to his pecuniary affairs is very scanty, we
»* entitled to believe that he was now independent of literary
'•■beer He speaks, in an extant paper, of having had (but lost)
pnetrty in the West Indies; and he is understood to have
■*^nted something from a younger brother, who had been
Pawnor of Madras. In 1711 he purchased, for £10,000, the
««e of BOtoo, near Rugby— the place which afterwards be-
<*«* the residence of Mr Apperfey, better known by his assumed
»»of"Nimrod. M
faring those four years he produced a few political writings.
Soon after the fall of the ministry, he started the Whig Examiner
in opposition to the Tory Examiner, then conducted by Prior,
and afterwards the vehicle of Swift's most vehement invectives
against the party he had once belonged to. These are certainly
the most ill-natured of Addison's writings, but they are neither
lively nor vigorous, and the paper died after five numbers (14th
September to 12th October 1710). There is more spirit in his
allegorical pamphlet, The Trial and Conviction of Count Tariff.
But from the autumn of 17 10 till the end of 17 14 his principal
employment was the composition of his celebrated periodical
essays. The honour of inventing the plan of such compositions,
as well as that of first carrying the idea into execution, belongs
to Richard Steele, who had been a schoolfellow of Addison at the
Charterhouse, continued to be on intimate terms with him after*
wards and attached himself with his characteristic ardour to
the same political party. When, in April 1709, Steele published
the first number of the Taller, Addison was in Dublin, and knew
nothing of the design. He is said to have detected his friend's
authorship only by recognizing, in the sixth number, a critical
remark which he remembered having himself communicated to
Steele. Shortly afterwards he began to furnish hints and sugges-
tions, assisted occasionally and finally wrote regularly. Accord-
ing to Mr Aitkcn (Life of Steele, i. 248), he contributed 42 out
of the total of 271 numbers, and was part-author of 36 more.
The Taller exhibited, in more ways than one, symptoms of being
an experiment. For some time the projector, imitating the news-
sheets in form, thought it prudent to give, in each number, news
in addition to the essay; and there was a want, both of unity
and of correct finishing, in the putting together of the literary
materials. Addison's contributions, in particular, are in many
places as lively as anything he ever wrote; and his style, in its
more familiar moods at least, had been fully formed before he
returned from the continent. But, as compared with his later
pieces, these-are only what the painter's loose studies and sketches
are to the landscapes which he afterwards constructs out of them.
In his invention- of incidents and characters, one thought after
another is hastily used and hastily dismissed, as if he were putting
his own powers to the test or trying the effect of various kinds oi
objects on his readers; his most ambitious flights, in the shape of
allegories and the like, are stiff and inanimate; and his favourite
field of literary criticism is touched so slightly, as to show that he
still wanted confidence in the taste and knowledge of the public.
The Taller was dropped in January 171 1, but only to be
followed by the Spectator, which was begun on the 1st day of
March, and appeared every week-day till the 6th day of December
17x2. It had then completed the 555 numbers usually collected
in its first seven volumes, and of these Addison wrote 274 to
Steele's 236. He co-operated with Steele constantly from the
very opening of the series; and they devoted their whole space
to the essays. They relied, with a confidence which the extra-
ordinary popularity of the work fully justified, on their power of
exciting the interest of a wide audience by pictures and reflexions
drawn from a field which embraced the whole compass of ordi-
nary life and ordinary knowledge, no kind of practical themes
being positively excluded except such as were political, and all
literary topics being held admissible, for which it seemed possible
to command attention from persons of average taste and infor-
mation. A seeming unity was given to the undertaking, and
curiosity and interest awakened on behalf of the conductors,
by the happy invention of the Spectator's Club, for which Steele
made the first sketch. The figure of Sir Roger de Covcrlcy, how-
ever, the best even in the opening group, is the only one that was
afterwards elaborately depicted; and Addison was the author of
most of the papers in which his oddities and amiabilities arc so
admirably delineated. Six essays are by Steele, who gives Sir
Roger's love-story, and one paper by Budgell describes a hunting
party.
To Addison the Spectator owed the most natural and elegant,
if not the most original, of its humorous sketches of human
character and social eccentricities, its good-humoured satires
on ridiculous features in manners and on corrupt symptoms in
public taste; these topics, however, making up a department
i86
ADDISON
in which Steele was fairly on a level with his more famous co-
adjutor. But Steele had neither learning, nor taste, nor critical
acuteness sufficient to qualify him for enriching the series with
such literary disquisitions as those which Addison insinuated so
often into the lighter matter of his essays, and of which he gave
an elaborate specimen in his criticism on Paradise Lost. Still
farther beyond the powers of Steele were those speculations on
the theory of literature and of the processes of thought analogous
to it, which, in the essays " On the Pleasures of the Imagination,"
Addison prosecuted, not, indeed, with much of philosophical
depth, but with a sagacity and comprehensiveness which we shall
undervalue much unless we remember how little of philosophy
was to be found -in any critical views previously propounded in
England. To Addison, further, belong those essays which (most
frequently introduced in regular alternation in the papers of
Saturday) rise into the region of moral and religious meditation,
and tread the elevated ground with a step so graceful as to allure
the reader irresistibly to follow; sometimes, as in the " Walk
through Westminster Abbey," enlivening solemn thought by
gentle sportiveness; sometimes flowing on with an uninterrupted
sedateness of didactic eloquence, and sometimes shrouding
sacred truths in the veil of ingenious allegory, as in the " Vision
of Mirza." While, in short, the Spectator, if Addison had not
taken part in it, would probably have been as lively and humor-
ous as it was, and not less popular in its own day, it would have
wanted some of its strongest claims on the respect of* posterity,
by being at once lower in its moral tone, far less abundant in
literary knowledge and much less vigorous and expanded in
thinking. In point of style, again, the two friends resemble each
other so closely as to be hardly distinguishable, when both are
dealing with familiar objects, and writing in a key not rising
above that of conversation. But in the higher tones of thought
and composition Addison showed a mastery of language raising
him very decisively, not above Steele only, but above all his con-
temporaries. Indeed, it may safely be said, that no one, in any
age of English literature, has united, so strikingly as he did, the
colloquial grace and ease which mark the style of an accom-
plished gentleman, with the power of soaring into a strain of
expression nobly and eloquently dignified.
On the cessation of the Spectator, Steele set on foot the Guar-
dian, which, started in March 17 13, came to an end in October,
with its 175th number. To this series Addison gave 53 papers,
being a very frequent writer during the latter half of its progress.
None of his essays here aim so high as the best of those in the
Spectator \ but he often exhibits both his cheerful and well-
balanced humour and his earnest desire to inculcate sound
principles of literary judgment. In the last six months of the
year 17 14, the Spectator received its eighth and last volume;
for which Steele appears not to have written at all, and Addison
to have contributed 24 of the 80 papers. Most of these form, in
the unbroken seriousness both of their topics and of their manner',
a contrast to the majority of his essays in the earlier volumes;
but several of them, both in this vein and in one less lofty, are
among the best known, if not the finest, of all his essays. Such
are the " Mountain of Miseries " ; the antediluvian novel of
41 Shalum and Hilpa"; the " Reflections by Moonlight on the
Divine Perfections."
In April 1713 Addison brought on the stage, very reluctantly,
as we are assured, and can easily believe, his tragedy of Colo.
Its success was dazzling; but this issue was mainly owing to the
concern which the politicians took in the exhibition. The Whigs
hailed it as a brilliant manifesto in favour of constitutional free-
dom. The Tories echoed the applause, to show themselves
enemies of despotism, and professed to find in Julius Caesar a
parallel to the formidable Marlborough. Even with such ex-
trinsic aids, and the advantage derived from the established
fame of the author, Cato could never have been esteemed a good
dramatic work, unless in an age in which dramatic power and
insight were almost extinct It is poor even in its poetical
elements, and is redeemed only by the finely solemn tone of its
moral reflexions and the singular refinement and equable smooth-
ness of its diction. That it obtained the applause of Voltaire
must be ascribed to the fact that it, was written in accordance
with the rules of French classical drama.
The literary career of Addison might almost be held as closed
soon after the death of Queen Anne, which occurred in August
1714, when he had lately completed his 42nd year. His own
life extended only five years longer; and in this dosing portion
of it we are reminded of his more vigorous days by nothing but
a few happy inventions interspersed in political, pamphlets,
and the gay fancy of a trifling poem on Kneller's portrait of i
George I.
The lord justices who, previously chosen secretly by the
elector of Hanover, assumed the government on the queen's
demise, were, as a matter of course, the leading Whigs. They
appointed Addison to act as their secretary. He next held, for
a very short time, his former office under the Irish lord -lieu-
tenant; and, late in 1716, he was made one of the lords of trade.
In the course of the previous year had occurred the first .of the
only two quarrels with friends, into which 'the prudent, good-
tempered and modest Addison is said to have ever been betrayed.
His adversary on this occasion was Pope, who, a few yean
before, had received, with an appearance of humble thankfulness,
Addison's friendly remarks on his Essay on Criticism {Spectator,
No. 253); but who, though still very young, was already very
famous, and beginning to show incessantly his literary jealousies
and his personal and party hatreds. Several little misunder-
standings had paved the way for a breach, when, at the saxn?
time with the first volume of Pope's Iliad, there appeared a ■
translation of the first book of the poem bearing the name of
Thomas Tickell. Tickcil, in his preface, disclaimed all rivalry
with Pope, and declared that he wished only to bespeak favour-
able attention for his contemplated version of the Odyssey. But
the simultaneous publication was awkward; and Tickell, though
not so good a versifier as Pope, was a dangerous rival,. as being
a good Greek scholar. Further, he was Addison's undcr-secre-
tary and confidential friend; and Addison, cautious though he ;
was, does appear to have said (quite truly) that TickelTs trans- I
lation was more faithful than the other. Pope's anger could
not be restrained. He wrote those famous lines in which he de-
scribes Addison under the name of Atticus, and although it
seems doubtful whether he^really sent a copy to Addison himself,
he afterwards went so far as to profess a belief that the rival
translation was really Addison's own. Addison, it is pleasant
to observe, was at the pains, in his Freeholder, to express hearty
approbation of the Iliad of Pope, who, on the contrary, after
Addison's death, deliberately printed his matchlessly malignant
verses in the "Epistle to DrArbulhnot." In 17 16 there was acted,
with little success, Addison's comedy of The Drummer, or the
Haunted House. It contributes very little to his fame. From
September 1715 to June 2716 he defended the Hanoverian :
succession, and the proceedings of the government in regard
to the rebellion, in a paper called the Freeholder, which be j
wrote entirely himself, dropping it with the 55th number. It is
much better tempered, not less spirited and much more able in
thinking than his Examiner. The finical man of taste does
indeed show himself to be sometimes weary of discussing con-
stitutional questions; but he aims many enlivening thrusts at
weak, points of social life and manners; and the character of
the Fox-hunting Squire, who is introduced as the representative
of the Jacobites, is drawn with so much humour and force that
we regret not being allowed to see more of him.
In August 1 7 16, when he had completed his 44th year, Addjsoo
married Charlotte, countess-dowager of Warwick, a widow of
fifteen years' standing. She seems to have forfeited her join t ure j
by the marriage, and to have brought her husband nothing but
the occupancy of Holland House at Kensington. The assertion
that the courtship was a long one is probably as erroneous as
the contemporary rumour that the marriage was unhappy.
Such positive evidence as exists tends rather to the contrary.
What seems clear is, that, from obscure causes, — among which
it is alleged a growing habit of intemperance was one, — Addison *s
health was shattered before he took the last, and certainly the
most unwise, step in his ascent to political power.
ADDISON'S DISEASE
««7
For « considerable time dissensions had existed in the ministry;
isd these came to a crisis ia April 1717, when those who had
been the real chiefs passed into the ranks of the opposition.
Townshend was dismissed, and Walpole anticipated dismissal
by resignation- There was now formed, under the leadership
of General Stanhope and Lord Sunderland, an administration
which, as resting on court-influence, was nicknamed the "German
ministry.'* Sunderland, Addison's former superior, became one
of the two principal secretaries of state; and Addison him-
self was appointed as the other. His elevation to such a post
had been contemplated on the accession of George I., and pre-
veoted, we are told, by his own refusal; and it is asserted, on
the authority of Pope, that his acceptance now was owing only
to the influence of his wife. Even if there is no ground, as there
probably is not, for the allegation of Addison's inefficiency in
tar details of business, his unfitness for such an office in such
circumstances was undeniable and glaring. It was impossible
that a government, whose secretary of state could not open
bs fins in debate, should long face an opposition headed by
Robert Walpole. The decay of Addison's health, too, was going
oa rapidly, being, we may readily conjecture, precipitated by
anxiety, if no worse causes were at work. Ill-health was the
reason assigned for retirement, in the letter of resignation which
he hud before the king in March 1718, eleven months after his
appointment. He received a pension of £1500 a year.
Not long afterwards the divisions in the Whig party alienated
aim from his oldest friend. The Peerage Bill, introduced in
February 1710, was attacked, on behalf of the opposition, in a
weekly paper called the Plebeian, written by Steele. Addison
answered the attack in the OU Whig, and this bettum ptusquan
cmir-as Johnson calls it— was continued, with increased
acrimony, through two or three numbers. How Addison, who
•as dying, felt after this painful controversy we are not told
directly; but the OU Whig was excluded from that posthumous
collection of his works ( 1 7 a 1-1 7 *&) ' or which his executor Tickell
hid received from him authority and directions. It is said that
the quarrel in politics rested on an estrangement which had been
Craving for some years. According to a rather nebulous story,
for which Johnson is the popular authority, Addison, or Addison's
lawyer, put an execution for £100 in Steele's house by way of
reading his friend a lesson on his extravagance. Thjs well-meant
iaterierence seems to have been pardoned by Steele, but his
letters show that he resented the favour shown to Tickell by
Addbon and his own neglect by the Whigs.
The disease under which Addison laboured appears to have
been asthma. It became more violent after his retirement from
•See, and was now accompanied by dropsy. His deathbed was
placid and resigned, and comforted by those religious hopes
•ska he had so often suggested to others, and the value of
•kick he is said, in an anecdote of doubtful authority, to. have
sow inculcated in a parting interview with his step-son. He died
at Holland House on the 17th of June 1710, six weeks after
saving completed his 47th year. His body, after lying in state,
wis interred in the Poets' Corner of Westminster Abbey.
AddwMM'auYe was written in 1 843 by Lucy Aikin. This was r eviewed
by Macawlay m July of the same year. A more modern study is that
is the " Men of Letters " series by W. J. Court hope (1884). There
■a cowwenient one-volume edition of the Spectator, by Henry Morley
(Wkdre. 1868). and another in 8 vols. (1897-1898) by G. Gregory
Swrtk. Of the TaMer there is an edition by G. A. Aitken in 8 vols.
OSsi). A complete edition of Addison's works (based upon Hurd)
a sKlwded in Bonn's British Classics. (W. S.; A. D.)
AMMNaVl DBEASB, a constitutional affection manifesting
*seH in an exaggeration of the normal pigment of the skin,
asthenia, irritability of the gastro-intestinal tract, and weakness
sad irregularity of the heart's action: these symptoms being
dae to loss of function of the suprarenal glands. It is important
<• sote, however, that Addison's Disease may occur without
•Vueatation, and pigmentation without Addison's Disease.
Tat condition was first recognised by Dr Thomas Addison of
Gst'i Hospital, who in 1855 published an important work on
Tke Constitutional and Local Effects of Diseases of the Suprarenal
spates. Sir Samuel Wilks worked xealously in obtaining re-
cognition for these observations in England, and Brown-Sequard
in France was stimulated by this paper to investigate the
physiology of these glands. Dr Trousseau, many years later,
first called the condition by Addison's name. Dr Headlam
Greenhow worked at the subject for many years and embodied
his observations in the Croonian Lectures of 1875. But from
this time on no further work was undertaken until the discovery
of the treatment of myxoedema by thyroid extract, and the
consequent researches into the physiology of the ductless glands.
This stimulated renewed interest in the subject, and work was
carried on in many countries. But it remained for Schafer apd
Oliver of University College, London, to demonstrate the in-
ternal secretion of the suprarenals, and its importance in normal
metabolism, thereby confirming Addison's original view that
the disease was due to loss of function of these glands. They
demonstrated that these glands contain a very powerful extract
which produces toxic effects when administered to animals, and
that an active principle '* adrenalin " can be separated, which
excites contraction of the small blood vessels and thus raises
blood pressure. The latest views of this disease thus stand: (1)
that it is entirely dependent on suprarenal disease, being the
result of a diminution or absence of their internal secretion, or else
of a perversion of their secretion; or (a) that it is of nervous
origin, being the result of changes in or irritation of the large
sympathetic plexuses in the abdomen; or else (3) that it is a
combination of glandular inadequacy and sympathetic irritation.
The morbid anatomy shows (1) that in over 80% of the
cases the changes in the suprarenals are those due to tuber-
miosis, usually beginning in the medulla and resulting in more
or less caseation; and that this lesion is bilateral and usually
secondary to tuberculous disease elsewhere, especially of the
spinal column. In the remaining cases (a) simple atrophy has
been noted, or (3) chronic interstitial inflammation which would
lead to atrophy; and finally (4) an apparently normal condition
of the glands, but the neighbouring sympathetic ganglia diseased
or involved in a mass of fibrous tissue. Other morbid conditions
of the suprarenals do not give rise to the symptoms of Addison's
Disease.
The onset of the disease is extremely insidious, a slow but
increasing condition of weakness being complained of by the
patienL There is a feeble and irregular action of the heart
resulting in attacks of syncope which may prove fatal. Blood
pressure is extremely low. From time to time there may be
severe attacks of nausea, vomiting or diarrhoea. The best
known symptom, but one which only occurs after the disease
has made considerable progress, is a gradually increasing pig-
mentation of the skin, ranging from a bronzy yellow to brown
or even occasionally black. This pigmentation shows itself (1)
over exposed parts, as face and hands; (2) wherever pigment
appears normally, as in the axillae and round the nipples; (3)
wherever pressure is applied, as round the waist; and (4) occa-
sionally on mucous membranes, as in the mouth.
The patient's temperature is usually somewhat subnormal.
The disease is found in males far more commonly than in females,
and among the lower classes more than the upper. But this
latter fact is probably due to poor nourishment and bad hygienic
conditions rendering the poorer classes more susceptible to
tuberculosis.
The diagnosis, certainly in the early stages of the disease, and
often in the later, is by no means easy. Pigmentation of the skin
occurs in many conditions — as in normal pregnancy, uterine
fibroids, abdominal growths, certain cases of heart disease,
exophthalmic goitre, &c, and after the prolonged use of certain
drugs — as arsenic and silver. But the presence of a low blood
pressure with weakness and irritability of the heart and some
of the preceding symptoms render the diagnosis fairly certain.
The latest researches on the subject tend to indicate a more
certain diagnosis in the effect on the blood pressure of adminis-
tering suprarenal extract, the blood pressure of the normal
subject being unaffected thereby, that of the man suffering from
suprarenal inadequacy being markedly raised. The disease is
treated by promoting the general health in every possible way ;
i88
ADDRESS— ADELAIDE
by diet; by tonics, especially arsenic and strychnine; by atten-
tion to the hygienic conditions; and always by the adminis-
tration of one of the many preparations of the suprarenal gland
extract.
"ADDRESS, THE,** an English parliamentary term for the
reply of the Houses of Parliament (and particularly of the House
of Commons) to the speech of the sovereign at the opening
of a new parliament or session. There are certain formalities
which distinguish this stage of parliamentary proceedings. The
" king's speech " itself is divided into three sections: the first,
addressed to " My Lords and Gentlemen," touches on foreign
affairs; the second, to the " Gentlemen of the House of Com-
mons," has reference to the estimates; the third, to " My
Lords and Gentlemen," outlines the proposed legislation for
the session. Should the sovereign in person open parliament,
he does so in the House of Lords in full state, and the speaker
and members of the House of Commons are summoned there
into the royal presence. The sovereign then reads bis speech.
If the sovereign is not present in person, the speech is read by
commission. The Commons then return to their House, and an
address in answer is moved in both Houses. The government
of the day selects two of its supporters in each House to move
and second the address, and when carrying out this honourable
task they appear in levee dress. Previous to the session of 1 800-
189 1, the royal speech was answered paragraph by paragraph, but
" the address *' is now moved in the form of a single resolution,
thanking the sovereign for his most gracious speech. The debate
on the address is used as a means of ranging over the whole
government policy, amendments being introduced by the opposi-
tion. A defeat on an amendment to the address is generally
regarded by the government as a vote of no-confidence. After
the address is agreed to it is ordered to be presented to the
sovereign. The thanks of the sovereign for the address are then
conveyed to the Lords by the lord steward of the household and
to the Commons by the comptroller of the household.
ADELAER, or Adeler (Norwegian for " eagle "), the surname
of honour given on his ennoblement to Kurt Sivcrtsen (1622-
1675), the famous Norwegian-Danish naval commander. He
was born at Brevig in Norway, and at the age of fifteen
became a cadet in the Dutch fleet under van Tromp, after a
few years entering the service of the Venetian Republic, which
was engaged at the time in a war with Turkey. In 1645 he
had risen to the rank of captain; and after sharing in various
victories as commander of a squadron, he achieved his most
brilliant success at the Dardanelles, on the 13th of May 1654,
when, with his own vessel alone, he broke through the line of
Turkish galleys, sank fifteen of them, and burned others, causing
a loss to the enemy of 5000 men. The following day he entered
Tenedos, and compelled the complete surrender of the Turks.
On returning to Venice he was crowned with honours, and became
admiral-lieutenant in 1660. Numerous tempting offers were
made to him by other naval powers, and in 1661 he left Venice
to return to the Netherlands. Next year he was induced, by
the offer of a title and an enormous salary, to accept the
command of the Danish fleet from Frederick HI. Under
Christian V. he took the command of the combined Danish
fleets against Sweden, but died suddenly on the 5th of November
1675 at Copenhagen, before the expedition set out. When in the
Venetian service, Adclaer was known by the name of Curzio
Suffrido Adelborst (i.e. Dutch for " naval cadet ").
ADELAIDE (Ger. Adeikeid) (931-999), queen of Italy and
empress, was the daughter of Rudolph II of Burgundy and of
Bertha, daughter of Duke Burchard of Swabia. On the death of
Rudolph in 937, his widow married Hugh, king of Italy, to whose
son Lothair Adelaide was at the same time betrothed. She was
married to him in 047; but after an unhappy union of three
years Lothair died (November 22, 950) The young widow, re-
markable for her character and beauty, was seized by Lot hair's
successor, Bcrcngar II., margrave of Ivrea. who, angered probably
at her refusal to marry his son Adalbert and thus secure his title
to the Italian kingdom, kept her in close confinement at Como.
After four months (August 951), she escaped, and took refuge at
Canossa with Atto, count of Modena-Reggio (d. 981). Mean-
while Otto I., the German king, whose English wife Edgitha
had died in 946, had formed the design of marrying her and
claiming the Italian kingdom in her right, as a step towards the
revival of the empire of Charlemagne. In September est,
accordingly, he appeared in Italy, Adelaide willingly accepted
his invitation to meet him at Pavia and at the close of the
year the fateful union was celebrated. From the first her part
in German affairs was important. To her are ascribed the in-
fluences which led in 953 to the revolt of Ludolf, Otto's son by
his first marriage, the crushing of which in the following year
established Adelaide's power. On the and of February 062 she
was crowned empress at Rome by Pope John XII. immediately
after her husband, and she accompanied Otto in 006 on his third
expedition to Italy, where she remained with him for six years.
After Otto I.'s death (May 7, 973), Adelaide exercised for some
years a controlling influence over her son, the new emperor,
Otto II. The causes of their subsequent estrangement are ob-
scure, but it was possibly due to the empress's lavish expenditure
in charity and church building, which endeared her to ecclesiastics
but was a serious drain on the imperial finances. In 978 she left
the court and lived partly in Italy, partly with her brother
Conrad, king of Burgundy, by whose mediation she was ulti-
mately reconciled to her son. In 983, shortly before his death,
she was appointed his viceroy in Italy; and was successful, in
concert with the empress Thcophano, widow of Otto II., and
Archbishop Willigis of Mainz, in defending the right of her infant
grandson, Otto III., to the German crown against the pretensions
of Henry the Quarrelsome, duke of Bavaria. In June 084 the
infant king was handed over by Henry to the care of the two
empresses; but the masterful will of Thcophano soon obtained
the upper hand, and until the death of the Greek empress, on the
rsth of June 091, Adelaide had no voice in German affairs. She
now assumed the regency, in concert with Bishop Willigis and a
council of princes of the Empire, and held it until in 99s Otto
was declared of age. In 996 the young king went to Italy to
receive the imperial crown; and from this date Adelaide ceased
to concern herself with worldly affairs, but devoted herself to
pious exercises, to intimate correspondence with the abbots
Majolus and Odilo of Cluny, and the foundation of churches
and religious houses. She died on the 1 7th of December 009, and
was buried in the convent of SS. Peter and Paul, her favourite
foundation, at Salz in Alsace. She was proclaimed a saint by
the grateful German clergy; but her name has never found a
place in the Roman calendar. Like her daughter-in-law Thco-
phano and other exalted ladies of this period, Adelaide possessed
considerable literary attainments (lileralissima erat), and her
knowledge of Latin was of use to Otto I , who only learned the
language late in life and remained to the end a poor scholar.
By the emperor Otto I. she had four children: Otto II
(d. 983), Mathilda, abbess of Quedlinburg (d. 009), Addheid
(Adelaide), abbess of Essen (d. 974), and Liutgard, who married
Conrad II., duke of Franconia, and died in 9s 5.
Adelaide's life (Vita or Epitapkium Adalkeidae tmperatricis) was
written by St Odilo of Cluny. It is valuable only for the latter
years of the empress, after she had retired from any active shanr in
the world's affairs. The rest of her life b merely outlined, though
her adventures in escaping from Bcrengar are treated in more detail.
The best edition is in Duchesne, BibKotheta Cluntaeensis, pp. 353-
362. See Giov. Batt. Semeria. Vila politico-retitiosa di s. Adeletda*
tfc. (Turin, 1842); Jul. Bcntzinger, Das Leben der Kaiierin Addheid
. . umhrendder Recierung Ottos ///., Inaug. Dissertation (Brcslau.
1883); J. I. Dcy. Hut. de j. Adelaide, 6fc. (Geneva. 1862); F. P
Wimmer, iCattenn Adeikeid, Gemahlin Ottos /. des Crossen (Regerab-
1889), Wattcnbach. Deutsthlands CesehichUquellen (Stuttgart and
Berlin, 1904). Further references in Chevalier, Repertoire des sources
histortques (Paris, 1903).
ADELAIDE, the capital of South Australia. It is situated in
the county to which if gives name, on the banks of the rivet
Torrcns, 7 m. from its mouth Its site is a level plain, near the
foot of the Mount Lofty range, in which Mount Lofty itself
reaches 2334 ft The broad streets of the city intersect at right
angles. It is divided into North Adelaide, the residential, and
South Adelaide, the business quarter. A broad strip of park
ADELARD— ADELSBERG
189
bads lies between them, through which runs the river Torrent,
craned by five bridges and greatly improved by a dam on the
west of the city The banks are beautifully laid out. Broad
belts of park lands surround both North and South Adelaide,
aad as the greater portion of these lands is planted with fine
shady trees, this feature renders Adelaide one of the most
attractive cities in Australasia. South Adelaide is bounded by
four broad terraces facing north, south, east and west. The
main thoroughfare. King William Street, runs north and south,
passing through Victoria Square, a small park in the centre of
the city. Handsome public buildings are numerous. Govern-
ment House stands in grounds on the north side of North Ter-
ace, with several other official buildings in the vicinity, but
the majority are in King William Street. Here are the town
hall, with the lofty Albert Tower, and the general post office,
with the Victoria Tower— which, with the old and new Govern-
ment offices, the Roman Catholic cathedral of St Francis Xavier
aad the court houses, surround Victoria Square. On North
Terrace are the houses of parliament, and the institute, containing
a public library and museum. Here is also Adelaide University,
established by an act of 1874, and opened in 1876. The existing
botkhngs were opened in 1882. Munificent gifts have from time
to time assisted in the extension of its scope, as for example that
of Sir Thomas Elder (d. 1897), who took a leading part in the
foundation of the university. This gift, among other provisions,
eaabfed the Elder Conservatorium of Music to be established,
the building for which was opened in 1000, In 1903 a building
for the schools of engineering and science was opened. The total
Dumber of students in the university approaches 1000. To the
cast of the university is the building in which the exhibition was
Wd in commemoration of the jubilee of the colony in 1887.
This building is occupied by the Royal Agricultural and Horti-
coitaral Society, a technical museum, &c The school of mines
asd industries (1903) stands east of this again. The buildings
of the numerous important commercial, social and charitable
institutions add to the dignity of the city. The Anglican cathe-
dral of St Peter (1878) is in North Adelaide. The Botanical
Park, which has an area of 84 acres, lies on the south bank of
(he Torrens, on the east of the city. It includes the Zoological
Garden, is beautifully laid out and forms one of the most
attractive features of Adelaide. The city has a number of
good statues, chief among which are copies of the Farnese
Hercules (Victoria Square) and of Canova's Venus (North
Terrace), statues of Queen Victoria and Robert Burns, Sir Thomas
Elder's statue at the university, and a memorial (1005) over the
paie of Colonel light, founder of the colony, in Light Square.
Adelaide is governed by a mayor and six aldermen elected by
tat whole body of the ratepayers, and is the only Australian city
ia which the mayor is so elected. The chief industries are the
BUBufacture of woollen, earthenware and iron goods, brewing,
March-making, flour-milling and soap-boiling. Adelaide is also
(he central share market of Australia, for West Australian gold-
mines, for the silver-mines at Broken Hill, and for the copper-
ases at Wallaroo, Burra Bum and Moonta; while Port
Adelaide, on the neighbouring shore of St Vincent Gulf, ranks
ia the third in the Commonwealth. Adelaide is the terminus
of an extensive railway system, the main line of which runs
through Melbourne, Sydney and Brisbane to Rockhampton. In
maimer the climate is often oppressively hot under the influence
of winds blowing from the interior, but the proximity of the sea
on the one side and of the mountains on the other allows the
inhabitants to avoid the excessive heat; at other seasons,
however, the climate is mild and pleasant; with a mean annual
rainfall of 304 ins. The vice-regal summer residence is at
Marble Hill, on the Mount Lofty range. Adelaide was founded
* 1836 and incorporated in 1843. It received its name at the
deare of King William IV., in honour of Queen Adelaide. Round
u* city are many pleasant suburbs, connected with it by rail
*>d tramways; the chief of these are Burnside, Beaumont,
Csky, Mitcham r Goodwood, Plymton, Hind marsh, Prospect,
St Peters, Norwood and Kensington. Glenelg is a favourite
staring-place. The population of the city proper was 39,240
in 1901; of the city and suburbs within a 20-miles radius,
162,261.
ADELARD (or Aetkelakd) of Bath (12th century), English
scholastic philosopher, and one of the greatest savants of
medieval England. He studied in France at Laon and Tours,
and travelled, it is said, through Spain, Italy, North Africa and
Asia Minor, during a period of seven years. At a time when
Western Europe was rich in men of wide knowledge and intel-
lectual eminence, be gained so high a reputation that he was
described by Vincent de Beauvais as Philosapkus Anglorum.
He lived for a time in the Norman kingdom of Sicily and returned
to England in the reign of Henry I. From the Pipe Roll (31
Henry I. 11 30) it appears that he was awarded an annual grant
of money from the revenues of Wiltshire. The great interest of
Adelard in the history of philosophy lies in the fact that he made
a special study of Arabian philosophy during his travels, and,
on his return to England, brought his knowledge to bear on the
current scholasticism of the time. He has been credited with a
knowledge of Greek, and it is said that his translation of Euclid's
Elements was made from the original Greek. It is probable,
however, from the nature of the text, that his authority was an
Arabic version. This important work was published first at
Venice in 1482 under the name of Campanus of Novara, but the
work is always attributed to Adelard. Campanus may be re-
sponsible for some of the notes. It became at once the text-book
of the chief mathematical schools of Europe, though its critical
notes were of little value. His Arabic studies he collected under
the title PerdifficiUs Quaestiones NaturaUs, printed after 1472.
It is in the form of a dialogue between himself and his favourite
nephew, and was dedicated to Richard, bishop of Bayeux from
1 1 13 to Z133. He wrote also treatises on the astrolabe (a copy
of this is in the British Museum), on the abacus (three copies
exist in the Vatican library, the library of Leiden University
and the Bibliotheque Nationale in Paris), translations of the
Kharismian Tables and an Arabic Introduction to Astronomy.
His great contribution to philosophy proper was the De Eodem
et Diverso {On Identity and Dijference), which is in the form of
letters addressed to his nephew. In this work philosophy and
the world are personified as Philosophia and Philocosmia in
conflict for the soul of man. Philosophia is accompanied by the
liberal arts, represented as Seven Wise Virgins; the world
by Power, Pleasure, Dignity, Fame and Fortune. The work
deals with the current difficulties between nominalism and
realism, the relation between the individual and the genus or
species. Adelard regarded the individual as the really existent,
and yet, from different points of view, as being himself the genus
and the species. He was either the founder or the formulator
of the doctrine of indifference, according to which genus and
species retain their identity in the individual apart altogether
from particular idiosyncrasies. For the relative importance
of this doctrine see article Scholasticism.
See Jourdain, Recherckes sur Us traductions oTAristote (2nd ed..
1843) ; Haureau, Philosophic scolastiqtu (and ed., 1872), and works
appended to art. Scholasticism.
ADELSBERG (Slovene Postojina) t a market- town in Carniola,
Austria, 30 m. S.S.W. of Laibach by rail. Pop. (1900) 3636,
mostly Slovene. About a mile from the town is the entrance
to the famous stalactite cavern of Adelsberg, the largest and
most magnificent in Europe. The cavern is divided into four
grottoes, with two lateral ramifications which reach to the dis-
tance of about a mile and a half from the entrance. The river
Poik enters the cavern 60 ft. below its mouth, and is heard
murmuring in its recesses. In the Kaiser- Ferdinand grotto, the
third of the chain, a great ball is annually held on Whit- Monday,
when the chamber is brilliantly illuminated. The Franz- Joseph-
Elisabeth grotto, the largest of the four, and the farthest from
the entrance, is 665 ft. in length, 640 ft in breadth and more
than 100 ft high. Besides the imposing proportions of its
chambers, the cavern is remarkable for the variegated beauty
of its stalactite formations, some resembling transparent drapery,
others waterfalls, trees, animals or human beings, the more
grotesque being called by various fanciful appellations. These
i go
ADELUNG— ADENES
subterranean wonders were known as far back as 1213, but the
cavern remained undiscovered .in modern times until 1816, and
it is only in still more recent times that its vast extent has been
fully ascertained and explored. The total length of the passages is
now estimated at over 5} m. The connexion with the Ottokar
grotto was established in 1890. The Magdalene grotto, about an
hour's walk to the north, is celebrated for the extraordinary
subterranean amphibian, the proUus anguinus, first discovered
there. It is about a foot in length, lives on snails and worms
and is provided with both lungs and gills.
ADELUNG, JOHANN GHRISTOPH (1739-1806), German
grammarian and philologist, was born at Spantekow, Sn Pomer-
ania, on the 8th of August 173s, and educated -at the public
schools of Anklam and Klosterbergen, and the university of
Halle. In 1 7 59 he was appointed professor at the gymnasium of
Erfurt, but relinquished this situation two years later and went
to reside in a private capacity at Leipzig, where he devoted him-
self to philological researches. In 1787 he received the appoint-
ment of principal librarian to the elector of Saxony at Dresden,
where he continued to reside until his death on the zoth of
September 1806.
The writings of Adelung are very voluminous, and there is not .
one of them, perhaps, which does not exhibit some proofs of the
genius, industry and erudition of the author. By means of his
excellent grammars, dictionary and various works on German
style, he contributed greatly towards rectifying the ortho-
graphy, refining the idiom and fixing the standard of his native
tongue. Ha German tiktionaxy^^onmaiisek'krUisckesWtrUr-
buck der kochdcutschen Mundart (1 774-1 786)— bears witness to
the patient spirit of investigation which Adelung possessed in so
remarkable a degree, and to his intimate knowledge of the history
of the different dialects on which modern German is based. No
man before Jakob Grimm (q.v.) did so much for the language of
Germany. Shortly before his death he issued MUkHdates, oder
oUgemcine Sprachcnkunde (1806). The hint of this work appears
to have been taken from a publication, with a similar title, pub-
lished by Konrad von Gesner (15x6-1565) in 1555; but the plan
of Adelung is much more extensive. Unfortunately he did not
live to finish what he had undertaken. The first volume, which
contains the Asiatic languages, was published immediately after
his death; the other two were issued under the superintendence
of Johann Severin Vater (1 771-1826). Of the very numerous
works by Adelung the following may be noted: Directoriut*
dipfomaliam (Meissen, 1802); Deutsche SprachUhre fiir Schulen
(Berlin, 1781), and the periodical, Magaxin fur die deutscke
Spra chc (Le ipzig, 1782-1784).
ADEMPTION (Lat. adtmptio, from adimere, a taking away),
in law, a revocation of a grant or bequest (see Legacy).
ADEN, a seaport and territory in Arabia, politically part of
British India, under the governor of Bombay. The seaport is
situated in 12 45* N. lat., and 45° 4' E. long., on a peninsula
near the entrance to the Red Sea, 100 m. E. of the strait of
Bab-el-Mandeb. The peninsula of Aden consists chiefly of a
mass of barren and desolate volcanic rocks, extending five miles
from east to west, and three from its northern shore to Ras
Sanailah or Cape Aden, its roost southerly point; it is connected
with the mainland by a neck of flat sandy ground only a few feet
high; and its greatest elevation is Jebel Shamshan, 1776 ft.
above the level of the sea. The town is built on the eastern
coast, in what is probably the crater of an extinct volcano, and
is surrounded by precipitous rocks that form an admirable
natural defence. There are two harbours, an outer, facing the
town, protected by the island of Sirah, but now partially choked
with mud; and an inner, called Aden Back-bay, or, by the
Arabs, Bandar Tawayih, on the western side of the peninsula,
which at all periods of the year admits vessels drawing less
than 20 ft. On the whole, Aden is a healthy place, although
it suffers considerably from the want of good water, and the heat
is often very intense. From time to time additional land on the
mainland has been acquired by cession or purchase, and the
adjoining island of Perim, lying in the actual mouth of the
strait, was permanently occupied in 1857. Farther inland,
and along the coast, most of the Arab chiefs are under the
political control of the British government, which pays them
regular allowances. The area of the peninsula is only 15 sq. m_
but the total area of British territory is returned at 80 sq. m..
including Perim (5 sq. m.), and that of the Aden Protectorate
is about 9000 sq. m. The seaport of Aden is strongly fortified.
Modern science has converted " Steamer Point " into a seem-
ingly impregnable position, the peninsula which the " Point "
forms to the whole crater being cut off by a fortified line which
runs from north to south, just to the east of the coal wharfs.
The administration is conducted by a political resident, who is
also the military commandant. All food requires to be imported,
and the water-supply is largely derived from condensation. A
little water is obtained from wells, and some from an aqueduct
7 m. long, constructed in 1867 at a cost of £30,000, besides aa
irregular supply from the old reservoirs.
From its 'admirable commercial and military position, Aden
early became the chief entrepot of the trade between Europe and
Asia. Itisthe'Apa/Kaettai/u»rof thePeriplus. It was known
to the Romans as Arabia Felix and Atlonae, and was captured
by them, probably in the year 24 B.C. In 1 5x3 it was unsuccess-
fully attacked by the Portuguese under Albuquerque, but sub-
sequently it fell into the hands of the Turks in 1538. In the
following century the Turks themselves relinquished their con-
quests in Yemen, and the sultan of Sana established a supremacy
over Aden, which was maintained until the year 1735, wnen
the sheikh of Lahej, throwing off his allegiance, founded a line
of independent sultans. In 1837 a ship under British colours
•was wrecked near Aden, and the crew and passengers grievously
maltreated by the Arabs. An explanation of the outrage being
demanded by the Bombay government, the sultan undertook to
make compensation for the plunder of the vessel, and also agreed
to sell his town and port to the English. Captain Haines of the
Indian navy was sent to complete these arrangements, but the
sultan's son refused to fulfil the promises that his father had
made. A combined naval and miltary force was thereupon
despatched, and the place was captured and annexed to British
India on the 16th of January 1839. The withdrawal of the
trade between Europe and the East, caused by the discovery of
the passage round the Cape of Good Hope, and the misgovern-
ment of the native rulers, had gradually reduced Aden to a state
of comparative insignificance; but about the time of its capture
by the British the Red Sea route to India was reopened, and
commerce soon began to flow in its former channel. Aden was
made a free port, and was chosen as one of the coaling stations
of the Peninsular and Oriental Steamship Company. Its im-
portance as a port of call for steamers and a coaling station has
grown immensely since the opening of the Sues Canal. It also
conducts a considerable trade with the interior of Arabia, and
with the Somali coast of Africa on the opposite side of the Red
Sea. The submarine cables of the Eastern Telegraph Company
here diverge — on the one hand to India, the Far East and
Australia, and on the other hand to Zanzibar and the Cape.
In 1839 the population was less than zooo, but in 1901 it had
grown to 43 ,974. Thegrossrevenue(igoi-i902)wasRs.37,25,9i5.
There are three printing-presses, of which one is in the gaol and
the other two belong to a European and a Parsee firm of mer-
chants. The port is visited yearly by some 1 300 steamers with a
tonnage of 2} million tons. The principal articles of import are
coffee, cotton-piece goods, &c, grain, hides, coal, opium, cottoo-
twist and yarn. The exports are, in the main, a repetition of
the imports. Of the total imports nearly one-third come from
the east coast of Africa, and another third from Arabia. Of the
total exports, nearly one-third again go to the east coast of
Africa. The Aden brigade belongs to the western army corps
of India.
ADKN&S (Adenez or Adans), surnamed LB HOI. French
trouvdre, was born in Brabant about 1240. He owed his educa-
tion to the kindness of Henry III., duke of Brabant, and he re-
mained in favour at court for some time after the death ( 1 261) of
his patron. In 1 269 he entered the service of Guy de Dampierre.
afterwards count of Flanders, probably as rot des mimestreU,
ADENINE— ADHEMAR
191
and followed Urn in the next year on the abortive crusade In
Taos in which Louis DC lost his life. The expedition returned
by way of Sicily and Italy, and Adenes has left in his poems
tone very exact descriptions of the places through which he
passed. The purity of his French and the absence of provincial-
isms point to a long residence in France, and it has been suggested
that Adenes may have followed Mary of Brabant thither on
her marriage with Philip the Bold. He seems, however, to have
remained in the service of Count Guy, although he made frequent
visits to Paris to consult the annals preserved in the abbey
of St Denis. The poems written by Adenes are four: the
Enfanca Oper, an enfeebled version of the Ckevalerie Ogier de
Denemarcke written by Raimbert de Paris at the beginning of
the century; Berte one granspies, the history of the mother of
Charlemagne, founded on well-known traditions which are also
pmuvcd in the anonymous Ckronique de France, and in the
Gtosaes* timSe of Philippe Mousket; Bueves de Comarcnis,
brinngmg to the cycle of romance gathered round the history of
Aimeri de Narbonne; and a long reman <T overtures, Cliomades,
b u rr ow e d from Spanish and Moorish traditions brought into
France by Blanche, daughter of Louis IX., who after the death
of her Spanish husband returned to the French court. Adenes
probably died before the end of the 13th century.
The romances of Adenes were edited for the Academie Imperial©
et Royale of Brussels by A. Scbefer and A. van Hasselt in 1874;
Bate was lend eic d into modern French by G. Hecq (1897) and by
R- Pfriedooo) ; Cliomades, by Le Chevalier de Chatclaln (1850). See
aho the edition of Berte by Paulin Paris (1852); an article by the
uc writer in the HisL litL de la France, voL xx. pp. 679-718;
Uoo Gautaer. La ipopees francaises, voL iiL, Ac
ADam, or 6-Amino-fuun, C*H»N», in chemistry, a basic
mrmsnee which has been obtained as a decomposition product
of aoclein, and also from the pancreatic glands of oxen. It has
been synthesized by E. Fischer (Berickte, 1897, 30, p. 3238) by
stating 2.6.8-trichJorpurin with 10 times its weight of ammonia
for six hours at xoo° C; by this means 6-amino-a.8-dichlor-
porin is obtained, which on reduction by means of hydriodic
arid and phosphonium iodide is converted into adenine. In
1898 E. Fischer also obtained it from 8-oxy-2.6-dichlorpurin
{Berickie, 1898, 31, p. 104). It crystallizes in long needles; forms
«ltsC*H»Nr2HI and (OH*N»), HaSO«-2H^), and is converted
by nitrous add into hypoxanthine or 6-oxypurin. On heating
with kydrochloric acid at 180- 200° C. it is decomposed; the
products of the reaction being gjycocoll, ammonia, formic add
and carbon dioxide. Various methyl derivatives of adenine have
bees described by E. Fischer (Berickie, 1808, 31, p. 104) and
by M. Kroger (Zeit. fir pkysiol. Ckemie, 1894, 18, p. 434)- For
the constitution of adenine see Pukin.
ADflKHDS. or Adenoid growths (from Gr. ifcwttoty ,glandu-
bx), masses of soft, spongy tissue between the back of the nose
and throat, occurring mostly in young children; blocking the
air-way, they prevent the due inflation of the lungs and the
proper development of the chest. The growths are apt to keep
op a constant catarrh near the orifice of the ventilating tubes
vbicb pass from the throat to the ear, and so render the child
dell of hearing or even deaf. They also give rise to asthma, and
axe enlarged tonsils— with which they are often associated—
they impart to the child a vacant, stupid expression, and hinder
hn physical and intellectual development. They cause his
*oke to be M stuffy," thick, and unmusical. Though, except in
tat cast of a cleft palate, they cannot be seen with the naked
rye, they are often accompanied by a visible and suggestive
fruabr condition of the wall at the back of the throat. Their
practice may easily be determined by the medical attendant
fmtly hooking the end of the index-finger round the back of
u* soft palate. If the tonsils are enlarged it is kinder to post-
pone this digital examination of the throat until the child is
•son the influence of an anaesthetic for operation upon the
tonsils, and if adenoids are present they can be removed at the
vae time that the tonsils are dealt with. Though the disease
at comparatively recent discovery, the pioneer in its treatment
bneg Meyer of Copenhagen, it has probably existed as long as
t»bert*Jo*is itself, with which affection it is somewhat distantly
connected. In the unenlightened days many children must have
got well of adenoids without operation, and even at the present
time it by no means follows that because a child has these post-
nasal vegetations he must forthwith be operated on. The con-
dition is very similar to that of enlarged tonsils, where with time,
patience and attention to general measures, operation is often
rendered unnecessary. But if the child continues to breathe
with his mouth open and to snore at night, if he remains deaf
and dull, and is troubled with a chronic " cold in his head," the
question of thorough exploration of the naso-pharynx and of
a surgical operation should most certainly be considered. In
recent years the comparativdy simple operation for their re-
moval has been very frequently performed, and, as a rule, with
marked benefit, but this treatment should always be followed
by a course of instruction in respiratory exercises; the child
must be taught regularly to fill his lungs and make the tidal air
pass through the nostrils. These respiratory exercises may be
resorted to before operation is proposed, and in some cases they
may render operative treatment unnecessary. Operations should
not be performed in cold weather or in piercing east winds,
and it is advisable to keep the child indoors for a day or two
subsequent to its performance. To expose a child just after
operating on his throat to the risks of a journey by train or
omnibus is highly inadvisable. Although the operation is not
a very painful one, it ought not to be performed upon a child
except under the influence of chloroform or some other general
anaesthetic. (E.O.*)
ADEPT (if used as a substantive pronounced adept, if as
an adjective adefi; from Lat. adeptus, one who has attained),
completely and fully acquainted with one's subject, an expert.
The word implies more than acquired proficiency, a natural
inborn aptitude. In olden times an adept was one who was
versed in magic, an alchemist, one who had attained the great
secrets of the unknown.
ADERHO, a town of the province of Catania, Sirily, 22 m.
N.W. of the town of that name. Pop. (1901) 25,859. It occupies
the site of the andent Adranon, which took its name from
Adranos, a god probably of Phoenician origin, in Roman times
identified with Vulcan, whose chief temple was situated here,
and was guarded by a thousand huge gods; there are perhaps
some substructures of this building still extant outside the town.
The latter was founded about 400 B.C. by Dionysius I.; very
fine remains of its walls are preserved. For a time it was the
headquarters of Timoleon, and it was the first town taken by the
Romans in the First Punic War (263 b.c). In the centre of the
modern town rises the castle, built by Roger I.; in the chapel
are frescoes representing his granddaughter, Adelasia, who
founded the convent of St Lucia in 1157* taking the veil. The
columns in the principal church are of black lava.
See P. Russo, Ittustratione storica di Ademb (Aderno, 1897).
ADEVISM, a term introduced by Max Muller to imply the
denial of gods (Sans, devo), on the analogy of Athdsm, the
denial of God. Max Muller used it particularly in connexion
with the Vedanta philosophy for the correlative of ignorance-or
nescience (Gilford lectures, 1892, c. ix.).
ADHftMAR DB CHABANNES (c. o8*-c. 1030), medieval his-
torian, was born about 988 at Chabannes, a village in the French
department of Haute- Vienne. Educated at the monastery of
St Martial at Limoges, he passed his life as-a monk, either at this
place or at the monastery of St Cybard at Angouleme. He died
about 1030, most probably at Jerusalem, whither he had gone
on a pilgrimage. Ad he mar's life was mainly spent in writing
and transcribing chronicles, and his principal work is a his-
tory entitled Ckronicon Aquitankum et Franckum or Historic
Francorum. This is in three books and deals with Frank ish
history from the fabulous reign of Pharamond, king of the Franks,
to a.o. 1028. The two earlier books are scarcely more than a
copy of the Ctsla regum Francorum, but the third book, which
deals with the period from 814 to 1028, is of considerable his-
torical importance. This is published in the kfonmmcnta Cer-
maniac kislerka. Scriptores. Band iv. (Hanover and Berlin, i8?6-
1892). He also wrote Commtmoratio abbalum LcmevUensium
192
ADHEMAR— ADIRONDACK^
basilica* S. Martialis apostoli (848-1029) *nd Epistola ad
Jordanum Lemovjcensem episcopum et alios de apostolatu 5.
Martialis, both of which are published by J. P. Migne in the
Paralogia Latina, tome cxli. (Paris. 1844-1855).
See F. Arbellor, Etude hislorique et littiraire sur Adbnar de Cha-
bannes (Limoges, 1873); J. F. E. Castaigne. Dissertation sur le lieu
de naissonce et sur la famille du ehronigueur Adbnar, motne de
I'abbayede St Cybard d'Angoulime (Angoufemc. 1850).
ADHRMAft (Ad£iiar, Aimar, Aelam) DB MONTBIL (d.
1098), one of the principal personages of the first crusade, was
bishop of Puy en Velay from before 1087. At the council of
Clermont in 1095 he showed great zeal for the crusade, and hav-
ing been named apostolic legate by the pope, he accompanied
Raymond IV., count of Toulouse, to the east He negotiated
with Alexis Comncnus at Constantinople, re-established at Nicaea
some discipline among the crusaders, caused the siege of Antioch
to be raised and died in that city of the plague on the xst of
August 1098.
See the article by C. Kohlcr in La Grande Encydo&diei Biblio-
graphic du Velay (1902), 640-650.
ADHESION (from LaL adhacrere, to adhere), the process of
adhering or clinging to anything. In a figurative sense, adhesion
(like "adherent") is used of any attachment to a party or move-
ment; but the word is also employed technically in psychology,
pathology and botany. In psychology Bain and others use it of
association of ideas and action; in pathology an adhesion is an
abnormal union of surfaces; and in botany "adhesion" is used of
dissimilar parts, e.g. in floral whorls, in opposition to "cohesion,"
which applies to similar parts, e.g. of the same whorl.
ADIAPHORISTS (Gr. a&afryxw, indifferent). The Adiaphorist
controversy among Lutherans was an issue of the provisional
scheme of compromise between religious parties, pending a
general council, drawn up by Charles V., sanctioned at the diet
of Augsburg, 15th of May 1548, and known as the Augsburg
Interim. It satisfied neither Catholics nor Protestants. As
head of the Protestant party the young elector Maurice of
Saxony negotiated with Melanchthon and others, and at Leipzig,
on the 22nd of December 1548, secured their acceptance of the
Interim as regards adiaphora (things indifferent), points neither
enjoined nor forbidden in Scripture. This sanctioned jurisdic-
tion of Catholic bishops, and observance of certain rites, while
all were to accept justification by faith (relegating sola to the
adiaphora). This modification was known as the Leipzig In-
terim; its advocates were stigmatized as Adiaphorist*. Pas-
sionate opposition was led by Melanchtbon's colleague, Matth.
Flacius, on the grounds that the imperial power was not the
judge of adiaphora, and that the measure was a trick to bring
back popery, from Wittenberg he fled, April 1549, to Magde-
burg, making it the headquarters of rigid Lutheranism. Practi-
cally the controversy was concluded by the religious peace
ratified at Augsburg (Sept. 25, 1555), which left princes a free
choice between the rival confessions, with the right to impose
either on their subjects; but much bitter internal strife waa
kept up by Protestants on the theoretical question of adiaphora;
to appease this was one object of the Formula Concordiae, 1 577.
Another Adiaphorist controversy between Pietists and their
opponents, respecting the lawfulness of amusements, arose in
1681, when Anton Reiser (1628-1686) denounced the opera as
antichristian.
See arts, by J. Gotttchick in A. Hauck's Realencyklopddie (1896);
by Frit* in I. Goschler's Diet. Encydop. de la Thiol. Cath. (1858);
other authorities in I. C. L. Gieselcr, Ck. Hist. (N. York ed., 1868,
vol. iv.); monograph by Erh. Schmid, Adiaphora, wissenschaftlich
und hisiorisch untersucht (1809), from the rigorist point of view.
ADIGB (Gcr. Elsck, anc. A thesis), a considerable river in North
Italy. The true source of the Adige is in some small lakes on
the summit of the Reschen Scheideck Pass (4902 ft), and it is
swollen by several other streams, near Glurns, where the roads
over the Ofen and the Stelvio Passes fall in. It thence flows east
to Meran, and then south-east to Botzen, where it receives (he
Eisak (6 ft.), and becomes navigable. It then turns south-west,
and, after receiving the Noce (right) and the Avisio (left), leaves
Tirol, and enters Lombardy, 13 m. south of Rovereto. After
traversing North Italy, in a direction first southerly and then
easterly, it falls into the Adriatic at Porto Fossone, a few miles
north of the mouth of the Po. The most considerable towns on
its banks (south of Botzen) are Trent and Rovereto, in Tirol,
and Verona and Legnago, in Italy. It is a very rapid river,
and subject to sudden swellings and overflowings, which cause
great damage to the surrounding country. It is navigable from
the heart of Tirol to the sea. In Lombardy it has a breadth
of 200 yds., and a depth of 10 to 16 ft., but the strength of the
current renders its navigation very difficult, and lessens its
value as a means of transit between Germany and Italy. The
Adige has a course of about 920 m., and, after the Po, is the
most important river in Italy. In Roman times it flowed, in its
lower course, much farther north than at present, along the
base of the Euganean hills, and entered the sea at Brondolo.
In a.d. 587 the river broke its banks, and the main stream took
its present course, but new streams opened repeatedly to the
south, until now the Adige and the Po form conjointly one
delta. (W. A. B. O
ADIPOCBRB (from the LaL adept, fat, and cera, wax), a
substance into which animal matter is sometimes converted,
and so named by A. F. Fourcroy, from its resemblance to both
fat and wax. When the Cimetiere des Innoccns at Paris was
removed in 1 786-1 787, great masses of this substance were found
where the coffins containing the dead bodies had been placed
very closely together. The whole body had been converted
into this fatty matter, except the bones, which remained, but
were extremely brittle. Chemically, adipocere consists princi-
pally of a mixture of fatty acids, glycerine being absent. Saponi-
fication with potash liberates a little ammonia (about 1%),
and gives a mixture of the potassium salts of palmitic, margjaric
and oxymargaric acids. The insoluble residue consists of lime,
&c, derived from the tissues. The artificial formation of adipo-
cere has been studied; it appears that it is not formed from
albuminous matter, but from the various fats in the body
collecting together and undergoing decomposition.
ADIROtfDACKS, a group of mountains in north-eastern
New York, U.S.A., in Clinton, Essex, Franklin and Hamilton
counties, often included by geographers in the Appalachian
system, but pertaining geologically to the Laurentian highlands
of Canada. They are bordered on the E. by Lake Champlain,
which separates them from the Green Mountains. Unlike the
Appalachians, the Adirondacks do not form a connected range,
but consist of many summits, isolated or in groups, arranged
with little appearance of system. There are about one hundred
peaks, ranging from 1200 to 5000 ft. in height; the highest peak.
Mt. Marcy (called by the Indians Tahawus or "doud-splitter"),
is near the eastern part of the group and attains an elevation of
5344 ft. Other noted peaks are M 'In tyre (5210 ft). Haystack
(4918), Dix (4916) and Whitcface (4871). These mountains,
consisting of various sorts of gneiss, intrusive granite and gabbro,
have been formed partly by faulting but mainly by erosion, the
lines of which have been determined by the presence of faults
or the presence of relatively soft rocks. Lower Palaeozoic strata
lap up on to the crystalline rocks on all sides of the mountain
group. The region is rich in magnetic iron ores, which though
mined for many years are not yet fully developed. Other
mineral products are graphite, garnet used as an abrasive, pyrite
and zinc ore. The mountains form the water-parting between the
Hudson and the St Lawrence rivers. On the south and south-
west the waters flow either directly into the Hudson, which rises
in the centre of the group, or else reach it through the Mohawk.
On the north and east the waters reach the St Lawrence by way
of Lakes George and Champlain, and on the west they flow directly
into that stream or reach it through Lake Ontario. The most
important streams within the area arc the Hudson, Black,
Oswegatchie, Grass, Raquette, Saranac and Ausabk rivers.
The region was once covered, with the exception of the higher
summits, by the Laurentian glacier, whose erosion, while perhaps
having little effect on the larger features of the country, has
greatly modified it in detail, producing lakes and ponds, whose
number is said to exceed 1300, and causing many falls and rapids
in the streams. Among the larger lakes are the Upper and Lower
ADIS ABABA— ADJUTANT
Sanaac, Big and Little Topper, Schroon, Placid, Long, Raquette
and Blue Mountain. The region known as the Adirondack
Wilderness, or the Great North Woods, embraces between 5000
and 6000 sq. m. of mountain, lake, plateau and forest, which
for scenic grandeur is almost unequalled in any other part of the
United States. The mountain peaks are usually rounded and
easily scaled, and as roads have been constructed over their
dopes and in every direction through the forests, all points of
interest may be easily reached by stage. Railways penetrate
the heart of the region, and small steamboats ply upon the
larger lakes. The surface of most of the lakes lies at an elevation
of over 1500 ft above the sea; their shores are usually rocky
aad irregular, and the wild scenery within their vicinity has
made them very attractive to the tourist The mountains are
easily reached from Pittsburgh, Port Kent, Herkimer, Malone
tad Saratoga Springs. Every year thousands spend the summer
months in the wilderness, where cabins, hunting lodges, villas
and hotels are numerous. The resorts most frequented arc in
the vicinity of the Saranac and St Regis lakes and Lake
Placid. In the Adirondack* are some of the best hunting and
fishing grounds in the eastern United States. Owing to the
restricted period allowed for hunting, deer and small game are
abundant, and the brooks, rivers, ponds and lakes are well
stocked with trout and black bass. At the head of Lake Placid
stands Whiteface Mountain, from whose summit one of the finest
views of the Adirondack* may be obtained. Two miles south-
east of this lake, at North Elba, is the old farm of the abolitionist
John Brown, which contains his grave and is much frequented
by visitors. Lake Placid is the principal source of the Ausable
river, which for a part of its course flows through a rocky chasm
from 100 to 175 ft deep and rarely over 30 ft wide. At the
bead of the Ausable Chasm are the Rainbow Falls, where the
stream makes a vertical leap of 70 ft Another impressive
feature of the Adirondack* is Indian Pass, a gorge about eleven
mifcs long, between Mt M'Intyre and Wallface Mountain.
The latter is a majestic cliff rising vertically from the pass to
a height of 1300 ft Keene Valley, in the centre of Essex county, <
is another picturesque region, presenting a pleasing combination
of peaceful valley and rugged mils. Though the climate during
the winter months is very severe— the temperature sometimes
failing as low as -4a F— it is beneficial to persons suffering
Iran pulmonary troubles, and a number of sanitariums have
been established. The region is heavily forested with spruce,
pine and broad-leaved trees. Lumbering is an important
industry, but it has been much restricted by the creation of a
*tate forest preserve, containing in 1007, 1,401,482 acres, and
by the purchase of large tracts for game preserves and recreation
pounds by private clubs. The so-called Adirondack Park,
containing over 3,000,000 acres, includes most of the state
preserve and large areas held in private ownership.
a For a description of the Adirondack*, see S. R. Stoddard, The
Afvomdmcts Illustrated (24th ed.. Glen Falls, 1894); and E. R.
Wallace. Descrifitae Guide to the Adirondack* (Syracuse, 1 894). For
fN*Yy and mineral resources consult the Reports of the New York
Slek Geologist and the Bulletins of the New York Slate Museum.
ABB ABABA ("the new 'flower "), the capital of Abyssinia
«ad of the kingdom of Shoa, in o° 1' N., 38° 56' E., aao m. W. by
S. of Harrar, and about 450 m. S.W. of Jibuti on the Gulf of
Aden. Adis Ababa stands on the southern slopes of the Entotto
nage, at an altitude of over 8000 ft., on bare, grassy undulations,
watered by small streams flowing S.S.E. to the Hawash. It is
1 large straggling encampment rather than a town, with few
bmWinp of any architectural merit The Gebi or royal enclosure
completely covers a small hill overlooking the whole neighbour-
bood, whfle around i^re the enclosures of the abuna and principal
•obles, and the residences of the foreign ministers. The principal
oaders are Armenians and Hindus. About a mile north-east of
the palace is the military camp. On the hills some five miles to
<h* north, 1 soo ft above the camp, are the ruins of an old fortress,
»ad the churches of St Raguel and St Marjam. The town is in
Jdetjrantric communication with Massawa, Harrar and Jibuti.
It «as founded by Menelek U. in 189a as the capital of his king-
193
dom in succession to Entotto, a deserted settlement some ten
or twel ve mi les north of Adis Ababa.
ADJBCTTVB (from the Lat adjeciivus, added), a word used
chiefly in its grammatical sense of limiting or defining the noun
to which it refers. Formerly grammarians used not to separate
a noun from its adjective, or attribute, but spoke of them to-
gether as a noun-adjective. In the art of dyeing, certain colours
are known as adjective colours, as they require mixing with
some basis to render them permanent •" Adjective law " is that
which relates to the forms of procedure, as opposed to " sub-
stantive law," the rules of right administered by a court
ADJOURNMENT (through the French from the Late Lat
adjurnore, to put off until or summon for another day), the act
of postponing a meeting of any private or public body, par-
ticularly of parliament, or any business, until another time, or
indefinitely (in which case it is an adjournment sine die). The
word applies also to the period during which the meeting or
business stands adjourned.
ADJUDICATION (Lat adjudicate; adjudicate, to award),
generally, a trying or determining of a case by the exercise of
judicial power; a judgment In a more technical sense, in
English and American law, an adjudication is an order of the
bankruptcy courts by which a debtor is adjudged bankrupt and
his property vested in a trustee. It usually proceeds from a
resolution of the creditors or where no composition or scheme of
arrangement has been proposed by the debtor. It may be said
to consummate bankruptcy, for not till then docs a debtor's
property actually vest in a trustee for division among the
creditors, though from the first act of bankruptcy till adjudica-
tion H is protected by a receiving order. As to the effect which
adjudication has on the bankrupt, see under Bankruptcy.
The same process in Scots law is called sequestration. In Scots
law the term "adjudication" has quite a different meaning,
being the name of that action by which a creditor attaches the
heritable, i.e. the real, estate of his debtor, or his debtor's heir,
in order to appropriate it to himself either in payment or security
of his debt The term is also applied to a proceeding of the
same nature by which the holder of a heritable right, labouring
under any defect in point of form, gets that defect supplied by
decree of a court
ADJUNCT (from Lat. ad, to, and jungere, to join), that which
is joined on to another, not an essential part, and inferior to it
in mind or function, but which nevertheless amplifies or modifies
it Adverbs and adjectives are adjuncts to the words they
qualify. Learning, says Shakespeare, is an " adjunct to our-
self" (Love's Labour's Lost, IV. iii. 314). Twelve members of
the Royal Academy of Sciences in Paris arc called " adjuncts."
ADJUSTMENT (from late Lat. ad-juxlare, derived from juxta,
near, but early confounded with a supposed derivation from
Justus, right), regulating, adapting or settling; in commercial
law, the settlement of a loss incurred at sea on insured goods.
The calculation of the amounts to be made good to and paid by
the several interests is a complicated matter. It involves much
detail and arithmetic, and requires a full and accurate knowledge
of the principles of the subject Such adjustments arc made by
men called adjusters, who make the subject their profession. In
Great Britain they are for the most part members of the Average
Adjusters' Association (1870), a body which has done much
careful work with a view to making and keeping the practice
uniform and in accord with right principles. This association
has gradually formulated, at their annual meetings, a body of
practical rules which the individual members undertake to
observe. (See Average and Insurance, Marine.)
ADJUTAGE (from Fr. ajutage, from ajouter, to join on; an
older English form was " adjustage "), a mouthpiece or nozzle,
so formed as to facilitate the outflow of liquids from a vessel or
pipe. (See Hydraulics.)
ADJUTANT (from Lat. adjutare, to aid), a helper or junior
in command, one who assists his superior, especially an officer
who acts as an assistant to the officer commanding a corps of
troops. In the British army the appointment of adjutant is held
by a captain or lieutenant The adjutant acts as staff officer to
ADJUTANT-GENERAl^-ADMIRAL
194.
the commanding officer, issues his orders, superintends the work
of the orderly room and the general administration of the corps,
and is responsible for musketry duties and the training of recruits.
Regular officers are appointed as adjutants to all units of the
auxiliary forces. On the European continent the word is not
restricted to the lower units of organization; for example, in
Germany the AdjutarUur includes all " routine " as distinct from
" general " staff officers in the higher units, and the aides-de-
camp of royal persons and of the higher commanders are also
styled adjutant-generals, fl ugel-adjutanten, &c. For the so-called
adjutant bird see Jabiru.
ADJUTANT-GENERAL, an army official, originally (as
indicated by the word) the chief assistant (Lat. adjuoare)
staff-officer to a general in command, but now a distinct high
functionary at the head of a special office in the British and
American war departments. In England the second military
member of the Army Council is styled adjutant-general to the
forces. He is a general officer and at the head of his department
of the War Office, which is charged with all duties relative to
personnel The adjutant-general of the United States army is
one of the principal officers in the war department, the head of
the bureau for army correspondence, with the charge of the
records, recruiting, issue of commissions, &c. Individual Ameri-
can states also have their own adjutant-general, with cognate
duties regarding the state militia. In many countries, such as
Germany and Russia, the term has retained its original meaning
of an officer on the personal staff, and is the designation of per-
sonal aides-de-camp to the sovereign.
By a looseness of translation, the superintendents of provinces,
in the order of Jesuits, who act as officials under the superin-
tendence of and auxiliary to the general, are sometimes called
adjutants-general.
ABLER, FELIX (1851- ), American educationalist, was
born at Alzey, Germany, on the 13th of August 1851. His
father, a Jewish rabbi, emigrated to the United States in 1857,
and the son graduated at Columbia College in 1870. After
completing his studies at Berlin and Heidelberg, he became, in
1874, professor of Hebrew and Oriental Literature at Cornell
University. In 1876 he establishedin New York City the Society
for Ethical Culture, to the development and extension of which
he devoted a great deal of time and energy, and before which he
delivered a regular Sunday lecture. In 1002 he became professor
of political and social ethics at Columbia University. He also
acted as one of the editors of the International Journal of Ethics,
Under his direction the Society for Ethical Culture became an
important factor in educational reform in New York City,
exercising through its technical training school and kinder-
garten (established in January 1878) a wide influence. Dr Adler
also took a prominent part in philanthropic and social reform
movements, such as the establishment of a system of district
nursing, the erection of model tenement houses, and tenement
house reform. He published Creed and Deed (1877), The Moral
Instruction of Children (1892), Life and Destiny (1003), Marriage
and Divorce (1005), and The Religion of Duty (1005).
ADMETUS, in Greek legend, son of Pheres, king of Pherae in
Thessaly. By the aid of Apollo, who served him as a slave —
either as a punishment for having slain the Cyclopes, or out of
affection for his mortal master— he won the hand of Alcestis,
the most beautiful of the daughters of Pclias, king of Iolcus.
When Admetus was attacked by an illness that threatened to
lead to his premature death, Apollo persuaded the Moerae (Fates)
to prolong his life, provided any one could be found to die in his
place. His parents refused, but Alcestis consented. She is
said to have been rescued from the hands of Death by Heracles,
who arrived upon the scene at an opportune moment; a later
story represents her as cured of a dangerous illness by his skill.
Homer,. Iliad, ii. 715; Apollodorus, i. 9: Euripides, Alcestis;
Plutarch, AmaJorius, 17; Disscl, Der Mythus von Admetos und
Alkestis, progr. Brandenburg, 188s.
ADMINISTRATION (Lat. administrare, to serve), the perform-
ance or management of affairs, a term specifically used in law for
the administration or disposal of the estate of a deceased person
(see Will or Testament). It Is also used generally for "govern-
ment," and specifically for " the government " or the executive
ministry, and in such connexions as the administration(administer-
ing or tendering) of the sacraments, justice, oaths, medicines, &c
Letters of Administration.— -Upon the death of a person intestate
or leaving a will to which no executors are appointed, or when
the executors appointed by the will cannot or will not act, the
Probate Division of the High Court is obliged to appoint an
administrator who performs the duties of an executor. This is
done by the court granting letters of administration to the
person entitled. Grants of administration may be either general
or limited. A general grant is made where the deceased has
died intestate. The order in which general grants of letters will
be made by the court is as follows: (1) The husband, or widow,
as the case may be; (2) the next of kin; (3) the crown; (4) a
creditor; (5) a stranger. Since the Land Transfer Act 1897, the
administrator is the real as well as the personal representative
of the deceased,, and consequently when* the estate to be ad-
ministered consists wholly or mainly of reality the court will
grant administration to the heir to the exclusion of the next of
kin. In the absence of any heir or jiext of kin the crown is
entitled to the personality as bona vacantia, and to the reality
by escheat. If a creditor claims and obtains a grant he is com-
pelled by the court to enter into' a bond with two sureties
that he will not prefer his own debt to those of other creditors.
The more important cases of grants of special letters of ad-
ministration are the following: —
Administration cum testamento annexe, where the deceased
has left a will but has appointed no executor to it, or the executor
appointed has died or refuses to act. In this case the court wul
make the grant to the person (usually the residuary legatee)
with the largest beneficial interest in the estate.
Administration de bonis non administratis: this occurs in two
cases— (a) where the executor dies intestate after probate with-
out having completely administered the estate; (b) where an
administrator dies. In the first case the principle of administra-
tion cum testamento is followed, in the second that of general
grants in the selection of the person to whom letters are granted.
Administration durante minore actate, when the executor or
the person entitled to the general grant is under age.
Administration durante absentia, when the executor or ad-
ministrator is out of the jurisdiction for more than a year.
Administration pendente lite, where there is a dispute as to the
person entitled to probate or a general grant of letters the court
appoints an administrator till the question has been decided.
ADMINISTRATOR, in English law, the person to whom the
Probate Division of the High Court of Justice (formerly the
ordinary or judge of the ecclesiastical court) acting in the sover-
eign's name, commits the administration (q.v.) of the goods of a
person deceased, in default of an executor. The origin of ad-
ministrators is derived from the dvil law. Their establishment
in England is owing to a statute made in the 31st year of Edward
!• (1303). Till then no office of this kind was known besides
that of executor; in default of whom, the ordinary had the
disposal of goods of persons intestate, &c (See also Executors,
and, for intestate estates, Intestacy.)
Admihistrator, in Scots law, b a person legally empowered
to act for another whom the law presumes incapable of acting for
himself, as a father for a pupil child.
ADMIRAL, the title of the general officer who commands a
fleet, or subdivision of a fleet. The origin of the word is un-
doubtedly Arabic In the 1 ath century the Mediterranean states
which had close relations with the Moslem powers on the shores
or in the islands of that sea, found the title amir or emir
in combination with other words used to describe men in au-
thority; the amir-al-mumenin — prince of tne faithful— or amir*
al-bahr — commander of the sea. They took the substantive
11 amir " and the article " al " to form one word, " amiral " or
"ammiral" or " almirante." The Spaniards made mirama-
molin, out of amiral-mumenin, in the same way. " Amiral," as
the name of an eastern ruler, became familiar to the northern
nations during the crusades. Layamon, writing in the early
ADMIRALTY ADMINISTRATION
195
years of the 13th century, speaks of the M ammiral of Babilon,"
and the word was for long employed in this sense. As a naval
tide it was first taken by the French from the, Genoese during
thecrassdeof 1949* By the end of the 13th century it had come
to be used in England as the name of the officer who commanded
the Cinque Port ships. The English form M admiral " arose from
popular confusion with the Latin admirabilis. Such errors were
naturally produced by the fantastic etymology of the middle
ages. In Spain, Alphonso the Wise of Castile, in his code of
laws, the Siete Partidas (Seven Divisions), accounts for the
Spanish form "ahnirante" by its supposed derivation from
the Latin admdrari, since the admiral is " to be admired " for
the difficulties and dangers he overcomes, and because he is the
chief of those who see the wonders of the Lord in the deep —
mkabSia ejus (sc. Domini) in prof undo. Both in Spanish and in
FKahrlhan English the word has been applied to the flagship
of an officer commanding a fleet or part of one. The Spanish
dmiranta is the ship of the second in command, and the capitana
of the first In this sense it is not uncommonly found in the
narratives of Elizabethan voyages or campaigns, and it is so
used by Milton in Paradise Last—" the mast of some tall
As the title of an office it was borne by the great military,
judicial and administrative officer known in France as grand
antral; in England as lord high admiral; in Spain as almirarte
mayor. His functions, which were wide, have been generally
absorbed by the crown, or the state, and have been divided
among judicial and administrative officials (see Navy, History;
AowiALTY Administration; and Admiralty Jurisdiction).
The title of admiral is still borne as an hereditary honour by the
descendants of Columbus, the dukes of Veraqua, in Spain. It is
a purely honorific distinction representing the admiralship of
the islands and Ocean Sea, conferred on the discoverer by the
Catholic sovereigns, Ferdinand and Isabella.
In the staff of a modern navy the admirals correspond to the
general officers in the army. Where, as in Russia, the grand
admiralship is annexed to the crown, the highest rank is that of
bentenant admiral general. In Great Britain there is the rank
of admiral of the fleet, corresponding to field-marshal. It is,
however, Kttle more than an honorary distinction. The three
active ranks are those of admiral, vice-admiral and rear-admiral,
corresponding to general, lieutenant-general and major-general
>a the army. They are found in all navies under very slightly
varied forms. The only difference which is not one of mere
spelling is in the equivalent for rear-admiral, which is contre
yard in French, and in other navies of the continent of Europe
involves some slight variation of the word " contre " (first used
»t the time of the French Revolution). The vice- and rear-
admiral of Great Britain are again honorary titles, without the
active functions, conferred in compliment on senior naval officers.
" Admiral " is also the name given to the chief of fishery fleets.
On the banks of Newfoundland it was given, to officials who had
powers conferred by the state. In the case of an ordinary fishing-
fleet in European waters, it»is of private origin, and is of merely
AoTHOtmE%— Sir N. Harris Nicolas. History pf ike Royal Navy;
U Ronciere. ffiUoire de la marine fran^oise; Yongc, Cesckiedenis
an far NedeHandsche Zeemewen; C Fernandez Duro, Historia de
la Armada de CastUea. (D. H.)
ADMIRALTY ADMINISTRATION. 1. The Administrative
System.— That the navy (q.v.) a the only real defence of the
British islands has been recognized by English people ever since
the days of King Offa, who died in 796, leaving to his successors
the admirable lesson that " he who would be secure on land must
be supreme at sea." The truth of the lesson thus learnt is sanc-
tioned by all the experience of English history, and parliament
has repeatedly enforced the fact. The navy is the only force that
n M||| can safeguard the British islands from hostile descents;
"nui, it is the only force that can protect their vast sea-borne
commerce and food supplies; by giving safety to the
korae country it sets British troops free for operations abroad,
•ad makes their passage secure; and thus, as also by giving
command of the sea, the fleet is the means by which the empire
is guarded and has become a true imperial bond. It is natural
for British admiralty administration to be taken here as the
type of an efficient system.
British naval administration is conducted by the Board of
Admiralty, and the function of that board is the nmin»»n«n^»
and expansion of the fleet in accordance with the policy
of the government, and the supplying of it with trained a^afrfof
officers and men; ks distribution throughout the Aamtmay.
world; and its preservation in readiness and efficiency
in all material and personal respects. The character of the
Admiralty Board is peculiar to the British constitution, and it
possesses certain features which distinguish it from other depart-
ments of the state. The business it conducts is very great and
complex, and the machinery by which its work is done has grown
with the expansion of that business. The whole system of naval
administration has been developed historically, and is not the
product of the organizing skill of one or a few individuals, but
an organic growth possessing marked and special characteristics.
The Admiralty Board derives its character from the fact that it
represents the lord high admiral, and that its powers and opera-
tion depend much more upon usage than upon those instruments
which actually give it authority, and which, it may be remarked,
are not in harmony among themselves. The executive operations
are conducted by a series of civil departments which have under-
gone many changes before reaching their present constitution
and relation to the Board. The salient characteristic of the
admiralty is a certain flexibility and elasticity with which it
works. Its members are not, in a rigid sense, heads of depart-
ments. Subject to the necessary and constitutional supremacy
of the cabinet minister at their head, they are jointly and 00-
equally " commissioners for executing the office of high admiral
of the United Kingdom, and of the territories thereunto belong-
ing, and of high admiral of the colonies and other dominions."
The members of the Board are in direct and constant communi-
cation with the first lord and with one another, as also with the
civil departments which work under thdr control. It was en-
joined by James I. that the principal officers and commissioners
of the navy should be in constant communication among them-
selves, consulting and advising " by common council and argu-
ment of most voices," and should live as near together as could
conveniently be, and should meet at the navy office at least twice
a week. This system of intercommunication still exists in a
manner which no system of minutes could give; and it may be
remarked, as illustrative of the flexibility of the system, that a
Board may be formed on any emergency by two lords and a
secretary, and a decision arrived at then and there. Such an
emergency board was actually constituted some years ago on
board the admiralty yacht in order to deal on the instant with
an event which had just occurred in the fleet. At the same time
it must be remarked that, in practice, the first lord being person-
ally responsible under the orders in council, the operations of
the Board are dependent upon his direction.
The present system of administering the navy dates from
the time of Henry V11I. The naval business of the country had
so greatly expanded in his reign that we find the History.
Admiral ty and Navy Board reorganized or established ;
and it is worthy of remark that there existed at the time an
ordnance branch, the navy not yet being dependent in that
matter upon the War Department. 1 The Navy Board adminis-
tered the civil departments under the admiralty, the directive
and executive duties of the lord high admiral remaining with
the admiralty office. A little later the civil administration was
vested in a board of principal officers subordinate to the lord
high admiral, and we can henceforth trace the work of civil
1 The Board of Ordnance was originally instituted for the navy,
but eventually fell into military hands, to the detriment of the navy
— the only navy of any nation that has not full authority over its
own ordnance. In 1653, according to Oppcnhcim, it was, owing to
its inefficiency, placed under the admiralty. In 1632 it appears to
have been independent, but " still retained that evil pre-eminence
in sloth and incapacity it had already earned and has never since
lost."
196
ADMIRALTY ADMINISTRATION
administration being conducted under the navy and victualling
boards apart from, but yet subject to, the admiralty itself. This
was a system which continued during the time of all the great
wars, and was not abolished until 1832, when Sir James Graham,
by his reforms, put an end to what appeared a divided control
Whatever may have been the demerits of that system, it sufficed
to maintain the navy in the time of its greatest achievements,
and through all the wars which were waged with the Spaniards,
the Dutch and the French. The original authority for the
present constitution of the Admiralty Board is found in a
declaratory act (Admiralty Act 1600), in which it is enacted
thai " all and singular authorities, jurisdictions and powers
which, by act of parliament or otherwise, had been lawfully
vested " in the lord high admiral of England had always apper-
tained, and did and should appertain, to the commissioners for
executing the office for the time being " to all intents and pur-
poses as if the said commissioners were lord high admiral of
England." The admiralty commission was dissolved in 1701,
and reconstituted on the death of Prince George of Denmark,
lord high admiral in 1709. From that time forward, save for a
short period in 1 827-1 828, when the duke of Clarence was lord
high admiral, the office has remained in commission.
A number of changes have been made since the amalgamation
of the admiralty and the Navy Board by Sir James Graham in
1832 (see Navy, History), but the general principle remains the
same, and the constitution of the Admiralty Board and civil
departments is described below. The Board consists of the
first lord and four naval lords with a civil lord, who in theory
are jointly responsible, and are accustomed to meet sometimes
daily, but at all times frequently; and the system developed
provides for the subdivision of labour, and yet for the co-ordi-
nated exertion of effort. The system has worked well in practice,
and has certainly won the approval and the admiration of many
statesmen. Lord George Hamilton said, before the Royal
Commission on Civil Establishments, 1887, that " It has this
advantage, that you have all departments represented round a
tabic, and that if it is necessary to take quick action, you can
do in a few minutes that which it would take hours under
another system to do "; and the report of the Royal Commis-
sion of 1889 remarked that " The constitution of the Board of
Admiralty appears to us well designed, and to be placed under
present regulations on a satisfactory fooling."
The special characteristics of the Admiralty Board which have
been described arc accompanied by a very peculiar and note-
f^ wl ftm worthy feature, which is not without relation to the
untrammelled and undefined operations of the ad-
miralty. This feature arises from the discrepancy between the
admiralty patent and the orders in council, for the admiralty
is not administered according to the terms of the patent which
invests it with authority, and its operations raise a singular point
in constitutional law.
The legal origin of the powers exercised by the first lord and
the Board itself is indeed curiously obscure. Under the patent
the full power and authority are conferred upon " any two or
more " of the commissioners, though, in the patent of Queen
Anne, the grant was to " any three or more of you." It was
under the Admiralty Act 1832 that two lords received the
necessary authority to legalize any action of the Board; but
already, under an act of 1822, two lords had been empowered
to sign so long as the Board consisted of six members. We
therefore find that the legal authority of the Board under the
patent is vested in the Board; but in the order in council of the
14th of January 1869 the sole responsibility of the first lord was
officially laid down, and in the order in council of the 19th of
March 1872 the first lord was made " responsible to your Majesty
and to parliament for all the business of the admiralty. " As a
matter of fact, the authority of the first lord, independent of his
colleagues, had existed in an undefined manner from ancient
times. Before a select committee of the House of Commons in
1861 the duke of Somerset stated that he considered the first
lord responsible, that he had always " acted under that impres-
sion," and that he believed " all former first lords were of this
opinion " ; while Sir James Graham said that " the Board of
Admiralty could never work, whatever the patent might be,
unless the first lord were supreme, and did exercise constantly
supreme and controlling authority." It is not, therefore, sur-
prising to find that there has been undoubtedly direct govern-
ment without a Board. Thus, in the operations conducted
against the French channel ports in 1 803-1 804, Lord Melville, then
first lord, took steps of great importance without the knowledge
of his colleagues, though he afterwards bowed to their views,
which did not coincide with his own. Again, when Lord Gambicr
was sent to Copenhagen in 1807, he was instructed to obey all
orders from the king, through the principal secretary of state for
war, and in this way received orders to attack Copenhagen,
which were unknown to all but the first lord. In a similar way
the secretary of the admiralty was despatched to Paris in 18x5
with instructions to issue orders as if from the Board of Admiralty
when directed to do so by the foreign secretary who accompanied
him, and these orders resulted in Napoleon's capture. These
instances were cited, except the first of them, by Sir James
Graham before the select committee of the House of Commons
in 1861, in order to illustrate the clastic powers under the patent
which enabled the first lord to take immediate action in matters
that concerned the public safety. It is not surprising that this
peculiar feature of admiralty administration should have at-
tracted adverse criticism, and have led some minds to regard
the Board as " a fiction not worth keeping up."
Between i860 and 1870 the sittings of the Board ceased to
have the effective character they had once possessed. During
the administration of Mr Childers, 1 first lord from 1868 Xo 187 1
in Mr Gladstone's cabinet, a new system was introduced by
which the free intercommunication of the members of the Board
was hampered, and its sittings were quite discontinued. The
case of the " Captain " led, however, to a return to the older
practice. The " Captain " was a low freeboard masted turret
ship, designed by Captain Cowper Phipps Coles, R.N. Competent
critics believed that she would be unsafe, and said so before she
was built; but the admiralty of Lord Derby's cabinet of 1866
gave their consent to her construction. She was Commissioned
early in 1870, and capsized in the Bay of Biscay on the 7th of
September of that year. Mr Childers, who was nominally re-
sponsible for allowing her to be commissioned, distributed blame
right and left, largely upon men who had not approved of the
ship at all, and had been exonerated from all share of responsi-
bility for allowing her to be bifUt. The disaster was justly held
to show that a civilian first lord cannot dispense with the advan-
tage of constant communication with his professional advisers.
When Mr Childers retired from the admiralty in March 1871,
his successor, Mr Goschen (Viscount Goschen), reverted to the
original system. It cannot be said, however, that the question
of ultimate responsibility is well defined. The duke of Somerset,
Sir James Graham and Sir Charles Wood, afterwards Lord
Halifax, held the view that the first lord was singly and person-
ally responsible for the sufficiency of the fleet. Sir Arthur
Hood expressed before the House of Commons committee in
1888 the view that the Board collectively were responsible;
whilst Sir Anthony Hoskins assigned the respojisibility to the
first lord alone with certain qualifications, which is a just and
reasonable view.
2. Admiralty Organization. — Under the organization which
now exists, the Board of Admiralty consists of the first lord,
the first and second naval lords, the additional naval lord and
controller, the junior naval lord and the civil Ion), who are
commissioners for executing the office of lord high admiral, and
with them are the parliamentary and financial secretary and
the permanent secretary. As has been explained, the first lord
is responsible under the orders in council to the crown and to
parliament for all admiralty business. In the hands of the
1 Admiral Sir Cooper Key. when director of naval ordnance
during Mr Childers' administration, observed to the writer that no
first lord of the admiralty knew so little of the working of the ad-
miralty as Mr Childers, because, owing to the discontinuance of
board meetings, he lost the great advantage of bearing the dis-
cussion, (a. v. u.)
ADMIRALTY ADMINISTRATION
197
other lords and secretaries rest duties very carefully defined,
tod they direct the civil departments which are the machinery
of naval administration. The first naval lord, the second naval
lord and the junior naval lord are responsible to the first lord
in relation to so much of the business concerning the personnel
of the navy and the movements and condition of the fleet as is
confided to them, and the additional naval lord or controller is
responsible in the same way for the material of the navy; while
theparnamentary.secretary has charge of finance and some other
tasificss, and the civil lord of all shore works— i.e. docks, build-
ings, &c— and the permanent secretary of special duties. The
first lord of the admiralty is the cabinet minister through whom
the navy receives its political direction in accordance with im-
perial policy. He is the representative of the navy in parliament,
which looks to him for everything concerned with naval affairs.
The members of the Board are his advisers; but if their advice
b not accepted, they have no remedy except protest or resigna-
tion. It cannot be denied that the responsibility of the members
of the Board, if their advice should be disregarded, must cease,
and it a sufficiently obvious that the remedy of resignation will
not always commend itself to those whose position and advance-
ment depend upon the favour of the government. Something
will be said a little later concerning the working of the system
and the relation of the first lord to the Board in regard to the
navy estimates. In addition to general direction and supervision,
the first lord has special charge of promotions and removals from
the service, and of matters relating to honours and rewards, as
well as the appointments of flag officers, captains and other
officers of the higher ranks. With him rests also the nomination
for the major part to naval cadetships and assistant clerkships.
Apart from the first lord, the first naval lord is the most
important officer of the Board of Admiralty. It seems to be
unquestionable that Sir James Graham was right in describing
the senior naval lord as his " first naval adviser." Theoretically,
(be first naval lord is responsible for the personnel of the fleet;
bat in practice he is necessarily concerned with the material
also as soon as it is put into commission, and with the actual
commissioning of it. It is correct to say that he is chiefly con-
cerned with the employment of the fleet, though his advice has
weight in regard to its character and sufficiency, and is always
sought in relation to the shipbuilding programme. Broadly
speaking, the first naval lord's duties and authority cover the
fighting efficiency and employment of the fleet, and upon him
and upon the controller the naval business of the country largely
falls. He directs the operations of the admiral superintendent
of naval reserves in regard to ships, the hydrographer, the
director of naval ordnance, so far as the gunnery and torpedo
training establishments are concerned, and the nava) intelligence
department, and he has charge of all matters relating to dis-
cipline. The mobilization of the fleet, both in regard to personnel
and material, also falls to him, and among a mass of other busi-
ness in his department are necessary preparations for the pro-
tection of trade and the fisheries. It will thus be seen that the
first naval lord is the chief officer of the Board of Admiralty,
and that the operations of the other members of the Board all
have relation to his work, which is no other than preparation
for war. It may here be remarked that it appears most necessary
to change the naval lords frequently, so that there may always be
in the Board some one who possesses recent touch with the
service afloat
The second naval lord may be regarded as the coadjutor of
the first naval lord, with whose operations his duties are very
doseiy related, though, like every other member of the Board,
he is subordinate only to the first lord. The duties of the second
naval lord are wholly concerned with the personnel of the fleet,
the manning of the navy and mobilization. In his hands rests
(he direction of naval education, training and the affairs of the
royal marine forces. The training establishments and colleges
*» in bis hands. He appoints navigating officers and lieutenants
to ships (unless they be to command), sub-lieutenants, midship-
(v.o and cadets, engineer officers, gunners and boatswains,
**i supervises the management of the reserve. In his province
is the mobilisation of the personnel, including the coastguard
and the royal naval reserve. Necessarily, the first and second
naval lords work together, and upon occasion can replace each
other. 1
Most important are the duties that fall to the additional naval
lord and controller. He has charge of everything that concerns
the material of the fleet, and his operations are the complement
of the work of the first naval lord. A great number of civil
departments are directed by the controller, and his survey and
supervision extend to the dockyards and building establishments
of the fleet. He submits plans to the Board for new ships, and is
responsible for carrying into effect its decisions in regard to all
matters of construction and equipment. The building operations
both in the dockyards and in private yards are therefore under
his supervision. In regard to all these matters the director of
naval construction and the cngineer-in-chicf are the heads of
the civil departments that carry on the work. Again, the con-
trollcr is responsible in regard to armament— both gunnery and
torpedo—and it is the work of his .department to sec to all
gunnery and torpedo fittings, and to magazines, shell-rooms
and electric apparatus. The officer in immediate charge of
this branch of the controller's work, under his direction, is the
director of. naval ordnance. In regard to work at the dockyards
(?.».) the controller is aided by the director of dockyards. He
supervises this officer in preparing the programme of work done
in the dockyards, the provision of the material required and its
appropriation to particular work in accordance with the pro-
gramme. Other officers who conduct great operations under
the authority and responsibility of the controller are the director
of stores, who maintains all necessary supplies of coal and
stores at home and abroad, And examines the store accounts of
ships, and the inspector of dockyard expense accounts, who has
charge of the accounts of dockyard expenditure and seeing that
outlay is charged as directed. In regard to the navy estimates,
the controller, through his subordinates, is responsible for the
preparation and administration of the votes for shipbuilding and
naval armaments, except in regard to some sub-headings of the
former, and thus in recent years for the expenditure of some-
thing like £1 5,000,000 or over.
The junior naval lord has in his hands the very important
duties that are concerned with the transport, medical and
victualling services, as well as the regulation of hospitals, the
charge of coaling arrangements for the fleet and other duties
that conduce to the practical efficiency of the navy. He also
appoints chaplains, naval instructors, medical officers (except in
special cases) and officers of the accountant branch. A vast
business in regard to the internal economy of ships greatly occu-
pies the junior lord* He has charge, for example, of uniforms,
prize-money, bounties, naval savings banks, and pensions to
seamen and marines and the widows of naval and marine
officers. The work of the junior naval lord places under his
direction the director of transports, the director-general of the
medical department, the director of victualling, and, in regard
to particular matters, the director of stores, the accountant-
general, the chaplain of the fleet, and the Intelligence Depart-
ment, so far as the junior lord's department is concerned.
The civil lord supervises, through the director of works, the
Department of Works, dealing with admiralty buildings and
works, construction and labour, contracts and purchases of
building stbres and land. He is also responsible for the civil
staff of the naval establishments, except in regard to certain
officials, and for duties connected with Greenwich Hospital,
compassionate allowances, charitable funds, and business of like
character. The accountant-general, in regard to these matters,
is directed by him, and the director of Greenwich Hospital is
under his authority.
The parliamentary and financial secretary is responsible for
the finance of the department, the navy estimates and matters
of expenditure generally, and is consulted in regard to all matters
involving reference to the treasury. His position in regard to
1 The drawback is, that a naval lord can only go on leave by
throwing all his work on a colleague already overweighted with work.
198
ADMIRALTY ADMINISTRATION
estimates and expenditure is very important, and the accountant-
general is his officer, while he has financial control over the
director of contracts. The financial secretary also examines
proposals for new expenditure.
A most important official of the Board is the permanent
secretary, whose office has been described as the " nerve-centre "
of the admiralty, since it is the channel through which papers
for the lords of the admiralty pass for the intercommunication
of departments and for the correspondence of the Board. The
tradition of admiralty procedure largely rests with the perma-
nent secretary, and it is most important that he should be
chosen from one of the branches, and should have served in as
many of them as possible, in order that he may possess a thorough
knowledge of the theory and practice of the admiralty system.
In addition to the secretarial duties of the permanent secretary's
department, the permanent secretary has charge of the military,
naval and legal branches, each under a principal clerk, the civil
branch and the record office. The various branches deal with
matters concerning the commissioning of ships and the distribu-
tion of the fleet, and the manning and discipline of the navy,
with other associated matters, being the channels for the opera-
tions of the naval lords. It is a highly important function of
the department of the permanent secretary to preserve the
inter-related working of the various departments, and to keep
unbroken the thread of administration when a new Board is
constituted.
3. Business and Responsibility.— -The manner in which the
Admiralty Board conducts the great operations under its charge
has been indicated. It would be impossible' here to describe
it in detail, though something concerning the civil departments,
which are the machinery of naval administration, will be found
below. It will, however, indicate the character of admiralty
administration if we explain to some extent the conditions
which surround the preparation of the estimates and the ship-
building programme, the more so because this matter has been
the battle-ground of critics and supporters of the admiralty.
It has already been pointed out that the naval lords, if they
dissent from the estimates that are presented, have no remedy
but that of protest or resignation. Into the controversies that
have arisen as to the responsibility of the several lords it is
unnecessary to enter here. The Admiralty Board possesses, in
fact, the character of a council, and its members can only be
held responsible for their advice. It has even been contended
that; in the circumstances, it should not be incumbent upon
them to sign the navy estimates, and there have been instances
in which the estimates have been presented to parliament
without the signature of certain naval lords. It is in any case
obvious, as has been explained above, that the ultimate responsi-
bility must always rest with the first lord and the cabinet, by
whom the policy of the country is shaped and directed. In the
report of the Hartington Commission in 1800 (the chairman of
which became 8th duke of Devonshire) to inquire into the
civil and professional administration of the Naval and Military
Departments, and the relation of these departments to each
other and to the treasury, the following recommendation
occurs: " On the first lord alone should rest the responsibility
of deciding on the provision to be made for the naval re-
quirements of the empire, and the existence of a council should
be held in no degree to diminish that responsibility."
Two conditions primarily rule the determination as to the
strength of the navy. They are, the foreign policy of the cabinet,
and, on the ground of practical expediency, the amount of money
available. "The estimates and strength of the navy," said
Rear-Admiral Hotham before the select committee on the navy,
estimates, x888, " are matters for the cabinet to determine.'"
" Expense," said Sir Anthony Hoskins, " governs everything."
The needs of the empire and financial considerations, as it is
scarcely necessary to remark, may prove to be antithetical
conditions governing the same problem, and in practice it follows
that the Admiralty Board directs its operations in accordance
with the views of the government, but limited -by the public
funds which are known to be available. Such considerations
suggest a practical limitation of responsibility, so far as the
several lords of the admiralty are concerned, but it may be
presumed to be their duty individually or collectively to place
their views before the first lord; and Lord George Hamilton
told the select committee of 1888 that, if his colleagues should
represent to him that a certain expenditure was indispensable
for the efficiency of the service, he would recognize that all
financial considerations should be put on one side. The commis-
sioners reported that this was the only common-sense view of the
matter, and that it was difficult to see on what other footing
the control of navy expenditure, consistently with responsibility
to parliament, could be placed..
Two practical considerations are bound up with the shipbuild-
ing programme — the carrying forward of the work in hand and
the new construction to be begun, since it is absolutely necessary
that proper provision should be made for the employment and
distribution of labour in the dockyards, and for the purchase of
necessary materials. Through the director of naval construction
and the director of dockyards, the controller is kept informed as
to the progress of work and the amount of labour required, as
also in regard to the building facilities of the yards. These
matters, in a general way, must form a subject of discussion
between the first naval lord and the controller, who will report
on the subject to the first lord. The accountant-general, as the
financial officer of the Board, will be called upon to place the
proposed estimates upon a financial basis, and when the views
of the cabinet are known as to the amount of money available, the
several departments charged with the duty of preparing the
various votes wilr proceed with that work. The financial basis
alluded to is, of course, found in the estimates of the previous
year, modified by the new conditions that arise. There has been
in past times a haphazard character in our shipbuilding pro-
grammes, but with the introduction of the Naval Defence Act of
1889, which looked ahead and was not content with hand-to-
mouth provision, a better state of things has grown up, and,
with a larger sense of responsibility, a policy characterized by
something of continuity has been developed. Certainly the
largest factor in the better state of things has been the growth
of a strong body of public opinion as to the supreme value of the
navy for national and imperial welfare.
Another important and related matter that comes before the
Board of Admiralty is the character and design of ships. The
naval members of the Board indicate the classes and qualities
desired, and it is the practice that the sketch-design, presented
in accordance with the instructions, is fully discussed by the first
naval lord and the controller, and afterwards by the Board. The
design then takes further shape, and when it has received the final
sanction of the Board it cannot be altered without the sanction
of the same authority. A similar procedure is found in the other
business of the Admiralty Board, such as shore-works, docks and
the preparation of offensive and defensive plans of warfare — the
last being a very important matter that falls into the operations
of the Naval Intelligence Department, which has been described,
though not with perfect accuracy, and certainly in no large sense,
as " the brain of the navy." That department is under the
direction of the first naval lord.
The shipbuilding programme may be described as the corner-
stone of the executive business of the admiralty, because upon it
depends very largely the preparation of all the other votes relat-
ing to numbers, stores, victualling, clothing, &c. But if the
Admiralty Board is responsible through the first lord for the
preparation of the estimates, it is also charged with the business
of supervising expenditure. In this matter the financial secretary
plays a large part, and is directed to assist the spending depart-
ment of the admiralty in their duty of watching the progress of
their liabilities and disbursements. Some notes on admiralty
finance will he found below (section 4). The shipbuilding votes
set the larger machinery of the admiralty in motion. The execu-
tive departments, except in regard to the hulls and machinery
of ships and the special requirements of the director of works,
do not make purchases of stores, that work resting with the
director of navy contracts. Most of the important executive and
ADMIRALTY ADMINISTRATION
199
spending branches are in the department of the controller, and
it will be well, while we are dealing with the material side of the
navy, to describe briefly their character and duties. The dvfl
branches of the navy tributary to the controller are those of the
director of naval construction, the engineer-in-chief, the directors
of naval ordnance, of dockyards and of stores, and the inspector
of dockyard expense accounts. The first duty of the controller
a, as has been e xp lained, in relation to the design and construc-
tion of ships and their machinery, and the executive officials who
have charge of that work are the director of naval construction
and the engineer-in-chief, whose operations are closely inter-
related. A vast administrative stride has been made in this
particular branch of the admiralty. The work of design and con-
struction now go forward together, and the admiralty designers
are in dose touch with the work in hand at the dockyards. This
has been largely brought about by the institution, in 1883, of the
royal corps of naval constructors, whose members interchange
their duties between the designing of ships at the admiralty
and practical work at the dockyards. It is through the director
of naval construction that many of the spending departments
are set in motion, since he is responsible both for the design of
ships and for their construction. It deserves to be noticed, how-
ever, that a certain obscurity exists in regard to the relative
duties of the director of naval construction and the director of
dockyards touching constructive works in the yards. The former
officer has also charge of all the work given out to contract,
though it is the business of the dockyard officials to certify that
the conditions of the contract have been fulfilled. In all this
work the director of naval construction collaborates with the
engineer-in-chief, who is an independent officer and not a sub-
ordinate, and whose procedure in regard to machinery closely
resembles that adopted in the matter of contract-built ships.
The director of naval ordnance is another officer of the Con-
troller's Department whose operations are very closely related
to the duties of the director of naval construction, and the rela-
tion b both intimate and sustained, for in the Ordnance Depart-
ment everything that relates to guns, gun-mountings, magazines,
torpedo apparatus, electrical fittings for guns, and other elec-
trical fittings is centred. A singular feature of this branch of
administration is that the navy long since lost direct control of
ordnance matters, through the duties connected with naval
tannery, formerly in the hands of the master-general of the
ordnance, and those of the Board of Ordnance— a department
common to the sea and land services— being vested in 1855 in
the secretary of state for war. A more satisfactory state of things
has grown up through the appointment of the director of naval
ordnance, taking the place of the naval officer who formerly
advised the director of artillery at the War Office. Expenditure
on ordnance has also been transferred from the army to the navy
estimates, and a Naval Ordnance Store Department has been
created. It cannot be said that the condition is yet satisfactory,
nor can it be until the navy has control of and responsibility for
its own ordnance. The assistant-director of torpedoes is an
officer instituted at the admiralty within recent years, and his
duty b to assist the director of naval ordnance in all torpedo
matters.
The director of dockyards replaced the surveyor of dockyards
in 188s. at about which time the inspector of dockyard expense
accounts was instituted. It is upon the director of dockyards
(ft ) that the responsibility of the controller devolves in regard
to the management of dockyards and naval establishments at
borne and abroad, and to the performance of work in these estab-
lishments, ship and boat building, maintenance, repairs and
refits. In this department the programme for work in the dock-
yards is prepared, as well as certain sections of the navy estimates.
We now come to the. Stores Department, with the director of
stores as its chief This officer, about the year 1869, took over
the storekeeping duties previously vested in the storekecper-
PaeraL The Naval Store Department is charged with the cus-
tody and issue of naval, as distinguished from victualling and
ordnance stores, to be used in naval dockyards and establish-
, for the building, fitting and repairing of warships. It
has, however, no concern with stores that belong to the Depart-
ment of Works. The business of the director of stores is also to
receive and issue the stores for ships of all classes in commission
and reserve, and he deals with a vast array of objects and
materials necessary for the fleet, and with coals and coaling.
He frames the estimates for his department, but his purchases
are made through the director of navy contracts. In practice
the main business of the Stores Department is to see to the pro-
vision of stores for the navy, and to the proper supply of these
at all the establishments, and for this purpose its officials direct
the movements of storesbips, and arrange for the despatch of
colliers, the director being charged to be " careful to provide
for His Majesty's ships on foreign stations, and for the necessary
supplies to foreign yards." Another important business of the
director of stores is the examination of the store accounts of
ships as well as some other accounts. Although the director of
stores is really in the department of the controller, he is super-
vised in regard to the coaling of the fleet by the junior naval lord.
The inspector of dockyard expense accounts has been alluded
to. He is the officer charged with keeping a record of expendi-
ture at the dockyards and of supervising expense accounts.
It may be useful to add a note concerning the spending of the
money. Within the controller's department, as has been ex-
plained, are centred the more important spending
branches of the admiralty. While the work of design- S?°
ing ships and preparing plans is in progress, the director
of stores, the director of dockyards and other officials of that
department concerned are making preparation for the work.
The necessary stores, comprising almost every imaginable class
of materials, are brought together, and the director of stores is
specially charged to obtain accurate information in regard to re-
quirements. He is not, however, a purchasing officer, that work
being undertaken by the director of navy contracts, who is con-
cerned with the whole business of supply, except in regard to
hulls and machinery of ships built by contract, and the special
requirements of the director of works. At the same time, the
civil departments of the admiralty being held responsible for the
administration of the votes they compile, it is their duty to watch
the outlay of money, and to see that it is well expended, the ac-
countant-general being directed to assist them in this work. The
system is closely jointed and well administered, but it possesses
a very centralized character, which interferes to some extent
with flexible working, and with the progress of necessary repairs,
especially in foreign yards. In so far as ships given out to con-
tract are concerned (and the same is the case in regard to pro-
pelling machinery built by contract), the director of navy con-
tracts plays no part, the professional business being conducted
through the controller of the navy, who is advised thereon by the
director of naval construction and the engineer-in-chief. The
work conducted in private establishments is closely watched by
the admiralty officials, and is thoroughly tested, but, mutatis
mutandis, the system in regard to contract-built ships is practi-
cally the same as that which prevails in the dockyards.
4. Naval Finance: The Accountant-General* s Department.—
The subject of naval finance is one of great complexity and of
vast importance. The large sums of money with which the
admiralty deals in the way of both estimates and expenditure,
amounting recently to about £30,000,000 annually, implies the
existence of the great organization which is found in the depart-
ment of the accountant-general of the navy. Under the authority
of the first lord, the parliamentary and financial secretary is
responsible for the finance of the admiralty in general, and for
the estimates and the expenditure, the accounts and the pur-
chases, and for all matters which concern the relations of the
admiralty to the treasury and to other departments of the
government; and in all the practical and advisory work the
accountant-general is his officer, acting as his assistant, with the
director of naval contracts who, under the several lords, is con-
cerned with the business of purchase.
The organization of the accountant-general's department has
undergone many changes, and the resulting condition is the out-
come of various modifications which have had for their purpose
ADMIRALTY ADMINISTRATION
200
to give to this officer a measure of financial control. There
have been various views as to what the duties of the accountant-
general should be. After the reorganization of the admiralty
by Sir James Graham in 1832, the accountant-general was re-
garded as a recording and accounting officer, wholly concerned
with receipt and expenditure. His duties were limited to the
auditing of accounts, payments and expenditure generally.
Owing to changes effected in 1869, which made the parliamentary
secretary, assisted by the civil lord, responsible for finance at the
admiralty, bringing the naval and victualling store departments
into his charge, the accountant-general was invested with the
power of criticizing these accounts financially, though he did not
as yet possess any financial control, and the position was little
' changed by fresh rules made in 1876. It was not until 1880 that
the powers of the accountant-general were enlarged in this direc-
tion. It was then ordered that he should be consulted before
any expenditure which the estimates had not provided. for was
incurred, and before any money voted was applied to other pur-
poses than those for which it was provided. The effect of this
order was not happy, for the accountant-general could not under-
take these duties without setting up friction with the departments
whose accounts he criticized. It was contemplated by the
admiralty in 1885 to make the accountant-general the assistant
of the financial secretary, and to raise him to the position of a
permanent officer of finance instead of being an officer of account
invested with imperfect authority in the direction of control.
A select committee of the House of Commons reported that the
accountant-general possessed no financial control over the de-
partments, and that there was an urgent need for establishing
such a control. At the time the position of that officer did not
enable him to exercise any sufficient general supervision over
expenditure, and there was no permanent high official expressly
charged with finance. Accordingly, after being submitted to
a departmental committee, a fresh arrangement was made in
November 1885, whereby the accountant-general, under the
authority of the financial secretary, was given a direct share in the
preparation of the estimates. His written Concurrence was re-
quired before the final approval of the votes, and each vote was
referred to him for his approval or observations, and he was to
exercise a financial review of expenditure and to see that it was
properly accounted for. He became, in fact, " the officer to be
consulted on all matters involving an expenditure of naval
funds." It was believed that economical administration would
result; but much opposition was raised to the principle that was
involved of submitting the proposals of responsible departments
to the inexpert criticism of a financial authority. M r Main, assist-
ant accountant-general, stated before the Royal Commission on
Civil Establishments, 1887, that the effect had been to develop
a tendency to withhold information or to afford only partial
information, as well as to cause friction when questions were
raised affecting expenditure, accompanied by protests, even in
those cases in which these questions were manifestly of a legiti-
mate character. The result was discouraging, and in the opinion
of Mr Main had done much to weaken financial control and to
defeat the purpose of the order. It is unnecessary lo detail the
various changes that have been made by the institution of dock-
yard expense accounts in the department of the controller, and
by various other alterations introduced. The treasury instituted
an independent audit of store accounts which greatly affected
the, position of the accountant-general, and the Royal Commission
on Civil Establishments reported that the Board of Admiralty
were of opinion that they could dispense with the accountant-
general's review altogether. The commission was, however, of
opinion that the accountant-general should be the permanent
assistant and adviser, on all matters involving the outlay of
public money, of the financial secretary.
The operations of the accountant-general are now conducted
in accordance with the order in council of the 18th of November
1885, and of an office memorandum issued shortly afterwards.
He thus acts as deputy and assistant of the parliamentary and
financial secretary, and works with a finance committee within
the admiralty, of which the financial secretary is president and
the accountant-general himself vice-president. The duties of
the department are precisely defined as consisting in the criticism
of the annual estimates as to their sufficiency before they are
passed, and in advising the financial and parliamentary secre-
tary as to their satisfying the ordinary conditions of economy.
The accountant-general also reviews the progress of liabilities
and expenditure, and in relation to dockyard expenditure he
considers the proposed programme of construction as it affects
labour, material and machinery. He further reviews current
expenditure, or the employment of labour and material, as dis-
tinguished from cash payments of the yard, as well as proposals
for the spending of money on new work or repairs of any kind for
which estimates are currently proposed. The accountant-general's
department has three principal divisions: the estimates division,
the navy pay division, and the invoices and claims division. In
the first of these is the ledger branch, occupied with the work of
accounts under the several votes and sub-heads of votes, and with
preparing the navy appropriation account, as well as the esti-
mates and liabilities branch, in which the navy estimates are
largely prepared after having been proposed and worked out in
the executive departments of the admiralty. There are also
ships' establishments and salaries branches. The navy pay
division includes the full and half-pay branch and a registry
section. There is also the seamen's pay branch, which audits
ships' ledgers and wages, and has charge of all matters concerning
the wages of seamen. The victualling audit is also in this branch,
and is concerned with payments for savings in lieu of victual-
ling and some other matters. Further, the navy pay division
examines ships' ledgers, and is concerned with the service, char-
acters, ages, &c, of men as well as with allotments and pensions.
The third division of the accountant-general's department,
known as that of invoices and claims, conducts a vast amount
of clerical work through many branches, and is concerned with
the management of naval savings banks and matters touching
prize-money and bounties.
The importance of this great department of the admiralty
cannot be overrated. It is, in the first place, of supreme im-
portance that the navy estimates should be placed upon a sound
financial basis; and in practice the Board requires the concur-
rence of the accountant-general to the votes before they arc
approved, and thus in greater or less degree this officer is con-
cerned in the preparation of every one of the votes. He does not
concern himself with matters of larger policy outside the domain
of finance, and it must be confessed that there appears to be
something anomalous in his " review " of naval expenditure.
It is, however, a mark of the flexibility or elasticity of the ad-
miralty system that in practice the operations of the accountant-
general's department work easily, and that admiralty finance is
recognized as having been placed upon a sound and efficient
basis. There are important financial officers outside the ac-
countant-general's department concerned with assisting the
controller. The inspector of dockyard expense accounts, who
is entirely in the controller's department, enables him to exercise
careful supervision over expenditure and the distribution of
funds to special purposes. This work) however, though highly
important, is merely dne part of the system of financial control.
Within recent years the bonds have been considerably tightened,
and the work is untainted by corruption. It is true that in
exercising rigid supervision over expenditure the work has
become more centralized than is desirable, and it is a mark of
change within recent years that local officers have been in larger
measure deprived of independent powers. This, indeed, is a
necessary condition of financial control, or at least a condition
which it is not easy to change where rigid control is necessary.
5. Mobilization of the Fleet.— By the mobilization of the fleet
is meant the placing of naval resources upon a war footing, in
readiness in all material and personal respects for hostile opera-
tions. A complete mobilization for purposes of practice in peace
lime would dislocate seafaring life in a manner which would be
justifiable only by actual war. Thus no country in peace
manoeuvres calls out all its naval reserves, or makes use of the
auxiliary cruisers— merchant ships for which a subvention is
ADMIRALTY ADMINISTRATION
201
paid, tad which are constructed with a view to use in warfare.
Experience has shown that when vesseb are commissioned they
tie liable to numerous small breakdowns of their machinery if
they are manned by crews who have no familiarity with them.
Many accidents of this kind had occurred in the British -navy at
oaacravret, though it could not be shown that the vessel was
defective, or that the crew was either untrained or negligent
These experiments led the admiralty to adopt a new system in
1904, designed to obviate the risk that vessels would be crippled
tt t critical moment by want of acquaintance on the part of
the crew with their machinery. Under this system all vessels
which are considered to be available for war are divided into two
chases:— first, those in full commission which constitute the
different squadrons maintained at all times; and secondly, those
which form the reserve and are kept in partial commission— or
rather partially manned though in commission. These are kept
tt the home ports — Chatham, Portsmouth, Plymouth—in re-
stive squadrons under a flag-officer who will command them in
war. Each vessel has a captain, a second in command, and a
proportion of other officers including engineer, navigating and
torpedo officers. Two-fifths of her full complement of crew are
always onooard, and they include the most skilled men needed
for the proper management of the machinery of all kinds— more
especially that of the torpedoes and guns. These vessels go to
set for periodical practice. When therefore the fleet must be
nobuued for war it will only be necessary to fill up the number
of trained men by the less skilled hands from the naval barracks
occupied by the sailors not belonging to any particular ship, or
from the naval reserve. All ranks of the navy are placed on a
roster by which they successively serve in ships in full commission,
tre quartered in the naval barracks and drafted from them to
the ships of the reserve, from which they return to the sea-going
■hips. It is calculated that there are always men enough in the
barracks to complete the crews of a small squadron for emer-
gency servia without disturbing the regular routine of the peace
oUhUshmenu The British admiralty may claim that though
the machinery at its command in the past was not perfect it
his commonly been able to send a squadron to sea more rapidly
than any other power in Europe. Much depends on the arrange-
ment of the stores as well as the disposition of the men. The
introduction at the end of the 18th century of the businesslike
practice of keeping the fittings of each ship together by them-
selves, did much to facilitate the rapid mobilization of a portion
of the British fleet in 1700 which impressed all Europe. The
prompt manning of a special service squadron in 1895 in conse-
quence of the troubles then arising in connexion with the former
South African Republic, showed that even before its plans for
mobilization were completed the admiralty had its resources
*efl in hand. (R .V. H.)
As regards the navies of countries other than Great Britain,
their government is in the hands of ministers or departments
0^ variously constituted. The Russian admiralty is a
mm^iu, highly organized bureau, divided into departments, and
under the supreme control of a high admiral, usually a
{rand duke of the Imperial House. The German admiralty was,
till 1872, a branch of the War Office, though governed by a vice-
admiral under a naval prince of the reigning family. In 187 a it
vis severed from the War Office, though remaining an appanage
thereof, and a general of the army was placed at its h£ad. The
French minister of marine, assisted by a permanent staff, controls
the navy of France on a highly centralized system of adminis-
tration; but the departments are well organized, and work welL
The Italian fleet is governed on principles analogous to the
French, but with a large admixture of the English representative
cfesae&t. The^American system is worth describing in more detail.
the president of the United States is commander-in-chief of
the nary— a constitutional prerogative which he seldom asserts.
bum The Navy Department is administered by a civilian
**• secretary of the navy— a cabinet officer appointed by
£*£|^ the president— who exercises general supervision.
Next in authority is the assistant-secretary, also a
ervuua nominee, who acts as an assistant, and has, besides, cer-
tain specific duties, including general supervision of the marine
corps, naval militia and naval stations beyond the continental
limits of the United States. The details of administration are
supervised by the chiefs of bureaus, of which there are eight
They are appointed by the president from the navy list for a
period of four years, and have the rank of rear-admiral while
serving in this capacity. They have direct control of the business
and correspondence pertaining to their respective bureaus,
and orders emanating from them have the same force as though
issued by the secretary.
The bureau of navigation is the executive, or military, bureau,
and as such promulgates and enforces the orders and regulations
prescribed by the secretary; it has general direction of the
procurement, education, assignment and discipline of the per-
sonnel. It also controls the movements of ships, including the
authorization of manoeuvres and drills, such as target practice.
The bureau of equipment has charge of all electrical appliances,
compasses, charts and fuel, and generally all that relates to
the equipment of vessels, exclusive of those articles that come
naturally under the cognizance of other bureaus. It has charge
of the naval observatory, where the Epktmeris is prepared annu-
ally, and of the hydrographic office, where charts, sailing direc-
tions, notices to mariners, &c, are issued. The bureau of ord-
nance has charge of the gun factory, proving ground, and torpedo
station, and all naval magazines; all the details that pertain
to the manufacture, tests, installation or storage of all offensive
and defensive apparatus, including armour, ammunition hoists,
ammunition rooms, &c, though much of the actual installation
is performed by the bureau of construction after consultation
with the bureau of ordnance. The bureau of construction and
repair has charge of the designing, building and repairing of
hulls of ships, including turrets, spars and many other acces-
sories. It builds all boats, has charge of the docking of vessels
and the care of ships in reserve. The chief of this bureau is
usually a naval constructor. The bureau of steam engineering
has charge of all that relates to the designing, building and
repairing of steam machinery, and of all the steam connexions
on board ship. The bureau of supplies and accounts procures
and distributes provisions, clothing and supplies of the pay
department afloat, and acts as the purchasing agent for all
materials used at naval stations, except for the medical depart-
ment and marine corps. It also has charge of the disbursement
of money and keeping of accounts. The chief of this bureau is
a pay officer. The bureau of medicine and surgery has charge of
all naval hospitals, dispensaries and laboratories, and of all
that pertains to the care of sick afloat and ashore. The chief of
this bureau is a medical officer. The bureau of yards and docks
has charge of construction and mainterance of wet and dry
docks, buildings, railways, cranes, and generally all permanent
constructions at naval stations. The chief of this bureau is of ten
a civil engineer.
Under the cognizance of the secretary's office is the office of
the judge-advocate-general, an officer selected by the president
from the navy list for a term of four years, with the rank of
captain while so serving. He is legal adviser to the department,
and reviews the records of all courts and statutory boards.
Under the cognizance of the assistant-secretary's office is the
office of naval intelligence, which collates information on naval
matters obtainable at home and abroad. The staff is composed
of naval officers on shore duty, the senior in charge being usually
a captain, and known as chief intelligence officer. Several
boards are employed under the various bureaus, or directly as
advisers to the secretary. Some are permanent in character,
while others are composed of officers employed on other duty,
and are convoked periodically or when required. The naval
policy board is composed of officers of high rank, and meets once
a month; its duties conform to those of the general staff in
armies. The board of construction consists of the chiefs of
bureaus of ordnance, equipment, construction and repair,
steam engineering, and the chief .intelligence officer Its duty
is to advise the secretary in all matters relating to the con-
struction policy in detail. The general construction policy is
202
ADMIRALTY ADMINISTRATION
suggested by the navsi policy board. The board of inspection
and survey is composed of representatives of all bureaus, who in-
spect vessels soon after commission and on return from a cruise,
and report on the condition of the ship and efficiency of its per-
sonnel; it also conducts the official .trials of new vessels. The
boards for the examination of officers for promotion are com-
posed of officers of the corps to which the candidate belongs
and of medical officers. Every officer is examined professionally,
morally and physically at each promotion. The Navy Depart-
ment is located at Washington, D.C., and occupies a building
together with the State and War Departments (the latter being
charged solely with army affairs).
The personnel (see also under Navy) is limited in number by
law. The engineer corps was abolished in 1899, the then en-
gineer-officers becoming line officers in their respective relative
grades. Line officers are the military and executive branch,
and are required besides to perform engineer duties. They are
graduates of the Naval Academy. Vacancies occurring in the
construction corps are filled from the graduates of the Naval
Academy having the highest standing in scholarship, who are
given a two years' graduate course, generally abroad, on being
graduated from the Academy, and are then appointed assistant
naval constructors. All other staff officers are appointed
directly from civil life by the president, from candidates passing
prescribed examinations. Each representative and delegate in
Congress has authority to nominate a candidate for naval cadet
whenever his congressional district has no representative in
the Naval Academy. The candidate must be a resident of the
district which the congressman represents, between fifteen and
twenty years old, and must pass prescribed mental and physical
examinations. The president is allowed ten representatives
at the Academy at all times, appointed " at large," and one
appointed from the District of Columbia.
The course of instruction at the Academy is four years, each
comprising eight months' study, three months' practice cruise,
and one month's furlough. At the expiration of four years,
cadets are sent to cruising ships for two years' further instruc-
tion, and are then commissioned ensigns. After three years'
further sea service, ensigns are promoted to lieutenants (junior
grajde). After this, promotion is dependent upon seniority
alone, the senior officer in any grade being promoted to the lowest
number in the next higher grade when a vacancy occurs in the
higher grade, and not before. All officers are retired on three-
fourths sea pay at the age of sixty-two, or whenever a board of
medical officers certifies that an officer is not physically qualified
to perform all duties of his grade. A few officers are allowed to
retire voluntarily incertain circumstances, tostimulate promotion.
Any officer on the retired list may be ordered by the secretary
to such duty as he may be able to perform: this is a legal pro-
vision to provide for emergencies. Promotion in the staff corps
is dependent upon seniority, though relative rank in the lower
grades in some corps somewhat depends upon promotion of line
officer* of the same length of service, and accounts for the exist-
ence of staff officers in the same grade having different ranks.
All sea-going officers, after commission, are required to spend
three years at sea, and are then usually employed on shore-duty
for a time, according to the needs of the service— short terms of
shore-duty thereafter alternating with three-year cruises. This
rule is adhered to as strictly as circumstances will permit.
Shore-duty includes executive or distinctly professional duties
in the Navy Department, under its bureaus, and at navy yards
and stations; inspection of ordnance, machinery, dynamos, &c.,
under construction by private firms; duty on numerous tempo-
rary or permanent boards; instructors at the Naval Academy;
recruiting duty; charge of branch hydrographic offices; in-
spection duty in the lighthouse establishment; at state nautical
schools; as attaches with United States legations; and many
others. Naval constructors (usually), civil engineers and pro-
fessors of mathematics are continuously employed on shore-duty
connected with their professions, the Naval Observatory,
Nautical Almanac and the Naval Academy employing most of
the last
Warrant officers (boatswains, gunners, carpenters, saflmafcers,
warrant machinists and pharmacists) are appointed by the
secretary, preference being given to enlisted men in the navy
who have shown marked ability for the positions. They must
be between twenty-one and thirty-five years of age, and pass an
examination. After serving satisfactorily for one year under an
acting appointment, they receive warrants that secure the
permanency of their office. Ten years after appointment,
boatswains, gunners, carpenters and sailmakers are eligible for
examination for a commission as chief -boatswain, &c., and as
such they rank with, but next after, ensigns. Mates are rated
by the secretary from seamen or ordinary seamen. They have
no relative rank, but take precedence of all petty officers. Their
duties approximate to those of boatswains, though they seldom
serve on large cruising vessels. Clerks to pay officers are ap-
pointed by the secretary on the nominations of the pay officers.
They have no rank and are not promoted or retired. Their
appointments are revoked when their services are no longer
needed.
Boys between fifteen and seventeen years old of good char-
acter, who can read and write and pass the physical examination,
may enlist for the term of their minority. They enlist as third-
class apprentices, and are given six months' instruction at a
training station, and thence go to sea in apprentice training
vessels. When proficient they are transferred to regular cruising
vessels as second class, and when further qualified arc rated first
class. All other enlistments are for four years. Recruits must
speak English. Landsmen are usually sent to sea on special
training-ships until proficient, and are then sent into general
service. Raw recruits may enlist as landsmen, or coal-passers
or mess attendants. Ordinary seamen must have served two
years, and seamen four years before the mast, prior to first
enlistment as such; and before enlistment in any other rating
allowed on first enlistment, applicants must prove their ability
to hold such rating. Landsmen, coal-passers, &c, as soon as
they become proficient, are advanced to higher grades, and, if
American citizens, may eventually become petty officers (ranking
with army non-commissioned officers), with acting appointments.
In twelve months, or as soon thereafter as proficiency is estab-
lished, the acting appointment is made permanent, and an acting
appointment for the next higher grade is issued, &c. Permanent
appointments are not revocable except by sentence of court-
martial, and a man re-enlists in that rating for which he held a
permanent appointment in his previous enlistment. All persons
re-enlisting within four months after expiration of previous
enlistment are entitled to a bounty equal to four months' pay,
and in addition receive a "continuous service certificate,"
which entitles them to higher pay and to other special considera-
tions. The same 'is true for each re-enlistment. When an en-
listed man completes thirty years' service and is over fifty yean
of age he may retire on three-fourths pay.
The Marine corps (see Marines) is a wholly separate military
body, but it is under the control of the Navy Department.
United States naval vessels are, as a rule, built at private yards
under contracts awarded after competition. The government
is not committed to any fixed policy or building programme.
Each year the secretary recommends certain new construction.
The final action rests with Congress, which must appropriate
money, for the new ships before the construction can be com-
menced. Repairing and reconstruction are usually done at
government navy yards.
Ships in commission are distributed among five stations: (1)
the North Atlantic, t.e. the Atlantic coast of the United States,
Central America, and South America as far as the Amazon, also
the West Indies; (a) the South Atlantic, «.«. the remainder of the
Atlantic coast of South America and both coasts of South Africa;
(3) the European, comprising the coast of Europe, including
the inland seas, and the North Atlantic coast of Africa; (4) the
Asiatic station, comprising the coast of Asia, including the
islands north of the equator, also the east coast of North Africa;
(5) the Pacific station, comprising the Pacific coast of North and
South America, and Australia and the adjacent islands lying
ADMIRALTY, HIGH COURT OF
203
tooth of the equator. Each station is commanded by a flag
officer, and the number of ships under the command varies
according to circumstances. Ships in commission on special
service, such as training, gunnery, surveying ships, &c, are
not attached to stations. The shore stations of- the navy are
enunciated in the article on Docxyaxds. (W. T. S.)
ADMIRALTY, HIGH COURT OP. The High Court off Ad-
dinky of England was the court of the deputy or lieutenant
of the admiral. It is supposed in the Black Booh of the Admiralty
to have been founded in the reign of Edward I.; but it would
appear, from the learned discussion of R. G. Marsden, that it was
abolished as a civil court by Edward III. in the year 1360; the
power of the admiral to determine matters of discipline in the
fleet, and possibly questions of piracy and price, being somewhat
euiier. Even then the court as such took no formal shape; but
lac various admirals began to receive in their patents express
pants of jurisdiction with powers to appoint lieutenants or de-
puties. At first there were separate admirals or rear-admirals of
the north, south and west, each with deputies and courts. A list
of them was collected by Sir H-Spelman. These were merged in
or absorbed by one high court early in the 15th century. Sir
Thonas Beaufort, afterwards earl of Dorset and duke of Exeter
(appointed admiral of the fleet 1407, and admiral of England,
Ireland and Aquitaine 1412, which latter office he held tfll his
death m 1426), certainly had a court, with a marshal and other
officers, and forms of legal process — mandates, warrants, citations,
compobories, proxies, &c Complaints of encroachment of
Jurisdiction by the Admiralty Courts led to the restraining acts,
13 Wc H. c s (1380), 15 Ric II. c 3 (1301) and a Hen. IV. c. 11
(1400).
The original object of the institution of the courts or court seems
tohnvc been to prevent or punish piracy and other crimes upon
ft km the narrow seas and to deal with questions of prize;
*i. but civil jurisdiction soon followed. The jurisdiction
in criminal matters was transferred by the Offences
at Sea Act 1536 to the admiral or his deputy and three
or four other substantial persons appointed by the lord chan-
cellor, who were to proceed according to the course of the common
am. By the Central Criminal Court Act 1834, cognizance of
crimes committed within the jurisdiction of the admiralty was
jn*n to the central criminal court. By an act of 1844 it has been
•bo given to the justices of assize; and crimes done within the
jamdiction of the admiralty are now tried as crimes committed
within the body of a county. See also the Criminal Law Con-
Mfidation Acts of 1861.
From the time of Henry IV. the only legislation affecting the
civil jurisdiction of the High Court of Admiralty till the time of
Queen Victoria is to be found in an act of 1540, enabling the
admiral or Ins lieutenant to decide on certain complaints of
freighters against shipmasters for delay in sailing, and one of
156 j, giving the lord high admiral of England, the lord warden
•f the Cinque Ports, their lieutenants and judges, co-ordinate
power with other judges to enforce forfeitures under that act —
a my curious and miscellaneous statute called " An Act for the
Maintenance of the Navy. "
la an act of 1534* with regard to ecclesiastical appeals from
the courts of the archbishops to the crown, it is provided that the
appeal shall be to the king in Chancery, " and that upon every
nick appeal a osmmiasion shall be directed under the great seal
to such persons as shall be named by the king's highness, his heirs
or successors, like as in cases of appeal from the Admiralty
Court" The appeal to these "persons, " called delegates, con-
unued until it was transferred first to the privy council and then
to the judicial committee of the privy council by acts of 1841
and 1833.
The early jurisdiction of the court appears to have been exer-
cised very much under the same procedure as that used by the
courts of common law. Juries are mentioned, sometimes of the
county and sometimes of the county and merchants. But the
connexion with foreign parts led to the gradual introduction of
a procedure resembling that coming into use on the continent
and bated on the Roman civil law The Offences at Sea Act
1536 states the objection to this application of the dvfl law to
the trial of -criminal cases with much force: " After the course
of the civil laws, the nature whereof is that before any judgment
of death can be given against the offenders, either they must
plainly confess* their offences (which they will never do without
torture or pain), or else their offences be so plainly and directly
proved by witness indifferent such as saw their offences com-
mitted, which cannot be gotten but by chance at few times. "
The material enactments of the restraining statutes were as
follows:— An act of 1380 (13 Ric II. c 5) provided that " the
admirals and their deputies shall not meddle from -^^ _
henceforth of anything done within the realm, but only { y^}l"
of a thing done upon the sea, as it hath been used in
the time of the noble prince king Edward, grandfather of our lord
the king that now is. " The act of 1391 (15 Ric II. c 3) provided
that " of all manner of contracts, pleas and quarrels, and other
things rising within the bodies of the counties as well by land as
by water, and also of wreck of the sea, the admiral's court
shall have no manner of cognizance, power, nor jurisdiction,
but all such manner of contracts, pleas and quarrels, and all other
thing? rising within the bodies of counties, as well by land as by
water, as afore, and also wreck of the sea, shall be tried, deter-
mined, discussed and remedied by the laws of the land, and not
before nor by the admiral, nor his lieutenant in any wise. Never-
theless, of the death of a man, and of a maihem done in great
ships, being and hovering in the main stream of great rivers, only
beneath the [bridges] of the same rivers [nigh] to the sea, and in
none other places of the same rivers, the admiral shall have
cognizance, and also to arrest ships in the great flotes for the
great voyages of the king and of the realm; saving always to
the king all manner of forfeitures -and profits thereof coming;
and he shall have also jurisdiction upon the said notes, during
the said voyages only; saving always' to the lords, dries, and
boroughs, their liberties and franchises. " The act of 1400 (2
Hen. IV. c n) adds nothing by way of definition or restriction,
but merely gives additional remedies against encroachments,
providing heavy fines for those who improperly sue in the court,
and those officials of the court who improperly assert juris-
diction. It was repealed by the Admiralty Court Act 1861.
The statutes of Richard, except the enabling part of the second,
were repealed by the Civil Procedure Acts Repeal Act 1879.
The formation of a High Court of Justice rendered them obsolete.
In the reign of James I. the chronic controversies between the
courts of common law and the Admiralty Court as to the limits
of their respective jurisdictions reached an acute stage. We find
the records of it in the second volume of Marsden's Select Pleas
in the Court of Admiralty, and in Lord Coke's writings: Reports,
part xiii. 51 ; Institutes, part iv. chap. 22. In this latter passage
Lord Coke records how, notwithstanding an agreement asserted
to have been made in 1575 between the justices of the Ring's
Bench and the judge of the admiralty, the judges of the common
law courts successfully maintained their right to prohibit suits
in admiralty upon contracts made on shore, or within havens,
or creeks, or tidal rivers, if the waters were within the body of
any county, wheresoever such contracts were broken, for torts
committed within the body of a county, whether on land or
water, and for contracts made in parts beyond the seas. It is
due to the memory of the judges of Lord Coke's time to say that,
at any rate as regards contracts made in portions transmarinis,
the same rule appears to have been applied at least as early as
1 544, the judges then holding that " for actions transitory abroad
action may he at common law "
All the while, however, the patents of the admiralty judge
purported to confer on him a far ampler jurisdiction than the
jealousy 'of the other courts would concede to him.
The patent of the last judge of the court, Sir Robert
Joseph Phillimore, dated the 23rd of August 1867,
styles him " Lieut Off 1 . Princ 1 . and Commissary Gen 1 , and Special
in our High Court of Admiralty of Eng. and President and Judge
of the same, " and gives to him power to take cognizance of " all
causes, tivu* and maritime, also all contracts, complaints, offences
or suspected offences, crimes, pleas debts, exchanges, accounts,
204
policies of assurance, loading of ships, and all other matters and
contracts which relate to freight due for the use of ships, trans-
portation, money or bottomry; also all suits civil and maritime
between merchants or between proprietors of ships and other
vessels for matters in, upon, or by the sea, or public streams, or
fresh- water ports, rivers, nooks and places overflown whatsoever
within the ebbing and flowing of the sea and high-water mark, or
upon any of the shores or banks adjacent from any of the first
bridges towards the sea through England and Ireland and the
dominions thereof, or elsewhere beyond the seas." Power b also
given to hear appeals from vice-admirals; also "to arrest . . .
according to the civil laws and ancient customs of our high court
al ships, persons, things, goods, wares and merchandise ";
also "to enquire by the oaths of honest and lawful men
of all . things which . . . ought to be enquired after,
and to mulct, arrest, punish, chastise and reform "; also " to
preserve the public streams of our admiralty as well for the pre-
servation of our royal navy, and of the fleets and vessels of our
kingdom . . as of whatsoever fishes increasing in the rivers";
also " to reform nets too straight and other unlawful engines and
instruments whatsoever for the catching of fishes "; also to take
cognizance "of the wreck of the sea . . . and of the death,
drowning and view of dead bodies," and the conservation ci the
statutes concerning wreck of the sea and the office of coroner
(1276], and concerning pillages [1353], and " the cognizance of
mayhem " within the ebb and flow of the tide; all in as ample
manner and form as they were enjoyed by Dr David Lewis
[judge from 1 558 to 1 584], Sir Julius Caesar, and the other judges
in order (22 in all) before Sir Robert Phillimore. This form of
patent differs in but few respects from the earlier Latin patents
—tempore Henry VUL— except that they have a clause mm
obstantibus statutis.
As has been said, however, the contention of the common law
judges prevailed, and the Admiralty Court (except for a tem-
porary revival under Cromwell) sank into comparative
insignificance during the 17th century. The great
maritime wars of the 18th century gave scope to the
exercise of its prize jurisdiction; and its international import-
ance as a prize court in the latter half of the x 8th and the first
part of the 19th centuries is a matter of common historical
knowledge. There were upwards of 1000 prize causes each year
between 1803 and 18x1, in some years upwards of 2000.
There were other great judges; but Sir William Scott, after-
wards Lord Stowell, is the most famous. Before his time there
were no reports of admiralty cases, except Hay and Marriott's
prize decisions. But from his time onwards there has been a
continuous stream of admiralty reports, and we begin to find
important cases decided on the instance as well as on the
prize side.
In the reign of Queen Victoria, two enabling statutes, 1840. and
1861, were passed and greatly enlarged the jurisdiction of the
court The manner in which these statutes were administered
by Dr Stephen Lushington and Sir R. J. Phillimore, whose tenure
of office covered the whole period of the queen's reign till the
creation of the High Court of Justice, the valuable assistance
rendered by the nautical assessors from the Trinity House, the
great increase of shipping, especially of steam shipping, and the
number and gravity of cases of collision, salvage and damage
to cargo, restored the activity of the court and made it one of
the most important tribunals of the country. In 1875, by the
operation of the Judicature Acts of 1873 and 187s, the High
Court of Admiralty was with the other great courts of England
formed into the High Court of Justice. The principal officers
of the court in subordination to the judge were the registrar (an
office which always points to a connexion with canon or civil
law), and the marshal, who acted as the maritime sheriff, having
'for his baton of office a silver oar. The assistance of the Trinity
Masters, which has been already mentioned, was provided for
in the charter of incorporation of the Trinity House. These
officers and their assistance have been preserved in the High
Court of Justice.
Till the year 1859 the practitioners in the High Court of
ADMIRALTY, HIGH COURT OF
Admiralty were the same as those in the ecclesiastical courts
and distinct from those who practised in the ordinary <
Advocates took the place of barristers, and p roctor s
of solicitors. The place of the attorney-general was
taken by the king's or queen's advocate-general, and <** c
that of the treasury solicitor by the king's or queen's
procurator or proctor. There were also an admiralty advocate
and an admiralty proctor. The king's advocate also repre-
sented the crown in the ecclesiastical courts, and was its
standing adviser in matters of international and foreign la*.
The king's advocate led the bar of his courts, and before the
privy council took precedence of the attorney-general The
admiralty ndvocate or advocate to his majesty in his office of
admiralty represented specially the lords of the admiralty. In
the Admiralty Court he ranked next after the king's advocate.
In an act of 1859 the practice was thrown open to barristers
and to attorneys and solicitors.
Upon the next vacancy after the courts were thrown open,
the crown altered the precedence and placed the queen's advo-
cate after the attorney- and solicitor-general. There were two
holders of the office under these conditions, Sir R. J. Phattknore
and Sir Travers Twiss. The office was not filled up after the
resignation of the latter. The admiralty had, when the courts
were thrown open, a standing counsel for the ordinary courts
and a solicitor. Questions soon arose as to the respective claims
ot the admiralty advocate and the counsel to the admiralty,
and their acuteness was increased when the courts were fnsed
into one High Court of Justice. Upon the resignation of Sir
James Parker Deane the office of admiralty advocate was not
filled op. In like manner the proctor to the admiralty has
disappeared. The office of king's or queen's proctor has been
kept alive but amalgamated with that of the solicitor for the
treasury. That officer uses the title of king's proctor when he
appears In certain matrimonial causes.
The last holder of the office of standing counsel to the ad-
miralty was Alexander Stavcley Hill, K.C.M.P. Since his death
the office, like those of the king's or queen's advocate and the
admiralty advocate, has not been filled up; and the ordinary
law officers of the crown with the assistance of a junior counsel
to the admiralty (a barrister appointed by the attorney-general)
perform the duties of all these offices.
The judge advocate of the fleet is a practising barrister whose
function it is to advise the admiralty on all matters connected
with courta-martiaL Though section 61 of the Naval jb^jv
Discipline Act 1866 recognizes the possibility of his At\ um
presence at a court-martial, he does not nowadays j£*jT
attend, but is represented by his deputy or by an
officiating deputy judge advocate appointed ad hoc by the
admiralty, the commander-in-chief of the fleet or squadron
who convenes the court-martial, or, if no such appointment
is made, by the president of the court-martial. But though the
judge advocate of the fleet does not actually attend the courts-
martial very responsible duties are imposed upon him. By a
minute of the Board passed in 1884 (which is still in force) all
proceedings of courts-martial on officers and men of the royal
navy, excepting those where the prisoner pleads guilty and no
evidence is taken, are to be referred to him, with a view to the
consideration of (a) the charge, (6) the evidence on which the
finding is based, and (c) the legality of the sentence, and he writes
a minute on each case for the information of the lords commis-
sioners of the admiralty with regard to these points. He has no
power to modify a sentence, a power which is reserved to the
admiralty by § 53 (1) of the Naval Discipline Act 1866, except
in the case of a death sentence, which can only be remitted by
the crown. All cases where the prisoner has pleaded guilty are
examined in the admiralty, and if in any case there is any reason
to think that there has been any informality or that the prisoner
has not understood the effect of his plea, such case is submitted
to the judge advocate of the fleet for his opinion. The judge
advocate of the fleet receives no fees but is remunerated by a
salary of £500 per annum.
The existence of a deputy judge of the fleet appointed by
ADMIRALTY ISLANDS— ADMIRALTY JURISDICTION 205
the admiralty has been recognized by the king's regulations, bnt
no such officer had been appointed up to 1008.
la accordance with the provisions of § 61 of the Naval Disci-
pone Act 1866, in the absence of the judge advocate of the fleet
and bis deputy, an officiating judge advocate is appointed for
each court-martial His duties are described in detail by the
king's regulations, but may be summed up as consisting of
seeing that the charges are in order, pointing out any informalities
or defects in the charges or in the constitution of the court, seeing
that any witness required by prosecutor or prisoner is summoned,
keening the minutes of the proceedings, advising on matters of
law which arise at any time after the warrant for the court-
martial is issued, drawing up the findings and sentence, and
forwarding the minutes when completed to the admiralty. The
officiating judge advocate is usually the secretary of the flag-
officer convening the court-martial or some other officer of the
accountancy branch. He is remunerated for his services by a
axed fee for each day the court sits.
Ireland.— The High Court of Admiralty of Ireland, being
formed on the same pattern as the High Court in England, sat
m the Four Courts, Dublin, having a judge, a registrar, a marshal
and a king's or queen's advocate. In peace time and war time
alike it exercised only an instance jurisdiction, though in 1793
it daimed to exercise prize jurisdiction (see Adiokalty. Juris-
diction). No prize commission ever issued to it By the Irish
Jodkature Act of 1877 it was directed that it should be amalga-
mated with the Irish High Court of Justice upon the next
▼acancy in the office of judge, and this subsequently took place.
There was no separate lord high admiral for Ireland.
Scsdend.— At the Union, while the national functions of the
lord high admiral were merged in the English office it was pro-
Tided by the Act of Union that the Court of Admiralty in Scot-
hod should be continued " for determination of all maritime
cases relating to private rights in Scotland competent to the
jurisdiction of the Admiralty Court" This court continued till
1831, when its civil jurisdiction was given to the Court of Session
and the Sheriffs' Courts (see Adiokalty Jurisdiction).
See Sir Travers Twiss, Black Booh of the Admiralty, Rolls scries;
R- G. Manden. Select Pleas in the Court of Admiralty, published
by the Selden Society; Godolphin, View of the Admiral Juris-
tic&m. 7 F (W. G. F. P.)
ADMIRALTY ISLANDS, a group of about forty islands lying
north of New Guinea, between i° and 3 S., and 146° and 148
E-. within the Bismarck Archipelago, belonging to Germany.
The largest Manus, is about 60 m. in length, and its highest
point b about 3000 ft above the sea; the others are very small,
and rise little above sea-level. Most are of coral formation, but
the hills of Manus are believed to be extinct volcanoes. The
■lands were discovered by the Dutch in 1616, and visited in
1767 by Philip Carteret; but no landing seems to have been
effected, owing to the surrounding reefs, until the arrival of the
u Challenger " in 1 875. The natives are of the Papuan type, but
show signs of mixed origin. They are cannibals, and many
Borders of whites have taken place.
ADMIRALTY JURISDICTION. The courts by which, as far
fts we know, admiralty jurisdiction in civil matters was first
exercised were the following. In and throughout England the
courts of the several admirals soon combined into one High
Court of Admiralty (see Admiralty, High Court of). Within
the territories of the Cinque Ports the Court of Admiralty of the
Cinque Ports exercised a co-ordinate jurisdiction. In certain
towns and places there were local courts of vice-admiralty. In
Scotland there existed the Scottish High Court of Admiralty, in
Ireland the Irish High Court of Admiralty. Of these courts
that of the Cinque Ports alone remains untouched. The Scot-
tish court was abolished, and its civil jurisdiction given to the
Court of Session and to the courts of the sheriffs by the Court of
Session Act 1830— not, however, till a decision given by it and
lie appeal therefrom to the House of Lords had established a
Rmarkable rule of admiralty law in cases of collision (Hay v. It
'ew, 1824. * Shaw, Sc App. Cas. 395). The act states that the
Coort of Justiciary held cumulative jurisdiction with the Court of
Admiralty in criminal matters. The local vice-admiralty courts
in England had ceased to do much work when they were abol-
ished by the Municipal Corporations Act 1835; the High Court
became, with the other superior courts, a component part of
the High Court of Justice by virtue of the Judicature Acts
1873 and 1875. And the Irish court has in like manner become
a part of the High Court of Justice in Ireland by virtue of the
Judicature Act passed in 1877.
As England first, and Great Britain afterwards, acquired
colonies and possessions beyond seas, vice-admiral ty courts
were established. The earliest known was that in .__
Jamaica, established in the year 1662. Some vice- JSE*.^
admiralty courts which were created for prize purposes Coarta.
in the last century were suffered to expire after 1815.
In the year 1863, when the act regulating the vice-admiralty
courts was passed, there were vice-admiralty courts at Antigua,
Bahamas, Barbadoes, Bermuda, British Columbia, British
Guiana, British Honduras, Cape of Good Hope,CeyIon,Dominica,
Falkland Islands, Gambia River, Gibraltar, Gold Coast, Grenada,
Hong Kong, Jamaica, Labuan, Lagos, Lower Canada (otherwise
Quebec), Malta, Mauritius, Montserrat, Natal, Nevis, New
Brunswick, Newfoundland, New South Wales, New Zealand,
Nova Scotia (otherwise Halifax), Prince Edward Island, Queens-
land, St Christopher, St Helena, St Lucia, St Vincent, Sierra
Leone, South Australia, Tasmania, Tobago, Trinidad, Van-
couver's Island, Victoria, Virgin Islands (otherwise Tortola), and
Western Australia, and (for matters of the slave trade only)
Aden. By the act of 1867 one for the Straits Settlements was
added. These courts have been regulated from time to time by
the following statutes: 2 and 3 Will. IV. c. 51, 26 and 27 Vict
c. 24 (Vice-Admiralty Courts Act 1863), already cited, and 30
and 31 Vict c. 45 (Vice-Admiralty Courts Act Amendment Act
1867); and by the slave trade acts, of which the last and consoli-
dating act was that of 1873.
In 1890 the Colonial Courts of Admiralty Act provided that,
except in the colonies of New South Wales, Victoria, St
Helena and British Honduras, vice-admiralty courts should be
abolished, and a substitution made of colonial courts of ad-
miralty. There is power, however, reserved to the crown to
erect through the admiralty in any British possession any vice-
admiralty court, except in India or any British possession having
a representative legislature. No vice-admiralty court so estab-
lished can exercise any jurisdiction except for some purpose
relating to prize, the royal navy, the slave trade, foreign enlist-
ment, Pacific Islanders' protection, and questions relating to
treaties or conventions on international law. Vice-admiralty
courts exercised all usual admiralty jurisdiction, and in addition
a certain revenue jurisdiction, and jurisdiction over matters of
slave trade and prize and under the Pacific Islanders' Protection
Act. The appeal from vice-admiralty courts used to lie to the
High Court of Admiralty of England, but has been transferred
to the king in council.
By the Colonial Courts of Admiralty Act 1800, already referred
to, every court of law in a British possession which
is declared by its legislature to be such, or if there co*Zt*ot
be no such declaration, which has original unlimited Admintty.
civil jurisdiction, shall be a court of admiralty.
There used at one time lo be vice-admiralty courts for
Calcutta, Madras and Bombay; but by the India High JMto>
Courts Act 1861, § 9, the admiralty jurisdiction is given
to the High Courts of these places.
Consular courts established in Turkey, China and Japan
have had admiralty jurisdiction given to them, and Cto|rf(fi
by § 12 of the Colonial Admiralty Courts Act any court*.
court established by H.M. for the exercise of jurisdic-
tion in any place outside H.M.'s dominion may have admiralty
jurisdiction granted to it.
By the Commonwealth of Australia Constitution Act 1900
a federal supreme court, to be called the High Court of Amst nHm.
Australians created .and the parliament of the Common-
wealth may make laws conferring original jurisdiction on the
High Court in matters of admiralty and maritime jurisdiction.
206
ADMIRALTY JURISDICTION
There is a court of admiralty in the Isle of Man of which the
water-bailiff is judge. He is also styled admiral It is
J™ said to have jurisdiction in salvage and over other man-
time matters occurring within 3 leagues from the shore.
Modern statutes have given admiralty jurisdiction to the City
of London Court, the Court of Passage and to the county courts
in the following matters: Salvage, where the value
of the salved property does not exceed £1000, or the
Count. claim for reward £300 ; towage, necessaries and wages,
where the claim does not exceed £150; claims for
damage to cargo, or by collision, up to £300 (and for sums above
these prescribed limits by agreement between the parties);
and claims arising out of breaches of charter parties and other
contracts for carriage of goods in foreign ships, or torts in respect
thereof, up to £300. This jurisdiction is restricted to subjects
over which jurisdiction was possessed by the High Court of
Admiralty at the time when the first of these acts was passed,
except as regards the last branch of it (the "Aline" 1880, 5 Ex.
Div. 227 ; R. v. Judge of City of London Court, 1892, 1 Q.B. 272).
In analogy with the county court admiralty jurisdiction created
in England, a limited admiralty jurisdiction has been given in
Ireland to the recorders of certain boroughs and the chairmen
of certain quarter sessions ; and in salvage cases, where a county
court in England would have jurisdiction, magistrates, recorders
and chairmen of quarter sessions may have jurisdiction as official
arbitrators (Merchant Shipping Act 1804, § 547)* In Scotland,
admiralty suits in cases not exceeding the value of £25 are
exclusively tried in the sheriff's court ; while over that limit the
sheriff's court and the Court of Session have concurrent juris-
diction. The sheriff has also criminal admiralty jurisdiction,
but only as to crimes which he would be competent to try if
committed on land (The Court of Session Act 1830, §§ 21 and 22).
By an act of 1821 an arbitral jurisdiction in cases of salvage
was given to certain commissioners of the Cinque Ports.
The appeal from county courts and commissioners is to the
High Court of Justice, and is exercised by a divisional court
^ h of the Probate, Divorce and Admiralty Division. In
cases arising within the Cinque pQrts there is an optional
appeal to the Admiralty Court of the Cinque Ports. The appeal
from the High Court of Justice is in ordinary admiralty matters,
as in others, to the Court of Appeal, and from thence- to the
House of Lords. But it is specially provided by the Judicature
Act x8oi, as it was by the Prize- Act 1864, that the appeal in
prize cases shall be to the sovereign in council.
The unfortunate provisions of the legislature, giving to the
jurisdiction of county courts different money limits in admiralty
equity and common law cases, make the distinction between
cases coming under the admiralty jurisdiction and other civil
cases of practical moment in those courts. Arguments full of
learning and research have been addressed to the courts, and
weighty decisions have been given, upon questions which would
never have arisen if the county courts had not a larger money
area of jurisdiction in admiralty cases than they have
in other matters (R. v. Judge of City of London Court,
1892, x QB. 273; the "Zcta," 1803, App. Cas. 468).
But as regards the high courts, whether in England, Scotland or
Ireland, it is not now necessary to distinguish their civil admiralty
jurisdiction from their ordinary civil jurisdiction, except for the
purpose of seeing whether there can or cannot be process in
rem. Not that every admiralty action can of right be brought
in rem, but that no process in rem lies at the suit of a subject
unless it be for a matter of admiralty jurisdiction— one, for
instance, that could in England have been tried in the High Court
of Admiralty. Now these matters of admiralty jurisdiction with
process in rem range themselves under four primary and four
supplementary heads. The four primary are damage, salvage,
bottomry, wages; and the four supplementary are extensions
due to one or other of the statutes of 1840 (Admiralty Court)
and 1 86 1 (Admiralty Court Act). They are damage to cargo
carried in a ship, necessaries supplied to a ship, mortgage of ship,
and master's claim for wages and disbursements on account of a
ship. In all these cases, primary and secondary, the process of
OvajarU-
which a plaintiff can avail himself for redress, may be either ta
personam as in other civil suits, or by arrest of the ship, and, in
cases of salvage and bottomry, the cargo. Whenever, also, the
ship can be arrested, any freight due can also be attached, by
arrest of the cargo to the extent only of the freight which it has
to pay. For the purpose of ascertaining whether or not process
in rem would lie, there have been distinctions as nice, and the
line of admiralty jurisdiction has been drawn as carefully, as in
the cases of the admiralty jurisdiction of the county courts (the
"Tketa," 1804, Prob. 280; the "Gas Float WkiUon," 1807, App.
Cas. 33 7). There have been similar questions raised in the United
States, from De Lovio v. Boil (181 5, 2 Gallison, 398), and Ramsay
v. Allegre (1827, 12 Wheaton, 6ji), down to the quite modern
cases which will be found quoted in the arguments and judg-
ments in the "Gas Float WkiUon."
The disciplinary jurisdiction at one time exerdsed by the
Admiralty Court, over both the royal navy and merchant vessels,
may be said to be obsolete in time of peace, the last
remnant of it being suits against merchantmen for JJ£
flying flags appropriate to men-of-war (the "Minerva"
1800, 3 C. Rob. 34), a matter now more effectively provided
against by the Merchant Shipping Act 1804. In time of war,
however, it was exercised in some instances as long as the Ad-
miralty Court lasted, and is now in consequence exercisable by
the High Court of Justice (see Prise below). It was, perhaps*
in-- consequence of its ancient disciplinary jurisdiction that the
Admiralty Court was made the court to enforce certain portions
of the Foreign Enlistment Act 187a
Finally, appeals from decisions of courts of inquiry, under
the Merchant Shipping Act, cancelling or suspending the certifi-
cates of officers in the merchant service, may be made to the
Probate, Divorce and Admiralty Division of the High Court of
Justice.
The admiralty jurisdiction to criminal matters extends over
all crimes committed on board British ships at sea or in tidal
waters, even though such tidal waters be well within . .
foreign territory {R. v. Anderson, 1868, L.R. x C.C.R. rmt
x6i), but not over crimes committed on board foreign
vessels upon the high seas (R. v. Serva, 1845, x Denison C.C.
X04). Whether it extended over crimes committed on foreign
ships within territorial waters of. the United Kingdom, and
whether a zone of three miles round the shores of the United
Kingdom was for such purpose territorial water, were the great
questions raised in R. v. Keyn (the "Franconia," L.R. a Ex.
Div. 126), and decided in the negative by the majority of the
judges, rightly, as the writer of this article respectfully thinks.
Since then, however, the legislature has brought these waters
within the jurisdiction of the admiralty by the Territorial Waters
Jurisdiction Act 1878. Section 2 runs as follows : " An offence
committed by a person, whether he is or is not a British subject,
on the open sea within the territorial waters of British dominions,
is an offence within the jurisdiction of the admiral, although
it may have been committed on board or by means of a foreign
ship, and the person who committed such offence may be ar-
rested, tried and punished accordingly." By § 7 the " juris-
diction of the admiral " is defined as " including the jurisdiction
of the admiralty of England or Ireland, or either of such juris-
dictions as used in any act of parliament ; and for the purpose of
arresting any person charged with an offence declared by this
act to be within the jurisdiction of the admiral, the territorial
waters adjacent to the United Kingdom, or any other part of
her majesty's dominions, shall be deemed to be within the
jurisdiction of any judge, magistrate or officer." And " terri-
torial waters of her majesty's dominions" are defined as " in
reference to the sea, meaning such part of the sea adjacent to
the coast of the United Kingdom, or the coast of some other
part of her majesty's dominions, as is deemed by international
law to be within the territorial sovereignty of her majesty; and
for the purpose of any offence declared by this act to be within
the jurisdiction of the admiral, any part of the open sea within
one marine league of the coast, measured from low-water mark*
shall be deemed to be open sea within the territorial waters of
ADMIRALTY JURISDICTION
her majesty's dominions." As to those portions of the sea and
tidal waters which, by reason of their partially land-locked
positions, are deemed to be in the body of a county, there is not
admiralty jurisdiction, but Crimea are tried as if they were com-
mitted on land within the same county.
Pirates, whatever flag they pretended to fly, were, from 1360
onwards, wherever their crimes were committed, subject to the
admiralty jurisdiction. The criminal jurisdiction of the ad-
miralty was first exercised by the High Court of Admiralty;
and then, by virtue of the Offences at Sea Act 1536, transferred
to commissioners appointed under the great seal, among whom
were to be the admiral or admirals, his or their deputies. Ad-
miralty sessions were held for this purpose till 1834. Admiralty
criminal jurisdiction is now, by virtue of the series of statutes,
the Offences at Sea Act 1799, the Central Criminal Court Act
1834, Offences at Sea Act 1844, and the criminal law consolida-
tion acts passed in 1861, exercised by the Central Criminal Court
and by the ordinary courts of assize. Special provision for trial
in the colonies of offences committed at sea has been made
by an act of William III. (1608-1609), the Offences at Sea Act
1806, and the Admiralty Offences (Colonial) Act 1849.
The Admiralty Court had jurisdiction in matters of prize
from very early times; and although since the middle of the
|ttfc 17th century the instance, or ordinary civil jurisdiction
of the court, has been kept distinct from the prize
jurisdiction, they were originally both administered and regarded
as being within the ordinary jurisdiction of the lord high admiral
The early records of the admiralty show that the origin of the
prize jurisdiction is to be traced to the power given to the court
of the admiral to try cases of piracy and " spoil," i.e. captures
of foreign ships by English ships. The earliest recorded case of
«pofl tried before the admiral is in 1357, when the goods of a
Portuguese subject, taken at sea by Englishmen from a French
ship which had previously spoiled a Portuguese, were awarded
by the admiral as good prize to the English captors ; and
Edward HI. in a letter to the king of Portugal answering a com-
plaint on the subject gives the admiral's decision as a reason
for refusing their restoration. During the 16th century a very
huge part of the business of the Admiralty Court related to spoil
and piracy, and the privy council often directed the judge of
the court how to deal with the spoil cases, with regard to which
foreigners who had suffered from attacks by English ships made
petition for redress to the admiral or the council. The spoil
wit at this time (causa spoilt) was a civil proceeding resulting
m a decree absdutoria, dismissing the defendant, or condemna-
tana, ordering restoration to be made by him. In x 585 the paten t
of Howard, the lord high admiral, authorized him to issue
letters of reprisal against Spain; and an order in council regu-
lating the conduct of those to whom such letters were issued
provided by an additional article (1859) that all prizes were to be
brought in without breaking of bulk for adjudication by the
Admiralty Court. The court was also resorted to at this time
by captors, sailing under commissions granted by the allies of
England, such as the king of France and the Dutch. About the
middle of the 17th century separate sittings of the court for
instance and prize business began, perhaps because of the con-
fiding claims to droits of Charles II. and the duke of York as lord
high admiral; and privateering under royal commission took
the place of the former irregular "spoiling." The account
*hkh Lord Mansfield gave of the records of the Admiralty Court,
that there were no prize act books earlier than 1641, or prize
•ententes earlier than 1648, and that before 1690 the records
•ere in confusion, must be qualified by the correction that
there are in existence prize sentences (on paper, not parchment)
ss early as 1589.
Although the courts of common law hardly ever seem to have
interfered with or disputed the admiralty prize jurisdiction, its
adusive nature was not finally admitted till 178a; but long
Previously royal ordinances (isia, 1602) and statutes (1661,
pving an alternative of commissioners, 1670, 1706) had given
the Admiralty Court the only express jurisdiction over prize.
The same statute of Anne and acts of 1739 and 1744 give prize
207
jurisdiction to any court of admiralty, and the courts of ad-
miralty for the colonies and plantations in North America.
It has been a disputed question whether the prize jurisdiction
of the court was inherent, i.e. coming within the powers given
by the general patent of the judge, in which no express mention
of it is made, or whether it required a special commission. Upon
this subject the judgment of Lord Mansfield in Linda v. Rodney
(178a, Dougl. 612), the judgment of Mr Justice Story in De
Lovio v. Boit (1815, a Gallison, 398), and Marsden's Select Pleas
of the Court of Admiralty (introduction), may be consulted.
But the settled practice now and for a long time past has been
for a special commission and warrant to be issued for this pur-
pose. In connexion with this it is observable that in 1793 the
Admiralty Court of Ireland claimed to exercise prize jurisdiction
under its general patent; and it is said to have been the opinion
of Sir W. Wynne that the Admiralty Court of Scotland had a
similar right (Brown, Civil Law of Admiralty, vol. ii. 211, 212).
Any jurisdiction of the Scottish court over prize of war was
transferred to the English court by the Court of Session Act 1825,
§ 57. As to the Irish court, by the Act of Union it was pro-
vided that there should remain in Ireland an instance court of
admiralty for the determination of causes civil and maritime
only.
In 1864 the constitution and procedure of prize courts, which
had until then been prescribed by occasional acts passed for
each war as it arose, were for the first time made permanent by
the Naval Prize Act, by which the High Court of Admiralty
and every admiralty or vice-admiralty court, or any other court
exercising admiralty jurisdiction in British dominions, if for the
time being authorized to exercise prize jurisdiction, were made
prize courts. The High Court of Admiralty was given jurisdic-
tion throughout British dominions as a prize court, and, as such,
power to enforce any order of a vice-admiralty prize court and
the judicial committee of the privy council in prize appeals —
this power mutatis mutandis being also given to vice-admiralty
prize courts. An appeal was given from any prize court to the
sovereign in council. Prize courts were given jurisdiction in
cases of captures made in a land expedition or an expedition
made conjointly with allied forces, and power to give prize
salvage ori recaptured ships and prize bounty; and a form of
procedure was prescribed. The High Court was also given ex-
clusive jurisdiction as a prize court over questions of ransom
and petitions of right in prize cases, and power to punish masters
of ships under convoy disobeying orders or deserting convoy.
By the Naval Discipline Act 1866, power to award damages
to convoyed ships exposed to danger by the fault of the officer
in charge of the convoy was also given to the High Court. Under
other statutes it had power to try questions of booty of war
when referred to it by the crown, in the same way as prize
causes, and claims of king's ships for salvage on recaptures from
pirates, which could be condemned as droits of admiralty, sub-
ject to the owner's right to receive them on paying one-eighth of
the value, and also power to seize and restore prizes captured by
belligerents in violation of British neutrality, or by a ship equipped
in British ports contrary to British obligations of neutrality.
All jurisdiction of the High Court of Admiralty has since
passed to the High Court of Justice, which is made a prize court
under the Naval Prize Act, with all the powers of the Admiralty
Court in that respect; and all prize causes and matters within
the jurisdiction of that court as a prize court are assigned to
the Probate, Divorce and Admiralty Division; and an appeal
from it as a prize court lies only to the king in council (Judicature
Acts 1873 ind 1891).
By an act of 1894 further provision is made for the consti-
tution of prize courts in British possessions. A commission,
warrant or instruction from the crown or the admiralty may
be issued at any time, even in peace; and upon such issue,
subject to instructions from the crown, the vice-admiral of the
possessions on being satisfied by information from a secretary
of state that war has broken out between Great Britain and a
foreign state, may make proclamation to that effect, and the
commission or warrant comes into effect. The commission or
208
ADMIRALTY JURISDICTION
warrant may authorize a vice-admiralty court or colonial court
of admiralty to act as a prize court, or establish a vice-admiralty
court for that purpose, and may be revoked or altered at any
time. The court is authorized to act as a prize court during the
war, and shall after its conclusion continue to act as such, and
finally dispose of all matters and things arising during the war,
including all penalties and forfeitures incurred therein. Rules
of court may also be made by order in council for regulating,
subject to the Naval Prize Act, the procedure and practice of
prize courts under that act, the duties and conduct of their
officers and practitioners, and the fees and costs therein (Prize
Courts Act 1894, §§2, 3). This latter power has been exercised;
and prize rules for the High Court of Justice and the vice-
admiralty prize courts were framed in 1898 (Statutory Rules and
Orders, 1898).
Authorities. — Marsden, Select Pleas of the Court of Admiralty,
Selden Society, London, 1892 and 1897; Zouch, Jurisdiction of the
Admiralty of England asserted; Robinson, Collectanea MarUxma;
Brown, Admiralty; Edwardes, Admiralty; Phillimore, International
Law, vol. i., vol. iii. part xi.; Pritchard, Admiralty Digest, tit.
Jurisdiction. (W. G. F. P.)
United States
The source of admiralty jurisdiction in the United States
is Article 3, § a of the United States Constitution:— "The
judicial power shall extend to all cases of admiralty and mari-
time jurisdiction." The United States Supreme Court has
declared that by virtue of these words the admiralty jurisdiction
extends not only to the high seas but to the great lakes and the
rivers connecting them, and to all public navigable waters in
the United States (the " Genesee Chief " v. Fito-Hugh, 1 2 Howards
U.S. Rep. 443), including even interstate canals (Ex. p. Boyer,
109 U.S. Rep. 629, the "Robert W. Parsons," [1903) 191 U.S.
17), and is not confined to tide waters. The American colonies I
had vice-admiralty courts with an admiralty jurisdiction equal to
the largest claimed by the English admiralty courts even under
Edward III. When they became states they delegated to the
federal government their several "admiralty and maritime
jurisdiction," using these words in the sense understood in every
country in Europe, England excepted, and in the sense in which
they had then been used in the colonies for a long time, and
without reference to the very narrow jurisdiction of the English
admiralty courts then existing (Waring v. Clark, 5 Howards
U.S. Rep. 441).
It is settled as to the United States admiralty jurisdiction not
that it is " co-equal with that of the original English, or that of
continental European admiralty, but is rather that defined by
the statutes of Richard II., under the construction given to them
by contemporary or immediately subsequent courts of admir-
alty " (2 Parsons Aim. 176), and that it embraced all maritime
contracts, torts, injuries or offences (De Lovio v. Boil, 2 Calli-
sons Rep. 398; Waring v. Clark, 5 Howards U.S. Rep. 441), and
that it has never been restricted by the action of the common
law courts as in England under Lord Coke (2 Parsons Adm.
166 n.; Waring v. Clark; De Lovio v. Boil).
Original admiralty jurisdiction was by the Judiciary Act of
1789 (U.S. Rev. Stals. § 563) granted to the United States dis-
trict courts exclusively, except that concurrent original juris-
diction was given to United States circuit courts over seizures
for slave trading, and condemnations of property used by persons
in insurrection (§ 629; § 5309), and in the coolie trade (§ 2159),
and by the act of the 3rd of March xooi ; the supreme court of the
District of Columbia is given the same jurisdiction as the district
and circuit courts. The Supreme Court of the United States has
no original jurisdiction in admiralty. All suits are brought in
the first instance in the district court. Appeals lie, both on the
law and on the facts, from a final decree of that court to the
circuit court of appeals only, except in cases involving the juris-
diction of the court, the constitutionality of a law of any stale
or of the United States, or the validity or construction of any
treaty of the United States, and except cases of prize and capital
or infamous crime, in which cases of appeal lies directly to the
supreme court. In cases of gravity and importance the Supreme
Court may by certiorari review the judgment of the circuit court of
appeals, but such cases are rare (re Lou Ow Bew, 141 VS. Rep.
587; Benedict's The American Admiralty, § 607). Formerly the
Judiciary Act authorized an appeal from die district court to the
circuit court, and thence to the Supreme Court. But the act of the
3rd of March 1891 (Ch. 517) abolished this and created the circuit
court of appeals, making it the final appellate court in admiralty,
except as above stated. In any case where the district judge
is unable to perform bis duties or is disqualified by reason of
interest or of relationship, or has acted as counsel for one of the
parties to the action, it may bo removed to the circuit court in
that district (U.S. Rev. Stats. §§ 587, 589 and 601). These are
now the only cases in which admiralty suits can come before the
circuit court (Benedict's Adm. \ 321).
The subject matter in cases of contract determines the juris-
diction (the "General Smith," 4 Wheaton U.S. Rep. 438). and
not the presence or absence of tide, salt water, current, nor that
the water be an inland basin or land-locked, or a river, nor by
its being a harbour, or a port within the body of the county, nor
that a remedy exists at common law. The admiralty courts have
jurisdiction over all matters that concern owners and proprietors
of ships as such; possessory actions and petitory actions to
try tide of a ship; cases of mariners' wages, wharfage, dock-
age, lighterage, stevedores, contracts of affreightment, charter
parties, rights of passengers as such (the "Moses Taylor" 71
U.S. Rep. 411), pilotage, towage, maritime liens and loans,
bottomry, respondentia and hypothecation of ship and cargo,
marine insurance, average, jettison, demurrage, collisions, con-
sortship, bounties, survey and sale of vessel, salvage, seizures
under the laws of impost navigation or trade, cases of prize,
ransom, condemnation, restitution and damages; assaults,
batteries, damages and trespasses on the high seas and navigable
waters of the United States; but not suits in rem for duties
(Benedict's Adm. \ 303a).
The U.S. Supreme Court has held in Peoples Ferry Co.
v. Beers, 20 Howards U.S. Rep. 393, and in a series of subse-
quent cases that a contract to build a vessel is not a maritime
■contract (the "Robert W. Parsons ") . Contracts to furnish cargo
for ships and to furnish ships to carry the cargoes are maritime
contracts (Graham v. Oregon R.&N. Co., [ 1905] 135 Fed. Rep.
608).
Whenever there is a maritime lien, even though created by
state statute as to a ship in her home port, it may be enforced
by suit in rem in admiralty in the .federal courts (the " General
Smith"; the "Loltawanna t " 21 Wallace Rep. 558, Benedict's
Adm. § 270). In all suits by material men for supplies and
repairs or other necessaries for a foreign ship, the libellant may
proceed against the ship and freight in rem or against the master
or owner in personam (12th Admiralty Rule; Benedict's Adm.
$268; the " General Smith "). Actions in rem and in personam
may be joined in the same libel (Newell v. Norton, 3 Wallace
257; the "NormandU," 40 Fed. Rep. 500). But a contract to
furnish fishermen with clothing, tobacco and other personal
effects for use on a voyage is not a maritime contract, and a court
of admiralty has no jurisdiction to enforce it in rem (the " May
F. Chisholm," 1004; 129 Fed. Rep. 814). The state courts,
have no jurisdiction in rem over any maritime contract or tort
(the "Lollawanna," the "Belfast," 7 Wallace Rep. 624). Ad-
miralty jurisdiction in tort depends on locality; it must have
occurred on the high seas or other navigable waters within
admiralty cognizance (2 Parsons Adm. 347; the " Plymouth"
3 Wallace Rep. 20; the "Genesee Chief" v. FiU-Hugh, the
" Blackheaih," [1003] 122 Fed. Rep. X12).
The U.S. Supreme Court in the " Hamburg n (ri$ U.S. 109)
and the " Alaska" (130 U.S. 207), after some conflict of opinion,
held that the admiralty courts have no jurisdiction under the
general admiralty law to try an action for damages for negli-
gence on the high seas, causing death of a human being, while
there was no act of Congress and no statute of the state to which
the vessel belonged giving such right of action (Benedict's Adm.
§fi 275-3ooa), nor where such statute is that of a foreign country
(Rundell v. Compagnie Gtnerale, [1899] 94 Fed. Rep. 366).
Admiralty has jurisdiction in cases of spoliation and piracy.
ADMIRALTY JURISDICTION
Woo and proceedings by owners to limit their liability under
VS. Rev. Stats. §( 4381-0.
The United States admiralty courts have always had jurisdic-
tion in matters of prize (The Prist Cases, 2 Black U.S. Rep. 635).
The district courts have exclusive original jurisdiction (except
that circuit courts also have jurisdiction when prize is taken
from persons in insurrection), and the supreme court of the
District of Columbia now has concurrent jurisdiction (US. v.
Sampson, zoos, 187 U.S. 436) and appeals are direct to the
Supreme Court Special commissioners are appointed on the
breaking out of hostilities to act under the orders of the district
courts (U.S. Rev. Stats. § 4631, Prize Rule 9, Benedict's Adm.
§500; 680 Pieces Merchandise, 2 Sprague 233). These commis-
sioners take the depositions of witnesses and report to the court
the evidence upon which it adjudicates. Proceedings in prize
cases must be in conformity with admiralty proceedings, where
the seizure is on land (Union Insurance Co. v. US., 6 Wallace
759; i Parsons Adm. 174). The district courts have all the
powers of a court of admiralty whether as instance or prize courts
(GZ&u v. sloop " Betsy," 3 Dallas 6). To adjudicate in matters
of prize is one of the ordinary functions of that court (Benedict's
Aim. f 509).
The admiralty courts have jurisdiction over crimes and
offences committed upon vessels belonging to citizens of the
United States on the high seas or any arm of the sea or any
nters within the admiralty and maritime jurisdiction of the
United States (U.S. Rev. Stats. § 5339). High seas include the
great lakes (US. v. Rogers, 150 U.S. 349). 0- A. Ba.)
Other Countries
la France, and in Belgium, Spain, Portugal, Italy and Greece
—countries which have adopted codes based on the Code Napo-
Aw^ leon— the civil, or, as it would have been formerly
— 4 called in England, the "instance," jurisdiction of
iSwtM *** * dmiraltv k «crciscd by the ordinary tribunals,
■— „ and there are no separate courts of admiralty for
this purpose. France and some other countries
save special commercial tribunals, which deal with shipping
utters, but also with ordinary commercial cases. France
kas also tribunaux maritimes commerciaux (Code disciphnatre et
ptmd it la Marine marchande du 24 mars 1853, lot du xi mars
1801) to deal with maritime offences. Austria adopts the
French law in commercial matters. Italy had tribunals of com-
nerce, but has given them up. She has, however, by Art 14
of her Merchant Shipping Code, given jurisdiction to captains
of ports to decide collision cases when the sum in dispute does
sot exceed 200 lire.
In Germany there are no special tribunals for admiralty
natters. KammernfUr Handelssachen, commercial courts, have
iu mmi been established in Berlin and some of the principal
seaports. These deal with shipping matters, but also
«uh all other commercial suits.
la Denmark, Sweden and Norway there is a maritime code
*fcich came into force in Sweden in 1891, in Denmark in 1893,
and in Norway in 1893. This was intended to be one
code for the three countries; but each country as it
finally adopted the code made some modifications of its
own. Under this code there are in Norway permanent
maritime courts for each town presided over by the judge
of the inferior local civil court (emit under dbmmer), or if there
be more than one such judge then by the president, with two
uttssors chosen out of a list Temporary local courts, con-
sstiag of the same judge with two other members of nautical
skill and knowledge, can be constituted in districts where there
ue no permanent courts. Appeals lie to the supreme court
(BUesteret). In Denmark maritime cases are brought before
i*t local courts constituted for maritime and commercial causes
{ ^H-Handelsret). In Sweden maritime cases are brought
"dote local courts of first instance consisting of a judge and
faesson. There is an intermediate appeal to courts of second
ostauce, and then to the supreme court, which finally decides
Voa aO causes civil and commercial.
209
Maritime cases in Holland are tried by the ordinary dvfl
tribunals, with the same right of appeal.
" By the maritime law of nations universally and immemori-
ally received there is an established method of determination
whether the capture be or be not lawful prize. Before
the ship or goods can be disposed of by the captor EjJ
there must be a regular judicial proceeding wherein dkttoa.
both parties may be heard and condemnation there-
upon as prize in a court of admiralty judging by the law of
nations and treaties. ... If the sentence of the court of ad-
miralty is thought to be erroneous, there is in every maritime
country a superior court of review. . . . " (duke of Newcastle's
letter to M. Michell, secretary to the embassy of the king of
Prussia, 1753). "So far as. belligerent states do not make a
practice of giving up the taking of booty at sea . . . they are
required by international law to establish prize tribunals and
thus give to their proceedings in the matter of prize a judicial
character" (v. Holtzendorff, Recktslexikon, tit. "Prisengerichte").
In France till the death of the duke of Montmorency in 1633
prize matters were adjudicated upon by the admiral The duke
had sold the office of admiral some years before his death to
Cardinal Richelieu; but about the period of the duke's death
the office of admiral appears to have been abolished, and one
of grand master of navigation established in lieu. This new
office was first held by Cardinal Richelieu and continued till
1695. T be grand master took the admiral's place in matters of
prize; but in 1659 a commission of councillors of state and
masters of requests was appointed to assist the grand master
and form a Conseil des Prises. From this conseil there was an
appeal to the Conseil d'Alat. When the office of admiral was
restored in 1695 he exercised his jurisdiction in prize matters
with the assistance of the Conseil des Prises. The appeal was
then given to the Conseil Royal des Finances. The Ordonnance
sur la marine of August x68x regulated the procedure. This
system continued till the Revolution. The last Conseil des
Prises was appointed in 1778 A law of the 14th of February
1793 abolished the Conseil des Prises and gave cognizance of
prize matters "provisionally" to the tribunals of commerce.
On the 8th of November 1793 (18 Brumaire, an II.) this jurisdic-
tion was taken from the tribunals of commerce and given to the
Conseil ExUutif Later it was given to the Comiti de Salui
Public. On the 35th of October 1795 (3 Brumaire, an IV.) the
jurisdiction was restored to the tribunals of commerce. This
was again altered on the 37th of March 1800 (6 Germinal, an
VIII.), when a Conseil des Prises was established, consisting of
nine councillors of state, a commissar)' of the government and
a secretary, all nominated by the First Consul.
On the nth of June 1806 an appeal was given to the Conseil
d'&at. It was disputed among French jurists whether the
Conseil des Prises was to be considered as a body actuated only
by political considerations or one exercising what the French
term an "administrative jurisdiction "; which is, as nearly as a
parallel to it can be found in England, administration of justice
between individuals and the state.
As most of the cases arising out of the great wars had been
dealt with, an ordinance of the 9th of January 1815 suppressed
the Conseil des Prises and directed the Comiti du contentieux of
the Conseil d'JZtat to prepare the remaining prize matters for
decision -by the Conseil d'£tot. Such prize matters (probably
including captures for trading in slaves) as required to be dealt
with till 1854, appear to have been dealt with by this body;
an ordinance of the 9th of September 183 1 directing that the pro-
ceedings before the Conseil d'&lal should be private, was held to
show that the jurisdiction was not political but administrative.
An Imperial decree, however, of the 18th of July 1854 restored
the Conseil des Prises, with appeal to the Conseil d'Etat. This
was for the war with Russia A similar decree was published
on the 9th of May 1859 for the war with Austria in Italy.
On the 38th of November 1861 a further decree ordered that
the Conseil instituted in 1859 should so long as it was kept in
being decide all prize matters; and this Conseil has decided on
prizes taken in the wars with Mexico and Germany and in Cochin
la
210
China. It consists of seven judges and a commissary of the
government. An appeal to the government in the Conseil d'Etal
can be brought within three months. It is then decided by
VAssembUe du Conseil d'&kd.
Under the First Empire there were commissions da ports,
commissions colonials and commissions consulages* established
mainly to collect materials for the Conseil des Prises, but
sometimes, whon the ship and cargo were clearly those of the
enemy, proceeding to actual condemnation.
In Prussia Regulations of the 20th of June 1864 established a
prise council consisting of a president and six associates with a
law officer. An appeal was given to an upper prize council
(v. Holtzendorff, Rccktslexikon, tit. " Prisengerichte ")•
By a law of the German empire of the 3rd of May 1884 the
legality of prizes made during war has to be decided by prise
courts, and the imperial government is authorized to determine
the particulars as to the seat of such courts, their members and
their proceedings (ReichsgesettblaU of 1884, p. 49)* Prirc courts
were established under this law on the occasion of the East
African blockade in 1889 (ReichsgesettblaU of 1889, pp. 5 sqq.).
In Italy Art. 14 of the Merchant Shipping Code provides that
prize matters shall be tried by a special commission established
by royal decree. On the occasion of the war with Austria such
a special commission was established, by royal decree of the 20th
of June 1866 For the war with Abyssinia a fresh commission
was established by royal decree of the 16th of August 1806. The
composition of this commission, which was slightly different in
character from that established in 1866, was as follows: (a) a
first president of a court of appeal or a retired one, or a president
of a section of the council of state or of cassation, (b) two general
officers of the navy, (c) a member of the " contentious part " of
the diplomatic service, (d) two councillors of a court of appeal;
(e) a captain of a port, with a commissary of the government
and a secretary; five to be a quorum. There was no appeal;
but the ordinary right to have recourse to the Court of Cassation
at Rome, tf the prize commission proceeded without jurisdiction
or in excess of jurisdiction, was preserved.
By an ordinance of the 27th of March 1895 regulating the
whole matter of prize in Russia, two sorts of prize tribunals of
first instance were contemplated — port tribunals and fleet
tribunals. The latter are for captures made by ships of the fleet,
and are to be composed of some of the principal officers of the
fleet. The former arc to have presidents named by the emperor
from among those " qui font partie de I 'administration maritime
juduiairc", the other members are to be appointed by the
ministers of the navy, justice and foreign affairs. The cdUrt of
appeal is formed by the council of the admiralty with the addition
of two members of the senate and a nominee of the minister of
foreign affairs (Clunet, 1904, p. 271)
On the occasion of the Russo-Japanese war, port tribunals
were established under the authority of this ordinance by the
lord high admiral, the Grand Duke Alexis, on the 13th of
March 1004, at Sebastopol— Port Alexander III., Port Arthur
and Vladivostok (Clunet, 1904, p. 479; London Gazette, 22nd
March 1904). Many cases were heard before these tribunals
and on appeal.
The procedure in prize cases under the old law of Spain is
described in Abreu (Felix Joseph de Abreu y Bertodano), Tratado
juridico Politico sobre Prtsas de Mar (Cadiz, 1746). On the
occasion of the war with the United States the Spanish govern-
ment published a proclamation stating the circumstances in
which captures were to be made and prizes taken; but infor-
mation is lacking as to the particular constitution of the prize
court or courts.
In Greece prize questions are apparently left to be tried by the
ordinary tribunals. See decision of Civil Tribunal of Athens.
1808, No. 3385 (reported Clunet, xooo, p. 826).
Turkey during her war of 1877 with Russia established a prize
court and a court of appeal. The ordinance establishing these
courts is set out in the London GauUe of the 6th of July 1877.
Japan established, in the war (1904-5) with Russia, prize
courts at Saslbo and Yokosco with a court of appeal at Tokyo.
ADMISSION— ADOLESCENCE
Advocates were heard before these courts, and the procedure
seems generally to. have been modelled upon European patterns.
Authorities. —Clunet, Journal du droit international priel,
cited shortly as Clunet, v. Hotzendorff. R ec ktsle xiko n, Leipzig, i£8i ;
De Pistoye et Duverdy, Traill des prises maritime*, Paris. 1855,
vol. ii., tit. viii.; Phillimore, International Law, vol. i. vol. nt-
part xi.. Autran, Code international de r chordae*, de r assistance, et
du taumtage mariiimes, Paris. 1902; Raikes, The Maritime Codes
of Spam and Portugal (1896), of Holland and Belgium (1898). of Italy
(1900). London. (W. G. F. P.)
ADMISSION, in law, a statement made out of the witness-box
by a party to legal proceedings, whether civil or criminal, or by
some person whose statements are binding on that party against
the interest of that party. (See Evidence.)
ADO (d. 874), archbishop of Vienne in Lotharingia, belonged
to a famous Frankish house, and spent much of his middle life
in Italy. He held his archiepiscopal see from 859 till his death
on the 16th ot December 874. Several of his letters are extant
and reveal their writer as an energetic man of wide sympathies
and considerable influence. Ado's principal works are a Martyr 0-
logtum (printed inter al. in Migne, Patrolog. lot. cuiii pp. 181-
420, append, pp. 419-436), and chronicle, Ckronicon sioe Brevia-
rium ckronicorum de sex mundi aetatibus de Adamo usque ad ann.
869 (in Migne, exxiii. pp. 20-138, and Pertz, Monumenta Germ.
ii. pp. 315-323, &c). Ado's chronicle is based on that of Bede,
with which he combines extracts from the ordinary sources,
forming the whole into a consecutive narrative founded on the
conception of the unity of the Roman empire, which he traces
in the succession of the emperors, Charlemagne and his heirs
following immediately after Constantine and Irene. " It is."
says Wattenbach, " history from the point of view of authority
and preconceived opinion, which exclude any independent
judgment of events. " Ado wrote also a book on the miracles
(Miracula) of St Bernard, archbishop of Vienne (9th century),
published in the Boilandist Acta Sanctorum; a life or Mar-
tyrium of St Desiderius, bishop of Vienne (d. 608), written about
870 and published in Migne, exxiii. pp. 435*442', and a life of
St Theudericus, abbot of Vienne (563), published in Mabilkm,
Acta Sand. i. pp. 678-681. Migne, exxiii. pp 443-45°. and re-
vised in Boilandist Acta Sand 29th Oct. xii. pp. 840-843.
See W. Wattenbach. Deutschlands GesckicklsqueUen. voL L (Stutt-
gart and Berlin. 1904).
ADOBE (pronounced a-do-be, also corrupted to dobie; from
the Span adobar, to plaster, traceable through Arabic to an
Egyptian hieroglyph meaning " brick "), a Spanish-American
word for the sun-dried clay used by the Indians for building in
some of the south-western states of the American Union, this
method having been imported in the 1 6th century by Spaniards
from Mexico, Peru, &c A distinction b made between the
smaller " adobes, " which are about the size of ordinary baked
bricks, and the larger " adobines, " some of which are as much as
from one to two yards long.
ADOLESCENCE (Lat. adalescentia, from adoUscert, to grow
up, past part, adultus, grown up, Eng. " adult "), the term
now commonly adopted for the period between childhood and
maturity, during which the characteristics— mental, physical and
moral— that are to make or mar the individual disclose them-
selves, and then mature, in some cases by leaps and bounds, in
others by more gradual evolution. The annual rate of growth,
in height, weight and strength, increases to a marked extent
and may even be doubled. The development in the man takes
place in the direction of a greater strength, in the woman towards
a fitter form for maternity. The sex sense develops, the love of
nature and religion, and an overmastering curiosity both in-
dividual and general. This period of life, so fraught with its
power for good and ill, is accordingly the most important and
by far the most difficult for parents and educationists to deal
with efficiently. The chief points for attention may be briefly
indicated. Health depends mainly on two factors, heredity, or
the sum total of physical and mental leanings of the individual,
and environment In an ideal system of training these two
factors will be so fitted in and adapted to one another, that
what is weak or unprovided for in the first will be amply com-
pensated for in the second.
ADOLPH OF NASSAU— ADOLPHUS FREDERICK
211
In ia ideal condition children should be brought up in the
country as much as possible rather than in the town. Though
adults may live where they like within very wide limits and take
no harm, children, even of healthy stock, living in towns, are
continually subject to many minor ills, such as chronic catarrh,
toosffiiis t bronchitis,and even the far graver pneumonia. Removed
ro healthier conditions in the country their ailments tend to
disappear, and normal physical development supervenes. The
residence should be on a well-drained soil, preferably near the sea
ia the case of a delicate child, on higher ground for those of more
robust constitution. The child should be lightly clad in woollen
garments all the year round, their thickness being slightly greater
ia winter than in summer. An abundance of simple well-cooked
food in sufficient variety, ample time at table, where an atmo-
sphere of light gaiety should be cultivated, and a period free from
restraint both before and after meals, should be considered
fundamental essentials. As regards the most suitable kinds of
food— milk and fruit should be given in abundance, fresh meat
once a day, and fish or eggs once a day. Bread had better be
three days old, and baked in the form of small rolls to increase
the ratio of crust to crumb. Both butter and sugar are good
foods, and should be freely allowed in many forms.
The exercise of the body must be duly attended to Nowa-
days this is provided for in the shape of games, some being
optional, others prescribed, and such sports as boating, swim-
ming, fencing. &c But severe exercise should only be allowed
aader adequate medical control, and should be increased very
gradually. In the case of girls, let them run, leap and climb
with their brothers for the first twelve years or so of life But
u puberty approaches, with all the change, stress and* strain
dependent thereon, their lives should be appropriately modified.
Rest should be enforced during the menstrual periods of these
earlier years, and milder, more graduated exercise taken at other
time*. In the same way all mental strain should be diminished.
Instead of pressure being put on a girl's intellectual education
at about this time, as is too often the case, the time devoted to
school and books should be diminished. Education should be
ob broader, more fundamental lines, and much time should be
passed in the open air. With regard to the mental training of
both sexes two points must be borne in mind First, that an
ample number of hours should be set on one side for sleep, up to
tea years of age not less than eleven, and up to twenty years not
lest than nine. Secondly, that the time devoted to "book-
«ork " should be broken up into a number of short periods, very
carefully graduated to the individual child.
la every case where there is a family tendency towards any
certain disease or weakness, that tendency must determine the
whole circumstances of the child's life. That diathesis which is
most serious and usually least regarded, the nervous excitable
one. is by far the most important and the most difficult to deal
with. Every effort should be made to avoid the conditions in
*hkh the hereditary predisposition would be aroused into
Buschievous action, and to encourage development on simple
unexciting lines. The child should be confined to the school-
room but tittle and receive most of his training in wood and field
Other diatheses— the tuberculous, rheumatic, Ac. —must be dealt
with in appropriate ways.
The adolescent is prone to special weaknesses and moral per-
versions. The emotions are extremely unstable, and any stress
pat on them may lead to undesirable results. Warm climates,
tight-fitting clothes, corsets, rich foods, soft mattresses, or in-
dulgences of any kind, and abo mental over-stimulation, are
•specially to be guarded against. The day should be filled with
*tereus of an objective— in contradistinction to subjective —
kind, and the child should retire to bed at night healthily fatigued
* Dind and body. Let there be confidence between mother and
daughter, father and son. and, as the years bring the bodily
Ganges, those in whom the children trust can choose the fitting
ootaents for explaining their meaning and effect, and warning
•pinst abuses of the natural functions
For bibliography see Child
A901PH OF NASSAU (c 1255-1298). German king, ton of
Walram, count of Nassau. He appears to have received a good
education, and inherited his father's lands around Wiesbaden
in 1276. He won considerable fame as a mercenary in many
of the feuds of the time, and on the 5th of May 1292 was chosen
German king, in succession to Rudolph I., an election due rather
to the political conditions of the time than to jiis personal
qualities. He made large promises to his supporters, and was
crowned on the 1st of July at Aix-la-ChapeUe. Princes and
towns did homage to him, but his position was unstable, and the
allegiance of many of the princes, among them Albert I., duke of
Austria, son of the late king Rudolph, was merely nominal.
Seeking at once to strengthen the royal position, he claimed
Meissen as a vacant fief of the Empire, and in 1204 allied himself
with Edward I., king of England, against France. Edward
granted him a subsidy, but owing to a variety . of reasons
Adolph did not take the field against France, but turned his
arms against Thuringia, which he had purchased from the
landgrave Albert II. This bargain was resisted by the sons of
Albert, and from 1294 to 1206 Adolph was campaigning in
Meissen and Thuringia. Meissen was conquered, but he was not
equally successful in Thuringia, and his relations with Albeit of
Austria were becoming more strained. He had been unable to
fulfil the promises made at his election, and the princes began to
look with suspicion upon his designs. Wenceslaus II., king of
Bohemia, fell away from his allegiance, and his deposition was
decided on, and was carried out at Mainz, on the 23rd of May
1298, when Albert of Austria was elected his successor. The
forces of the rival kings met at Gollheim on the 2nd of July
1208, where Adolph was killed, it is said by the hand of Albert
He was buried at Rosenthal, and in 1309 his remains were
removed to Spires.
See F. W. E. Roth, Gesckkkte des Romiscken Konigs Addf J. von
Nassau (Wiesbaden, 1879): V. Domeier, Die Absetsung Adolf s von
Nassau (Berlin. 1889) ; L. Ennen, Die Wahl des Konigs Adolf von
Nassau (Cologne, 1866); L. Schmid, Die Wahl des Graf en A dot J
von Nassau sum Romiscken Konig; B. Gebhardt, Handbuck der
deutscken Gesckkkte, Band i. (Berlin, 1901).
ADOLPHUS, JOHN LEYCESTER (1705-1862), English lawyer
and author, was the son of John Adolphus (1768-1845), a well-
known London barrister who wrote a History of England to
1783 (1802), a History of France from J700 (1803) and other
works. He was educated at Merchant Taylors' School and at
St. John's College, Oxford. In 182 1 he published Letters to
Richard Heber, Esq., in which he discussed the authorship of the
then anonymous Waverley novels, and fixed it upon Sir Walter
Scott This conclusion was based on the resemblance of the
novels in general style and method to the poems acknowledged
by Scott. Scott thought at first that the letters were written
by Reginald Heber, afterwards bishop of Calcutta, and the
discovery of J. L. Adolphus's identity led to a warm friend-
ship. Adolphus was called to the bar in 1822, and his Circuitcers,
an Eclogue, is a parody of the style of two of his colleagues on
the northern circuit He became judge of the Marylebone
County Court in 1852, and was a bencher of the Inner Temple.
He was the author of Letters from Spain in i8$6 and 1857 (1858),
and was completing his father's History of England at the time
of his death on the 24th of December 1862.
ADOLPHUS FREDERICK (1710-1771), king of Sweden, was
born at Gottorp on the 14th of May 1710. His father was
Christian Augustus (1673-1726), duke of Schleswig-Holstein-
Gotlorp, bishop of LUbeck, and administrator, during the war
of 1700- 1 72 1, of the duchies of Holstein-Gottorp for his nephew
Charles Frederick; bis mother was Albertina Frederica of Baden-
Durlach. From 1727 to 1750 he was bishop of LUbeck, and
administrator of Holstein-Kiel during the minority of Duke
Charles Peter Ulrich, afterwards Peter III. of Russia. In 1743
he was elected heir to the throne of Sweden by the " Hat "
faction in order that they might obtain better conditions of
peace from the empress Elizabeth, whose fondness for the
house of Holstein was notorious (see Swe den, History) . During
his whole reign (1751-1771) Adolphus Frederick was little more
than a state decoration, the real power being lodged in the
hands of an omnipotent riksdag, distracted by fierce party
212
strife. Twice he endeavoured to free himself from the intoler-
able tutelage of the estates. The first occasion was in 1755
when, stimulated by his imperious consort Louisa Ulrica, sister
of Frederick the Great, he tried to regain a portion of the attenu-
ated prerogative, and nearly lost his throne in consequence.
On the second occasion, under the guidance of his eldest son,
the crown prince Gustavus, afterwards Gustavus III., he suc-
ceeded in overthrowing the tyrannous "Cap " senate, but was
unable to make any use of his victory. He died of .surfeit at
Stockholm on the 12th of February 1771.
See R. Ntsbet Bain, Gustavus III. and his Contemporaries, vol. L
(London, 1895). <*• N - B >
AD0N1, a town of British India, in the Bellaryi district of
Madras, 307 m. from Madras by rail. It has manufactures of
carpets, silk and cotton goods, and several factories for ginning
and pressing cotton. The hill-fort above, now in ruins, was an
important seat of government in Mahommedan times and is
frequently mentioned in the wars of the 18th century. Pop.
(1001) 30,416.
ADONIJAH (Heb. Adoniyyak or Adoniyyahu, " Yah is Lord "),
a name borne by' several persons in the Old Testament, the
most noteworthy of whom was the fourth son Of David. He
was born to Haggith at Hebron (2 Sam. iii. 4; x Ch. iii. 2).
The natural heir to the throne, on the death of Absalom, he
sought with the help of Joab and Abiathar to seize his birth-
right, and made arrangements for his coronation (x Kings i. 5 fi\).
Hearing, however, that Solomon, with the help of Nathan the
prophet and Bathsheba, and apparently with the consent of
David, had ascended the throne, he fled for safety to the horns
of the altar. Solomon spared him on this occasion (1 Kings i.
50 ff.), but later commanded Benaiah to slay him (ii. 13 fi*.),
because with the approval of Bathsheba he wished to marry
Abishag, formerly David's concubine, and thus seemed to have
designs on the throne.
ADONIS, in classical mythology, a youth of remarkable
beauty, the favourite of Aphrodite. According to the story in
Apollodorus (iii. 14. 4), he was the son of the Syrian king Theias
by his daughter Smyrna (Myrrha), who had been inspired by
Aphrodite with unnatural love. When Theias discovered the
truth he would have slain his daughter, but the gods in pity
changed her into a tree of the same name. After ten months
the tree burst asunder and from it came forth Adonis. Aphro-
dite, charmed by his beauty, hid the infant in a box and handed
him over to the care of Persephone, who afterwards refused to
give him up. On an appeal being made to Zeus, he decided that
Adonis should spend a third of the year with Persephone and a
third with. Aphrodite, the remaining third being at his own dis-
posal. Adonis was afterwards killed by a boar sent by Artemis.
There are many variations in the later forms of the story (notably
in Ovid, Metam. x. 298). The name is generally supposed to
be of Phoenician origin (from adon—" lord "), Adonis himself
being identified with Tammuz (but see F. DUmmler in Pauly-
Wissowa's Real-encyklopOdie, who does not admit a Semitic
origin for either name or cult). The name Abobas, by which
he was known at Perga in Pamphylia, certainly seems connected
with abub (a Semitic word for " flute "; cf. " ambubaiarum
collegia " in Horace, Satires, i. 2. z). (See also Arris.)
Annual festivals, called Adonia, were held in his honour at
Byblus, Alexandria, Athens and other places. Although there
were variations in the ceremony itself and in its date, the central
idea was the death and resurrection of Adonis. A vivid descrip-
tion of the festival at Alexandria (for which Bion probably
wrote his Dirge of Adonis) is given by Theocritus in his fifteenth
idyll, the Adoniaxusae. On the first day, which celebrated the
union of Adonis and Aphrodite, their images were placed side by
side on a silver couch, around them all the fruits of the season,
" Adonis gardens " in silver baskets, golden boxes of myrrh,
cakes of meal, honey and oil, made in the likeness of things
that creep and things that fly. On the day following the image
of Adonis was carried down to the shore and cast into the sea
by women with dishevelled hair and bared breasts. At the same
time a song was sung, in which the god was entreated to be
ADONI— ADOPTIANISM
propitious in the coming year. This festival, like that at Athens,
was held late in summer; at Byblus, where the mourning
ceremony preceded, it took place in spring.
It is now generally agreed that Adonis is a vegetation spirit,
whose death and return to life represent the decay of nature in
winter and its revival in spring. He is bom from the myrrh-
tree, the oil of which is used at his festival; he is connected
with Aphrodite in her character of vegetation-goddess. A
special feature of the Athenian festival was the " Adonis gar-
dens," small pots of flowers forced to grow artificially, which
rapidly faded (hence the expression was used to denote any
transitory pleasure) . The dispute between Aphrodite and Perse-
phone for the possession of Adonis, settled by the agreement
that he is to spend a third (or half) of the year in the lower world
(the seed at first underground and then reappearing above it),
finds a parallel in the story of Tammuz and Ishtar (see Aphko-
dite). The ceremony of the Adonia was intended as a charm
to promote the growth of vegetation, the throwing of the gardens
and images into the water being supposed to procure a supply of
rain (for European parallels see Mannhardt). It is suggested
(Frazer) that Adonis is not a god of vegetation generally, but
specially a corn-spirit, and that the lamentation is not for the
decay of vegetation in winter, but for the cruel treatment of
the corn by the reaper and miller (cf. Robert Burns's John
Barleycorn).
An important element in the story is the connexion of Adonis
with the boar, which (according to one version) brings him into
the world by splitting with his tusk the bark of the tree into
which Smyrna was changed, and finally kills him. It is probable
that Adonis himself was looked upon as incarnate in the swine,
so that the sacrifice to him by way of expiation on special occa-
sions of an animal which otherwise was specially sacred, and its
consumption by its worshippers, was a sacramental act. Other
instances of a god being sacrificed to himself as his own enemy
are the sacrifice of the goat and bull to Dionysus and of the
bear to Artemis. The swine would be sacrificed as having
caused the death of Adonis, which explains the dislike of Aphro-
dite for that animal. It has been observed that whenever swine-
sacrifices occur in the ritual of Aphrodite there is reference to
Adonis. In any case, the conception of Adonis as a swine-god
does not contradict the idea of him as a vegetation or corn
spirit, which in many parts of Europe appears in the form of a
boar or sow.
Authorities.— H. Brugsch, Die Adonisklage und das Linoslud
(Berlin, 1852); Greve, Dt Adonide (Leipzig. 1877) ;W. H. Engel.
Kypros. ii. (1841). still valuable; W. Mannhardt, Wold- und Feld-
hnlte, ii. (1905); M. P. Nilsson, Griechische Feste (Leipzig. 1906):
articles in Roscher's Lexihon and Pauly-Wissowa » Eucyklepadie;
J. G. Frazer. The Golden Bough, u. (2nd ed.), p. 115/ and Adorns.
AUis and Osiris (1906); L. R. Farnell, Culls of the Greek Slates, ii.
p. 646; W. Robertson Smith (Religion of the Semites, new ed., 1694,
pp. 191, 290, 411), who, regarding Adonis as the swine-god, char-
acterizes the Adonia as an annual piacular sacrifice (of swine), "in
which the sacrifice has come to be overshadowed by its popular and
dramatic accompaniments, to which the Greek celebration, not
forming part of the state religion, was limited."
ADONIS, a genus of plants belonging to the natural order
Ranunculaceae, known commonly by the names of pheasant's
eye and Flos Adonis. They are annual or perennial herbs with
much divided leaves and yellow or red flowers. Adonis autum-
naHs has become naturalized in some parts of England; the petals
are scarlet with a dark spot at the base. An early flowering
species, Adonis vernaUs, with large bright yellow flowers, is well
worthy of cultivation. It prefers a deep light soil. The name
is also given to the butterfly, Mazarine or Clifton Blue (Polyom-
matus Adonis).
ADOPTIANISM. As the theological doctrine of the Logos
which bulks so largely in the writings of the apologists of the
2nd century came to the front, the trinitarian problem became
acute The necessity of a constant protest against polytheism
led to a tenacious insistence on the divine unity, and the task
was to reconcile this unity with the deity of Jesus Christ. Some
thinkers fell back on the " modalistic " solution which regards
"Father" and "Son" as two aspects of the same subject-
ADOPTION
213
bat a simpler and more popular method was the " adoptianiat "
or humanitarian. Basing their views on the synoptic Gospels,
and tracing descent from the obscure sect of the Alogi, the
Adoptiantsts under Theodotus of Byzantium tried to found a
school at Rome c. 185, asserting that Jesus was a man, filled
with the Holy Spirit's inspiration from his baptism, and so
attaining such a perfection of holiness that he was adopted by
God and exalted to divine dignity. Theodotus was excommuni-
cated by the bishop of Rome, Victor, c. 19s, but his followers
{red on under a younger teacher of the same name and under
Arteoon, while in the East similar views were expounded by
Beryflus of Bostra. and Paul of Samosata, who undoubtedly
influenced Lucian of Antioch and his school, including Anus
and, later, Nestorius.
There is thus a traceable historical connexion between the
earty adoption controversy and the ■struggle in Spain at the end
of the 8th century, to which that name is usually given. It was
indeed only a renewal, under new conditions, of the conflict
between two types of thought, the rational and the mystical,
the school of Antioch and that of Alexandria. The writings of
Theodore of Mopsuestia had become well known in the West,
especially since the strife over the " three chapters " (544-553),
and the opposition of Islam also partly determined the form
of men's views on the doctrine of Christ's person. We must
farther remember the dyophysitism which had been sanctioned
at the council of Chalcedon. About 780 Elipandus (b. 718),.
archbishop of Toledo, revived and vehemently defended the
expression Ckristus Filius Dei adoptions, and was aided by his
ouch more gifted friend Felix, bishop of Urgella. They held
that the duality of natures implied a distinction between two
modes of sonship in Christ — the natural or proper, and the
adoptive. In support of their views they appealed to scripture
aad to the Western Fathers, who had used the term " adoption "
as synonymous with " assumption " in the orthodox sense;
aad especially to Christ's fraternal relation to Christians— the
brother of God's adopted sons. Christ, the firstborn among
many brethren, had a natural birth at Bethlehem and also a
mtritoai birth begun at his baptism and consummated at his
resurrection. Thus they did not teach a dual personality, nor
the old Antiochene view that Christ's divine exaltation was
due to bis sinless virtue; they were less concerned with old
disputes than with the problem as the Chalcedon decision
had left it — the relation of Christ's one personality to his two
Fefix introduced adoptian views into that part of Spain which
belonged to the Franks, and Charlemagne thought it necessary
to assemble a synod at Regensburg (Ratisbon), in 792, before
which the bishop was summoned to explain and justify the new
doctrine. Instead of this he renounced it, and confirmed his
rtoaacktion by a solemn oath to Pope Adrian, to whom the
synod sent him. The recantation was probably insincere, for
co returning to his diocese he taught adoptianism as before.
Another synod was held at Frankfort in 794, by which the new
doctrine was again formally condemned, though neither Felix
aor any of his followers appeared.
la this synod Alcuin of York took part. A friendly letter
from Alcuin, and a controversial pamphlet, to which Felix fe-
P&ed, were followed by the sending of several commissions of
dergy to Spain to endeavour to put down the heresy. Arch-
bishop Leklrad (d. 816) of Lyons, being on one of these commis-
aont, persuaded Felix to appear before a synod at Aix-la-
Chapeue in 700. There, after six days' disputing with Alcuin,
be again recanted his heresy. The rest of his life was spent under
the supervision of the archbishop- at Lyons, where he died in
816. Elipandus, secure in his see at Toledo, never swerved
fawn the adoptian views, which, however, were almost univef-
«% abandoned after the two leaders died.
la the scholastic discussions of the 12th century the question
cuae to the front again, for the doctrine as framed by Alcuin
us not universally accepted. Thus both Abelard and Peter
Lombard, in the interest of the immutability of the divine
ftbttance (holding that God could not " become " anything),
gravitated towards a Nestorian position. The great opponent
of their Christology, which was known as Nihilianism, was the
German scholar Gerhoch, who, for his bold assertion of the
perfect interpenetration of deity and humanity in Christ, was
accused of Eutychianism. The proposition Deus non foetus est
aliqHid secundum quod est homo was condemned by a synod of
Tours in 1163 and again by the Lateran synod of 1179, but
Adoptianism continued all through the middle ages to be a source
of theological dispute.
See A. Harnack, Hist, of Dogma, esp. voL v. pp. 279-292 ; R. Ottley,
The Doctrine of the Incarnation, vol. 1. p. 228 It., vol. ii. pp. 151-161 ;
Herzog-Hauck, Reakncyk., art. " Adoptianismus." (A. J. G.)
ADOPTION (Lat adoptio, for adoptatio, from adoptare, to
choose for oneself), the act by which the relations of paternity and
filiation are recognized as legally existing between persons not so
related by nature. Cases of adoption were very frequent among
the Greeks and Romans, and the custom was accordingly very
strictly regulated in their laws. In Athens the power of adoption
was allowed to all citizens who were of sound mind, and who
possessed no male offspring of their own, and it could be exercised
either during lifetime Or by testament. The person adopted,
who required to be himself a citizen, was enrolled in the family
and demus of the adoptive father, whose name, however, he did
not necessarily assume. In the interest of the next of kin, whose
rights were affected by a case of adoption, it was provided that
the registration should be attended with certain formalities, and
that it should take place at a fixed time— the festival of the
Thargelia. The rights and duties of adopted children were almost
identical with those of natural offspring, and could not be re-
nounced except in the case of one who had begotten children
to take his place in the family of his adoptive father. Adopted
into another family, children ceased to have any claim of kindred
or inheritance through their natural father, though any rights
they might have through their mother were not similarly affected.
Among the Romans the existence of the patria potestas gave a
peculiar significance to the custom of adoption. The motive to
the act was not so generally childlessness, or the gratification of
affection, as the desire to acquire those civil and agnate rights
which were founded on the patria potestas. It was necessary,
however, that the adopter should have no children, of his own,
and that he should be of such an age as to preclude reasonable
expectation of any being born to him. Another limitation as to
age was imposed by the maxim adoptio imitatur naturam, which
required the adoptive father to be at least eighteen years older
than the adopted children. According to the same maxim
eunuchs were not permitted to adopt, as being impotent to beget
children for themselves. Adoption was of two kinds according
to the state of the person adopted, who might be either still under
the patria potestas (alieni juris) , or his own master (sui juris). In
the former case the act was one of adoption proper, in the latter
case it was styled adrogation, though the term adoption was also
used in a general sense to describe both species. In adoption
proper the natural father publicly sold his child to the adoptive
father, and the sale being thrice repeated, the maxim of the
Twelve Tables took effect, Si pater filium ter venunduit, filius
a poire liber esto. The process was ratified and completed by a
fictitious action of recovery brought by the adoptive father
against the natural parent, which the latter did not defend, and
which was therefore known as the cessio in jure. Adrogation
could be accomplished originally only by the authority of the
people assembled in the Camilla, but from the time of Diocletian
it was effected by an imperial rescript. Females could not be
adrogated, and, as they did not possess the patria potestas, they
could not exercise the right of adoption in either kind. The
whole Roman law on the subject of adoption will be found in
Justinian's Institutes, lib. i. tit. H.
In Hindu law, as in nearly every andent system, wills were
formerly unknown, and adoptions took their place. (See
Indian Law.) Adoption is not recognized in the laws of Eng-
land, Scotland, or the Netherlands, though there are legal means
by which one may be enabled to assume the name and arms and
to inherit the property of a stranger. (See Name.)
214
ADORATION— ADRA
In France and Germany, countries which may be said to have
embodied the Roman law in their jurisprudence, adoption is re-
gulated according to the principles of Justinian, though with
several more or less important modifications, rendered necessary
by the usages of these countries respectively. Under French law
the rights of adoption can be exercised only by those who are
over fifty years of age, and whd, at the time of adoption, have
neither children nor legitimate descendants. They must also be
fifteen years older than the person adopted. In German law the
person adopting must either be fifty years of age, or at least
eighteen years older than the adopted, unless a special dispen-
sation is obtained. If the person adopted is a legitimate child
the consent of his parents must be obtained; if illegitimate, the
consent of the mother. Both in Germany and France the
adopted child remains a member of his original family, and ac-
quires no rights in the family of the adopter other than that of
succession to the person adopting.
In the United States adoption is regulated by the statutes of
the several states. Adoption of minors is permitted by statute
in many of the states. These statutes generally require some
public notice to be given of the intention to adopt, and an order
of approval after a hearing before some public authority. The
consequence commonly is that the person adopted becomes, in
the eyes of the law, the child of the person adopting, for all pur-
poses. Such an adoption, if consummated according to the law
of the domicile, is equally effectual in any other state into which
the parties may remove. The relative status thus newly ac-
quired is ubiquitous. (See Whitmore, Daws of Adoption; Ross
v. Ross, i2Q Massachusetts Reports, 243.)
The part played by the legal fiction of adoption in the consti-
tution of primitive society and the civilization of the race is so
important, that Sir Henry S. Maine, in his Ancient Law, ex-
presses the opinion that, had it never existed, the primitive
groups of mankind could not. have coalesced except on terms of
absolute superiority on the one side and absolute subjection on
the other. With the institution of adoption, however, one people
might feign itself as descended from the same stock as the people
to whose sacra gentUicia it was admitted; and amicable relations
were thus established between stocks which, but for this ex-
pedient, must have submitted to the arbitrament of the sword
with all its consequences.
ADORATION (Lat. ad, to, and os t mouth; i.e. " carrying to
one's mouth "), primarily an act of homage or worship, which,
among the Romans, was performed by raising the hand to the
mouth, kissing it and then waving ft in the direction of the
adored object The devotee had his head covered, and after
the act turned himself round from left to right. Sometimes he
kissed the feet or knees of the images of the gods themselves,
and Saturn and Hercules were adored with the head bare. By
a natural transition the homage, at first paid to divine beings
alone, came to be paid to monarchs. Thus the Greek and Roman
emperors were adored by bowing or kneeling, laying hold of the
imperial robe, and presently withdrawing the hand and pressing
it to the lips, or by putting the royal robe itself to the lips. In
Eastern countries adoration has ever been performed in an
attitude still more lowly. The Persian method, introduced by
Cyrus, was to bend the knee and fall on the face at the prince's
feet, striking the earth with the forehead and kissing the ground.
This striking of the earth with the forehead, usually a fixed
number of times, is the form of adoration usually paid to Eastern
potentates to-day. The Jews kissed in homage. Thus in
1 Kings xix. 18, God is made to say, " Yet I have left me seven
thousand in Israel, all the knees which have not bowed unto
Baal, and every mouth which hath not kissed him." And in
Psalms ii. 1 2, " Kiss the Son, lest he be angry, and ye perish from
the way." (See also Hosca adii. 2.) In England the ceremony
of kissing the sovereign's hand, and some other acts which are
performed kneeling, may be described as forms of adoration.
Adoration is applied in the Roman Church to the ceremony of
kissing the pope's foot, a custom which is said to have been intro-
duced by the popes following the example of the emperor
Diocletian. The toe of the famous statue of the .apostle in '
St Peter's, Rome, shows marked wear caused* by the kisses of
pilgrims. In the Roman Church a distinction is made between
Latria, a worship due to God alone, and Dulia or Hyperdutia,
the adoration paid to the Virgin, saints, martyrs, crucifixes, &c
(See further Homage.)
ADORF, a town of Germany, in the kingdom of Saxony,
3 m. from the Bohemian frontier, at an elevation of 1400 ft
above the sea, on the Plauen-Eger and Aue-Adorf lines of rail-
way. Pop. 5000. It has lace, dyeing and tanning industries,
and manufactures of toys and musical instruments; and there
is a convalescent home for the poor of the city of T^tpiig.
ADOUR (anc Aturrus or Adurus, from Celtic dour, water),
a river of south-west France, rising in the department of Hautes
Pyrenees, and flowing in a wide curve to the Bay of Biscay. It
is formed of several streams having their origin in the massifs
of the Pic d'Arbizon and the Pic du Midi de Bigorre, but during
the first half of its course remains an inconsiderable river. In
traversing the beautiful valley of Campan it is artificially aug-
mented in summer by the waters of the Lac Bleu, which are
drawn off by means of a siphon, and flow down the valley of
Lesponne. After passing Bagneres de Bigorre the Adour enters
the plain of Tarbes, and for the remainder of its course in the
department of Hautes Pyrenees is of much less importance as
a waterway than as a means of feeding the numerous irrigation
canals which cover the plains on each side. Of these the oldest
and most important is the Canal d'Alaric, which follows the
right bank for 36 m. Entering the department of Gers, the
Adour receives the Arras on the right bank and begins to de*
scribe the large westward curve which takes it through the
department of Landes to the sea. In the last-named depart-
ment it soon becomes navigable, namely, at St Sever, after pass-
ing which it is joined on the left by the Lards, Gabas, Louts
and Luy, and on the right by the Midouze, which is formed by
the union of the Douze and the Midour, and is navigable for
27 m.; now taking a south-westerly course it receives on the
left the Gave de Pau, which is a more voluminous river than the
Adour itself, and flowing past Bayonne enters the sea through
a dangerous estuary, in which sandbars are formed, after a total
course of 208 m., of which 82 are navigable. The mouth of
the Adour has repeatedly shifted, its old bed being represented
by the series of Hangs and lagoons extending northward as far
as the village of Vieux Boucau, 22} m. north of Bayonne, where
it found a new entrance into the sea at the end of the 14th cen-
tury. Its previous mouth had been 10 m. soiith of Vieux
Boucau. The present channel was constructed by the engineer
Louis de Foix in 1579. There is a depth over the bar at the
entrance of io| to 16 ft at high tide. The area of the basin of
the Adour is 6565 sq. m.
ADOWA {properly Adua), the capital of Tigrf, northern
Abyssinia, 145 m. N.E. of Gondar and 17 m. E. by N. of Axum,
the ancient capital of Abyssinia. Adowa is built on the slope
of a hill at an elevation of 6500 ft, in the midst of a rich agri-
cultural district. Being on the high road from Massawa to
central Abyssinia, it is a meeting-place of merchants from Arabia
and the Sudan for the exchange of foreign merchandise with the
products of the country. During the wars between the Italians
and Abyssinia (1887-06) Adowa was on three or four occasions
looted and burnt; but the churches escaped destruction. The
church of the Holy Trinity, one of the largest in Abyssinia,
contains numerous wall-paintings of native art On a hill about
2) m. north-west of Adowa are the ruins of Fremona, the
headquarters of the Portuguese Jesuits who lived in Abys-
sinia during the 16th and 17th centuries. On the 1st of March
1806, in the hills north of the town, was fought the battle of
Adowa, in which the Abyssinians inflicted a crushing defeat 00
the Italian forces (see Italy, History, and Abyssinia, History).
ADRA (anc. Abdera), a seaport of southern Spain, in the
province of Almeria; at the mouth of the Rio Grande de Adra,
and on the Mediterranean Sea. Pop. (1000) 11,188. Adra is
the port of shipment for the lead obtained near Berja, 10 m.
north-east; but its commercial development b retarded by the
lack of a railway. Besides lead, the exports iodude grapes*
ADRAR— ADRIAN
215
sugar and esparto. Fuel b Imported, chiefly from the United
Kingdom.
ADRAR (Berber, for "uplands"), the name of various dis-
tncts of the Saharan desert, Northern Africa. Adrar Suttuf
is i hilly region forming the southern part of the Spanish pro-
tectorate of the Rio de Oro (?.».)• Adrar or Adrar el Jebli,
otherwise Adghagh, is a plateau north-east of Timbuktu. It is
the headquarters of the Awellimiden Tuareg (see Tuareg and
Saha*a). Adrar n'Ahnet and Adrar Adhafar are smaller regions
in the Ahnet country south of Insalah. Adrar Temur, the
gantry usually referred to when Adrar is spoken of , is in the
western Sahara, 300 m. north of the Senegal and separated on the
aortb-west from Adrar Suttuf by wide valleys and sand dunes.
Adrar a within the French sphere of influence. In general
barren, the country contains several oases, with a total popu-
lation of about 10,000. In 1 000 the oasis of A tar, on the western
borders of the territory, was reached by Paul Blanchet, previ-
ously known for his researches on ancient Berber remains in
Algeria. (Blanchet died in Senegal on the 6th of October 1000,
t few days after his return from Adrar.) Atar is inhabited by
Arab and Berber tribes, and is described as a wretched spot
The other centres of population are Shingcti, Wadan and Ujef t,
Skiageti being the chief commercial centre, whence caravans
take to St Louis gold-dust, ostrich feathers and dates. A con-
siderable trade is also done in salt from the sebkha of Ijfl, in the
north-west. Adrar occupies the most elevated part of a plateau
which ends westwards in a steep escarpment and falls to the east
la a succession of steps.
Adrar or Adgar is also the name sometimes given to the chief
settleme nt in the oasis of Tuat in the Algerian Sahara,
ADRASTUS, in Greek legend, was the son of Talaus, king of
Argos, and Lysianassa, daughter of Polybus, king of Sicyon.
Having been driven from Argos by Amphiaraus, Adrastus fled
to Sicyon, where he became king on the death of Polybus. After
1 time he became reconciled to Amphiaraus, gave him his sister
Eriphyie in marriage, and returned to 1 Argos and occupied the
throne. In consequence of an oracle which had commanded
km to marry his daughters to a lion and a boar, he wedded them
to Polyneices and Tydeus, two fugitives, clad in the skins of
these animals or carrying shields with their- figures on them,
who claimed his hospitality. He was the instigator of the famous
tit against Thebes for the restoration of his son-in-law Polyneices,
who had been deprived of his rights by his brother Eteocles.
Adrastus, followed by Polyneices and Tydeus, his two sons-in-
law, Amphiaraus, his brother-in-law, Capaneus, HippOmedon
and Panbenopaeus, marched against the dty of Thebes, and on
his way is said to have founded the Nemean garnet This is the
expedition of the M Seven against Thebes," which the poets have
oude nearly as famous as the siege of Troy. As Amphiaraus
had foretold, they all lost their lives in this war except Adrastus,
who was saved by the speed of his horse Arion (Iliad, xxiii. 346).
Tea years later, at the instigation of Adrastus, the war was re-
newed by the sons of the chiefs who had fallen. This expedition
was called the war of the " Epigoni " or descendants, and ended
is the taking and destruction of Thebes. None of the followers
of Adrastus perished except his son Aegialeus, and this affected
hxa » greatly that he died of grief at Megara, as he was leading
back ms victorious army.
Apoflodorm fii. 6, 7: Aeschylus. Sefitem centra Thebas\ Euripides,
ffaniuoc, Supftiegs; Statius, Thebats; Herodotus v. 67.
ADRIA (anc. Atria; the form Adria or Hadria is less correct:
Ratria was a town in Picenum, the modern Atri), a town and
episcopal see of Venetia, Italy, in the province of Rovigo, 15 m.
£ by rail from the town of Rovigo. It is situated between
the mouths of the Actige and the Po, about 13$ m. from the sea
and but 13 ft- above' it Pop. (1001) 15,678. The town occu-
pies the site of the ancient Atria, which gave its name to the
Adriatic Its origin is variously ascribed by ancient writers,
bat it was probably a Venetian, i.e. Ilryrian, not an Etruscan,
foadatioQ— stiU less a foundation of EHonysius I. of Syracuse,
hanorted vases of the second half of the 5th century B.C. prove
the existence of trade with Greece at that period; and the town
was f amoutfn Aristotle's day for a special breed of fowls. Even
at that period, however, the sflt brought down by the rivers
rendered access to the harbour difficult, and the historian
Philistus excavated a canal to give free access to the sea. This
was still open in the imperial period, and the town, which was
a municipium, possessed its own gild of sailors; but its import-
ance gradually decreased. Its remains lie from xo to 20 ft. below
the modern level. The Museo Civico and the Bocchi collection
contain antiquities.
See R. Schdne, Le onUckitd 64 Museo Bocchi di Adria (Rome,
1878). (T. As.)
ADRIAN, or Hadrian (Lat. Hadrianus), the name of six popes.
Adrian I., pope from 772 to 795, was the son of Theodore, a
Roman nobleman. Soon after his accession the territory that
had been bestowed on the popes by Pippin was invaded by
Desiderius, king of the Lombards, and Adrian found it necessary
to invoke the aid of Charlemagne, who entered Italy with a
large army, besieged Desiderius in his capital of Pavia, took
that town, banished the Lombard king to Corbie in France
and united the Lombard kingdom with the other Frankish
possessions. The pope, whose expectations had been aroused,
had to content himself with some additions to the duchy of
Rome, and to the Exarchate, and the Pentapolis. In his contest
with tha; Greek empire and the Lombard princes of Benevento,
Adrian remained faithful to the Frankish alliance, and the
friendly relations between pope and emperor were not disturbed
by the difference which arose between them on the question
of the worship of images, to which Charlemagne and the Gallican
Church were strongly opposed, while Adrian favoured the views
of the Eastern Church, and approved the decree of the council
of Nicaea (787), confirming the practice and excommunicating
the iconoclasts. It was in connexion with this controversy
that Charlemagne wrote the so-called Libri Carolim, to which
Adrian replied by letter, anathematizing all who refused to
worship the images of Christ, or the Virgin, or saints. Notwith-
standing this, a synod, held at Frankfort in 704, anew condemned
the practice, and the dispute remained unsettled at Adrian's
death. An epitaph written by Charlemagne in verse, in which
he styles Adrian " father," is still to be seen at the door of the
Vatican basilica. Adrian restored the ancient aqueducts of
Rome, and governed his little state with a firm and skilful hand.
Adrian II., pope from 867 to 872, was a member of a noble
Roman family, and became pope in 867, at an advanced age.
He maintained, hut with less energy, the attitude of his prede-
cessor. Rid of the affair of Lothair, king of Lorraine, by the
death of that prince (869), he endeavoured in vain to mediate
between the Frankish princes with a view to assuring to the
emperor, Louis II., the heritage of the king of Lorraine. Photius,
shortly after the council in which he had pronounced sentence
of deposition against Pope Nicholas, was driven from the patri-
archate by a new emperor, Basil the Macedonian, who favoured
his rival Ignatius. An oecumenical council (called by the
Latins the 8th) was convoked at Constantinople to decide this
matter. At this council Adrian was represented by legates,
who presided at the condemnation of Photius, but did not suc-
ceed in coming to an understanding with Ignatius on the subject
of the jurisdiction over the Bulgarian converts. Like his prede-
cessor Nicholas, Adrian II. was forced to submit, at least in
temporal affairs, to the tutelage of the emperor, Louis II., who
placed him under the surveillance of Arsenius, bishop of Orta,
his* confidential adviser, and Arsenius's son Anastasius, the
librarian. Adrian had married in his youth, and his wife and
daughter were still living. They were carried off and assassin-
ated by Anastasius's brother, Eleutherius, whose reputation,
however, suffered but a momentary eclipse. Adrian died in
87a.
Adrian TH., pope, was born at Rome. He succeeded Martin
II. in 884, and died in 885, on a journey to Worms. (L. D.*)
Adrian IV. (Nicholas Breakspear), pope from ir 54 to 11 50,
the only Englishman who has occupied the papal chair, was
born before aj>. 1100 at Langley near St Albans in Hertford-
shire. His father was Robert, a priest of the diocese of Bath,
2l6
ADRIAN
who entered a monastery and lcf t the boy to his own resources.
Nicholas went to Paris and finally became a monk of the cloister
of St Rufus near Aries. He rose to be prior and in 1137 was
unanimously elected abbot His reforming zeal led to the
lodging of complaints against him at Rome; but these merely
attracted to him the favourable attention of Eugenius III.,
who created him cardinal bishop of Albano. From 1x52 to
x 1 54 Nicholas was in Scandinavia as legate, organizing the affairs
of the new Norwegian archbishopric of Trondhjem, and making
arrangements which resulted in the recognition of Upsala as
seat of the Swedish metropolitan in 1164. As a compensation
for territory thus withdrawn the Danish archbishop of Lund was
made legate and perpetual vicar and given the title of primate
of Denmark and Sweden. On his return Nicholas was received
with great honour by Anastasius IV., and on the death of the
latter was elected pope on the 4th of December 1x54. He at
once endeavoured to compass the overthrow of Arnold of Brescia,
the leader of anti-papal sentiment in Rome. Disorders ending
with the murder of a cardinal led Adrian shortly before Palm
Sunday x 155 to take the previously-unheard-of step of putting
Rome under the interdict. The senate thereupon exiled Arnold,
and the pope, with the impolitic co-operation of Frederick I.
Barbarossa, was instrumental in procuring his execution. Adrian
crowned the emperor at St Peter's on the x8th of June 1x55, a
ceremony which so incensed the Romans that the pope had to
leave the city promptly, not returning till November 1156.
With the aid of dissatisfied barons, Adrian brought William I. of
Sicily into dire straits ; but a change in the fortunes of war led
to a settlement (June 1x56) not advantageous to the papacy
and displeasing to the emperor. At the diet of Bcsancon in
October 1x57, the legates presented to Barbarossa a letter from
Adrian which alluded to the beneficia conferred upon the em-
peror, and the German chancellor translated this beneficia in
the feudal sense. In the storm which ensued the legates were
glad to escape with their lives, and the incident at length closed
with a letter from the pope, declaring that by beneficium he
meant merely bonum factum. The breach subsequently became
wider, and Adrian was about to excommunicate the emperor
when he died at Anagnia on the xst of September 11 59.
A controversy exists concerning an embassy sent by Henry II.
of England to Adrian in 1155. According to the elaborate
investigation of Thatcher, the facts seem to be as follows.
Henry asked ior permission to invade and subjugate Ireland, in
order to gain absolute ownership of that isle. Unwilling to grant
a request counter to the papal claim (based on the forged Dona-
tion of Conslantine) to dominion over the islands of the sea,
Adrian made Henry a conciliatory proposal, namely, that the
king should become hereditary feudal possessor of Ireland while
recognizing the pope as overlord This compromise did not
satisfy Henry, so the matter dropped; Henry's subsequent
title to Ireland rested on conquest, not on papal concession,
and was therefore absolute. The much-discussed bull Lcuda-
biliter is, however, not genuine.
See Hcrzoe-Hauck, JRealencyhlopddie, 3rd ed. (excellent biblio-
graphy), ana Wetzer and Welte, Kirchenlexikon, 2nd cd., under
Tt Hadnan IV."; also Oliver J. Thatcher, Studies concerning
Adrian IV. (The University of Chicago: Decennial Publications,
1st series, vol. iv., Chicago, 1903); R. Raby, Pope Adrian IV.: An
Historical Sketch (London, 1849) ; and A.H.Tarteton,Lf/* of Nicholas
Brtakspear (London, 1896).
Adrian V. (Ottobuono de' Fieschi), pope in 1276, was a
Genoese who was created cardinal deacon by his uncle Innocent
IV. In 1264 he was sent to England to mediate between Henry
III. and his barons. He was elected pope to succeed Innocent
V. on the xx th of July 1276, but died at Vitcrbo on the 18th of
August, without having been ordained even to the priesthood'.
Adrian VI. (Adrian Dedcl, not Boyens, probably not Roden-
burgh, X459-1523), pope from 1522 to 1523, was born at Utrecht
in March 1459, and studied under the Brethren of the Common
Life either at Zwolle or Deventer; At Louvain he pursued
philosophy, theology and canon law, becoming a doctor of theo-
logy (1491), dean cf St Peter's and vice-chancellor of the uni-
versity. In 1507 he was appointed tutor to the seven-year-old
Charles V. He was sent to Spain in xsxson a very important
diplomatic errand ; Charles secured his succession to the see of
Tortosa, and on the 14th of November 15x6 commissioned hira
inquisitor-general of Aragon. During the minority of Charles,
Adrian was associated with Cardinal Jimenes in governing
Spain. After the death of the latter Adrian was appointed, on
the 14th of March 1518, general of the reunited inquisitions of
Castile and Aragon, in which capacity he acted till his departure
from Tarragona for Rome on the 4th of August 1522 : be was,
however, too weak and confiding to cope with abuses which
Jimenes had been able in some degree to check. When Charles
left for the Netherlands in 1520 he made Adrian regent of Spain :
as such he had to cope with a very serious revolt. In 1517
Leo X. had created him cardinal priest SS. Ioannis ei Pauli;
on the 9th of January 1522 he was almost unanimously elected
pope. Crowned in St Peter's on the 31st of August at the age
of sixty-three, he entered upon the lonely path of the reformer.
His programme was to attack notorious abuses one by one ; but
in his attempt to improve the system of granting indulgences
he was hampered by his cardinals ; and reducing the number of
matrimonial dispensations was impossible, for the income had
been farmed out for years in advance by Leo X. The Italians
saw in him a pedantic foreign professor, blind to the beauty of
classical antiquity, penuriously docking the stipends of great
artists. As a peacemaker among Christian princes, whom he
hoped to unite in a protective war against the Turk, he was a
failure: in August 1523 he was forced openly to ally himself
with the Empire, England, Venice, &c, against France ; mean-
while in 1 522 the sultan Suleiman I. had conquered Rhodes. In
dealing with the early stages of the Protestant revolt in Germany
Adrian did not fully recognize the gravity of the situation. At
the diet which opened in December 1522 at Nuremberg he was
represented by Chieregati, whose instructions contain the frank
admission that the whole disorder of the church had perchance
proceeded from the Curia itself, and that there the reform should
begin. However, the former professor and inquisitor-general
was stoutly opposed to doctrinal changes, and demanded that
Luther be punished for heresy. The statement in one of his
works that the pope could err in matters of faith (" haererim per
suam determinaticnem aut Dtcretalem asserendo ") has attracted
attention ; but as it is a private opinion, not an ex cathedra
pronouncement, it is held not to prejudice the dogma of papal
infallibility. On the 14th of September 1523 he died, after a
pontificate too short to be effective.
M<«i of Arfria r> Vl.'nomcial papers disappeared soon after hisdeath.
He puhtj*li«1 QuQritivnfi in quatthm imtf.nhvrum praesertim circa
uuTumfr.ui (Paris, isi? r 1516, 151B, 1537: Home. 1522), and Quaes-
lionet qttttdlibelit&t XII. fist «f., Louvain., 1515). See L. Paste*,
in Cdfktchie dtt Papsu r vol* iv. pt, ii l Adrian VI. und Klemens
VII. tFftibgffc, roc?); also VV't tier and \\\ht, Kinhenlexihon, and
ed.. arid Htrrog+Ffauck. Rtnlmcyklofiadu, 3rd ed., under " Hadrian
VI." ; H. Hurtrr, Namrnctetar Uterariut recentioris theoloriae
catholkae. torn, iv. (Imubrucfc, lSp^j, 1027 1 The Cambridge Modern
Hisitty. vol. it. (1904), ra-ii ; H. C. Lea, A Hiitory of the Inquisition
of Sf-ain, vo\. I figo6) ; Jansu, The Pap* and the Council, 2nd ed.
(London. JB09K 376. Bjou rapbic* :— A. Lrpitre. Adrien VI. (Paris.
1880): C, A. C. von HftArr, Pafiit Adnaa VI. (Vienna. 1880); L.
Caaartdli, " Thr Dutch Pope," in MtKttl.intom Essays (London.
X906). (W.W.R.*)
ADRIAN, SAINT, one of the praetorian guards of the emperor
Galerius Maximian, who, becoming a convert to Christianity,
was martyred at Nicomedia on the 4th of March 303. It is said
that while presiding over the torture of a band of Christians he
was so amazed at their courage that he publicly confessed his
faith. He was imprisoned, and the next day his limbs were
struck off on an anvil, and he was then beheaded, dying in his
wife's, St Natalia's, arms. St Adrian's festival, with that of his
wife, is kept on the 8th of September. He is specially a patron
of soldiers, and is much reverenced in Flanders, Germany and
the north of France. He is usually represented armed, with an
anvil in his hands or at his feeL
ADRIAN, a city and the county-seat of Lenawee county,
Michigan, U.S.A., on the S. branch of Raisin river, near the S.E.
corner of the state. Pop. (1890) 8756 ; (1900) 9654, of whom
ADRIANl— ADRIANOPLE
217
1136 were foreign-torn: (1910 census) 10,763. It ts served
by five branches of the. Lake Shore railway system, and by the
Wabash, the Toledo and Western, and the Toledo, Detroit and
Iroatoo railways. Adrian is the seat of Adrian College (1859;
co-educational), controlled by the Westeyan Methodist Church
b 1859-1867 and since 1867 by the Methodist Protestant Church,
and having departments of literature, theology, music, fine arts,
commerce and pedagogy, and a preparatory school; and of
St Joseph's Academy (Roman Catholic) for girls; and 1 m. north
of the city is the State Industrial Home for Girls (1879), for the
reformation of juvenile offenders between the ages of ten and
seventeen. Adrian has a public library. The dty is situated in a
rich fanning region; is an important shipping point for live-
stock, grain and other farm products; and is especially known
at a centre for the manufacture of wire-fences. Among the other
aanufactories are flouring and grist mills, planing mills, foun-
dries, and factories for making agricultural implements, United
States mafl bows, furniture, pianos, organs, automobiles, toys
tad electrical supplies. The value of the city's factory products
increased from $4,124,923 in xooo to $4,897,426 in 1004, or
ijb-5%; of the total value in 1004, $2,849,648 was the value
of whe-worL The place was laid out as a town in 1828, and
according to tradition was named in honour of the Roman
emperor Hadrian. It was incorporated as a village in 1836, was
made the county-seat in 1838 and was chartered as a dty In
1853.
ADWAJfl, GIOVAWCI BATOSTA (15 13-1579), Italian his-
torian, was bom of a patrician family of Florence, and was
secretary to the republic of Florence. He was among* the de-
fenders of the dty during the siege of 1530, but subsequently
joined the Media party and was appointed professor of rhetoric
it the university. At the instance of Cosmo I. he wrote a history
of known times, from 1536 to 1574, in Italian, which is generally,
but according to Brunet erroneously, considered a continuation
ofGvcdardmi De Thou acknowledges himself greatly indebted
to this history, praising it especially for its accuracy. Adriani
composed funeral orations in Latin on the emperor Charles V.
and other noble personages, and was the author of a long letter
on ancient painters and sculptors prefixed to the third volume
of Vasari. His Istoria dei suoi tempi was published in Florence
is 1583; a new edition appeared also in Florence in 1872.
SeeG. M. Maxzucchelli, GUScrittori f Italia, i. p. 151 (Bread*,
I7SJ).
ADRIAJfOPLK, a vilayet of European Turkey, corresponding
with part of the andent Thrace, and bounded on the N. by
Bulgaria (Eastern Rumelia), E. by the Black Sea and the vilayet
of Constantinople, S. by the Sea of Marmora and the Aegean
Sea and W. by Macedonia. Pop. (1905) about 1,000,000; area,
i5v°oo sq. m. The surface of the vilayet is generally mountain-
ous, except In the central valley of the Maritza, and along the
banks of its tributaries, the Tunja, Arda, Ergene, &c On the
wst, the great Rhodope range and its outlying ridges extend as
far as the Maritza, and attain an altitude of more than 7000 ft
in the summits of the Kushlar Dagh, Karluk Dagh and Kara-
Balkan. Towards the Black Sea, the less elevated Istranja
Dagh stretches from north-west to south-east; and the
entire south coast, which indudes the promontory of Gallipoli
sad the western shore of the Dardanelles, is everywhere hilly
or mountainous, except near the estuaries of the Maritza, and
of the Mcsta, a western frontier stream. The climate is mild
tad the soil fertile; but political disturbances and the conserva-
tive character of the people tend to thwart the progress of
agriculture and other industries. The vilayet suffered severely
daring the Russian occupation of 1878, when, apart from the
natural dislocation of commerce, many of the Moslem culti-
vated emigrated to Asia Minor, to be free from thdr alien
mien. Through the resultant scarcity of labour, much land
id out of cultivation. This was partially remedied after the
Bulgarian annexation of Eastern Rumelia, in 1885, had driven
tke Moslems of that country to emigrate in like manner to
Adrianople; but the advantage was counterbalanced by the
auhtishment of hostile Bulgarian tariffs. . The important silk
industry, however, began to revive about 1800, and dairy farm-
ing 2s prosperous; but the condition of the vilayet is far less
unsettled than that of Macedonia, owing partly to the prepon-
derance of Moslems among the peasantry, and partly to the
nearness of Constantinople, with its Western influences. The
main railway from Belgrade to Constantinople skirts the Maritza
and Ergene valleys, and there is an important branch line down
the Maritza valley to Dedeagatch, and thence coastwise to
Salonica. After the dty of Adrianople (pop. 1005, about 80,000),
which is the capital, the prindpal towns are Rodosto (35,000),
Gallipoli (25,000), Kirk-Kilisseh (16,000), Xanthi (14,000),
Choriu (11,500), Demotica (10,000), Enos (8000), Gumuljina
(8000) and Dedeagatch (3000).
AORIAHOPLB (anc Hodrianopolir, Turk. Edirne, or Edrenek;
Slav. Odrin), the capital of the vilayet of Adrianople, Turkey
in Europe; 137 m. by rail W.N.W. of Constantinople. Pop.
(1005) about 80,000, of whom half are Turks, and half Jews,
Greeks, Bulgars, Armenians, &c. Adrianople ranks, after Con-
stantinople and Salonica, third in size and importance among
the dties of European Turkey. It is the see of a Greek arch-
bishop, and of one Armenian and two Bulgarian bishops. It
is the chief fortress near the Bulgarian frontier, being defended
by a ring of powerful modern forts. It occupies both banks of
the river Tunja, at its confluence with the Maritza, which is
navigable to this point in spring and winter. The nearest sea-
port by rail is Dedeagatch, west of the Maritza; Enos, at the
river-mouth, is the nearest by water. Adrianople is on the rail-
way from Belgrade and Sofia to Constantinople and Salonica.
In appearance it Is thoroughly Oriental — a mass of mean, ir-
regular wooden buildings, threaded by narrow tortuous streets,
with a few better buildings. Of these the most important are
the Idadieh school, the school of arts and crafts, the Jewish
communal school; the Greek college, Zappeion; the Imperial
Ottoman Bank and Tobacco Regie; a fire-tower; a theatre;
palaces for the prefect of the dty, the administrative staff of the
second army corps and the defence works commission; a hand-
some row of barracks; a military hospital; and a French
hospital Of earlier buildings, the most distinguished are the
Eski Serai, an andent and half-ruined palace of the sultans;
the bazaar of All Pasha; and the 16th-century mosque of the
sultan Selim II., a magnificent specimen of Turkish architecture.
Adrianople has five suburbs, of which Kiretchhane and
Yilderim are on the left bank of the Maritza, and Kirjik stands
on a hill overlooking the dty. The two last named are exdu-
sively Greek, but a large proportion of the inhabitants of Kiretch-
hane' are Bulgarian. These three suburbs — as well as the little
hamlet of Demirtash, containing about 300 houses all occupied
by Bulgars— are all built in the native fashion; but the fifth
suburb, Karagatch, which is on the right bank of the Maritza,
and occupies the region between the railway station and the dty,
is Western in its design, consisting of detached residences in
gardens, many of them handsome villas, and all of modern
European type. In all the communities schools have multiplied,
but the new seminaries are of the old non-progressive type.
The only exception is the Hamidieh school for boys— a govern-
ment institution which takes both boarders and day-scholars.
Like the Lyceum of Galata Serai in Constantinople, it has two
sets of professors, Turkish and French, and a full course of
education in each language, the pupils following both courses.
The several communities have each their own charitable institu-
tions, the Jews being specially well endowed in this respect.
The Greeks have a literary society, and there is a well-organized
dub to which members of all the native communities, as well as
many foreigners, bdong.
The economic condition of Adrianople was much impaired
by the war of 1877-78, and was just showing signs of recovery
when, in 1885, the severance from it of Eastern Rumdia by a
Customs cordon rendered the situation worse than ever. Adrian-
ople had previously been the commercial headquarters of all
Thrace, and of a large portion of the region between the Balkans
and the Danube, now Bulgaria. But the separation of Eastern
Rumelia isolated Adrianople, and transferred to PhUippopolis at
2l8
ADRIATIC SEA— ADULTERATION
least two-thirds of its foreign trade which, as regards sea-borne
merchandise, is carried on through the port of Burgas (?.».)•
The city manufactures silk, leather, tapestry, woollens, linen
and cotton, and has an active general trade. Besides fruits and
agricultural produce, its exports include raw silk, cotton, opium,
rose-water, attar of roses, wax and the dye known as Turkey
red. The surrounding country is extremely fertile, and its
wines are the best produced in Turkey. The dty is supplied
with fresh water by means of an aqueduct carried by arches over
an extensive valley. There is also a fine stone bridge over the
Tunja.
Adrianople was originally known as Uskadama, Uskudama
or Uskodama, but was renamed and enlarged by the Roman
emperor Hadrian (1x7-138). In 378 the Romans were here
defeated by the Goths. Adrianople was the residence of the
Turkish sultans from 1361, when it was captured by Murad I.,
until 1453, when Constantinople fell It was occupied by the
Russians in 18*9 and 1878 (see Russo-TuutxsB Wars).
ADRIATIC 8RA (ancient Adria or Hadric), an arm of the
Mediterranean Sea separating Italy from the-Austro-Hungarian,
Montenegrin and Albanian littorals, and the system of the
Apennine mountains from that of the Dinaric Alps and adjacent
ranges. The name, derived from the town of Adria, belonged
originally only to die upper portion of the sea (Herodotus vi.
127, viL so, ix. 9a; Euripides, Hippelytus, 736), but was
gradually extended as the Syracusan colonies gained in import-
ance. But even then the Adriatic in the narrower sense only
extended as far as the Mods Garganus, the outer portion being
called the Ionian Sea: the name was sometimes, however,
inaccurately used to include the Gulf of Tarentum, the Sea of
Sicily, the Gulf of Corinth and even the sea between Crete and
Malta (Acts xxvii. 27). The Adriatic extends N.W. from 40° to
45° 45* N., with an extreme length of nearly 500 m., and a mean
breadth of about xzo m., but the Strait of Otranto, through
which it connects at the south with the Ionian Sea, is only 45 m.
wide. Moreover, the chain of islands which fringes the northern
part of the eastern shore reduces the extreme breadth of open
sea in this part to 00 m. The Italian shore is generally low,
merging, in the north-west, into the marshes and lagoons on
either hand of the protruding delta of the river Po, the sediment
of which has pushed forward the coast-line for several miles
within historic times. On islands within one of the lagoons
opening from the Gulf of Venice, the dty of that name has its
unique situation. The east coast is generally bold and rocky.
South of the Istrian peninsula, which separates the Gulfs of
Venice and Trieste from the Strait of Quarnero, the island-fringe
of the east coast extends as far south as Ragusa. The islands,
which are long and narrow (the long axis lying parallel with the
coast of the mainland), rise rather abruptly to elevations of a
few hundred feet, while on the mainland, notably in the magnifi-
cent inlet of the Bocche di Cattaro, lofty mountains often fall
directly to the sea. This coast, though beautiful, is somewhat
sombre, the prevalent colour of the rocks, a light, dead grey,
contrasting harshly with the dark vegetation, which on some of
the islands is luxuriant The north part of the sea is very
shallow, and between the southern promontory of Istria and
Rimini the depth rarely exceeds as fathoms. Between Sebenico
and Ortona a well-marked depression occurs, a considerable
area of which exceeds 100 fathoms in depth. From a point be-
tween Curzola and the north shore of the spur of Monte Gargano
there is a ridge giving shallower water, and a broken chain of a
few islets extends across the sea. The deepest part of the sea
lies east of Monte Gargano, south of Ragusa, and west of Dur-
azzo, where a large basin gives depths of 500 fathoms and
upwards, and a small area in the south of this basin falls below
800. The mean depth of the sea is estimated at 133 fathoms.
The bora (north-east wind), and the prevalence of sudden squalls
from this quarter or the south-east, are dangers to navigation in
winter. Tidal movement is slight. (See also Medxterbanean.)
For the " Marriage of the Adriatic," or more properly "of the
sea," a ceremony formerly performed by the doges of Venice,
see the artide Bucuctau*.
ADSCRIPT (from Lat ad, on or to, and scribere, to write),
something written after, as opposed to "subscript," which
means written under. A labourer was called an " adscript of the
soil " (adscriptus glebae) when he could be sold or transferred
with it, as in feudal days, and -as in Russia until x86t. Carlyk
speaks of the Java blacks as a kind of adscripts.
ADULLAM, a Canasnitish town in the territory of the tribe of
Jndah, perhaps the modern 'Ald-d-Ma, 7 m. N.E. of Bdt-Jibdn.
It was in the stronghold (" cave " is a scribal error) of this town
that David took refuge on two occasions (x Sam. xxii. t; 2 Sain,
v. 17). The tradition that Adullam is in the great cave of
Khareitun (St Chariton) is probably due to the crusaders.
From the description of Adullam as the resort of " every one
that was in distress," or " in debt," or " discontented," it has
often been humorously alluded to, notably by Sir Walter Scott,
who puts the expression into the mouth of the Baron of Brad-
wardine in Waverley, chap. Ivii., and also of Balfour of Barley in
Old Mortality. In modern political history the expression " cave
of Adullam " (hence " Aduuamites ") came into common use
(being first employed in a speech by John Bright on the 13th of
March 1866) with regard to the independent attitude of Robert
Lowe (Lord Sherbrooke); Edward Horsman and their liberal
supporters in opposition to the Reform Bui of 1866. But others
had previously used it in a similar connexion, e.g. President
Lincoln in his second electoral campaign (1864), and the Tories
in allusion to the Whig remnant who joined C. J. Fox in his
temporary secession. From the same usage is derived the
shorter political term " cave " for any body of men who secede
from their party on some special subject.
ADULTERATION (from Lat adtdterare, to defile or falsify),
the act of debasing a commercial commodity with the object of
passing it off as or under the name of a pure or genuine commodity
for illegitimate profit, or the substitution of an inferior artide
for a superior one, to the detriment of the purchaser. Although
the term is mainly used in connexion with the falsification of
articles of food, drink or drugs, and is so dealt with in this artido,
the practice of adulteration extends to almost all manufactured
products and even to unmanufactured natural substances, and
(as was once suggested by John Bright) is an almost inseparable
— though none the less reprehensible — phase of keen trade
competition. In its crudest forms as old as commerce itself, it
has progressed with the growth of knowledge and of science,
and is, in its most modern devdopments, almost a branch—
and that not the least vigorous one— of applied sdence. From
the mere concealment of a piece of metal or a stone in a loaf of
'bread or in a lump of butter, a bullet in a musk bag or in a piece
of opium, it has devdoped into the use of aniline dyes, of anti-
septic chemicals, of synthetic sweetening agents in foods, the
manufacture of butter from cocoa-nuts, of lard from cottonseed
and of pepper from olive stones. Its growth and development
has necessitated the employment of multitudes of scientific
officers charged with its detection and the passing of numerous
laws for its repression and punishment. While for all common
forms of fraud the common law is in most cases considered
strong enough, special laws against the adulteration of food
have been found necessary in all dvilised countries. A vigorous
branch of chemical literature deals with it; there exist scientific
sodeties specially devoted to its study; laboratories are main-
tained by governments with staffs of highly trained chemists for
its detection; and yet it not only devdops and nourishes, but
becomes more general, if less virulent and dangerous to health.
There are numerous references to adulteration in the dassks.
The detection of the base metal by Archimedes in Hiero's crown,
by the light specific gravity of the latter; is a well-known in-
stance. Vitruvius speaks of the adulteration of minium with
lime, Dioscorides of 'that of opium with other plant juices and
with gum, Pliny of that of flour with white clay. Both in Rome
and in Athens wine was often adulterated with colours and
flavouring agents, and inspectors were charged with looking
after it
In England, so far back as the reign of John (itoj), a pro-
clamation was made throughout the kingdom, enforcing the
ADULTERATION
219
legal obligations of assize as regards bread; and in the following
reign the statute (51 Hen. HL Stat. 6) entitled " the pillory and
tumbrel " was framed for the express purpose of protecting the
public from the dishonest dealings of oaken, vintners, brewers,
butchers and others. This statute is the first in which the adul-
teration of human food is specially noticed and prohibited; it
seems to have been enforced with more or less rigour until the
time of Anne, when it was repealed (1709). According to the
Uber AHus it was strictly observed in the days of Edward L,
far it states that: " If any default shall be found in the bread
of a baker in the city, the first time, let him be drawn upon a
hardk from the Guildhall to his own house through the great
street where there be most people assembled, and through the
great streets which are most dirty, with the faulty loaf hanging
from his neck; if a second time he shall be found committing
the same offence, let him be drawn from the Guildhall through
the great street of Cheepe in the manner aforesaid to the pillory,
sad let him be put upon the pillory, and remain there at least one
hour in the day; and the third time that such default shall be
found, he shall be drawn, and the oven shall be pulled down, and
the baker made to foreswear the .trade in the city for ever." The
aaase of 1634 provides that " if there be any manner of person
or persons, which shall by any false wayes or meanes, sell any
meal* under the kinge's subjects, either by mixing it deceitfully
or sell any musty or corrupted meal, which may be to the hurte
and infection of man's body, or use any false weight, or any de-
ceitful wayes or meanes, and bo deceive the subject, for the first
offence he shall be grievously punished, the second he shall
loose his meak, for the third offence he shall suffer the judg-
ment of the pillory and the fourth time he shall foreswere the
town wherein he dwelleth." Vintners, spicers, grocers, butchers,
Rgrators and others were subject to the like punishment for
dishonesty in their commercial dealings— it being thought that
the pi&ory, by appealing to the sense of shame, was far more
deterrent of such crimes than fine or imprisonment In the reign
of Edward the Confessor a knavish brewer of the city of Chester
wis taken round the town in the cart in which the refuse of the
pdvies had been collected. Ale-tasters had to look after the ale
and test it by spilling some on to a wooden seat, sitting on the
«et place in their leathern breeches, the stickiness of the " resi-
due obtained by evaporation " affording the evidence of purity
or otherwise. If sugar had been added the taster adhered to the
beach; pure malt beer was not considered to yield an adhesive
extract In 1553, the lord mayor of London ordered a jury of
five or six vintners to rack and draw off the suspected wine of
toother vintner, and to ascertain what drugs or ingredients
they found in the said wine or cask to sophisticate the same.
At another time eight pipes of wine were ordered to be destroyed
because, on racking off, bundles of weeds, pieces of sulphur match,
and " a kind of graved mixture sticking to the casks " had been
found.
Similar records have come down from the continental European
countries. In 1300 an Augsburg wine-seller was sentenced to be
kd out of the city with his hands bound and a rope round his
tech; in 1400 two others were branded and otherwise severely
punished; in 2435 "*ere tb* taverner Christian Corper and
hb wife put in a cask in which he sold false wine, and then ex-
posed in the pillory. The punishment was adjudged because
they had roasted pears and put them into new sour wine, in
order to sweeten the wine. Some pears were hung round their
seeks like unto a Paternoster." In Biebrich on the Rhine, in
1482, a wine-falsifier was condemned to drink six quarts of his
ova wine; from this he died In Frankfurt, casks in which false
*iae had been found were placed with a red flag on the knacker's
cart, 4< the jailer marched before, the rabble after, and when they
cane to the river they broke the casks and tumbled the stuff
into the stream." In France successive ordonnances from 1330
to i6-»j forbade the mixing of two wines together under the
penalty of a fine and the confiscation of the wine.
Modern British Legislation. — In modern times the English
parliament has dealt frequently with the subject of food adul-
In 1725 it was provided that " no dealer in tea or
manufacturer or dyer thereof, or pretending so to be, shall
^counterfeit or adulterate tea, or cause or procure the same to be
counterfeited or adulterated, or shall alter, fabricate or manu-
facture tea with terra-japonica, or with any drug or drugs what-
soever; nor shall mix or cause or procure to be mixed with tea
any leaves other than the leaves of tea or other ingredients
whatsoever, on pain of forfeiting and losing the tea so counter-
feited, adulterated, altered, fabricated, manufactured or mixed,
and any other thing or things whatsoever added thereto, or
mixed or used therewith, and also the sum of £100." Six years
afterwards, in 1730-173X4 a further act was passed prescribing a
penalty for " sophisticating " tea; it recites that several ill-dis-
posed persons do frequently dye, fabricate or manufacture very
great quantities of sloe leaves, liquorice leaves, and the leaves
of tea that have been before used ; or the leaves of other trees,
shrubs or plants in imitation of tea, and do likewise mix. colour,
stain and dye such leaves and likewise tea with terra-japonica,
sugar, molasses, clay, logwood, and with other ingredients, and
do sell and vend the same as true and real tea, to the prejudice
of the health of his majesty's subjects, the diminution of the
revenue and to the ruin of the fair trader. This act provides
that for every pound of adulterated tea found in possession of
any person, a sum of £10 shall be forfeited. It was followed by
one passed in x 766-1 767, which increased the penalty to imprison-
ment for not less than six nor more than twelve months. As
regards coffee, an act of 1718 recited that "divers evil-disposed
persons have at the time or soon after the roasting of coffee
made use of water, grease, butter or such-like materials, where-
by the same is rendered unwholesome and greatly increased in
weight," and a penalty of £20 is enacted. In 1803 an act refers
to the addition of burnt, scorched or roasted peas, beans or
other grains or vegetable substances prepared in imitation of
coffee or cocoa, to coffee or cocoa, and fixes the penalty for the
offence at £xoo, but subsequently permission was given to coffee
or cocoa dealers also to deal in scorched or roasted corn, peas,
beans or parsnips whole and not ground, crushed or powdered,
under certain excise restrictions. An act passed in 1816 relating
to beer and porter provides that no brewer of or dealer in or
retailer of beer " shall receive or have in his possession, or make
or mix with any worts or beer, any liquor, extract or other pre-
paration for the purpose of HaTlrgnfag the colour of worts or beer,
other than brown malt, ground or unground, or shall have in his
possession or use, or mix with any worts or beer any molasses,
honey, liquorice, vitriol, quassia, coculus-indiae, grains of
paradise, guinea-pepper or opium, or any extracts of these, or
any articles or preparation whatsoever for or as a substitute for
malt or hops." Any person contravening was liable to a penalty
of £200, and any druggist selling to any brewer or retail dealer
any colouring or malt substitute was to be fined £500. It was
only in 1847 that brewers were allowed to make for their own
use, from sugar, a liquor for darkening the colour of worts or
beer and to use it in brewing.
All the laws hitherto referred to were mainly passed in the
interest of the inland revenue, and their execution was left
entirely in the hands of the revenue officers. It was but natural
that they should look primarily after the dutiable articles and
not after those that brought no revenue to the state. About
the middle of the 19th century many articles, however, paid
import duty; butter, for instance, paid 5s. per hundredweight;
cheese from is. 6d. to as. 6d.; flour or meal of all kinds, 4jd.;
ginger, 10s.; isinglass, 5*.; and so on. Sensational and doubtless
largely exaggerated statements were from time to time published
concerning the food supply of the nation. F. C. Actum (1760-
1838) by his Treatise on Adulterations of .Food and Culinary
Poisons (1820), and particularly an anonymous writer of a book
entitled Deadly Adulteration and Slow Poisoning unmasked, or
Disease and Death in the Pot and the Bottle, in which the blood-
empoisoning and life-destroying adulterations of wines, spirits,
beer, bread, flour, tea, sugar, spices, cheesemongery, pastry, con-
fectionery, medicines, brc. crc, are laid open to the public (1830),
roused the public attention. In 1850 a physician, Dr Arthur
H. Hassall, had the happy idea of looking at ground coffee
220
ADULTERATION
Ad of
through the microscope. Eminent chemists had previously
found great difficulty in establishing any satisfactory chemical
distinction between coffee, chicory and -other adulterants of
coffee; the microscope immediately showed the structural
difference of the particles, however small. The results of
Hassall's examinations were embodied in a paper which' was read
before the Botanical Society of London and was reported in
The Times, 185a A paper on the microscopic examination of
sugar, showing the presence in that article of innumerable living
mites, followed and attracted much attention. Hassall was in
consequence commissioned by Thomas Wakley (1 795-1862),
the owner of the Lancet, to extend his examination to other
articles of food, and for a period of nearly four years reports of
the Lancet Analytical Sanitary Commission were regularly pub-
lished, the names and addresses of hundreds of manufacturers
and tradesmen selling adulterated articles being fearlessly given.
The responsibility incurred was immense, but the assertions
of the journal were so well founded upon fact that they were
universally accepted as accurately representing the appalling
state of the food supply. As instances may be cited, that of
thirty-four samples of coffee only three were pure, chicory being
present in thirty-one, roasted com in twelve, beans and potato-
flour each in one; of thirty-four samples of chicory, fourteen
were adulterated with com, beans or acorns; of forty-nine
samples of bread, every one contained alum; of fifty-six samples
of cocoa, only eight were pure; of twenty-sue milks, fourteen
were adulterated; of twenty-eight cayenne peppers, only four
were genuine, thirteen containing red-lead and one vermilion;
of upwards of one hundred samples of coloured sugar-confec-
tionery, fifty-nine contained chromate of lead, eleven gamboge,
twelve red-lead, six vermilion, nine arsenite of copper and four
white-lead.
In consequence of the Lancets disclosures a parliamentary
committee was appointed in 1855, the labours of which resulted in
i860 in the Adulteration of Food and Drink Act, the first
act that dealt generally with the adulteration of food.
The first section of this enacted " that every person
who shall sell any article of food or drink with which, to the
knowledge of such person, any ingredient or material injurious
to the health of persons eating or drinking such article has
been mixed, and every person who shall sell as pure or unadul-
terated any article of food or drink which is adulterated and
not pure, shall for every such offence, on summary conviction,
pay a penalty not exceeding £5 with costs." In the case of a
second offence the name, place of abode and offence might be
published in the newspapers at the offender's expense. As the
act, however, left it optional to the district authorities to appoint
analysts or not, and did not provide for the appointment of any
officer upon whom should rest the duty of obtaining samples or
of prosecuting offenders, it virtually remained a dead letter till
jot. l8 7*» whcn the Adulteration of Food and Drugs Act
came into force, prescribing a penalty not exceeding
£50 for the sale of injurious food and, for a second offence, im-
prisonment for six months with hard labour. Inspectors were
empowered to make purchases of samples to be submitted for
analysis, but appointment of analysts was still left optional
The definition of an adulterated article given in that act was
essentially that still accepted at the present time, namely, " any
article of food or drink or any drug mixed with any other sub-
stances, with intent fraudulently to increase its weight or bulk,
without declaration of such admixture to any purchaser thereof
before delivering the same." The adoption of the act Was
sporadic, and, outside London and a few large towns, the number
of proceedings against offenders remained exceedingly small.
Nevertheless complaints soon arose that it inflicted considerable
injury and imposed heavy and undeserved penalties upon some
respectable tradesmen, mainly owing to the " want of a dear
understanding of what does and does not constitute adultera-
tion," and In some cases to conflicting decisions and the inex-
perience of analysts.
Again a parliamentary committee was appointed which took
a mass of evidence, the outcome of its inquiries being the Sale
of Food and Drugs Act 1875, which is in force at the present
day, subject to amendments and additions made at ^^
later dates. This act avoided the term "adulteration"
altogether and endeavoured to give a clearer description of
punishable offences: —
Section 6. " No person shall sell to the purchaser any article
of food or any drug which is not of the nature, substance and
quality of the article demanded by the purchaser under a penalty
not exceeding £30; provided that an offence shall not be deemed
to be committed under this section in the following cases: (1)
where any matter or ingredient not injurious to health has been
added to the food or drug because the same is required for the
production or preparation thereof as an article of commerce,
in a state fit for carriage or consumption, and not fraudulently
to increase the bulk, weight or measure of the food or drug, or
conceal the inferior quality thereof; (2) where the food or drug
is a proprietary medicine, or is the subject of a patent in force
and is supplied in the state required by the specification of the
patent; (3) where the food or drug is compounded as in the
act mentioned; (4) where the food or drug is unavoidably
mixed with some extraneous matter in the process of collection
or preparation."
Section 8. " No person shall be guilty of any such offence as
aforesaid in respect to the sale of an article of food or a drug
mixed with any matter or ingredient not injurious to health,
and not intended fraudulently to increase its bulk, weight or
measure, or conceal its inferior quality, if at the time of delivering
such article or drug he shall supply to the person receiving the
satte a notice, by a label distinctly and legibly written or printed
on or with the article or drug, to the effect that the same is
mixed."
The act made the appointment of analysts compulsory upon
the dty of London, the vestries, county quarter sessions and
town councils or boroughs having a separate police establish-
ment For the protection of the vendor, samples that had been
purchased by the inspectors for analysis were to be offered to be
divided into three parts, one to be submitted to the analyst,
the second to be given to the vendor to be dealt with by him as
he might deem fit, and the third to be retained by the inspector,
and, at the discretion of the magistrate hearing any summons,
to be submitted, in case of dispute, to the commissioners oJ
inland revenue for analysis by the chemical laboratory at
Somerset House. The public analyst had to give a certificate,
couched in a prescribed form, to the person submitting any
sample for analysis, which certificate was to be taken as evidence
of the facts therein stated, in order to render the proceedings as
inexpensive as practicable. If the defendant in any prosecu-
tion could prove to the satisfaction of the court that he had
purchased the artide under a warranty of genuineness, and
that he sold it in the same state as when he purchased it, he was
to be discharged from the prosecution, but no provision was
made that in that event the giver of the warranty should be
proceeded against
Section 6, quoted above, gave rise to an immense amount of
litigation, and already in 1879 it was found necessary to pass
an amending act, making it dear that if a purchase j^
was effected by an inspector with the intent to get the
purchased artide analysed, he was as much "prejudiced" if
obtaining a sophisticated artide as a private purchaser who
purchased for his own use and consumption. The amending act
also dealt in some small measure with a difficulty which immedi-
atdy after passing the act was found to arise in ascertaining
whether any artide was " of the nature, substance and quality
demanded by the purchaser " — " in determining whether an
offence has been committed under section 6 by selling spirits not
adulterated otherwise than by the admixture of water, It shall
be a good defence to prove that such admixture has not reduced
the spirit more than twenty-five degrees under proof for brandy,
whisky or rum, or thirty-five under proof for gin." Almost
insuperable difficulties as to the meaning of " nature, substance
and quality." subsequently arose as regards every conceivable
food material. As it was obviously impossible for parliament
ADULTERATION
221
to define every article, to lay down limits of composition within
which it might vary, to specify the substances or ingredients
that might enter into it, to limit the proportions of the una void-
tble imparities that might be contained in it, the duty to do all
thb was left to the individual analysts. An enormous number
of substances had to be analysed until sufficient evidence had
been accumulated for the giving of correct opinions or certifi-
cates. Endless disputes unavoidably arose, friction with manu-
facturers and traders, unfortunately also with the referees at
the inland revenue, who for many years were altogether out of
touch with the analysts. Conflicting decisions come to by
vinous benches of magistrates upon similar cases, allowing
of the legal sale of an article in one district which in another
bad been declared illegal, rendered the position of merchants
often unsatisfactory. It was not recognized by parliament
oaul almost a quarter of a century had elapsed that it was not
enough to compel local authorities to get samples analysed,
bat that it was also the duty of parliament to lay down specific
and dear instructions that might enable the officers to do their
work. This has only been very partially done even at the
present time.
A curious condition of things arose out of the definition of
" food " given in the act of 1875: " The term food shall include
ttsk*> every article used for food or drink by man, other than
■■^ drugs or water." It had been the. practice of bakers
Jjjf" to add alum to the flour from which bread was
manufactured, in order to whiten the bread, and to
permit the use of damaged and discoloured flour. This practice
bad been strongly condemned by chemists and physicians,
because it rendered the bread indigestible and injurious to
health. Shortly after the passing of the Food Act this objec-
tionable practice was stamped out by numerous prosecutions, and
ahuned bread now no longer occurs. A large trade, however,
continued to be carried on in baking powders consisting of alum
tad sodium bicarbonate. It was naturally thought that, as
baking powder is sold with the obvious intention that it may
eater into food, the vendors could also be proceeded against
The high court, however, held that, baking powder in itself not
being an artide of food, its sale could not be an offence under
the Food Act. This anomaly was removed by a later act
Under lection 6 of the act of 1875 a defendant could be con-
victed, even if he had no guilty knowledge of the fact that the
artide he had sold was adulterated. In the repealed Adultera-
tion Act of 1872 the words " to the knowledge of " were inserted,
and they were found fatal to obtaining convictions. The general
role of the Jaw is that the master is not criminally responsible
for the acts of his servants if they are done without his know-
ledge or authority, but under the Food Act it was held {Brown
v. F*i, 189a, 66 L.T. 649) that a master was liable for the
watering of milk by one of his servants, although he had pub-
lished a warning to them that they would be dismissed if found
doing so. Milk might be adulterated during transit on the rail-
say without the knowledge of the owner or receiver, and yet
the vendor was liable to conviction.
When it is brought to the knowledge of a purchaser that the
artide sold to him is not of the nature, substance or quality be
d n nand ed , the sale is not to the prejudice of the purchaser.
Ike notice may be given verbally or by a label supplied with
the artide. A common law notice may also be given. In
Sniyt v. Small, 1878, 3 Q.B.D. 449, a publican had displayed
• placard within the inn to the effect that the spirits sold in his
wr a h l whm ent were watered. This was held, as it were, to con-
tact him out of the Food Act Similarly, in the case of butters
that had been adulterated with milk, the vendors, by giving a
feneral notice In the shop, evaded punishment under the act
A notice, is, however, of no avail if given under section 8 of the
act, if the admixture has been made for fraudulent purposes.
I» Liddiart v. Reece, 44 J.P. 233, 1880, an inspector asked for
«fce and received a packet with a label describing it as a
aatare of coffee and chicory. It was sold at the price of
ofee. It turned out to be a mixture containing 40% of
dicory. The high court held that this was an excessive quan-
tity, and waft added for the purpose of fraudulently increasing
the bulk or weight In another case, however (Otter v. Edglty,
1893, 57 J.P. 457), where an inspector had asked for French
coffee and had been supplied with a mixture containing 60%
of chicory, the artide being labelled as a mixture, the
high court held that there was no evidence of fraud, and, in
the case of cocoa, a mixture containing as little as 30%
of cocoa and 70% of starch and sugar, the label stating it
to be a mixture, was hdd to have been legally sold (Jones
v. Jones, 1894, $8 J.P. 653). In this case the label notifying
the admixture was hidden by a sheet of opaque white paper,
nor had the purchaser's attention .been called to it, but the price
of the articleawas much lower thaa that of pure cocoa.
It is seen from these* few instances, taken at random out of
scores, that this clause of the act was far from dear and was
very variously interpreted at the courts. The warranty clause
(clause 95) also gave rise to an immense amount of litigation.
In the earlier high court decisions a very narrow interpretation
was given to the term " written warranty," but in later years
a wider view prevailed. A general contract to supply a pure
artide is not a suffident warranty unless with every delivery
there is something to identify the delivery as part of the contract
An invoice containing merely a description of an article as
" lard " or " pepper " is not a warranty; but if there be added
the words "guaranteed pure " it is a suffident warranty. A
label upon an article is not in itself a warranty, but a label bear-
ing the wdrds " pure " or " unadulterated," coupled with an
invoice which could be identified with the label, together were
held to form an effective warranty.
As many thousands of samples were annually submitted by
inspectors under the act to the analysts who had been appointed
in 237 boroughs and districts, a very large number of cases led
to disputes of law or fact, about seventy high court cases being
decided within eighteen years of the passing of the act. While
these cases related to a variety of different articles and conditions,
dairy produce, namely milk and butter, led to the greatest
amount of litigation. It may seem to be a simple matter to
ascertain whether a vendor of milk supplies his customer with
milk of the " nature, substance and quality demanded," but
milk is subject to great variations in composition owing to a
large number of drcumstances which will be considered below.
Not many years after the passing of the Food Act of 1875 the
sale of butter substitutes assumed very large proportions, and
so seriously prejudiced dairy-farmers that, as regards these, an
act was passed which was not exactly an amendment of the Sale
of Food and Drugs Act, although it embodied a good many
provisions of that act It was called the Margarine Act 1887.
It provided that every package of artides made in
imitation of butter should be labelled " margarine " TE^**
in letters \\ inches square. The vendor, however,
was protected if he could show a warranty or invoice, whereas
in the Sale of Food and Drugs Act he was not protected by
invoice merely. Inspectors might take samples of " any butter
or substitute purporting to be butter " without going through
the form of purchase. The maximum penalty was raised from
£20 as provided by the Food Act, to £50 in the case of a first
and to £100 in the case of repeated conviction. The Margarine
Act is the first statute that makes reference to and sanctions
the use of preservatives, concerning which a good deal will
have to be said farther on.
In the course of twenty years of administration of the Food
Acts so many difficulties had arisen in reference to the various
points referred to, that in 1894 a select committee was
appointed to inquire into the working of the various Mal .
acts and to report whether any, and if so what, amend- «•«, mm.
menu were desirable. During three sessions the com-
mittee sat and took voluminous evidence. They reported that
where the acts had been well administered they had been most
beneficial in diminishing adulteration offences. Forms of
adulteration which were common prior to the passing of the
1875 *ct, such as the introduction of alum into bread and the
colouring of confectionery with poisonous material, had almost
222
ADULTERATION
entirely disappeared. A close connexion had been shown to
exist between the extent of adulteration and the number of
articles submitted for analysis under the acts, the proportion
of adulterated samples being found to diminish as the number
of samples taken relatively to the population increased. Thus,
in 1800, in Somersetshire one sample had been analysed for every
379 persons, the percentage of adulterated samples in those taken
for analysis being as low as 3-6; in Gloucestershire one to 770
persons with 6*2 of adulteration; in Bedfordshire one to 821 with
71; in Derbyshire one to 3164 with 17-1 %, and in Oxford
one sample to 14,963 inhabitants with no less than 41*7 %
of adulterated samples. The number of samples of articles
annually submitted to analysis, according to the returns obtained
by the Local Government Board, steadily increased from the com-
mencement onward. Whereas in 1877, 14,706 samples, and in
1883, 19,648 samples were analysed, in 1904-1905 the number was
no less than 84,678, Or an average of one sample to 384 inhabitants
for the whole country. In J the five years 1877-1881 the pro-
portion found adulterated was 16*2 %; in the following five
years ending with 1886, the percentage was 13*0; in the five years
ending 1891, the percentage was 11-7; and in the year 1904
the percentage was only 8-5. a The select committee found that
wide local differences in the administration of the acts existed,
and that in many parts of the country the local authorities
had failed to exercise their powers. In* one metropolitan district,
eight members of the local authority had been convicted of
offences under the acts, upon evidence obtained by their own
inspector. The result was that the duties of the inspector of the
acts were afterwards controlled by a committee of that local
authority, who decided the cases in which prosecutions should
be undertaken, and the administration of the acts was " little
better than a farce." No power existed to compel local au-
thorities to carry out the acts. The committee came to the con-
clusion that in many cases the responsibility for the adulteration
of articles of food did not rest with the retailer but with the whole-
sale dealer or manufacturer; that the law punished petty offences
and left great ones untouched; that it fined a small retailer and
left the wholesale offender scot free. As regards warranty, they
thought that the precedent created by the Margarine Act should
be followed generally, and that invoices and equivalent docu-
ments 6hould have the force of warranties. They found that
a considerable proportion of the food imports were adulterated,
out of 800 samples of butter taken by the customs in 1895 no
less than 106 being impure, and they recommended that in ad-
dition to tea, which by section 30 of the act of 1875 was to be
systematically analysed by the customs, prior to being passed
for distribution, samples of all food imports should be taken and
examined by the customs. The committee further found that
the penalties imposed under the acts had for the most part been
trifling and quite insufficient to serve as deterrents, the profits
derived from the sale of adulterated articles being out of pro-
portion great to the insignificant fines imposed, and they recom-
mended that for the second offence the penalty of £5 should be
the minimum one, and that in respect to third or subsequent
offences imprisonment without the option of a fine might be in-
flicted. The important question of food standards was considered
at great length. The absence of legal standards or definitions
of articles of food had occasioned great difficulty in numerous
cases, but as no authority was provided by the existing acts that
might fix such standards, they recommended the formation of
a scientific authority or court of reference composed of repre-
sentatives of the laboratory of the Inland Revenue, of the Local
Government Board, the Board of Agriculture, the General
Medical Council, the Institute of Chemistry, the Pharmaceutical
Society, of other scientific men and of the trading and manu-
facturing community, who should have the duty of fixing stand-
ards of quality and purity of food to be confirmed by a secretary
of state.
The committee's deliberations and recommendations resulted
in the Sale of Food and Drugs Act 1809. This unfortunately
was not a comprehensive act superseding the previous acts, but
was an additional and amending one, so that at the present time
four food acts run parallel and are together in force, rendering the
subject from a legal point of view one of extreme complexity.
In this act the growing influence of the Board of Agri-
culture and the desire to.assist farmers and dairymen j^J^
more decisively than previously are clearly apparent
Section 1 empowers the customs to take samples of consign menu
of imported articles of food and enjoins them to communicate
to the Board of Agriculture the names of the importers of adulter-
ated goods, any article of food to be considered adulterated or
impoverished if it has been mixed with any other substance
(other than preservative or colouring matter, of such a nature
and such a quantity as not to render the article injurious to
health), or if any part of it has been abstracted to the detriment
of the article. Margarine or cheese containing margarine has
to be conspicuously marked as such; condensed, separated or
skim milk has to be clearly labelled " machine-skimmed milk "
or " skimmed milk," as the case maybe. The next sections give
to the Local Government Board and the Board of Agriculture
a roving commission to see that the acts are properly enforced
throughout the kingdom so as to apply the acts more equally
throughout the country than heretofore, and in default of local
authorities carrying out their duties empower the government
departments mentioned to execute and enforce the acts at the
expense of the local authorities. The importance of a regular
and conscientious control of the public food supply by the local
authorities was thus for the first time, after forty years of ex-
perimental legislation, fully acknowledged. In recognition of
the great difficulties experienced for many years by analysts in
their endeavour to fix minimum percentages for the fat and
other milk constituents, and their inability to do so without
statutory powers, the Board of Agriculture is authorised by
section 4 to make regulations " for determining what deficiency
in any of the normal constituents of genuine milk, cream, butter
or cheese, or what addition of extraneous matter or proportion
of water" in any of these materials shall raise a presump-
tion, until the contrary is proved, that these articles are not
genuine. In pursuance of these powers the Board of Agricul-
ture did in 1001 issue their milk regulations, adopting officially
the minima agreed upon by public analysts, and in 1902 the sale
of butter regulations, which fixed 16 % as the maximum of
water that might be contained in butter. It is important to
note that the fact of a sample of milk falling short of the standard
is not conclusive evidence of adulteration, but it justifies the
institution of proceedings and casts the onus of proving that
the sample is genuine upon the defendant The Margarine Act
of 1887 was extended to margarine cheese, the obligatory
labelling of margarine packages was more precisely regulated,
margarine manufacturers and dealers in that article were com-
pelled to keep a register open to inspection by the Board of
Agriculture, showing the quantity and designation of each con-
signment, and power was given to officers of the board to enter
at all reasonable times manufactories of margarine and margarine
cheese. The amount of butter-fat that might be present in
margarine was limited to 10%, while under the Margarine
Act of 1887 an unlimited admixture might have been made,
provided that the mixture, no matter how large the percentage
of butter, was sold as margarine. As is further explained below,
the difficulty of distinguishing without chemical aid between
pure butter and margarine containing a considerable percentage
of butter is very great, and fraudulent sales continued to be i
common after the passing of the Margarine Act The labelling
section of the Food Act 1875 (8 8), which had been systematic- j
ally circumvented, was modified, a label being no longer recog- ,
nixed as distinctly and legibly written or printed, unless it is so
written or printed that the notice of mixture given by the label
is not obscured by other matter on the label, though labels that
had been continuously in use for at least seven years before the
commencement of the act were not interfered with. In conse-
quence of the admitted unfairness of asking for a portion of the
contents of a properly labelled tin or package and then instituting
proceedings because no declaration of admixture had been
made, it was enacted that no person shall be required to sell any
ADULTERATION
223
article exposed (or sale in an unopened tin of packet, except in
the unopened tin or packet in which it is contained. This re-
moved a grievance which had long been felt both by retailers
tod manufacturers, and is a provision of growing importance
with the continually increasing sale of articles put up in factories.
The warranty provisions, which, as before stated, had given rise
to much litigation, were more clearly defined. A notice that a
defendant would rely for his defence upon a warranty had to be
given within seven days of the service of the summons or the
defence would not be available, and the warrantor was em-
powered to appear at the hearing and to give evidence so that
so man's name could, as sometimes previously happened, be
dogged into a case without due notice to him. A warranty or
invoice given by a person resident outside the United Kingdom
wis no longer recognized as a defence, unless the defendant
oookj prove that he had taken reasonable steps to ascertain
tad did in fact believe in the accuracy of the statement con-
tained in the warranty. This prevented collusion between a
foreign shipper and an importer; and, lastly, the definition of
Mood " was widened (in view of the baking-powder decision)
» that the term food " shall include every article used for food
or drink by man, other than drugs or water, and any article
which ordinarily enters into or is used in the composition or
preparation of human food, and shall also include flavoring
flatten and condiments."
The act of 1809 embodies, with one exception, the most
important recommendations of the Food Products Committee,
the exception being the omission of instituting a board of refer-
ence that might deal with difficulties as they arose, guide analysts
and public authorities in fixing limits for articles other than milk
and butter, and take up the important questions of preservatives
ud colouring matters and such like. An occurrence which
almost immediately followed the passing of the act showed in
the strongest manner the necessity of such guiding board —
aundy, the outbreak of arsenical poisoning in the Midlands in
thr latter part of 1900.
In the month of June 1000 there occurred, mainly in the
Midlands but also in other parts of England and Wales, an out-
U mk break of an illness variously described as "alcoholism,"
* *»*. " peripheral neuritis " or "multiple neuritis." This
affected about 6000 persons and resulted in about 70
deaths. It was soon ascertained that the sufferers were all beer
driaken, and several of them were employees of a local brewery,
the majority of whom had suffered for some months past.
Although suspicion fell early upon beer, some considerable time
darned before Dr £. S. Reynolds of Manchester discovered
awaic in dangerous proportions in the beer. Steps were im-
mediately taken by brewers and sanitary authorities to ensure
that this arsenical beer was withdrawn from sale, and, as a
remit, the epidemic came speedily to an end. In all instances
where this epidemic of sickness had been traced to particular
breweries, the latter had been users of brewing sugars—glucose
and invert sugar— supplied by a single firm. The quantity of
weak detected in specimens of these brewing fugnrs was in
same cases very large, amounting to upward of four grains per
pound. The implicated brewing sugars were found to have
become contaminated by arsenic in course of their manufacture
through the use of sulphuric add, some specimens of which
contained as much as 2 -6% of arsenic The add had been
made from highly arsenical iron pyrites, and as the manufac-
turers of the glucose had not specifically contracted with the
sod makers for pure add, the latter, not knowing for what
pwpose the add was to be used, had felt themselves justified in
applying impure add. A royal commission was appointed in
February 1001, with Lord Kelvin as chairman, to inquire into
the matter, and an enormous amount of attention was naturally
*"ta to it by chemists and medical men. It was soon found that
"xnk was very widdy disseminated in two dasses of food
■tienals, namely, such as had been dried or roasted in gases
""dung from the combustion of coal, and such as had been
■w or less chemically manufactured. All coal contains iron
(TQtes, and this mineral again is contaminated with arsenic.
When the coal Is burned the fumes are arsenical and part of the
arsenic condenses and deposits. Malt dried in English malt
kilns was found to be almost invariably arsenical, and there
cannot be a doubt that English beers had for many years past
been thus contaminated. At the present time coal virtually
free from arsenic is selected for malting, or NewlandY process,
consisting of the admixture with coal of lime which renders
the arsenic non-volatile, is adopted, and malt free- from all but
the merest traces of arsenic is manufactured. Part of the
arsenic remains in the coal-ashes and wherever these deposit
arsenic can be traced. Sir Edward Frankland had, many years
previously, detected arsenic in the London atmosphere. Chicory
roasted with* coal, steaks and chops grilled over an open fire,
thus obtain a minute arsenical dosing. In sugar refineries
carbonic add gas is, at one stage of the process, passed through
the liquor for the purpose of precipitating lime or strontia.
When this carbonic acid is derived from coal the sugar often
shows traces of arsenic. When arsenical malt or sugar infusion
is fermented, as in brewing, the yeast precipitates upon itself a
considerable proportion of the impurity, thus partly deaning
the beer, but all preparations made from yeast— yeast-extracts
resemble to some extent meat extracts, with which they are some-
times fraudulently mixed— are thus exposed to arsenical con-
tamination. On the continent of Europe malt is not dried in
kilns with direct access of combustion gases but on floors heated
from beneath, and continental beers therefore have not been
found arsenical The second class of causes of contamination
consists of chemicals. The most important chemical product is
sulphuric add. This used to be made from brimstone or native
volcanic sulphur, which is virtually free from arsenic But since
about i860 sulphuric add has been more largely made from
iron or copper pyrites. Pyrites-acid is always arsenical, but can,
by suitable treatment, be easily freed from that impurity. For
many purposes add that has not been purified is employed. In
the Leblanc process of manufacture the first step is the conver-
sion of salt into sodium sulphate by sulphuric add. The hydro-
chloric add which is formed carries with it most of the arsenic
of the sulphuric add. Wherever such hydrochloric add is used
it introduces arsenic; thus, in the separation of glycerin from
soap lyes, the alkali of the latter is neutralized with hydrochloric
add and glycerin is in consequence frequently highly arsenical.
So is the soda produced in the Leblanc process, and every one
of the numerous soda salts made from soda is liable to receive
its share. All acids liberated from their salts by sulphuric acid,
such as phosphoric, tartaric, dtric, boradc, may be, and some-
times are, thus contaminated. All superphosphates, made by
the action of crude sulphuric add upon bones or other phosphatic
materials, and sulphate of ammonia, made from gas-liquor and
add, that Is to say, two of the most important manurial materials,
are arsenical, and the poison is thus spread far and wide over
meadows and fields, and can be traced in the soil wherever
artificial manures have been applied. The crops sometimes take
up arsenic to a slight extent, but happily the plant is more
selective than man, and no serious amount of poison absorption
appears to be possible. The risk of contamination is, of course,
much greater with substances which, like glucose, are not
further purified by crystallization, but retain whatever impurity
is introduced into them. Glucose is not only used in beer, in
which by legal enactments it is permitted to be used, but is also
substituted for sugar in a number of food products, and is liable
to carry into them its contamination. Sugar confectionery,
jams and marmalade, honey, and such like, are often admixed
with glucose. It is difficult to say in the present state of the
law whether such admixture amounts to adulteration. It was
clearly made originally for fraudulent purposes, but usage and
high court decisions have gradually given the practice an air of
respectability Vinegar of sorts is also made from a glucose
liquor produced by the action of sulphuric add upon maize or
other starchy material, and is, in its turn, exposed to arsenic
contamination. There is hardly a chemical substance which
has directly or indirectly come into contact with sulphuric add
that is not at times arsenical. Thus,- -while artificial colours,
224
ADULTERATION
dow so much used for the dyeing of food products, are no longer
prepared — as was rosanfline (the parent substance of so many
aniline dyes) at an early stage of its manufacture— with arsenic
acid, yet they are often contaminated indirectly from sulphuric
acid. Furthermore, hardly any metal that results from the
smelting of any ore with coal is free from arsenic, iron in par-
ticular, as employed for pots and pans and implements, being
highly arsenical. From the iron the many chemical preparations
which contain or are made with the aid of iron salts may be
arsenicated. The general presence of arsenic from some of these
causes has been known for many years; outbreaks of arsenical
poisoning have been due to it at various times, but neglect,
forgetfulness and human shortsightedness let the matter go into
oblivion, and it is safe to predict, in spite of all attention which
has been given to the subject, of the panic which was created
by the beer-poisoning outbreak, of the shock and injury caused
to manufacturers of many kinds, and of the watchfulness
aroused in officers of health and analysts, that as long as the
production of food materials or substances that go into food
materials is not left to the care of nature, and as long as man
adds the products of his ingenuity to our food and drink, so long
will " accidents," like the Manchester poisoning, from time to
time recur. We now search for arsenic; some other time it is
lead, or antimony, or selenium, that will do the mischief. Man
does what he can according to his light, but he sees but a little
patch of the sky of knowledge, while the plant or the animal
building up its body from the plant has learned by inheritance
to avoid the assimilation of matters noxious to it Strictly
speaking, arsenical poisoning does not belong to the subject of
adulteration. It is not due to wilfulness but to stupidity, but
it affords a lesson which cannot be taken too much to heart,
that mankind, by relying too much upon " science " in feeding,
is on a path that is fraught with considerable danger.
To safeguard consumers, as far as practicable, the royal
commission made important recommendations concerning
amendments of the Food Acts; these, as at present interpreted
and administered, were reported to be unsatisfactory for the
purpose of protecting the consumer against arsenic and other
deleterious substances in food. "As a rule public analysts
receive samples in order that they, may pronounce upon their
genuineness or otherwise, knowing nothing of the local circum-
stances which led to their being taken, of their origin or the
reasons for sending them. The term * genuine ' in this sense
means that the analyst has not detected such objectionable
substances as he has considered it necessary to look for in the
sample submitted to him. Obviously, the value of the state-
ment that the sample is ' genuine ' depends upon the extent to
which the analyst has means of knowing what are the objection-
able substances which it is liable to contain. In present circum-
stances he has not sufficient information on this point." It
was also pointed out that the application of the Food Acts to
prevention of contamination of foods by deleterious substances
was materially hindered by want of an official authority with
the duty of dealing with the various medical, chemical and
technical questions involved, and that the absence of official
standards militated against the efficiency of the existing acts.
The commission advised that a special officer be appointed by
the Local Government Board to obtain by inquiries from various
sources, such information as would enable the board to direct
the work of local authorities in securing greater purity of food;
and they further recommended that the board or court of refer-
ence, which had been advised by the Committee on Food Pro-
ducts Adulteration, should be established. Pending the estab-
lishment of official standards in respect of arsenic under the
Food Acts, they were of opinion that penal ties should be imposed
upon any vendor of beer or any other liquid food, or of any
liquor entering into the composition of food, if that liquid be
shown by adequate test to contain one-hundredth of a grain or
more of arsenic in the gallon, and with regard to solid food, no
matter whether it be consumed habitually in large or small
quantities, or whether it be taken by itself (like golden syrup), or
mixed with water or other substances (like chicory or yeast
extract)— if the substance contain one-hundredth of a grain of
arsenic or more to the pound. The board of reference, most
urgently needed for the protection of the public and for the
guidance of manufacturers and officers, has yet to be created.
While from time immemorial certain articles of food have
been preserved by salting, smoking, drying, or by the addition
of sugar and in some cases of saltpetre, during the last
quarter of the 19th century the use of chemicals acting
more powerfully as antiseptics or preservatives ex- fo^g~~
tended enormously, particularly in England. A very
large fraction of the British food supply being obtained
from abroad, a proportionately great difficulty exists in obtain-
ing the food in an entirely fresh and untainted condition. While
refrigeration and cold-storage has been the chief factor in enab-
ling the meat and other highly perishable foods to be imported.
other steps, ensuring preservation of goods that are collected
from farmers and brought together at shipping ports, are neces-
sary to prevent decomposition prior to such goods coming into
cold store. Thus it is well-nigh impossible to collect butter
from farms in Australia or New Zealand far distant from the
coast without the addition of some chemical preservative.
Heavily salted goods no longer appeal to the modern palate, and,
with the progress of specialized labour, the inhabitants, especi-
ally of great towns, have become accustomed to resort to manu-
factured provisions instead of the home-made and .home-cooked
food. Manufacturers of many articles of preserved food gradu-
ally adopted the use of chemical preservatives, and at the present
time the practice has become so general that it may be said that
practically every person in the United Kingdom who has passed
the suckling stage consumes daily more or less food containing
chemical preservatives. The Food Act allows of the addition
of any ingredient, not injurious to health, if it be required for
the production or preparation of the food, or as an article of
commerce, in a state fit for carriage. The legality or otherwise
Of the use of chemical preservatives, therefore, hinges upon their
innocuousness. Upon theoretical considerations it is dear that
a substance which is capable of acting as an antiseptic must act
injuriously upon bacteria, fungi or yeasts, and as the human
body is, generally speaking, less resistant to poisons than the lew
organisms in question, it would seem to follow that antiseptics
are bound to affect it injuriously. It is, of course, a question
of dose and proportion. It has further been said that all anti-
septics possess some sort of medicinal action, and however valu-
able they may be in disease when administered under the control
of a competent physician, they have no business to be given in-
discriminately to sick and healthy alike by purveyors of food.
The result of a general desire on the part of importers and manu-
facturers of food materials, of the officers under the Food Act,
of the medical profession and of the public, resulted after many
years of agitation and complaint and after numerous conflicting
magisterial decisions, in the appointment in 1899, by the presi-
dent of the Local Government Board, of a departmental com-
mittee to inquire into the use of preservatives and colouring
matters in food, with the reference to report: first, whether the
use of such materials or any of them, in certain quantities, is
injurious to health, and, if so, in what proportion does their use
become injurious, and, second, to what extent and in what
amounts are they used at the present time. After the examina-
tion of a great number of witnesses a report was issued in boo 1.
Perhaps die most important conclusion was that the instances 1
of actual harm which were alleged to have occurred from the |
consumption of articles of food and drink chemically preserved
were few in number, and were not at all supported by conclusive
evidence. During the period which has elapsed since chemically
preserved food has been used, the mortality as a whole has
declined, and while this naturally cannot be put to the credit
of the preservatives but is largely due to better feeding in conse-
quence of the introduction of cheaper foods, which are rendered
possible to some extent by the use of preservatives, it conclusively
establishes the fact that no obvious harm has been done to the
health of the community. The committee made certain recom-
mendations which are the most authoritative pronouncements
ADULTERATION
225
upon the subject. They are as follows:— That the use of form-
aldehyde or formalin, or preparations thereof, in food or
drinks, be absolutely prohibited, and that salicylic acid be not
used in a greater proportion than one grain per pint in liquid
food and one grain per pound in solid food, its presence in all cases
to be declared. That the use of any preservatives or colouring
matter whatever in milk offered for sale in the United Kingdom
be constituted an offence under the Sale of Food and Drugs Act
That the only preservative which it shall be lawful to use in
cream be boric acid, or mixtures of boric acid and borax, and
in amount not exceeding 0-25% expressed as boric acid,
the amount of such preservative to be notified by a label upon
the vessel. That the only preservative permitted to be used in
butter and margarine be boric acid, or mixtures of boric acid
and borax, to be used in proportions not exceeding 0-5%
expressed as boric acid. That in the case of all dietetic prepara-
tions intended for the use of invalids or infants, chemical pre-
servatives of all kinds be prohibited.
As the most commonly used chemical preservative is boric
acid, free or in the form of borax, which is extensively employed
ana in butter, cream, ham, sausages, potted meats, cured
fish, and sometimes in jams and preserved fruit, the
arguments for and against its employment deserve more detailed
attention- It cannot be looked upon in the light of common
adulteration because, in any case, the quantity used is but an
inconsiderable fraction, and the cost of it is generally greater
than that of the food itself. It is not used to hide any traces
of decomposition that may have taken place or to efface its
effects. On the other hand, it cannot be said to be " required
for the production or preparation " of the articles with which
h is mixed, since a fraction at least of similar articles are made
without preservative. It enables food to be kept from decom-
position, but it also lessens the need for cleanliness and encour-
ages neglect and slovenliness in factories. It has no taste, or
only a very slight one, hence does not manifest itself to the
consumer in the same way as does common salt, and cannot
therefore be avoided by him should he desire to do so. Its pre-
servative action, that is, its potency, is very slight in comparison
with most other preservatives; its potential injuriousness to
nan must be proportionately small. It is practically without
interference upon salivary, peptic or tryptic digestion, unless
tmn in large quantities. Experiments made by F. W. Tunni-
dffie and R. Rosenheim upon children showed (hat neither boric
acid nor borax, administered in doses of from 15 to 33 grains
per diem, exerted any influence upon proteid metabolism or
upon the assimilation of phosphatized materials. The fat
assimilation was, if anything, improved, and the body weight
increased, and the general health and well-being was in no way
affected. On the other hand, evidence was adduced that in some
cases digestive disturbances, after continuous administration
of from 15 to 40 grains, were observable, nausea and vomiting
in some, and skin irritation, in one case resulting in complete
baldness, mothers.
Although it is in most cases very difficult to trace any gastric
dnturbance to any particular article of food or one of its in-
gredients, so as to exclude all other possible causes of disturbance,
• fairly good case has been made out by a number of medical
practitioners against boradc acid, taken in an ordinary diet
tad not for experimental purposes. The most exhaustive in-
vestigation which has as yet been made was carried out by
Dr H. W. Wiley, chief chemist to the United States department of
agriculture. A large number of young men who had offered
themselves as subjects for the investigations, were boarded as a
aptcial " hygienic table," but otherwise continued their usual
vocations during the whole period of the experiment. They were
placed upon their honour to observe the rules and regulations
prepared by the department and to use no other food or drink
fcaa that provided, water excepted, and any water consumed
my from the hygienic table was to be measured and reported.
They were to continue their regular habits and not to indulge
b any excessive amount of labour or exercise. Weight, tempera-
tot and pulse rate were continuously recorded. The periods
during which the subjects of the experiment were kept under
observation varied from thirty to seventy days, periods of rest
being given during which they were permitted to cat moderately
at tables other than the experimental one. There was a good
and ample diet. The observations were divided into three periods:
the fore period, the preservative period and the after period,
during the whole of which time the rations of each member
were weighed or measured and the excreta collected. Before
the " fore " period was commenced .a note was made of the
quantities of food voluntarily consumed by each of the candi-
dates, and from these the proper amount necessary in each case
to maintain a comparatively constant body weight was calcu-
lated. When a suitable result -was thus arrived at, the same
quantity of food was given daily during the " preservative "
and " after " periods. The preservative was given in the forms
of borax and of boric acid, at first mixed with butter, but subse-
quently in gelatine capsules. This was found to be necessary
from the fact that when the preservative was mixed with the food
and concealed in it some of the members of the table evinced
dislike of the food with which it was supposed to be incorporated;
those who thought that the preservative was in the butter were
disposed to find the butter unpalatable, and the same was true
with those who thought it might be in the milk or coffee, while,
when the preservative was given openly, much less disturbance
was created. The preservative was given at first in small doses
such as might be consumed in commercial food that had been
preserved with borax; gradually the quantities were increased
in order to reach the limit of toleration for each individual.
All food was weighed, measured and analysed, the same being
the case with the excreta. The blood was examined periodically
as regards colouring matter and number of corpuscles. Every-
thing was done to keep up the general health of the members
and to do away with all unfavourable mental influences due to
the circumstances. During the time of the experiment analyses
were made of 2550 food samples and 1175 samples each of
urine and faeces. The general results were as follows: there was
no tendency to excite diarrhoea, and the nitrogen-metabolism
was but very little influenced, if anything being slightly de-
creased. As regards phosphorus the combined results of all
observations indicated that the preservative increased the
excretion of phosphorus to a small extent, from 97-3%
in the " fore " period, to 103-1 in the " preservative " period.
The metabolism of fat was uninfluenced; there was an increase
of the solid matters in the faeces and a decrease of those in the
urine, from which Dr Wiley concluded that the preservatives
interfered with the process of digestion and absorption. No
influence was exerted on the corpuscles and the haemoglobin
of the blood. The effect of boracic acid and borax on the
general health varied with the amount administered, quantities
not exceeding half a gramme (7} grains) of boracic acid, or its
equivalent of borax, producing no immediate effects, but the
long-continued administration of such small doses seemed to
produce the same results as the use of large doses over a shorter
period. There was a tendency to diminish the appetite and to
produce a feeling of fulness and uneasiness in the stomach and
sometimes actual nausea, also one of fulness in the bead mani-
fested as a dull headache which disappeared when the preserva-
tive was dropped. The continued administration of large doses,
60 to 75 grains per day, resulted in most cases in loss of appetite,
inability to perform work of any kind and general unfitness.
In most cases 45 grains per day could be taken for some time,
but gradually injurious effects were observed. In some cases 30
and even 15 grains per day appeared to cause illness, but it is
acknowledged that these persons may have been suffering from
influenza. The administration of 75 grains was declared by
Dr Wiley to be too much for the normal man to receive regularly,
although for a limited period there might be no danger to health.
Dr Wiley concludes his report: "It appears, therefore, that
both boric acid and borax, when continuously administered in
small doses for a long period or when given in large quantities
for a short period, create disturbance of appetite, of digestion
and of health."
226
ADULTERATION
Dr Wiley's conclusions were adversely criticized by Dr O.
Liebreich, who carefully studied on the spot all the conditions
of the experiment and the documents relating to the investiga-
tion. He pointed out that the results were so indefinite and the
number of persons under control so small that " one case of self-
deception or of forgetfulness only would throw into absolute
uncertainty the solution of the whole question ", that no lasting
injury to health was found in spite of transient disturbances
attributed by Dr Liebreich to other causes, and that all persons
declared themselves to be in better physical condition after
seven months than they had been before. On the whole the
balance of evidence seems to be that while no acute injury is
likely to result from boron compounds in food, they are liable to
produce slighter digestive Interferences.
Other chemical substances that are in use for the purpose of
preserving food materials may be treated more shortly. Form-
aldehyde, coming into commerce in the- form of a
40 % solution under the name of formalin, was for a
time largely used in milk. It certainly has very great
antiseptic properties, as little as z part in 50,000 parts check-
ing the growth of organisms in milk for some hours, but as
the substance combines with albuminous matters and hardens
them to an extraordinary degree, rendering, for instance, gelatine
perfectly insoluble in water, it exerts an inhibitory effect on
the digestive ferments. 1 1 injures salivary, peptic and pancreatic
digestion. A set of five kittens fed with milk containing 1 part
in 50,000 of formaldehyde for seven weeks were strongly retarded
in growth, three ultimately dying, while four control kittens fed
on pure milk flourished. In even moderate doses formalin pro-
duces severe pains in the abdomen and has caused death. It is
now generally recognized as a substance that is admirably
adapted for disinfecting a sick-room, but quite improper and
unsuitable for food preservation.
Salicylic acid or orthohydroxybenzoic add is either obtained
from oil of winter-green or is made synthetically by Kolbe's
iM(!M fc process from phenol and carbonic acid. Artificial
2Jt salicylic acid generally contains impurities (creasotic
acids) which act very injuriously upon health. When
pure, salicylic acid employed as a food preservative has never
produced decided injurious effects, although administered by
itself in fairly strong solution it acts as an irritant to the stomach
and kidneys, and sometimes causes skin eruptions. It is a
powerful drug in larger doses and requires careful administra-
tion, especially as about 60 %-of the persons to whom it is
administered show symptoms known as " salicylism," namely,
deafness, headache, delirium, vomiting, sometimes haemorrhage
or heart-failure. It is doubtful whether pure salicylic acid
produces these symptoms. When present in proportion of
1 to 1000 it inhibits the growth of moulds and yeasts. In
jams 2 grains per pound and in beverages 7 grains to a gallon
are considered by manufacturers to be sufficient for preservative
purposes. It is used mainly in articles of food or drink containing
sugar, that is to say, in jams and preserved fruit, lime and lemon
juices, syrups, dder, British wines and imported lager. Its use
in butter, potted meat, milk or cream, in which it was not in-
frequently met with formerly, is now quite exceptional It has
already been stated that the preservative committee recom-
mended its permissive use in small proportions. To some extent
benzoic add and benzoates have taken the place of salicylic
add and salicylates, partly because salicylic add can readily
be detected analytically, while benzoic add is not quite easily
discoverable. Its antiseptic potency is about equal to that of
salicylic add, and the arguments for or against its use are
similar to those relating to the latter.
For the preservation of meat and beer, lime juice and dried
fruit, sulphur dioxide (sulphurous add) and some of the sulphites
have long been employed. Sulphuring of hops and disinfection
of barrels by burning brimstone matches is an exceedingly old
practice. Burning sulphur is well known as a gaseous disin-
fectant of rooms, bacteria being killed in air containing 1 %
of the gas. As the taste and smell of sulphurous add and
of sulphites are very pronounced it follows that but small
quantities can be added to food or drink. About 1 part in
4000 or 5000 of beer is the usual amount. While, in larger
quantities, the sulphites have decided physiological activity
and are apt to produce nephritis, there is not any evidence that
they have ever caused injurious effect* in alcoholic liquors.
The excise authorities have tadtly sanctioned their employment
in breweries, although the Customs and Inland Revenue Act
1885 declares that a brewer of beer shall not add any matter
or thing thereto except finings or other matter or thing sanc-
tioned by the commissioners of Inland Revenue, and although
sulphites are used in all breweries, the Board of Inland Revenue
do neither sanction nor interfere. An antiseptic with a pro-
nounced taste is obviously a safer one in the hands of a non-
medical person than one virtually devoid of taste, like boric,
salicylic or benzoic adds or their salts.
Sodium fluoride, a salt possessing powerfully antiseptic
properties, but also at the same time dearly injurious to health
and interfering with salivary and peptic digestion, has iM ^__
been found in butter, imported mainly from Brittany, fl ,
in quantities quite inadmissible in food under any cfrw*
drcumstances. A few other chemical preservatives
are occasionally used. Hydrogen peroxide has been found
effective in milk sterilization, and if the substance is pure, no
serious objection can be raised against it Saccharine, and
other artificial sweetening agents, having antiseptic properties,
are taking the place of sugar in beverages like ginger-beer
and lemonade, but the substitution of a trace of a substance
that provides sweetness without at the same time giving the
substance and food value of sugar is strongly to be deprecated.
The employment of chemical preservative matters in articles
intended f6r human consumption threatens to become a grave
danger to health or well-being. Each dealer in food contributes
but a little; each one claims that his particular article of food
cannot be brought into commerce without preservative, and
each condemns the use of these substances by others. There a
doubtless something to be said for the practice, but infinitely
more against it It cheapens food by allowing its collection in
districts far away, but the chief gainer is not the public as a
whole but the manufacturer and the wholesale merchant Our
body has by inheritance acquired habits and needs that are
quite foreign to chemical interference. Some day, artificially
prepared foods, containing liberal quantities of matters that are
not now food ingredients, may conceivably compare with natural
food products, but that day is not yet, and meantime it ought
to be dearly the duty of the state to see that the evil is checked.
The intention which has introduced this form of adulteration
may be more or less beneficent, but in practice it is almost wholly
eviL
A similar criticism applies to the continually extending use of
colouring matter in food. Civilized man requires his food not only
to be healthy and tasty, but also attractive in appear- .
ance. It is the art of the cook to prepare dishes that SaSia
please the eye. This is a difficult art, for the various *•*
colouring matters which are naturally present in
meat and fish, in fruit, legumes and green vegetables are
of a delicate and changeable nature and easily affected or de-
stroyed by cooking. Many years ago some artful, if stupid, cook
found that green vegetables like peas or spinach, when cooked
in a copper pan, by preference a dirty one, showed a far more
brilliant colour than the same vegetables cooked in earthenware
or iron. The manufacturer who puts up substances like peas
in pots or tins for sale produces the same effect which the cook
in her ignorance innocently obtained, by the wilful addition of
a substance known to be injurious to health, namely, sulphate
of copper. The copper combines with the chlorophyll, forming
copper phyllocyanate, which, by reason of its insolubility in
the gastric juice, is comparatively innocuous. Preserved peas
and beans have been for so many years " coppered " in this
manner that it is difficult to induce the public to accept these
vegetables when possessed of their natural colour only. Several
countries endeavoured to abolish the objectionable practice,
but the public pressure has been too great, and to-day the
ADULTERATION
227
practice b almost universal. In England the amount of copper
corresponds to from one to two grains per pound of the vegetable
calculated as crystallized copper sulphate. The opinion of
the departmental committee was clearly expressed that the
pnctke should be prohibited. No effect has been given to the
recommendation.
Milk is naturally almost white with a tint of cream colour.
When adulterated with water this tint changes to a bluish one.
To hide this tell-tale of a fraud, a yellow colouring matter used
to be added by London milkmen. Very gradually this practice,
which had its origin in fraud, has extended to all milk sold in
London. The consumer, mis-educated into believing milk to be
jeflow, now requires it to be sow Large dairy companies have
endeavoured to wean the public of its error, without success.
From milk the practice extended to butter; natural butter is
sometimes yellowish, mostly a faint fawn, and sometimes almost
white. In agricultural districts this is well known and taken as
a matter of course. In big towns, where the connexion of butter
and the cow is not well known, the consumer requires butter to
be of that colour which he imagines to be butter-colour. Anatto,
turmeric, carrot- juice used formerly to be employed for colouring
milk, butter and cheese, but of late certain aniline dyes, mostly
quite as harmless physiologically as the vegetable dyes just men-
tioned, are largely being used. The same aniline dyes are also
employed in the manufacture of an imitation Demerara sugar
from white beet sugar crystals. Aniline dyes are very frequently
ased by jam-makers; the natural colour of the fruit is apt to
suffer in the boiling-pan, and unripe, discoloured or unsound
frat can be made brilliant and enticing by dye. The brilliant
colours of cheap sugar confectionery are almost invariably pro-
duced by artificial tar-colours. Most members of this class of
colouring matters are quite harmless, especially in the small
quantities that are required for colouring, but there are a few
exceptions, picric acid, dinitrocresol, Martius-yellow, Bismarck
brown and one of the tropaeolins being distinctly poisonous.
On the whole,«the employment of powerful aniline dyes is an
advance as compared with the use of the vicious and often
highly poisonous mineral colours which Hassall met with so
frequently in the middle of the 10th century Mineral colours,
with very few exceptions, are no longer used in food. Oxide of
iron or ochre is still very often found in potted meats, fish sauces
and chocolates; dioxide of manganese is admixed with cheap
chocolates. AH lump sugar of commerce is dyed. Naturally
it has a yellow tint. Ultramarine is added to it and counteracts
the yellowness. In the same way our linen is naturally yellow
and only made to look white by the use of the blue-bag.
The same idea underlies both practices, and indeed the use
of all colouring matters in manufactured articles, namely, to
nuke them look better than they would otherwise. Within
bounds, this b a reasonable and laudable desire, but it also covers
many sins — poor materials, bad workmanship, faulty manu-
facturing and often fraud. Like sugar, flour and rice are some-
times blued to make them took white. All vinegar, most beers,
all stout, are artificially coloured with burnt sugar or caramel.
The fine dividing the legitimate and laudable from the fraudu-
lent and punishable is so thin and difficult to draw that neither
the law nor its officers have ventured to draw it, and yet it is a
autter which urgently requires regulation at the hands of the
tute. Practices which, when new. admit of regulation are
almost ineradicable when they have become old and possessed
of " vested rights." Recognizing this, the departmental com-
mitter, like the royal commission on arsenical poisons, recom-
mended that " means be provided, either by tbe establishment
of a separate court of reference, or by the imposition of more
dutct obligation on the Local Government Board, to exercise
wpervision over the use of preservatives and colouring matters
in foods and to prepare schedules of such as may be considered
mimical to the public health."
In dose connexion with this subject is the occasional occur-
rence of injurious metallic impurities in food-materials. Tin
chloride is used in the West indies to produce the yellow colour of
Demerara sugar. The old processes of sugar-boiling left some of
the brown syrup attached to the crystals, giving them both
their colour and their delicious aroma; with the introduction
of modern processes affording a much greater yield
of highly refined sugar, white sugar only was the j
result The consumer, accustomed to yellow sugar,
had the colour artificially supplied by the action of the tin
compound upon the sugar. At the present time all Demerara
sugar, with the exception of that portion that is dyed with
aniline dye, has had its colour artificially given it and conse-
quently contains strong traces of tin. Soda-water, lemonade
and other artificial aerated liquors are liable to tin or lead con-
tamination, the former proceeding from the tin pipes and
vessels, the latter from citric and tartaric acids and cream of
tartar used as ingredients, these being crystallized by their
manufacturers in leaden pans. Almost all "canned" goods
contain more or less tin as a contamination from the tin-plate.
While animal foods do not attack the tin to any great extent,
their acidity being small, almost all vegetable materials, especi-
ally fruits and tomatoes, powerfully corrode the tin covering
of the plate, dissolving it and becoming impregnated with tin
compounds. It is quite easy to obtain tin-reactions in abun-
dance from every grain of tinned peaches, apples or tomatoes.
These tin compounds are by no means innocuous; yet poisoning
from tinned vegetable foods is of rare occurrence. On the whole,
tin-plate Is a very unsuitable material for the storage and preser-
vation of acid goods. Certain enamels, used for glazing earthen-
ware or for coating metal cooking pots, contain lead, which they
yield to the food prepared in them. Food materials that have
been in contact with galvanized vessels sometimes are contami-
nated with zinc. Zinc is also not infrequently present in wines.
The effect of the application of the food laws has been entirely
beneficial. Not only has the percentage proportion of samples
found adulterated largely declined, but the gross forms
of adulteration which prevailed in the middle of the ^Jjjj
xoth century have almost vanished. Plenty of fraud Pool Act*
still prevails, but poisoning by reckless admixture is
of exceedingly rare occurrence. Whilst formerly milk was not
infrequently adulterated with an equal bulk of water, few
fraudulent milkmen now venture to exceed an addition of xo
or 15%. A bird's-eye view over the effect is obtained from
the following figures for England and Wales:—
Year.
Number of Samples.
Percentage
of
Adulteration.
Examined.
Adulterated.
1877
14.706
2,826
192
1879
17.049
2.535
148
1884
22.951
3.3i 1
»4-4
1880
26,956
3.096
n-5
1894
39.516
4.060
10-3
1899
E:$
4.970
«
1904
7.173
The details of the working of the Food Acts in 1004 in England
and Wales are set out in the table on the next page.
United States. — Each separate state has food laws of its own.
From the 1st of January 1007 the " American National Pure
Food Law," applicable to the United States generally, came
into force, without superseding the State food laws, the only
effect of the National Law being the legalization of shipments
of any food which complies with the provisions of the National
Law into any state from another state, even though the food
is adulterated within the meaning of the state law Tbe law
applies to every person in the United States wbo receives food
from another state and offers it for sale in the original unbroken
packages in which he receives it, and if it is adulterated or mis-
branded within the meaning of the National Law he can be
punished for having received it and offering it for sale in the
original unbroken package to the same extent as the person who
shipped it to him can be punished. The mere fact that he is a
citizen of a state selling food within that state will not excuse
him; and he will be subject to prosecution to the same extent
as he would be if he uttered counterfeit money. Retailers.
228
ADULTERATION
however, can protect themselves from prosecution when they
sell goods in original unbroken packages by procuring a written
guarantee, signed by the person from whom they received the
goods, such guarantee stating that the goods are not adulterated
within the meaning of the National Law. The guarantee must
also contain the name and address of the wholesale vendor,
but unless the parties signing the guarantee are residents of
the United States the guarantee is void. The law affects all
foods shipped from one state or district into another and also
all foods intended for export to a foreign country. It also
affects all food products manufactured or offered for sale in any
Table skewing working of British Food Ads, 1904.
Samples
Found
Percentage
Examined.
Adulterated.
Adulterated.
Milk .
3M«3
4.031
Ill
Butter .
«5.124
2.176
867
57
Cheese ...
20
0-9
Margarine
Lard
I.169
2*89
83
4
7-1
0*2
Bread ....
473
I
0*2
Flour
Tea ....
3
0-6
Coffee ....
a.550
161
n
Cocoa ....
477
42
Sugar ....
Mustard .
l?i
49
39
it
Confectionery and Jam
1.303
7*
M
17-5
Pepper ....
Wine ....
*•$
43
54
Beer ....
Spirits ....
Drugs: —
1,065
6,938
J 5
832
70
120
Camphorated Oil
39S
3
61
Sweet Spirit of Nitre .
243
27-2
Sulphur ....
Cream of Tartar
131
44<
d
53
200
Glycerin.
19a
21
109
Rhubarb prepara-
tions ....
Seidlitz Powders
1?
5
3
5*
3*7
Linseed
70
1
188
Magnesia
48
9
Mercury prepara-
tions .
28
4
14 '3
Cod Liver Oil
Iron Pills
*ii
7
29
Compound Liquorice
Powder
ill
2
1-8
Tincture of Iodine
>3
4
17*4
Other Drugs
1,124
124
II -o
Total Drugs
3.2 "4
365
n-3
Other Articles —
Ginger .
704
,.
Syrup and Treacle
183
*8
4*4
Baking Powder .
281
11
3'9
Vinegar
773
57
0-6
Arrowroot
467
3
Oatmeal
359
Sago
227
14
6*2
Olive Oil
306
9
2-9
Dripping and Fat
Sundries.
M96
3*9
1*2
13-2
Total other Articles
All Articles
5.88i
43*
73
84.678
7.173
8-5
territory or the District of Columbia, wherever such foods may
have been produced. The law does not affect foods manufac-
tured and sold wholly within one state, nor such as have been
shipped from another state but not in the original package
While thus the National Food Law is mainly intended to regulate
the food traffic between the different states, and leaves to the
states freedom to regulate their internal traffic, it must gradually
tend to unify the present complicated state food legislation,
and it is therefore here more usefully considered than would be
the separate state laws.
The definition of adulteration as set forth in sec. 7 is as
follows:—" For the purpose of this act an article shall be
deemed to be adulterated: In the case of drugs- (1) If, when a
drug is sold under or by a name recognized in the United States
Pharmacopoeia or National Formulary, it differs from the stand-
ard of strength, quality or purity, as determined by the test
laid down in the United Slates Pharmacopoeia or National
Formulary official at the time of investigation; provided that
no drug defined in the United States Pharmacopoeia or National
Formulary shall be deemed to be adulterated under this provision
if the standard of strength, quality or purity be plainly stated
upon the bottle, box or other container thereof although the
standard may differ from that determined by the test laid down
in the United States Pharmacopoeia or National Formulary.
(2) If its strength or purity fall below the professed standard
or quality under which it is sold. In the case of confectionery.
If it contains terra alba, barytes, talc, chrome yellow or other
mineral substance or poisonous colour or flavour, or other
ingredient deleterious or detrimental to health, or any vinous,
malt or spirituous liquor or compound or narcotic drug. /** /**
case of food: (1) If any substance has been mixed and packed
with it so as to reduce or lower or injuriously affect its quality
or strength. (2) If any substance has been substituted wholly
or in part for the article. (3) If any valuable constituent of
the article has been wholly or in part abstracted. (4) If it be
mixed, coloured, powdered, coated or stained in a manner
whereby damage or inferiority is concealed. (5) If it contain
any added poisonous or other added deleterious ingredient
which may render such article injurious to health: provided
that when in the preparation of food products for shipment
they are preserved by any external application applied in such
manner that the preservation is necessarily removed mechanic-
ally, or by maceration in water, or otherwise, and directions for
removal of said preservations shall be printed on the covering
of the package, the provisions of the act shall be construed as
applying only when said products are ready for consumption.
(6) If it consists in whole or in part of a filthy, decomposed or
putrid animal or vegetable substance, or any portion of an animal
unfit for food, whether manufactured or not, or if it is the pro-
duct of a diseased animal or one that has died otherwise than by
slaughter. . . "
Whatever vagueness attaches to these definitions is intended
to be removed by sees. 3 and 4, which provide that the secretaries
of the Treasury, of Agriculture, and of Commerce and Labour
" shall make uniform rules and regulations for carrying out the
provisions of the act, including the collection and examination
of specimens of food and drugs," which examination '• shall be
made in the bureau of chemistry of the department of agricul-
ture, or under the direction and supervision of such bureau} for
the purpose of determining from such examinations whether
such articles are adulterated or misbranded within the meaning
of the act." Contravention of the act is punishable for the first
offence by a fine not exceeding 500 dollars or 1 year's imprison-
ment or both, and for each subsequent offence by a fine not less
than 1000 dollars or 1 year's imprisonment or both. Under an
act of congress, approved March 1003, the bureau of agriculture
established standards of purity for food products, " On determine
what are regarded as adulterations therein for the guidance of
the officials of the various states and of the courts of justice."
The elaborate set of food definitions and standards worked out
under the guidance of the chief of the bureau, Dr H. W Wiley,
have also received legal sanction and form a corollary to the
National Food Law. For each of the more important articles
of food an official definition of its nature and composition has
thus been established, of the utmost value to food officers,
manufacturers and merchants not only in the United States
but throughout the world. A few of these definitions may here
find a place. —
" Lard is the rendered fresh fat from slaughtered healthy hogs.
Leaf-lard is the lard rendered at moderately high temperatures
from the internal fat of the abdomen of the hog, excluding thai
adherent to the intestines. Standard lard and standard leaf-
lard are lard and leaf-lard respectively, free from rancidity, con-
taining not more than 1% of substances other than fatty acids,
not fat, necessarily incorporated therewith in the process of
rendering, and standard leaf-lard has an iodine number not
ADULTERATION
229
Crater than 60. MOk is the lacteal secretion obtained by the
complete routing of one or more healthy cows, properly fed and
kept, excluding that obtained within 15 days before and $ days
after carving. Standard milk is milk containing not less than
u%of total solids and not less than 8} % of solids not fat, nor
las than i\% of milk-fat. Standard skim-milk is skim-milk
containing not less than 9} % of milk-solids. Standard con-
densed inflk and standard sweetened condensed milk are con-
densed nulk and sweetened condensed milk respectively, con-
taining no less than 28% of milk-solids, of which not less than
ose-fourth is milk-fat. Standard milk-fat or butter-fat has a
Rekaert-Metssl number not less than 34 and a specific gravity
at 40 s C. not less than 0-005. Standard butter is butter contain-
ing not less than 82-5 % of butter«fat. Standard whole-milk
chose is cheese containing in the water-free substance not less
than 50 %,of butter-fat. Standard sugar contains at least 09* 5%
of sucrose. Standard chocolate is chocolate containing not
store than 3 % of ash insoluble in water, 3*5 % of crude fibre,
sad 9 % of starch, nor teas than 45 % of cocoa-fat."
Numerous other standards with details too technical for
reproduction here have also been fixed.
Camam Empire.— -The law of the 14th of May 1879, largely
based upon the English Food and Drugs Act 1875, regulates
the trade in food. Each town or district appoints a public
analyst, and there is a state laboratory in Berlin directly under
the control of the ministry of the interior with advisory functions.
The ministry, under the advice of this department, issues from
one to time regulations concerning the sale of or details specify-
ng the mode of analysis of various products of food or drink.
Both in the United States and in Germany, therefore, the execu-
tive officers (public analysts) have some authoritative official
department for guidance and information.
PAKnCDLUt ARTICLES ADULTERATED
We wQl dow proceed to consider adulteration as practised
doring recent years in the more important articles of food.
MSL—WSk adulteration means in modern times either
addition of water, abstraction of cream, or both, or addition of
chemical preservative. The old stories of the use of chalk or of
sheep's brains are fables. Owing to the wide variation to which
■3k is naturally subjected in composition, it is exceedingly
difficult to establish beyond doubt whether any given sample
is in the state in which it came from the cow or has been im-
poverished. The composition of cow's milk varies with many
conditions, (x) The race of the animal: the large cows of the
plains yielding a great quantity of poor milk, the smaller cows
hum huTy districts less amount of rich -milk. Hence, milk from
Dutch cows compares very unfavourably with that of Jerseys
or short-horns. Watery and add foods like mangolds and
brewers' grains produce a more aqueous milk than do albuminous
and fatty foods like oil-cakes. (3) Sudden change of food, of
atather and of temperature. (3) Nervous disturbances to which
even a cow is subject, as, for instance, at shows, may greatly
influence the composition of the milk. The portion obtained
at the hfM"»*"g of a milking is poorer in fat than that yielded
towards the end. Morning milk is as atule poorer in fat than
evening nulk. Soon after calving the animal gives a richer
product than at later periods, both the quantity and the com-
poabon declining towards the end of the lactation. The varia-
tions due to these different circumstances may be very great,
as is seen from the following analyses, fairly representing the
1 and mean composition of the milk of single
Specific Gravity .
Cawiu'
MakSugarOactose)
Saks .
Water . . .
Minimum.
Maximum.
Mean.
I**!?
1-0316
6-47%
3-59%
6-29%
3-02%
1-44%
0*50%
6-12%
4-78%
1-21%
0-71%
00-69%
8740%
In market milk such wide variations are not so liable to occur,
as the milk from one animal tends to average that from another,
but even in the milk from herds of cows the variations may be
considerable. The average composition of genuine milk supplied
by one of the largest dairy companies in London, as established
by the analysis of 130,000 separate samples recorded by Dr P.
Vieth, is fat 4-1 %, other milk solids (" solids not fat " or " non-
fatty solids ") 8-8 %, total dissolved matters (total solids) x 3-9 %,
the variations being from 3-6 to 4-6 % in the fat and 8-6 to 9* x %
in the solids not fat. It is clear that the 4>6 % of fat could be
reduced, by skimming, to 3*0 %, and the 9*1 % of solids not fat ,
to 8*s % by addition of water, without bringing the composition *
of the milk thus adulterated outside that of genuine milk. In
reality even wider limits of variation must be reckoned with,
because small farmers sell the milk of single cows, and this, as
shown above, may fluctuate enormously. The Board of Agri-
culture, in pursuance of the powers conferred upon it by the
Food Act X899, issued in xooi " The Sale of Milk Regulations,"
which provide that where a sample of milk (not being milk sold
as skimmed or separated or condensed milk) contains less than
3 % of milk-fat, or less than 8-5 % of non-fatty solids, it shall be
presumed, until the contrary is proved, that the milk is not
genuine. But even in these cases it is open to the vendor to
show, if he can, that the deficiency was due to natural causes or
to unavoidable circumstances. The courts have held that when
deviations are the result of negligence or ignorance the vendor is
nevertheless liable to punishment. Thus, when a vendor omits
to stir up the contents of a pan so as to prevent the cream from
rising to the top, he may be punished, if by such omission the
milk becomes altered in composition so as no longer to comply
with the regulations; or, when a farmer allows an undue interval
between the milkings whereby the composition of the milk may
be affected, he may be liable for the consequences. As the
limits embodied in the milk regulations were necessarily fixed at
figures lower than those which are usually afforded by genuine
milk, and as It is a comparatively simple matter to ascertain
the percentage of fatty and non-fatty solids, a strong tendency
exists to bring down commercial milk to the low limits of the
regulations without coming into collision with the law. The fat
of milk is its most valuable and most important constituent.
The exact determination of the percentage of fat is therefore
the chief problem of the milk-analyst. All analyses made prior
to the year 1885 are more or less inexact, because a complete
separation of the fat from the other milk constituents had pot
been obtained. In that year M. A. Adams, "by the simple and
ingenious expedient of spreading a known volume of the milk
to be analysed upon a strip of blotting-paper and extracting the
paper, together with the dried milk, by a fat solvent, such as ether
or benzene, succeeded in completely removing the fat from the
other constituents. Since that time simpler and more rapid
means have been based upon centrifugal separation of the fat.
When a measured quantity of milk is mixed with strong sulphuric
acid, which dissolves the casein and other nitrogenous constitu-
ents of the milk, but leaves the fat-globules quite untouched,
the latter can easily be separated in a centrifugal, in the form
of an oil the volume of which can be ascertained in a suitably
constructed and graduated glass vessel, and thus the percent-
age ascertained very rapidly and accurately; such centrifugal
contrivances constructed by H. Leffman, N.Gerber and others
are now in general use in dairies, and cheese and butter factories.
The amount of " total solids " contained in milk, that is to
say, of all constituents other than water, is speedily ascertained
by evaporating the water from a measured or weighed portion
of milk and drying the residue obtained in a water-oven
to constant weight. By subtracting from the percentage of
total solids that of the fat the amount of " solids not fat/ 1
results, and by cautiously burning off the organic substances,
the salts or mineral matters are left. When the percentage of
" solids not fat " is less than 85 a simple proportion sum suffices
to show what percentage of water must be present to reduce the
" solids not fat " to the amount found. As the added water also
reduces proportionately the percentage of mineral matter natural
230
ADULTERATION
to normal milk (about 0*71 to 0-73%), the determination of the
ash affords valuable assistance to the analyst. When the amount
of ash is higher than normal, tests must be made for borax, soda
or other mineral matters that are often added as preservatives
or add neutralizers. Borax is easily tested for by dissolving
the milk ash in a drop or two of dilute hydrochloric acid, moisten-
ing a strip of yellow turmeric paper with the solution and drying
it, when, in the presence of even very minute quantities of borax,
the yellow colouring matter of the turmeric paper will be changed
into a brilliant red-brown. Formaldehyde (which in 40% water
. solution forms the formalin of commerce) In milk affords a bright
purple colour when the milk containing it is mixed with sulphuric
acid containing a trace of an iron salt.
Condensed milk is milk that has been evaporated under re-
duced pressure with or without the addition of sugar. Generally
one part of condensed milk corresponds to three parts of the
original milk. There is no case on record of adulteration of
unsweetened condensed milk, but sweetened milk has in the past
been frequently prepared either from machine-skimmed or partly
skimmed milk and sold as whole-milk. As sweetened condensed
milk is largely used by the poorer part of the population for the
feeding of infants, and as the fat of milk is, as stated before, its
most valuable constituent, this class of fraud was a particularly
mischievous one, and led to the inclusion in the Food Act of 1899
of a special proviso that every tin or other receptacle containing
condensed, separated or skimmed milk must bear a conspicuous
label showing the nature of the contents. As the bulk of con-
densed milk consumed in England is imported from abroad,
the customs authorities now exercise a strict supervision over
the imports, and object to the importation of such condensed
milk as contains less than 9% of milk-fat The average compo-
sition of sweetened condensed milk may be taken, with slight
variations, to be: water 34-6%, fat 11-4%, casein and albumen
zo%, milk-sugar 11*7%, cane-sugar 40-3%, mineral matters
20%.
Cream.— There are not any regulations nor official standards
relating to this article, the value of which depends upon its
contents in fat Good stiff cream obtained by centrifugal
skimming may contain as much as 60% of milk-fat, but generally
dairymen's cream has only about 40%. On the other hand,
milk that is abnormally rich in fat is in some places sold as
cream. Attempts to compel dairymen to work up to any stated
minimum of fat have failed, the English courts holding that
cream is not an article that has any standard of quality, but
varies with the character of the cows from which the milk is
obtained and the food on which they are fed. Therefore, as re-
gards the most' important portion of cream, the amount of fat,
adulteration does not exist unless there is a substitution for the
milk-fat by an emulsified foreign fat, but cases of this descrip-
tion are exceedingly rare. On the other hand, such additions of
foreign materials, like starch paste" or gelatine, which have for
object the giving of an appearance of richness to a naturally
poor and dilute article, are not uncommon. While formerly the
sale of cream was entirely in the hands of milkmen, there has been
of late a tendency to regard cream as an article coming within
the range of grocery goods. To enable this perishable article to
be kept in a grocery store it has to receive an addition of preser-
vative, as a rule boric preservative, in excessive amount The
purchaser may take it that all cream sold by others than milk-
men, and much of that even, is thus preserved and should be
shunned. The limit of boric preservative that might be per-
mitted, but which is nearly always exceeded, is one-quarter of
1%.
Butler,— Of all articles of food butter has most fully received
the attention of the sophisticator, because it is the most costly
of the ordinary articles of diet, and because its composition is
so intricate and variable that its analysis presents extraordinary
difficulties and its nature exceptional and various opportunities
for admixture with foreign substances. It is the intention of
the producer of butter to separate the fatty portion of the milk
as completely as is practicable from the other constituents of
the milk without destroying the fat-globules. This can only
be done by churning, by which operation the milk-globules are
caused more or less to adhere to each other without losing their
individual existence. Owing to this subdivision of the fat, and
perhaps to the composition of the fat itself, butter is a more
digestible fatty article of food than lard or oil. It is not possible
by mechanical means to remove the whole of the water and curd
of the milk from the butter; indeed " overworking " the butter
with the object of removing the water as completely as possible
ruins the structure to such an extent as to make the product
unmerchantable. In well-made butter there are contained about
85% of pure milk-fat, from 12 to 13% of water, and 2 or 3% of
curd and albumen, milk-sugar or its product of transformation-
lactic add, — and phosphates and other milk-salts. In some kinds
of butter, Russian for instance, the percentage of water is rather
less. Generally, by churning at a low temperature, a drier, at
higher temperatures a wetter, butter is obtained. The curd
must be got rid of as completely as practicable if the product
is to have reasonable keeping properties. To prevent rapid
decomposition salt in various quantities is added. Considering
that zoo lb (10 gallons) of milk yield only from 3} to 4 lb of
properly made butter, it is obvious that a great inducement
exists to increase the yield either by leaving an undue propor-
tion of water or curd, or by adding an excessive quantity of salt
In some parts of Ireland the butter is worked up with warm
brine Into so-called- pickle butter, whereby it becomes both
watered and salted in one operation. Until lately, when the
English Board of Agriculture fixed a limit of 16 for the percentage
of water that may legitimately be present in butter, this kind
of debasement could not easily be dealt with, but even now,
where a legal water-limit exists, the addition of water either as
such, or in the shape of milk or of condensed milk, is very com-
monly practised, more or less care being taken not to exceed the
legalized limit It is obvious that there is an ample margin of
profit for the mixer who starts with Russian butter containing
10% of water and works it up with milk, fresh or condensed, to
16%, all the other milk-constituents, namely, sugar, curd and
salt, thus introduced counting as " butter " in the eyes of the
law. A very considerable number of butter-factors in London
and in other parts of England thus dilute dry butter and consider
this a legitimate operation so long as they keep within the legal
water-limit. Nay, they may even exceed this, if only they give
to their adulterated article a euphonious name, which, while
legally notifying the admixture, raises in the mind of the ignor-
ant purchaser the belief that he is purchasing something particu-
larly choice and excellent. " Milk-blended butter," with as
much as 24 or more per cent of water and as little as 68 % of fat,
is still largely sold to purchasers who think that they are obtain^
ing extra value for their money, several attempts to deal with
the scandal by legislature having led to no result The intro-
duction of water into butter is also practised on a large scale in
the United States, where a branch of trade in " renovated "
butter has sprung up. In the States a considerable quantity of
butter is produced by small farmers, and by the time the product
comes into the market— the addition of chemical preservatives
to prevent decomposition not being permitted — the butter has
so much deteriorated in quality that it fetches a very low price.
It is bought up by factors, the fat melted out and washed, then
again worked up with, water and salt, care being generally taken
to leave about 16% of water in the product, which finds a ready
sale in England. It may here be pointed out that England
imports an enormous quantity of butter from the continent
of Europe, the colonies. Siberia and America, the imports, less
exports, averaging during 1003-1906 no less than 203,300 tons
annually, and the total consumption (home produce plus imports)
366,441 tons, the consumption per head of population being
z 9- 2 lb per annum. In butter, as in most other artides of food,
adulteration with water is the most common, most profitable,
and least risky form of fraud. Great fortunes are thus made out
of water.
There Is an altogether different class of butter adulteration
which concerns itself with the substitution of other fatty matters
for the whole or part of the really valuable portion of the butter-
ADULTERATION
231
kL Margarine is the legalised and therefore legitimate butter-
sorrogate, prepared by churning any suitable fat with milk into a
cream, solidifying the latter by injection into cold water and
working the lumps together, precisely as is done in the case of
the churned cream of milk. The substitution of margarine for
butter is frequent, in spite of all legal enactments directed against
this fraud, the semblance between butter and margarine being
so great that a trained palate is necessary to distinguish the
two articles. Much more frequent and much more difficult to
deal with is the sale of mixtures of butter and of margarine. In
order to show the difficulties inherent to this subject, it will be
necessary to consider the chemical nature of butter-fat, and to
compare it with other fats that may enter into the composition
of margarine. Butter-fat is butter freed from water, curd and
sift tad extraneous matter. Like the greater number of natural
fats it consists of a mixture of triglycerides, that is, combinations
of glycerin with substances of the nature of adds. These acids,
is the case of fats other than butter-fat, are mainly oleic, palmitic
and stearic adds. Butter-fat, in addition to these, contains
other acids which sharply distinguish it from the vast majority
of other fats and, with the exception of cocoa-nut oil, from those
substances which are or may be used to mix with butter, by the
drcomstance that a considerable proportion of its adds, when
separated by chemical means from the glycerin, are readily
soluble in water, or may be easily volatilized either alone or in a
anient of steam, whereas the adds separated from the foreign
fats are practically both insoluble and non-volatile This funda-
mental principle serves at once to distinguish, for example,
between butter and margarine, and has been made use of by
analysts not only for this purpose but also with a view to deter-
mine the relative amounts of butter and margarine in a mixture
of these substances. Thus butter-fat contains about 88%, more
or less, of "insoluble fatty acids/' while margarine contains
&00Qt 95-5%; 5 grammes of butter-fat when chemically decom-
posed yield an amount of volatile fatty adds which requires
about 36 cubic centimetres (more or less) of ded-normal alkali
sshitkm for neutralization, while margarine requires mostly less
than 1 cubic centimetre (Wollny or Rdchert-Meissl method)
There are other differences between the two kinds of fat: the
specific gravity of butter-fat is higher than that of most other
hvts; its power of refracting a ray of light is less; the " iodine
absorption " of butter-fat is smaller than that of many other
fitly natters, and so on. But the composition of perfectly
genuine butter-tat varies within somewhat wide limits. The milk
from s cow fed on good and ample food in warm weather yields
s fat that is rich in characteristic butter-constituents, while a
poorly fed animal, kept in the open till late in the autumn,
*bea the nights are cold, gives milk exceptionally poor in
h\t t the differences expressed as "insoluble fatty adds"
lying between 86 and 91%, and in volatile adds, expressed as
" WoOxry " numbers, between 18 and 36. Generally, therefore,
summer butter is rich and autumn butter poor in volatile adds,
or, geographkally, Australian butter is more frequently high,
Siberian often exceedingly low in these adds. The food of the
animal also may, under certain conditions, yield a notable pro-
portion of its fatty matter to the butter; cows that have, for
instance, been fed upon large quantities of cotton-seed cake
yield butter in which the cotton-seed oil may be traced, and
tisane holds good with other fatty foods. All these, and other
arcomstances. combine to render the detection of small quan-
tities of foreign fats that have been fraudulently added to butter
almost a matter of impossibility. This is perfectly well known
to unscrupulous butter dealers, and an enormous amount of
adulteration is known to be practised. Even small amounts of
adulteration could, nevertheless, often be discovered while
Barguine manufacturers employed considerable proportions
of vegetable oils in their products, some of these oils furnishing
characteristic chemical reactions allowing of their discovery
Here some firms of margarine manufacturers came to the aid of
(he butter-mixer and produced margarine containing nothing
tot animal fat, so-called " neutral " margarine being freely
offered for fraudulent purposes. There is one fat besides butter
which contains M volatile fatty adds," namely, cocoa-nut oQ.
Since means have been found to deprive this fat of its strong
cocoa-nut odour and taste, it has largely been used in the adul-
teration of butter; and margarine containing cocoa-nut oil and
other fatty substances has freely been manufactured and sold
specially for butter adulteration. The seat of this class of fraud
is mainly in Holland. Analysts happily found means to detect
this oil when present above 10%, and numerous prosecutions
made mixers more careful. Abundant evidence, however, exists
showing that the simultaneous addition of water or milk so as
to keep the water limit below 16% and that of margarine entirely
composed of animal fats below 10% leaves a large margin of
profit with a very small chance of detection. For the moment
at least analysis has had the worst of it in the battle between
honesty and " business methods."
Margarine itself is a legitimate article of commerce (when
sold with due notice to the purchaser), but is frequently adulter-
ated. As regards the fats used in its manufacture there does
not exist any legal restriction, and as long as the fat is in a state
fit for human consumption the manufacturer can make whatever
mixture he pleases. In general there is no reason to think that
any bad or disgusting fats are finding their way into the factories,
which in most countries are under proper supervision ; the old
stories about recovered grease from all sorts of offal are quite
without foundation. But a considerable percentage of solid
paraffin has been met with as an admixture of the fatty part of
margarine. As the fatty portion of the article is the only one
of value, some manufacturers mafce great efforts to produce
margarine with as small a percentage of fatty matter as possible,
either by incorporating excessive amounts of water or of milk—
margarines with over 30% of water being met with— or by intro-
dudng sugar, glucose, starch, gelatinous matter, in fact any-
thing that is cheaper than fat. The English law imposes a
limitation upon the percentage of butter-fat that may be con-
tained in margarine, but at present at least the tendency of
manufacturers is all foi having as little butter or other valuable
fat in margarine as is practicable, and not to err on the other
side. For the purpose of facilitating the discovery of margarine
when it has been fraudulently added to butter, some countries
(Germany, Belgium, Sweden) insist upon the use of from 5 to
10% of sesame oil (from the seed of Sesamum orientate or S.
indicum, belonging to the family of Bignoniaccae) in the manu-
facture of such margarine as is to be consumed within the
countries in question. This oil yields a characteristic red colour
when it, or any mixture containing it, is shaken with an hydro-
chloric solution of either sugar or furfural, and is intended to
serve as an "ear-marking" substance. The addition of a little
starch or arrowroot, easily discoverable chemically or by the
microscope, is also required by Belgium, but in the absence
of any international agreement these ear-marking additions
are of little practical use. It is, however, interesting to point
out that, while complying with the regulations of the govern-
ments, margarine manufacturers of the countries named have
found an easy way of rendering the regulations quite nugatory,
they add methyl-orange, a colouring matter which itself produces
a red colour with add and quite obscures the red colour obtained
by the official test for sesame oil.
Cheese may be legitimately made from full-milk, milk that has
been enriched by addition of cream, or from milk that has been
more or less skimmed. It varies consequently very widely in
composition, so-called cream cheese containing not less than
60% of fat, Stilton upwards of 40%; Cheddar about 30%,
Dutch, Parmesan and some Swiss and Danish less than 20%.
The amount of water varies with the kind and age of the cheese
and may be as low as 20 and as high as 60%. Under these
circumstances it is impracticable to lay down any hard-and-fast
rules as to the composition of cheese. When, however, cheese is
made from skimmed milk and the fat is replaced by margarine,
as is the case in so-called " filled " or margarine cheeses, the sale
of these amounts to an adulteration, unless the presence of the
foreign substance is declared. It may at first sight appear
strange that the person who robs milk of its most valuable
232
ADULTERATION
portion, the cream, may prepare a legitimate article of food from
the remainder, while he who to that remainder adds something
to replace the fat does an illegitimate act, but it must be taken
into consideration that the replacement is frequently made
with fraudulent intent and that the ordinary purchaser cannot
by taste or smell distinguish the adulterated from the genuine
article, while there is no difficulty in recognizing skim-milk
cheese.
Lard. — Between the years 1880 and 1800 a gigantic fraudulent
trade in adulterated lard was carried on from the United States.
A great proportion of the American lard imported into England
was found to consist of a mixture of more or less real lard with
cotton-seed oil and beef-stearine. Cotton-seed oil is one of the
cheapest vegetable oils fit for human consumption, beef-stearine
the hard residue obtained in the manufacture of oleo-margarine
after the more fluid fat has been pressed from the beef fat.
These mixtures were made so skilfully by large Chicago manu-
facturers that for some years they escaped detection. A bill
introduced in 1888 into the American Senate to stop this im-
posture directed general attention to the subject, and energetic
measures, taken both in America and in England, quickly put
an end to it From the memorial presented in the United States
Senate in support of the bill, It appeared that in about 1887
the annual production of lard in the States was estimated at
600 million pounds, of which more than 35% was adulterated.
Compounds were made containing only a small quantity of lard
or none at all, yet were sold as " choice refined lard " or under
other eulogistic names. Many lard substitutes, chiefly made
from cotton-seed oil, are still met with, but are mostly sold in a
legitimate manner From the germ of maize — which must be
separated from the starchy portion of the" seed before the latter
can be manufactured into glucose— the oil (maize-oil) is ex-
pressed, and this now is used as a lard adulterant, its detection
being far more difficult than that of cotton-seed oil.
Oils. — For very many years all oils were considered to be com-
posed of olein, that is to say, the triglyceride of oleic acid, with
small quantities of impurities; chemists, therefore, to distin-
guish oils of various origin, confined themselves to tests for
these impurities? employing so-called colour reactions based
upon the change of colour of the oil by various reagents such as
sulphuric, nitric or phosphoric adds. These reactions were
exceedingly indefinite and unsatisfactory and oil adulteration
was prevalent and almost undiscoverable. It has been found,
however, that the old ideas concerning the believed uniformity
in the nature and constitution of oils were erroneous. Some
oils, indeed, do consist of olein, almond ofl being a type, others
contain a glyceride of an acid which is distinguished from oleic
acid by containing one molecule less hydrogen, called linoleic
acid. To this class belong cotton-seed and sesame oils. Others
again include a glyceride of an acid containing still less hydrogen,
linolenic acid (linseed and similar drying oils), and lastly the
liver oils are still poorer in hydrogen. These various acids or
the oils contained in them combine with various percentages of
iodine, oleic add absorbing the smallest proportion (about 80 %).
For each oil the iodine absorption is a fairly constant quantity,
this number, together with the determination of the amount
of caustic alkali needed for complete saponification, the thermal
rise with strong sulphuric acid or with bromine, the refraction of
light and the specific gravity, now enable the analyst to form a
fair idea of the nature of any sample under examination, and,
in consequence of this advance in knowledge, adulteration of
oils has much declined. The most common adulterant of the
more valuable oils, like olive oil, is cotton-seed oil. The oils
expressed from the sesame seed or the earth-nut (arachis oil)
are also frequently admixed with olive oil. Almond oil is
adulterated with the dosely allied oils from the peach-kernd
or the pine-seed Deodorized paraffin hydrocarbons also enter
sometimes as adulterants into edible oils. There is, however,
a marked improvement in the purity of oils generally.
Flour and bread as sold in England are almost invariably
genuine. The old forms of adulteration, such as the use of alum
for the production of a white but indigestible loaf from bad
flour, have disappeared. The only admixture which has been
met with during recent years is maize-meal in American produce.
This is of inferior food value to wheat-meal.
Sugar in its various forms can hardly be said to be subject
to adulteration by the addition of inferior substitutes. One
single case of such substitution analogous to the proverbial
but probably mythical sanding of sugar occurred between 1880
and 1905 in England, some crushed marble having been found
in a consignment of German sugar in a large British estabhslft-
ment There have, however, been numerous prosecutions for
a fraud of another dass, namely, the substitution of dyed beetroot
sugar for Demerara sugar. Formerly the sugar produced by the
old imperfect and wasteful methods of manufacture was more
or less yellow or brown from adhering molasses. Sugar, as now
obtained, be it from cane or beet, is white; yet the public Is so
wedded to its customs that white sugar except as lump or castor
sugar does not find a ready sale. The manufacturer is obliged
to colour his product yellow by artificial means, that is to say,
either by the addition of a little aniline dye, harmless in itself,
or, as in the West Indies, mostly by the use of a small quantity
of chloride of tin, so-called " bloomer. " European refined beet-
sugar coloured with aniline dye to distinguish it from Demerara
cane sugar is sold under the name of " yellow crystals. " These,
although richer in real sugar than Demerara, are without the
delidous aroma of cane syrup which belongs to the latter, and
are not infrequently fraudulently substituted for Demerara.
Marmalade and Jams. — In the preparation of marmalade and
jams, which artides were for a long time made from fruit and
sugar only, a part of the sugar, from 10 to 15 %, is often now
replaced by starch glucose. This material, consisting mainly
of a mixture of dextrose and dextrin, is of much less sweetening
power than ordinary sugar and mostly cheaper. It is said to
prevent the crystallization which frequently used to occur in
some jams. The use of glucose has been declared by the High
Court (Smith v. Wisden, 1001) to be legitimate, the court holding
that as there was no recognized standard for the composition of
marmalade the addition of saccharine material not injurious
to health could not constitute an offence. Artificial colouring
matters and chemical preservatives are almost constant in-
gredients of jams. To such fruits which, when boiled with sugar,
do not readily yield a jelly (strawberries, raspberries) an addi-
tion of apple juice is frequently made in the manufacture of jam,
without much objection; the pulp of the apple, however, is
sometimes bodily added as an adulterant
Tea. — In consequence of the proviso contained in the Food
Act of 1875 that tea was to be examined by the Customs on
importation, such tea as was found to be admixed with other
substance or exhausted tea being refused entry into England,
the adulteration of tea has been virtually suppressed. Great
numbers of samples are annually examined by the Customs,
and a not inconsiderable proportion of these are condemned
because they are either damaged or dirty, their use for the
manufacture of theine bring permitted, only sound and genuine
tea coming to the British public. The practice, very common
a generation ago, of artificially colouring tea green with a
mixture of Prussian blue and turmeric, has quite vanished
with the dedine of the consumption of green tea.
Coffee. — A few cases of artificially manufactured coffee berries,
made from flour and chicory, have been observed, but it would
not be fair to speak of a practice of adulteration regarding coffee
berries. Not infrequently coffee is roasted with the addition
of some fatty matter or paraffin or sugar, to give to the roasted
coffee a glossy appearance. These additions as a rule are small
in amount Ground coffee is often sold adulterated with chicory,
sugar or caramd. Other adulterations, reference to which is
found in literature relating to the second half of the 19th century,
do not seem now to occur.
Cocoa and chocolate are liable to a number of fraudulent or
questionable additions. In the cheaper qualities of cocoa-powder
sugar and starch — the latter in the form of sago flour or arrow-
root—are admixed in very large proportions, and, in order to
give to such mixtures something like the appearance of genuine
ADULTERATION
*33
cocoa, red oxide of irons added. This almost invariably is more
« less arsenical. Cocoa-shell, a perfectly valueless material, is
sized in a very finely ground state with cocoa of the commoner
kind. Owing to the enormous increase in the consumption of so-
called chocolate-creams, which are masses of sugar confectionery
coated with a cocoa-paste containing a large proportion of the
tax of cocoa (cocoa-butter), the quantity of cocoa-butter that
b obtained in the manufacture of cocoa-powders is no longer
sufficient to cover the demand Substitutes of cocoa-butter
prepared from cocoa-nut oil are manufactured on a large scale,
sad afl enter without acknowledgment into chocolates or choco-
late creams. As there are not any regulations touching the
coopostioa of chocolate, sugar or starch or both are used in
chocolate manufacture, and especially in that of chocolate
powders in often excessive quantities. In the Dutch mode of
manufacture of cocoa-powders an addition of from 3% to 4% of
as alkaline salt is made for the purpose of rendering the cocoa
M soluble, " or, more strictly, for putting it into such a physical
condition that it does not settle in the cup. This addition does
not, as is often alleged, render the cocoa alkaline, and is not
sade with any fraudulent object; several countries, however,
save passed regulations fixing the maximum of the addition
«hkh may thus legitimately be made. Most of the cocoa-
powders sold in England are prepared in accordance with the
Dutch method.
IPiar.— If under this term a beverage is understood which
consists of nothing but fermented grape juice, a great propor-
tion of the wine consumed in England is not genuine wine. All
port and sherry comes into commerce after having received an
addition of spirit, generally made from potatoes; «port and
sherry would not be what they are and as they have been for
generations unless they were thus fortified. The practice can
now hardly be classed among adulterations. A well-fermented
viae made from the juice of properly matured grapes does not
require any added alcohol in order that it should keep; im-
perfectly made wine is liable to turn sour; the addition of
acobol prevents this. French wines, both red and white, are
bnOy subject to adulteration. In wine-growing countries like
fiance wine is so cheap and plentiful that it would be difficult
to manufacture an imitation beverage cheaper than genuine
viae. In Germany the conditions are different, the districts
bom which those wines that are exported are nominally derived
being small and inefficient to cover the world's demands. The
tddition of sugar solution or of starch sugar is allowed within
Umits by German law, which not even requires that notification
to the purchaser be made of the addition, and it is notorious
that a very large proportion of the wine sold under the name of
M hock " and some of that coming from the Moselle are thus
diluted, sugared and lengthened, or, in plain terms, adulterated.
Vines from the Palatinate which under their own names would
sot seQ out of Germany are often passed off as hocks. As there
is but httk German red wine the law also permits this to be
lengthened by the addition of white wine. For the removal of
part of the add from sour wine produced in bad vintages the
addition of precipitated chalk is also permitted Attention has
been drawn in England to the very serious fact that German
wines sometimes contain salts of sine in small quantities. These
■re introduced by a fining agent protected by a German patent,
masuting of solutions of sulphate of sine and potassium ferro-
cymaide, which, when added together in " suitable proportions,"
produce a precipitate of ainc-ferrocyanide which carries down
aD turbidity in the wine and is supposed to leave neither zinc
sorferrocyanide behind in solution. As a matter of fact, one or
other of these highly objectionable substances is almost invari-
sWyleft behind. The use of artificial colouring matters in wines
does not appear now to occur.
Bm cannot be said to be adulterated, although it is well
Known that materials often very different from those which the
general public believe to be the proper raw materials for the
nsnufactnre of beer, namely, water, malt and hops, are largely
wed. By the Customs and Inland Revenue Act 1885, sec 4,
beer is defined as any liquor M which is made or sold as a de-
scription of beer, or as a substitute for beer, and which on analysis
of a sample thereof shall be found to contain more than 2% of
proof spirit. " That is to say, beer is legally anything that is sold
as beer provided that it has 2% of proof spirit There is not any
restriction upon the materials that are employed provided that
they are not positively poisonous. For Inland Revenue purposes,
however, a prohibition has been made against the admixture of
anything to beer after it has been manufactured, and excise
prosecutions of publicans for watering beer are not infrequent.
Formerly there was a restriction on the amount of salt that
might be present in beer; this no longer exists. On the other
hand it cannot be said that any injurious materials are being
used by brewers, the brewing industry being, broadly speaking,
most efficiently supervised and controlled by scientifically
trained men. The addition to beer of bisulphate of lime, which
is almost universally practised in England, is not an adulteration
in the ordinary acceptation of the term. The thin beer which
has taken the place of the strong ales of the past generation
contains an insufficiency of alcohol to ensure keeping qualities,
and it is difficult to see how modern English beers could be sold
without the addition of some sort of preservative.
N on- Alcoholic Drinks. —The same remark applies to a good
many of so-called temperance beverages. Of these again it is
hardly proper to speak as liable to adulteration. So-called soda-
water is very often devoid of soda and is only carbonated. water,
but the term " soda-water " is a survival from the times when
this was a medicinal beverage and when soda was prescribed
to be present in definite amount by the pharmacopoeia. Potash
and especially lithia waters very frequently contain only mere
traces of the substances from which they derive their names.
The sweetness of ginger-beer and often of lemonade is no longer
due to sugar, as used to be the case, but to saccharine (the toluol
derivative), which is possessed of sweetness but not of nourish-
ment; and since, as an antiseptic, it may affect the digestion,
its use in these beverages is to be deprecated.
Vinegar ought to be the product obtained by the successive
alcoholic and acetous fermentation of a sugary liquor. When
this is obtained from malt or from malt admixed with other grain
the vinegar is called a malt vinegar. Often, however, acid
liquors pass under that name which have been made by the
action of a mineral acid upon any starchy material such as maize
or tapioca, with or without the addition of beet sugar. Dilute
acetic acid, obtained from wood, is very frequently used as an
adulterant* of vinegar. When properly purified such acid is
unobjectionable physiologically, but it is improper to sell it as
vinegar. Adulteration of vinegar by sulphuric or other acids,
formerly a common practice, is now exceedingly rare.
Spirits.— By the Sale of Food and Drugs Act Amendment Act,
whisky,, brandy and rum must not be sold of a less alcoholic
strength than 25 under proof (corresponding to 43% of alcohol
by volume), and gin 35 under proof (37% alcohol). For many
years the only form of adulteration recorded by public analysts
related to the alcoholic strength, the undue dilution of spirits
with water being, of course, a profitable form of fraud. No ad-
dition of any injurious matters to commercial spirits has been
observed. It was, however, well known that a very considerable
proportion of so-called brandies was not the product of the grape,
but that spirits of other origin were frequently admixed with
grape brandy. A report which appeared in 190a in the Lancet
on " Brandy, its production at Cognac and the supply of genuine
brandy to this country, " served as a stimulus to public analysts
to analyse commercial brandies, and convictions of retailers for
selling so-called brandy followed. It was shown that genuine
brandy made in the orthodox style from wine in pot-stills con-
tained a considerable proportion of substances other than alcohol
to which the flavour and character of brandy is due; among
these flavouring materials combinations of a variety of organic
acids with alcohols (chemically described as "esters") pre-
dominate. For the present a brandy is not considered genuine
unless it contains in rooyooo parts (calculated free from water)
at least 60 parts of " esters. " As a consequence a trade has
sprung up in artificially produced esters, sold for the purpose of
23+
ADULTERY— AD VALOREM
adding them to any spirit to fraudulently convert it into a liquor
passing as " brandy. " The inquiries into the nature of brandy
led to investigations into whisky. Formerly whisky was made,
from grain only and obtained by pot-still distillation, that form
of " still " yielding a product containing a comparatively large
proportion of volatile matters other than alcohoL For many
years past, however, improved stills— so-called patent stills —
have been adopted, enabling manufacturers to obtain a purer
and far stronger product, saving carriage and storage. Attempts
were made in England in 1005-1907 to restrict the term "whisky"
solely to the pot-still product But the question was referred
in 1908 to a Royal Commission which reported against such a
restriction. A common form of adulteration of whisky is the
addition to it of spirit made on the Continent mainly from
potatoes. This spirit is almost pure alcohol and is quite devoid
of the injurious properties which are popularly but falsely
attributed to it. The substitution of this— a very cheap and
quite flavourless material — for one which owes its value more
to its flavour than to its alcoholic contents, is dearly fraudulent
Drugs.— To the adulteration of drugs but very brief reference
can here be made. It is satisfactory to record that but very
few of the great number of drugs included in the pharmacopoeias
are liable to serious adulteration, and there are very few cases on
record during recent years where real fraudulent adulteration
was involved. The numerous preparations used by druggists
are mostly prepared in factories under competent and careful
supervision, and the standards laid down in the British Pharma-
copoeia are, broadly speaking, carefully adhered to. The occur-
rence of unlooked-for impurities, such as that of arsenic in
sodium-phosphate or in various iron preparations, can hardly
be included in the list of adulterations. In the making up of
prescriptions, however, a good deal of laxity is displayed; thus,
the Local Government Board report of the years 1004-1905 refers
to an instance of a quinine mixture containing 23 grains of
quinine-sulphate instead of 240 grains. A certain latitude in
the making up of physicians' prescriptions must necessarily be
allowed, but much too frequently the reasonable limit of a 10%
error over or under the amount of drug prescribed is exceeded.
Certain perishable drugs, such as sweet spirits of nitre, or others
liable to contain from their mode of manufacture metallic
impurities, form the subjects of frequent prosecutions. The
element of intentional fraud which characterizes many forms
of food adulteration is-happily generally absent in the case
of drugs. (O. H.»)
ADULTERY (from Lat adulUrium), the sexual intercourse
of a married person with another than the offender's husband or
wife. Among the Greeks, and in the earlier period of Roman
law, it was not adultery unless a married woman was the offender.
The foundation of the later Roman law with regard to adultery
was the lex Julia de aduUcriis coercendis passed by Augustus
about 17 b.c. (See Dig. 48. 5; Paull. Rec. Sent. ii. 26; Brisson,
Ad Leg. Jul. de Adult.) In Great Britain it was reckoned a
spiritual offence, that is, cognizable by the spiritual courts only.
The common law took no further notice of it than to allow the
party aggrieved an action of damages. In England, however,
the action for " criminal conversation," as it was called, was
nominally abolished by the Matrimonial Causes Act 1857; but
by the 33rd section of the same act, the husband may claim
damages from one who has committed adultery with his wife
in a petition for dissolution of the marriage, or for judicial
separation. In Ireland the action for criminal conversation is
still retained. In Scotland damages may be recovered against
an adulterer in an ordinary action of damages in the dvfl court,
and the latter may be found liable for the expenses of an action
of divorce if joined with the guilty spouse as a co-defender.
Adultery on the part of the wife is, by the law of England, a
ground for divorce, but on the part of the husband must be dther
incestuous or bigamous, or coupled with cruelty or desertion for
two or more years. In the United States adultery is everywhere
ground of divorce, and there is commonly no prohibition against
marrying the paramour or other re-marriage by the guilty party.
Even if there be such a prohibition, it would be unavailing out
of the state in which the divorce was granted; marriage being
a contract which, if valid where executed, is generally treated
as valid everywhere. Adukery gives a cause of action for
damages to the wronged husband. It is in some states a criminal
offence on the part of each party to the act, for which imprison-
ment in the penitentiary or state prison for a term of years may
be awarded.
In England, a complete divorce or dissolution of the marriage
could, until the creation of the Court of Probate and Divorce,
be obtained only by an act of parliament This procedure is
still pursued in the case of Irish divorces. In Scotland a complete
divorce may be effected by proceedings in the Court of Session,
as succeeding to the old ecclesiastical jurisdiction of the commis-
sioners. A person divorced for adultery is, by the law of Scot-
land, prohibited from intermarrying with the paramour. In
France, Germany, Austria, and other countries in Europe, as
well as in some of the states of the United States, adultery is
a criminal offence, punishable by imprisonment or fine. (See
Divorce.)
AD VALOREM (Lat for " according to value"), the term
given in commerce to a duty which is levied by customs authori-
ties on goods or commodities in proportion to their value. An
ad valorem duty is the opposite of a spedfic duty, which is
chargeable on the measure or weight of goods. The United
States is the one important country which has adopted in Us
tariff an extensive system of ad valorem duties, though it has
not altogether disregarded spedfic duties; in some cases, indeed,
the two are combined. Ad valorem duties, in the United States,
are levied according to the saleable value of the goods in the
country of thdr origin, and it is usual to require at the port of
entry the production of an invoice with full particulars as to
the place where, time when, and person from whom the goods
were purchased, and the actual cost of the goods and the charges
on them. Such an invoice is countersigned by the consul of the
country for which the goods are intended. On arrival at the
port of consignment the invoice is sworn to by the importer.
The goods are then valued by an appraiser, and if the valuation
of the appraiser exceeds that which appears on the invoice,
double duty is levied, subject to appeal to a general appraiser
and to boards of general appraisers.
It has been argued that, theoretically, an ad valorem duty is
preferable to a specific duty, inasmuch as it falls in proper
proportion alike on the high-priced and low-priced grades of a
commodity, and, no matter how the value of any article fluctu-
ates, the rate of taxation automatically adjusts itself to the new
value. In practice, however, ad valorem duties lead to great
inequalities, and are very difficult to levy; while the relative
value of two commodities may remain apparently unchanged
under an ad valorem duty, yet owing to the difference in the
cost of production, or through the different proportions of
fixed and circulating capital employed in their manufacture,
an ad valorem tax will be felt much more severely by one com-
modity than by another. Again, there is always a difficulty in
obtaining a true valuation on the exported goods, for values
from their very nature are variable; while specific duties remain
steady, and the buyer can always ascertain exactly what he
will have to pay. The opening to fraud is also very great, for
where, as in the United States, the object of the duty is to keep
out foreign goods, every valuation at the port of shipment wiQ
be looked upon with the utmost suspidon, while it will always
be a temptation to the foreign seller to undervalue, a temptation
in many cases encouraged by the importer, for it lessens his tax,
while the seller's market is increased. The staff of appraisers
which must necessarily be kept at each port of entry considerably
raises the expense, to say nothing of the annoyance and delay
caused both to importers and foreign shippers.
The term " ad valorem " is used also of stamp duties. By the
Stamp Act 1891 certain classes of instruments, e.g. awards,
bills of exchange, conveyances or transfers, leases, &c., must be
stamped in England with the proper ad valorem duty, that b,
the duty chargeable according to the value of the subject matter
of the particular instruments or writings. (See Stamp Duties.)
ADVANCEMENT— ADVERTISEMENT
235
AD7AVCKUVT, a term technically used in English law for
1 ran of money or other benefit, given by a father during his
lifetime to his child, which must be brought into account by the
child on a distribution of the father's estate upon an intestacy
on pain of his being excluded from participating in such distri-
bution. The principle is of ancient origin; as regards goods
and chattels it was part of the ancient customs of London and
the province of York, and as regards land descending in copar-
cenary it has always been part of the common law of England
voder the name of hotch-pot (q.v.). The general rule was estab-
lished by the Statutes of Distribution. The conditions under
which cases of advancement arise are as follows: There must be
a complete intestacy; the intestate estate must be that of the
father; and the advancement must have been made in the life-
time of the father. Land which belongs or would belong to a
chud as heir at law or customary heir need not be brought in
to the common fund, even though such land was given during
the father's life. The widow can gain no advantage from any
advancement No child can be forced to account for his or her
advancement, but in default thereof he will be excluded from a
stare in the intestate's estate. As to what is an advancement
there has been much conflict of judicial opinion. According to
one view, nothing is ah advancement unless it be given " on
marriage or to establish the child in life." The other and prob-
ably the correct view is that any considerable sum of money
paid to a child at that child's request is an advancement; thus
payment of a son's debts of honour has been held to be an
advancement On the other hand, trivial gifts and presents to a
ch2d are undoubtedly not advancements.
ADVANTAGE, that which gives gain or helps forward in any
way. The Fr. avant (before) shows the origin and meaning
of this word, the d having subsequently crept in and corrupted
the spelling. It is often contracted to "vantage." In some
games (e.g. lawn tennis) the term "vantage" is used technically
m scoring ("deuce" and "vantage"; "vantage sets"). A
position which gives a better chance of success than its surround-
ings is catted a " vantage ground." In an unfavourable sense
the word "advantage " is used to express a mean use made of
some favourable condition (e.f . to take advantage of another
nan' s mis fortunes).
ADVENT (Lat Advcntus, sc. Redemptoris, "the coining of
the Saviour "), a holy season of the Christian church, the period
c< preparation for the celebration of the nativity or Christmas,
la the Eastern church it lasts from St Martin's Day (nth of
November), and in other churches from the Sunday nearest
to St Andrew's Day (30th of November) till Christmas. It is
uncertain at what date the season began to be observed. A
canon of a council at Saragossa in 380, forbidding the faithful
to be absent from church during the three weeks from the 17th
of December to the Epiphany, is thought to be an early reference
to Advent. The first authoritative mention of it is in the Synod
of Lerida (514), and since the 6th century it has been recognized
at the beginning of the ecclesiastical year. With the view of
directing the thoughts of Christians to the first coming of Christ
as Saviour, and to his second coming as Judge, special lessons
tit p r o uibed for the four Sundays in Advent From the 6th
ceotnry the season was kept as a period of fasting as strict as
that of Lent; but in the Anglican and Lutheran churches the
rule is now relaxed. In the Roman Catholic church Advent is
soil kept as a season of penitence. Dancing and festivities are
forbidden, fasting enjoined and purple vestments are worn in
the church services.
In many countries Advent was long marked by diverse
popular observances, some of which even still survive. Thus in
England, especially the northern counties, there was a custom
(now extinct) for poor women to carry round the " Advent
inages," two dolls dressed one to represent Christ and the other
the Virgm Mary. A halfpenny was expected from every one to
•horn these were exhibited, and bad luck was thought to menace
the household not visited by the doU-bearers before Christmas
Eve at the latest.
In Normandy the farmers still employ children under twelve
to run through the fields and orchards armed with torches*
setting fire to bundles of straw, and thus it is, believed driving
out such vermin as are likely to damage the crops. In Italy
among other Advent celebrations is the entry into Rome in the
last days of Advent of the Calabrian pifferari or bagpipe players,
who play before the shrines of the Holy Mother. The Italian
tradition is that the shepherds played 6n these pipes when they
came to the manger at Bethlehem to do homage to the Saviour.
ADVUNT1ST8, SECOND, members of religious bodies whose
distinctive feature is a belief in the imminent physical return of
Jesus Christ The first to bear the name were the followers of
William Miller, and adherents have always been more numerous
in America than in Europe. There is a body of Seventh Day
Adventists who observe the old Sabbath (Saturday) rather than
the Christian Sunday. They counsel abstemious habits, but
set no time for the coming of Christ, and so are spared the per-
petual disappointments that overtake the ordinary adventist
They ha ve som e 400 ministers and 60,000 members.
ADVENTITIOUS (from Lat advenUcius, coming from abroad),
a quality from outside, in no sense, part of the substance or
circumstance: a man's clothes, or condition of life, bis wealth
or his poverty, are called by Carlyle " adventitious wrappages,"
as being extrinsic, superadded and not a natural part of him.
In botany the word means that which is not normal to the plant,
which appears irregularly and accidentally, e.g. buds or roots
out of place, or strange spots and streaks not native to the
flower.
ADVENTURE (from Lat res advcnturo, a thing about to
happen), chance, and especially chance of danger ; so a hazard-
ous enterprise or remarkable incident Thus an " adventurer,"
from meaning one who takes part in some speculative course of
action, came to mean one who lived by his wits and a person of
no character. The word is also used in certain restricted legal
connexions. Joint adventure, for instance, may be distinguished
from partnership (q.v.). A bill of adventure in maritime law (now
apparently obsolete) is a writing signed by the shipmaster de-
claring that goods shipped in bis name really belong to another,
to whom he is responsible. The bill of gross adventure in French
maritime law is an instrument making a loan on maritime
security.
ADVERTISEMENT, or Advektxsino (Fr. avertissement, warn-
ing, or notice), the process of obtaining and particularly of
purchasing publicity. The business of advertising is of very
recent origin if it be regarded as a serious adjunct to other phases
of commercial activity. In some rudimentary form the seller's
appeal to the buyer must, however, have accompanied the earliest
development of trade. Under conditions of primitive barter,
communities were so small that every producer was in immediate
personal contact with every consumer. As the primeval man's
wolfish antipathy to the stranger of another pack gradually
diminished, and as intercourse spread the infection of larger
desires, the trapper could no longer satisfy his more complicated
wants by the mere exchange of his pelts for his lowland neigh-
bour's corn and ofl. A began to accept from B the commodity
which he could in turn deliver to C, while C in exchange for B's
product gave to A what D had produced and bartered to C. The
mere statement of such a transaction sufficiently presents its
clumsiness, and the use of primitive forms of coin soon simplified
the original process of bare barter. It is reasonable to suppose
that as soon as the introduction of currency marked the abandon-
ment of direct relations between purchaser and consumer an
informal system of advertisement in turn rose to meet the need
of publicity. At first the offer of the producer must have been
brought to the trader's attention, and the trader's offer to the
notice of the consumer, by casual personal contact, supplemented
by local rumour. The gradual growth of markets and their de-
velopment into periodical fairs, to which merchants from dis-
tant places resorted, afforded, until printing was invented, the
only means of extended advertisement In England, during the
3rd century, Stourbridge Fair attracted traders from abroad as
well as from all parts of England, and it maybe conjectured that
the crying of wares before the booths on the banks of the Stour
236
ADVERTISEMENT
was the first form of advertisement which had any marked effect
upon English commerce. As the fairs of the middle ages, with
the tedious and hazardous journeys they involved, gradually
gave place to a more convenient system of trade, the 1 5th century
brought the invention of printing, and led the way to the modern
development of advertising. The Americans, to whom the elab-
oration of newspaper advertising is primarily due, had but just
founded the first English-speaking community in the western
hemisphere when the first newspaper was published in England.
But although the first periodical publication containing news
appeared in the month of May 1622, the first newspaper advert-
isement does not seem to have been published until April 1647.
It formed a part of No. 13 of Perfect Occurrences of Every Date
joumatt in Parliament, and other Moderate Intelligence, and it read
as follows: —
A Book applauded by the Clergy of England, called The Divine
Right of Church Government, Collected by sundry eminent Ministers
in the Citie of London; Corrected and augmented in many places,
with a briefe Reply to certain Queries against the Mimstery ofr
England; Is printed and published for Joseph Hunscot and George
Calvert, and are to be sold at the Stationers' Hall, and at the Golden
Fleece in the Old Change.
Among the Mercuries, as the weekly .newspapers of the day
were called, was the Mercurius Elenctkus, and in its 45th number,
published on the 4th of October 1648, there appeared the fol-
lowing advertisement: —
The Reader is desired to peruse a Sermon,
Entituled A Loohint-Glasse for Levellers,
Preached at St. Peter*, Paules Wharf, on Sunday, Sept. 24th 1648,
by Paul Knell. Mr. of Arts. Another Tract called A Reflex
upon our Reformers, with a prayer for the Parliament.
In an issue of the Mercurius Politicus, published by Marchmont
Nedham, who is described as " perhaps both the ablest and the
readiest man that had yet tried his hand at a newspaper," there
appeared in January 1652 an advertisement, which has often
been erroneously cited as the first among newspaper advertise-
ments. It read as follows: —
Irenodia Gratulatoria, a heroic poem, being a congratulatory
panegyrick for my Lord General's return, summing up his suc-
cesses in an exquisite manner. To be sold bv John Holden, in the
New Exchange, London, Printed by Thomas Newcourt, 1652.
The article " On the Advertising System," published in the
Edinburgh Review tor February 1843, contains the fullest account
of early English advertising that has ever been given, and it has
been very freely drawn upon by all writers who have since dis-
cussed the subject. But it describes this advertisement in the
Mercurius Politicus as " the very first," and the discovery of the
two earlier instances above quoted was due to the researches of
a contributor to Notes and Queries.
In The Crosby Records, the commonplace-books of William
Blundell, there is an interesting comment, dated 1659, on the
lack of advertising facilities at that period —
It would be very expedient if each parish or village might have
some place, as the church or smithy, wherein to publish (by papers
posted up) the wants either of the buyer or the seller, as such a
field to be let, such a servant, or such a service, to be had, &c.
There was a book published in London weekly about the year
1657 which was called (as I remember) The Publich Advice. It gave
information in very many of these particulars.
A year later the same diarist says —
There is an office near the Old Exchange in London called the
office of Publick Advice. From thence both printed and private
information of this useful nature are always to be had. But what
they print is no more than a leaf or less in a diurnal. I was in this
office. The diurnal consisted of sixteen pages quarto in 1689.
In No. 63 of the London Gazette, published in June 1666, the
first advertisement supplement was announced—
An Advertisement — Being daily prest to the Publication of
Books, Medicines, and other things not properly the business of a
Paper of Intelligence, This is to notifie, once lor all, that we will not
charge the Gazette with Advertisements, unless they be matter of
State: but that a Paper of Advertisements will be forthwith printed
apart, & recommended to the Publick by another hand.
In No. 94 of the same journal, published in October 1666,
there appeared a suggestion that sufferers from the Great Fire
should avail themselves of this means of publicity-
Such as have settled in new habitations since the late Fire, and
desire for the convenience of their correspondence to publish the
place of their present abode* or to give notice of Goods lost or found
may repair to the corner House in Bloomsbury on the East SSde of
the Great Square, before the House of the Right Honourable the
Lord Treasurer, where there is care taken for the Receipt and
Publication of such Advertisements.
The earlier advertisements, with the exception of formal
notices, seem to have been concerned exclusively with either
books or quack remedies. The first trade advertisement, vririch
does not fall within either of these categories, was curiously
enough the first advertisement of a new commodity, tern. The
following advertisement appeared in the Mercurius Politicus,
No. 435, for September 1658—
That excellent and by all Physitians approved China Drink, called
by the Chineans Tcha, by other nations Tay, alias Tee, is sold at the
Sultaness Head, a cophee-house in Sweetings Rents, by the Royal
Exchange, London.
The history of slavery, of privateering and of many other
curious incidents and episodes of English history during the x 7th
and 18th centuries might be traced by examination of the anti-
quated advertisements which writers upon such subjects have
already collected. In order that space may be found for some
consideration of the practical aspects of modern advertising, the
discussion of its gradual development must be curtailed. Nor
is it necessary to preface this consideration by any laboured
statement of the importance which advertising has assumed.
It is a matter of common knowledge that several business
houses are to be found in Great Britain, and a larger number
in the United States, who spend not less than £50,000 a year in
advertising, while one patent medicine company, operating both
in England and the United States, has probably spent not less
than £200,000 in Great Britain in one year, and an English cocoa
manufacturer is supposed to have spent £150,000 in Great
Britain. Some of the best works of artists as distinguished as
Sir John Millais, Sir H. von Herkomer and Mr Stacy Marks have
been scattered broadcast by advertisers. The purchase of Sir
John Millais* picture " Bubbles " for £2300 by the proprietors
of a well-known brand of soap is probably the most remarkable
instance of the expenditure in this direction which an advertiser
may find profitable. There are in London alone more than 350
advertising agents, of whom upwards of a hundred are known
as men in a considerable way of business. The statements which
from time to time find currency in the newspapers with regard
to the total amount of money annually spent upon advertising
in Great Britain and in the United States are necessarily no better
than conjectures, but no detailed statistics are required in order
to demonstrate what every reader can plainly see for himself,
that advertising has definitely assumed its position as a serious
field of commercial enterprise.
Advertising, as practised at the beginning of the 20th century,
may be divided into three general classes: —
1. Advertising in periodical publications.
s. Advertising by posters, signboards (other than those placed
upon premises where the advertised business is conducted),
transparencies and similar devices.
3. Circulars, sent in quantities to specific classes of persons to
whom the advertiser specially desired to address himself.
It may be noted at the outset that advertising in periodical
publications exercises a reflex influence upon these publications.
The daily, weekly and monthly publications of the day are accus-
tomed to look to advertisements for so large a part of their
revenue that the purchaser of a periodical publication receives
much greater value for his money than he could reasonably expect
from the publisher if the aggregate advertising receipts did not
constitute a perpetual subsidy to the publisher. It is not to be
supposed, however, that the receipts from the sale of a paper
cover all its expenses and that the advertising revenue is all clear
profit. The average newspaper reader would be amazed if be
knew at how great a cost the day's news is laid before him. A
dignified journal displays no inclination to cry from the house-
tops the vastness of its expenditure, but from time to time an
accident enables the public to obtain information in this con-
nexion. The evidence taken by a recent Copyright Commission
disclosed that the expenditure of the leading English journal
upon foreign news alone amounted to more than £50.000
ADVERTISEMENT
237
at the course of one year, and that a year not characterized
by any great war to swell the ordinary volume of cable
despatches.
la the cade of daily papers sold at the minimum price, it b not
teat obvious that the costliness of news service renders advertising
revenue indispensable, for although these less important journals
spend less money, the price at which they are supplied to the
sews agents is very small in proportion to the cost of their pro-
duction. B, however, this thought be pursued to its logical con-
clusion, the advertiser must admit that he in turn receives, from
those among newspaper readers who purchase his wares, prices
sufficiently high to cover the cost of his advertising. So that the
reader is in the curious position of directly paying a certain price
for his newspaper, receiving a newspaper fairly worth more than
that price, while this price is supplemented by the indirect in-
cidence of a sort of tax upon many of the commodities he con-
sumes. On the other hand, a great part of the advertisements
in a duly newspaper have themselves an* interest and utility not
less than that possessed by the news. The man who desires to
tire a house turns to the classified lists which the newspaper
publishes day after day, and servants and employers find one
another by the same means. The theatrical announcements are
so much a part of the news that even if a journal were not paid
for their insertion they could not be altogether omitted without
inconvenience to the reader. In the main, however, it is the
advertiser who seeks the reader, not the reader who seeks the
advertiser, and the care with which advertisements are prepared,
and the certainty with which the success or failure of a trader
auy be traced to his skill or want of skill as an advertiser, show
that the proper use of advertising is one of the most indispensable
branches of commercial training.
Before discussing in detail the methods of advertising in
periodical publications it may be well to complete, for the use
«*«**> of the general reader, a brief survey of the whole
«^*H» subject by examining the two other classes of advertise-
-*■'!■ *" o* 114 - The most enthusiastic partisan of advertising
will admit that posters and similar devices are very
federally regarded by the public as sources of annoyance. A
bold headline or a conspicuous illustration in a newspaper
advertisement may for a moment force itself upon the reader's
attention. In the French, and in some English newspapers,
where an advertisement is often given the form of an item of
news, the reader is distressed by the constant fear of being
hoodwinked. He begins to read an account of a street accident,
aad finds at the end of the paragraph a puff of a panacea for
braises. The best English and American journals have refused
to lend themselves to this sort of trickery, and in no one of the
best journals printed in the English language will there be found
an advertisement which is not so plainly differentiated from news
natter that the reader may avoid it if he sees fit to do so. On
the whole, then, newspaper advertisements ask, but do not
compel attention. The whole theory of poster advertising is,
oa the other hand, one of tyranny. The advertiser who pays
for space upon a hoarding or wall, although he may encourage
a form of art, deliberately violates the wayfarer's mind. A
trade-mark or a catch-word presents itself when eye and thought
are occupied with other subjects. Those who object to this class
of advertisement assert, with some show of reason, that an
advertisement has no more right to assault the eye in this fashion
than to storm the ear bjp an inordinate din; and a man who
came up behind another man in the street, placed his mouth
dose to the other's ear, and bawled a recommendation of some
hand of soap or tobacco, would be regarded as an intolerable
disturber of public peace and comfort. Yet if the owner of a
house sees fit to paint advertisements upon his walls, his exercise
of the jealously guarded rights of private property may not
hfhUy be disturbed. For the most part, both law and public
opinion content themselves with restraining the worst excesses
0! the advertiser, leaving many sensitive persons to suffer.
The National Society for Checking the Abuses of Public Adver-
tising (known as Scapa), founded in 1893 in London, was organ-
ised for purposes which it describes as follows:—
The society aims at protecting the picturesque simplicity of rural
and river scenery, and promoting a regard for dignity and propriety
of aspect in towns— with especial reference to the abuses of spec-
tacular advertising.
It seeks to procure legislation whereby local representative bodies
would be enabled to exercise control, by means of by-laws framed
with a view to enabling them, at any rate, to grant relief in cases of
flagrant and acknowledged abuse.
It is believed that, when regulation is applied in cases where local
conditions are peculiarly favourable, the advantage will be so
apparent that, by force of imitation and competition, the enforce-
ment of a reasonable standard will gradually become common.
The degree of restraint will, of course, depend upon the varying
requirements of rtifTcrerit place? and positions. No hard-and-fast
rule is suggested; no particular efts* of a- h ertiscment is proscribed;
certainly no general prohibition of posicn on temporary hoa/dings
is contemplated. Within the metropolitan area sky signs have
already been prohibited, and it is hoped that some corresponding
check will be placed on the mule ij of the field boards which
so materially diminish the pleasure or ton, fort of railway journeys.
The society regards with favour the imposition of a moderate tax
or duty for imperial or local purposes on exposed advertisements
not coming within certain categories of obviously necessary notices.
The difficulty of inducing a chancellor of the exchequer to move in
a matter where revenue is not the. primary consideration is not over-
looked. But it'is thought that any impost would materially reduce
the volume of exposed advertisements, and would at once extinguish
the most offensive and the most annoying class, t*. the quack ad-
vertisements by the road sides and the bills stuck by unauthorized
persons on trees, walls and palings.
Members are recommended to make it known that there exists
an active repugnance to the present practice of advertising disfigure-
ment, by giving preference, in private transactions, to makers and
dealers who do not employ objectionable methods, and by avoid-
ing, as far as possible, the purchase of wares which, in their individual
opinion, are offensively puffed. Action on these lines is advised
rather for its educational than for its immediately deterrent effect;
although, in the case of many of the more expensive commodities,
makers would undoubtedly be much influenced by the knowledge
that they would lose, rather than gain, custom.
The foregoing proposals are based on the following estimate of
the conditions of the problem. It is believed that the present
licence causes discomfort or loss of enjoyment to many, and that,
in the absence of authoritative restriction, it must grow far beyond
its present limits; that beauty or propriety of aspect in town and
country forms as real a part of the national wealth as any material
product, and that to save these from impairment is a national
interest; that the recent developments 01 vcxatiously obtrusive
advertising have not grown out of any necessities of honourable
business, but are partly the result of a mere instinct of imitation,
and partly are a morbid phase of competition by which both the
consumers and the trade as a whole lose; that restriction as regards
the size and positions of advertising notices would not be a hardship
to those who want publicity — since all competitors would be treated
alike, each would have the same relative prominence; that, as large
sums of public money are expended on . institutions intended to
develop tne finer taste, and on edifices of elaborate design, it must
be held inconsistent with established public policy to permit the
sensibilities thus imparted to be wounded, and architectural effect
to be destroyed at tne discretion of a limited class.
The influence of this society is to be seen in many of the
restrictions which have been imposed upon advertisers since its
work began. About a year after its foundation the London
County Council abolished (under statutory powers obtained
from Parliament) advertisements coming within the definition
of sky-signs in the London Building Act of 1894. These specifica-
tions are as follows: —
"Sky sign" means any word, letter, model, sign, device, or
representation in the nature of an advertisement, announcement,
or direction supported on or attached to any post, pole, standard,
framework, or other support, wholly or in part upon, over, or above
any building or structure, which, or any part of which, sky sign
shall be visible against the sky from any point in any street or public
way, and includes all and everyjpart of any such post, pole, standard,
framework, or other support. The expression " sky sign " shall also
include any balloon, parachute, or similar device employed wholly
or in part lor the purposes of any advertisements or announcement
on, over, or above any building, structure, or erection of any kind,
or-on or over any street or public way.
The act proceeds to exclude from its restrictions flagstaff's,
weathercocks and any solid signs not rising more than 3 feet
above the roof.
Another by-law of the London County Council, in great
measure due to the observations made at coroners' inquests,
protects the public against the annoyances and the perils to
238
ADVERTISEMENT
traffic occasioned by flashlight and searchlight advertisements.
This by-law reads as follows: —
No person shall exhibit any flashlight so as to be visible from any
street and to cause danger to the traffic therein, nor shall any owner
or occupier of premises permit or suffer any flashlight to be so ex-
hibited on such premises.
The expression " flashlight " means and includes any light used
for the purpose of illuminating, lighting, or exhibiting any word,
letter, model, sign, device, or representation in the nature of an
advertisement, announcement, or direction which alters suddenly
either in intensity, colour, or direction.
No person shall exhibit any searchlight so as to be visible from
any street, and to cause danger to the traffic therein, nor shall any
owner or occupier of premises permit or softer any searchlight to
be so exhibited on such premises.
The expression "searchlight" means and includes any light
exceeding 500-candle power, whether in one lamp or lantern, or in-
a series 01 lamps or lanterns used together and projected as one
concentrated light, and which alters either in intensity, colour, or
direction.
Advertising vans were so troublesome in London as to be
prohibited in 1853; the "sandwich-man" has in the City
of London and many towns been ousted from the pavement
to the gutter, from the more crowded to the less crowded
streets, and as the traffic problem in the great centres of
population becomes more urgent, he wiQ probably be altogether
suppressed.
Hoardings are now so restricted by the London Building Acts
that new hoardings cannot, except under special conditions,
be erected exceeding la feet in height, and no existing hoardings
can be increased in height so as to exceed that limit
The huge signs which some advertisers, both in England
and the United States, have placed in such positions as to
mar the landscape, have so far aroused public antagonism
that there is reason to hope that this form of nuisance will not
increase.
In 1809 Edinburgh obtained effective powers of control over
all sorts of advertising in public places, and this achieve-
ment has been .followed by no little agitation in favour of a
Parliamentary enactment which should once for all do away
with the defacing of the landscape in any part of the United
Kingdom.
In 1007 an act was passed (Advertisements Regulation Act)
of a permissive character purely, under which a local authority
is enabled to make by-laws, subject to the confirmation of the
Home Secretary, regulating (1) the erection of hoardings, &c,
exceeding 12 feet in height, and (2) the exhibition of advertise-
ments which might affect the " amenities" of a public place or
landscape.
The English law with regard to posters has undergone -very
little change. The Metropolitan Police Act 1839 (2 and 3 Vict,
cap. 47) first put a stop to unauthorized posting, and the In-
decent Advertisements Act of 1889 (J 3) penalized the public
exposure of any picture or printed or written matter of an in-
decent or obscene nature. But in general practice there is
hardly any limitation to the size or character of poster advertise-
ments,, other than good taste and public opinion. On the other
hand, public opinion is a somewhat vague entity, and there
have been cases in which a conflict has arisen as to what public
opinion really was, when its legally authorized exponent was in
a position to insist on its own arbitrary definition. Such an
instance occurred some, few years ago in the case of a large poster
issued by a well-known London music-hall. The Progressive
majority on the London County Council, led by Mr (afterwards
Sir) J. M'Dougall, a well-known " purity " advocate, took
exception to this poster, which represented a female gymnast in '
u tights " posed in what was doubtless intended for an alluring
and attractive attitude; and, in spite of any argument, the fact
remained that the decision as to renewing the licence of this
music-hall rested solely with the CoundL In showing that it
would have no hesitation in provoking even a charge of meddling
prudery, the Council probably gave a salutary warning to people
who were inclined to sail rather too near the wind. But in
Great Britain and America, at all events (though a doubt may
perhaps exist as to some Continental countries), the advertiser
and the artist are restrained, not only by their own sense of
propriety, but by fear of offending the sense of propriety in their
customers..
Posters and placards in railway stations and upon public
vehicles still embarrass the traveller who desires to find the
name of a station or the destination of a vehicle. In respect of
all these abuses it is a regrettable fact that unpopularity cannot
be expected to deter the advertiser. If a name has once been
fixed in the memory, it remains there long after the method of
its impression has been forgotten, and the purpose of advertise-
ments of the class under discussion is really no more than the
fixing of a trade name in the mind. The average man or woman
who goes into a shop to buy soap is more or less affected by
a vague sense of antagonism towards the seller. There is a
rudimentary feeling that even the most ordinary transaction of
purchase brings into contact two minds actuated by diametrically
opposed interests. The purchaser, who is not asking for a soap
he has used before, has some hazy suspicion that the shopkeeper
will try to sell, not the article best worth the price, but the article
which leaves the largest margin of profit; and the purchaser
imagines that he in some measure secures himself against- a bad
bargain when he exercises his authority by asking for some
specific brand or make of the commodity he seeks. If he has seen
any one soap so persistently advertised that his memory retains
its name, he will ask for it, not because he has any reason to
believe it to be better or cheaper than others, but simply because
he baffles the shopkeeper, and assumes an authoritative attitude
by exerting his own freedom of choice. This curious and obscure
principle of action probably lies at the root of all poster advertis-
ing, for the poster does not set forth an argument as does the
newspaper advertisement. It hardly attempts to reason with
the reader, but merely impresses a name upon his memory. It
is possible, by lavish advertising, to gp so far in this direction
that the trade-mark of a certain manufacturer becomes synony-
mous with the name of a commodity, so that when the consumer
thinks of soap or asks for soap, his concept inevitably couples
the maker's name with the word " soap " itself. In order that
the poster may leave any impression upon his mind, it must of
course first attract his attention.. The assistance which the
advertiser receives from the artist in this connexion is dhiowwri
in the article Posteb.
The fact that the verb " to circularize " was first used in 1-848,
sufficiently indicates the very recent origin of the practice of
plying possible purchasers with printed letters and
pamphlets. The penny postage was not established mmmt ^
in England until 1840; the halfpenny post for circulars canaster.
was not introduced until 1855. In the United States
a uniform rate of postage at two cents was not established until
1883. In both countries cheap postage and cheap printing have
so greatly encouraged the use of circulars that the sort of people
whom the advertiser desires to reach— those who have the most
money to spend, and whose addresses, published in directories,
indicate their prosperous condition—are overwhelmed by trades-
men's price-lists, appeals from charitable institutions, and other
suggestions for the spending of money. The addressing of en-
velopes and enclosing of circulars is now a recognized industry
in many large towns both in Great Britain and in the United
States. It seems, however, to be the opinion of expert advertisers
that what is called " general circularizing " is unprofitable, and
that circulars should only be sent to persons who have peculiar
reason to be interested by their specific subject-matter. It may
be noted, as an instance of the assiduity with which specialized
circularizing is pursued, that the announcement of a birth,
marriage or death in the newspapers serves to call forth a
grotesque variety of circulars supposed to be adapted to the
momentary needs of the recipient.
In concluding this review of methods of advertising, other
than advertisements in periodical publications, we may add
that the most extraordinary attempt at advertisement which
b known to exist is to be found at the churchyard at Godalming,
Surrey, where the following epitaph was placed upon a tomb-
stone:-*-
ADVERTISEMENT
239
Sacred
To the memory of
Nathaniel Godbold Esq
Investor & Proprietor
of that excellent medicine
The Vegetable Balsam
For the Cure of Consumptions ft Asthmas.
He departed this Life
The 17th. day of Deer. 1799
Hie
Aged 69 years.
Cineres, ubique Fama.
The preparation of advertisements for the periodical press
has within the last twenty years or so become so important a
task that a great number of writers and artists— many
of the latter possessing considerable abilities— gain a
livelihood from this pursuit Hie ingenuity displayed
in modern newspaper advertising is unquestionably
doe to American initiative. The English newspaper
advertisement of twenty years ago consisted for the most
part of the mere reiteration of a name. An advertiser who
took a column's space supplied enough matter to fill an inch,
and ingenuously repeated his statement throughout the column.
Such departures from this childlike method as were made were for
the most part eccentric to the point of incoherence. It may, how-
ever, be said in defence of English advertisers, that newspaper
publishers for a long time sternly discountenanced any attempt
to render advertisements attractive. So long as an advertiser
was rigidly confined to the ordinary single-column measure, and
so bog as he was forbidden to use anything but the smallest
sort of type, there was very little opportunity for him to attract
the leader's attention. The newspaper publisher must always
remember that the public buy a newspaper for the sake of the
Dews, not for the sake of the advertisements, and that if the ad-
mttsemenls are relegated to a position and a scope, in respect
of display, so inferior that they may be overlooked, the adver-
tiser cannot afford to bear his share of the cost of publication.
Of late The Times, followed by almost all newspapers in the
United Kingdom, has given the advertiser as great a degree of
liberty as he really needs, and many experienced advertisers in
America incline to the belief that the larger licence accorded to
American advertisers defeats its own ends. The truth would
stem to be that the advertiser will always demand, and may
fairly expect, the right to make his space as fantastic in appear-
ance as that allotted to the editor. When some American editors
see fit to print a headline in letters as large as a man's hand, and
to begin half-a-dozen different articles on the first page of a
sewspaper, continuing one on page a, another on page 4, and
mother on page 6, to the bewilderment of the reader, it can
hardly be expected that the American advertiser should submit
to any very strict code of decorum. The subject of the relation
between a newspaper proprietor and his advertisers cannot be
dtw r msed without reference to the notable independence of
advertisers' influence, which English and American newspaper
proprietors authorize their editors to display Whenever an in-
surance company or a bank goes wrong, the cry is raised that all
the editors in Christendom had known for years that the directors
•ere imbeciles and rogues, but had conspired to keep mute for
the sake of an occasional advertisement. When the British
public persisted, not long ago, in paying premium prices for the
shares of over-capitalized companies, the crash had no sooner
come than the newspapers were accused of having puffed pro-
motions for the sake of the money received for publishing pros-
pectoses. As a matter of fact, in the case of the best dailies in
England and America, the editor does not stand at all in awe of
the advertiser, and time after time the Money Article has ruth-
lessly attacked a promotion of which the prospectus appeared
in the very same issue. It is indeed to the interest of the ad-
vertiser, as well as to the interest of the reader, that this inde-
pendence should be preserved, for the worth of any journal as
aa advertising medium depends upon its possessing a bona fide
QrmUtion among persons who "believe it to be a serious and
honestly conducted newspaper. All advertisers know that the
ninor weeklies, which contain nothing but trade puffs, and are
asattercd broadcast among people who pay nothing for their
copies, are absolutely worthless from the advertiser's point of
view. The most striking difference between the periodical press
of Great Britain and that of America is, that in the former country
the magazines and reviews play but a secondary role, while in the
United States the three or four monthlies possessing the largest
circulation are of the very first importance as advertising
mediums. One reason for this is that the advertisements in an
American magazine are printed on as good paper, and printed
with as great care, as any other part of the contents. There are
probably very few among American magazine readers who do
not habitually look through the advertising pages, with the cer-
tainty that they will be entertained by the beauty of the adver-
tiser's illustrations and the quaint curtness of his phrases.
Another reason is that the American monthly magazine goes to
all parts of the United States, while, owing to the time required
for long journeys on even the swiftest trains, no American daily
paper can have so general a circulation as The Times in the United
Kingdom. In comparison with points on the Pacific coast,
Chicago does not seem far from New York, yet, with the excep-
tion of one frenzied and altogether unsuccessful attempt, no
New York daily has ever attempted to force a circulation in
Chicago. The American advertiser would, therefore, have to
spend money on a great number of daily papers in order to
reach as widespread a public as one successful magazine offer*
him.
There is reason to believe that the English magazine publishers
have erred gravely in taking what are known in the trade as
" insets," consisting of separate cards or sheets printed at the
advertiser's cost, and accepted by the publisher at a specific
charge for every thousand copies. This system of insetting has
the grave inconvenience that the advertiser finds himself com-
pelled to print as many insets as the publisher asserts that he
can use. The publisher, on the other hand, is somewhat at the
mercy of too enthusiastic agents and employes, who estimate
over-confidently the edition of the periodical which will probably
be printed for a certain month, and advertisers have had reason
to fear that many of their insets were wasted. The added weight
and bulk of the insets cause inconvenience and expense to the
newsdealer, as two or three insets printed upon cardboard are
equivalent to at least sixteen additional pages. Some news-
dealers have further complicated the inset question by threaten-
ing to remove insets unless special tribute be paid to them;
and with all these difficulties to be considered, many magazine
publishers have seriously considered the advisability of alto-
gether discontinuing the practice of taking insets, and of confin-
ing their advertisements to the sheets they themselves print
In connexion with this subject, it may be added that many
readers habitually shake loose bills out of a magazine before they
begin to rum the pages, and that railway stations, railway
carriages and even public streets are thus littered with trampled
and muddy advertisements. The old practice of distributing
handbills in the streets is dying a natural death, more or less
hastened by local by-laws, and when the loose bills in magazines
and cheap novels have ceased to exist no one will be the loser.
Advertisements in the weekly press are on the whole more
successful in England than in America. A few American
weeklies cope successfully with the increasing competition of
the huge Sunday editions of American daily papers. But even
the most successful among them — a paper for boys — has hardly
attained the prosperity of some among its English contemporaries
in the field of weekly journalism.
The merchant who turns to these pages for practical sugges-
tions concerning the advertising of his own business, can be given
no better advice than to betake himself to an established adver-
tising agent of good repute, and be guided by bis counsels. The
chief part that he can himself play with advantage is to note
from day to day whether the agent is obtaining advantageous
positions for his announcements. Every advertiser will naturally
prefer a right-hand page to a left-hand page, and the right side
of the page to the left side of the page; while the advertiser
who most indefatigably urges his claims upon the agent will,
in the long run, objtain the largest share of the favours to be
240
ADVERTISEMENT
distributed. To the merchant who inclines to consider adver-
tising in connexion with the broader aspects of his calling, it
may be suggested that a new channel of trade demands very
serious attention. What is called m England " postal trade,"
and in America " mail order business," is growing very rapidly.
.Small dealers in both countries have complained very bitterly
•of the competition they suffer from the general dealers and
from stores made up of departments which, under one roof,
offer to the consumer every imaginable sort of merchandise.
This general trading, which, on the one hand, seriously threatens
the small trader, and on the other hand offers greater possibilities
of profit to the proportionately small number of persons who
can undertake business on so large a scale, becomes infinitely
more formidable when the general dealer endeavours not only
to attract the trade of a town, but to make his place of business
a centre from which he distributes by post his goods to remote
parts of the country. In America, where the weight of parcels
carried by post . is limited to 4 lb, and where the private
carrying companies are forced to charge a very much higher
rate for carriage from New York to California than for shorter
distances, the centralization of trade is necessarily limited; but
it is no secret that, at the present moment, persons residing in
those parts of the United Kingdom most remote from London
habitually avail themselves of the English parcel post, which
carries packages up to xx lb, in order to procure a great
part of their household supplies direct from general dealers in
London. A trading company, which conducts its operations
upon such a scale as this, can afford to spend an almost un-
limited sum in advertising throughout the United Kingdom,
and even the trader who offers only one specific class of merchan-
dise is beginning to recognize the possibility of appealing to the
whole country.
The following is a brief summary of the laws and regulations
dealing with advertisements in public places in certain
jjjidn. °' tne countries of Continental Europe and in the
* United States of America, the chief authority for
which is an official return issued by the British Home Office
in 1903.
France. — The permission of the owner is alone required for
the placing of advertisements on private buildings; but build-
ings, walls, &c, belonging to the government or local authorities
are reserved exclusively for official notices, &c; these alone
can be printed on white paper, all others must be on coloured
paper. M unicipal au thorities control the size, construction, &c. ,
of hoardings used for advertising purposes, and the police have
full powers over the exhibition of indecent or other objectionable
advertisements. The SocilU pour la protection des pay sages,
founded in 1901, has for one of its objects the prevention of
advertisements which disfigure the scenery or are otherwise
objectionable.
Germany. — By (43 of the Imperial Commercial Ordinance
permission to post any trade advertisement in a public street,
square, &c, must be first obtained from the local police. The
police also control (by (55 of the Imperial Press Law 1874)
advertisements which are not of a trade character, but this
regulation does not affect the right of the federal legislatures
to make regulations in regard to them (§30). It would be
impossible to give in any detail the police regulations as to
advertisements which exist, e.g. in Prussia, but the following
rules in force in Berlin may be given*:— Public advertisements in
public streets and places may be posted only on the appliances,
such as pillar posts, &c, provided for the purpose. Owners of
property may post advertisements on their own property but
only such as concern their own interests. Advertisements on
public conveyances are forbidden. In 1002 a Prussian law was
passed authorizing the police to forbid all advertisement hoard-
ings, &c, which would disfigure particularly beautiful landscapes
in rural districts. The Hesse-Darmstadt Act of 1002 prohibits
the placing of any advertisements, posters, &c, on a monument
officially protected under the act, if it would be likely to injure
the appearance of the monument As instances of the numerous
local provisions against the abuse of advertising may be cited
those of Augsburg and Lttbeck, by which any advertisement that
would injure the Stadlbiid or appearance of the town may be
prohibited and removed by the local .authority (see G. Baldwin
Brown, The Care of Ancient Monuments, 1005). Full powers
exist under the Imperial Criminal Code for the suppression of
indecent or objectionable advertisements.
Austria. — Permission of the police is required for the exhibi-
tion of printed notices in public places other than such as are of
purely local or industrial interest, such as notices of entertain-
ment, leases, sales, &c, or theatre programmes, and these can
only be shown in places approved by the local authorities (Press
Law 1862). The press-police act as advertisement censors and
determine whether an advertisement can be allowed or not
In Hungary there are no general laws or regulations, but the
municipalities have power to issue ordinances dealing with the
question.
Italy. — All control rests with the municipal and communal
authorities, who may decide on the places where advertisements
may or may not be posted, and can prevent hoardings being
placed on or near ancient monuments or public buildings.
Svritoerland.— The Federal Government has no authority to
deal with this question; certain of the cantons have regulations,
e.g. Lucerne prohibits the public advertising of inferior goods
by means of a false description, Basel-Stadt gives the police the
power of censoring all advertisements. Many of the communal
authorities throughout Switzerland have special restrictions
and regulations. In Zurich the police choose the advertising
stations, in Berne the municipality possesses a monopoly of the
right of Erecting advertisements. The Society known as the
Ligue pour la conservation de la Suisse pUtoresque or Sdnrcituri-
scker HeimatschuU has for one of its objects the preservation of
scenery from disfiguring advertisements.
ITnited States.— -There is no federal legislation on the subject,
the matter being one for regulation by the states, which in most
cases have left it to the various municipalities and other local
authorities. With regard to indecent and objectionable advert-
isements some states have special legislation on the matter,
others are content with the ordinary, criminal laws or police
powers or with the law of nuisance or of trespass. Thus control
can be exercised over such advertisements as are dangerous to
public safety, health or morals. The state of New York prohibits
advertisements of lotteries. It would be impossible to give in
detail the different laws and regulations passed in the various
states or by municipalities. The following are some of the more
striking measures adopted in certain of the states. In Massa-
chusetts no advertising signs or devices are allowed on the public
highways. Power has been granted to city and town authorities
to regulate advertisements in, near or visible from public parks.
In the District of Columbia no advertisement is allowed which
obstructs a highway, and all distribution of handbills, circulars,
&c, in public streets, parks, &c, is prohibited. This prohibition
against what are generally known as " dodgers " is very general
in the local regulations throughout the states. In Illinois, city
councils are empowered on the incorporation of the city to regu-
late and prevent the use of streets, sidewalks and public grounds
for signs, handbills and advertisements, &c, and also the exhibi-
tion of banners, placards, in the streets or sidewalks. Chicago
has a body of most stringent rules, but they apparently have
been found impossible to enforce; thus no advertisement board
more than xa ft square within 400 ft. of a public park or
boulevard, no advertisements other than small ones relating to
the business carried on in the premises where the advertisement
is posted, or of sales, &c, are allowed in streets where three-
quarters of the houses are " residences "only. Prohibition is
also extended to the advertisements of those professing to cure
diseases or giving notice of the sale of medicines. In Boston
there are regulations prohibiting projecting or overhanging
signs in the streets, and special rules as to the height at which
street signs and advertisements must be placed. The distribu-
tion of " dodgers " in the streets is prohibited. Advertisements
for places of amusement must be approved by the committee on
licences.
ADVICE— ADVOCATE
241
France, Belgium, Iuly and certain of the cantons in Switzer-
land impose 1 tax on advertisements, as do certain of the United
Uimttm States of America, where the form is usually that of a
licence duty on billposters or advertising agencies.
Id many cases in the United States this is imposed by the muni-
cipalities. In every case both in Europe and America advertise-
ments in newspapers are not subject to any tax.
With regard to the literature of advertising, in addition to the his-
torical article in the Edinburgh Renew for February 1843, already
mentioned, and that in the Quarterly Renew for June 1855, the
Society for Checking the Abuses of Public Advertising issue a jour-
nal, A Beautiful World. Tht Journal of the Society of ComparaHvt
legislation (N.S. xvi 1006) contains an article by W J.B.9yles on
Foreign Law and the Control of Advertisements in Public Places.
The advertisers' handbooks, issued by the leading advertising
agents, will also be found to contain practical information of
great use to the advertiser. (H. R. H.*; C. We.)
ADVICE (Fr. oris, from Lat. ad, to, and visum, viewed),
cotnsd given after consideration, or information from a distance
giving particulars of something prospective ( e.g. " advice " of
an imminent battle, or of a cargo due). In commerce it is a
conunon word for a formal notice from one person concerned in
a transaction to another.
ADVOCATE (Lat advocaius, from advocare, to summon,
especially in law to call in the aid of a counsel or witness, and so
generally to summon to one's assistance), a lawyer authorized to
plead the causes of litigants in courts of law. The word is used
technically in Scotland (see Advocates, Faculty of) in a sense
virtually equivalent to the English term barrister, and a deriva-
tive (ram the same Latin source is so used in most of the countries
of Europe where the civil law is in force. The word advocaius is
not often used among the earlier jurists, and appears not to
have had a strict meaning. It is not always associated with
legal proceedings, and might apparently be applied to a supporter
or coadjutor in the pursuit of any desired object When it came
to be spotted with a more specific limitation to legal services,
the position of the advocaius was still uncertain. It was different
foa, and evidently inferior to, that of the juris-consultus, who
gave his opinion and advice in questions of law, and may be
identified with the consulting counsel of the present day. Nor
b the merely professional advocate to be confounded with the
Bore distinguished orator, or pap onus, who came forward in
the guise of the disinterested vindicator of justice. This dis-
tinction, however, appears to have arisen in later times, when the
profession became mercenary. By the lex Cincia, passed about
two centuries B.C., and subsequently renewed, the acceptance
of remuneration for professional assistance in lawsuits was pro-
hibited This law, like all others of the kind, was evaded. The
skflful debater was propitiated with a present; and though he
could not sue for the value of his services, it was ruled that any
honorarium so given could not be demanded back, even though
he died before the anticipated service was performed. The traces
of this evasion of a law may be found in the existing practice of
rewarding counsel by fees in anticipation of services.
The term advocaius came eventually to be the word employed
when the bar had become a profession, and the qualifications,
a dmm ion, numbers and fees of counsel had become a matter
of state regulation, to designate the pleaders as a class of pro-
fessional men, each individual advocate, however, being still
spoken of as patron in reference to the litigant with whose interest
he was entrusted. The advocaius fisci, or fiscal advocate, was
as officer whose function, like that of a solicitor of taxes at the
present day, was connected with the collection of the revenue.
The lawyers who practised in the English courts of common
law were never officially known as advocates, the word being
reserved for those who practised in the courts of the civil and
oaoa law (see DoctobV Commons). There was formerly an
important official termed his majesty's advocate-general, or more
thortly, the king's advocate, who was the principal law officer
of the crown in the College of Advocates or Doctors' Commons,
«nd in the admiralty and ecclesiastical courts. He discharged
(or these courts the duties which correspond to those of the
I. 5»
solicitor of the treasury (see Solicitor). His opinion was taken
by the foreign office on international matters, and on high
ecclesiastical matters he was also consulted; all orders in council
were submitted to him for approval. The office may now be
said to be obsolete, for after the resignation of Sir Travers Twiss,
the hist holder, in 187a, it was not filled up. There was also a
second law officer of the crown in the admiralty court called the
admiralty advocate. This office has long been vacant Advo-
cate is also the title still in use in some of the British colonies
to denote the chief law officer of the crown there. For instance,
in Sierra Leone (until 1806), Lagos and Cyprus he is called the
king's advocate; in Malta, crown advocate; in Mauritius,
procureur and advocate-general, and in the provinces of India
advocate-general. In France, the avocats, as a body, were re-
organized under the empire by a decree of the 15th of December
1810. There is, however, a distinction between avocats and
avouis. The latter, whose number is limited, act as procurators
or agents, representing the parties before the tribunals, draft
and prepare for them all formal acts and writings, and prepare
their lawsuits for the oral debates. The office of the avocat, on
the other hand, consists in giving advice as to the law, and con-
ducting the causes of his clients by written and oral pleadings.
The number of avocats is not limited; every licentiate of law
being entitled to apply to the corporation of avocats attached
to each court, and after presentation to the court, taking the oath
of office and passing three years in attendance on some older
advocate, to have himself recognised as an advocate.
In Germany the advocat no longer forms a distinct class of
lawyer. Since 1879, w hen a sweeping judicature act {Deutsche
Justisgesetxgebung) reconstituted the judicial system, the advo-
cat In ha character of adviser, as distinguished from the pro-
curator, who formerly represented the client in the courts, has
become merged in the Rechtsauwall, who has the dual character
of counsellor and pleader.
In the middle ages the word advocaius (Fr. ovoui, Ger. VogO
was used on the continent as the title of the lay lord charged
with the protection and representation in secular
matters of an abbey. The office is traceable as early
as the beginning of the 5th century in the Roman
empire, the churches being allowed to choose dtf en-
sorts from the body of advocates to represent them in the courts.
In the Frankish kingdom, under the Merovingians, these lay
representatives of the churches appear as agentes, defensores
and advocati; and under the Carolingians it was made obli-
gatory on bishops, abbots and abbesses to appoint such officials
in every county where they held property. The office was not
hereditary, the advocaius being chosen, either by the abbot alone,
or by the abbot and bishop concurrently with the count The
same causes that led to the development of the feudal system
also affected the advocaius. In times of confusion churches and
abbeys needed not so much a legal representative as an armed
protector, while as feudal immunities were conceded to the
ecclesiastical foundations, these required a representative to
defend their rights and to fulfil their secular obligations to the
state, e.g. to lead the ecclesiastical levies to war. A new class
of advocaius thus arose, whose office, commonly rewarded by a
grant of land, crystallized into a fief, which, like other fiefs, had
by the beginning of the 1 1 th century become hereditary.
In France the advocati {avouis) were of two classes— (1) great
barons, who held the advocateship of an abbey or abbeys rather
as an office than a fief,' though they were indemnified
for the protection they afforded by a domain and
revenues granted by the abbey: thus the duke of
Normandy was advocaius of nearly all the abbeys in
the duchy; (a) petty seigneurs, who held their avoueries as heredi-
tary fiefs and often as their sole means of subsistence. The ovoui
of an abbey, of this class, corresponded to the vidame (q.v.) of a
bishop. Their function was generally to represent the abbot in
his capacity as feudal lord; to act as his representative in the
courts of his superior lord; to exercise secular justice in the
abbot's name in the abbatial court; to lead the retainers of the
abbey to battle under the banner of the patron saint
no
242
ADVOCATES, FACULTY OF— ADVOWSON
In England the word advocatus was never used to denote an
hereditary representative of an abbot; but in some of the larger
abbeys there were hereditary stewards whose functions
and privileges were not dissimilar to those of the
continental advocaii. The word advocatus, however,
was in constant use in England to denote the patron of an
ecclesiastical benefice, whose sole right of any importance was
an hereditary one of presenting a parson to the bishop for in-
stitution. In this way the hereditary right of presentation to a
benefice came to be called in English an " advowson " (advocotio).
The advocatus played a more important part in the feudal
polity of the Empire and of the Low Countries than in France,
where his functions, confined to the protection of the interests
of religious houses, were superseded from the 13th century on-
wards by the growth of the central power and the increasing
efficiency of the royal administration. They had, indeed, long
ceased to be effective for their original purpose; and from the
time when their office became a fief they had taken advantage of
their position to pillage and suppress those whom it was their
function to defend. The medieval records, not in France only,
are full of complaints by abbots of their usurpations, exactions
and acts of violence.
In Germany the title of advocatus (Vogft was given not only
to the advocaii of churches and abbeys, but to the officials
appointed, from early in the middle ages, by the
emperor to administer their immediate domains, in
Vagc contradistinction to the counts, who had become
hereditary princes of the Empire. The territory 90
administered was known as VogUand (terra odvocatorum), a
name still sometimes employed to designate the strip of
country which embraces the principalities of Reus* and adjacent
portions of Saxony, Prussia and Bavaria. These imperial
advocaii tended in their turn to become hereditary. Sometimes
the emperor himself assumed the title of Vogt of some particular
part of his immediate domain. In the Netherlands as well as
in Germany advocaii were often appointed in the cities, by the
overlord or by the emperor, sometimes to take the place of the
bailiff (Ger. Sckultkeiss, Dutch schout, Lat. scultetus), some-
times alongside this official.
See Du Cange, Glossarium (ed. 1883, Niort), a. " Advocati ": A.
Luchaire, Manuel des institutions franchises (Paris, 1892); Herzog-
Hauck, Realencyhlopadie (ed. Leipzig, 1896). a. " Advocatus ec-
desiae," where further references will be found.
ADVOCATES, FACULTY OF, the collective term by which
what in England are called barristers are known in Scotland.
They professionally attend the supreme courts in Edinburgh;
but they are privileged to plead in any cause before the inferior
courts, where counsel are not excluded by statute. They may
act in cases of appeal before the House of Lords; and in some
of the British colonies, where the civil law is in force, it is cus-
tomary for those who practise as barristers to pass as advocates
in Scotland. This body has existed by immemorial custom.
Its privileges are constitutional, and are founded on no statute
or charter of incorporation. The body formed itself gradually,
from time to time, on the model of the French corporations of
avocois, appointing like them by a general vote, a dean or doyen,
who is their principal officer. It also differs from the English
and Irish societies in that there is no governing body similar to
the benchers, nor is there any resemblance to the quasi-collegiate
discipline and the usages and customs prevailing in an inn of
court. No curriculum of study, residence or professional train-
ing was, until 1856, required on entering this profession; but
the faculty have always had the power, believed to be liable to
control by the Court of Session, of rejecting any candidate for
admission. The candidate undergoes two private examinations
—the one in general scholarship, in lieu of which, however, he
may produce evidence of his having graduated as master of arts
in a Scottish university, or obtained an equivalent degree in an
English or foreign university; and the other, at the interval of
a year, in Roman, private international and Scots law. He must,
before the latter examination, produce evidence of attendance at
classes of Scots law and conveyancing in a Scottish university.
and at classes of civil law, public or international law, consti-
tutional law and medical jurisprudence in a Scottish or other
approved university. He has then to undergo the old academic
form of the public impugnment of a thesis on some title of the
pandects; but this ceremony, called the public examination, has
degenerated into a mere form. A large proportion of the candi-
date's entrance fees (amounting to £339) »* devoted to the
magnificent library belonging to the faculty, which literary
investigators in Edinburgh find so eminently useful.
ADVOCATUS DIABOU. devil's advocate, the name popularly
given to the promoter of the Faith (promotorjidei), and officer of
the Sacred Congregation of Rites at Rome, whose duty is to
prepare' all possible arguments against the admission of any one
to the posthumous honours of beatification and canonization.
This functionary is first formally mentioned under Leo X.(isij-
1 52 1) in the proceedings in connexion with the canonization of St
Lorenzo Giustiniani. In 1631 Urban VIII. made his presence,
either in person or by deputy, necessary for the validity of any
act connected with the process of beatification or canonisation
(see Canonization) . The phrase, " devil's advocate," has by an
easy transference come to be used of any one who puts himself
up, or is put up, for the sake of promoting debate, to argue a
case in which he does not necessarily believe.
ADVOWSON, or Advowzen (through O. Fr. advouson, from
Lat. advocotio < t a summons to), the right of presentation to
a vacant ecclesiastical benefice, so called because the patron
defends or advocates the claims of the person whom he presents.
At what period the right of advowson arose is uncertain; it
was probably the result of gradual growth. The earliest trace
of the practice is found in the decree of the council of Orange,
aj>. 441, which allowed a bishop, who had built a church in the
diocese of another bishop, to nominate the clerk, but not to
consecrate the church. The 123rd Novel of Justinian, promul-
gated about the end of the 5th century, decreed " that if any
man should erect an oratory, and desire to present a clerk thereto
by himself or his heirs, if they furnish a competency for his live-
lihood, and nominate to the bishop such as are worthy, they may
be ordained." The 57th Novel empowered the bishop to examine
them and judge of their qualifications, and, where those were
sufficient, obliged him to admit the clerk. In England, for quite
two centuries after its conversion, the clergy administered only
pro tempore in the parochial churches, receiving their maintenance
from the cathedral church, all the appointments within the dio-
cese lying with the bishop. But in order to promote the building
and endowment of parochial churches those who had contributed
to their erection either by a grant of land, by building or by
endowment, became entitled to present a clerk of their own
choice to the bishop, who was invested with the revenues derived
from such contribution. After the Norman Conquest, when the
boundaries between church and state were more clearly marked,
it became usual for patrons to appoint to livings not only without
the consent, but even against the will, of the bishops.
Advowsons are divided into two kinds, appendant and in gross.
Originally the right of nominating 1 or presenting was annexed
to the person who built or endowed the church, but the right
gradually became annexed to the manor in which it was built,
for the endowment was considered parcel of the manor, the
church being built for the use of the inhabitants, and the tithes
of the manor being attached to the church. Consequently
where the right of patronage (the right of the patron to present
to the bishop the person whom he has nominated to become
rector or vicar of the parish to the benefice of which he claims
the right of advowson) remains attached to the manor, it is called
an advowson appendant, and passes with the estate by inheritance
1 The distinction between nomination to a living and presentation
is to be noted. Nomination is the power, by virtue of a manor or
otherwise, to appoint a clerk to the patron of a benefice, to be by
him presented to the ordinary. Presentation is the act of a patron
in offering his clerk to the bishop, to be instituted in a benefice of
his gift. Nomination and presentation, though generally used 10
law tor the same thing, must be so distinguished, for it is possible
that the rights of nomination may be in one person, and the rights
of presentation in another.
ADYE
243
or sak without any special conveyance. But where, as is often
the case, the right of presentation has been sold by itself, and
so separated from the manor, it is called an advowson in gross.
Aa advowson may also be partly appendant, and partly in gross,
(4. if an owner granted to another every second presentment,
the advowson would be appendant for the grantor's turn and
ia grass for the grantee's.
Advowsons are further distinguished into preventative and
aBetm. In a presentatm advowson, the patron presents a
clergyman to the bishop, with the petition that he be instituted
into the vacant living. The bishop is bound to induct if he find
tat clergyman canonically qualified, and a refusal on his part
b abject to an appeal to an ecclesiastical court either by patron
or by presentee. In a coUatioe advowson the bishop is himself
the patron, either in his own right or in the right of the proper
patron, which has lapsed to him through not being exercised
vithin the statutory period of six months after the vacancy
occurred No petition is necessary in this case, and the bishop
b said to cottate to the benefice. Before 1898 there were also
isnstm advowsoos, but the Benefices Act 1898 made all dona-
tions with cure of souls preventative. In a donative advowson,
the sovereign, or any subject by special licence from the sover-
dga. conferred a benefice by a simple letter of gift, without
aay reference to the bishop, and without presentation and in-
station. Hie incumbent of such a living was to a great extent
free from the jurisdiction of the bishop, who could only reach
aim through the action of an eccles i astical court.
The Benefices Act of 1898 did not make any substantial
cktsfe in the legal character of advowsons, which remain
poetically the same as before the act. Briefly, it prevents the
dealing with the right of presentation as a thing apart from the
advowson itself; increases the power of the bishops to refuse
1st presentation of unfit persons, and removes several abuses
which bad arisen in the transfer of patronage. Under the pre-
wmly existing law, simony, or " the corrupt presentation of
aay person to an ecclesiastical benefice for gift, money or
reward," renders the presentation void, and subjects the persons
privy or party to it to penalties; a presentation to a vacant
benefice cannot be sold, and no clerk in holy orders can purchase
far Hnaeli a next presentation. An advowson may, however,
be sold during a vacancy, though that will not give the right
to present to that vacancy; and a clerk may buy an advowson
ereo though it be only an estate for life, and present himself on
the aext vacancy. Under the Benefices Act, advowsons may
sot be sold by pubtk auction except in conjunction with landed
property adjacent to the benefice; transfers of patronage must
be registered in the registry of the diocese, and no such transfers
can be made within twelve months after the last admission or
iafiitouon to the benefice. Restrictions had also been imposed
on the transfer of patronage of churches built under the Church
Boildiag Acts and New Parishes Acts, and on that of benefices
a the gif t of the lord chancellor, and sold by him in order to
ttgnent others; but agreements may be made as to the patron-
age of such churches in favour of persons who have contri-
bated to their buBdkig or enlargement without being void for
The right of presentation may be exercised by its owner
***tber he be an infant, executors, trustees, coparceners (who,
if they cannot agree, present in turn in order of age) or mort-
Pgee (who must present the nominee of the mortgagor)* or a
bankrupt (who, although the advowson belongs to his creditors,
yet has the right to present to a vacancy). Certain owners of
tdiovsons are temporarily or permanently disabled from exer-
cang the right which devolves upon other persons; and the
°o*m as patron paramount of all benefices can fill all churches
K* regularly filled by other patrons. It thus presents to all
vacancies caused by simoniaral presentations, or by the incum-
kat having been presented to a bishopric or in benefices belong*
•I to a bishopric when the see is vacant by the bishop's death,
translation or deprivation. Where a presentation belongs to
a taoatic, the lord chancellor presents for him. Where it belongs
to a Reman Catholic the right is exercised in his behalf by the
university of Oxford if the benefice be situate south of the river
Trent, and by that of Cambridge if it be north of that river
Besides the qualifications required of a presentee by canon
law, such as being of the canonical age, and in priest's orders
before admission, sufficient learning and proper orthodoxy or
.morals, the Benefices Act requires that a year shall have elapsed
since a transfer of the right of patronage, unless it can be shown
that such transfer was not made in view of a probable vacancy;
that the presentee has been a deacon for three years; and that
he is not unfit for the discharge of his duties by reason of physical
or mental infirmity or incapacity, grave pecuniary embarrass-
ment, grave misconduct or neglect of duty in an ecclesiastical
office, evil life, or conduct causing grave scandal concerning his
moral character since his ordination, or being party to an illegal
agreement with regard to the presentation, that notice of the
presentation has been given to the parish of the benefice. Except
by leave of the bishop or sequestrator, the incumbent of a seques-
tered benefice cannot be presented. The act also gives to both
patron and presentee an alternative mode of appeal against a
bishop's refusal to institute or admit, except on a ground of
doctrine or ritual, to a court composed of an archbishop of the
province and a judge of the High Court nominated for that
purpose by the lord chancellor, a course which, however, bars
resort being had to the ordinary suits of duplex querela or action
of quote impedit. In case of refusal of one presentee, a lay
patron may present another, and a clerical patron may do so
after an unsuccessful appeal against the refusal.
Upon institution the church is full against everybody except
the crown, and after six months' peaceable possession the clerk
is secured in possession of the benefice, even though he may
have been presented by a person who is not the proper patron.
The true patron can, however, exercise his right to present at
the next vacancy, and can reserve the advowson from an usurper
at any time within three successive incumbencies so created
adversely to his right, or within sixty years. Collation, which
otherwise corresponds to institution, does not make the church
full, and the true patron can dispossess the clerk at any time,
unless he is a patron who collates. Possession of the benefice
is completed by induction, which makes the church full against
any one, including the crown. If the proper patron fails to exer-
cise his right within six calendar months from the vacancy, the
right devolves or lapses to the next superior patron, e.g. from an
ordinary patron to the bishop, and- if he makes similar default
to the archbishop, and from him on similar default to the crown.
If a bishopric becomes vacant after a lapse has accrued to it,
it goes to the metropolitan; but in case of a vacancy of a
benefice during the vacancy of the see the crown presents. Until
the right of presentation so accruing to a bishop or archbishop
is exercised, the patron can still effectually present but not if
lapse has gone to the crown.
(See also Benefice; Glebe; Incumbent; Vicai.)
Authorities. — Burn, Ecclesiastical Law; Bingham's Origines
Ecclesiast i ca e . or, the Antiquities 0/ the English Church; Mirehouae,
On Advowson; Phillimore, Eccle s ia st ical Law.
ADYB, SIR JOHN MILLER (1819-1900), British general, son
of Major James P. Adye, was born at Sevenoaks, Kent, on the
xst of November 1819. He entered the Royal Artillery in 1836,
was promoted captain in 1846, and served throughout the
Crimean War as brigade-major and assistant adjutant-general
of artillery (C.B., brevets of major and lieutenant-colonel). In
the Indian Mutiny he served on the staff in a similar capacity.
Promoted brevet-colonel in i860, he was specially employed in
1863 in the N.W. frontier of India campaign, and was deputy-
adjutant-general, Bengal, from 1863 to 1866, when he returned
home. From 1870 to 1875 Adye was director of artillery and
stores at the War Office. He was made a K.C.B. in 1873, and
was promoted to be major-general and appointed governor of
the Royal Military Academy, Woolwich, in 1875, and surveyor-
general of the ordnance in 1880. In 1882 he was chief of staff
and second in command of the expedition to Egypt, and served
throughout the campaign (G.C.B . and thanks of parliament). He
I held the government of Gibraltar from 1883'to 1886. Promoted
244
ADYTUM— AEDUI
lieutenant-general in 1879, general and colonel commandant of
the Royal Artillery in 1884, be retired in 1886. He unsuccess-
fully contested Bath in the Liberal interest in 1892. He died
on the 26th of August 1900. He was author of A Review of
The Crimean War; The Defence of Cavmpore; A Frontier Cam-
paign in Afghanistan; Recollections of a Military Life; and
Indi an Fr ontier Policy.
ADYTUM, the Latinized form of Uvtov (not to be entered) ,
the innermost sanctuary in ancient temples, access to which was
forbidden to all but the officiating priests. The most famous
adytum in Greece was in the temple of Apollo at Delphi.
ADZE (from the Old Eng. adesa, of which the origin is un-
known), a tool used for cutting ^nd planing. It is somewhat
like an axe reversed, the edge of the blade curving inward and
placed at right angles to the handle. This shape is most suitable
for planing uneven timber, as inequalities are " hooked off " by
the curved blade. (See Tools.)
ABACUS, in Greek legend, ancestor of the Aeaddae, was the
son of Zeus and Aegina, daughter of the river-god Asopus. His
mother was carried off by Zeus to the island of Oenone, which
was afterwards called by her name. The island having been
depopulated by a pestilence, Zeus changed the ants upon it into
human beings (Ovid, Met. vii. 520), who were called Myrmidones
(pftppipes - ants). Aeacus ruled over his people with such justice
and impartiality that after his death he was made judge of the
lower world together with Minos and Rhadamanthus. By his
wife Endeis he was the father of Telamon and Peleus. His
successful prayer to Zeus for rain at a time of drought (Isocrates,
Evagoras, 14) was commemorated by a temple at Aegina (Pau-
sanias ii. 20). He himself erected a temple to Zeus Panhellenios
and helped Poseidon and Apollo to build the walls of Troy.
See Hutchinson, Aeacus, 1901.
AECLANUM. an andent town of Samnium, Italy, 15 m. E.S.E.
of Beneventum, on the Via Appia (near the modern Mirabella).
It became the chief town of the Hirpini after Beneventum had
become a Roman colony. Sulla captured it in 89 B.C. by setting
on fire the wooden breastwork by which it was defended, and
new fortifications were erected. Hadrian, who repaired the Via
Appia from Beneventum to this point, made it a colony; it has
ruins of the tity walls, of an aqueduct, baths and an amphi-
theatre; nearly 400 inscriptions have also been discovered.
Two different routes to Apulia diverged at this point, one (Via
Aurelia Aeclanensis) leading through the modern Ariano to
Herdoniae, the other (the Via Appia of the Empire) passing the
Lacus Ampsanctus and going on to Aquilonia and Venusia;
while the road from Aeclanum to Abellinum (mod. Avellini)
may also follow an andent line. H. Nissen (Italische Landes-
kunde, Berlin, 1002, ii. 8x9) speaks of another road, which he
believes to have been that followed by Horace, from Aeclanum
to Trevicum and thence to Ausculum; but Th. Mommsen
(Corpus Inscrip. Lot., Berlin, 1883, iz. 602) is more likely to be
right in supposing that the road taken by Horace ran directly
from Beneventum to Trevicum and thence to Aquilonia (though
the course of this road is not yet determined in detail), and that
the easier, though somewhat longer, road by Aeclanum was of
later date.
AEDESIUS (d. a.d. 355), Neoplatonist philosopher, was born
of a noble Cappadocian family. He migrated to Syria, attracted
by the lectures of lamblichus, whose follower he became. Ac-
cording to Eunapius, he differed from lamblichus on certain
points connected with magic He taught at Pergamum, his
chief disciples being Eusebius and Maximus. He seems to have
modified his doctrines through fear of Constantine.
See Ritterand Preller, 552; Ritter*» Geschickte der PkHosophie;
T. Whittaker, The NeoploJonists (Cambridge, 1901).
AEDICULA (diminutive of LaL aedis or aedes % a temple or
house), a small house or temple, — a household shrine holding
small altars or the statues of the Lares and Penates.
AEDILB (LaL aedilis), in Roman antiquities, the name of
certain Roman magistrates, probably derived from aedis (a
temple), because they had the care of the temple of Ceres, where
the plebeian archives were kept. They were originally two in
number, called " plebeian " aediles. They were created in the
same year as the tribunes of the people (404 B.C.), their persons
were sacrosanct or inviolable, and (at least after 471) they were
elected at the Comitia Tributa out of the plebeians alone.
Originally intended as assistants to the tribunes, they exercised
certain police functions, were empowered to inflict fines and
managed the plebeian and Roman games. According to Livy
(vi. 42), after the passing of the Lidnian rogations, an extra day
was added to the Roman games; the aediles refused to bear
the additional expense, whereupon the patricians offered to
undertake it, on condition that they were admitted to the aedile-
ship. The plebeians accepted the offer, and accordingly two
" curule " aediles were appointed— at first from the patricians
alone, then from patricians and plebeians in turn, lastly, from
either— at the Comitia Tributa under the presidency of the
consul. Although not sacrosanct, they had the right of sitting
in a curule chair and wore the distinctive toga praetexta. They
took over the management of the Roman and Megalesian games,
the care of the patrician temples and had the right of issuing
edicts as superintendents of the markets. But although the
curule aediles always ranked higher than the plebeian, their
functions gradually approximated and became practically
identical.
Cicero (Legg. iff. 3, 7) divides these functions under three
heads:— (1) Care of the city: the repair and preservation of
temples, sewers and aqueducts; street deansing and paving;
regulations regarding traffic, dangerous animals and dilapidated
buildings; precautions against fire; superintendence of baths
and taverns; enforcement of sumptuary laws; punishment of
gamblers and usurers; the care of public morals generally,
including the prevention of foreign superstitions. They also
punished those who had too large a share of the ager publicus,
or kept too many cattle on the state pastures. (2) Care of provi-
sions: investigation of the quality of the artides supplied and
the correctness of weights and measures; the purchase of corn
for disposal at a low price in case of necessity. (3) Care of Ike
games: superintendence and organization of the public games,
as well as of those given by themselves and private individuals
(e.g. at funerals) at their own expense. Ambitious persons often
spent enormous sums in this manner to win the popular favour
with a view to official advancement.
In 44 Caesar added two patrician aediles, called CereoUs,
whose special duty was the care of the corn-supply. Under
Augustus the office lost much of its importance, its juridical
functions and the care of the games being transferred to the
praetor, while its city responsibilities were limited by the ap-
pointment of a praefectus urbi. In the 3rd century a.d. it
disappeared altogether.
Authorities.— Schubert, De Romanorum AedUibus (1828); Hoff-
mann, De Aedilibus Romanis (1842) '• G*H» Dt Aedilibus sub Caesanum
Imperio (i860) ; Labatut, Les Edtles et Us nunirs (1868) ; Marauardt-
Mommsen, Handbuch der romischen Aller turner, ii. (1888)1 Soltau,
Die ursprUntliche Bedeutung und Competent der Aediles Plebis (Bona,
1882).
AEDUI, Haeoui or Hedui (Gr. Aftouot), a Gallic people of
Gallia Lugdunensis, who inhabited the country between the
Arar (Sa6nc) and Liger (Loire). The statement in Strabo (ii. 3.
192) that they dwdt between the Arar and Dubis (Doubs) is
incorrect. Their territory thus included the greater part of
the modern departments of Sa6ne-et-Loire, Cote d'Or and
Nievre. According to Livy (v. 34), they took part in the expedi-
tion of Bellovesus into Italy in the 6th century B.C. Before
Caesar's time they had attached themselves to the Romans,
and were honoured with the title of brothers and kinsmen of
the Roman people. When the Sequani, their neighbours on
the other side of the Arar, with whom they were continually
quarrelling, invaded their country and subjugated them with
the assistance of a German chieftain named Ariovistus, the
Aedui sent Divitiacus, the druid, to Rome to appeal to the
senate for hdp, but his mission was unsuccessful. On his arrival
in Gaul (58 B.C.), Caesar restored thdr independence. In spite
of this, the Aedui joined the Gallic coalition against Caesar
(B.C. vii. 42), but after the surrender of Vercingetorix at Alesia
AEGADIAN ISLANDS— AEGEAN CIVILIZATION
245
*ere gild to return to their allegiance. Augustus dismantled
(heir native capital Bibracte on Mont Beuvray, and substituted
1 sew town with a half-Roman, half-Gaulish name, Augusto-
domim (mod. Autun). During the reign of Tiberius (a.d. 21),
they revolted under Julius Sacrovir, and seized Augustodunum,
but were soon put down by Gaius Sllius (Tacitus, Ann. iii.
4346). The Aedui were the first of the Gauls to receive from
the emperor Claudius the distinction of the jus honorum. The
oration of Euzncnrus (q.t.), in which he pleaded for the restora-
tion of the schools of his native place Augustodunum, shows
tat the district was neglected. The chief magistrate of the
Aedui in Caesar's time was called Vergobretus (according to
Hommsen, " judgment-worker 7), who was elected annually,
peuesed powers of life and death, but was forbidden to go
beyond the frontier. Certain tlUntes, or small communities,
■ere also dependent upon the Aedui.
See A E. Desjardins, Giogrqpkie de h GouU, ji. (1876- 1 893) ; T R.
Holms. Caesar's Conquest of Caul (1899).
AEGAMAM ISLANDS (Ital. Isole Egati; anc. Atgates In-
t»Ue), a group of small mountainous islands off the western
coast of Sicily, chiefly remarkable as the scene of the defeat
of the Carthaginian fleet by C. Lutatius Catulus in 241 B.C.,
which ended the First Punic War. Favignana (Aegusa), the
largest, pop. (1001) 6414. lies 10 m. S.W. of Trapani; Levanzo
(Pborbantia) 8 m. W.; while Maritimo, the ancient Up6, rip-os,
IS bl W. of Trapani, is now reckoned as a part of the group.
They belonged to the Pallavidni family of Genoa until 1874,
vbea they were bought by Signor Florlo of Palermo.
'AB8BAR CIVILIZATION, the general term for the prehistoric
rivifiaatkHi, previously called " Mycenaean " because its existence
was first brought to popular notice by Heinrich Schliemann's
excavations at Mycenae in 1876. Subsequent discoveries, how*
ever, have made it dear that Mycenae was not its chief centre
in 'tis earBer stages, or, perhaps, at any period; and, accordingly,
it ii more usual now to adopt a wider geographical title.
L Histeryof Discovery and Distribution of Remains. — Mycenae
tad Tiryns are the two principal sites on which evidence of a
prehistoric civilization was remarked long ago by the classical
Greeks. The curtain-wall and towers of the Mycenaean citadel,
its gate with heraldic lions, and the great " Treasury of
Aura " had borne silent witness for ages before Schliemann's
one; trot they were supposed only to speak to the Homeric, or
at farthest a rude Heroic beginning of purely Hellenic, civiliza-
tion. It was not till Schliemann exposed the contents of the
guves which lay just inside the gate (see Mycenae), that
scholars recognized the advanced stage of art to which pre-
historic dwellers in the Mycenaean citadel had attained There
kid been, however, a good deal of other evidence available before
(876, which, bad it been collated and seriously studied, might
have discounted the sensation that the discovery of the citadel
graves eventually made. Although it was recognized that
certain tributaries, represented e.g. in the X VIHth Dynasty tomb
of Rekhmara at Egyptian Thebes as bearing vases of peculiar
fonos, were of some Mediterranean race, neither their precise
Habitat nor the degree of their civilization could be determined
•hue so few actual prehistoric remains were known in the
Mediterranean lands. Nor did the Aegean objects which were
lying obscurely in museums in 1870, or thereabouts, provide a
wfficjent test of the real basis underlying the Hellenic myths
of the Argolid, the Troad and Crete, to cause these to be taken
wiously. Both at SeVres and- Neuch&tel Aegean vases have
been exhibited since about 1840, the provenience being in the
one case Phylakope in Melos, in the other Cephalonia. Ludwig
Ross, by his exploration* in the Greek islands from 1835 onwards,
caQed attention to certain early intaglios, since known as
/fttttemr, but it was not till 1878 that C. T. Newton demon-
anted these to be no strayed Phoenician products. In 1866
punitive structures were discovered in the island of Therasia
by quarrymen extracting pozzolana for the Suez Canal works;
tad when this discovery was followed up in 1870, on the neigh-
bouring Santorin (Thera), by representatives of the French
School at Athena, much pottery of a class now known immedi-
ately to precede the typical late Aegean ware* and many stone
and metal objects, were found and dated by the geologist
Fouqut, somewhat arbitrarily, to 2000 B.C., by consideration
of the superincumbent eruptive stratum. Meanwhile, in 1868,
tombs at Ialysus in Rhodes had yielded to M. A. Biliotti many
fine painted vases of styles which were called later the third and
fourth " Mycenaean "; but these, bought by John Ruskin, and
presented to the British Museum, excited less attention than
they deserved, being supposed to be of some local Asiatic fabric
of uncertain date. Nor was a connexion immediately detected
between them and the objects found four years later in a tomb
at Menidi in- Attica and a rock-cut " bee-hive " grave near the
Argive Heraeum.
Even Schliemann's first excavations at Hissarlik In the Troad
(q.v.) did not exdte surprise. But the " Burnt City " of his
second stratum, revealed in 1873, with its fortifications and
vases, and a hoard of gold, silver and bronze objects, which the
discoverer connected with it, began to arouse a curiosity wrficrj
was destined presently to spread far outside the narrow circle
of scholars. As soon as Schliemann came on the Mycenae graves
three years later, light poured from all sides on the prehistoric
period of Greece. It was recognized that the character of both
the fabric and the decoration of the Mycenaean objects was not
that of any well-known art. A wide range in space was proved
by the identification of the Inselsteine and the Ialysus vases with
the new style, and a wide range in time by collation of the earlier
Theraean and Hissarlik discoveries. A relation between objects
of art described by Homer and the Mycenaean, treasure was
generally allowed, and a correct opinion prevailed that, while
certainly posterior, the civilization o£ the Iliad was reminiscent
of the Mycenaean. Schliemann got to work again at Hissarlik
in 1878, and greatly increased our knowledge of the lower strata,
but did not recognize the Aegean remains in his " Lydian " city
of the sixth stratum, which were not to be fully revealed till
Dr Wv Dorpf eld resumed the work at Hissarlik in 1802 after the
first explorer's death (see Troad). But by laying bare in 1884
the upper stratum of remains on the rock of Tiryns (q.v.), Schlie-
mann made a contribution to our knowledge of prehistoric
domestic life which was amplified two years later by Chr.
Tsountas's discovery of the Mycenae palace. Schliemann's work
at Tiryns was not resumed till 1005, when it was proved, as
had long been suspected, thai an earlier palace underlies the one
he had exposed. From 1886 dates the finding of Mycenaean
sepulchres outside the Argolid, from which, and from the con-
tinuation of Tsountas's exploration of the buildings and lesser
graves at Mycenae, a large treasure, independent of Schliemann's
princely gift, has been gathered into the National Museum at
Athens. In that year were excavated dome-tombs, most already
rifled but retaining some of their /urniture, at Arkina and Eleusis
in Attica, at Dimini near Volo in Thessaly, at Kampos on the
west of Mount Taygetus, and at Maskarata in Cephalonia. The
richest grave of all was explored at Vaphio in Laconia in 1889,
and yielded, besides many gems and miscellaneous goldsmiths'
work, two golden goblets chased with scenes of bull-hunting,
and certain broken vases painted in a large bold style which
remained an enigma till the excavation of Cnossus. In 1800 and
1893 Staes cleared out certain less rich dome-tombs at Thoricus
in Attica; and other graves, either rock-cut " bee-hives " or
chambers, were found at Spata and Aphidna in Attica, in Aegina
and Salamis, at the Heraeum (see Arcos) and Nauplia in the
Argolid, near Thebes and Delphi, and not far from the Thessalian
Larissa. During the excavations on the Acropolis at Athens,
terminated in 1888, many potsherds of the Mycenaean style
were found; but Olympia had yielded either none, or such as
had not been recognized before being thrown away, and the
temple site at Delphi produced nothing distinctively Aegean.
The American explorations of the Argive Heraeum, concluded
in 1895, also failed to prove that site to have been important in
the prehistoric time, though, as was to be expected from its
neighbourhood to Mycenae itself, there were traces of occupation
in the later Aegean periods. Prehistoric research had now begun
to extend beyond the Greek mainland. Certain central Aegean
246
AEGEAN CIVILIZATION
islands, Antiparos, Ios, Amorgos, Syros and Siphnos, were all
found to be singularly rich in evidence of the middle-Aegean
period. The series of Syran built graves, containing crouching
corpses, is the best and most representative that is known in the
Aegean. >Ielos, long marked as a source of early objects, but
not systematically excavated until taken in hand by the British
School at Athens in 1806, yielded at Phylakope remains of all
the Aegean periods, except the Neolithic. A map of Cyprus in
the later Bronze Age (such as is given by J L. My res and M. O.
Richter in Catalogue of the Cyprus Museum) shows more than
five-and-twenty settlements in and about the Mesaorta district
alone, of which one, that at Enkomi, near the site of Salamis,
has yielded the richest Aegean treasure in precious metal found
outside Mycenae. £. Chantre in 1804 picked up lustreless ware,
like that of Hissarlik, in central Phrygia and at Pteria (q v ), and
the English archaeological expeditions, sent subsequently into
north-western Anatolia, have never failed to bring back ceramic
specimens of Aegean appearance from the valleys of the Rhyn-
dacus, Sangarius and Halys. In Egypt in 1887 W. M. F. Petrie
found painted sherds of Cretan style at Kahun in the Fayuro, and
farther up the Nile, at Tell el-Amarna, chanced on bits of no
fewer than 800 Aegean, vases in 1889. There have now been
recognized in the collections at Cairo, Florence, London, Paris
and Bologna several Egyptian imitations of the Aegean style
which can be set off against the many debts which the centres of
Aegean culture owed to Egypt Two Aegean vases were found
at Sidon in 1885, and many fragments of Aegean and especially
Cypriote pottery have been turned up during recent excavations
of sites in Philistia by the Palestine Fund. South-eastern Sicily,
ever since P. Orsi excavated the Sicel cemetery near Lentini in
1877* has proved a mine of early remains, among which appear
in regular succession Aegean fabrics and motives of decoration
from the period of the second stratum at Hissarlik. Sardinia
has Aegean sites, e.g. at Abini near Teti; and Spain has yielded
objects recognized as Aegean from tombs near Cadiz and from
Saragossa. One land, however, has eclipsed all others in the
Aegean by the wealth of its remains of all the prehistoric ages,
viz. Crete, so much so that, for the present, we must regard it as
the fountain-head of Aegean civilization, and probably for long
its political and social centre. The island first attracted the
notice of archaeologists by the remarkable archaic Greek bronzes
found in a cave on Mount Ida in 1885, as well as by epigraphic
monuments such as the famous law of Gortyna; but the first
undoubted Aegean remains reported from it were a few objects
extracted from Cnossus by Minos Kalokhairinos of Candia in
1878. These were followed by certain discoveries made in the
S. plain (Messari) by F. Halbherr. W. J. SliUman and H
Schliemann both made unsuccessful attempts at Cnossus, and
A. J. Evans, coming on the scene in 1893, travelled in succeed-
ing years about the island picking up trifles of unconsidered
evidence, which gradually convinced him that greater things
would eventually be found. He obtained enough to enable him
to forecast the discovery of written characters, till then not sus-
pected in Aegean civilization. The revolution of 1897-08 opened
the door to wider knowledge, and much exploration has ensued,
ior which see Crete. Thus the " Aegean Area." has now come
to mean the Archipelago with Crete and Cyprus, the Hellenic
peninsula with the Ionian isles, and Western Anatolia. Evidence
is still wanting for the Macedonian and Thracian coasts. Oil-
shoots are found in the W. Mediterranean, in. Sicily, Italy,
Sardinia and' Spain, and in the E. in Syria and Egypt. About
the Cyrenaica we are still insufficiently informed. •
II. General Nature of the Evidence. — For details of monumental
evidence the articles on Crete, Mycenae, Tiryns, Troad,
Cyprus, &c, must be consulted. The most representative site
explored up to now is Cnossus (see Crete, sect. Archaeology),
which has yielded not only the most various but the most
continuous evidence from the Neolithic age to the twilight
of classical civilization. Next in importance come Hissarlik,
Mycenae, Phaestus, Hagia, Triada, Tiryns, Phylakope, Palai-
kastro and Gournia.
A. The internal evidence at present available comprises—
(1) Structures —Ruins of palaces, palatial villas, houses, built
dome- or cist-graves and fortifications (Aegean isles, Creek
mainland and N VV Anatolia), but not distinct temples; small
shrines, however, and temeni (religious enclosures, remains of
one of which were probably found at Petsofa near Palaikastro
by J. L. Myres in 1004) are represented on intaglios and
frescoes.. From like sources and from inlay-work we have also
representations of palaces and houses.
(2) Structural Decoration.— Architectural features, such as
columns, friezes and various mouldings; mural decoration,
such as fresco-paintings, coloured reliefs and mosaic inlay
(3) Furniture.— (a) Domestic, such as vessels of all sorts and
in many materials, from huge store-jars down to any unguent-
pots, culinary and other implements, thrones, seats, tables,
&c, these all in stone or plastered terra-cotta. (b) Sacred,
such as models or actual examples of ritual objects ,* of these
wo have also numerous pictorial representations, (c) Funerary,
e.g. coffins in painted terra-cotta.
(4) Artistic fabrics, e.g. plastic objects, carved in stone or ivory,
cast or beaten in metals (gold, silver, copper and bronze), or
modelled in clay, faience, paste, &c. Very little trace has yet
been found of large free sculpture, but many examples exist qf
sculptors' smaller work. Vases of all kinds, carved in marble
or other stones, cast or beaten in metals or fashioned in clay,
the latter in enormous number and variety, richly ornamented
with coloured schemes, and sometimes bearing moulded decora-
tion. Examples of painting on stone, opaque and transparent.
Engraved objects in great number, e.g. ring-bezels and gems;
and an immense quantity of clay impressions, taken from these.
(5) Weapons, tools and implements, in stone, clay and bronze,
and at the last iron, sometimes richly ornamented -or inlaid.
Numerous representations also of the same. No actual body-
armour, except such as was ceremonial and buried with the dead,
like the gold breastplates in the circle-graves at Mycenae.
(6) Articles of personal use, e.g. brooches {fibulae), pins, razors,
tweezers, &c, often found as dedications to a deity, e.g. in the
Dictaean Cavern of Crete. No textiles have survived.
(7) Written documents, e.g. clay tablets and discs (so far m
Crete only), but nothing of more perishable nature, such as skin,
papyrus, &c; engraved gems and gem impressions; legends
written with pigment on pottery (rare); characters incised on
stone or pottery. These show two main systems of script (see
Crete)
(8) Excavated tombs, of either the pit or the grotto kind, in
which the dead were laid, together with various objects of use
and luxury, without cremation, and in either coffins or loculi at
simple wrappings.
(9) Public works, such as paved and stepped roadways,
bridges, systems of drainage, &c.
B There is also a certain amount of. external evidence to be
gathered from —
(1) Monuments and records of other contemporary civiliza-
tions, eg representations of alien peoples in Egyptian frescoes;
imitation of Aegean fabrics and style in non-Aegean lands;
allusions to Mediterranean people*- in Egyptian, Semitic or
Babylonian records.
(2) Literary traditions of subsequent civilizations, especially
the Hellenic, such as, e.g., those embodied in the Homeric poems,
the legends concerning Crete, Mycenae, &c; statements as to
the origin of gods, cults and so forth, transmitted to us by
Hellenic antiquarians such as Strabo, Pausanias, Diodpnis
Siculus, &c.
(3) Traces of customs, creeds, rituals, -Ac, in the Aegean'
area at a later time, discordant with the civilization in which
they were practised and indicating survival from.eariier systems.
There are also possible linguistic and even physical survivals to
be considered.
III. General Features of Aegean Civilisation.— Tbt leading
features of Aegean civilization, as deduced from the evidence,
must be stated very briefly.
(1) Political Organisation. — The great Cretan palaces and
the fortified citadels of Mycenae, Tiryns and Hissarlik, each
AEGEAN CIVILIZATION
247
Map showing the distribution of
AEGEAN SITES
containing little more than one great residence, and dominating
k>«er towns of meaner houses, point to monarchy at all periods.
Independent local developments of art before the middle of the
ad millennium b c suggest the early existence of independent
umts in various parts, of which the strongest was the Cnossian
After that date the evidence goes strongly to show that one
political dominion was spread for a brief period, or for two brief
periods, over almost all the area (see later) The great number
of tribute-tallies found at Cnossus perhaps indicates that the
centre of power was always there.
(>) Rdigion. — The fact that shrines have so far been found
within palaces and not certainly anywhere else indicates that
the kings kept religious power in their own hands, perhaps
they were themselves high-priests. Religion in the area seems
to have been essentially the same everywhere from the earliest
period, viz. the cult of a Divine Principle, resident in dominant
features of nature (sun, stars, mountains, trees, &c.) and control-
5af fertility. This cult passed through an aniconic stage, from
which fetishes survived, to the last, these being rocks or pillars,
trees, weapons (e.g. bipennis, or double war-axe, shield), &c.
When' the iconic stage was reached, about 2000 B.C., we find the
Divine Spirit represented as a goddess with a subordinate young
|od, as in many other E. Mediterranean lands The god was
probably son and mate of the goddess, and the divine pair
represented the genius of Reproductive Fertility in its relations
with humanity. The goddess sometimes appears with doves,
as eranic, at others with snakes, as chthonic. In the ritual
fetishes, often of miniature form, played a great part: all sorts
of plants and animals were sacred: sacrifice (not burnt, and
human very doubtful), dedication of all sorts of offerings and
mn t l aaa t invocation, &c, were* practised. The dead, who
returned to the Great Mother, were' objects of a sort of hero-
worship. This early nature-cult explains many anomalous
features of Hellenic religion, especially in the cults of Artemis
■ad Aphrodite. (See Cuts.)
(3) Social Orfamsoliwi.— There is a possibility that features
«f a primeval matriarchate long survived; but there is no
certain evidence. Of the organization of the neople under the
auaarch we are ignorant There are so few representations
of aimed men that it seems doubtful if there can have been
•ay professional military class. Theatral structures found at
Cnossus and Phaestus, within the precincts of the palaces,
•ere perhaps used for shows or for sittings of a royal assize,
rather than for popular assemblies. The Cnossian remains
coetain evidence of an elaborate system of registration, account-
Keeping and other secretarial work, which perhaps indicates a
considerable body of law. The life of the ruling class was
comfortable and even luxurious from early times. Fine stone
palaces, richly decorated, with separate sleeping apartments,
large halls, ingenious devices for admitting light and air, sanitary
conveniences and marvellously modern arrangements for supply
of water and for drainage, attest this fact. Even the smaller
houses, after the Neolithic period, seem also to have been of
stone, plastered within. After 1600 B.C. the palaces in Crete
had more than one story, fine stairways, bath-chambers, win-
dows, folding and sliding doors, &c. In this later period, the
distinction of blocks of apartments in some palaces has been
held to indicate the seclusion of women in harems, at least
among the ruling caste. Cnossian frescoes show women grouped
apart, and they appear alone on gems. Flesh and fish and
many kinds of vegetables were evidently eaten, and wine and
beer were drunk. Vessels for culinary, table, and luxurious
uses show an infinite variety of form and purpose. Artificers'
implements of many kinds were in use, bronze succeeding
obsidian and other hard stones as the material. Seats are found
carefully shaped to the human person. There was evidently
olive- and vine-culture on a large scale in Crete at any rate.
Chariots were in use in the .later period, as is proved by the
pictures of them on Cretan tablets, and therefore, probably,
the horse also was known. Indeed a horse appears on a gem
impression. Main ways were paved. Sports, probably more
or less religious, are often represented, e.g. bull-fighting, dancing,
boxing, armed combats.
(4) Commerce was practised to some extent in very early
times, as is proved by the distribution, of Melian obsidian- over
all the Aegean area and by the Nilotic influence on early Minoan
art. We find Cretan vessels exported to Melos, Egypt and the
Greek. mainland. Melian vases came in their turn to Crete.
.After 1600 B.C. there is very close intercourse with Egypt, and
Aegean things find their way to all coasts of the Mediterranean
(see below). No traces of currency have come to light, unless
certain axe-heads, too slight for practical use, had that char-
acter; but standard weights have been found, and representa-
tions of ingots. The Aegean written documents have not yet
proved (by being found outside the area) epistolary correspond-
ence with other lands. Representations of ships are not common,
but several have been observed on Aegean gems, gem-sealings
and vases. They are vessels of low free-board, with masts.
Familiarity with the sea is proved by the free use of marine
motives in decoration.
(5) Treatment of the Dead.— The dead in the earlier period
were laid (so far as we know at present) within cis.ts constructed
of upright stones. These were sometimes inside caves. After
the burial the cist was covered in with earth. A little later, in
Crete, bone-pits seem to have come into use, containing the
remains of many burials. Possibly the flesh was boiled off the
bones at once (" scarification "), or left to rot in separate cists
awhile; afterwards the skeletons were collected and the cists
2+8
AEGEAN CIVILIZATION
re-used. The coffins are of small size, contain corpses with the
knees drawn up to the chin and are found in excavated chambers
or pits. In the later period a peculiar " bee-hive " tomb became
common, sometimes wholly or partly excavated, sometimes (as
in the magnificent Mycenaean " Treasuries ") constructed dome-
wise. The shaft-graves in the Mycenae circle are also a late
type, paralleled in the later Cnossian cemetery.. The latest
type of tomb is a flatly Vaulted chamber approached by a
horizontal or slightly inclined way, whose sides converge above.
At no period do the Aegean dead seem to have been buYned.
Weapons, food, water, unguents and various trinkets were laid
with the corpse at all periods. In the Mycenae circle an altar
seems to have been erected over the graves, and perhaps slaves
were killed to. bear the dead chiefs company. A painted sarco-
phagus, found at Hagia Triada, also possibly shows a hero-cult
of the dead.
(6) Artistic Production. — Ceramic art reached a specially high
standard in fabric, form and decoration by the middle of the
3rd millennium B.C. in Crete. The products of that period com-
pare favourably with any potters' work in the world. The
same may be said of fresco-painting, and probably of metal
work. Modelling in terra-cotta, sculpture in stone and ivory,
engraving on gems, were following it closely by the beginning of
the 2nd millennium. After 2000 B.c~all these arts revived, and
sculpture, as evidenced by relief work, both on a large and on a
small scale, carved stone vessels, metallurgy in gold, silver and
bronze, advanced farther. This art and those of fresco- and
vase-painting and of gem-engraving stood higher about the
15th century B.C. than at any subsequent period before the 6th
century. The manufacture, modelling and painting of faience
objects, and the making of inlays in many materials were also
familiar to Aegean craftsmen, who show in all their best work a
strong sense of natural form and an appreciation of ideal balance
and decorative effect, such as are seen in the best products of
later Hellenic art. Architectural ornament was also highly
developed. The richness of the Aegean capitals and* columns
may be judged by those from the " Treasury of Atreus " now set
up in the British Museum; and of the friezes we have examples
in Mycenaean and Cnossian fragments, and Cnossian paintings.
The magnificent gold work of the later period, preserved to us at
Mycenae and Vaphio, needs only to-be mentioned. It should be
compared with stone work in Crete, especially the steatite vases
with reliefs found at Hagia Triada. On the whole, Aegean art,
at its two great periods, in the middle of the 3rd and 2nd millennia
respectively, will bear comparison with any contemporary arts.
IV. Origin, Nature and History of Aegean Civilisation.— Tht
evidence, summarized above, though very various and volumin-
ous, is not yet sufficient to answer all the questions which may
be asked as to the origin, nature and history of this civilization,
or to answer any but a few questions with absolute certainty.
We shall try to indicate the extent to which it can legitimately,
be applied.
A. Distinctive Features.— Tht fact that Aegean civilization is
distinguished from all others, prior or contemporary, not only
by its geographical area, but. by leading ^organic characteristics,
has never been in doubt, since its remains came to be studied
seriously and impartially. The truth', was indeed obscured for
a time by persistent prejudices in favour.of certain alien Medi-
terranean races long known to have been in relation with the
Aegean area in prehistoric times, e.g. the Egyptians and especi-
ally the Phoenicians. But their claims to be the principal
authors of the Aegean remains grew fainter with every fresh
Aegean discovery, and •every new light thrown on their own
proper products; with the Cretan revelations they ceased
altogether to be considered except by a few Homeric enthusiasts.
Briefly, we now know that the Aegean civilization developed
these distinctive features. (1) An indigenous script expressed
in characters of which only a very small percentage are identical,
or even obviously connected, with those of any other script.
This is equally true both of the pictographic and the linear
Aegean systems. Its nearest affinities are with the " Asianic "
scripts, preserved to us by Hittite, Cypriote and south-west
'Anatolian (Pamphylian, Lyciah and Carian) inscriptions. But
neither are these affinities close enough to be of any practical
aid in deciphering Aegean characters, nor is it by any means
certain that there is parentage. The Aegean script may be,
and •probably is, prior in origin to the " Asianic "; and it may
equally well be owed to a remote common ancestor, or (the small
number of common characters being considered) be an entirely
independent evolution from representations of natural objects
(see Crete). (2) An Art, whose products dtnnot be confounded
with those of any other known art by a trained eye. Its obliga-
tions to other contemporary arts are many and obvious, especi-
ally in its later stages; but every borrowed form and motive
undergoes an essential modification at the hands of the Aegean
craftsman, and the product is stamped with a new character.
The secret of this character lies evidently in a constant attempt
to express an ideal in forms more and more closely approaching
to realities. We detect the dawn of that spirit which afterwards
animated Hellenic art. The fresco-paintings, ceramic motives,
reliefs, free sculpture and toreutic handiwork of Crete have
supplied the clearest proof of it, confirming the impression
already created by the goldsmiths' and painters' work of the
Greek mainland (Mycenae, Vaphio, Tiryns). (3) Architectural
plans and decoration. The arrangement of Aegean palaces b
of two main types. First (and perhaps earliest in time), the
chambers are grouped round a central court, being engaged one
with the other in a labyrinthine complexity, and the greater
oblongs are entered from a long side and divided longitudinally
by pillars. Second, the main chamber is of what is known as
the megaronAype, i.e. it stands free, isolated from the rest of the
plan by corridors, Is entered from a vestibule on a short side,
and has a central hearth, surrounded by pillars and perhaps
hypaethral, there is no central court, and other apartments
form distinct blocks. For possible geographical reasons for this
duality of type see Crete. In spite of many comparisons made
with Egyptian, Babylonian and " Hittite " plans, both these
arrangements remain incongruous with any remains of prior or
contemporary structures elsewhere. Whether either plan suits
the " Homeric palace " does not affect the present question.
(4) A type oftontb, the dome or " bee-hive," of which the grandest
examples known are at Mycenae. The Cretan " larnax " coffins,
also, have no parallels outside the Aegean. There are other
infinite singularities of detail; but the above are more than
sufficient to establish the point.
B. Origin and Continuity.— -With the immense expansion of
the evidence, due to the Cretan excavations, a question has
arisen how far the Aegean civilization, whose total duration
covers at least three thousand years, can be regarded as one
and continuous. Thanks to the exploration of Cnossus, we now
know that Aegean civilization had its roots in a primitive Neo-
lithic period, of uncertain but very long duration, represented
by a stratum which (on that site in particular/ is in places nearly
20 ft thick, and contains stone implements and sherds of hand-
made and hand-polished vessels, showing a progressive develop-
ment in technique from bottom to top. This Cnossian stratum
seems to be throughout earlier than the lowest layer at Hissariik.
It closes with the introduction of incised-, white-filled decoration
on pottery, whose motives are presently found reproduced in
monochrome pigment. We are now in the beginning of the
Bronze Age, and the first of Evans's " Minoan " periods (see
Crete). Thereafter, by exact observation of stratification,
eight more periods have been distinguished by the explorer of
Cnossus, each marked by some important development in the
universal and necessary products of the potter's art, the least
destructible and therefore most generally used archaeological
criterion. These periods fill the whole Bronze Age, with whose
close, by the introduction of the superior metal, iron, the Aegean
Age is conventionally held to end. Iron came into general Aegean
use about 1000 B.C., and possibly was the means by which a
body of northern invaders established their power on the ruins
of the earlier dominion. The important point is this, that
throughout the nine Cnossian periods, following the Neolithic
Age (named by Evans, " Minoan I. 1. f, 3; II. 1. a. 3; 111. 1.
GRAPHIC ART
AEGEAN CIVILIZATION
Plate I.
Fig. i . — Flying Fish Fresco, Phylakopi.
Cf. JBS. Suppl. Papers, iv.
Fig. 2. — Bull, with Leaping Bull-Fighter, Tiryns.
Cf. Schliemann. Tiryns, Plate XIII.
Fig.i — Lamp-Stand,Phylakopi. Fig- 5-— Miniature Frescoes, showing Fig. 6.— Filler Vase, Zakro.
CI. J MS. SuppL Papers, iv. Plate XXII. Spectators at Athletic Sports, Cnossus. JM S. vol xxii Plate X1L
From Photo by Dr A. J. Evans.
By permission of the Hellenic Society. British School at Athens and Dr A. J. Evans.
Plate II.
AEGEAN CIVILIZATION
PLASTIC ART
Fig. i. — Faience Plaque, Cnossus.
BJ.A. ix. Plate III.
Fig. 2. — Marble Idols, Amorgos; 6-n, Fiddle
and Mallet Types, 12-14, Developed Types.
Man (1901), 185, No. 146.
By permission of the Royal Anthropological Institute.
Fig. 3. — Coloured Bas-Relief in
Gesso Duro, representing Male
Torso with Fleur-de4is Collar.
B3.A. vii. 17, Fig. 6.
Fig. 4. — Marble Head
from Amorgos ( Ash-
molean Museum).
Photo by Dr A. J. Evans.
Fig. 5.— Bull in Painted Plaster,
Cnossus.
Figs. 6, 7.— Ivory Figures and Heads of Athletes, Bull-Fighters or Acrobats, Cnossus.
B.S A. viii. Plates II. and III., and p. 72 sq.
By permission of the Hellenic Society. British School at Athens and Dr A. J. Ev\a%
RELIGION
AEGEAN CIVILIZATION
Plate III.
Fig. i. — Lion-Guarded Goddess and
Shrine, on a Clay Sealing from
Cnossus.
BSA. vii. 29, Fig. 9.
' ™ m
Fig. 4. — Birds on a Triad of
Pillars, Cnossus.
BSA. viii. 29, Fig. 14.
Fig. 2. — Male Divinity be-
tween Lions, on a Lentoid
Cem from Kydonia, Crete.
J JUS. xxi. 163, Tig. 43.
Fig. 3. — Gold Signet from Acropolis
Treasure, Mycenae, showing the
Goddess beneath a Sacred Tree,
with Adorants and Sacred
Emblems. J. US. xxi. 108, Fig. 4.
^Si
%m "M mM
Fig. 5. — Clay Sealings from Zakro, with Minotaur Types.
BSA. vii. 133, Fig. 45-
Fig. 6— Dual Pillar Worship, on a Gold Signet
Ring, Cnossus.
J. US. xxi. 170, Fig. 48.
**&• 7- — Faience Figure of the Goddess,
with Serpent Attributes, Cnossus.
BSA.'xx. 73, Fig. 54.
Fig. 8. — Facade of Small Temples, Completed
from a Fresco Painting, Cnossus.
J US. xxi. 193. Fig- 66 -
By permission of the Hellenic Society, British School at Athens and Dr A. J. Evans
Plate IV.
AEGEAN CIVILIZATION types and costumes, etc.
Fig. i. — Tesserae of Porcelain Mosaic in Form of Houses
and Towers, Cnossus. BJA. viiL is, Fig. 8.
''
WW
1
1
1
IE
Figs. 3, 5- — Ivory Heads
from Spata (Attica).
Reichel, Htmerischt H'affett^
1901, p. 10 J. By permission of
A. Holder. Vienna.
Fig. 4. — Fresco Painting
of Girl, Cnossus.
BS.A. vii. 57, Fig- 17-
Fig. 6. — Faience Fig-
ure of Female Vo-
tary of Snake-God-
dess, Cnossus.
BSA. ix. 77. F<8- 56.
Fig. 7.— Keftiu (Cre-
tan) Bearing Aegean
Vase as Tribute to
Pharaoh.
From H. R. Hall. OldeslCh-
iliiation in Greece (1001).
By permission of the Society
for the Promotion of Hellenic
Studies.
Fig. 2. — Cup-Bearer, Cnossus.
Photo by Dr A. J. Evans.
Fig. 5 — See Fig. 3.
AEGEAN CIVILIZATION
249
t, i " ; see Cans), there b evidence of a perfectly orderly
ad continuous evolution in, at any rate, ceramic art From
«e stage to another, fabrics, forms and motives of decoration
fadop gradually; so that, at the close of a span of more than
tio thousand years, at the least, the influences of the beginning
cm still be clearly seen and no trace of violent artistic intrusion
on be detected. This fact, by itself, would go far to prove
tsat the civilization continued fundamentally and essentially
tic one throughout It is, moreover, supported by less abun-
int remains of other arts. That of painting in fresco, for in-
duce, shows the same orderly development from at any rate
Period IL a to the end. About institutions we have less certain
tavledge, there being but little evidence for the earlier periods;
bat in the documents relating to religion, the most significant of
»fl. itcan at least be said that there is no trace of sharp change.
We see evidence of a uniform Nature Worship passing through all
(fee normal stages down to theoanthropism in the latest period.
Thar is no appearance of intrusive deities or cult-ideas. We
eay take it then (and the fact is not disputed even by those
*ho, like Dorpfeld, believe in one thorough racial change, at
lent, during the Bronze Age) that the Aegean civilization was
oogenous, firmly rooted and strong enough to persist essen-
taBj unchanged and dominant in its own geographical area
throughout the Neolithic and Bronze Ages. This conclusion
cu hardly entail less than a belief that, at any rate, the mass
ef those who possessed this civilization continued racially the
not
There are, however, in certain respects at certain periods,
"fences of such changes as might be due to the intrusion of
aiQ conquering castes, which adopted the superior civilization
d the conquered people and became assimilated to the latter.
The earliest palace at Cnossus was built probably in Period IX
1 or 2. It was of the type mentioned first in the description
jfjaUce-nUns above. Before Period HI. 1 it was largely re-
"dt, and arguments have been brought forward by Dorpfeld
to show that features of the second type were then introduced.
A similar rebuilding took place at the same epoch at Phaestus,
ud possibly at Hagia Triada. Now the second type, the
M oeearon " arrangement, characterizes peculiarly the palaces
QKovered in the north of the Aegean area, at Mycenae, Tlryns
sad Hissarlik, where up to the present no signs of the first type,
» characteristic of Crete, have been observed. These northern
" aegara n are all of late date, none being prior to Minoan III. 1.
^ PhyUkope, a M megaron " appears only in the uppermost
Aegean stratum, the underlying structures being more in con-
unaity with the earlier Cretan. At the same epoch a notable
oup took place in the Aegean script The pictographic
(batters, found *n seab and discs of Period II. in Crete, had
P*» way entirely to a linear system by Period ITL That
tjstea thenceforward prevailed exclusively, suffering a slight
■edification again in ILL 3 and 3.
Thae and other leas well marked changes, say some critics,
** agns of a racial convulsion not long after 2000 B.C. An old
lice was conquered by a new, even if, in matters of civilization,
the former tafia wietorem cepit. For these races respectively
Wrpfeld suggests the names "Lydan" and "Carian," the
litter coming in from the north Aegean, where Greek tradition
^obered its fcniiier dominance. These names do not greatly
«P w. If we are to accept and profit by Dorpfeld'* nomen-
otare, we must be satisfied that, in their later historic habitats,
both Lydans and Carians showed unmistakable signs of having
wnwiy possessed the civilizations attributed to them in pre-
Wonc times-signs which research has hitherto wholly failed
tf ud. The most that can be said to be capable of proof is
^ infiltration of some northern influence into Crete at the end
« Mmoan Period IL; but it probably brought about no change
<* dynasty and certainly no change in the prevailing race.
A good deal of anthropometric investigation has been devoted
whoman remains of the Aegean epoch, especially to skulls and
Jwei found in Crete in tombs of Period n. The result of this,
tovever, has not so far established more than the fact that
«« Aegeanraces.ua whole, belonged to the dark, long-headed
Homo MediUrroneus, whose probable origin lay In mid-eastern
Africa— a fact only valuable in the present connexion in so far
as it tends to discredit an Asiatic source for Aegean civilization.
Not enough evidence has been collected to affect the question
of racial change during the Aegean period. From the skull-
forms studied, it would appear, as we should expect, that the
Aegean race was by no means pure even in the earlier Minoan
periods. It only remains to be added that there is some ground
for supposing that the language spoken in Crete before the later
Doric was non-Hellenic, but Indo-European. This inference
rests on three inscriptions in Greek characters but non-Greek
language found in E. Crete. The language has some apparent
affinities with Phrygian. The inscriptions are post-Aegean by
many centuries, but they occur in the part of the island known
to Homer as that inhabited by the Etco-Cretans, or aborigines.
Their language may prove to be that of the Linear tablets.
C. History of Aegean Civiiaation.— History of an inferential
and summary sort only can be derived from monuments in the
absence of written records. *£he latter do, indeed, exist in the
case of the Cretan civilization and in great numbers; but they
are undedphered and likely to remain so, except in the im-
probable event of the discovery of a long bi-lingual text, partly
couched in some familiar script and language. Even in that
event, the information which would be derived from the Cnossian
tablets would probably make but a small addition to history,,
since in very large part they are evidently mere inventories of
tribute and stores. The engraved gems probably record divine
or human names. (See Crete.)
(1) Chronology.— The earliest chronological datum that we
possess is inferred from a close similarity between certain Cretan
hand-made and polished vases of Minoan Period I. x and others
discovered by Petrie at Abydos in Egypt and referred by him
to the 1st Dynasty. He goes so far as to pronounce the latter
to be Cretan importations, their fabric and forms being unlike
anything Nilotic If that be so, the period at which stone im-
plements were beginning to be superseded by bronze in Crete
must be dated before 4000 B.C. But it will be remembered that
below all Evans's " Minoan " strata lies the immensely thick
Neolithic deposit To date the beginning of this earliest record
of human production is impossible at present The Neolithic
stratum varies very much in depth, ranging from nearly 20 ft
to 3 ft, but is deepest on the highest part of the hillock. Its
variations may be due equally to natural denudation of a stratum
once of uniform depth, or to the artificial heaping up of a mound
by later builders. Even were certainty as to these alternatives
attained, we could only guess at the average rate of accumula-
tion, which experience., shows to proceed very differently on
different sites and under different social and climatic conditions.
In later periods at Cnossus accumulation seems to have proceeded
at a rate of, roughly, 3 ft per thousand years. Reckoning by
that standard we might push the earliest Neolithic remains back
behind 10,000 B.C.; but the calculation would be worthy of little
credence.
Passing by certain fragments of stone vessels, found at Cnossus,
and coincident with forms characteristic of the IVth Pharaonic
Dynasty, we reach another fairly certain date in the synchronism
of remains belonging to the Xllth Dynasty (c. 3500 B.C. accord-
ing to Petrie, but later according to the Berlin School) with
products of Minoan Period IL 2. Characteristic Cretan pottery
of this period was found by Petrie in the Fayum in conjunction
with XII th Dynasty remains, and various Cretan products of the
period show striking coincidences with Xllth Dynasty styles,
especially in their adoption of spiraliform ornament The spiral,
however, it must be confessed, occurs so often in natural objects
{e.g. horns, climbing plants, shavings of wood or metal) that too
much stress must not be laid on the mutual parentage of spirali-
form ornament in different civilizations. A diorite statuette,
referable by its style and inscription to Dynasty XIII., was dis-
covered in deposit of Period IL 3 in the Central Court, and a
cartouche of the " Shepherd King," Khyan, was also found at
Cnossus. He is usually dated about 1000 B.C. This brings us
to the next and most certain synchronism, that of Minoan Periods
250
AEGEAN CIVILIZATION
m. i, a, with Dynasty XVm. (c. 1600-1400 B.C.). This co-
incidence has been observed not only at Cnossus, but previously,
in connexion with discoveries' of scarabs and other Egyptian
objects made at Mycenae, Ialysus, Vaphio, &c In Egypt itself
Kefti tributaries, bearing vases of Aegean form, and themselves
similar in fashion of dress and arrangement of hair to figures on
Cretan frescoes and gems of Period III., are depicted under this
and the succeeding Dynasties (e.g. Rekhmara tomb at Thebes).
Actual vases of late Minoan style have been found with remains
of Dynasty XVIII., especially in the town of Amenophis IV.
Akhenaton at Tell d-Amarna; while in the .Aegean area itself
we have abundant evidence of a great wave of Egyptian influence
beginning with this same Dynasty. To this wave were owed in
all probability the Nilotic scenes depicted on the Mycenae
daggers, on frescoes of Hagia Triada and Cnossus, on pottery of
Zakro, on the shell-relief of Phaestus, &c; and also many forms
and fabrics, e.g. certain Cretan coffins, and the faience industry
of Cnossus. These serve to date, beyond all reasonable question,
Periods III. 1-2 in Crete, the shaft-graves in the Mycenae circle,
the Vaphio tomb, &c, to the 16th and 15th centuries B.C., and
Period III. 3 with the lower town at Mycenae, the majority of
the sixth stratum at Hissarlik, the Ialysus burials, the upper
stratum at Phylakope, &c, to the century immediately suc-
ceeding.
The terminus ad quern is less certain— iron does not begin to
be used for weapons in the Aegean till after Period III. 3, and
then not exclusively. If we fix its introduction to about loop
B.c and make it coincident with the incursion of northern tribes,
remembered by the classical Greeks as the Dorian Invasion, we
must allow that this incursion did not altogether stamp out
Aegean civilization, at least in the southern part of its area.
But it finally destroyed the Cnossian palace and initiated the
" Geometric " Age, with which, for convenience at any rate, we
may close the history of Aegean civilization proper.
(a) Annals.— From these and other data the outlines of primi-
tive history in the Aegean may be sketched thus. A people,
agreeing in its prevailing skull-forms with the Mediterranean
race of N. Africa, was settled in the Aegean area from a remote
Neolithic antiquity, but, except in Crete, where insular security
was combined with great natural fertility, remained in a savage
and unproductive condition until far into the 4th millennium
B.c In Crete, however, it had long been developing a certain
civilization, and at a period more or less contemporary with
Dynasties XL and XII. (2500 B.C. ?) the scattered communities
of the centre of the island coalesced into a strong monarchical
state, whose capital was at Cnossus. There the king, probably
also high priest of the prevailing nature-cult, built a great stone
palace, and received the tribute of feudatories, of whom, prob-
ably, the prince of Phaestus, who commanded the Messari plain,
was chief. The Cnossian monarch had maritime relations with
Egypt, and presently sent his wares all over the S. Aegean (e.g.
to Melos in the earlier Second City Period of Phylakope) and to
Cyprus, receiving in return such commodities as Melian obsidian
knives. A system of pictographic writing came into use early
in this Palace period, but only a few documents, made of durable
material, have survived. Pictorial art of a purely indigenous
character, whether on- ceramic material or plaster, made great
strides, and from ceramic forms we may legitimately infer also
a high skill in metallurgy. The absence of fortifications both
at Cnossus and Phaestus suggest that at this time Crete was in-
ternally peaceful and externally secure. Small settlements, in
very close relation with the capital, were founded in the east of
the island to command fertile districts and assist maritime
commerce. Gournia and Palaikastro fulfilled both these ends:
Zakro must have had mainly a commercial purpose, as the
starting-point for the African coast. The acme of this dominion
was reached about the end of the 3rd millennium B.C., and there-
after there ensued a certain, though not very serious, decline.
Meanwhile, at other favourable spots in the Aegean, but chiefly,
it appears, on sites in easy relation to maritime commerce, e.g.
Tiryns and Hissarlik, other communities of the early race began
to arrive at civilization, but were naturally influenced by the
more advanced culture of Crete, io. proportion to their 1
of vicinity. Early Hissarlik shows less Cretan influence and
more external (».«. Asiatic) than early Mdos. The inner Greek
mainland remained still in a backward state. Five hundred
years later— about 1600 B.C.— we observe that certain striking
changes have taken place. The Aegean remains have become
astonishingly uniform over the whole area; the local ceramic
developments have almost ceased and been replaced by ware of
one general type both of fabric and decoration. The Cretans
have stayed their previous decadence, and are once more pos-
sessors of a progressive civilization. They have developed a
more convenient and expressive written character by staiges of
which one is best represented by the tablets of Hagia Xriada.
The art of all the area gives evidence of one spirit and common
models ; in religious representations it shows the same antluopo-
morphic personification and the same ritual furniture. Objects
produced in one locality are found in others. The area of Aegean
intercourse has widened and become more busy. Commerce
with Egypt, for example, has increased in a marked degree, and
Aegean objects or imitations of them are found to have begun
to penetrate into Syria, inland Asia Minor, and the central and
western Mediterranean lands, e.g. Sicily, Sardinia and Spain.
There can be little doubt that a strong power was now fixed in one
Aegean centre, and that all the area had come under its political,
sodaLand artistic influence.
How was this brought about, and what was the imperial
centre? Some change seems to have come from the north;
and there are those who go so far as to say that the centre
henceforward was the Argolid, and especially " golden " Mycenae,
whose lords imposed a new type of palace and a modification
of Aegean art on all other Aegean lands. Others again cite the
pld-established power and productivity of Crete; the twmwy
advantage it derived from insularity, natural fertility and geo-
graphical relation to the wider area of east Mediterranean
civilizations; and the absence of evidence elsewhere for the
gradual growth of a culture powerful enough to dominate the
Aegean. They point to the fact that, even in the new period, the
palm for wealth and variety of civilized production still remained
with Crete. There alone we have proof that the art of writing
was commonly practised, and there tribute-tallies suggest an
imperial organization; there the arts of painting and sculpture
in stone were most highly developed ; there the royal residences,
which had never been violently destroyed, though remodelled,
continued unfortified; whereas on the Greek mainland they
required strong protective works. The golden treasure of the
Mycenae graves, these critics urge, is not more splendid than
would have been found at Cnossus had royal burials been spared
by plunderers, or been happened upon intact by modern ex-
plorers. It is not impossible to combine these views, and place
the seat of power still in Crete, but ascribe the Renascence there
to an influx of new blood from the north, large enough to instil
fresh vigour, but too small to change the civilization in its
essential character.
If this dominance was Cretan, it was short-lived. The security
of the island was apparently violated not long after 1500 b.c,
the Cnossian palace was sacked and burned, and Cretan art
suffered an irreparable blow. As the comparatively lifeless
character which it possesses In the succeeding period (TIT 3)
is coincident with a similar decadence all over the Aegean area,
we can hardly, escape from the conclusion that it was due to the
invasion of all the Aegean lands (or at least the Greek mainland
and isles) by some less civilized conquerors, who remained
politically dominant, but, like their forerunners, having no
culture of their own, adopted, while they spoiled, that which
they found. Who these were we cannot say; but the prob-
ability is that they too came from the north, and were pre-
cursors of the later " Hellenes." Under their rule peace was
re-established, and art production . became again abundant
among the subject population, though of inferior quality. The
Cnossian palace was re-occupied in its northern part by chieftains
who have left numerous rich graves; and general commercial
Intercourse must have been resumed, for the uniformity of the
AEGEAN SEA— AEGINA
251
decadent Aegean products and their wide distribution become
more marled than ever.
About 1000 B.C. there happened a final catastrophe. The
palace at Cnossus was once more destroyed, and never rebuilt
or re-inhabited. Iron took the place of Bronze, and Aegean art,
as a firing thing, ceased on the Greek mainland and in the Aegean
tiles including Crete, together with Aegean writing. In Cyprus,
and perhaps on the south-west Anatolian coasts, there is some
reason to think that the cataclysm was less complete, and Aegean
art continued to languish, cut off from its fountain-head. Such
artistic faculty as survived elsewhere issued in the lifeless
Ceometric style which is reminiscent of the later Aegean, but
wholly unworthy of it Cremation took the place of burial of
the dead. This great disaster, which cleared the ground for
a new growth of local art, was probably due to yet another in-
cursion of northern tribes, more barbarous than their predecessors,
but pos sessed of superior iron weapons — those tribes which later
Greek tradition and Homer knew as the Dorians. They crushed
a crvflization already hard hit; and it took two or three centuries
for the artistic spirit, instinct in the Aegean area, and probably
pr tati t ed in suspended animation by the survival of Aegean
racial elements, to blossom anew On this conquest seems to
have ensued a long period of unrest and popular movements,
known to Greek tradition as the Ionian Migration and the Aeolic
and Dorian " colonizations "; and when once more we see the
Aegean area clearly, it is dominated by Hellenes, though it has
not lost all memory of its earlier culture.
BisuocmArav.— Much of the evidence is contained in archaeo-
logical periodical*, especially Annul of the British School at Athens
' — >- ); Jiounmenti Antichi and RendiconH a\ R. Ac. d. Lincei
'-._)"
IV"
( Ephemeris Archaielogihi
); Journal of
\^/9— fi OJIIMIIiai I* ArMHHIVpM (l885~
JcUeuic Studies, Alhenische liitlheiluugen. Bulletin do correspondence
kBJstfM, American Journal of Archaeology, fire, (all since about
1885). Sfecial Wosss : H. Schliemann's books (see Schubmann),
nraua&rized by C Schuchhardt, Schliemann's Excavations (1891);
Cbr. Taountas, Mm*>u (1893); Ow- Tsountas and J. I. Manatt,
)and
tche
Pfflar Colt ~~\n joum. j£fl
of"
. S. Murray, Excavations m Cyprus (1900): W.
Ate of Greece (1001 foil); H. R/Hall, Thedldest
&£'.
.„ J» (i9<H)l A
Yawn (1886); A. Si W
Sjdgcway, Earij Age of Greece (iooi
Ctfsmfwa of Greece (1901); A. J. Evans, " Mycenaean Tree and
~" In Joum. BdL Studies (19J01) and ''Prehistoric Tombs
m ArchatoUria (1909); F. Noack. Homerische Pal&sle
motions at Phytakofn, by members of the British
t Athens (1904) ; Harriet A. Boyd (Mrs Hawes), E x cava ti ons
eJ Gomrnia (1907): D. G. Hogarth, '' Aegean Religion " in
Hastings' Did, of Religions (1906). For a recent view ofthe place
of Aegean civilization in the history of Hellenic culture see Die
H u nw i s ch e Kultur by F. Baumnrten, Ac (1905). Various
SBflMBaries, controversial articles, 6c., formerly quoted, are now
ssptisede d by recent d i sco v eries. See also Cuts, Mycinab,
TtoAD. Csuuacs, Plats, Ac (D. G. H.)
AEGBAJI SHA, a part of the Mediterranean Sea, being the
archipelago between Greece on the west and Asia Minor on the
eut, bounded N. by European Turkey, and connected by the
Dardanelles with the Sea of Marmora, and so with the Black Sea,
The name Archipelago (?.?.) was formerly applied specifically to
th« sea. The origin of the name Aegean is uncertain. Various
derivations are given by the ancient grammarians— one from
the town of Aegae; another from Aegea, a queen of the Amazons
who perished in this sea; and a third from Aegeus, the father
of Theseus, who, supposing his son dead, drowned himself in it
The following are the chief islands.-— Thasos, in the extreme
aorth, off the Macedonian coast; Samothrace, fronting the
Gulf of Saroe; Imbros and Lemnos, in prolongation of the
peninsula of Gallipoli (Thracian Chersonese); Euboea, the largest
of aD, lying close along the east coast of Greece; the Northern
Sporades, including Sdathos, Scopelos and Halonesos, running
out from the southern extremity of the Tbessalian coast, and
Sevres, with Its satellites, north-east of Euboea; Lesbos and
Chios; Samoa and Nikaria, Cos, with Calymnos to the north;
■H off Asia Minor, with the many other islands of the Sporades;
and, finally, the great group of the Cydades, of which the largest
are Andres and Tenos, Nazos and Pares. Many of the Aegean
viands, or chains of islands, are actually prolongations of pro-
montories of the mainland. Two main chains extend right
across the sea— the one through Scyros and Psara (between which
shallow banks intervene) to Chios and the hammer-shaped
promontory east of it; and the other running from the south-
eastern promontory of Euboea and continuing the axis of that
island, in a southward curve through Andros, Tenos, Myconos,
Nikaria and Samoa. A third curve, from the south-easternmost
promontory of the Peloponnese through Cerigo, Crete, Carpathos
and Rhodes, marks off the outer deeps of the open Mediterranean
from the shallow seas of the archipelago, but the Cretan Sea, in
which depths occur over 1000 fathoms, intervenes, north of the
line, between it and the Aegean proper. The Aegean itself is
naturally divided by the island-chains and the ridges from which
they rise into a series of basins or troughs, the deepest of which
is that in the north, extending from the coast of Thessaly to
the Gulf of Saros, and demarcated southward by the Northern
Sporades, Lemnos, Imbros and the peninsula of Gallipoli. The
greater part of this trough is over 600 fathoms deep. The pro-
fusion of islands and their usually bold elevation give beauty
and picturesqueness to the sea, but its navigation is difficult
and dangerous, notwithstanding the large number of safe and
commodious gulfs and bays. Many of the islands are of volcanic
formation; and a well-defined volcanic chain bounds the Cretan
Sea on the north, including Milo and Kimolos, Santorin (Then)
and Therasia, and extends to Nisyros. Others, such as Pares,
are mainly composed of marble, and iron ore occurs in some.
The larger Islands have some fertile and well-watered valleys
and plains. The chief productions are wheat, wine, oil, mastic,
figs, raisins, honey, wax, cotton and sflL The people are em-
ployed in fishing for coral and sponges, as well as for bream,
mullet and other fish. The men are hardy, well built and hand-
some; and the women are noted for their beauty, the ancient
Greek type being well preserved. The Cydades and Northern
Sporades, with Euboea and small islands under the Greek shore,
belong to Greece; the other islands to Turkey.
AEGEUS, in Greek legend, son of Pandion and grandson of
Cecrops, was king of Athens and the father of Theseus. He was
deposed by bis nephews, but Theseus defeated them and re-
instated his father. When Theseus set out for Crete to deliver
Athens from the tribute to the Minotaur he promised Aegeus
that, if he were successful, he would change the black sail carried
by his ship for a white one. But, on his return, he forgot to
hoist the white sail, and his father, supposing that his son had
lost his life, threw himself from a high rock on which he was
keeping watch into the sea, which was afterwards called the
Aegean. The Athenians honoured him with a statue and a
shrine, and one of the Attic demes was named after him.
Plutarch, Theseus \ Pausanias L as; Hyginus, Fab. 43; Catullus
lxiv. 207.
AEGINA (EciNAor Engia), an island of Greece in the Saronic
Gulf, so m. from the Peiracus. Tradition derives the name from
Aegina, the mother of Aeacus, who was born in and ruled the
island. In shape Aegina is triangular, 8 m. long from N. W. to
S.E., and 6 m. broad, with an area of about 41 sq. m. The
western side consists of stony but fertile plains, which are well
cultivated and produce luxuriant crops of grain, with some cotton,
vines, almonds and figs. The rest of the island is rugged and
mountainous. The southern end rises in the conical Mount Oros,
and the Panhellenian ridge stretches northward with narrow
fertile valleys on either side. From the absence of marshes the
climate is the most healthy in Greece. The island forms part
of the modern nemos of Attica and Boeotia, of which it forms
an eparchy. The sponge fisheries are of considerable importance.
The chief town is Aegina, situated at the north-west end of the
island, the summer residence of many Athenian merchants.
Capo dTstria, to whom there is a statue in the principal square,
erected there a large building, intended for a barracks, which was
subsequently used as a museum, a library and a school The
museum was the first institution of its kind in Greece, but the
collection was transferred to Athens in 1834.
Antiquities.— The archaeological interest of -Ae^na is centred
in the well-known temple on the ridge near the northern corner
of the island. Excavations were made on its site in rfln by
*5*
AEGINA
Baron HaHer von Hallerstein and the English architect C. R.
Cockerell, who discovered a considerable amount of sculpture
from the pediments, which was bought in 181a by the crown
prince Louis of Bavaria; the groups were set up in the Glypto-
thek at Munich after the figures had been restored by B. Thor-
valdsen. Their restoration was somewhat drastic, the ancient
parts being cut away to allow of additions in marble, and
the new parts treated in imitation of the ancient weathering.
Various conjectures were made as to the arrangement of the
figures. That according to which they were set up at Munich
was in the main suggested by Cockerell; in the middle of each
pediment was a figure of Athena, set well back, and a fallen
warrior at her feet; on each side were standing spearmen, kneel-
ing spearmen and bowmen, all facing towards the centre of the
composition ; the corners were filled with fallen warriors. In xoox
Professor Furtwangler began a more systematic excavation of
the site, and the new discoveries he then made, together with a
fresh and complete 'study of the figures and fragments in Munich,
have led to a rearrangement of the whole, which, if not certain
in all details, may be regarded as approaching finality. Accord-
ing to this the figures of combatants do not all face towards
the centre, but are broken up, as in other early compositions,
into a series of groups of two or three figures each. A figure of
Athena still occupies the centre of each pediment, but is set
farther forward than in the old reconstruction. On each side of
this, in the western pediment, is a group of two combatants
over a fallen warrior; in the eastern pediment, a warrior whose
opponent is falling into the arms of a supporting figure; other
figures also — the bowmen especially—face towards the angles,
and so give more variety to the composition. The western
pediment, which is more conservative in type, represents the
earlier expedition of Heracles and Telamon against Troy; the
eastern, which is bolder and more advanced, probably refers to
episodes in the Trojan war. There are also remains of a third
pediment, which may have been produced in competition, but
never placed on the temple. For the character of the sculptures
see Greek Ast. The plan of the temple is chiefly remarkable
for the unsymmetrically placed door leading from the back of the
cella into the opisthodomus. This opisthodomus was completely
fenced in with bronze gratings; and the excavators believe it
to have been adapted for use as an adytum (shrine).
It was disputed in earlier times whether the temple was
dedicated to Zeus or Athena. Inscriptions found by the recent
excavations seem to prove that it must be identified as the shrine
of the local goddess Aphaea, identified by Pausanias with
Britomartis and Dictynna,
The excavations have laid bare several other buildings,. includ-
ing an altar, early propylaea, houses for the priests and remains
of an earlier temple. The present temple probably dates from
the time of the Persian wars. In the town of Aegina itself are
the remains of another temple, dedicated to Aphrodite; one
column of this still remains standing, and its foundations axe
fairly preserved.
AuTHoarnss.— Antiquities of Ionia (London, 1797), ii. pi. iL-vit. ;
C. R. Cockerell, The Temples of Jupiter PankeUenius at Aegina, Grc.
(London, i860); Ch. Gamier, Le Temple de Jupiter Pankellenien d
Egine (Pari*, 1884.); Ad. Furtwangler and other*, Aegina* Heiligtum
der Apkaia (Munich, 1906), where earlier authorities are collected
and discussed. (E. Ga.)
History.— (1) Ancient. Aegina, according to Herodotus <v. 83),
was a colony of Epidaurus, to which state it was originally
subject The discovery in the island of a number of gold orna-
ments belonging to the latest period of Mycenaean art suggests
the inference that the Mycenaean culture held its own in Aegina
for some generations after the Dorian conquest of Argos and
Laccdaemon (see A. J. Evans, in Journal of Hellenic Studies,
/ol. xiii p. 195). It is probable that the island was not dorized
before the pth century B.C. One of the earliest facts known to
us in its history is its membership in the League of Calauria,
which included, besides Aegina, Athens, the Minyan (Boeotian)
Orchomenos, Troczen, Hcrmione, Nauplia and Prasiae, and was
probably an organization of states which were still Mycenaean,
for the suppression of the piracy which had sprung up in the
Aegean as a result of the decay of the naval supremacy of the
Mycenaean princes. It follows, therefore, that the maritime
importance of the island dates back to pre- Dorian times. It is
usually stated, on the authority of Ephorus, that Pheidon (q.v.)
of Argos established a mint in Aegina. Though this statement
is probably to be rejected, it may be regarded as certain that
Aegina was the first state of European Greece to coin money.
Thus it was the Aeginetans who, within thirty or forty years of
the invention of coinage by the Lydians (c. 700 B.C.), introduced
to the western world a system of such incalculable value to
trade. The fact that the Aeginetan scale of coins, weights and
measures was one of the two scales in general use in the Greek
world is sufficient evidence of the early commercial importance
of the island. It appears to have belonged to the Eretrian
league; hence, perhaps, we may explain the war with Samos,
a leading member of the rival Chalddian league in the reign of
King Ampbicrates (Herod, iii. 59), i.e. not later than the earlier
half of the 7 th century B.C. In the next century Aegina is one
of the three principal states trading at the emporium of Nau-
cratis (q.v.), and it is the only state of European Greece that has
a share in this factory (Herod, ii. 178). At the beginning of the
5th century it seems to have been an entrepot of the Pontic
grain trade, at a later date an Athenian monopoly (Herod, vn.
147). Unlike the other commercial states of the 7th and 6th
centuries B.C., e.g. Corinth, Chalcis, Eretria and Miletus, Aegina
founded no colonies. The settlements to which Strabo refers
(viii. 376) cannot be regarded as any real exceptions to this
statement
The history of Aegina, as it has come down to us, is almost
exclusively a history of its relations with the neighbouring state
of Athens. The history of these relations, as recorded by
Herodotus (v. 70-89; vi. 49-51, 73, 85-94), involve critical
problems of some difficulty and interest He traces back the
hostility of the two states to a dispute about the images of the
goddesses Damia and Auxesia, which the Aeginetans had carried
off from Epidaurus, their parent state. The Epidaurians had
been accustomed to make annual offerings to the Athenian
deities Athena and Erechtheus in payment for the Athenian
olive-wood of which the statues were made. Upon the refusal
of the Aeginetans to continue these offerings, the Athenians
endeavoured to carry away the images. Their design was miracu-
lously frustrated— according to the Aeginetan version, the
statues fell upon their knees, — and only a single survivor returned
to Athens, there to fall a victim to the fury of his comrades'
widows, who pierced him with their brooch-pins. No date is
assigned by Herodotus for this " old feud "; recent writers, e.g.
J. B. Bury and R. W. Macan, suggest the period between Solon
and Peisistratus, c. 570 B.C. It may be questioned, however,
whether the whole episode is not mythical. A critical analysis
of the narrative seems to reveal little else than a series of aetio-
logical traditions, explanatory of cults and customs, e.g. of the
kneeling posture of the images of Damia and Auxesia, of the use
of native ware instead of Athenian in their worship, and of the
change in women's dress at Athens from the Dorian to the
Ionian style. The account which Herodotus gives of the hostili-
ties between the two states in the early years of the 5th century
B.C. is to the following effect Thebes, after the defeat by
Athens about 507 B.C., appealed to Aegina for assistance. The
Aeginetans at first contented themselves with sending the images
of the Acacidac, the tutelary heroes of their island. Subse-
quently, however, they entered into an alliance, and ravaged
the sea-board of Attica. The Athenians were preparing to make
reprisals, in spite of the advice of the Delphic oracle that they
should desist from attacking Aegina for thirty years, and con-
tent themselves meanwhile with dedicating a precinct to Acacus,
when their projects were interrupted by the Spartan intrigues
for the restoration of Hippias. In 491 B.C. Aegina was one of
the states which gave the symbols of submission (" earth and
water") to Persia. Athens at once appealed to Sparta to
punish this act of medism, and Clcomenes I. (?.«.), one of the
Spartan kings, crossed over to the island, to arrest those who
were responsible for it His attempt was at first unsuccessful ,
AEGINA
253
THE SANCTUARY OF APHAEA
Aagina . das Hailig&um dar Aphata
vrsssrsl
Hence it would follow that the war lasted from shortly after so?
B.C. down to the congress at the Isthmus of Corinth in 481 B.C.
(ii.) It is only for two years (400 and 491) out of the twenty-five
that any details are given. It is the more remarkable that no
incidents are recorded in the period between Marathon, and
Salami's, seeing that at the time of the Isthmian Congress the
war is described as the most important one then being waged
in Greece (Herod, vii. 145). (iii.) It is improbable that Athens
would have sent twenty vessels to the aid of the Ionians in 408
B.C. if at the time she was at war with Aegina. >(iv.) There is an
incidental indication of time, which points to the period after
Marathon as the true date for the events which are referred by
Herodotus to the year before Marathon, via. the thirty years
that were to elapse between the dedication of the precinct to
Aeacus and the. final victory of Athens (Herod, v. 89). As the
final victory of Athens over Aegina was in 458 B.C., the thirty
years of the oracle would carry us back to the year 488 B.C. as
the date of the dedication of the precinct and the outbreak of
hostilities. This inference is supported by the date of the
building of the 200 triremes " for the war against Aegina " on
the advice of Themistoclcs, which is given in the Constitution 0/
Athens as 48,3-481 B.C (Herod, vii. 144; Atk. Pol. as. 7)- It is
r-XA-r*«tii«r.4«l.
but, after the deposition of Demaratus, he visited the island a
second time, accompanied by his new colleague Leotychides,
seized ten of the leading citizens and deposited them at Athens
•s hostages. After the death of Cleomenes and the refusal of
the Athenians to restore the hostages to Leotychides, the
Aegmetans retaliated by seizing a number of Athenians at a
festival at SuniunL Thereupon the Athenians conceited a plot
«ith Nkodromus, the leader of the democratic party in the
island, for the betrayal of Aegina. He was to seize the old city,
•ad they were to come to his aid on the same day with seventy
vessels. The plot failed Owing to the late arrival of the Athenian
force, when Nkodromus had already fled the island. An engage-
ment followed in which the Aeginetans were defeated. Subse-
<H*ntly, however, they succeeded In winning a victory over the
Athenian fleet. All the incidents subsequent to the appeal of
Athens to Sparta are expressly referred by Herodotus to the
interval between the sending of the heralds in 491 B.C. and the
invasion of Datb and Artaphernes in 490 B.C. (cf. Herod, vi. 49
with 94). There are difficulties in this story, of which the follow-
ing are the principal :— (U Herodotus nowhere states or implies
that peace was concluded between the two states before 48 1 B c ,
Mr does he distinguish between different wars during this period.
254
AEGINETA— AEGISTHUS
probable, therefore, that Herodotus is in error both in tracing
back the beginning of hostilities to an alliance between Thebes
and Aegina (£. 507) and in putting the episode of Nicodromus
before Marathon. Overtures were unquestionably made by
Thebes for an alliance with Aegina c. 507 B.C., but they came to
nothing. The refusal of Aegina was veiled under the diplomatic
form of " sending the Aeacidae." The real occasion of the out-
break of the war was the refusal of Athens to restore the hostages
some twenty years later. There was but one war, and it lasted
from 488 to 481. That Athens had the worst of it in this war
is certain. Herodotus had no Athenian victories to record
after the initial success, and the fact that Themistodes was able
to carry his proposal to devote the surplus funds of the state to
the building of so large a fleet seems to imply that the Athenians
were themselves convinced that a supreme effort was neces-
sary. It may be noted, in confirmation of this view, that the
naval supremacy of Aegina is assigned by the ancient writers
on chronology to precisely this period, ix, the years 490-480
(Eusebius, Chron. Can. p. 337).
In the repulse of Xerxes it is possible that the Aeginetans
played a larger part than is conceded to them by Herodotus.
The Athenian tradition, which he follows in the main, would
naturally seek to obscure their services. It was to Aegina
rather than Athens that the prize of valour at Salamis was
awarded, and the destruction of the Persian fleet appears to
have been as much the work of the Aeginetah contingent as of
the Athenian (Herod, viii. gi). There are othes indications, too,
of the importance of the AegineUn fleet in the Greek scheme of
defence. In view of these considerations it becomes difficult to
credit the number of the vessels that is assigned to them by
Herodotus (30 as against 180 Athenian vessels, cf. Greek
History, sect. Authorities). During the next twenty years the
philo-laconian policy of Cimon (q.v.) secured Aegina, as a member
of the Spartan league, from attack. The change in Athenian
foreign policy, which was consequent upon the ostracism of
Cimon in 461, led to what is sometimes called the First Pelopon-
nesian War, in which the brunt of the fighting fell upon Corinth
and Aegina. The latter state was forced to surrender to Athens
after a siege, and to accept the position of a subject-ally (c. 456
B.C.). The tribute was fixed at 30 talents. By the terms of
the Thirty Years' Truce (445 B.C.) Athens covenanted to restore
to Aegina her autonomy, but the clause remained a dead
letter. In the first winter of the Peloponnesian War (431 B.C.)
Athens expelled the Aeginetans, and established a deruchy
in their island. The exiles were settled by Sparta in Tbyreatis,
on the frontiers of Laconia and Argolis. Even in their new
home they were not safe from Athenian rancour. 1 A force
landed under Nicias in 424, and put most of them to the
sword. At the end of the Peloponnesian War Lysander
restored the scattered remnants of the old inhabitants to the
island, which was used by the Spartans as a base for opera-
tions against Athens in the Corinthian War. Its greatness,
however, was at an end. The part which it plays hence-
forward is insignificant.
It would be a mistake to attribute the fall of Aegina solely to
the development of the Athenian navy. It is probable that the
power of Aegina had steadily declined during the twenty years
after Salamis, and that it had declined absolutely, as well as
relatively, to tljat of Athens. Commerce was the source of
Aegina's greatness, and her trade, which appears to have been
principally with the Levant, must have suffered seriously from
the war with Persia. Her medism in 491 is to be explained by
her commercial relations with the Persian Empire. She was
forced into patriotism in spite of herself, and the glory won at
Salamis was paid for by the loss of her trade and the decay of
her marine. The completeness of the ruin of so powerful a
state— we should look in vain for an analogous case in the history
of the modern world— finds an explanation in the economic
conditions of the island, the prosperity of which rested upon
a basis of slave-labour. It is impossible, indeed, to accept
Aristotle's (cf. Athenaeus vi. 272) estimate of 470,000 as the
1 Pericles called Aegina the "eye-sore" (Mmi) of the Peiraeus.
number of the slave-population; it is clear, however, that the
number must have been out of all proportion to that of the
free inhabitants. In this respect the history of Aegina does
but anticipate the history of Greece as a whole.
The constitutional history of Aegina is unusually simple.
So long as the island retained its independence the government
was an oligarchy. There is no trace of the heroic monarchy
and no tradition of a lyrannis. The story of Nicodromus, while
it proves the existence of a democratic party, suggests, at the
same time, that it could count upon little support.
(a) M oder*.— Aegina passed with the rest of Greece under the
successive dominations of Macedon, the Aetolians, Attalus of
Pergamum and Rome. In 1537 the island, then a prosperous
Venetian colony, was overrun and ruined by the pirate Barba-
rossa (Rhair-ed-Din). One of the last Venetian strongholds in
the Levant, it was ceded by the treaty of Passarowita (1718) to
the Turks. In 1826-1828 the town became for a time the capital
of Greece and the centre of a large commercial population (about
10,000), which has dwindled to about 4300.
Bibliography.— Herodotus he. ciLi Thucydtdes L 105. 108.
ii. 27, iv. 56, yj. For the criticism of Herodotus's account of the
relations of Athens and Aegina, Wilamowitz, ArutoteUs und A then,
ii. 280-288. is indispensable. See also Macan. Herodotus w.-n.,
ii. 102-120. (E. M. W.)
AEGINETA. PAULUS, a celebrated surgeon of the island of
Aegina, whence he derived his name. According to he Clerc's
calculation, he lived in the 4th century of the Christian era;
but Abulfaragius (Barhebracus) places him with more prob-
ability in the 7th. The title of his most important work, as
given by Suidas, is 'Ewtrouvt 'larpticnt Bi/SXIa *Exra (Synopsis
of Medicine in Seven Books), the 6th book of which, treating
of operative surgery, is of special interest for surgical history.
The whole work in the original Greek was published at
Venice in 1528, and another edition appeared at Basel in 1538.
Several Latin translations have been published, and an
excellent English version, with commentary, by Dr F. Adams
(1844-1848).
AEGIS (Gr. Aigis), in Homer, the shield or buckler of Zeus,
fashioned for him by Hephaestus, furnished with tassels and
bearing the Gorgon's head in the centre. Originally symbolical
of the storm-cloud, it is probably derived from aioeu, signifying
rapid, violent motion. When the god shakes it. Mount Ida is
wrapped in clouds, the thunder rolls and men are smitten with
fear. He sometimes lends it to Athene and (rarely) to ApoOo.
In the later story (Hyginus, Poet. Astronom. ii. 13) Zeus is said
to have used the skin of the goat A malt he ia (oiylj- goat-skin),
which suckled him in Crete, as a buckler when he went forth to
do battle against the giants. Another legend represents the aegis
as a fire-breathing monster like the Chimaera, which was slain
by Athene, who afterwards wore its skin as a cuirass (Diodorus
Siculus iii. 70). It appears to have been really the goat's skin
used as a belt to support the shield. When so used it would
generally be fastened on the right shoulder, and would partially
envelop the ches't as it passed obliquely round in front and
behind to be attached to the shield under the left arm. Hence,
by transference, it would be employed to denote at times the
shield which it supported, and at other times a cuirass, the
purpose of which it in part served. In accordance with this
double meaning the aegis appears in works of art sometimes as
an animal's skin thrown over the shoulders and arms, sometimes
as a cuirass, with a border of snakes corresponding 10 the tassels
of Homer, usually wjth the Gorgon's bead in the centre It is
often represented on the statues of Roman emperors, heroes
and warriors, and on cameos and vases.
See F. G. Welcker. Gruchtsche Gotterlehe (1857). L. Prrller.
Gritckisthe Mythotogie, i. (1887); articles in Pauly-Wisiowa's Real-
encyctopddie, Roscher's Lextkon der Mythotogie, Darembeiy and
Saglio'i Dictionnaire des A nttqutits. and Smith s Dictionary ofGrttk
and Roman Antiquities (3rd ed.. 1890).
AEGISTHUS, in Greek legend, was the son of Thyestes by his
own daughter Pelopia. Having been exposed by his mother to
conceal her shame, he was found by shepherds and suckled by a
goat—whence bis name. His uncle Atreus. who had married
AEGOSPOTAMI— ^LFRIC
255
PeJopia, took him to Mycenae, and brought him up as his own
son. When he grew up Aegisthus slew Atreus, and ruled jointly
with ma father over Mycenae, until they were deposed by
Agamemnon on his return from exile. After the departure of
Agamemnon to the Trojan war, Aegisthus seduced his wife
Oytaemnestra (more correctly Clytaemestra) and with her
assistance slew him on his return. Eight years later his murder
was avenged by bis son Orestes.
Homer. Od. iii. 263, iv. 517; Hyginus, Fab. 87.
ABQOtPOTAMI (U. " Goat Streams 7), a small creek issuing
into the Hellespont, N.E. of Sestos, fht. scene of the decisive
battle in 405 bx. by which Lysander destroyed the last Athenian
armament in the Peloponnesian War (9.?.). The township of
that name, whose existence is attested by coins of the 5th and
4th centuries, must have been quite insignificant
fLFRJC, called the " Grammarian " (c. 955-1020?), English
abbot and author, was born about 955. He was educated in the
Benedictine monastery at Winchester under /Ethelwold, who
was bishop there from 063 to 084. Athelwold had carried on
the tradition of Dunstan in bis government of the abbey of
Abingdon, and at Winchester he continued his strenuous efforts.
He seems to have actually taken part in the work of teaching.
£lfrk no doubt gained some reputation as a scholar at Win-
chester, for when, in 087, the abbey of Cernel (Cerne Abbas,
Dorsetshire) was finished, he was sent by Bishop iElfheah
(Alphege), iE the! wold's successor, at the request of the chief
benefactor of the abbey,, the ealdonnan iCthelmcr, to teach the
Benedictine monks there. He was then in priest's orders.
£theluuer and his father Athelweard were both enlightened
patrons of learning, and became iElfric's faithful friends. It
was at Cernel, and partly at the desire, 'it appears, of /Ethel-
weard, that he planned the two series of his English homilies
(ed. Benjamin Thorpe, 1844-1846, for the iElfric Society), com-
piled from the Christian fathers, and dedicated to Sigeric, arch-
bishop of Canterbury (000-004) • The Latin preface to the first
stries enumerates some of jElfric's authorities, the chief of whom
was Gregory the Great, but the short list there given by no means
exhausts the authors whom he consulted. In the preface to the
first volume he regrets that except for Alfred's translations
Englishmen had no means of learning the true doctrine as ex-
pounded by the Latin fathers. Professor Earle (A.S. Literature,
1884) thinks he aimed at correcting the apocryphal, and to
modern ideas superstitious, teaching of the earlier Blickling
Hmtlics. The first series of forty homilies is devoted to plain
aad direct exposition of the chief events of the Christian year;
the second deals more fully with church doctrine and history.
JEUnc denied the immaculate birth of the Virgin (Homilies, ed.
Thorpe, ii. 466), and his teaching on the Eucharist in the Canons
and in the Sermo de sacrificio in die pascae (ibid. ii. 262 seq.) was
appealed to by the Reformation writers as a proof that the early
English church did not hold the Roman doctrine of transub-
staatiation. 1 His Latin Grammar and Glossary* were written
for bis pupils after the two books of homilies. A third series of
homilies, the Lives of Ike Saints, dates from 006 to 097. Some
of the sermons in the second series had been written in a kind of
rhythmical, alliterative prose, and in the Lives of the Saints (ed.
W. W. Skeat, 1881-1000, for the Early English Text Society)
the practice is so regular that most of them are arranged as
verse by Professor Skeat. By the wish of iEthelweard he also
began a paraphrase * of parts of the Old Testament, but under
protest, for the stories related in it were not, he thought, suitable
for simple minds. There is no certain proof that he remained
at Cernel. It has been suggested that this part of his life was
1 See A Testtmonie of AntiauUie. sharing the auncient fayth in the
Church of England touching Ike sacrament of the body and blonde of
on Lord here publikdy preached, printed by John Day (1567). It
was quoted in John Foxe'a Actes and Monuments (ed. 1610).
1 ' Ed. J. Zupttzm in Sammlunt engUscher Denhmaler (vol. i., Berlin,
itto). •
•Editedl
J by Edward Thwahes as Heptateuchus (Oxford. 1698);
■odern edition in Grein'a Bibliotkek derA.S. Prosa (vol. i. Casnel and
Gfebafen, 1873). See also B. Assmann. Abt Alif tic's . . . Esther
(Halle. 1883), mad Abt AUfric's Jnditk (in Anglia, vol. x.).
chiefly spent at Winchester; but his writings for the patrons of
Cernel, and the fact that he wrote in 008 his Canons * as a pastoral
letter for Wulfsige, the bishop,of Sherborne, the diocese in which
the abbey was situated, afford presumption of continued resi-
dence there. He became in 1005 the first abbot of Eynsham
or Ensham, near Oxford, another foundation of /Ethelmrr's.
After his elevation he wrote an abridgment for his monks of
/Ethelwold's De consuetudine monackorum* adapted to their
rudimentary ideas of monastic life, a letter to Wulfgeat of
Ylmandun*, an introduction to the study of the Old and New
Testaments (about 1008, edited by William L'Isle in 1623);
a Latin life of his master /Ethel wold 7 ; a pastoral letter for
Wulfstan, archbishop of York and bishop of Worcester, in Latin
and English, and an English version of Bede's De Temporibus.*
The Colloquium, 9 a Latin dialogue designed to serve his
scholars as a manual of Latin conversation, may date from his
life at Cernel. It is safe to assume that the original draft of
this, afterwards enlarged by his pupil, iElfric Bata, was by
iElfric, and represents what his own scholar days were like.
The last mention of iElfric Abbot, probably the grammarian,
is in a will dating from about 1020.
There have been three suppositions about iElfric. (i)*He was
identified with iElfric (095-1005), archbishop of Canterbury
This view was upheld by John Bale (///. Maj. Brit. Scriptorum
. . . 2nd ed., Basel, 1557-1559; vol. i. p. 149, s.v. Alfric); by
Humphrey Wanley (Catalogus librorum septentrionalium, &c ,
Oxford, 1705, forming vol. ii. of George Hickes's Antiquae
literalurae septentrionalis) ; by Elisabeth Elstob, The English-
Saxon Homily on the Birthday of St Gregory (1709; new edition,
1839); and by Edward Rowe Mores, jElfrico, Dorobernensi,
archiepiscopo, Commentarius (ed. G. J. Thorkelin, 1789)1 in
which the conclusions of earlier writers on yElfric are reviewed.
Mores made him abbot of St Augustine's at Dover, and finally
archbishop of Canterbury. (2) Sir Henry Spelman, in his Concilia
. • • (1639, vol. i. p. 583), printed the Canones ad Wulsinum
episcopum, and suggested /Elf ric Putta or Putto, archbishop of
York, as the author, adding some note of others bearing the
name. The identity of iElfric the grammarian with iElfric
archbishop of York was also discussed by Henry Wharton,
in Anglia Sacra (1691, vol. i. pp. 125-134), in a dissertation
reprinted in J. P. Migne's Patrologia (vol. 139, pp. 1450-70,
Paris, 1853). (3) William of Malmesbury (De gestis pontificum
anglorum, ed. N. E. S. A. Hamilton, Rolls Series, 1870, p. 406)
suggested that he was abbot of Malmesbury and bishop of
Crediton. The main facts of his career were finally elucidated
by Eduard Dietrich in a series of articles contributed to C. W
Nicdner's Zeitschrifl fur historische Theologie (vols, for 1855 and
1856, Gotha), which have formed the basis of all subsequent
writings on the subject.
Sketches of /T If He's career are in B. Ten Brink'* Eatt$ E*iUik
Literature (to W&ftJ] (irjn*. H. M. Kennedy, New York, 18BJ, tip
105-112). and by ]♦ S. WcitUk* in Tkr Camtirutr_t tltitoty et t.nriuk
'Literature (vol. i-, 1907* pp. 116-129). An can- Hen 1 hibftntfTdhhy
and account of (he critical apparatus i* gtvaa in Dr R, Wulkcra
Grundriss tur Gtschichst der ungtiiaehtuchtn Lifi***tur (Leipzig*
1885, pp. 452-480). See al«> the account by Profr*i«r Skeat in Pi . iv
pp. 8-61 01 his edition ol the Z.w« of Ike ioiitii, already cited, which
gives a full account of the MbS.. and s dtftcuasian o| jElfric's Kjut(-« K
with further bibl«'£ranhjul reference*; and Allftk, a AVw Sintiy of
his Life and Wntingi. by ML* C- L. White (Boston, New York and
London, 1898) in the *" Yale Smtlies in English/' Akuwi. Inttrro*
gationes Sigewul.n Przthyteri in Gentiin (ed. G, E* McLean, Halle,
1883) is attributed to AM rir by it\ editor. Their are ot her i«l*ted
sermons and treat,** by /EJIric. printed tn vol. iii. of Cre»n'» BiU
v. A.S. Prosa.
4 Printed by Benjamin Thorpe in Ancient Laws and Institutes of
England (1840). with the later pastoral for Wulfstan.
• See E. Breck, A Fragment of Mifric; translation of Ailhelwold's
De Consuetudine Monachorum and its relation to other MSS. (Leipsig,
1887)*
* llmington, on the borders of Warwickshire and Gloucestershire.
" Included by J. Stevenson in the Chron. Monast. de Abingdon
1. ii. «««.•- .---v
See
(voj. iii.. 1 866, pp.
•See an article bj .
(vol. xix.. new series, 1887).
(vol. u. pp. 253-266, Rolls Series, 1858).
" " Oswald Cockayne, Leechdoms, 1
_. 1866, pp. xiv.-xix. and pp. 233 et seq.) ir
• See an article by J. Zupttza in the Zettschriftfur deutsches Altertum
Cockayne, Leechdoms, Wortcunnine and Starcrafl
p. xiv.-xix. and pp. 233 et seq.) in the Rolls Scries.
25 6
AELIA CAPITOLINA— AEMILIA VIA
AELIA CAPITOUNA, the city buiH by the emperor Hadrian,
a.d. 131, and occupied by a Roman colony, on the site of Jeru-
salem ($.**.)» which was in ruins when he visited his Syrian
dominions. Aelia is derived from the emperor's family name,
and Capitolina from that of Jupiter Capitolinus, to whom a
temple was built on the site of the Jewish temple.
AEUAN (Aelzanus Tacticus), Greek military writer of
the and century aj>., resident at Rome. He is sometimes
confused with Claudius Aelianus, the Roman writer referred to
below. Aelian's military treatise, Toxrun) Ocwpla, is dedicated
to Hadrian, though this b probably a mistake for Trajan, and
the date a.d. 106 has been assigned to it It is a handbook of
Greek, i.e. Macedonian, drill and tactics as practised by the
Hellenistic successors of Alexander the Great The author claims
to have consulted all the best authorities, the chief of which was
a lost treatise on the subject by Polybius. Perhaps the chief
value of Aelian's work lies in his critical account of preceding
works on the art of war, and in the fulness of his technical
details in matters of drill. Critics of the 18th century— Guichard
Folard and the prince de Ligne — were unanimous in thinking
Aelian greatly inferior to Arrian, but both on his immediate
successors, the Byzantines, and on the Arabs, who translated
the text for their own use, Aelian exercised a great influence.
The emperor Leo VI. incorporated much of Aelian's text in
his own work on the military art. The Arabic version of Aelian
was made about 13 50. In spite of its academic nature, the
copious details to be found in the treatise rendered it of the
highest value to the army organizers of the 16th century, who
were engaged in fashioning a regular military system out of the
semi-feudal systems of previous generations. The Macedonian
phalanx of Aelian had many points of resemblance to the solid
masses of pikerocn and the "squadrons" of cavalry of the
Spanish and Dutch systems, and the translations made in the
16th century formed the groundwork of numerous books on drill
and tactics. Moreover, his works, with those of Xenophon,
Polybius, Aeneas and Arrian, were minutely studied by every
soldier of the 16th and 17th centuries who wished to be master
of his profession. It has been suggested that Aelian was the
real author of most of Arrian's Tactica, and that the Tcurrui)
Btwpla b a later revision of this original, but the theory is not
The firet edition of the Greek t«rt i* that of Robortelli (Venice,
1553); the Elzevir text (Leiden, J&ij) hu note*. The text in
W, KQitow and H. Kochly'* Gnnhisthr KrievitkrifuMifr (1835) ii
accompanied by a translation, note* a nil reproductions o\ the ■ ial
illustration** r A Latin translation by Theodore Gua o( J ica
wa* included in the Famous, collection Vritrts dt re mttiiari icriptores
{Rcmt and Venice, 14*7, Cologne. i$j8. &c). The French tra rela-
tion of MathauTt, included in his Miiittt dei Grcrs tt Remains (Paris,
16 1 5) and ern i tied De fo 5frt,f nitric dfi Greet* a German tra relation
f ram Theodore Cau (Cologne, 15,24). and the LnefLah version of Jo.
Bingham), which include* a drill manual of the English troop* in
the Dutch service. Tattit&s of Action (London. i&itO, are of import-
ance in the military literature of the period. A later French transla-
tion by Bouchard de Bussy* La Afitwdet Grits mt Toeiujw d'&ien
(Paris, 1737 and J 757)1 Baurn partner's German translation in his
inr urn oleic Sammiung after KttttMthrifhUUwr d*f Grttthm (Mann-
heim and Frankrnthalf 1571)). reptiwiucea in t? 86 as Von SchUahtord-
nn*t£f*H and Vitt-ount Dillon's English version (London. 1H14) may
al«o be mcatiuncd. See also R. 1 vracr, Studien tu den gritcU**±Hcn
Tahtihem (Hermes, xii., 1877* PP* 444*449): F. Wustenfeld. Das
Heerwesen der Muhammedaner una dte arabische Uebersetsung
J " *■•- *■•-•■■ Us Aelianus (GOttingen, 1880): M. Jahns, Gesch. der
ischaften, I 95-97 (Munich. 1880); Rflstow and K&chly.
riecfOschen Krutgswesens (1852); A. de Lort-Serignan,
(1880) ; P. Serrc, Etudes sur Vhistoire militaire et man-
der Taktih des Aelianus (GOttingen, 1880): M. jahns, Gesch. der
Krietswissenschaften, ' '** * * '"" "*" " • •-•--
Gescn. des grieckuck
La Phalange (1880) ; f. Serrc, Etudes sur fhistoire militaire et man.
time des Grecs et des Romains (1887); K. K. MuDer. in Pauly-
Wissowa, Realencyclopddut (Stuttgart, 1894).
AEUAN (Claudius Aelianus), Roman author and teacher
of rhetoric, born at Praencste, flourished under Septimius
Sevcrus and probably outlived Elagabalus (d. a??). He
spoke Greek so perfectly that he was called " honey-tongued "
buMyXotco-oi); although a Roman he preferred Greek authors,
and wrote in Greek himself. His chief works are: On the Nature
of Animals, curious and interesting stories of animal life, fre-
quently used to convey moral lessons (ed. Schneider, 1784;
Jacobs, 1832); Various History— lor the most part preserved
only in an abridged form — consisting mainly of anecdotes of
men and customs (ed. Lunemann, 181 1). Both works are valu-
able for the numerous excerpts from older writers. Considerable
fragments of two other works On Providence and Divine Mani-
festations are preserved in Suidas; twenty Peasants' Letters,
after the manner of Alciphron but inferior, are also attributed
to him.
EdiHoprineeps of complete works by Gesner. 1556; Hercher, 1864-
1866. English translation of the Various History only by Fleming.
1576. and Stanley, 1665; of the Letters by Quillard (French). 1895.
JELRED, Ailred, Ethelked (xxoo-xt66), English theo-
logian, historical writer and abbot of RieVaulx, was born at
Hexham about the year 1109. In his youth he was at the court
of Scotland as an attendant of Henry, son of David I. He was
in high favour with that sovereign, but renounced the prospect
of a bishopric to enter the Cistercian house of Rievaulx in
Yorkshire, which was founded in 1x31 by Walter Espec Here
/tired remained for some time as master of the novices, but
between the years 1142 and 1x46 was elected abbot of Revesby
in Lincolnshire and migrated thither. In x 146 he became abbot
of Rievaulx. He led a life of the severest asceticism, and was
credited with the power of working miracles; owing to his
reputation the numbers of Rievaulx were greatly increased.
In 1 164 he went as a missionary to the Picts of Galloway. He
found their religion at a low ebb, the regular clergy apathetic
and sensual, the bishop little obeyed, the laity divided by the
family feuds of their rulers, unchaste and ignorant He induced
a Galwegjan chief to take the habit of religion, and restored
the peace of the country. Two years later he died of a decline,
at Rievaulx, in the fifty-seventh year of his age. In the year
1 191 he was canonized. His writings are voluminous and have
never been completely published. Amongst them are homilies
"on the burden of -Babylon in Isaiah"; three books "on
spiritual friendship"; a life of Edward the Confessor; an
account of miracles wrought at Hexham, and the tract called
Relatto de Standardo. This last is an account of the Battle of
the Standard (1x38), better known than the similar account by
Richard of Hexham, but less trustworthy, and in places obscured
by a peculiarly turgid rhetoric.
1, 1901, vol. i. p. 41), whence h was taken by
Capgrave the work passed into the Bollaodut
m. u. p. 30). This life is anonymous, but of an
Sra£
early date. The most complete printed collection of /Elred's
is in Milne's Tmmfeiogia Lattna, vol. exev.; but this does not include
the Af iVm-mIb llazulstaldensis Ecclesiae which are printed in I. Ratne's
Priory of f&Hmt m, vol. i.(Surtees Society, 1864). A complete list of
works attributed to i€lred is given in T. Tanner's BibHotkeca Briian-
niuhHibernica ( 1 748). pp. 247-248. The Relatio de Standardo has been
critically edited by R. Howiett in Chronicles, 6Vc, of Stephen, Henry
II. and Ruhard J., vol. iii. (RoUsSeries, 1886). (H.W. C D.)
AEMILIA VIA. or Aemiuan Way. (x) A highroad of Italy,
constructed in 187 B.C. by the consul M. Aemilius Lepidus, from
whom it takes its name; it ran from Ariminum to Placentia, a
distance of 176 m. almost straight N.W., with the plain of the
Po (Padus) and its tributaries on the right, and the Apennines
on the left. The 79th milestone from A riminum found in the
bed of the Rhenus at Bononia records the restoration of the
road by Augustus from Ariminum to the river Trebia in 2 B.C.
(Notts. Scop., 1902, 539). The bridge by which it crossed the
Sillaro was restored by .Trajan in Xo. 100 (Notszie degii ScaU,
1888, 621). The modern highroad follows the ancient line, and
some of the original bridges still exist After Augustus, the road
gave its name to the district which formed the eighth region of
Italy (previously known as Gallia or Provinda Ariminum), at
first in popular usage (as in Martial), but in official language as
early as the 2nd century; it is still in use (see Emilia). The
district was bounded on the N. by the Padus, E. by the Adriatic,
S. by the river Crustumium (mod. Conca), and W. by the Apen-
nines and the Ira (mod. Station) at Iria (mod, Voghera), and
corresponds approximately with the modern district,
(2) A road constructed in xco B.C. by the censor M. Aemilius
Scaurus from Vada Volaterrana and* Luna to Vada Sabaxia and
thence over the Apennines to Dertopa (Tortona), where it joined
AEMILIUS— AENESIDEMUS
257
(he Via Fostumia from Genua to Cremona. We must, however
(as Hoodkb points out in CJJ~ v. p. 885), suppose that the
portion of the coast road from Vada Volaterrana to Genua at
feast most have existed before the construction of the Via
Postumia in 148 B.C Indeed Polybius (in. 30. 8) tdls us (and
this must refer to the time of the Gracchi if not earlier) that the
Romans had in his time built the coast road from the Rhone to
Carthago Nova; and it is incredible that the coast road in Italy
itself should not have been constructed previously. It is, how-
ever, a very different thing to open a road for traffic, and so to
construct it that it takes its name from that construction in
perpetuity. (T. As.)
AEMILIUS, PAULUS (Paolo Emxuo ) (d. 1529), Italian his-
torian, was born at Verona. He obtained such reputation in his
own country that he was invited to France in the reign of
Charles VEIL, in order to write in Latin the history of the kings
of Franco, and was presented to a canonry in Notre Dame. He
enjoyed the patronage and support of Louis XII. He died at
Puis on the 5th of May 1529. His De Rebus gestis Francorum
was translated into French in 1581, and has also been translated
into Italian and German.
AERAS, the famous Trojan hero, son of Anchises and
Aphrodite, one of the most important figures in Greek and
Roman legendary history. In Homer, he is represented as the
chief bulwark: of the Trojans next to Hector, and the favourite
of the gods, who frequently interpose to save him from clanger
(Iliad, v. 311). The legend that he remained in the country
after the fall of Troy, and founded a new kingdom {Iliad, xx.
308; Hymn to Aphrodite, 196) is now generally considered to be
of comparatively late origin. The story of his emigration is
pou-Homeric, and set forth in its fullest development by Virgil
in the Aentid. Carrying his aged father and household gods on
his back and leading his little son Ascanius by the hand, he makes
his vay to the coast, his wife Creusa being lost during the con-
fusion of the flight After a perilous voyage to Thrace, Delos,
Crete and Sicily (where his father dies), he is cast up by a storm,
sent by Juno, on the African coast Refusing to remain with
Dido, queen of Carthage, who in despair puts an end to her life,
be sets sail from Africa, and after seven years' wandering lands
at the mouth of the Tiber. He is hospitably received by Latinus,
king of Lathim, is betrothed to his daughter Lavinia, and founds
a city called after her, -Lavinium. Turnus, king of Rutuli, a
rejected suitor, takes up arms against him and Latinus, but is
defeated and slain by Aeneas on the river Numidus. The story
of the Aesmd ends with the death of Turnus. According to
Lrry (L l. a), Aeneas, after reigning a few years over Latium,
is slam by the Rutuli; after the battle, his body cannot be found,
tad he is supposed to have been carried up to heaven. He
receives divine honours, and is worshipped under the name of
Japiter Indiges (Dionysius Halic. L 64).
See T. A. Hlld, La Upnde <TFj$ie avanl VergOe (1883); F. Cauer,
Dt FaimUs Graeds ad Remam condUam pertinentibus (1884) and Die
XemisckeAeneossq&.von Naevius bis VergiliuS (1886); G. Boisaier,
"La Legende d'Enee" in Revue des Deux Monies. Sept, 1883;
A Fontemann, Zur Gesckickte des Aeneasmytkus (1894); articles
■a fauy-Wisaowa's Realencyclopddie (new ed.. 1894); Roacher's
lexicon dee Mytkobgie; Daremoerg and Saglio's Dtctumnaire des
—ttqmitis', Prdkr's Grieckiscke und rbmiscke Myikologie; and
cveoaDy Schwegkr, Romische Gesckickte (1867).
Romances.— The story of Aeneas, as a sequel to the legend of
Troy, formed the subject of several epic romances in the middle
•fes. The Reman tfltnias (c. 1160, or later), of uncertain
sathoahip (attributed by some to Benolt de Sainte-More), the
fat French poem directly imitated from the Aeneid, is a fairly
dose adaptation of the original. The trouvere, however, omits
the greater part of the wanderings of Aeneas, and adorns his.
■■native with gorgeous descriptions, with accounts of the mar-
vriloos properties of beasts and stones, and of single combats
among the knights who figure in the story. He also elaborates
tbe episodes most attractive to his audience, notably those of
Boo and Aeneas and Lavinia, the last of whom plays a far
««re important part than in the Aeneid. Where possible, he
substitutes human tor divine intervention, and ignores the idea
of the glorification of Rome and Augustus, which dominates
the Virgilian epic On this work were founded the Eneide or
Eneii (between x 180 and x 190) of Heinrich von Veldeke, written
in Flemish and now only extant in a version in the Thuringian
dialect, and the Eneydos, written by William Caxton in 1490.
See tineas, ed. J. Salverda de Grave (Halle. 1891); see also A.
Pen, Essai sur li romaus £ Eneas (Paris, 1856); A. Duval in Hist,
litteraire de la France, xix.; Veldeke » Eneide. ed. Ettmuuer (' ~~—
1852) and O. Behaghel (Heilbronn, 1882); Eneydos, ed. F. J. Furnt-
vafi (1890). For Italian versions see E. G. Parodi in Studi di
ftlologia romanta (v. 1887).
AENEAS TACTICUS (4th century B.C.), one of the earliest
Greek writers on the art of war. According to Aelianus Tacticus
and Polybius, he wrote a number of treatises ('Tro/ijn}j<ara)
on the subject; the only one extant deals with the best methods
of defending a fortified dty. An epitome of the whole was made
by Cineas, minister of Pyrrhus, king of Epirus. The work is
chiefly valuable as containing a large number of historical illus-
trations. Aeneas was considered by Casaubon to have been a
contemporary of Xenophon and identical with the Arcadian
general Aeneas of Stymphalus, whom Xenophon {HelUnica,
vii. 3) mentions as fighting at the battle of Mantinea (362 B.C.).
Editions in I. Casaubon's (1619), Gronovtus' (1670) and Ernesti's
(1761) editions of Polybius; also separately, with notes, by J. C.
Orelfi (Leipzig, 1818). Other texts are those of W. Rustow and
H. Kdchly {.Grieckische Kriegssckriftsteller, voL L Leipzig, 1853) and
A. ,Hu$, Prolegomena CrUtca ad Aeneae . . . editionem (Zurich.
University, 1874). See also Count Bcausobre, Commentaires sur
la detenu des places d Aeneas (Amsterdam, 1757); A. Hug, Aeneas
von Stymjpkalos (Zurich, 1877); C. C. Langc, De Aeneae commentario
poliorcettco (Berlin, 1879); M. H. Meyer, Observation** in Aeneam
Tacticum (Halle, 1835); Haase, in Jokns Jahrbuck, 1835, xiy. 1;
Max Jahns, Gesck. iter Kriegswissensckaften, i. pp. 26-28 (Munich,
1889); Ad. Bauer, in Zeitsckrifl far aUg. Gesckickte, fire, 1886, i.;
T. H. Williams in American Journal of Philology, xxv. 4; E.
Schwartz in Pauly-Wissowa, Realencyclopadie (Stuttgart, 1894).
AENESIDEMUS, Greek philosopher, was born at Cnossus in
Crete and taught at Alexandria, probably during the first
century B.C. He was the leader of what is sometimes known as
the third sceptical school and revived to a great extent the
doctrine of Pyrrho and Timon. His chief work was the Pyr-
rkonian Principles addressed to Lucius Tubero. His philosophy
consisted of four main parts, the reasons for scepticism and
doubt, the attack on causality and truth, a physical theory and
a theory of morality. Of these the two former are important
The reasons for doubt are given in the form of the ten " tropes ":
(x) different animals manifest different modes of perception;
(2) similar differences are seen among individual men; (3) even
for the same man K sense-given data are self-contradictory,
(4) vary from time to time with physical changes, and (5) accord-
ing to local relations; (6) and (7) objects are known only in-
directly through the medium of air, moisture, &c, and are in a
condition of perpetual change in colour, temperature, size and
motion; (8) all perceptions are relative and interact one upon
another; (9) our impressions become less deep by repetition
and custom; and (xo) all men are brought up with different
beliefs, under different laws and social conditions. Truth varies
infinitely under circumstances whose relative weight cannot be
accurately gauged. There is, therefore, no absolute knowledge,
for every man has different perceptions, and, further, arranges
and groups his data in methods peculiar to himself; so that the
sum total is a quantity with a purely subjective validity. The
second part of his work consists in the attack upon the theory
of causality, in which he adduces almost entirely those considera-
tions which are the basis of modern scepticism. Cause has no
existence apart from the mind which perceives; its validity is
ideal, or, as Kant would have said, subjective. The relation
between cause and effect is unthinkable. If the two things
are different, they are either simultaneous or in succession. If
simultaneous, cause is effect and effect cause. If not, since
effect cannot precede cause, cause must precede effect, and there
must be an instant when cause is not effective, that is, is not
itself. By these and similar arguments he arrives at the funda-
mental principle of Scepticism, the radical and universal opposi-
tion of causes; rarrl Xbytp \oyos arrUurau Having reached
258
AEOLIAN HARP— AEQUI
this conclusion, he was able to assimilate the physical theory
of Heraclitus, as is explained in the Hy polyposes of Sextus
Empiricus. For admitting that contraries co-exist for the
perceiving subject, he was able to assert the co-existence of
contrary qualities in the same object Having thus disposed
of the ideas of truth and causality, he proceeds to. undermine
the ethical criterion, and denies that any man can aim at Good,
Pleasure or Happiness as an absolute, concrete ideal All
actions are product of pleasure and pain, good and evil. The
end of ethical endeavour is the conclusion that all endeavour
is vain and illogical. The main tendency of this destructive
scepticism is essentially the same from its first crystallization
by Aenesidexnus down to the most advanced sceptics of to-day
(see Scepticism). For the immediate successors of Aenesidemus
see Agrippa, Sextus Empiwcus. See also Caxneades and
Arcesilaus. Of the Ilvppwmot \6yot nothing remains; we
have, however, an. analysis in the Myriobiblion of Photius.
See ZeUer** History of Greek Philosophy; E. Saisset, Anisidemc,
Pascal, Kant; Ritter and Preuer, $$ 364-370.
AEOLIAN HARP (Fr. karpe iolietme; Ger. Aolskarfe,
Windharfe; Ital arpa 0" Eolo), a stringed musical instrument,
whose name is derived from Aeolus, god of the wind. The
aeolian harp consists of a sound-box about 3 ft long, 5 in.
wide, and 3 in. deep, made of thin deal, or preferably of pine,
and having beech ends to hold the tuning-pins and hitch-pins.
A dozen or less catgut strings of different thickness, but
tuned in exact unison,, and left rather slack, are attached to
the pins, and stretched over two narrow bridges of hard wood,
one at each end of the sound-board, which is generally pro-
vided with two rose sound-holes. To ensure a proper passage
for the wind, another pine board is placed over the strings,
resting on pegs at the ends of the sound-board, or on a con-
tinuation of the ends raised from 1 to 3 in. above the strings.
Kaufmann of Dresden and Heinrich Christoph Koch, who im-
proved the aeolian harp, introduced this contrivance, which was
called by them Windfang and Windfliigel; the upper board was
prolonged beyond the sound-box in the shape of a funnel, in
order to direct the current of air on to the strings. The aeolian
harp is placed across a window so that the wind blows obliquely
across the strings, causing them to vibrate in aliquot parts, i.e.
(the fundamental note not being heard) the half or octave, the
third or interval of the twelfth, the second octave, and the
third above it, in fact the upper partials of the strings in regular
succession. With the increased pressure of the wind, the dis-
sonances of the 1 1 th and 13th overtones are heard in sHrill dis-
cords, only to give place to beautiful harmonies as the force- of
the wind abates. The principle of the natural vibration of
strings by the pressure of the wind was recognized in ancient
times; King David, we hear from the Rabbinic records, used to
hang his kinnor (kilhara) over his bed, at night, when it sounded
in the midnight breeze. The same is related of St Dunstan of
Canterbury, who was in consequence charged with sorcery. The
Chinese at the present day fly kites of various sizes, having
strings stretched across apertures in the paper, which produces
the effect of an aerial chorus.
See Athanasius Kircher, Afusurgta Universalis, where the aeolian
harp b first described (1602-1608), p. 148; Mathew Young, Bishop
of Clonfert, Enquiry into the Principal Phenomena of Sounds and
Musical Strings, pp. 170-182 (London, 1784); Gottingen Pocket
Calendar (1792); Mendel's Musikalisches Conversations-Lexikon,
article " Aeolsharfe." An illustration is given in Rees* Encyclo-
pedia, plates, vol. ii. Misc. pi. xxv. (K. 5.)
AEOUS (Aeolia), an ancient district of Asia Minor, colonized
at a very early date by Aeolian Greeks. The name was applied
to the coast from the river Hermus to the promontory of Lectum,
i.e. between Ionia to S. and Troas to N. The Aeolians founded
twelve cities on the mainland, including Cyme, and numerous
towns in Mytilene: they were said also to have settled in the
Troad and even within the Hellespont
AEOLUS, in Greek mythology, according to Homer the son of
Hippotes, god and father of the winds, and ruler of the island of
Aeolia. In the Odyssey (x. x) he entertains Odysseus, .gives him
a favourable wind to hdp him on his journey, and a bag in which
the unfavourable winds have been confined. Out of curiosity,
or with the idea that it contains valuable treasures, Odysseus*
companions open the bag; the winds escape and drive them
back to the island, whence Aeolus dismisses them with bitter
reproaches. According to Virgil, Aeolus dwells on one of the
Aeolian islands to the north of Sicily, Lipara or Strongyie
(Stromboli), where he keeps the winds imprisoned in a vast
cavern (Virgil, A en. i. 53). Another genealogy makes htm the
son of Poseidon and Arne, granddaughter of Hippotes, and a
descendant of Aeolus, king of Magnesia in Thessaly, the mythical
ancestor of the tribe of the Aeolians (Diodorus iv. 67).
AEON, a term often used in Greek (aU») to denote an indefinite
or infinite duration of time; and hence, by metonymy, a being
that exists for ever. In the latter sense it was chiefly used by
the Gnostic sects to denote those eternal beings or manifestations
which emanated from the one incomprehensible and ineffable
God. (See Gnosticism.)
AEPIHUS, FRANZ ULRICH THEODOR (1724-1802), German
natural philosopher, was bora at Rostock in Saxony on the
13th of December 1724. He was descended from John Aepinus
(1409-1553), the first to adopt the Greek form (aircyot) of the
family name Hugk or Huck, and a leading theologian and con-
troversialist at the time of the Reformation. After studying
medicine for a time, Franz Aepinus devoted himself to the
physical and mathematical sciences, in which he soon gained
such distinction that he was admitted a member of the Berlin
academy of sciences. In 1757 he settled in St Petersburg as
member of the imperial academy of sciences and professor of
physics, and remained there till his retirement in 1798. The rest
of his life was spent at Dorpat, where he died on the lothof August
1802. He enjoyed the special favour of the empress Catherine II.,
who appointed him tutor to her son Paul, and endeavoured,
without success, to establish normal schools throughout the
empire under his direction. Aepinus is best known by bis re-
searches, theoretical and experimental, in electricity and mag-
netism, and his principal work, Tentamen Theoriae EUdricitatis
et Magnetisms, published at St Petersburg in 1759, was the first
systematic and successful attempt to apply mathematical reason-
ing to these subjects. He also published a treatise, in 1761, De
distribution* caloris per teUurem, and he was the author of memoirs
on different subjects in astronomy, mechanics, optics and pure
mathematics, contained in the journals of the learned societies
of St Petersburg and Berlin. His discussion of the effects of
parallax in the transit of a planet over the sun's disc excited
great interest, having appeared (in 1764) between the dates of
the two transits of Venus that took place, in the x8th century.
AEQUI* an ancient people of Italy, whose name occurs con-
stantly in Livy*s first decade as hostile to Rome in the first three
centuries of the city's existence. They occupied the upper
reaches of the valleys of the Anio, Tolenus and HimeUa; the
last two being mountain streams running northward to join
the Nar. Their chief centre is said to have been taken by the
Romans about 484 B.C. (Diodorus xi. 40) and again about ninety
years later (id. xiv. 106), but they were not finally subdued
till the end of the second Samnite war (Livy ix. 45, x. 1;
Died. xx. zox), when they seem to have received a limited form
of franchise (Cic. Off. Liz, 35). All we know of their subsequent
political condition is that after the Social war the folk of Clitemia
and Nersae appear united in a res puUica Aequiculorum, which
v/Asamunicipiumol the ordinary type (C./.L. ix. p. 388). The
Latin colonies of Alba Fucens (304 B.C.) and Carsioli (298 B.C.)
must have spread the use of Latin (or what passed as such) all
over the district; through it lay the chief (and for some time
the only) route (Via Valeria) to Luceria and the south.
Of the language spoken by the Aequi before the Roman con-
quest we have no record; but since the Marsi (9.?.), who lived
farther east, spoke in the 3rd century B.C. a dialect closely akin
to Latin, and since the Hemici (q.v.), their neighbours to the
south-west, did the same, we have no ground for separating
any of these tribes from the Latian group (see Latini). If we
could be certain of the origin of the q in their name and of the
relation between its shorter and its longer form (note that the i
AERARII— AERATED WATERS
259
in Aequicutus is long— Virgil, Aen. vii 744— which seems to con-
nect it with the locative of acquum " a plain," so that it would
mean "dwellers in the plain"; but in the historical period
they certainly lived mainly in the hills), we should know whether
they were to be grouped with the q or the p dialects, that is to
say, with Latin on the one hand, which preserved an original q,
or with the dialect of Velitrae, commonly called Volscian (and
the Volsci were the constant allies of the Aequi), on the other
hand, in which, as in the Iguvine and Samnite dialects, an original
f is changed into p. There is no decisive evidence to show
whether the q in Latin aequus represents an Indo-European q
as in Latin quis, Umbro-Volsc. pis, or an Indo-European k + u as
in-egwsi, Umb. ekvo-. The derivative adjective Aequicus might
he taken to range them with the Volsci rather than the Sabini,'
hut it is not clear that this adjective was ever used as a real
ethnicon; the name of the tribe is always Aequi, or Acquicoli.
At the end of the Republican period the Aequi appear, under
the name Aequiculi or Aequicoli, organized as a municipium,
the territory of which seems to have comprised the upper part
of the valley of the Salto, still known as CicoUno. It is probable,
however, that they continued to live in their villages as before.
Of these Nersae (mod. Nescc) was the most considerable. The
polygonal terrace walls, which exist in considerable numbers in
the district, are shortly described in Rdmiscke MUlcilungcn
(iqoj)i 147 «?•• but require further study.
See further the articles Maksi, Volsci, Latini, and the refer-
toot* there' given; the place-names and other scanty records of
the dialect are collected by R. S. Conway, The Italic Dialects,
pp. 300 ff. (R. S. C.)
AERARIJ (from Lat aes, in its subsidiary sense of "poll-
tai"), originally a class of Roman citizens not included in
the thirty tribes of Servius Tullius, and subject to a poll-tax
arbitrarily fixed by the censor. They were (1) the inhabitants of
conquered towns which had been deprived of local self-govern-
ment, who possessed the jus conubii and jus commercii, but no
political rights; Caere is said to have been the first example of
Uns (j5j B.C.); hence the expression "in tabulas Caeritum
referre " came to mean " to degrade to the status of an aerarius ":
(2) full citizens subjected to civil degradation (infamia) as the
result of following certain professions (e.g. acting), of dishonour-
able acts in private life (e.g. bigamy) or of conviction for certain
crimes; (3) persons branded by the censor. Those who were
(has excluded, from the tribes and centuries had no vote, were in-
capable of filling Roman magistracies and could not serve in the
army. According to Mommsen, the acrarii were originally the
vtm-assidui (non-holders of land), excluded from the tribes, the
comitia and the army. By a reform of the censor Appius
Claudius in jia B.C. these noa-assidui were admitted into the
tribes, and the acrarii as such disappeared. But in 304, Fabius
RoJlianus limited them to the four dty tribes, and from that
time the term meant a man degraded from a higher (country)
to a lower (dty) tribe, but not deprived of the right of voting
or of serving in the army. The expressions " tribu movere "
and ** aerarium facere," regarded by Mommsen as identical in
Bearing (" to degrade from a higher tribe to a lower "), arc
explained by A. H. J. Greenidge— the first as relegation from a
higher to a lower tribe or total exclusion from the tribes, the
•econd as exclusion from the centuries. Other views of the
original acrarii are that they were: — artisans and freedmen
(Niebuhr); inhabitants of towns united with Rome by a kos-
putum publicum, who had become domitiled on Roman terri-
tory (Lange); only a class of degraded citizens, including neither
the cms sine sujragio nor the artisans (Madvig); identical with
the capUe ctnsi of the Servian constitution (Belot, Greenidge).
See A. H. J. Greenidge, Infamia in Reman Law (1894), where
Moamaen's theory b criticized; E. Belot, Histoire des chevaliers
""ami, L p. 200 (Paris, 1866); L. Pardon, De Aerariis (Berlin,
•853): P. Willems. Le Droit public remain (1883); A. S. Wilkins
w Smiths Did. of Creek and Roman Antiquities (3rd ed., 1891) ; and
the usval handbooks of antiquities.
ABRARITJH (from Lat aes, in its derived sense of " money "),
the name (in full, aerarium stabulum, treasure-house) given in
ancient Rome to the public treasury, and in a secondary sense
to the public finances. The treasury contained the moneys and
accounts of the state, and also the standards of the legions;
the public laws engraved on brass, the decrees of the senate
and other papers and registers of importance. These public
treasures were deposited in the temple of Saturn, on the eastern
slope of the Capitoline hill, and, during the republic, were in
charge of the urban quaestors (see Quaestor), under the super-
intendence and control of the senate. This arrangement con-
tinued (except for the year 45 B.c f when no quaestors were
chosen) until 38 B.C., when Augustus transferred the aerarium
to two praefecti acrarii, chosen annually by the senate from
ex-praetors; in 23 these were replaced by two praetors (praetores
acrarii or ad aerarium), selected by lot during their term of
office; Claudius in aj>. 44 restored the quaestors, but nominated
by the emperor for three years, for whom Nero in 56 substituted
two ex-praetors, under the same conditions, In addition to the
common treasury, supported by the general taxes and charged
with the ordinary expenditure, there was a special reserve fund,
also in the temple of Saturn, the aerarium sanctum (or sanctius),
probably originally consisting of the spoils of war, afterwards
maintained chiefly by a 5% tax on the value of all manu-
mitted slaves, this source of revenue being- established by a
lex Manlia in 357. This fund was not to be touched except in
cases of extreme necessity (Livy vii. 16, xxvii. xo). Under the
emperors the senate continued to have at least the nominal
management of the aerarium, while the emperor had a separate
exchequer, called fiscus. But after a time, as the power of the
emperors increased and their jurisdiction extended till the senate
existed only in form and name, this distinction virtually ceased.
Besides creating the fiscus, Augustus also established in aj>. 6
a military treasury (aerarium milUare), containing all moneys
raised for and appropriated to the maintenance of the army,
including a pension fund for disabled soldiers. It was largely
endowed by the emperor himself (see Mouumenium Ancyranum,
aii. 35) and supported by the proceeds of the tax on public sales
and the succession duty. Its administration was in the hands
of three praefecti acrarii mUUaris, at first appointed by lot, but
afterwards by the emperor, from senators of praetorian rank,
for three years. The later emperors had a separate aerarium
privatum, containing the moneys allotted for their own use,
distinct from the fiscus, which they administered in the interests
of the empire.
The tribuni acrarii have been the subject of much discussion.
They are supposed by some to be identical with the curatores
tribuum, and to have been the officials who, under the Servian
organization, levied the war-tax (tributum) in the tribes and the
poll-tax on the acrarii (q.v.). They also acted as paymasters of
the equitcs and of the soldiers on service in each tribe. By the
lex Aurelia (70 B.C.) the list of judices was composed, in addition
to senators and equites, of tribuni acrarii. Whether these were
the successors of the above, or a new order closely connected
with the equites, or even the same as the latter, is uncertain.
According to Mommsen, they were persons who possessed the
equestrian census, but no public horse. They were removed
from the list of judices by Caesar, but replaced by Augustus.
According to Madvig, the original tribuni acrarii were not officials
at all, but private individuals of considerable means, quite
distinct from the curatores tribuum, who undertook certain
finandal work connected with their own tribes. Then, as in
the case of the equites, the term was subsequently extended
to include all those who possessed the property qualification
that would have entitled them to serve as tribuni acrarii.
See Tacitus, Annals, xiii. 29, with Furncaux's notes; O. Hirsch-
feld, " Das Aerarium militare in der romiachen Kaiserxeit," in
Fleckeisen's Jakrbuck, vol. xcvii. (1868); S. Herrlich, De Aerario ct
Fisco Romanorum (Berlin, 1872); and the usual handbooks and
dictionaries of antiquities. On the tribuni acrarii see E. Belot, Hist,
des chevaliers romains, U. p. 376; J. N. Madvig, Opuscula Academic*,
ii. p. 242; J. B. Mispoulet, Les Institutions palttiques des Remains
(1883), ii. p. 208; Mommsen, Romisches Slaatsrecht, iii. p. 180;
A. S. Wilkins in Smith's Dictionary of Greek and Roman Antiquities
(3rd ed., 1890).
AERATED WATERS. Waters charged with a larger pro-
portion of carbon dioxide than they will dissolve at ordinary
2bo
AERONAUTICS
atmospheric pressure occur in springs in various parts of the
world (see Mineral Waters) . Such waters, which also generally
hold in solution a considerable percentage of saline constituents,
early acquired a reputation as medicinal agents, and when carbon
dioxide (" fixed air ") became familiar to chemists the possibility
was recognized, as by Joseph Priestley (Directions for impregnat-
ing water with fixed air ... to communicate the peculiar Spirit
and Virtues of Pyrmont water, 1772), of imitating them artificially.
Many of the ordinary aerated waters of commerce, however, do
not pretend to reproduce any known natural water; they are
merely beverages owing their popularity to their effervescing
properties and the flavour imparted by a small quantity of some
salt such as sodium bicarbonate or a little fruit syrup. Their
manufacture on a considerable scale was begun at Geneva so
far back as 1790 by Nicholas Paul, and the excellence of the
soda water prepared in London by J. Schweppe, who had been
a partner of Paul's, is referred to by Tiberius Cavallo in his
Essay on the Medicinal Properties of Factitious Airs, published in
1708. Many forms of apparatus are employed for charging the
water with the gas. A simple machine for domestic use, called a
gasogene or seltzogene, consists of two strong glass globes con-
nected one above the other by a wide glass tube which rises
nearly to the top of the upper and smaller globe. Surmounting
the small globe there is a spring valve, fitted to a narrow* tube
that passes through the wide tube to the bottom of the large
globe. To use the machine, the lower vessel is filled with water,
and in the upper one, round the base of the wide tube, is placed a
mixture, commonly of sodium bicarbonate and tartaric add,
which with water yields carbon dioxide. The valve head is
then fastened on, and by tilting the apparatus some water is
made to flow through the wide tube from the lower to the upper
vessel. The water in the lower globe takes up the gas thus
produced, and when required for use is withdrawn by the valve,
being forced up the narrow tube by the pressure of' the gas.
In another arrangement the gas is supplied compressed in little
steel capsules, and is liberated into a bottle containing the water
which has to be aerated. On a large scale, use is made of con-
tinuously acting machinery which is essentially of the type
devised by Joseph Bramah. The gas is prepared in a separate
generator by the action of sulphuric add on sodium bicarbonate
or whiting, and after being washed is collected in a gas-holder,
whence it is forced with water under pressure into a recover or
saturate* in which an agitator is kept moving. Some manu-
facturers buy their gas compressed in steel cylinders. The
water thus aerated or carbonated passes from the receiver, in
which the pressure may be 100-200 lb on the square inch, to
bottling machines which fill and dose the bottles; if beverages
like lemonade are being made the requisite quantity of fruit
syrup is also injected into the bottles, though sometimes the
fruit syrup mixture is aerated in bulk. For soda water sodium
bicarbonate should be added to the water before aeration, in
varying proportions Up to about 1 5 grains per pint, but the simple
carbonated water often does duty instead. Potash water, lithia
water and many others are similarly prepared, the various salts
being used in such amounts as arc dictated by the experience
and taste of the manufacturer. Aerated waters are sent out
from the factories either in siphons (q.v.) or in bottles; the
latter may be closed by corks, or by screw-stoppers or by internal
stoppers consisting of a valve, such as a glass ball, held up against
an indiarubbcr ring in the neck by the pressure of the gas. For
use in " soda-fountains " the waters are sent out in large
cylinders.
See W. Kirkby, Evolution of Artificial Mineral Waters (Manchester,
1902).
AERONAUTICS, the art of " navigating " the " air." It is divis-
ible into two main branches— aerostation, dealing properly with
machines which like balloons are lighter than the air, and aviation,
dealing with the problem of artificial flight by means of flying
machines which, like birds, are heavier than the air, 'and also
with attempts to fly made by human beings by the aid of
artificial wings fitted to their limbs.
Historically, aviation is the older of the two, and in the legends
or myths of men or animals which are supposed to have travelled
through the air, such as Pegasus, Medea's dragons and Daedalus,
as well as in Egyptian bas-reliefs, wings appear as the means by
which aerial locomotion is effected. In later times there are
many stories of men who have attempted to fly in the same way.
John Wilkins (1614-1672), one of the founders of the Royal
Soriety and bishop of Chester, who in 1640 discussed the possi-
bility of reaching the moon by volitation, says in his Mathe-
matical Magich (1648) that it was related that " a certain English
monk called Elmerus, about the Confessor's time," flew from a
town in Spain for a distance of more than a furlong; and that
other persons had flown from St Mark's, Venice, and at Nurem-
berg. Giovanni Battista Dante, of Perugia, is said to have flown
several times across Lake Trasimene. At the beginning o? the
x6th century an Italian alchemist who was collated to the abbacy
of Tungland, in Galloway, Scotland, by James IV., undertook
to fly from the walls of Stirling Castle through the air to France.
He actually attempted the feat, but soon came to the ground
and broke his thigh-bone in the fall— an aeddent which be ex-
plained by asserting that the wings he employed contained some
fowls' feathers, which had an u affinity " for the dung-hill, whereas
if they had been composed solely of eagles' feathers they would
have been attracted to the air. This anecdote furnished Dunbar,
the Scottish poet, with the subject of one of bis rude satires.
Leonardo da Vina about the same time approached the problem
in a more sdentific spirit, and his notebooks contain several
sketches of wings to be fitted to the arms and legs. In the
following century a lecture on flying delivered in 161 7 by
Flcyder, rector of the grammar school at Tubingen, and pub-
lished eleven years later, indted a poor monk to attempt to put
the theory into practice, but bis machinery broke down and he
was killed.
In Frands Bacon's Natural History there are two passages
which refer to flying, though they scarcely bear out the assertion
made by some writers that he first published the true principles
of aeronautics.
The fir* i h styled Experiment Solitary, touching Flying in the Air:
— " Certainly numv I'i.rdsof good wing (as kites and the like)wo<uld
br h .i|r a giMxt weight as they fly; and spreading feathers thin and
dose* and in gn-at br* -.■» Ith, will likewise bear up a great weight, being
even bid, without tiLtiog up on the sides. The farther extension of
this experiment mttht to thought upon." The second passage i
j:cTl..^ !-...» t... :-.. .11:. 'ui~..T* :_ _^..i^j !?_>..»'__< c_*j*-. *~
diffuse, but fe*a inu llipble; it is styled Experiment Solitary, touching
the Flying of unequal bodies in the Air: — "Let there be a body of
unequal weight (j* of wool and lead or bone and lead); if you throw
it 1 rum you win the light end forward, it will turn, and the weightier
end will recover to be forwards, unless the body be over long- The
cause is, for that the more dense body hath a more violent pressure
of the parts from the first impulsion, which is the cause (though
heretofore not found out, as hath been often said) of all violent
motions; and when the hinder part movcth swifter (for that it less
endureth pressure of parts) than the forward part can make way for
it, it must needs be that the body turn over; for (turned) it can more
easily draw forward the lighter part." The fact here alluded to b
the resistance that bodies experience in moving through the air,
which, depending on the quantity of surface merely, must exert a
proportionally greater effect on rare substances. The passage itself,
however, after making every allowance for the period in which it
was written, must be deemed confused, obscure and unphuosophkaL
In his posthumous work, De Motu Animalium, published at
Rome in i68o-i68i,G.A.Borelli gave calculations of the enormous
strength of the pectoral muscles in birds; and bis proposition
cdv. (vol. i. pp. 322-326), entitled Est impossibile ut homines pro-
priis viribus artificiose volare possint, points out the impossibility
of man being able by his muscular strength to give motion to
wings of sufficient extent to keep him suspended in the air. But
during his lifetime two Frenchmen, Allard in 1660 and Besnier
about 1678, are said to have succeeded in making short flights.
An account of some of the modern attempts to construct flying
machines will be found in the artide Flight and Flying; here
we append a brief consideration of the mechanical aspects of
the problem.
The very first essential for success is safety, which will probably
only be attained with automatic stability. The underlying prinriple
is that the centre of gravity shall at all times be on the same vertical
line as the centre of pressure. The latter varies with the angle of
ivity shall at all times be on the same vertical
. __ r jessure. The latter varies with the angle of
incidence. For square planes it moves approximately as expressed
AERONAUTICS
261
by JossscTs formula, C+ (0-2 +04 sin a) L, in which C b the distance
from the front edge, L the length fore and aft, and a the angle of
tauoracr. The movement it different on concave surface*. The
term a rr e flfa— is understood to apply to flat sustaining surfaces,
but experiment indicates that arched surfaces are more efficient.
& P. Langky p ropo sed the word aerodrome, which seems the prefer-
able tern lor apparatus with wing-like surfaces. This b the type to
which results point aa the proper one for further experiments. With
urn it teems probable that, with well-designed apparatus, 40 to 50 lb
eaa be sustained per indicated h.p., or about twice that quantity
per resistance or ' thrust " h.p., and that some 30 or 40% of the
weight can be .devoted to the machinery, thus requiring motors, with
ther propellers, shafting, supplies, Ac, weighing less than 20 lb
per hp. It b evident that the apparatus must be designed to be as
ii>t as nomiblejand also to reduce to a minimum all resistances
to propuhaon. This being kept in view, the strength and conse-
quent section required for each member may be calculated by the
methods employed in proportioning bridges, with the difference
that the support (from air pressure) will be considered aa uniformly
distributed, and the load aa co n ce ntr ated at one or more points.
Smaller factors of safety may also have to be used. Knowing the
secrioas required and unit weight* of the materials to be employed,
the weight of each part can be computed. If a model has been made
to absolutely exact scale, the weight of the full-sbed apparatus
any approximately be ascertained by the formula
W.
.wVIfT.
b which W b the weight of the model. S its surface, and W and S'
the weight and surface of the intended apparatus. Th us if the model
has been made one-quarter sue in its homologous dimensions, the
supporting surfaces will be sixteen times, and the total weight sixty-
four times those of the model. The weight and the surface being
determined, the three most important things to know are the angle
of incidence, the " lift," and the required speed. The fundamental
formula for rectangular air pressure b well known: P-KVS, in
which P b the rectangular normal pressure, in pounds or kilograms,
K a coeffi ci ent (0-0049 for British, and o- 11 for metric measures).
V the velocity in miles per hour or in metresper second, and S the
surface ia square feet or in square metres. The normal on oblique
surfaces, at various angles of Incidence, b given by the formula
P- KV5t, which latter factor b given both for planes and for arched
•urfaces ia the subjoined table:—
PncnrTACSS op Aie Pebssuu at Va
uous Am
5LES
op Incidence
Pumas (Due hewn Fob-
acta, vsainao by Langliy).
Wings (Lilientral)
M_C*
2s-u«
i*
Concavity 1 in 12.
l+sin 1 !
Aagfc.
a,
Nor-
mal.
f>
Lift.
eoosa.
Drift.
*ina.
Nor-
mal.
Lift.
scosa.
Drift
fjaina,
Tan-
gential
force.
a.
3
0-0
0-0
0-0
+0-070
0-040
0-080
0-0396
-0-0055
+0*067
"?;
0-0741
-0-0097
+0064
-6'
0-120
0-1193
—0*0125
+0060
-$:
0I60
0-I594
-00139
+©K>55
-4*
0-200
0-1995
0-2416
0-2858
-0-0139
+0-049
-*:
0*242
0-286
—0-0126
+0-043
-1 #
—0*0100
+0-037
-I*
#
+ 1*
OK)
o-o,\5
OK)
0-033
O-O
O-000611
0*332
0-381
0-434
0-489
0-3318
0*3810
0-434
0-489
-00058
—0*0
+0-0075
+0-031
+O-016
+**
0-070
0-070
0-00244
+0-0170
+00285
+0-0418
+0-008
fK
0*104
0-104
0-00343
0.546
0-600
o-545
o-o
t<
O-IJQ
0-139
0*0097
0-597
0647
—0-007
#
0-174
0-I73
0*206
0*0153
0*50
+0*0566
—0014
0-207
O-0217
0*696
0-692
+0-0727
+0*0898
+0-I072
— 0-021
#
0-140
o-a73
0*238
0-270
0*0203
0*0381
o*737
0-771
o-8oo
0-825
0-846
0-864
0-751
0-763
-0-O28
-O-O35
0-305
O-30O
O-332
0-3M
O-390
0*0477
0*0585
0-0709
0-0828
0*790
0-812
0-830
0-856
0-864
+0-I25I
+0-1432
+0*1614
+0*1803
+OI976
-0-042
—O-O5O
-O.O58
-0-O64
! 3 !
o-43i
0-419
0*0971
0-879
—0-070
!
0-457
0-486
IVi
0-1155
0-891
+0-2I56
-0-074
-0-076
•3'
0-1240
0-901
0-870
+O2332
the sustaining power, or " lift,*' which in horizontal flight must
w equal to the weight, . can be calculated by the formula
J-"KV 1 Sseo*«, or the factor may be taken direct from the table, in
wuch the " lift " and the "drift" have been obtained by multiply-
2*!™ eoorm » l » by thecosine and sine of the angle. The last column
Jf**J the tangential pressure on concave surfaces which O Lilien-
«al found to posses* a propelling component between 3" and 32*.
and therefore to be negative to the relative wind. Former modes
surfaces, angles of 2 s to 5 s will produce adequate " lift." To com-
pute the Utter the angle at which the wings are to be set must first
be assumed, and that of +3" will generally be found preferable.
Then the required velocity b n eat to be computed by the formula
or for concave wings at +3*:
V -Vol45KS-
Having thus determined the weight, the surface, the angle of Inci-
dence and the required sp eed for horizontal support, the next step
b to calculate the power required. Thb b best accomplished by first
obtaining the total resistances, which consist of the ''drift " and of
the head resistances due to the hull and framing. The latter are
arrived at preferably by making a tabular statement showing all
the spars and parts offering bead resistance, and applying to each
the coefficient appropriate to its " master section," as ascertained by
experiment. Thus b obtained an " equivalent area " of resistance,
which bto be multiplied by the wind pressure due to the speed. Care
must be taken to resolve all the resistances at their proper angle of
application, and to subtract or add the tangential force, which con-
sists in the surface S. multiplied by the wind pressure, and by the
factor in the table, which is, however, o for 3* and 32*, but positive
or negative at other angles. When the aggregate resistances are
known, the " thrust h.p?' required b obtained by multiplying the
istance by the speed, and then allowing for mechanical losses in
the motor and propeller, which losses will generally be 50% of
indicated h.p. Close approximations are obtained by the above
method when applied to full-sued apparatus. The following example
will make the process clearer. The weight to be carried by an appar-
atus was 1 89 lb on concave wings of 143-5 *4- ft- ares, set at a positive
angle of 3 s . There were in addition rear wings of 29-5 sq. ft., set at
a negative angle of 3*; hence, L-i89-okx>5XV > XI43'5Xo-545.
--22 miles per hour,
WheaceV " Vo-.oo5Xi43-5Xo-545"
at which the air pressure would be 2-42 lb per sq. ft. The area
of spars and man was 17-86 sq. ft., reduced by various coefficients
to an " equivalent surface " of 11-70 sq. ft., so that the resistances
were;—
Drift front wings, 143-5X0-0285X2-42 . -9-90 lb
„ rear wings. 29-5 X (0-043 -0-242 Xo*0523)X2-42 -217,,
Tangential force at 3 -000 .,
Head resistance, 11*70X2*42 -28-31 „
-40-38 lb
Total resistance
Speed 99 miles per hour. Power - ^°*|y Xaa -2-36 h.p. for the
" thrust " or 4-72 h.p. for the motor. The weight being 189 lb, and
the resistance 40*38 lb, the gliding angle of descent waa^yg^--
tangent of 12*, which* was verified by many experiments
Tne following expressions will be found useful in computing such
projects, with the aid of the table above given.—
1. Wind force, F-KV.
P-KVS.
* Velocity, V-VQ*=.
4. Surface S varies as vjr
5. Normal, N-KSW
6. Lift, L-KSWosa.
7. Weight, W-L-Ncoso.
8. Drift, D-KSVMna,
9. Head area E, get an equiva-
lent.
10. Head resistance, H-EF.
1 1 . Tangential f orce, T - Pa.
12. Resistance, R-D+H-T.
13. Ft. lb. M-RV.
RV
l^Tlxniet.h.p.-j*-^
A crosUUio*.— Possibly the flying dove of Archytas of Tarentum
is the earliest suggestion of true aerostation. According to Aulus
Gellius (Nodes Attkac) it was a " model of a dove or pigeon
formed in wood and so contrived as by a certain mechanical art
and power to fly: so nicely was it balanced by weights and put
in motion by hidden and enclosed air." This " bidden and
enclosed air " may conceivably represent an anticipation of the
hot-air balloon, but it is at least as probable that the apparent
flight of the dove was a mere mechanical trick depending on
the use of fine wires or strings invisible to the spectators.
In the middle ages vague ideas appear of some ethereal sub-
stance so light that vessels containing it would remain suspended
in the air. Roger Bacon (12x4-1204) conceived of a large
hollow globe made of very thin metal and filled with ethereal
air or liquid fire, which would float on the atmosphere like a ship
zhz
AERONAUTICS
on water. Albert of Saxony, who was bishop of Halberstadt
from 1366 to 1390, had a similar notion, and considered that a
small portion of the principle of fire enclosed in a light sphere
would raise it and keep it suspended. The same speculation
was advanced by Francis Mendoza, a Portuguese Jesuit, who
died in 1626 at the age of forty-six, and by Caspar Schott (1608-
1666X also a Jesuit and professor of mathematics at Wilrzburg,
though for fire he substituted the thin ethereal fluid which he
believed to float above the atmosphere. So late as 1755 Joseph
Galien (1690-1782), a Dominican friar and professor of philo-
sophy and theology in the papal university of Avignon, proposed
to collect the diffuse air of the upper regions and to enclose it in
a huge vessel extending more than a mile every way, and intended
to carry fifty-four times as much weight as did Noah's ark!
A somewhat different but equally fantastic method of making
heavy bodies rise is quoted by Schott from Lauretus Lauras,
according to whom swans' eggs or leather balls filled with nitre,
sulphur or mercury ascend when exposed to the sun. Lauras
also stated that hens' eggs filled with dew will ascend in the
same circumstances, because dew is shed by the stars and drawn
up again to heaven by the sun's heat during the day. The same
notion is utilized by Cyrano de Bergerac (1610-1655) in his
romances describing journeys to the moon and sun, for his
French traveller fastens round his body a multitude of very
thin flasks filled with the morning's dew, whereby through the
attractive power of the sun's heat on the dew he is raised to
the middle regions of the atmosphere, to sink again, howeveiyoD
the breaking of some of the flasks.
A distinct advance on Schott is marked by the scheme for
aerial 'navigation proposed by the Jesuit, Francis Lana (1631-
1687), in his book, published at Brescia in 1670, Prodromo cmero
Saggio di akune inveruioni tume promesso aW Arte Maestra.
His idea, though useless
and unpractical in so far
that it could never be
carried out, fa yet de-
serving of notice, as the
principles involved are
sound; and this can be
said of no earlier
attempt His project
was to procure four
copper balls of very
large dimensions (fig. 1),
yet so extremely thin
that after the air was
exhausted from them
they would be lighter
than the air they dis-
placed and so would
rise; and to those four
balls he proposed to
attach a boat, with sails,
&c, which would carry
up a man. He sub-
mitted the whole matter
to calculation, and pro-
posed that the globes should be about 25 ft in diameter and
Y^yth of an inch in thickness; this would give from all four balls a
total ascensional force of about 1200 lb, which would be quite
enough to raise the boat, sails, passengers, &c But the obvious
objection to the whole scheme fa, that it would be quite im-
possible to construct a globe of so large a size and of such small
thickness which would even support its own weight without col-
lapsing if placed on the ground, much less bear the external
atmospheric pressure when the internal air was removed. Lana
himself noticed this objection, but he thought that the spherical
form of the copper shell would, notwithstanding its extreme thin-
ness, enable it, after the exhaustion was effected, to sustain
the enormous pressure, which, acting equally on every point
of the surface, would tend to consolidate rather than to break
the metal His proposal to exhaust the air from the globes
Fig. t . — Lana's Aeronautical Machine.
by attaching to each a tube 36 ft long, fitted with a stopcock,
and so producing a Torricellian vacuum, suggests that he was
ignorant of the invention of the air-pump by Otto von Goericke
about 165a
We now come to the invention of the baEoon, which was
due to Joseph Michel Montgolfier (1740-18x0) and Jacques
Etienne Montgolfier (1745-1709)1 sons of Pierre Mont- _
golfier, a large and celebrated papermaker at Annonay, ^'"^^
a town about 40 m. from Lyons. The brothers had t^mm,
observed the suspension of clouds. in the atmosphere,
and it occurred to them that if they could enclose any vapour
of the nature of a cloud in a large and very light bag, it might
rise and carry the bag with it into the air. Towards the end of
1782 they inflated bags with smoke from a fire placed under-
neath, and found that either the smoke or some vapour emitted
from the fire did ascend and carry the bag with it Being tints
assured of the correctness of their views, they determined to
have a public ascent of a balloon-on a large scale. They accord-
ingly invited the States of Vivarais, then assembled at Annonay.
to witness their aerostatic experiment; and on the 5th of June
1783, in the presence of a considerable concourse of spectators,
a linen globe of 105 .ft in circumference was inflated over a
fire fed with small bundles of chopped straw. When released
it rapidly rose to a great height, and descended, at the expiration
of ten minutes, at the distance of about xim. This was the
discovery of the balloon. The brothers Montgolfier imagmed
that the bag rose because of the levity of the smoke or other
vapour given forth by the burning straw; and it was not tnl
some time later that it was recognized that the ascending power
was due merely to the lightness of heated air compared to an
equal volume of air at a lower temperature. In this balloon,
no source of heat was taken up, so that the air inside rapidly
cooled, and the balloon soon descended.
The news of the experiment at Annonay attracted to modi
attention at Paris that Barthelemi Faujas de Saint-Fond O741-
18x9), afterwards professor of geology at the Musee d*Histoire
Naturelle, set on foot a subscription for paying the expense of
repeating the experiment The balloon was constructed by
two brothers of the name of Robert, under the superintendence
of the physicist, J. A. C. Charles. The first suggestion was to
copy the process of Montgolfier, but Charles proposed the appli-
cation of hydrogen gas, which was adopted. The filling of the
balloon, which was made of thin silk varnished with a solutioo of
elastic gum, and was about 13 ft in diameter, was began on the
23rd of August 1783, in the Place des Victoires. The hydrogen
gas was obtained by the action of
dilute sulphuric add upon iron
filings, and was introduced through
leaden pipes; but as the gas was
not passed through cold water, great
difficulty was experienced in filling t
the balloon completely; and alto- 1
gether about 500 fl> of sulphuric add 1
and twice that amount of iron
filings were used (fig. 2). Bulletins
were issued daily of the progress of
the inflation; and the crowd was
so great that on the 26th the bal-
loon was moved secretly by night
to the Champ de Mars, a distance
of 2 m. On the next day an im-
mense concourse of people covered
the Champ de Mars, and every spot '
from which a view could be ob-
tained was crowded. About five
o'clock a cannon was discharged as
the signal for the ascent, and the bajloon when liberated rose to
the height of about 3000 ft with great rapidity. A shower of
rain which began to fall directly after it had left the earth in no
way checked its progress; and the exdtement was so great, that
thousands of well-dressed spectators, many of them ladies, stood
exposed, watching it intently the whole time it was in sight, and
Fig. 2.— Charles' and
Robert's BaOoon.
AERONAUTICS
263
wens dreaded to the akin. The balloon, after remaining in the
air for about three-quarters of an hour, fell in a field near
Gaoesse, about 15 m. off, and terrified the peasantry so much
that it was torn into shreds by them. Hydrogen gas was at
tins time known by the name of inflammable air; and balloons
inflated with gas have ever since been called by the people
air-balloons, the kind invented by the Montgolfiers being desig-
nated fire-balloons. French writers have also very frequently
styled them after their inventors, Charliires and Montgolfibres.
On the 19th of September 1783 Joseph Montgolfier repeated
the Annonay experiment at Versailles, in the presence of the
king, the queen, the court and an immense number of spectators.
The inflation was begun at one o'clock, and completed in eleven
minutes, when the balloon rose to the height of about 1500 ft,
and descended after eight minutes, at a distance of about 2 m.,
in the wood of Vaucresson. Suspended below the balloon,
in a cage, had been placed a sheep, a cock and a duck, which
were thus the first aerial travellers. They were quite uninjured,
except the cock, which had its right wing hurt in consequence
of a kick it had received from the sheep; but this took place
before the ascent. The balloon, which was painted with orna-
ments in oil colours, had a very showy appearance (fig 3)
Fie. 3.— Montgolfier'* Balloon.
The first human being who ascended in a balloon was Jean
Francois Pilttre de Rosier (1756-1785), a native of Metz, who
was appointed superintendent of the natural history collections
of Loms XVIII. On the 15th of October 1783, and following
days, he made several ascents (generally alone, but once with
a companion, Girond de Villette) in a captive balloon (ix. one
attached by ropes to the ground), and demonstrated that there
was no difficulty in taking up fuel and feeding the fire, which
was kindled in a brazier suspended under the balloon, when in
tke air. The way being thus prepared for aerial navigation, on
toe aist of November 1783, Pilatre de Rosier and the marquis
d'Aiiandes first trusted themselves to a free fire-balloon. The
experiment was made from the Jardin du Chateau de la Muette,
in the Bois de Boulogne. A large fire-balloon was inflated at
about two o'clock, rose to a height of about 500 ft, and passing
over the Invalides and the £cole Militaire, descended beyond
the Boulevards, about 0000 yds. from the place of ascent, having
been between twenty and twenty-five minutes in the air.
Only ten days later, vis. on the 1st of December 1783, Charles
*wnded from Paris in a balloon inflated with hydrogen gas.
The balloon, as in the case of the small one of the same kind
previously launched from the Champ de Mars, was constructed
by the brothers Robert, one of whom took part in the ascent.
It was 27 ft in diameter, and the car was suspended from a
hoop surrounding the middle of the balloon, and fastened to a
net, which covered the upper hemisphere. The balloon ascended
very gently from the TuUeries at a quarter to two o'clock, and
after remaining for some time at an elevation of about 2000 ft,
it descended in about two hours at Nesle, a small town about
37 m. from Paris, when Robert left the car, and Charles made
a second ascent by himself. He had intended to have replaced
the weight of his companion by a nearly equivalent quantity
of ballast; but not having any suitable means of obtaining such
at the place of descent, and it being just upon sunset, he gave
the word to let go, and the balloon being thus so greatly lightened,
ascended very rapidly to a height of about a m. After staying
in the air about half an hour, he descended 3 m. from the
place of ascent, although he believed the distance traversed,
owing to different currents, to have been about 9 m. In this
second journey he experienced a violent pain in his right ear and
jaw, no doubt produced by the rapidity of the ascent. He also
witnessed the phenomenon of a double sunset on the same day;
for when he ascended, the sun had set in the valleys, and as
he mounted he saw it rise again, and set a second time as he
descended.
All the features of the modern balloon as now used are more
or less due to Charles, who invented the valve at the top, sus-
pended the car from a hoop, which was itself attached to the
balloon by netting, &c. With regard to his use of hydrogen gas,
there are anticipations that must be noticed. As early as 1766
Henry Cavendish showed that this gas was at least seven times
lighter than ordinary air, and it immediately occurred to Dc
Joseph Black, of Edinburgh, that a thin bag filled with hydrogen
gas would rise to the ceiling of a room. He provided, accordingly,
the allantois of a calf, with the view of showing at a public lecture
such a curious experiment; but for some reason it seems to have
failed, and Black did not repeat it, thus allowing a great dis-
covery, almost within his reach, to escape him. Several years
afterwards a similar idea occurred to Tiberius Cavallo, who found
that bladders, even when carefully scraped, are too heavy, and
that China paper is permeable to the gas. But in 1782, the year
before the invention of the Montgolfiers, he succeeded in elevating
soap-bubbles by inflating them with hydrogen gas.
Researches on the use of gas for inflating balloons seem to have
been carried on at Philadelphia nearly simultaneously with the
experiments of the Montgolfiers; and when the news of the
latter reached America, D. Rittenhouse and F. Hopkinson,
members of the Philosophical Society at Philadelphia, con-
structed a machine consisting of forty-seven small hydrogen
gas-balloons attached to a car or cage. After several preliminary
experiments, in which animals were let up to a certain -height
by a rope, a carpenter, one James Wilcox, was induced to enter
the car for a small sum of money; the ropes were cut, and he
remained in the air about ten minutes, and only then effected
his descent by making incisions in a number of the balloons,
through fear of falling into the river, which he was approaching.
Although the news of the Annonay and subsequent experi-
ments in France rapidly spread all over Europe, and formed a
topic of general discussion, still it was not till five pint
months after the Montgolfiers had first publicly sent okm* la
a balloon into the air that any aerostatic experiment JUS*
was made in England. In November 1783 Count
Francesco Zambeccari (1 756-181 2), an Italian who happened to
be in London, made a balloon of oil-silk, 10 ft in diameter,
and weighing 11 lb. It was publicly shown for several days,
and on the 25th it was three-quarters filled with hydrogen gas
and launched from the Artillery ground at one o'clock. It
descended after two hours and a half near Petworth, in Sussex,
48 m. from London. This was the first balloon that ascended
from English ground. On the 22nd of February 1 784 a hydrogen
gas balloon, 5 ft in diameter, was let up from Sandwich, in
Kent, and descended at Warneton, in French Flanders,
264
AERONAUTICS
75 m. distant. This was the first balloon that crossed the
Channel, The first person who rose into the air from British
ground appears to have been J. Tytler, 1 who ascended from
the Comely Gardens, Edinburgh, on the 27th of August 1784,
in a fire-balloon of his own construction. He descended on
the road to Restalrig, about half a mile from the place where
he rose
But it was Vincent Lunardi who practically introduced
aerostation into Great Britain. Although Tytler had the
precedence by a few days still his attempts and partial success
were all but unknown ; whereas Lunardi's experiments excited
an enormous amount of enthusiasm in London. He was secre-
tary to Prince Caramanico, the Neapolitan ambassador, and his
published letters to his guardian, the chevalier Compagni,
written while he was carrying
out his project, and detail-
ing all the difficulties, &c, he
met with as they occurred,
give an interesting and vivid
account of the whole matter.
His balloon was 33 ft in
circumference (fig. 4), and was
exposed to the public view
at the Lyceum in the Strand,
where it was visited by up-
wards of 30,000 people. He
originally intended to ascend
from Chelsea Hospital, but
the conduct of a crowd at a
garden at Chelsea, which de-
stroyed the fire-balloon of a
Frenchman named de Moret,
who announced an ascent on
the nth of August, but was
unable to keep his word, led
to the withdrawal of the
Ultimately he was permitted to
ascend from the Artillery ground, and on the 15th of September
1 784 the inflation with hydrogen gas took place. It was intended
that an English gentleman named Biggin should accompany
Lunardi; but the crowd becoming impatient, the latter judged
it prudent to ascend with the balloon only partially full rather
than risk a longer delay, and accordingly Mr Biggin was obliged
to leave the car. Lunardi therefore ascended alone, in presence
of the prince of Wales and an enormous crowd of spectators.
He took up with him a pigeon, a dog and a cat, and the balloon
was provided with oars, by means of which he hoped to raise or
lower it at pleasure. Shortly after starting the pigeon escaped,
and one of the oars became broken and f eU to the ground. In
about an hour and a half he descended at South Mimms, in
Hertfordshire, and landed the cat, which had suffered from the
cold: he then ascended again, and descended, after the lapse of
about three-quarters of an hour, at Standon, near Ware, where
he had great difficulty in inducing the peasants to come to his
assistance; but at length a young woman, taking hold of one
of the cords, urged the men to follow her example, which they
then did. The excitement caused by this ascent was immense,
«nd Lunardi at once became the star of the hour. He was pre-
sented to the king, and was courted and nattered on all sides.
To show the enthusiasm displayed by the people during his
ascent, he tells himself, in his sixth letter, how a lady, mistaking
the oar which fell for himself, was so affected by his supposed
destruction that she died in a few days ; but, on the other hand,
he says he was told by the judges " that he had certainly saved
the life of a young man who might possibly be reformed, and be
to the public a compensation for the death of the lady "; for the
jury were deliberating on the fate of a criminal, whom they must
ultimately have condemned, when the balloon appeared, and
to save time they gave a verdict of acquittal, and the whole court
•Mr Tytler contributed largely to, and, indeed, appears to have
been virtually editor at. the second edition (1770-1783) of the
Encyclopaedic Briiannxca.
Fig. 4.— Lunardi's Balloon,
leave that had been granted.
came out to view the balloon. The king also was in conference
with his ministers; but on hearing that the balloon was passing,
he broke up the discussion, and with them watched the balloon
through telescopes. The balloon was afterwards exhibited in
the Pantheon. In the latter part of the following year (1785)
Lunardi made several successful ascents from Kelso, Edinburgh
and Glasgow (in one of which he traversed a distance of no
m.) ; these he described in a second series of letters.
TTie first ascent from Ireland was made on the 19th of January
1785 by a Mr Crosbie, who on the following 19th of July at-
tempted to cross St George's Channel to England but fell into
the sea. The second person who ascended from Ireland was
Richard Maguire. Mr Crosbie had inflated his balloon on the
1 2th of May 1785, but it was unable to take him up. Maguire
in these circumstances offered himself as a substitute, and his
offer being accepted he made the ascent For this he was
knighted by the Lord-Lieutenant Another attempt to cross
St George's Channel was made by James Sadler on the 1st of
October 18 12, and he had nearly succeeded when in consequence
of a change of wind he was forced to descend into the sea off
Liverpool, whence he was rescued by a fishing-boat But on
the 22nd of July 1817 his second son, Windham Sadler, su cceed ed
in crossing from Dublin to Holyhead. .
The first balloon voyage across the English Channel was
accomplished by Jean Pierre Blanchard (1753-1809) and Drl J.
Jeffries, an American physician, on the 7th of January
1785. In the preceding year, on the 2nd of March,
Blanchard, who was one of the most celebrated of
the earlier aeronauts, made his first voyage from Paris
in a balloon 27 ft. in diameter (fig. 5), and descended at BiHan-
court near Sevres.
Just as the balloon
was about to start,
a young man jumped
into the car and draw-
ing his sword declared
his determination to
ascend with Blanch-
ard. He was ulti-
mately removed by
force. It has some-
times been incorrectly
stated that he was
Napoleon Bonaparte;
his name in reality
was Dupont de Cham-
bon. In their Channel
crossing Blanchard
and his companion,
who started from
Dover, when about
one-third across found
themselves descend-
ing, and threw out
every available thing
from the boat or car.
When about three-
quarters across they
were descending A, Balloon of taffeta, 26 ft. in diameter,
again, and had to n covered with a net.
,jT___ _„ t „ # „i„ B, Car suspended by cords from hoop C.
throw out not only D( Df D> p/wings worked by rack-work E.
the anchor and cords, F, Parachute tobreak the force of descent
but also to strip and should the balloon burst,
throw away part of G » TuD * communicating with inside of
Fig. 5.— Blanchard'* Balloon.
their clothing, after
balloon.
which they found they were rising, and their last resource, vis.
to cut away the car, was rendered unnecessary. As they ap-
proached the shore the balloon rose, describing a magnificent arch
high over the land. They descended in the forest of Guinnes.
On the 15th of June 1785, Pilatre de Rosier made an attempt
to repeat the exploit of Blanchard and Jeffries in the reverse
direction, and cross from Boulogne to England. For this
AERONAUTICS
Plate I.
FlG. I.— CLfiMENT-BAYARD DIRIGIBLE. ™<*>. Topical Press.
Photo, Topical Press.
Fig. 2.— ZEPPELIN VII. (DEUTSCHLAND), WRECKED JUNE 28, 1910.
Tlate II.
AERONAUTICS
Fig. 3.— BRITISH ARMY DIRIGIBLE, BETA. ***<*». Topical Press.
Fig. 4.— PARSEVAL DIRIGIBLE.
Photo, Top tail Presy
AERONAUTICS
265
purpose lie contrived a double balloon, which he expected would
combine the advantages of both kinds— a fire-balloon, 10 ft in
diameter, being placed underneath a gas-balloon of 37 ft in
diameter, so that by increasing or diminishing the fire in the
former it might be possible to ascend or descend without waste
of gas. Rosier was accompanied by P. A. Romain, and for
rather less than half an hour after the aerostat ascended all
seemed to be going on well, when suddenly the whole apparatus
was seen in flames, and the unfortunate adventurers came to
the ground from the supposed height of more than 3000 ft
Rosier was killed on the spot, and Romain only survived about
ten minutes. A monument was erected on the place where they
fell, which was near the sea-shore, about 4 m. from the
starting-point
The largest balloon on record (if the contemporary accjounts
are correct) ascended from Lyons on the 19th of January 1784.
It was more than xoo ft in diameter, about 130 ft
J[JJ in height and when distended had a capacity, it is
I if 1 11— said, of over half a million cubic feet It was called
the " Flesselles*" (from the name of its proprietor, we
believe), and after having been inflated from a straw fire in
seventeen minutes, it rose with seven persons in the car to the
height of about 3000 ft, but descended again after the lapse of
about a quarter of an hour from the time- of starting, in con-
sequence of a rent in the upper part
Another large fire-balloon, 68 ft in diameter, was constructed
by the chevalier Paul Andreani of Milan, and on the 25th of
February he ascended in it from Milan, remaining in the air for
about twenty minutes. This is usually regarded as the first
ascent in Italy (but see Monck Mason's Aeronautka, p. 247).
On the 7th of November 1836, at half-past one o'clock, a
large balloon containing about 85,000 cub. ft of gas ascended
from VauxhaU Gardens, London, carrying Robert Hollond, M.P.,
Monck Mason and Charles Green, and descended about two
leagues from Weflburg, in the duchy of Nassau, at half-past
•even the next morning, having thus traversed a* distance of
about 500 m. in 18 hours; Liege was passed in the course of
the night, and Contents in the early morning. In consequence
of this journey the balloon became famous as the " Nassau
Balloon " (fig. 6). Charles Green (1 785-1 870), who constructed
it sod subsequently became its owner* was the most celebrated
of English aeronauts, and made an extraordinary number of
ascents. His first made from the Green rat, London, on the
xoth of July 1821 at the coronation of George IV., was distin-
guished for the fact that for the first time coal-gas was used
instead of hydrogen for inflating the balloon. In 1828 he made
an equestrian ascent from the Eagle Tavern, City Road, London,
seated on his favourite pony. Such ascents have since been
repeated; in 1852 Madame Poitevin made one from Cremorne
Gardens, but was prevented from giving a second performance
by police interference, the exhibition outraging public opinion.
It was in descending from the " Nassau Balloon " in a parachute
that Robert Cocking was killed in 1 837 (see Pasachute). Green
was the inventor of the guide-rope, which consists of a long rope
trailing below the car. Its function is to reduce the waste of gas
and ballast required to keep the balloon at a proper altitude.
When a balloon sinks so low that a good deal of the guide-rope
rests on the ground, it is relieved of so much weight and therefore
tends to rise; if on the other hand it rises so that most of the
rope is lifted off the ground, it has to bear a greater weight and
tends to sink. *
In 1863 A. Nadar, a Paris photographer, construtced " Le
Ceant" which was the largest gas-balloon made up to that time
and contained over 200,000 cub. ft. of gas. Underneath it
was placed a smaller balloon, called a compensator, the object
of which was to prevent loss of gas during the voyage. The
car had two stories, and was, in fact, a model of a cottage in
wicker-work, 8 ft. in height by 13 ft in length, containing a
small printing-office, a photographic department, a refreshment-
room, a lavatory, &c. The first ascent took place at five o'clock
on Sunday the 4th of October 1863, from the Champ de Mars.
There were thirteen persons in the car, including one lady, the
princess de la Tour d'Auvergne, and the two aeronauts Louts
and Jules Godard. In spite of the elaborate preparations that
had been made and the stores of provisions that were taken up,
the balloon descended at nine o'clock, at Meaux, the early descent
being rendered necessary, it was said, by an accident to the
valve-line. At a second ascent, made a- fortnight later, there
were nine passengers, including Madame Nadar. The balloon
descended at the expiration of seventeen hours, near Nienburg
in Hanover, a distance of about 400 m. A strong wind was
blowing, and it was dragged over the ground for 7 or 8 m.
All the passengers were bruised, and* some seriously hurt The
balloon and car were then brought to England, and exhibited
at the Crystal Palace at the end of 1863 and beginning of 1864.
The two ascents of Nadar's balloon excited an extraordinary
amount of enthusiasm and interest, vastly out of proportion
to what they were entitled to. Nadar's idea was to obtain sum-
dent money, by the exhibition of his balloon, to carry out a plan
Fig. 6.— The Great Nassau Balloon.
of aerial locomotion he had conceived possible by means of the
principle of the screw; in fact, he spoke of " Le Geant " as " the
last balloon." He also started V Aeronaut*, a newspaper devoted
to aerostation, and published a small book, which was translated
into English under the title The Right to Fly,
Directly after Nadar's two ascents, Eugene Godard con-
structed a fire-balloon of nearly half a million cubic feet capa-
city— more than double that of Nadar's and only slightly less
than that attributed to the " Flesselles " of 1783. The air waa
heated by an 18-ft stove, weighing, with the chimney, 080 lb.
This furnace was fed by straw; and the " car " consisted of a
gallery surrounding it Two ascents of this balloon, the first
fire-balloon seen in London, were made from Cremorne Gardens
in July 1864. After the first journey the balloon descended at
Greenwich, and after the second at Walthamstow, where it was
injured by being blown against a tree. Notwithstanding its
enormous sixe, Godard asserted that it could be inflated in half
an hour, and the inflation at Cremorne did not occupy more
than an hour. In spite of the rapidity with which the inflation
was effected, few who saw. .the ascent "could fail to receive an
impression unfavourable to the fire-balloon in the matter of
safety, as a rough descent, with a heated furnace as it were in
the car, could not be other than most dangerous.
266
AERONAUTICS
In the summer of 1873 the proprietors of the New York Daily
Graphic, reviving a project discussed by Green in 1840, deter-
mined to construct a very large balloon, and enable
iSSSofl the American aeronaut, John Wise, to realize his
rv«M. favourite scheme of crossing the Atlantic Ocean to
Europe, by taking advantage of the current from west
to east which was believed by many to exist constantly at heights
above 10,000- ft The project came to nothing owing to the
quality of the material of which the balloon was made. When it
was being inflated in September 1873 * rent wu observed after
335,000 cub. ft of gas had been put in, and the whole rapidly
collapsed. The size was said to be such as to contain 400,000
cub. ft, so that it would lift a weight of 14*000 lb. No balloon
voyage has yet been made of a length comparable to the breadth
of the Atlantic. In fact only two voyages exceeding 1000 m.
are on record— that of John Wise from St Louis to Henderson,
N.Y., 1 120 m., in 1859, and that of Count Henry de la Vaulx
from Paris to Korosticheff in Russia, 1193 m., in xooo. On
the nth of July 1897 Salomon Andree, with two companions,
Strendberg and Frankd, ascended from Spitsbergen in a daring
attempt to reach the North Pole, about 600 m. distant One
carrier pigeon, apparently liberated 48 hours after the start,
was shot, and two floating buoys with messages were found, but
nothing more was heard of the explorers.
At an early date the balloon was applied to scientific purposes.
So far back as 1784, Dr Jeffries made an ascent from London in
Schmttoo wn * c ^ 1 ** carried out barometric, thermometric and
afTTBrt, hygrometric observations, also collecting samples of
the air at different heights. In 1803 the St Petersburg
Academy of Sciences, entertaining the opinion that the experi-
ments made on mountain-sides by J. A. Dduc, H. B. de Saua-
sure, A. von Humboldt and others must give results different
from those made in free air at the same heights, resolved to
arrange a balloon ascent Accordingly, on the 30th of January
1804, Sacharof, a member Of the academy, ascended in a gas-
balloon, in company with a French aeronaut, £. G. Robertson,
who at one time gave conjuring entertainments in Paris. The
ascent was made at a quarter past seven, and the descent effected
at a quarter to eleven. The height reached was less than i\ m.
The experiments were not very systematically made, and
the chief results Were the filling and bringing down of several
flasks of air collected at different elevations, and the supposed
observation that the magnetic dip was altered. A telescope
fixed in the bottom of the car and pointing vertically down-
wards enabled the travellers to ascertain exactly the spot over
which they were floating at any moment Sacharof found
that, on shouting downwards through his speaking-trumpet,
the echo from the earth was quite distinct, and at his height
was audible after an interval of about ten seconds (Phil.
Mat., 1805, 21, p. 193).
Some of the results reported by Robertson appearing doubtful,
Laplace proposed to the members of the French Academy of
Sciences that the funds placed by the government at their dis-
posal for the prosecution of useful experiments should be utilized
in sending up balloons to test their accuracy. The proposition
was supported by J. A. C. Chaptal, the chemist, who was then
minister of the interior, and accordingly the necessary arrange-
ments were speedily effected, the charge of the experiments
being given to L. J. Gay-Lussac and J. B. Biot The principal
object of this ascent was to determine whether the magnetic
force experienced any appreciable diminution at heights above
the earth's surface. On the 24th of August 1804, Gay-Lussac
and Biot ascended from the Conservatoire des Arts at ten o'clock
in the morning. Their magnetic experiments were incommoded
by the rotation of the balloon, but they found that, up to the
height of 13,000 ft, the time of vibration of a magnet was ap-
preciably the same as on the earth's surface. They found also
that the air became drier as they ascended. The height reached
was about 13,000 ft, and the temperature declined from 63°
to 51° F. The descent was effected about half-past one, at
Meriville, 18 leagues from Paris.
In a second experiment, which was made on the 16th of Sep-
tember 1804, Gay-Lussac ascended alone. The balloon left the
Conservatoire des Arts at 940 ajl, and descended at 345 pjl
between Rouen and Dieppe. The chief result obtained was
that the magnetic force, like gravitation, did not experience
any -sensible variation at heights from the earth's surface which
we can attain to. Gay-Lussac also brought down air collected
at the height of nearly 23,000 ft, and on analysis it appeared
that its composition was the same as that of air collected at the
earth's surface. At the time of leaving the earth the thermometer
stood at 82 F., and at the highest point reached (23,000 ft.)
it was 14-9° F. Gay-Lussac remarked that at his highest point
there were still clouds above him.
From 1804 to 1850 there is no record of any scientific ascents
in balloons having been undertaken. In the latter year J. A.
Bixio (1808-1865) and J. A. Banal (18x0-1884) made two ascents
of this kind. In the first they ascended from the Paris observa-
tory on the 29th of June 1850, at 10.27 km., the balloon being
inflated with hydrogen gas. The day was a rough one, and the
ascent took place without any previous attempt having beta
made to test the ascensional force of the balloon. When liber-
ated, it rose with great rapidity, and becoming fully inflated it
pressed upon the network, bulging out at the top and bottom.
The ropes by which the car was suspended being too short, the
balloon soon covered the travellers like an immense hood. In
endeavouring to secure the valve-rope, they made a rent in the
balloon, and the gas escaped so close to their faces as almost to
suffocate them. Finding that they were descending then too
rapidly, they threw overboard everything available, including
their coats and only excepting the instruments. The ground
was reached at ioh. 45m., near Lagny. Of course no observa
tions were made. Their second ascent was made on the 27th of
July, and was remarkable on account of the extreme cold met
with. At about 20,000 ft the temperature was 1 5 F., the balloon
being enveloped in cloud; but on emerging from the cloud,
at 23,000 ft, the temperature sank to -38 s F., no less, than
S3 9 F. below that experienced by Gay-Lussac at the same
elevation. The existence of these very cold clouds served to
explain certain meteorological phenomena that were observed
on the earth both the day before and the day after the ascent
Some pigeons were taken up in this, as in most other high
ascents; when liberated, they showed a reluctance to leave the
car, and then fell heavily downwards.
In July 1852 the committee of the Kew Observatory resolved
to institute a series of balloon ascents, with the view of investi-
gating such meteorological and physical phenomena aa require
the presence of an observer at a great height in the atmosphere.
John Welsh (1824-1859) of the Kew Observatory was the
observer, and the great " Nassau Balloon " was employed, with
Green himself as the aeronaut Four ascents were made in
1852, viz. on the 17th and 26th of August, the 31st of October
and the 10th of November. The heights attained were 19,5x0,
19,100, 12,640 and 22,930 ft, and the fewest temperatures
met with in the four ascents were 8*7° F. (19480 ft), 12-4° F.
(18470 ft), x6-4° F. (12,640 ft) and 10*5° F. (22,370 ft).
The decline of temperature was very regular. A siphon baro-
meter, dry and wet bulb thermometers, aspirated and free, and
a Regnault hygrometer were taken up. Some air collected at a
considerable height was found on analysis not to differ appreci-
ably in its composition from air collected near the ground. For
the original observations see Phil. Trans., 1853, pp. 3x1-346.
At the meeting of the British Association for Che Advancement
of Science held at Aberdeen in 1859, a committee was appointed
for the purpose of making observations in the higher rr
strata of the atmosphere by means of the balloon. ntnmU
For two years nothing was effected, owing to the want
both of an observer and of a suitable balloon. After its re-
appointment at the Manchester meeting of 1861, the committee
communicated with Henry Tracey Coxwell (1810-1900), an
aeronaut who had made a good many ascents, and he agreed to
construct a new balloon, of 90,000 cub. ft capacity, on the
condition that the committee would undertake to use it, and pay
£25 for each high ascent made especially on its behalf, defraying
AERONAUTICS
267
aha the cwt of gas, 4c-, so that the expense of each high ascent
amounted to nearly £50. An observer being still wanted, James
Gbi&ber, a member of the committee, offered himself to take
the observations, and accordingly the first ascent was made on
the 17th of July 1862; from the gas-works at Wolverhampton,
this town being chosen on account of its central position in the
country. Altogether, Glaisher made twenty-eight ascents, the
last being on the 26th of May 1866. Of these only seven were
specially high ascents, although six others were undertaken for
the objects of the committee alone. On the other occasions he
availed himself of public ascents from the Crystal Palace and
other places of entertainment, merely taking his place like the
other passengers. In the last six ascents another aeronaut and
a smaller balloon were employed. The dates, places of ascent
and greatest heights (in feet) attained in the twenty-eight
ascents were — 1862 : July 17, Wolverhampton, 26, 1 77 ; July 30,
Crystal Palace, 6937; August 18, Wolverhampton, 23,377;
August 20, Crystal Palace, 5000; August 21, Hendon, 14,355; ,
September t, Crystal Palace, 4x00; September 5, Wolverhamp-
ton, 37,000; September 8, Crystal Palace, 5428. 1863: March
31, Crystal Palace, 22,884; April 18, Crystal Palace, 24,163;
June 26, Wolverton, 23,200; July xx, Crystal Palace, 6623;
July sx, Crystal Palace, 3298; August 31, Newcastle-upon-
Tyne, 8033; September 29, Wolverhampton, 16,500; October 9,
Crystal Palace, 731a 1864: January 12, Woolwich, 11,897;'
April 6, Woolwich, 11,075; June *3i Crystal Palace, 3543;
Jose 20, Derby, 4280; June 27, Crystal Palace, 4898; August
ao, Crystal Palace, 14,581; December x, Woolwich, 5431;
December 30, Woolwich, 3735. 1865: February 27,. Woolwich,
4865; October 2, Woolwich, 1949; December 2, Woolwich,
4628. 1866: May 26, Windsor, 6325.
The primary object of the ascents was to determine the
temperature of the air, and its hygrometrical state at different
derations to as great a height as could be reached; and the
secondary objects were — (1) to determine the temperature of
the dew-point by Daniell's and Regnault's hygrometers, as well
as by the dry and wet bulb thermometers, and to compare the
resorts; (2) to compare the readings of an aneroid barometer
with those of a mercurial barometer up to the height of 5 m.;
(j) to determine the electrical state of the air, (4) the oxygenic
condition of the atmosphere, and (5) the time of vibration of a
■agaet; (6) to collect air at different elevations; (7) to note
the height and kind of clouds, their density and thickness; (8)
to determine the rate and direction of different currents in the
atmosphere; and (9) to make observations on sound. The
instruments used were mercurial and aneroid barometers, dry
tad wet bulb thermometers, Daniell's dew-point hygrometer,
Regnault's condensing hygrometer, maximum and minimum
taennometets, a magnet for horizontal vibration, hermetically
sealed glass tubes exhausted of air, and an electrometer. In
one or two of the ascents a camera was taken up.
The complete observations, both as made and after reduction,
are printed in the British Association Reports, 1862-1866; here
only a general account of the results can be given. It appeared
that the rate of the decline of temperature with elevation near
the earth was very different according as the sky was clear or
doady; sad the equality of temperature at sunset and increase
•nh height after sunset were very remarkable facts which were
aot anticipated. Even at the height of 5 m., cirrus clouds were
•eea high in the air, apparently as far above as they seem
when viewed from the earth. The results of the observations
differed very much, and no doubt the atmospheric conditions
depended not only on the time of day, but also on the season of
the year, and were such that a vast number of ascents would be
requisite to determine the true laws with anything approaching
to certainty and completeness. It was also clear that England
■ a most unfit country for the pursuit of such investigations, as,
horn whatever place the balloon started, it was never safe to be
■ore than an hoar above the clouds for fear of reaching the sea.
1* appeared from the observations that an aneroid barometer
could be trusted to read as accurately as a mercurial barometer
to the heights reached. Use time of vibration of a horisontal
magnet was taken in very many of the ascents, and the results
of ten different sets of observations indicated that the time of
vibration was longer than on the earth. In almost all the
ascents the balloon was under the influence of currents of air in
different directions which varied greatly in thickness. The direc-
tion of the wind on the earth was sometimes that of the whole
mass of air up to 20,000 ft., whilst at other times the direction
changed within 500 ft of the earth. Sometimes directly oppo-
site currents were met with at different heights in the same
ascent, and three or four streams of air were encountered moving
in different directions. The direct distances between the places
of ascent and descent, apart from the movements of the balloon
under the influence of these various currents, were always very
much greater than the horizontal movement of the air as meas-
ured by anemometers. For example, on the iath of January
1862, the balloon left Woolwich at 2h. 8m. p.m., and descended
at Lakenheath, 70 m. distant from the place of ascent, at 4b.
19m. p.m. At the Greenwich Observatory, by a Robinson
anemometer, during this time the motion of the air was 6 m.
only. With regard to physiological observations, Glaisher found
that the frequency of his pulse increased with elevation, as
also did the number of inspirations. The number of his pulsa-
tions was generally 76 per minute before starting, about 90 at
10,000 ft, 100 at 20,000 ft, and xxo at higher elevations.
But a good deal depended on the temperament of the individual
This was also the case in respect to colour; at 10,000 ft the
faces of some would be a glowing purple, whilst others would be
scarcely affected; at 4 m. high Glaisher found the pulsations
of his heart distinctly audible, and his breathing was very much
affected, so that panting was produced by the slightest exertion;
at 29,000 ft he became insensible. In reference to the propa-
gation pf sound, it was at all times found that sounds from the
earth were more or less audible according to the amount of mois-
ture in the air. When in clouds at 4 m. high, a railway train
was heard; but when clouds were far below, no sound ever
reached the ear at .'this elevation. The discharge of a gun was
heard ai 10,000 ft The barking of a dog was heard at the
height of 2 m., while the shouting of a multitude of people
was not audible at heights exceeding 4000 ft In his ascent
of the 5th of September 1862, Glaisher considered that he
reached a height of 37,000* ft. But that figure was based, not
on actual record, but on the circumstances that at 29,000 ft.,
when he became insensible, the balloon was rising 1000 ft a
minute, and that when he recovered consciousness thirteen
minutes later it was falling 2000 ft a minute, and the accuracy
of his conclusions has been questioned. Few scientific men
have imitated Glaisher in making high ascents for meteorological
observations. In 1867 and x868 Camille Flammarion made
eight or nine ascents from Paris for scientific purposes. The
heights attained were not great, but the general result was to
confirm the observations of Glaisher; for an account see Voyages
oiriens, Paris, 1870, or Travels in the Air, London, 1871, in
which also some ascents by W. de Fonvielle are noticed. On
the 15th of April 1875, H. T. Sivel, J. E. Croce-Spinelli and
Gaston Tissandier ascended from Paris in the balloon " 'Zenith,"
and reached a height of 27,950 ft; but only llssandier came
down alive, his two companions being asphyxiated. This put an
end to such attempts for a time. But Dr A. Berson and Lieut
Gross attained 25,840 ft on the nth of May 1894; Berson,
ascending alone from Strassfurt on the 4th of December 1894,
attained about 31,500 ft and recorded a temperature of —54° F '»
and Berson and Stanley Spencer are stated by the latter to
have attained 27,500 ft on the 15th of September 1808 when
they ascended in a hydrogen balloon from the Crystal Palace,
the thermometer registering — 29° F. On the 31st of July 1001,
Berson and R. J. Suring, ascending at Berlin, actually noted
a barometric reading corresponding to a height of 34,5°° ft-»
and possibly rose 1000 or 1500 ft higher, though in spite of
oxygen inhalations they were unconscious during the highest
portion of the ascent
The personal danger attending high ascents led Gustavo
.Hermite and Beaancon in November 1892 to inaugurate the
268
AERONAUTICS
sending up of unmanned balloons {ballons sondes) equipped with
automatic recording instruments, and kites (q.t.) have also
been employed for similar meteorological purposes. (See also
Meteorology.)
The balloon had not been discovered very long before it
received a military status, and soon after the beginning of the
MiikMrr French revolutionary war an aeronautic school was
ktSooms. funded at Meudon, in charge of Guyton de Morveau,
the chemist, and Colonel J. M. J. Coutelle ( 1 748-1835).
Four balloons were constructed for the armies of the north, of
the Sambre and Meuse, of the Rhine and Moselle, and of Egypt
In June 1704 Coutelle ascended with the adjutant and general
to reconnoitre the hostile army just before the battle of Fleurus,
and two reconnaissances were made, each occupying four hours.
It is generally stated that it was to the information so gained
that the French victory was due. The balloon corps was in
constant requisition during the campaign, but it does not appear
that, with the exception of the reconnaissances just mentioned,
any great advantages resulted, except in a moral point of view.
But even this was of importance, as the enemy were much dis-
concerted at having their movements so completely watched,
while the French were correspondingly elated at the superior
information it was believed they were gaining. An attempt
was made to revive the use of balloons in the African campaign
of 1830, but no opportunity occurred in whkh they could be
employed. It is said that in 1849 a reconnoitring balloon was
sent up* from before Venice, as also were small balloons loaded
with bombs to be exploded by time-fuses. In the French cam-
paign against Italy in 1859 the French had recourse to the use
of balloons, but this time there was not any aerostatic corps,
and their management was entrusted to the brothers Oodard.
Several reconnaissances were made, and one of especial interest
the day before the battle of Solferino. No information of much
importance seems, however, to have been gained thereby.
In the American Civil War (1861) balloons were a good deal
used by the Federals. There was a regular balloon staff attached
to McClellan's army, with a captain, an assistant-captain and
about 50 non-commissioned officers and privates. The apparatus
consisted of two generators, drawn by four horses each; two
balloons, drawn by four horses each, and an add-cart, drawn by
two horses. The two balloons used contained about 13,000 and
26.000 ft. of gas, and the inflation usually occupied about
three hours. (See Royal Engineers' Papers, vol. xii.) By their
aid useful information was gained about the enemy round
Richmond and in other places, but eventually difficulties of
transport and the topography of the theatre of war made balloon-
ing impracticable; and little was heard of it after the first two
years of the war.
The balloon proved itself very valuable during the siege, of
Paris (1870-71). It was by it alone that communication was
kept up between the besieged city and the external world, as
the balloons carried away from Paris the pigeons which after-
wards brought back to it the news of the provinces. The total
number of balloons that ascended from Paris during the siege,
conveying persons and despatches, was sixty-four— the first
having started on the 23rd of September 1870, and the last on
the 28th of January 1871. Gambetta effected his escape from
Paris, on the 7th of October, in the balloon "Armand-Barbes,"
an event which doubtless led to the prolongation of the war.
Of the sixty-four balloons only two were never heard of; they
were blown out to sea. One of the most remarkable voyages
was that of the " Ville d'Orleans," which, leaving Paris at
eleven o'clock on the 21st of November, descended fifteen hours
afterwards near Christiania, having crossed the North Sea.
Several of the balloons on their descent were taken by the
Prussians, and a good many were fired at while in the air. The
average size of the balloons was from 2000 to 2050 metres, or
from 70,000 to 72,000 cub. ft. The above facts are extracted
from Les Ballons du siege de Paris, a sheet published by Bulla
and Sons, Paris, and compiled by the brothers Tissandier, well-
known French aeronauts, which gives the name, size and times
of ascent and descent of every balloon that left Paris, with the i
names of the aeronaut and generally also of the passengers, the
weight of despatches, the number of pigeons, &c Only those
balloons, however, are noticed in which some person ascended.
The balloons were manufactured and despatched (generally
from the platforms of the Orleans or the Northern railway)
under the direction of the Post Office. The aeronauts employed
were mostly sailors, who did their work very well. No use
whatever was made in the war of balloons for purposes of
reconnaissance.
Ballooning, however, as a recognized military science, only
dates back to about the year 1883 or 1884, when most of the
powers organized regular balloon establishments. In 1884-85
the French found balloons very useful during their campaign
in Tongking; and the British government also despatched
balloons with the Bechuanaland expedition, and also with that
to Suakin in those years. During the latter campaign several
ascents were made in the presence of the enemy, on whom it
was said that a great moral effect was produced. The employ-
ment of balloons has been common in nearly all modern wars.
We may briefly describe the apparatus used in military operations.
The French in the campaigns of the 19th century used varnished silk
balloons of about 10 000 cub. ft. capacity. The Americans in the
Civil War used much larger ones, those of 26,000 cub. ft. being
found the most suitable. These were also of varnished silk. In the
present day most nation* uk ba Nouns of about 20,000 cub. ft-
made of varnished cambric; but the British war balloons, made of
goldhcater skin, art usually of comparatively small sue, the normal
capacity being 10,000 cub. ft., though others of 7000 and 4500
cub- ft- have a bo been used, as at Suakin. The usual shade is
spherical ; but since 1 896 1 he Get man*,. ,ind now other nations, nave
adopted a lonjr cylindrical-shaped haltoon, so affixed to its cable as
to present an inclined surface to the wind and thus act partly on the
pi i nci pie of a ki te . T hou a h coal - k is a n i even hot air may occasion-
all y be tiled for inflation,, hydrogen jrm is on account of its lightness
far preferable. I n t he early day* ofbal looning this had to be mano-
factured in the field, but nowaday* it is almost universally carried
compressed in stcrl tubes. About too such tubes, each weighing
75 lb, are required to nil a io,ooo-ft. balloon. Tubes of greater
capacity have also been tried.
The baljgoft is & I most always used c&ptm. If allowed to go free
it will usually be. rapidly earned away by the wind and the results
of the observation* cm not r.isily be transmitted back. Occasions
may occur when audi ascents will be of value, but the usual method
is to send up a captive balloon to a height of somewhere about 1000 ft.
With the standard British balloon two officers are sent up, one
of whom has now particularly to attend to the management of the
balloon, while the -other makes the observations.
With regard to observations from captive balloons much depends
on circumstances. In a thickly wooded country, such as that in
which the balloons were used in the American Civil War, and in the
war in Cuba (in which the balloon merely served to expose the troops
to severe fire), no very valuable information is, as a rule, to be ob-
tained; but in fairly open country all important movements of
troops should be discernible by an experienced observer at any point
within about four or five miles of the balloon. The circumstances,
it may be mentioned, are such as would usually preclude one un-
accustomed to ballooning from affording valuable reports. Not only
is he liable to be disturbed by the novel and apparently haaardous
situation, but troops and features of the ground often have so
peculiar an appearance from that point of view, that a novice will
often have a difficulty in deciding whether an object be a column of
troops or a ploughed field. Then again, much will depend on atmo-
spheric conditions. Thus, in misty weather a balloon is well-nigh
useless; and in strong winds, with a velocity of anything over so m-
an hour, efficient observation becomes a matter of difficulty. When
some special point has to be repotted on, such as whether there is
any large body of troops behind a certain hill or wood, a rapid
ascent may still be made in winds up to 30 m. an hour, but. the
balloon would then be so unsteady that no careful scouting could be
made. It is usually estimated that a successful captive ascent can
only be made in England on half the days of the year. As a general
rule balloon ascents would be made for one of the following objects:—
to examine the country for an enemy; to reconnoitre the enemy's
position; to ascertain the strength of ms force, number of guns and
exact situation of the various arms; also to note the plan of his
earthworks or fortifications. During an action the aerial observer
would be on the look-out for any movements of the enemy and give
warning of flank attacks or surprises. Such an observer could also
keep the general informed as to the progress of various detached
parties, of his own force, as to the advance of reinforcements* or to
the conduct of any fighting going on at a distance. Balloon observa-
tions are also of especial aid to artillery in correcting their aim.
The vulnerability of a captive balloon to the enemy's fire has been
.tested by many experiments with variable results. One estab li sh e d
AERONAUTICS
269
fact is that the range of a balloon in mid-air is extremely difficult
to jadge, and, as its altitude can be very rapidly altered, it becomes
a very dsScuk mark for artillery to hit. A few bullet-holes in the
fsbrk of a balloon make but little difference, since the size of the
perforation is very minute as compared with the great surface of
ssaterial. but on the other hand, a shrapnel bursting just in front of
k may cause a rapid fall. It is therefore considered prudent to keep
the baboon well away from an enemy, and two miles are laid down
at the nearest approach it should make habitually.
Or lick 1 being of use on land for war purposes, balloons have also
bees tried in connexion with the naval service. In France especially
regular trials have been made of inflating balloons on board ships,
aad sending them aloft as a look-out; but it is now generally con-
tended that the difficulties of storing the gas and of manoeuvring the
balloon are so great on board ship as to be hardly worth the results
to be gained.
A very important development of military ballooning is that of
the navigable balloon. If only a balloon could be sent up and driven
in say required direction, and- brought back to its starting-point,
it is obvious that it would be of the very greatest use in war.
From the very first invention of balloons the problem has
been bow to navigate them by propulsion. General J B. M C
Meusnier (1 754-*793) proposed an elongated balloon
fSSL m ,7& *- l* was esperimentcd on by the brothers
Robert, who made two ascensions and claimed to
have obtained a deviation of 33° from the direction of a light
wind by means of aerial oars worked by hand. The relative
speed was probably about 3 m. an hour, and it was so evident
that a very much more energetic light motor than any then
known was required to stem ordinary winds that nothing more
wis attempted till 1853, when Henri Giffard (1825-1883) as-
cended with a steam-engine of then unprecedented lightness.
The subjoined table exhibits some of the results subsequently
Exreamvim with Dirigible: Balloons
Year.
Inventor.
Length.
Dia-
meter.
Con-
tents.
Ufting
Capa-
city.
Weight
Balloon.
Weight
Motor.
H.P.
Speed
hour.
IJS3
I884
I885
««97
1900
1901
3
Giffard • • .
Dupuy de
Lome . . -
Retard and
■Crabs • •
Schwars • .
Zeppetsn I. •
Santos Du-
" Republique "
ZeppehnlV. .
Ft.
>44
lift
165
«57
430
108
3
Ft.
39
49
30
ill
39
30
4
Cub. ft.
88.300
1 30.088
37.439
65.836
130.500
400,000
33.300
130,000
45O.O06
D>.
3.978
8.358
3,738
4403
8.133
35,000
3.100
lb.
a.794
4.7*8
933
2449
6,800
19,000
lb.
463
3000
616
1174
80O?
1500
30
08
1*5
90
160
3*0
16-30
80
330
Miles.
6*7 1
6-36
7-83
14-00
17-00
1800
19-00
30
Giffard, the future inventor of the injector, devised a steam-
engine weighing, with fuel and water for one hour, 154 lb per
hone-power, and was bold enough to employ it in proximity to
a balloon inflated with coal gas. He was not able to stem a
medium wind, but attained some deviation. He repeated the
experiment in 1855 with a more elongated spindle, which proved
aastable and dangerous. During the siege of Paris the French
government decided to build a* navigable balloon, and entrusted
the work to the chief naval constructor, Dupuy de Lome. He
west into the subject very carefully, made estimates of all the
■trains, resistances and speeds, and tested the balloon in 1873.
Devia ti o ns of 13° were obtained from the course of a wind blow-
ing 37 to 37 m. per hour. The screw propeller was driven by
eight labourers, a steam-engine being deemed too dangerous;
bat it was estimated that had one been used, weighing as much
at the men, the speed would have been doubled. Tissandier
and Us brother applied an electric motor, lighter than any pre-
vfaasjy buflt, to a spindle-shaped balloon, and went up twice in
1883 and 1884. On the latter occasion he stemmed a wind of
7 m. per hour. The brothers abandoned these experiments,
which had been carried on at their own expense, when the French
War Department took up the problem. Renard and Krebs, the
officert in charge of the War Aeronautical Department at
Meadon, built and experimented with in 1884 and 1885 the fusi-
form balloon " La France," in which the " master " or maximum
section was about one-quarter of the distance from the stem.
The propelling screw was at the front of the car and driven by
an electric motor of unprecedented lightness. Seven ascents
were made on very calm days, a maximum speed of 14 m. an
hour was obtained, and the balloon returned to its starting-point
on five of the seven occasions. Subsequently another balloon
was constructed, said to be capable of a speed of 33 to 28 m.
per hour, with a different motor. After many years of experi-
ment Dr Wolfert built and experimented with in Berlin, in 1897,
a cigar-shaped balloon driven by a gasoline motor. An explosion
took place in the air, the balloon fell and Dr Wdlfert and his
assistant were killed. It was also in 1897 that an aluminium
balloon was built from the designs of D. Schwarz and tested in
Berlin. It was driven by a Daimler benzine motor, and attained
a greater speed than " La France "; but a driving belt slipped,
and in coming down the balloon was injured beyond repair.
From. 1 897 onwards Count Ferdinand von Zeppelin, of the
German army, was engaged in constructing an immense balloon,
truly an airship, of most careful and most intelligent design, to
carry five men. It consisted of an aluminium framework con-
taining sixteen gas bags with a total capacity of nearly 400,000
cub. ft, and it had two cars, each containing a 16 h.p. motor.
It was first tested in June 1000, when it attained a speed of
18 m. an hour and travelled a distance of 3} m. before an
accident to the steering gear necessitated the discontinuance of
the experiment. In 1905 Zeppelin built a second airship which
had a slightly smaller capacity but much greater power, its
two motors each developing 85 h.p. This, after making some
successful trips, was wrecked in a violent gale, and was succeeded
by a third airship, which, at its trial in October 1906, travelled
round Lake Constance and showed
itself able to execute numerous curves
and traverses. At a second series of
trials in September 1907, after some
alterations had been effected, it
attained a speed of 36 m. an hour,
remaining in the air for many hours
and carrying nine or eleven passengers.
A fourth vessel of similar design, but
with more powerful motors, was tried
in 1008, and succeeded in travelling
350 m. in ix hours, but owing to a
storm it was wrecked when on land
and burnt at Echterdingen on the 5th
of August Subscriptions, headed by
the emperor, were at once raised to
enable Zeppelin to build another.
Meanwhile in 1901 Alberto Santos Dumont had begun ex-
periments with dirigible balloons in Paris, and on the 19th of
October won the Deutsch prise by steering a balloon from St
Cloud round the Eiffel tower and back in half an hour, encounter-
ing on his return journey a wind of nearly 5 metres a second.
An airship constructed by Pierre and Paul Lebaudy in 1004
also made a number of successful trials in the vicinity of Paris;
with a motor of 40 h.p., its speed was about 35 m. an hour,
and it regularly carried three passengers. In October 1907 the
" Nulli Secundus," an airship constructed for the British War
Office, sailed from Farnborough round St Paul's Cathedral,
London, to the Crystal Palace, Sydenham, a distance of about
50 m., in 3 hours 35 minutes. The weight carried, including
two occupants, was 3400 lb, and the maximum speed was 34 m.
an hour, with a following wind of 8 m. an hour.
Thus the principles which govern the design of the dirigible
balloon may be said to have been evolved. As the lifting power
grows as the cube of the dimensions, and the resistance approxi-
mately as the square, the advantage lies with the larger sizes of
balloons, as of ocean steamers, up to the limits within which
they may be found practicable. Count Zeppelin gained an ad-
vantage by attaching his propellers to the balloon, instead of to
the car as heretofore; but this requires a rigid framework and a
great increase of weight Le Compagnon endeavoured, in 1893,
270
AEROTHERAPEUT1CS
to substitute flapping wings for rotary propellers, as the former
can be suspended near the centre of resistance. C. Danilewsky
followed him in 1898 and 1809, but without remarkable results.
Dupuy de LA me was the first to estimate in detail the resistances
to balloon propulsion, but experiment showed that in the
aggregate they were greater than he calculated. Rcnard and
Krcbs also found that their computed resistances were largely
exceeded, and after revising the results they gave the formula
R =001685 D*y, R being the resistance in kilograms, D the
diameter in metres and V the velocity in metres per second.
Reduced to British measures, in pounds, feet and miles per
hour, R- 00006876 D*y, which is somewhat in excess of the
formula computed by Dr William Pole from Dupuy de Lome's
experiments. The above coefficient applies only to the shape
and rigging of the balloon " La France," and combines all resist-
ances into one equivalent, which is equal to that of a flat plane
18% of the " master section." This coefficient may perhaps
hereafter be reduced by one-half through a better form of hull
and car, more like a fish than a spindle, by diminished sections
of suspension lines and net, and by placing the propeller at the
centre of resistance. To compute the results to be expected
from new projects, it will be preferable to estimate the resistances
in detail. The following table shows how this was done by
Dupuy de Lome, and the probable corrections which should
have been made by him:—
Resistances— Dukjy de Lome's Balloon
Computed by Dupuy de Lome.
V"a«2a m. per tec.
MoreProbableValues.
V = a«8a m. per sec.
Part.
Area,
Sq.
Metres.
Co-
effici-
ent.
Air
Pres-
sure.
Resist-
ance,
Kg.
Co-
effici-
ent.
Air
Pres-
sure.
Resist-
ance,
Kg.
Hull, with-
out net. .
Car . .. .
Men's bodies
Gas tubes .
Small cords
Large cords
17206
3**5
JOO
6*40
I0-O0
9-90
1/30
1/5
1/2
1/3
0-665
•1
M
•»
3830
o-432
o»40O
o-foo
3-3^5
a-194
1/15
l/ ?
l/ , 2
1 /a
i/a
i/3
0875
i»
i»
it
10*091
0569
i-3ia
2750
4-375
2-887
11*031
21984
When .the resistances have been reduced to the lowest possible
minimum by careful design, the attainable speed must depend
upon the efficiency of the propeller and the relative lightness of
the motor. The commercial uses of dirigible balloons, however,
will be small, as they must remain housed when the wind aloft
is brisk. The sizes will be great and costly, the loads small, and
the craft frail and short-lived, yet dirigible balloons constitute
the obvious type for governments to evolve, until they are super-
seded by efficient flying machines. (See further, as to the latter,
the article Flight and Flying.)
The chief danger attending ballooning lies in the descent; for
if a strong wind be blowing, the grapnel will sometimes trail for
miles over the ground at the rate of ten or twenty miles
an hour, catching now and then in hedges, ditches, roots
of trees, &c.; and, after giving the balloon a terrible
jerk , breaking loose again, till at length some obstruction,
such as the wooded bank of a stream, affords a firm hold. This
danger, however, has been much reduced by the use of the
" ripping-cord," which enables a panel to be ripped open and
the balloon to be completely deflated in a few seconds, just as it
is reaching the earth. But even a very rough descent is usually
not productive of any very serious consequences; as, although
the occupants of the car generally receive many bruises and are
perhaps cut by the ropes, it rarely happens that anything worse
occurs. On a day when the wind fa light (supposing that there
is no want of ballast) nothing can be easier than the descent,
and the aeronaut can decide several miles off on the field in
which he will alight It is very important to have a good supply
of ballast, so as to be able to check the rapidity of the descent,
as in passing downwards through a wet cloud the weight of
the balloon is enormously increased by the .water deposited on
it; and if there is no ballast to throw out in compensation, the
velocity is sometimes very great It is also convenient, if the
district upon which the balloon is descending appear unsuitable
for landing, to be able to rise again The ballast consists of fine
baked sand, which becomes so scattered as to be inappreciable
before it has fallen far below the balloon. It is taken up in bags
containing about \ cwt. each. The balloon at starting is liberated
by a spring catch which the aeronaut releases, and the ballast
should be so adjusted that there is nearly equilibrium before
leaving, else the rapidity of ascent is too great, and has to be
checked by parting with gas. It is almost impossible to liberate
the balloon in such a way as to avoid giving it a rotary motion
about a vertical axis, which continues during the whole time it
is in the air This rotation makes it difficult for those in the car
to discover in what direction they are moving; and it is only
by looking down along the rope to which the grapnel is suspended
that the motion of the balloon over the country below can be
traced. The upward and downward motion at any instant is
at once known by merely dropping over the side of the car a
small piece of paper: if the paper ascends or remains on the
same level or stationary, the balloon is descending; while, if
it descends, the balloon is ascending This test is exceedingly
delicate.
References.— Tiberius Cavallo, Treatise on the Nature and Prop-
erties of Air and other permanently Elastic Fluids (London. 1781);
Idem, History and Practice of Aerostation (London, 1785); Vincent
Lunardi. Account of the First Aerial Voyage in England, in a Series
of Letters to his Guardian (London, 178O ; T. Foretcr, A nnals of some
Remarkable Aerial and Alpine Voyages (London, 1 83a) ;Monck Mason.
Aeronautica (London, 1838); John Wise, A System of Aeronautics,
" " Invtstiaation 1 : (Philadelphia, I.850);
system of Aeronautics,
EarlGtl 7ntvj/i>a/ionT (Philadelphia, 1850);
Hat'ton Tumor, Asira Caitra, ErpfrtmtnH and Adventures in ike
Atmsiphfre (London. 1S05); J, Gbishcr. C Flammarion. W. de
Fonvielie and G. Tissandier* Vey>s aerirxs {Paris, 1870) (translated
and edircd by James Glaisher under the title Travels in the Air
(London, tfi;Or Q. Charmte t Froi;rtis in Ftyint Machines (New
York, T894); Wp de Fonvitllr, j>j Balitms wnd*S (Paris, 1 899); Idem.
Histoirt dt la nwigaiim tUtitnnc (Paris. 1907); F. Walker. Aerial
Ncttrigatwr* (London, jqoj); J. Lccornu. La Navigation ahienne
(Pans. 1903) ; M . L. Mart hit, £e$tm* sur la navigation ahienne (Paris,
1904). coiiraiiiinK many reference* to books and periodicals on
pp, 701-704; Navtf atint ike Air (papers collected by the Aero Club
of Amenca) (New York. 1907) ; A. Hildebrandt, Airships past and
Present [London, 1008).
AERGTHERAPEUTICS, the treatment of disease by atmo-
spheric air: a term which of late has come to be used somewhat
more loosely to include also pneumotherapeutics, or the treat-
ment of disease by artificially prepared atmospheres. The
physical and chemical properties of atmospheric air, under
ordinary pressure or under modified pressure, may be thera-
peutically utilized cither on the external surface of the body, on
the respiratory surface, or on both surfaces together. Also
modifications may be induced in the ventilation of the lungs by
general gymnastics or respiratory gymnastics.
The beneficial effects of air under ordinary pressure are now
utilized in the open-air treatment of phthisical patients, and the
main indications of benefit resulting therefrom are reduction of
the fever, improvement of appetite and the induction of sleep.
The air, however, may be modified in composition or in tempera-
ture. Inhalation is the most common and successful method of
applying it — when modified in composition— to the human body
The methods in use are as follows: (1) Inhalation of gases,
as oxygen and nitrous oxide.. The dyspnoea and cyanosis of
pneumonia, capillary bronchitis, heart failure, &c, are much
relieved by the inhalation of oxygen; and nitrous oxide is
largely used as an anaesthetic in minor operations. (2) Certain
liquids arc used as anaesthetics, which volatilize at low tempera-
tures, as chloroform and ether. (3) Mercury and sulphur, both
of which require heat for volatilization, are very largely used.
In a mercurial or sulphur bath, the patient, enveloped in a
sheet, sits on a chair beneath which a spirit lamp is placed to
vaporize the drug, the best results being obtained when the
atmosphere fa surcharged with. steam at the same time. The
vapour envelops the patient and is absorbed by the skin. This
method is extensively used in the treatment of syphilis, and also
for scabies and other parasitic affections of the skin. (4) Moist
inhalations are rather losing repute in the light of modem
AERTSZEN— AESCHINES
271
investigations, which tend to show that nothing lower than the
larger bronchial tubes b affected. Complicated apparatus has
been devised for the application, although a wide-mouthed jug
filled with boiling water, into which the drug is thrown, is almost
eGuauy effic a ci ous.
Artificial atmospheres may be made for Invalids by respirators
which cover the mouth and nose, the air being drawn through
tow or sponge, on which is sprinkled the disinfectant to be used.
This is most valuable in the intensely offensive breath of some
ases of bronchiectasis.
The air may be modified as to temperature. Cold air at
32-53* F- has been used in chronic catarrhal conditions of the
lungs, with the result that cough diminishes, the pulse becomes
fuller and slower and the general condition improves. The
more recent observations of Pasquale di Tullio go far to
ifaow that this may be immensely valuable m the treatment
of haemoptysis. The inspiration of superheated dry air has
been the subject of much investigation, but with very doubtful
results.
Hot air applied to the skin is more noteworthy in its therapeutic
effects. If a current of hot air is directed upon healthy skin, the
titter becomes pale and contracts in consequence of vaso-con-
striction. But if it is directed on a patch of diseased skin, as
b lupus, an inflammatory reaction is set up and the diseased
put begins to undergo necrosis. This fact has been used with
food results in lupus, otorrhoea, rhinitis and other nasal and
hrrageal troubles.
Lastly the air may be either compressed or rarefied. The
{Analogical effects of compressed air were first studied in
dmnj -bells, and more recently in caissons. Caisson workers at
first enjoy increased strength, vigour and appetite; later, how-
ever, the opposite effect is produced and intense debility super-
venes. In addition, caisson workers suffer from a series of
troubles which are known as accidents of decompression. (See
Caisson Disease.) But, therapeutically, compressed air has
been utilised by means of pneumatic chambers large enough to
hold one or more adults at the time, in which the pressure of
the atmosphere can be exactly regulated. This form of treat-
ment has been found of much value in the treatment of emphy-
sema, early pulmonary tuberculosis (not in the presence of
persistent high temperature, haemorrhage, softening or suppura-
tion), delayed absorption of pleural effusions, heart disease,
anaemia and chlorosis. But compressed air is contra-indicated
m advanced tubercle, fever, and in diseases of kidneys, liver or
Rarefied air was used as long ago as 1835, by V. T. Junod,
who utilized it for local application by inventing the Junod Boot.
By means of this the blood could be drawn into any part to which
H was applied, the vessels of which became gorged with blood at
the expense of internal organs. More recently this method of
treatment has undergone far-reaching developments and is
known as the passive hyper a emic treatment.
There are also various forms of apparatus by means of which
as at greater or lesser pressures may be drawn into the lungs,
and for the performance of lung gymnastics of various kinds.
Mr Ketchum of the United States has invented one which
■ much used. A committee of the Brompton Hospital,
London, investigating its capabilities, decided that its use
brought about (1) an increase of chest circumference, and (2)
m cases of consolidation of the lung a diminution in the area
ofdul ness.
t AIRTSZEM (or Aaitsew), METER (1507-1573), called
"Long Peter" on account of his height, Dutch historical
painter, was born and died at Amsterdam. When a youth he
dntmguiahed himself by painting homely scenes, in which he
»*prcduced articles of furniture, cooking utensils, &c, with
namuous fidelity, but he afterwards cultivated historical
Painting. Several of his best works— altar-pieces in various
thn rhts w ere destroyed in the religious wars of the Nether-
bads. An excellent specimen of his style on a small scale, a
Pfetareof the crucifixion, may be seen in the Antwerp Museum.
Aertsaea was a member of the Academy of St Luke, in whose
books he is entered as Langhe Peter, sckHder. Three of his sons
attained to some note as painters.
AESCHINES (380-314 B.C.), Greek statesman and orator, was
born at Athens. The statements as to his parentage and early
life are conflicting; but it seems probable that his parents,
though poor, were respectable. After assisting his father in his
school, he tried his hand at acting with indifferent success,
served with distinction in the army, and held several clerkships,
amongst them the office of clerk to the BoulC The fall of
Olynthus (348) brought Aeschines into the political arena, and
he was sent on an embassy to rouse the Peloponnesus against
Philip. In 347 he was a member of the peace embassy to Philip
of Macedon, who seems to have won him over entirely to his side.
His dilatoriness during the second embassy (346) sent to ratify
the terms of peace led to his accusation by Demosthenes and
Timarchus on a charge of high treason, but he was acquitted
as the result of a powerful speech, in which he showed that his
accuser Timarchus had, by his immoral conduct, forfeited the
right to speak before the people. In 343 the attack was renewed
by Demosthenes in his speech On the False Embassy; Aeschines
replied in a speech with the same title and was again acquitted.
In 339, as one of the Athenian deputies (pylagorae) in the Amphi-
ctyonic Council, he made a speech which brought about the
Sacred War. By way of revenge, Aeschines endeavoured to fix
the blame for these disasters upon Demosthenes. In 336, when
Ctesiphon proposed that his friend Demosthenes should be
rewarded with a golden crown for his distinguished services to
the state, he was accused by Aeschines of having violated the
law in bringing forward the motion. The matter remained in
abeyance till 330, when the two rivals delivered their speeches
A gainst Ctesiphon and On the Crown. The result was a complete
victory for Demosthenes. Aeschines went into voluntary exile
at Rhodes, where he opened a school of rhetoric. He afterwards
removed to Samoa, where he died in the seventy-fifth year of
his age. His- three speeches, called by the ancients " the Three
Graces," rank next to those of Demosthenes. Photius knew of
nine letters by him which he called the Nine Muses; the twelve
published under his name (Hercher, Epulolograpki Grace*) are
not genuine.
AnriFpfT AuTnoamts,— Demo
Leiationti Atr»chine* P Pe Falsa 1
Live* by Plutarch, PhJIoetratu*
Apottafiiu* Edjtiok.*,— 8en«ettr use
WeMnef 11*72). Bbw OfctfO; Agat»it Ctesiphon, Weidner (1872),
087fi).G. A-* ™3 W, H. SimtxnO 8W ? 1 >r.ilce (i872).Richardaon(i889).
Gwackin^niShurtburgMiliQo)- Ekoi i sh Translations. — Leland
( 1 7 j 1 ) , H iddk ( 1 88 1 }, and ot her*. Sec alto Stechow, Aeschinis Ora-
tor it tita fifcjjtl; Ma re hand, Ckar&kUristih des Redners Aschines
(1876) ; Catttu. E*tkine k VOtJbi** n fc 75) ; for the political problems
see butorie* 0/ Greece* «p. A- Hot™, vol. iii. (Eng. trans., 1896);
A. Sdufer, Demottk, and %ttnc Ztti (Leipzig, 1856-1858); alto
Demosthenes.
AESCHINES (5th century B.C.), an Athenian philosopher.
According to some accounts he was the son of a sausage- maker,
but others say that his father was Lysanias (Diog. Laert. ii. 60;
Suidas, !.».). He was an intimate friend of Socrates, who is
reported to have said that the sausage-maker's son alone knew
how to honour him. Diogenes Laertius preserves a tradition
that it was he, not Crito, who offered to help Socrates to escape
from prison. He was always a poor man, and Socrates advised
him to borrow from himself, by diminishing his expenditure."
He started a perfumery shop in Athens on borrowed capital,
became bankrupt and retired to the Syracusan court, where he
was well received by Aristippus. According to Diog. Laert. (ii.
61), Plato, then at Syracuse, pointedly ignored Aeschines, but
this does not agree with Plutarch, De adulatore et amico (c. 26).
On the expulsion of the younger Dionysius, he returned to
Athens, and, finding it impossible to profess philosophy publicly
owing to the contempt of Plato and Aristotle, was compelled to
teach privately. He wrote also forensic speeches; Phrynichus,
in Photius, ranks him amongst the best orators, and mentions
his orations as the standard of the pure Attic style. Hermogenes
also spoke highly of him (Utpl UeQr). He wrote several philo-
sophical dialogues: (1) Concerning virtue, whether it can be
es, De Corona and De Paha
Mono and In Clesiphontem:
I Libaniua; the Exegesis of
-i860) (trans, and notes),
2"J2
AESCHYLUS
taught; (2) Eryxias, or Erasistrotus; concerning riches, whether
tkty are good; (3) Axiochus: concerning death, whether it is to
be feared, — but those extant on the several subjects are not
genuine remains. J. le Gere has given a Latin translation of
them, with notes and several dissertations, entitled SUvae
PhiMogicae, and they have been edited by S. N. Fischer (Leipzig,
1786), and R. F. Hermann, De Aeschin. Socrat. relig. (GfltL
1850). The genuine dialogues appear to have been marked by
the Socratic irony; an amusing passage is quoted by Cicero in
the De inventione (L31).
See Hirzel, Der Dialog, i. lag-Uo; T. Gomperz, Greek Thinkers,
vol. Hi. p. 343 (Eng. trans. G. G. Berry, London, xoos)*
AESCHYLUS (525-456 B.C.), Greek poet, the first of the
only three Attic Tragedians of whose work entire plays survive,
and in a very real sense (as we shall see) the founder of the Greek
drama,. was born at Eleusis in the year 525 B.C. His father,
Euphorion, belonged to the " Eupatridae " or old nobility of
Athens, as we know on the authority of the short Life of the
ut ^ poet given in the Medicean Manuscript (see note on
"authorities" at the end). According to the same
tradition he took part as a soldier in the great struggle of Greece
against Persia; and was present at the battles of Marathon,
Artemisium, Salamis and Plataca, in the years 400-479. At least
one of his brothers, Cynaegirus, fought with him at Marathon,
and was killed in attempting a conspicuous act of bravery;
and the brothers 1 portraits found a place in the national picture
of the battle which the Athenians set up as a memorial in
the Stoa Poecile (or " Pictured Porch ") at Athens.
The vigour and loftiness of tone which mark Aeschylus'
poetic work was not only due, we may be sure, to his native
genius and gifts, powerful as they were, but were partly in-
spired by the personal share he took in the great actions of a
heroic national uprising. In the same way, the poet's brooding
thoughtfulness on deep questions — the power of the gods, their
dealings with man, the dark mysteries of fate, the future life in
Hades — though largely due to his turn of mind and temperament,
was doubtless connected with the place where his childhood
was passed. Eleusis was the centre of the most famous worship
of Demeter, with its processions, its ceremonies, its mysteries,
its impressive spectacles and nocturnal rites; and these were
intimately connected with the Greek beliefs about the human
soul, and the underworld.
His dramatic career began early, and was continued for more
than forty years. In 409, his 26th year, he first exhibited at
Athens; and his last work, acted during his lifetime at Athens,
was the trilogy of the Oresteia, exhibited in 458. The total
number of his plays is stated by Suidas to have been ninety;
and the seven extant plays, with the dramas named or nameable
which survive only in fragments, amount to over eighty, so that
Suidas' figure is probably based on reliable tradition. It is well
known that in the 5th century each exhibitor at the tragic con-
tests produced four plays; and Aeschylus must therefore have
competed (between 409 and 458) more than twenty times, or once
in two years. His first victory is recorded in 484. fifteen years
after his earliest appearance on the stage; but in the remaining
twenty-six years of his dramatic activity at Athens he was
successful at least twelve times. This clearly shows that he was
the most commanding figure among the tragedians of 500-458;
and for more than half that time was usually the victor in the
contests. Perhaps the most striking evidence of his exceptional
position among his contemporaries is the well-known decree
passed shortly after his death that whosoever desired to exhibit
a play of Aeschylus should " receive a chorus," i.e. be officially
allowed to produce the drama at the Dionysia. The existence
of this decree, mentioned in the Life, is strongly confirmed by
two passages in Aristophanes: first in the prologue of the
Ackarnians (which was acted in 425, thirty-one years after the
poet's death), where the citizen, grumbling about his griefs and
troubles, relates his great disappointment, when he took his seat
in the theatre " expecting Aeschylus," to find that when the
play came on it was Theognis; and secondly in a scene of the
Frogs (acted 405 B.C.), where the throne of poetry is contested
in Hades between Aeschylus and Euripides, the former coin*
plains (Fr. 866) that " the battle is not fair, because my own
poetry has not died with me, while Euripides' has died, and
therefore he will hate it with him to recite "—a dear reference, as
the scholiast points out, to the continued production at Athens
of Aeschylus' plays after his death.
Apart from fables, guesses and blunders, of which a word is
said below, the only other incidents recorded of the poet's life
that deserve mention are connected with hisJSidlian visits, and
the charge preferred against him of revealing the " secrets of
Demeter." This tale is briefly mentioned by Aristotle (Eth. iii. 2),
and a late commentator (Eustratius, 12 th century) quotes from
one Heradides Pontius the version which may be briefly given
as follows: —
The poet was acting a part in one of his own plays, where there
was a reference to Demeter. The audience suspected him of
revealing the inviolable secrets, and rose in fury; the poet fled
to the altar of Dionysus in the orchestra and so saved his life
for the moment; for even an angry Athenian crowd respected
the inviolable sanctuary. He was afterwards charged with the
crime before the Areopagus; and his plea " that he did not
know that what he said was secret " was accepted by the court
and secured his acquittal. The commentator adds that the
prowess of the poet (and his brother) at Marathon was the real
cause of the leniency of his judges. The story was afterwards
developed, and embellished by additions; but in the above
shape it dates back to the 4th century; and as the main fact
seems accepted by Aristotle, it is probably authentic.
As to his foreign travel, the suggestion has been made that
certain descriptions in the Persoe, and the known facts that he
wrote a trilogy on the story of the Thracian king Lycurgus,
persecutor of Dionysus, seem to point to his having a special
knowledge of Thrace, which makes it likely that he had visited
it. This, however, remains at best a conjecture. For his repeated
visits to Sicily, on the other hand, there is condusive ancient
evidence. Hiero the First, tyrant of Syracuse, who reigned
about twelve years (478-467), and amongst other efforts alter
magnificence invited to his court famous poets and men of letters,
had founded a new town, Aetna, on the site of Catana which he
captured, expelling the inhabitants. Among his guests were
Aeschylus, Pindar, Bacchylides and Simonides. About 476
Aeschylus was entertained by him, and at his request wrote
and exhibited a play called The Women of Aetna in honour of
the new town. He paid a second visit about 472, the year in
which he had produced the Persae at Athens; and the play a
said to have been repeated at Syracuse at his patron's request
Hiero died in 467, the year of the Seven against Thehes; but
after 458, when the Oresteia was exhibited at Athens, we find
the poet again in Sicily for the last time. In 456 he died, and
was buried at Gela; and on his tomb was placed an epitaph is
two elegiac couplets saying: " Beneath this stone lies Aeschylus,
son of Euphorion, the Athenian, who perished in the wheat-
bearing land of Gela; of his noble prowess the grove of Marathon
can speak, or the long-haired Persian who knows it well." The
authorship of this epitaph is uncertain, as the Life says it wis
inscribed on his grave by the people of Gela, while Athenaens
and Pausanias attribute it to Aeschylus. Probably most people
would agree that only the poet himself could have praised the
soldier and kept silence about the poetry.
Of the marvellous traditions which gathered round his name
little need be said. Pausanias* tale, how Dionysus appeared to
the poet when a boy, asleep in his father's vineyard, and bade
him write a tragedy — or the account in the Life, how he wis
killed by an eagle letting fall on his head a tortoise whose shell
the bird was unable to crack — dearly belong to the same class
of legends as the story that Plato was son of Apollo, and that
a swarm of bees settled upon his infant lips as he lay in his
mother's arms. Less supernatural, but hardly more historical,
is the statement in the Life that the poet left Athens for Sicily
in consequence of his defeat in the dramatic contest of 468 by
Sophocles; or the alternative story of the same authority that
the cause of his chagrin was that Simonides' elegy on the heroes
AESCHYLUS
273
slain at Marathon was preferred to his own. Apart from the
inherent improbability of such pettiness in such a man, neither
story fits the facts; for in 467, the next year after Sophocles'
success, we know that Aeschylus won the prize of tragedy with
the Septem, and the Marathon elegy must have been written in
400, fourteen years before .his first visit to Sicily.
In passing from Aeschylus' life to his work, we have obviously
(ar more trustworthy data, in the seven extant plays (with
j^ the fragments of more than seventy others), and par-
ticularly in the invaluable help of Aristotle's Poetics.
The real importance of our poet in the development of the drama
(see Drama: Greek) as compared with any of his three or four
known predecessors—who are at best hardly more than names
to us— is shown by the fact that Aristotle, in his brief review of
the rise of tragedy (Poe(. iv. ij), names no one before Aeschy-
lus. He recognises, it is true, a long process of growth, with
several stages, from the dithyramb to the drama; and it is not
difficult to see what these stages were. The first step was the
addition to the old choric song of an interlude spoken, and in
early days improvised, by the leader of the chorus {Poet. iv.
i>). The next was the introduction of an actor (hroxpir^f or
" answerer "), to reply to the leader; and thus we get dialogue
added to recitation. The " answerer " was at first the poet
himself (Ar. Rket. iii. 1). This change is traditionally attributed
toThespis (536 b.c), who is, however, not mentioned by Aristotle.
The mask, to enable the actor to assume different parts, by
whomsoever invented, was in regular use before Aeschylus' day.
The third change was the enlarged range of subjects. The lyric
dithyramb-tales were necessarily about Dionysus, and the inter-
lades had, of course, to follow suit. Nothing in the world so
tenaciously resists innovation as religious ceremony; and it is
interesting to learn that the Athenian populace (then, as ever,
eager fcfr " some new thing ") nevertheless opposed at first the
introduction of other tales. But the innovators won; or other-
wise there would have been no Attic drama.
In this way, then, to the original lyric song and dances in
honour of Dionysus was added a spoken (but still metrical)
interlude by the chorus-leader, and later a dialogue with one
actor (at first the poet), whom the mask enabled to appear in
bor than one parti
But everything points to the fact that in the development of
the drama Aeschylus was the decisive innovator. The two
things that were important, when the 5th century began, if
tragedy was to realize its possibilities, were (1) the disentangle-
sxat of the dialogue from its position as an interlude in an
artistic and religious pageant that was primarily lyric; and (2)
its general elevation of tone. Aeschylus, as we know on the
eraress authority of Aristotle {Poet. iv. ij), achieved the first
by the introduction of the second actor; and though he did
not begin the second, he gave it the decisive impulse and'eon-
ftamation by the overwhelming effect of his serious thought,
the stately splendour of his style, his high dramatic purpose,
and the artistic grandeur and impressiveness of the construction
tod presentment of his tragedies.
As to the importance of the second actor no argument is
needed The essence of a play is dialogue; and a colloquy
between the coryphaeus and a messenger (or, by aid of the mask,
a series of messengers), as must have been the case when Aeschy-
lus began, is in reality not dialogue in the dramatic sense at all,
bat rather narrative. The discussion, the persuasion, the in-
struction, the pleading, the contention— in short, the interacting
personal influences of different characters on each other— are
(■dispensable to anything that can be called a play, as we
understand the word; and, without two "personae dramatis"
it the least, the drama in the strict sense is dearly impossible.
The number of actors was afterwards increased; but to Aeschylus
trc due the perception and the adoption of the essential step;
**d therefore, as was said above, he deserves in a very real sense
to be called the founder of Athenian tragedy.
Of the seven extant plays, Supplices, Persae, Septem contra
Tkehas, Prometheus, Agamemnon,ChoephoroeznA Eumenides, five
can fortunately be dated with certainty, as the archon's name
L 6
is preserved in the Arguments; and the other two approximately.
The dates rest, in the last resort, on the fcoaovaXiai, or the official
records of the contests, of which we know that Aristotle (and
others) compiled catalogues; and some actual fragments have
been recovered. The order of the plays is probably that given
above; and certainly the Persae' was acted in 472, Septem in
467, and the last three, the. trilogy, in 458. The Supplices is
generally, though not unanimously, regarded as the oldest;
and the best authorities tend to place it not far from 400. The
early date is strongly confirmed by three things: the extreme
simplicity of the plot, the choric (instead of dramatic) opening,
and the fact that the percentage of lyric passages is 54, or the
highest of all the seven plays. The chief doubt is in regard to
Prometheus, which is variously placed by good authorities; but
the very low percentage of lyrics (only 97, or roughly a quarter
of the whole), and still more the strong characterization, a
marked advance on anything in the first three plays, point to
its being later than any except the trilogy, and suggest a date
somewhere about 460, or perhaps a little earlier. A few com-
ments on the extant plays will help to indicate the main points
of Aeschylus' work.
Supplices.— The exceptional interest of the Supplices is due to
its date. Being nearly twenty years earlier than any other
extant play, it furnishes evidence of a stage in the evolution of
Attic drama which would otherwise have been unrepresented.
Genius, as Patin says, is a " puissance libre," and none more so
than that of Aeschylus; but with all allowance for the " un-
controlled power " of this poet, we may feel confident that we
have in the Supplices something resembling in general structure
the lost works of Choerilus, Phrynichus, Pratinas and the 6th-
century pioneers of drama.
The plot is briefly as follows: the fifty daughters of Danaus
(who are the chorus), betrothed by the fiat of Aegyptus (their
father's brother) to his fifty sons, flee with Danaus to Argos,
to escape the marriage which they abhor. They claim the pro-
tection of the Argive king, Pelasgus, who is kind but timid; and
he (by a pleasing anachronism) refers the matter to the people,
who agree to protect the fugitives. The pursuing fleet of suitors
is seen approaching; the herald arrives (with a company of
followers), blusters, threatens, orders off the cowering Danaids
to the ships and finally attempts to drag them away. Pelasgus
interposes with a force, drives off the Egyptians and saves the
suppliants. Danaus urges them to prayer, thanksgiving and
maidenly modesty, and the grateful chorus pass away to the
shelter offered by their protectors.
It is dear that we have here the drama in its nascent stage,
just developing out of the lyric pageant from which It sprang.
The interest still centres round the chorus, who are in fact the
"protagonists" of the play. Character and plot— the two
essentials of drama, in the view of all critics from Aristotle
downwards— are both here' rudimentary. There are some
fluctuations of hope and fear; but the play is a single situation.
The stages are: the appeal; the hesitation of the king, the re-
solve of the people; the defeat of insolent violence; and the
rescue. It should not be forgotten, indeed, that the play is one
of a trilogy— an act, therefore, rather than a complete drama.
But we have only to compare it with those later plays of which
the same is true, to see the difference. Even in a trilogy, each
play is a complete whole in itself, though also a portion of a
larger whole.
Persae.— The next play that has survived is the Persae, which
has again a special interest, viz. that it is the only extant Greek
historical drama. We know that Aeschylus' predecessor, Phryni-
chus, had already twice tried this experiment, with the Capture
of Miletus and the Phoenician Women; that the latter play
dealt with the same subject as the Persae, and the handling of
its opening scene was imitated by the younger poet. The plot
of the Persae is still severely simple, though more developed
than that of the Suppliants. The opening is still lyric, and the
first quarter of the play brings out, by song and speech, the
anxiety of the people and queen as to the fate of Xerxes' huge
army. Then comes the messenger with the news of Sala mt s,
*74
AESCHYLUS
including & description of tne sea-fight itself which can only
be called magnificent. We realize what it must have been for
the vast audience— 30,000, according to Plato (Symp. 175 *)—
to hear, eight years only after the event, from the supreme poet
of Athens, who was himself a distinguished actor in the war,
this thrilling narrative of the great battle. But this reflexion at
once suggests another; it is not a tragedy in the true Greek
sense, according to the practice of the sth-century poets. It
may be called in one point of view a tragedy, since the scene is
laid in Persia, and the drama forcibly depicts the downfall of
the Persian pride. But its real aim is not the "pity and terror"
of the developed drama; it is the triumphant glorification of
Athens, the exultation of the whole nation gathered in one place,
over the ruin of their foe. This is best shown by the praise of
Aeschylus' great admirer and defender Aristophanes, who {Frogs,
ioso-1027) puts into the poet's mouth the boast that in the
Persae he had " glorified a noble exploit, and taught men to be
eager to conquer their foe."
Thus, both as an historic drama and in its real effect, the
Persae was an experiment; and, as far as we know, the experi-
ment was not repeated either by the author or his successors.
One further point may be noted. Aeschylus always has a taste
for the unseen and the supernatural; and one effective incident
here is the raising of Darius's ghost, and his prophecy of the
disastrous battle of Plataea. But in the ghost's revelations
there is a mixture of audacity and nalvett, characteristic at
once of the poet and the early youth of the drama. The dead
Darius prophesies Plataea, but has not heard of Salamis; he
gives a brief (and inaccurate) list of the Persian kings, which
the queen and chorus, whom he addresses, presumably know;
and his only practical suggestion, that the Persians should not
again invade Greece, seems attainable without the aid of super-
human foresight.
Septem contra Thebas.— Five years later came the Theban
Tragedy. It is not only, as Aristophanes says {Frogs, 1024),
" a play full of the martial spirit," but is (like the Suppliers)
one of a connected series, dealing with 'the evil fate of the Theban
House. But instead of being three acts of a single story like the
Supplices, these three plays trace the fate through three genera-
tions, Laius, Oedipus and the two sons who die by each other's
hands in the fight for the Theban sovereignty. This family fate,
where one evil deed leads to another after many years, is a larger
conception, strikingly suited to Aeschylus' genius, and con-
stitutes a notable stage in. the development of the Aeschylean
drama. And just as here we have the tragedy of the Theban
house, so in the last extant work, the Oresteia, the poet traces
the tragedy of the Pclopid family, from Agamemnon's first sin
to Orestes' vengeance and purification. And the names of several
lost plays point to similar handling of the tragic trilogy.
The Seven against Thebes is the last play of its series; and
again the plot is severely simple, not only in outline, but in detail.
Father and grandfather have both perished miserably; and the
two princes have quarrelled, both claiming the kingdom. Eteo-
des has driven out Polynices, who fled to Argos, gathered a host
under seven leaders (himself being one), and when the play opens
has begun the siege of his own city. The king appears, warns
the people,chides the clamour of women,appoints seven Thebans,
including himself, to defend the seven gates, departs to his post,
meets bis brother in battle and both are killed. The other six
chieftains are all slain, and the enemy beaten off. The two dead
princes are buried by their two sisters, who alone are left of the
royal house.
Various signs of the early drama are here manifest. Half the
play is lyric; there is no complication of plot; the whole action
is recited by messengers; and the fatality whereby the predicted
mutual slaughter of the princes is brought about is no accidental
stroke of destiny, but the choice of the king Etcoclcs himself.
On the other hand, the opening is no longer lyric (like the two
earlier plays) but dramatic; the main scene, where the* mes-
senger reports at length the names of the seven assailants, and
the king appoints the seven defenders, each man going off in
silence to his post, must have been an impressive spectacle.
One novelty should not be overlooked. There is here the first
passage of Uavota, or general reflexion of life, which later became
a regular feature of tragedy. Eteocles muses on the fate which
involves an innocent man in the company of the wicked so that
he shares unjustly their deserved fate. The passage {Theb.
597-608) is interesting; and the whole part of Eteocles shows a
new effort of the poet to draw character, which may have some-
thing to do with the rise of Sophocles, who in the year before
(468) won with his first play, now lost, the prize of tragedy.
There remain only the Prometheus and the Oresteia* which
show such marked advance that (it may almost be said) when we
think of Aeschylus it is these four plays we have in mind.
Prometheus. — The Prometheus-trilogy consisted of three plays:
Prometheus the Firc-bringer, Prometheus Bound, Prometheus
Unbound. The two last necessarily came in that order; the
Pire-bringer is probably the first*tbough recently it has been held
by some scholars to be the last, of the trilogy. That Prometheus
sinned against Zeus, by stealing fire from heaven; that he was
punished by fearful tortures for ages; that be finally was recon-
ciled to Zeus and set free,— all this was the ancient tale indisput-
ably. Those who hold the Fire-bringer (Uvp&pot) to be the final
play, conjecture that it dealt with the establishment of the
worship of Prometheus under that title, which is known to have
existed at Athens. But the other order is on all grounds more
probable; it keeps the natural sequence — crime, punishment,
reconciliation, which is also, the sequence in the Oresteia. And
if the reconciliation was achieved in the second play, no scheme
of action sufficing for the third drama seems even plausible. 1
However that may be, the play that survives is a poem of
unsurpassed force and impressiveness. Nevertheless, from the
point of view of the development of drama, there seems at first
sight little scope in the story for the normal human interest of a
tragedy, since the actors are all divine, except Io, who Is a dis-
tracted wanderer, victim of Zeus' cruelty; and between the open-
ing where Prometheus is nailed to the Scythian rock, and the
close where the earthquake engulfs the rock, the hero and the
chorus, action in the ordinary sense is ipso facto impossible. This
is just the opportunity for the poet's bold inventiveness and fine
imagination. The tortured sufferer is visited by the Oceanic
Nymphs, who float in, borne by an (imaginary) winged car, to
console; Oceanus (riding a griffin, doubtless also imaginary)
follows, kind but timid, to advise submission; then appears io,
victim of Zeus' love and Hera's jealousy, to whom Prometheus
prophesies her future wanderings and his own fate; lastly
Hermes, insolent messenger of the gods, who tries in vain to
extort Prometheus' secret knowledge of the future. Oceanus,
the well-meaning palavering old mentor, and Hermes, the
blustering and futile jack-in-office, gods though they be, are
vigorous, audacious and very human character-sketches; the
soft entrance of the consoling nymphs is unspeakably beautiful;
and the prophecy of Io's wanderings is a striking example of
that new keen interest in the world outside which was felt by the
Greeks of the 5th century, as it was felt by the Elizabethan
English in a very similar epoch of national spirit and enterprise
two thousand years later. Thus, though dramatic action is by
the nature of. the case impossible for the hero, the visitors provide
real drama. f
Another important point tn the development of tragedy is
what we may call the "balanced issue." The question in
Suppliants is the protection of the threatened fugitives; in
Persae the humiliation of overweening pride. So far the sym-
pathy of the audience is not doubtful or divided. In the Septew
there is an approach to conflict of feeling; the banished brother
has a personal grievance, though guilty of the impious crime of
attacking his own country. The sympathy must be for the de-
fender Eteocles; but it Is at least somewhat qualified by his
injustice to his brother. In Prometheus the issue is more nearly
1 The Eumenida is guoted as a parallel, because there the estab-
lishment of this worship at Athens concludes the whole trilogy;
but it is forgotten that in Eumenides there is much besides— the
pursuit of Orestes, the refuge at Athens, the trial, the acquittal, the
conciliation by Athena of the Furies; while here the story would be
finished before the last play began.
AESCHYLUS
275
balanced. The hero is both a victim and a rebel. He is punished
for his benefits to man; but though Zeus is tyrannous and un-
grateful, the hero's reckless defiance is shocking to Greek feeling.
As the play goes on, this is subtly and delicately indicated by
the attitude of the chorus. They enter overflowing with pity.
They are slowly chilled and alienated by the hero's violence
and impiety; but they nobly decline, at the last crisis, the mean
advice of Hermes to desert Prometheus and save themselves;
and in the final crash they share his fate.
Oresteia.— The last and greatest work of Aeschylus is the
Onsteia, which also has the interest of being the only complete
trilogy preserved to us. It is a three-act drama of family fate,
like the Oedipus-trilogy; and the acts are the sin, the revenge,
the reconciliation, as in the Prometheus-trilogy. Again, as in
Premetheus, the plot, at first sight, is such that the conditions of
drama seem to exclude much development in character-drawing.
The gods are everywhere at the root of the action. The inspired
prophet, Cakhas, has demanded the sacrifice of the king's
daughter Iphigcnia, to appease the offended Artemis. The in-
spired Cassandra, brought in as a spear- won slave from conquered
Troy, reveals the murderous past of the Pelopid house, and the
imminent slaughter of the king by his wife. Apollo orders the
son, Orestes, to avenge his father by killing the murderess, and
protects him when after the deed he takes sanctuary at Delphi.
The Erinnyes (" Furies ") pursue him over land and sea; and at
bst Athena gives him shelter at Athens, summons an Athenian
council to judge his guilt, and when the court is equally divided
ghm her casting vote for mercy. The last act ends with the
reconciliation of Athena and the Furies; and the latter receive
a shrine and worship at Athens, and promise favour and pros-
perity to the great city. The scope for human drama seems
deliberately restricted, if not dosed, by such a story so handled.
Nevertheless, as a fact, "the growth of characterization is, in
spile of all, not only visible but remarkable. Clytemnestra is
one of the most powerfully presented characters of the Greek
drama. Her manly courage, her vindictive and unshaken pur-
pose, her hardly hidden contempt for her tool and accomplice,
Aegisthus, her cold scorn for the feebly vacillating elders, and
aer unflinching acceptance (in the second play) of inevitable
ute, when she faces at last the avowed avenger, are all portrayed
with matchless force— her very craft being scornfully assumed,
as needful to her purpose, and contemptuously dropped when
the purpose is served. And there is one other noticeable point.
In this trilogy Aeschylus, for the first time, has attempted some
touches of character in two of the humbler parts, the Watchman
in Agamemnon, and the Nurse in the Chocphoroe. The Watch-
nan opens the play, and the vivid and almost humorous scnten-
Uottsnessof his language, his dark hints, v his pregnant metaphors
drawn from common speech, at once give a striking touch of
realism, and form a pointed contrast to the terrible drama that
impends. A very similar effect is produced at the crisis of the
Choepkorot by the speech of the Nurse, who coming on a message
(0 Aegisthus pours out to the chorus her sorrow at the reported
death of Orestes and her fond memories of his babyhood — with
the most homely details; and the most striking realistic touch
is perhaps the broken structure and almost inconsequent utter-
ance of the old faithful slave's speech. These two are veritable
agares drawn from contemporary life; and though both appear
only once, and are quite unimportant in the drama, the innova-
tion is most significant, and especially as adopted by Aeschylus.
It remains to say a word on two more points, the religious ideas
of Aeschylus and some of the main characteristics of his poetry.
nmm The religious aspect of the drama in one sense was
hum, prominent from the first, owing to its evolution from
the choral celebration of the god Dionysus. But the
new spirit imported by the genius of Aeschylus into the early
drama was religious in a profoundcr meaning of the term. The
sadness of human lot, the power and mysterious dealings of the
gods, their terrible and inscrutable wrath and jealousy (07a and
^•w), their certain vengeance upon sinners, alllhc more fearful
if delayed,— such are the poet's constant themes, delivered
•ith strange solemnity and tmpressiveness in the lyric songs,
especially in the Orestcia. And at times, particularly in the
Trilogy, in his reference to the divine power of Zeus, he almost
approaches a stern and sombre monotheism. " One God above
all, who directs all, who is the cause of all" (Ag. 163, 1485);
the watchfulness of this Power over human action (363*367),
especially over the punishment of their sins; and the mysterious
law whereby sin always begets new sin (Ag. 758-760): — these
are ideas on which Aeschylus dwells in the Agamemnon with
peculiar force, in a strain at onee lofty and sombre. One specially
noteworthy point in that play is his explicit repudiation of the
common Hellenic view that prosperity brings ruin. In other
places he seems to share the feeling; but here (Ag. 730) he goes
deeper, and declares that it is not 6\fios but always wickedness
that brings about men's fall AH through there is a recurring
note of fear in his view of man's destiny, expressed in vivid
images— the " death that lurks behind the wall " (Ag. 1004),
the " hidden reef which wrecks the bark, unable to weather
the headland " (Eum. 561-565). In one remarkable passage of
the Eumenides (517-525) this fear Is extolled as a moral power
which ought to be enthroned in men's hearts, to deter them
from impious or violent acts, or from the pride that impels them
to such sins.
Of the poetic qualities of Aeschylus' drama and diction, both
in the lyrics and the dialogue, no adequate account can be
attempted ; the briefest word must here suffice. He is everywhere
distinguished by grandeur and power of conception, presentation
and expression, and most of all in the latest works, the Prome-
theus and the Trilogy. He is pre-eminent in depicting the slow
approach of fear, as in the Persae; the imminent horror of
impending fate, as in the broken cries and visions of Cassandra
in the Agamemnon (1072-1177), the long lament and prayers to
the nether powers in the Chocphoroe (315-478), and the gradual
rousing of the slumbering Furies in the Eumenidet (11 7- 139).
The fatal end in these tragedies is foreseen; but the affect is
due to its measured advance, to the slowly darkening suspense
which no poet has more powerfully rendered. Again, he is a
master of contrasts, especially of the Beautiful with the Tragic:
as when the floating vision of consoling nymphs appears to
the tortured Prometheus (1x5-135); or the unmatched lyrics
which tell (in the Agamemnon, 228-247) of the death of Iphi-
genia; or the vision of his lost love that the night brings to
Menelaus (410-426). And not least noticeable is the extra-
ordinary range, force and imaginativeness of his diction. One
example of his lyrics may be given which will illustrate more
than one of these points. It is taken from the long lament in the
Septem, sung by the chorus and the two sisters, while following
the funeral procession of the two princes. These laments may at
times be wearisome to the modern reader, who docs not see, and
imperfectly imagines, the stately and pathetic spectacle; but
to the ancient feeling they were as solemn and impressive as
they were ceremonially indispensable The solemnity is here
heightened by the following lines sung by one of the chorus of
Theban women (Sept. 854-860):—
Nay, with the wafting gale of your sighs, my sisters.
Beat on your heads with your hands the stroke as of oars,
The stroke that passes ever across Acheron,
Speeding on its way the black-robed sacred bark,—
The bark Apollo comes not near,
The bark that is hidden from the sunlight —
To the shore of darkness that welcomes all I
Authorities.— The chief authority for the text is a single MS. at
Florence, of the early nth century, known as the Medicean or M.,
written by a professional scribe and revised by a contemporary
scholar, who corrected the copyist's mistakes, added the scholia, the
arguments and the dramatis personae of three plays ITheb., Agam.,
Eum.), and at the end the Life of Aeschylus and the Catalogue of his
Dramas. The MS, has also been further corrected by later hands. In
1896 the Italian Ministry of Public Instruction publishd the MS. in
photographic facsimile, with an instructive preface by Signor
Rostagno. Besides M. there are some eight later MSS. (13th to 15th
century), and numerous copies of the three select plays \SePt., Pers.,
Prom.) which were most read in the later Byzantine period, when
Greek literature was reduced to gradually diminishing excerpts.
These later MSS. arc of little value or authority.
The editions, from the beginning of the 15th century to the present
time, are very numerous, and the text has been further continuously
276
AESCULAPIUS— AESOP
improved by isolated suggestions from a host of scholars. The three
first printed copies (Aldine, 1518; Turnebus and Robortcllo, i«u)
give only those parts of Agamemnon found in M., from which MS.
some leaves were lust; in 1557 the full text was restored by Vettori
(Victorius) from later MSS. After these four, the chief editions of
the seven plavs were those of Schutz, Porson. Butler, Wcllauer. Din-
dorf, Bothe, Ahrcns, Paley, Hermann, Hartung, Weil, Merkrl, Kirch-
hoff and Weckiein. Besides these, over a hundred scholars have
thrown light on the corruptions or obscurities of the text, by editions
of separate plays, by emendations, by special studies of the poet's
work, or in other ways. Among recent writers who have made such
contributions may be mentioned Wilamowitz-Moellendorf. Enger,
Conington, Blaydcs, Cobet. Meineke, Madvig, Ellis, W. Hcadlam.
Pavies, Tucker, Vcrrall and Haigh. The Fragments have been
edited by Nauck and also by Weckiein. The Aeschylean staging is
discussed in Albert M tiller's Lehrbuch der griechischen BuhnenaUer-
tkumer . in " Die Biihne des Acschylos," by Wtlamowitz (Hermes, xxi.) ;
in Smith's Diet, of Antiquities, art. " Theatrum " (R. C. Jcbb);ln
Dorpfeld and Retsch {Das grieckisehe Theater), Hatgh's Attic Theatre.
and Gardner and Jevons Manual of Creek Antiquities. English
Verse Translations: Agamemnon, Mil man and R. Browning;
Oresteia,. Suppliants, Persae, Seven against Thebes, Prometheus Vine-
tus, by E. O. A. Morshead; Prometheus, E. B. Browning: the
whole seven plays. Lewis Campbell. (A. Si.)
AESCULAPIUS (Gr. 'Aa«XW*), the legendary Greek god
of medicine, the son of Apollo and the nymph Coronis. Tricca
in Thessaly and Epidaurus in Argolis disputed the honour of his
birthplace, but an oracle declared in favour of Epidaurus. He
was educated by the centaur Cheiron, who taught him the art of
healing and hunting. His skill in curing disease and restoring
the dead to life aroused the anger of Zeus, who, being afraid that
he might render all men immortal, slew him with a thunder-
bolt (Apollodorus iii. 10; Pindar, Phtkia, 3, Diod. Sic. iv. 71).
Homer mentions him as a skilful physician, whose sons, Machaon
and Podalirius, are the physicians in the Greek camp before Troy
(Iliad, ii. 731). Temples were erected to Aesculapius in many
parts of Greece, near healing springs or on high mountains.
The practice of sleeping (imubalio) in these sanctuaries was y/cry
common, it being supposed that the god effected cures or pre-
scribed remedies to the sick in dreams. Ail who were healed
offered sacrifice — especially a cock— and hung up votive tablets,
on which were recorded their names, their diseases and the
manner in which they had been cured. Many of these votive
tablets have been discovered in the course of excavations at
Epidaurus. Here was the god's most famous shrine, and games
were celebrated in his honour every five years, accompanied by
solemn processions. Herodas (Mimes, 4) gives a description
of one of his temples, and of the offerings made to him. His
worship was introduced into Rome by order of the Sibylline books
(293 B.C.), to avert a pestilence. The god was fetched from
Epidaurus in the form of a snake and a temple assigned him on
the island in the Tiber (Livy a. 47; Ovid, Metam. xv. 622).
Aesculapius was a favourite subject of ancient artists. He is
commonly represented standing, dressed in a long cloak, with
bare breast; his usual attribute is a dub-like staff with a serpent
(the symbol of renovation) coiled round it. He is often accom-
panied by Telesphorus, the boy genius of healing, and his
daughter Hygieia, the goddess of health. Votive reliefs repre-
senting such groups have been found near the temple of Aescu-
lapius at Athens. The British Museum possesses a beautiful
head of Aesculapius (or possibly Zeus) from Melos, and the
Louvre a magnificent statue.
Authorities.— L. Dyer, The Cods in Greece (1891): Jane E.
auly
die Asklepiaden (1846); Alice
Walton, " The Cult of Asklcpios." in Cornell Studies in Classical
logic : T Panofka, Asklepios und die
Philology, iii. (New York, 1894); W. H. D. Rouse. Creek Voitve
Offerings (1902).
AESBRN1A (mod. hernia), a Samnitc town on the road from
Bcnrventum to Corfinium, 58 m: to the north-east of the former,
at the junction of a road going past Venafrum to the Via Latins.
These routes are all followed by modern railways— the lines to
Campobasso, Sulmona and Caiancllo. A Roman colony was
established there in 263 b.c It became the headquarters of the
Italian revolt after the loss of Corfinium, and was only recovered
by Sulla at the end of the war, in 80 B.c Remains of its fortifica-
tions are still preserved— massive cyclopean walls, which serve
as foundation to the walls of the modern town and of a Roman
bridge^ and the subterranean channel of an aqueduct, cut a
the cock, and dating from Roman times.
AESOP (Gr. Alaunxn), famous for his Fables, is supposed to
have lived from about 620 to 560 b.c. The place of his birth is
uncertain — Thrace, Phrygia, Aethiopia, Samoa, Athens and Sardts
all claiming the honour. We possess little trustworthy informa-
tion concerning his life, except that he was the slave of Iadmon
of Samos and met with a violent death at the bands -of the in-
habitants of Delphi. A pestilence that ensued being attributed
to this crime, the Delphians declared their willingness to make
compensation, which, in default of a nearer connexion, was
claimed and received by Iadmon, the grandson of his old master.
Herodotus, who is our authority for this (ii. 134), does not state
the cause of his death; various reasons are assigned by later
writers — his insulting sarcasms, the embezzlement of money
entrusted to him by Croesus for distribution at Delphi, the theft
of a silver cup.
Aesop must have received his freedom from Iadmon, or he
could not have conducted the public defence of a certain Samian
demagogue (Aristotle, Rhetoric, ii. 20). According to the story,
he subsequently lived at the court of Croesus, where he met
Solon, and dined in the company of the Seven Sages of Greece
with Periander at Corinth. During the reign of Peisistratus he
is said to have visited Athens, on which occasion he related the
fable of The Progs asking for a King, to dissuade the citizens
from attempting to exchange Peisistratus for another ruler.
The popular stories current regarding him are derived from a
life, or rather romance, prefixed to a book of fables, purporting
to be his, collected by Maximus Planudes, a monk of the 14th
century. In this he is described as a monster of »gliiw^ and
deformity, as he is also represented in a well-ltaown marble
figure in the Villa Albani at Rome. That this life, however,
was in existence a century before Planudes, appears from a
13th-century MS. of it found at Florence. In Plutarch's Sym-
posium of the Seven Sages, at which Aesop* is a guest, there are
many jests on his original servile condition, but nothing deroga-
tory is said about his personal appearance. We are further
told that the Athenians erected in his honour a noble statue by
the famous sculptor Lysippus, which furnishes a strong argument
against the fiction of his deformity. Lastly, the obscurity in
which the history of Aesop is involved has induced some scholars
to deny his existence altogether.
It is probable that Aesop did not commit his fables to writing;
Aristophanes (Wasps, 1259) represents Philocleon as having
learnt the " absurdities " of Aesop from conversation at banquets,
and Socrates whiles away his time in prison by turning some of
Aesop's fables "which" he knew" into verse (Plato, Pkaedo,
61 b). Demetrius of Phalerum (34S-J83 b.c.) made a collection
in ten books, probably in prose (A6vw* AlaonrtLu* cwayuyai)
for the use of orators, which has been lost. Next appeared an
edition in elegiac verse, often cited by Suidas, but the author's
name is unknown. Babrius, according to Crusius, a Roman and
tutor to the son of Alexander Severus, turned the fables into
choliambirs in the earlier part of the 3rd century a.d. The
most celebrated of the Latin adapters is Phaedrus, a f reedman of
Augustus. Avianus (of uncertain date, perhaps the 4th century)
translated 42 of the fables into Latin elegiacs. The collections
which we possess under the name of Aesop* s Fables are late
renderings of Babrius's version or MptnvuvLa tiara, rhetorical
exercises of varying age and merit. Syntipas translated Babrius
into Syriac, and Andreopulos put the Syriac back ajgain into
Greek. Ignatius Diaconus, in the 9th century, made a version of
S3 fables in choliambic tetrameters. Stories from Oriental sources
were added, and from these collections Maximus Planudes
made and edited the collection which has come down to us under
the name of Aesop, and from which the popular fables of modern
Europe have been derived.
For further information we the article FablB: Rentley, Dissert-
ation on the Fables of Aesop; Du Meril, Poesies inedttes dm moyeu
dgt ( 1 854) : J ■ Jacobs. The Fables of Aesop ( 1 889) ' • The history of
AESOPUS— AESTHETICS
277
the Aesopte Cable; u. The Fables of Aesop, as first printed by
William Caaton, 1484, from his French translation; Hervieux, Lts
M m iitUi Latins (1893-1899).
Before any Greek text appeared, a Latin translation of 100
Faotdas Aesopieae by an Italian scholar named Ranuzio (Renutius)
•as published at Rome, 1476. About 1480 the collection of
Pfanndes was brought out at Milan bvBuono Accorso (Accursius).
together with Ranuao's translation. This edition, which contained
144 fables, was frequently reprinted and additions made from time
to time from various MSS-— the Heidelberg (Palatine), Florentine,
Vatican and Augsburg— by Stephanos (1547). Nevekt (1610)
Hudson (1718), Hauptmann (174O1 Furia (1810), Cora> (1
Sch n ei d e r (l 81a) and others. A critical edition of all the
known fables, prepared by Carl von Halm from the coll
Furia, Corav and Schneider, was published in the Teubner series of
Greek and Latin texts. A FoJbutamm Aesopieamm syUoft (233 in
•amber) from a Pads MS., with critical notes by Sternbach, appeared
in a Cracow University publication, Rotprawy akademii umicjel-
■*» (1894).
AESOPUS, a Greek historian who wrote a history of Alexander
the Great, a Latin translation of which, by Julius Valerius, was
disco vered by Mai in 1816.
AESOPUS, CLODIUS, the most eminent Roman tragedian,
nourished during the time of Cicero, but the dates of his birth
and death are not known. The name seems to show that he was
afreedmanof some member of the Qodian gens. Cicero was on
friendly terms with both him and Rosdus, the equally distin-
guished comedian, and did not disdain to profit by their instruc-
tion. Plutarch (Cicero, 5) mentions it as reported of Aesopus,
that, while representing Atreus deliberating how he should
revenge himself on Thyestes, the actor forgot himself so far in
the heat of action that with his truncheon he struck and killed
one of the servants crossing the stage. Aesopus made a last
appearance in 55 B.C. — when Cicero tells us that he was advanced
m yean— on the occasion of the splendid games given by Pompey
at the dedication of his theatre. In spite of his somewhat ex-
travagant Irving, he left an ample fortune to his spendthrift son,
who did his best to squander it as soon as possible. Horace
(Sat in. 5. 239) mentions his taking a pearl from the ear-drop of
Csecflia MeteDa and dissolving it in vinegar, that he might have
the satisfaction of swallowing eight thousand pounds' worth at a
Cicero. De Dwmatione, I 37; pro Sestio, 56, 58; Quint, Instil
sis, ill; Macrobtus, 5o/. iii 14.
AESTHETICS, a branch of study variously denned as the
" f or science of the beautif u\ of taste or of the fine arts.
The name is something of an accident. In its original
Greek form (afa&frucot) it means what has todo with
__ sense-perception as a source of knowledge; and this
is stul its meaning in Kant's philosophy ("Transcen-
dental Aesthetic "). Its limitation to that function of sensuous
perception which we know as the contemplative enjoyment of
beauty is doe to A. G. Banmgarten. Although the subject does
not readily fend itself to precise definition at the outset, we may
indicate its scope and aim, as understood by recent writers, by
saying that h deals successively with one great department of
human experience, vis. the pleasurable activities of pure con-
templation. By pure contemplation is here understood that
manner of regarding objects of sense-perception, and more
particularly sights and sounds, which is entirely motived by the
pleasure of the act itself. The term " object " means whatever
can be perceived through one of the senses, eg. a flower, aland-
scape, the flight of a bird, a sequence of tones. The contemplation
may be immediate when (as mostly happens) the object is present
to sense; or it may be mediate, when as in reading poetry we
dwell on images of objects of sense. Whenever we become
interested in an object merely as presented for our contemplation
our whole state of mind may be described as an aesthetic atti-
tude, and our experience as an aesthetic experience. Other
'i 1 pi i ■inns such as the pleasure of taste, the enjoyment and
appreciation of beauty (in the larger sense of this term), will
serve less precisely to mark off this department of experience.
Aesthetic experience b differentiated from other kinds of
experience by a number of characteristics. We commonly speak
of it as enjoyment, as an exercise and cultivation of feeling.
The suwptvdatkn of beauty b pervaded and sustained by pleas-
urable feeling. In aesthetic enjoyment our capacities of feel-
ing attain their fullest and most perfect development. Yet, as
its dependence on a quiet attitude of contemplation
might tell us, aesthetic experience is characterized by JjJJjTTl
a certain degree of calmness and moderation of feeling. Mgftl * ft)
Even when we are moved by a tragedy our feeling is •£#•*»•
comparatively restrained. A rare exhibition of beauty *g °^_
may thrill the soul for a moment, yet in general the ^j ffij£„
enjoyment of it is far removed from the excitement asawJam.
of passion. On the other hand, aesthetic pleasure
is pure enjoyment. Even when a disagreeable element is
present, as in a musical dissonance or in the suffering of
a tragic hero, it contributes to a higher measure of enjoy-
ment. It is, moreover, free from the painful elements of
craving, fatigue, conflict, anxiety and disappointment, which
are apt to accompany other kinds of enjoyment; such as
the satisfaction of the appetites and other needs. To this
purity of aesthetic pleasure must be added its refinement,
which implies not merely a certain remoteness from the bodily
needs, but the effect of a union of sense and mind in giving
amplitude as well as delicacy to our enjoyment of beauty. As
the region of most pure and refined feeling, aesthetic Mmtml
experience Is clearly marked off from practical life, with mittoom
its urgent desires and the rest. In aesthetic contempla- #rm«ef
tion desire and will as a whole are almost dormant, • rtW & r »
This detachment from the daily life of practical needs and aims
is brought out in Kant's postulate that aesthetic enjoyment
must be disinterested ("ohne Interesse "), that when we regard
an object aesthetically we are not in the least concerned with
its practical significance and value: one cannot, for example,
at the same moment aesthetically enjoy looking at a mhon^m
painting and desire to be its possessor. In like manner,
even if less apparently, aesthetic contemplation is
marked off from the arduous mental work which enters
into the pursuit of knowledge. In contemplating an aesthetic
object we are mentally occupied with the concrete, whereas all
the more serious intellectual work of science involves the diffi-
culties of the abstract. The contemplation is, moreover, free from
those restraints which are imposed on our mental activity by
the desire to obtain knowledge.
While as the highest phase of feeling aesthetic experience
appears to belong to our subjective life, the hidden region of the
soul, it fa connected just as clearly, through the act
of sense-perception, with the world of objects which is
our common possession. Beingthusdependentonacon-
templation of things in this common world it raises the mmnm
question whether, like the perception of these objects, "*
it is a uniform experience, the same for others as for myself. We
touch here on the last characteristic of aesthetic experience which
needs to be noted at this stage, its uniformity or subjection to
law. It fa a common idea that men's judgments about matters
of taste disagree to so large an extent that each individual is
left very much to bis subjective impressions. With regard to
many of the subtler matters of aesthetic appreciation, at any
rate, there is undoubtedly on a first view the appearance of a
want of agreement. Contrasted with logical judgments
or even with ethical ones, aesthetic judgments may no ^ fcgrtr
doubt look uncertain and " subjective." Theproposi- j^,,,,,*
tion " this tree is a birch " seems to lend itself much
better to critical discussion and to general acceptance or rejection
than the proposition M this tree is beautiful." This circumstance,
as Kant shrewdly suggests, helps to explain why we have come
to employ the word " taste " in dealing with aesthetic matters;
for the pronouncements of the sense of taste are recognized
as among the most uncertain and " subjective " of our sense-
impressions. Yet viewed as a species of pleasurable feelings,
aesthetic experiences will be found to exhibit a large amount of
uniformity, of objective agreement as .between different experi-
ences of the same person and experiences of different persons.
This general agreement appears to be clearly implied in the
ordinary form of our aesthetic judgments. To say " this rose b
beautiful" means more than to say "the sight of this rose affects
*>•/
278
AESTHETICS
*****
UtOmtot
me agreeably." It means that the rose has a general power of
so affecting me (at different times) and others as well.
The judgment is not the same as a logical one. It
does not say or imply that as a matter of fact it always
does please — even if we add the limitation, those who
possess the sensibilities and the taste presupposed;
for, as we know, our varying mood and state of receptivity make
a profound difference in the fulness of the aesthetic enjoyment
It is a " judgment of value " which claims for the rose aesthetic
rank as an object properly qualified to please contemplative
subjects. This value, it is plain, is relative to conscious subjects;
yet since it is relative to all competent ones, it may be regarded
as " objective " — that is to say, as belonging to the object 1
This slight preliminary inspection of the subject will prepare
one for the circumstance that the scientific treatment of it has
begun late, and is even now far from being complete,
1 This slowness of development is in part explained
***** by the detachment of aesthetic experience from the
1 urgent needs of life. In a comparatively early stage
of human progress some thought had to be bestowed on such
pressing problems as. to how to cope with the forces of nature
and to turn them to useful account; how to secure in human
communities obedience to custom and law. But the problem of
throwing light on our aesthetic pleasures had no such urgency. 1
To this it must be added that aesthetic experience' (in all but its
simpler and cruder forms) has been, and still is confined to a
small number of persons; so that the subject does not appeal
to a wide popular interest; while, on the other hand, the sub-
jects of this experience not infrequently have a strong senti-
mental dislike to the idea of introducing into the region of refined
feeling the cold light of scientific investigation. Lastly, there are
special difficulties inherent in the subject One serious obstacle
to a scientific theory of aesthetic experience is the illusive
character of many of its finer elements— for example, the subtle
differences of feeling-tone produced by the several colours as
well as by their several tones and shades, by the several musical
intervals, and so forth. Finally, there is the circumstance just
touched on that much of this region of experience, instead of
at once disclosing uniformity, seems to be rather the abode of
caprice and uncertainty. The variations in taste at different
levels of culture, among different races and nations and among
the individual members of the same community are numerous
and striking, and might at first seem to bar the way to a scien-
tific treatment of the subject These considerations suggest
that an adequate theory of aesthetic experience could only be
attempted after the requisite scientific skill had been developed
in other and more pressing departments of inquiry.
If we glance at the modes of treating the subject up to a quite
recent date we find but little of serious effort to apply to it a
strictly scientific method of investigation. The whole
J^J extent of concrete experience has not been adequately
recognised, still less adequately craminrd. For the
greater part thinkers have been in haste to reach some
simple formula of beauty which might seem to cover the more
obvious facts. This has commonly been derived deductively
from some more comprehensive idea of experience or human
life as a whole. Thus in German treatises off aesthetics which
have been largely thought out under the influence of philosophic
idealism the beautiful is subsumed under the idea, of which it is
regarded as one special manifestation, and its place in human
experience has been determined by defining its logical relations
to the other great co-ordinate concepts, the good and the true.
These attempts to reach a general conception of beauty have
often led to one-sidedness of view. And this one-sidedness has
sometimes characterized the theories of those who, like Alison,
have made a wider survey of aesthetic facts.
Aesthetics, like Ethics, is a Normative Science, that is to say,
1 See below for Kant't view of the aesthetic judgment, as having
subjective universal validity. On the meaning of judgments of
value see J. Conn, AU&m. Astketik, Einfettung, pp. 7 ff., jand Tejl i.,
Kap. a and 3.
• Cf. Ladd, Introduction to Philosophy, pp. 330, 331.
concerned with determining the nature of a species of the desir-
able or the good (in the large sense). It seeks one or *-— — „
more regulative principles which may help us to *•••*•
distinguish a real from an apparent aesthetic value, j"f*"
and to set the higher and more perfect illustrations of
beauty above the lower and less perfect As a science it will
seek to realise its normative function by the aid of a patient,
methodical investigation of facta, and by processes of observa-
tion, analysis and induction similar to those carried out in the
natural sciences. In speaking of aesthetics as a nor- Atrf f tf ^ re
mative science we do not mean that it is a practical motm
one in the sense that it supplies practical rules which JJJJJJj'
may serve as definite guidance for the artist and the **"***
lover of beauty, in their particular problems of selecting and
arranging elements of aesthetic value. It is no more a practical
science than logic The supposition that it is so is probably
favoured by the idea that aesthetic theory has art for its special
subject But this is to confuse a general aesthetic theory —
what the Germans call " General Aesthetics "—with a theory of
art (Kunstwissenschaf t). The former, with which- we are here
concerned, has to examine aesthetic experience as a whole;
which, as we shall presently see, includes more than the enjoy-
ment and appreciation of art
We may now indicate with more fulness the main problems
of our science, seeking to give them as precise a form as possible.
At the outset we are confronted with an old and ^ ...
almost battling question: " Is beauty a single quality ^'y
inherent in objects of perception like form or colour?" «*«•.
Common language certainly suggests that it is.
Aesthetics, too, began its inquiry at the same point of view, and
its history shows how much pains men have taken in u*mm&
trying to determine the nature of this attribute, at well «•*«**
as that of the faculty of the soul by which it b per- «■*■»*
ceived. Yet a little examination of the facts suffices to •*"■*
show that the theory is beset with serious difficulties. Whatever
beauty may be it Is certainly not a quality of an object in the
same way in which the colour or the form of it is a Bomir
quality. These are physical qualities, known to us by mmtm
specific modifications of our sensations. The beauty **J?** f
of a n>se or of a peaxh is dearly not a physical quality. *"*"*>
Nor do we in attributing beauty to some particular quality in
an object, say colour, conceive of it as a phase of this quality,
like depth or brilliance of colour, which, again, b known by a
special modification of the sensations of colour. Hence we
must say that beauty, though undoubtedly referred to a physical
object, is extraneous to the group of qualities which makes it a
physical object
Beauty b frequently attributed to a concrete object as
a whole— to a flower or shell, for example, as a visible whole.
Our everyday aesthetic judgments are wont to leave - .
the attributes thus vaguely referred to the concrete
object Yet it b equally certain that we not infre-
quently speak of the beauty of some definable aspect
or quality of an object, as when we pronounce the
contour of a mountain or of a vase to be beautiful.
And it may be asked whether, in thus localising beauty, so to
speak, In one of the constituent qualities of an object, we always
place it in the same quality. .A mere glance at the facts will
suffice to convince us that we do not We call the facade of a
Greek temple beautiful with special reference to its admirable
form; whereas in predicating beauty of the ruin of a Norman
castle we refer rather to what the ruin means— to the effect of
an imagination of its past proud strength and slow vanquishment
by the unrelenting strokes of time. This fact that beauty ap-
pertains now more to one quality, now more to another, helps
us to understand why certain -theorists, known as formalists,
regard aU beauty as formal or residing in form, whereas rnwiSMi
others, the idealista or expressionalbts, view it as «■*•«*
residing in ideal content or expression. These theories. *? I 1 * ■ .«
however, like other attempts to find an adequate **■* *
single principle of beauty, are unsatisfactory. Form and ideal
content are each a great source of aesthetic enjoyment, and
AESTHETICS
279
either can be found in a degree of supremacy which practically
renders the co-operation- of the other unimportant. The two
rwriUtingi died above, two human faces, two musical composi-
tions, may exhibit in an impressive and engrossing way the
beauty of form and of expression respectively. Nor is this alL
Beauty refuses to be confined even to these two.
There are the various beauties of colour, for example,
»•/ as exhibited in such familiar phenomena of nature as
tea and sky, autumn moors and woods. A slight
> of the constituents of objects to which we attribute
beauty shows that there are at least three distinct modes of
this attribute, namely (x) sensuous beauty, (a) beauty of form
and (3) beauty of meaning or expression, nor do these appear to
be reducible to any higher or more comprehensive principle.
It requires a certain boldness to attempt to effect a rapprodu-
wemt between the formal and the expressional factor. 1 An
ap p ar ent unification of the three seems at present only possible
by substituting for beauty another concept at least equally
vague, such as perfection, 1 which seems to imply the idea of
pvrposiveness, and to apply clearly only to certain domains of
beauty, e.g. organic form.
We may now take another step and say that beauty appears
to be a quality in objects which is not sharply differentiated
aa^t, k° m otAer an ^ ilhed qualities. H we look at the
■■#■■># usages of speech we shall find that beauty has its
J**J*" kindred conceptions, such as gracefulness, prettiness
**** and others. Writers on aesthetics have spent much
time on these " Modifications of the Beautiful." The point
i here is the difficulty of drawing the line between
Even an expert may hesitate long before saying
whether a human face, a flower or a cameo should be called
beautiful or pretty. Must we postulate as many allied quali-
ties as there are names for these pleasing aspects of objects?
Or must we do violence to usage and so stretch the word
M Beauty " as to make it cover all qualities or aspects of
objects which have aesthetic value, including those " modifica-
tions of the beautiful " which we know as the sublime, the
: and the rest? But the wider we try in this way to
the denotation of the term the vaguer grows the
We are thus left equally incapable of saying
what the quality is, and in which aspect or attribute of the object
it inheres.*
It seems to follow that in constructing a scientific theory we
do well to dispense with the assumption of an objective quality
of beauty. Aesthetics will return to Kant and con-
fine itself to the examination of objects called beauti-
ful in their relation to, and in their manner of affecting
our minds. 4 The aesthetic value of such an object
will be viewed as consisting in the possession of certain
assignable characteristics by means of which it is fitted
to affect us in a certain desirable way, to draw us into
the enjoyable mood of aesthetic contemplation. These charac-
teristics may conveniently be called aesthetic qualities. 1 Objects
A ^^^ which are found to possess one or more of these
j35fc» qualities in the required degree of fulness claim a
certain aesthetic value, even though they fall short
of being "beautiful," in the more exacting use of this word.
They are in the direction—" im Sinne," as Fechner says— of
beauty, conceived as something fuller and richer, answering
to a higher standard of aesthetic enjoyment and a severer
demand on our part. The word " beauty " may still be used
occasionally, where no ambiguity arises, as a convenient
• For examph. that hinted at by Bosaaquet in his definition of
the beautiful. History of Aesthetic, p. 5.
■Beauty b defined as Perfection by P. Souriau, La BeauU
ratiornneOe, a*"" partie.
• K. Graos argues well against this violent stretching of the word
beautiful, Bsntettmng in die Astketik, pp. 46 aeq.
" " - *- -•---•--*--»-•-•-■-- -»•------- .... 1 prob-
, things
contemplates
them " {Essay*. xxii.).
• Oa the nature of these qualities see & Wrtasek, CrnndtUge da
ocauniui, CMueuung %n ate Asuten*, pp. 40 acq.
* Kant, in developing his idea of beauty as subjective, was pro
ably influenced by Hume, who wrote : " Beauty b no quality in thin
themselves; it exists merely in the mind which contempbt
AssheUh,p. 11.
expression for aesthetic value in all its degrees. Yet ft is
better to keep the term applicable to the objects commonly
denoted by it by making it represent the fuller aesthetic satis-
factions which flow from a rare and commanding exhibition of
one or more of these qualities, from what may be described as
an appreciable excellence of aesthetic quality.
By thus dispensing with the concept of beauty as some occult
undefinable quality, we get rid of much of the contradiction
which appears to inhere in our aesthetic experience. For ex-
ample, a bit of brilliant colour in a bonnet which pleases the
wearer but offends her superior in aesthetic matters takes its
place as something which par se has a certain degree of aesthetic
value even though the particular relations into which it has
now thrust itself, palpable to the trained eye, may practically
rob it of its value. In thus substituting the relative idea of
aesthetic value for the absolute idea of beauty we may no doubt
seem to be destroying the reality of the object of .aesthetic
perception. This point may more conveniently be taken
up later when we consider the whole question of aesthetic
illusion.
This new way of envisaging aesthetic objects requires us to
make the study of their effect a prominent part of our investiga-
tion. In all the valuable recent work on the subject,
attention has been largely concentrated on this effect [
More particularly we have to investigate and illumine \
scientifically the pleasurable side of the experience. In
doing this we shall make use of all the light we can obtain from a
study of known laws of pleasure. Thus we shall avail ourselves
not only of the theory of the pleasure-tones of sensation Aeotmetta
but of that of the conditions of an agreeable exercise of mmd
the attention upon objects, more particularly of the j??ff
characteristics of objects which adequately stimulate * ''
the attention without confusing or burdening it. Yet this does
not require that we should treat the aesthetic problem as a part
of the more general science of pleasure, as has been rreisjaef
attempted by some, e.g. Grant Allen (Physiological — rrnftr
Aesthetics) and Rutgers Marshall (Pain, Pleasure and n f^moai
Aesthetics, and Aesthetic Principles). To do so would 2j£ Mia,
be to run the risk of considering only the more general
aspects and conditions of aesthetic enjoyment, whereas what we
need is a theory of it as a specific kind of pleasurable experience.
What b required at the present stage of development of the
science b a deeper investigation of the aesthetic attitude of mind
as a whole, of what we may call the aesthetic psychosis. We
need to probe the act of contemplation itself, the mode of activity '
of attention involved in this calm, half -dreamlike gazing
on the mere look of things unconcerned with their
ordinary and weightier imports. We need further to
determine the effect of this contemplative attitude
upon the several mental processes involved, the act of
perception itself, with its grasp of manifold relations, the flow
of ideas, the partial resurgence and transformation of emotion.
In examining these effects we must keep in view the double
side of the contemplative attitude, the wide range of free
movement which perception and imagination claim and enjoy,
and the willing subjection of the contemplative mind to the
spell of the object. A deeper inspection of the con-
templative mood may be expected to render clearer
the difference between the mental activity employed
in aesthetic perception and imagination and intellectual
activity proper; between, say, the differencing of allied
tints involved in the finer aesthetic enjoyment of
colour and the sharper, clearer discrimination of tints
required in scientific observation, and between such a grasp of
relations as b required for a just appreciation of beautiful
form and that severe analysb and measurement of formal
elements and their relations which b insisted upon by science.
As a result of a finer distinction here we may probably be in
a better position to determine the point — touched on more than
once in recent works on aesthetics— bow far intellectual pleasure
proper, e.g. that of recognizing and classifying objects, enters
as a subordinate element into aesthetic enjoyment.
28o
AESTHETICS
One point in the characterization of aesthetic experience has
been reserved, namely, the question whether it is essentially a
u aMm form of social enjoyment No one doubts that a man
often enjoys beauty, e.g. that of a landscape, when
alone; yet at such a moment he not only recognizes
' that his pleasure is a possible one for others, but is
WHB ' r probably aware of a sub-conscious wish that others
were present to share his enjoyment Kant went so far. as
to say that on a desert island a man would adorn neither
his hut nor his person. However this be, it seems certain that
as a rule we tend to indulge our aesthetic tastes in company
with others. This habit of making aesthetic enjoyment a social
experience would in itself tend to develop the sympathies and
the sympathetic intelligence and thus to promote exchanges of
aesthetic experience. The content, too, of our aesthetic ex-
periences would be favourable to such conjoint acts of aesthetic
contemplation, and to the mutual sharing of aesthetic experi-
ences; for, as disinterested and universal modes of enjoyment
detached from personal interests, they are clearly free from
the egoistic delusiveness which characterizes our private enjoy-
ments which at best can only be participated in by one or two
closely attached friends. Our aesthetic enjoyments are thus
eminently fitted to be social ones; and as such they become
greatly amplified by sympathetic resonance.
We are now in a position to consider a point much discussed
of late, namely, the special connexion of aesthetic enjoyment
with the two senses, sight and hearing. Two questions
**• arise here: (i) Do the other and " lower " senses take
any part in aesthetic experience? (2) What are the
characteristics which give the predominance to the
two "higher "ones? With regard to the first it is coming to be
recognized that aesthetic pleasure is not strictly confined to the
two senses in question. Common language suggests that we
find in certain odours and even in certain flavours a value
analogous to that implied in calling an object beautiful. Hegel
excluded the other senses— even touch — on the ground
ft ff *S that aesthetics had to do only with art, in which
r „, ft there was no place for perceptions of touch. A closer
examination has shown that this important sense
plays a considerable part in art-effects. And even if this were
not so, Hegel's exclusion of touch from the rank of aesthetic
senses would be a striking illustration of the narrowing effect on
scientific theory of the identification of aesthetic objects with
productions of art To say that the experience of exploring
witl the fingers a velvety petal or the smooth surface of a sea-
rounded pebble has no aesthetic element savours of a perverse
arbitrariness. Touch is no doubt wanting in a prerogative of
hearing and sight which we shall presently see to be important,
namely, that being acted on by objects at a distance they admit
of a simultaneous perception by a number of persons— as indeed
even the sense of smell does in a measure. This is probably
the chief reason why, according to certain testimony, the blind
receive but little aesthetic enjoyment from tactual experience. 1
Yet this drawback is compensated to some extent by the fact
that agreeable tactual experience may be taken up as suggested
meaning into our visual perceptions.
The two privileged senses, sight and hearing, owe their superi-
ority to a number of considerations. They are the farthest
ijb. removed from the necessary life functions, with the
■ •/ pressing needs and disturbing cravings which belong to
*— * these. Even touch, though important as a source of
knowledge, has for its primary function to examine
the things which approach our organisms in their relation
to this as injurious or harmless. The two. higher senses
present to us material objects in their least aggressive and
menacing manner: visible forms and colours, tones and their
combinations, appear when compared with objects felt to be in
contact with our body, to be rather semblances or distant signs
of material realities than these realities themselves; and this
circumstance fits these senses to be in a special way the organs
of aesthetic perception with its calm, dreamlike detachment
1 See J. Cohn, AUgtm. Asthetik, p. 95.
and its enjoyable freedom of movemenfc They are, mo r eo v er ,
the two senses' by the use of which a number of persons may
join most perfectly in a common act of aesthetic contemplation.
This distinction strengthens their claims to. be in a special
manner the aesthetic senses, and this for a double reason. (1)
It makes them sense-avenues by which each of us obtains the
most immediate and most impressive conviction that aesthetic
experience is a common possession of the many, and is largely
similar in the case of different individuals, (a) It marks them
off as the senses by the exercise of which perceptual enjoyment
may most readily and certainly be increased through the resonant
effects of sympathy. The experiences of the theatre and of the
concert-hall sufficiently illustrate these distinguishing functions
of the two senses. Other distinguishing prerogatives of sight
and hearing flow from the characteristics of their sensations
and perceptions, a point to be touched on later.*
Our determination of the characteristics of the aesthetic
attitude has now been carried far -enough to enable us to consider
another point much discussed in recent aesthetic
literature, viz. the relation of this attitude to that of
Play. The affinities of the two are striking and are
disclosed in everyday language, as when we speak of
the "play" of imagination or of "playing" on a
musical instrument Both play and aesthetic con-
templation are activities which are controlled by no
extraneous end, which run on freely directed only by the
intrinsic delight of the activity. Hence they both contrast
with the serious work imposed on us and controlled by what we
mark off as the necessities of life, such as providing for bodily
wants, or rearing a family. They each add a sort of luxurious
fringe to life. In aesthetic enjoyment our senses, our intelligence
and our emotions are alike released from the constraint of these
necessary ends, and may be said to refresh themselves in a kind
of play. Finally, they are both characterized by a strong infusion
of make-believe, a disposition to substitute productions of the
imagination for everyday realities. In this respect, again, they
form a contrast to that serious concern with fact and practical
truth which the necessary aims of life impose on us. Little
wonder, then, that Plato recognized in the contrast between the
representative and the useful arts an analogy between play and
earnest,* and that since the time of Schiller so much use has been
made of the analogy in aesthetic works. Yet though _._.
similar, the two kinds of activity are distinguishable in ff £f" >
important respects. For one thing, aesthetic contem- ^ ^^
plation pure and simple is a comparatively tranquil
and passive attitude, whereas play means doing something and
commonly involves some amount of strenuous exertion, either
of body or of mind. A closer analogy might be drawn between
play and artistic production. Yet even when the parallel is thus
narrowed, pretty obvious differences disclose themselves. It
is only in their more primitive phases that the two attitudes
exhibit a close similarity. As they develop, striking divergences
begin to appear. The play mood, instead of approaching the
calm contemplative mood of the lover of beauty, involves
feelings and impulses which lie at the roots of our practical
interests, viz. ambition, rivalry and struggle. It has, moreover,
in all its stages a palpable utility— even though this is not
realized by the player— serving for the exercise and development
of body, intelligence and character. Beauty and art rise high
above play in purity of the disinterested attitude, in placid
detachment from the serviceable and the necessary, and, still
more, in range and variety of refined interest, comprehended
in "the love of beauty." Finally, aesthetic activities are
directed by ideal conceptions and standards to which hardly
'Originally, as pointed out by Home and others, tight was re-
garded as the sense by which we received impressions of beauty.
Yet the recognition of the claims of hearing date back to Plato.
~ * \ P01
*Law$, 889 (see Bownquet, op. ciL p. 54),
AESTHETICS
281
Anything corresponds in play save where games of skill take on
something of the dignity of a fine art. 1
So far as to the preliminary delimiting work in aesthetic
science. Only a bare indication can be made as to the methods
rmiirfr of research by which its advance can be furthered,
•*f»- and as to the several directions of inquiry which it
JJJjJfL "^ mwe to Jon ° w - With regard to the former the
method of investigation will consist in a careful
inquiry into two orders of fact: (1) Objects which common
testimony or the history of art show to be widely recognized
objects of aesthetic value ; (2) records of the aesthetic experience
of individuals, whether artists or amateurs.
Since aesthetic experience is brought about and its modes
1 by objects possessing certain qualities, it seems evi-
dent that scientific aesthetics must make an examin-
ation and comparison of these a fundamental part
of its problem. These objects will, as already hinted,
include both natural ones in the inorganic and organic
worlds, and works of art which can be shown to be objects
of general or widely recognized aesthetic value. Without
1 mm attempting here to discuss adequately the relation of
natural beauty to that of art we may note one or two
points. Some contemplation and appreciation of the
beautiful aspects of nature is not only prior in time
to art, but is a condition of its genesis. The enjoyment of
the plfsing aspects of land and sea, of mountain and dale,
of the innumerable organic forms, has steadily grown with the
development of culture; and this growth, though undoubtedly
aided by that of the feeling for art— especially painting and
poetry — b to a large extent independent of it* Some of the
t insight into the secrets of beauty has been gained by those
who had only a limited acquaintance with art What is still
more important in the present connexion is that the aesthetic
experience gained by the direct contemplation of nature includes
varieties which art cannot reproduce. It is enough to recall
what Hehnholtz and others have told us about the limitations
of the powers of pictorial art to represent the more brilliant
degrees of light; the admissions of painters themselves as to
the limits of their art when it seeks to render the finer grada-
tions of light and colour in such common objects as a tree-trunk or
a bit of old wall. Nature, moreover, in spreading out her spaces
of earth, sea and sky, and in exhibiting the action of her forces,
does so on a scale which seems to make sublimity her prerogative
in which art vainly endeavours to participate.
On the other hand, it is coming to be seen that the construction
of a theory of aesthetic values must be assisted by a much more
Om mt precise examination than aesthetidsts are commonly
•>■»*■ mi content to make, of works of art. The importance
JJJ^^jJ* of including these is that they are well-defined objec-
tive expressions of what the aesthetic consciousness
approves and prefers. In inquiring, for example, into the
pleasing relations of colour we might have to wait long for
a theory if we were dependent on what even so gifted a writer
as Raskin can tell us about nature's juxtapositions: whereas
if it can be shown that throughout the history of chromatic art
or during its better period there has been a tendency to prefer
certain combinations, this fact becomes a piece of convincing
rcmrc^ evidence as to their aesthetic value. Even here,
am a* however, there are sources of uncertainty. It is not
asss* true to say that a work of art is a pure outcome of
JJJJ "* tne *«thetic feeling of the artist, even if we take
mmmtut tnia w * comprehensive sense. It is subject to the
Influence of aU the temporary feelings and tendencies
of the time which produced it. The aesthetic motive which is
* Plato had a glimpse of the resemblance of art to play (see
Boanaquet, op. at, p. 54). Among modern writers the idea is
specially connected with the names of Schiller and Herbert Spencer.
In recent works the subject is touched on by S. Wittasek. Grundtuge
let gllftm. Astheiik, pp. 223 ft*.; Bray, Du Beau, pp. 62 rT., and by
Rutgers Marshall and others referred to below in Bibliography.
■ Hence to say, as Bosanquet says {op. tit. pp. 3-4), that art is to
nature as the scientific conception of the world to that of the ordinary
-"- » wide of the mark.
supposed to originate it is apt to be complicated and disguised
by other motives, e.g. utility in architecture,' an impulse to in-
struct if not to reform in modern fiction. Again, if it is said that
a certain degree of permanence assures us of the Btmxt* 0/
aesthetic value of a feature of art, we are met by the autom
difficulty that custom plays an important part in art, *j^j™^
the result of convention fixed by tradition often
simulating the aspect of a deep-seated aesthetic prefer-
ence. In this connexion it is to be remarked that even
so permanent an element as symmetry may owe its quasi-
aesthetic value to custom, by which is understood its wide snd
impressive display in the organic and even the inorganic world. 4
Yet the influence of custom taken in this larger sense need not
greatly disturb us. In aesthetics, as in ethics, the question of
validity has to be kept distinct from that of origin. If symmetry
(in general) is appreciated as aesthetically pleasing, the question
of its genesis becomes immaterial. Another difficulty, not
peculiar to aesthetic investigation, is that of reconstructing the
modes of aesthetic consciousness represented by forms of art
which differ widely from those of our own age and type of
culture.
In utilizing art material for aesthetic theory the theorist will
need to note the work recently done by English and German
writers on primitive art And this not merely because v«aw«S
of the value of the early forms of art for a theory of prtaMim
the evolution of the aesthetic consciousness; but ^g ^
because the embryonic stages of art are likely to have
a peculiar interest as illustrating in a comparatively isolated
form some of the simpler modes of aesthetic appreciation,
e.g. in the grouping of colours, in the mode of covering a surface
with linear ornament Yet it is not necessary to give primitive
art a considerable place in a general aesthetics. As a normative
science, it is to be remembered, this is much more immediately
concerned with the higher stages of aesthetic culture. In seeking
to establish norms or regulative principles, we must, it is evident,
make a special study of objects of art which belong to our own
level of culture. For these reasons it would appear necessary
to include in a general aesthetic theory some reference to the
evolution of art and of the aesthetic consciousness. A further
reason for including it is that the evolution of art supplies a most
valuable auxiliary criterion of degree or height of Brolottoa
aesthetic value. Provided that we distinguish what aeaUof
is a real process of evolution from one of mere change *■*•'
of fashion in taste, and that we confine ourselves to JJjjJJ
the larger features of the process, we may make the
principle of evolution a serviceable one by regarding those
forms and features of art as higher in respect of aesthetic value
which grow distinct and relatively fixed in the later and better
stages of the evolution of art* This part of aesthetic investiga-
tion should be made as exact as possible. Thus in Bx&ei
dealing with the triads of colour said to be most fre- » MM rw
quently employed in the best period of Italian painting moat of
the observer should note and record as far as this is Jjjjj£ 0#
possible not only the precise tints, but also the precise s,i. wot ±.
degrees of their several luminosities. With regard to
elements of form in art, the judicious use of photography and
careful measurement would probably help us to understand the
practices of art in its better periods. This examination of art
material by the aesthetic theorist should be supplemented by a
study of what artists have written about their methods, of the
rules laid down for students of art, and lastly of the generaliza-
tions reached by the more scientific kind of writer upon art*
A proper methodical inquiry into aesthetic objects aided by a
1 K. Lange goes very far in attributing a practical motive to
features of architecture commonly supposed to have aesthetic value,
e.g. a regular series of similar forms (Das Wesen der Kunst, Bd. i.
pp. 277 ft\).
4 K. Lange thinks that even symmetry probably has a technical
origin (op. ciL pp. 283-284).
*The question of the place of the historical development of art
in aesthetic theory is carefully considered by J. Volkeft, System dee
Astheiik, Bd. i. 5" Kap.
• See, for example, a little work, The Genesis of Art-form, by G. L>
Raymond.
282
AESTHETICS
mxpeti*
knowledge of the practices of art would lead to inductions of
the type " objects in so far as they possess such and
such characteristics are aesthetically valuable/' * This
Ooom. preliminary work of aesthetic science in collecting and
analysing facts may be extended in two directions: by
an examination (a) of the earlier and simpler forms of aesthetic
experience, and \b) of the fuller and more complex experiences
atrma •/ °' tnosc sp^k^y trained in the perception and enjoy-
Mftf*«<fe ment of beauty, (a) The former would be illustrated
pnfertix* by a more methodical investigation into the rudiment-
Jf e * if " ary aesthetic likings of children, and of the surviv-
"' ' ing lower races. Such inquiries may be expected to
add to our knowledge of the simpler and more universal
forms of aesthetic enjoyment. Some attention has been paid
by Darwin and others to germs of taste in birds and other animals.
Yet this line of inquiry, though of some value for a theory of the
evolution of taste, seems to throw but little light on aesthetic
preferences as found in man. 1 An important feature in this new
investigation into simpler modes of aesthetic preference
is that it proceeds by way of experiment, that is to say,
a methodical testing of the aesthetic preferences of a
number of individuals. Fechner introduced the method
of experiment into aesthetics in his researches on the prcferabUity
(according to Zeising) of the proportion known as the " golden
section." * Since his time other experimental inquiries have
been made, both as to what forms {e.g. what variety of rectangle)
and what combinations of colours are most pleasing. The results
of these experiments are distinctly promising, though they have
fixpw* not yet been carried far enough to be made the basis of
•0G» mn4 perfectly trustworthy generalizations. 4 (ft) A valuable
Mr—of portion of the data for a science of aesthetics lies in the
•tmxpertt. recor< | e( j experiences of artists, art critics and others
who have specially developed their tastes. This source of
information has certainly never been made use of in a com-
plete and methodical manner by theorists, a quotation now and
again from writers like Goethe and Ruskin having been deemed
sufficient. Yet it is safe to say that an adequate understanding
of the finer effects of beauty, both in nature and in art, presup-
poses the assimilation of what is best in these records. And
this not only because they commonly supply us with new and
valuable varieties of experience of the more refined kind, but
because the aesthetic judgments on nature and art of men in
whom the feeling of beauty has been specially cultivated have a
greater value than those of others. 1 It may be added that these
records are wont to contain reflexions which, though wanting
in scientific precision, can be utilized by science.
We now come to the work of scientific construction proper.
The finer analysis of the objects which please aesthetically as
Piycbo- well as of the agreeable type of consciousness to which
logical they minister belongs to the psychologist, and it is
~£m £i ** noteworthy that the best recent contributions to the
science have been made by men who were either
known as psychologists or at least had trained themselves in
psychological analysis. A word or two must suffice to indicate
the more important directions of the theoretic interpretation.
We may in illustrating this set out from the convenient triple
division of the factors in aesthetic experience: (A) the sensuous,
(B) the perceptual or formal, (C) the imaginative, including all
that is suggested by the aesthetic presentation, its meaning and
expressiveness.
1 Kant, stopping short of an analysis of the beauty of a concrete
object, said there were no aesthetic judgments of thia universal form
(see below). On the importance of these inductions see K. H. von
Stein, Vorlesungen Hber Astheiik (Einleitung).
1 Curiously enough Thomas Reid recognized a germ of aesthetic
taste in animals. Essays, Of Taste, ch. v. The aesthetic importance
of the observations made on animals is dealt with by L. Bray, Du
Beau, pp. 233 ff.
• See below, and Bosanquet, op. cii. pp. 382 ff.
* The chief lines of experimental aesthetics are indicated by W.
Wundt in his PkysieL Psychologic (5* Auflage), Bd. iii. pp. 14a ff.
and 147 ff. .
• On the value of judgments of experts see K. Groos, Der dsth.
Genuss, p. 149.
(A) In dealing with the sensuous factor the psychologist
is materially aided by the physiologist It is sufficient to point
to the contribution made to the analysis of musical ^
sensations by the classical researches of Helmholts ,
(see below). Yet the application of a knowledge of 1
physiological conditions seems as yet to be of little j
service when we come to the finer aspects of this t
sensuous experience, to the subtle effects of colour-
combination, for example, and to the nuances of feeling-tone
attaching to different tints. In the finer analysis of the sensuous
material of aesthetic enjoyment it is the psychologist who counts.*
Among the valuable contributions recently made in this
domain one may instance the careful determination of
the aesthetically important characteristics of the sensa-
tions of sight and bearing, such as the finely graduated
variety of their qualities (colour and tone), their capability
of entering into combinations in which they preserve their
individuality, including the important combinations of time
and space form. With these are to be included the distinguish-
ing characteristics of the concomitant feeling-tones, e.g. their
comparative calmness and their dear separation from the
sensations which they accompany. These characteristics help
us to understand the greater refinement of these senses and also
the more prolonged as well as varying enjoyment which they
contribute, as well as the extension of this enjoyment by imagina-
tive reproduction. 7 Next to this determination of important
aesthetic characteristics of the two senses may be named a finer
probing of the nuances of pleasurable tone exhibited by the
several colours and tones. A point still needing special investiga-
tion is extent of the sensuous factor in aesthetic enjoyment.
There has been a tendency in aesthetic theory to over-inteUectual-
ize aesthetic experience and to find the value even of the sensuous
factor in some intellectual principle, as when it is said (by Plato
and Hegel among others) that a smooth or level tone and a
uniform mass of colour 1 owe their value to the principle of unity.
But such prolongation (within obvious limits) in time or space is
a condition of the full enjoyment of the distinctive quality of sub
individual tone or colour, and as such has a sensuous value
Aesthetics has to prove the sensuous value, the pleasure which
is due not only to the feeling-tones of the several sensations
but to those of their various combinations. Spite of a tendency
of late to disparage the co-operation of the " motor sensations M
connected with movements of the eye in the aesthetic apprecia-
tion of linear form, e.g. curves, evidence suggests that certain
curves, like fine gradations of colour, may owe a considerable
part of their value to a mode of varying the sensuous experience
which is in a peculiar manner agreeable. On the other band, this
theoretic investigation of sense-material will need to determine
with care the added value due to the action of experience in
giving something of meaning to particular colours and tones
and their combinations, e.g. warmth of colour, height of tone.
(B) Under the scientific treatment of the perceptual or formal
factor in aesthetic experience we have many special problems,
of which only a few can be touched on here. Taking
this factor to include all combinations of elements in
which there is a mora or less distinct perception of
pleasing relations, we meet here with such work as that
of C. Sturapf {Ton-psyckologie) in determining the way in which
tones combine and tend to fuse. Later experiments have added
to our knowledge of the obscure subject of colour harmony,
enabling us to distinguish pleasing contrasts of colour from the
more restful combinations of nearly allied tints. Our knowledge
of pleasing form in the narrower sense, that is to say, space and
time form, has been advanced by a number of recent inquiries.
The value of symmetry, the meaning of proportion and the
aesthetic value to be set on certain proportions, the forms of
n»
Ivftafe der Kunstpkysiohgie. by Georg Hirsch.
'These aesthetic prerogatives of the sensati
prerogatives of the sensations of hearing and
sight have been well brought out in the article by J. Volkelt, already
referred to.
AESTHETICS
283
tad in special works. 1 In the cue of forms, stall more than in
that of sensuous elements, it is needful to determine the extent
to which the value oi the formal aspect is modified by experience
mad the acquisition of meaning. This is pretty certainly the
scarce of the aesthetic value claimed for certain proportions,
whether in the human figure or other organic forms or in the
freer constructions of form in art.' Another problem is to deter-
mine the Hfcs— I— of the feeling-tones of the combining elements
on the pleasing character of the whole. It is probable that a
particular combination of colours owes something of its pleasure*
value to a harmony of the feeling-tones of the elements. This
is pretty certainly the case where the feeling-tones of the elements
are dosery akin, as in the case of a number of low tones of colours,
or oi architectural or other forms where one formal element —
any, a vertical line, a rectangle of a certain proportion or a
particular variety of arch— repeats itself and becomes a dominat-
ing feature of the whole.
(O The imaginative factor— which corresponds with what
Fechner caOs the " indirect "—includes all that imaginative
activity adds to our enjoyment when we contemplate
S^eST an ictthctic object. It may consist first of all in re-
***** calling concrete experiences firmly associated with the
object, as when the sight of wild-flowers in a London
street calls up an image of fields and lanes. In order that these
images may add to the aesthetic value of the object they must
correspond to our common associations, as distinguished from
accidental individual ones. A large increase of aesthetic enjoy-
1 to us through such suggested images. Although in
1 it is images ot concrete objects which are called up, ideas
of a more abstract character may take part though they tend
in this case to assume a concrete aspect. This is illustrated in
the appreciation of " typical beauty " in which a concrete form
represents in an exceptional way the common form of a species,
and m that of symbolic representation. An important part of
this work of association is to render objects expressive of mental
states, as when we read off the particular shade of feeling ex-
pressed by a natural scene. 1
In the poetic contemplation of nature, her forces, her gladness
and other moods, this imaginative activity, though still deriving
its material from association, takes a freer form,
leading to an investment of natural objects with a
4#m.~ new and more fanciful meaning, as when we
M apperceive " a willow drooping over a pond or
the front of an old cottage under a quasi-human form,
it with something akin to our own feelings and
What, it may be asked, is the whole range of this
freer play of a life-giving fancy in our aesthetic enjoyment?
Some recent theorists have attempted to answer this question
by saying that it constitutes a vital element in all aesthetic con-
templation. Th. lipps and others who follow him seek to show
that this vitalizing activity of the fancy, which produces a new
and illusory object, is the essential ingredient in the aesthetic
enjoyment of the forms of material objects. According to this
theory, when in the aesthetic mood I enjoy the form of a tree, of
a church steeple or of the front of a Greek temple, I am not only
ascribing life and feeling to it, but am projecting myself in fancy
into the object thus constructed, feeling for the moment that I
«■ the tree or the steeple. The process of vivification is carried
out as follows. Lines represent certain movements, and in the
aesthetic mood we translate all lines and so all forms back into
the umespoud ing movements, which may be merely imagined (as
> Ob the later investigations into musical consonance and har-
ssony, harmony of colours, rhythmic and pleasing spatial forms,
see Wondt, •*. cU. Bd. ii. pp. 410 if., and iii. 135 ff., 140 ff., 147 ff.
and 154 ff. Time-form in musk is specially discussed by E. Curney,
ft* Power of Sound, v.
» K. Laoge, who recognises the influence of nature and custom,
here denies that proportion is an aesthetic principle (Das Wesen der
KunsL it* Kap.).
» Abson and other English Associationists have emphasited the
aesthetic importance of the principle of association. Among more
recast advocates of k is C. T. Fechner, Vorsekute der Astkettk, and
O. Kfltpe, "Cher den associativ. Factor des isthet. Eindrucks,"
Yuwietjakessthrijl fur wisstmsck. Pkilosopkte, xxiii. pp. 145 ff.
Lipps himself thinks) or may be realized in part by sensuous
elements, vis. motor sensations; which again may be regarded
either as concomitants of eye movements, or as arising from an
organically connected impulse to move the hand along the lines
followed by the eye. 4 Thus the columns of a temple represent
upward movement, and are apperceived as striving upwards so as
to resist the downward pressure of the entablature. Since move-
ments are the great means of expression in man, this imagina-
tive reading of movement into motionless and even massive and
stable forms enables us to endow them with quasi-human feelings.
In looking, for example, at the weighty masses of a building we
enter sympathetically into the successful strivings of the sup-
porting structures to resist the downward thrust of gravity in
the supported masses. The theory here briefly indicated 1 is
interesting as illustrating an attempt from the psychological
side to find a scientific support for philosophic idealism or ex-
pressionaltsm. It is already beginning to be recognised in
Germany as an exaggeration. It may be enough to say that as
applied to forms generally, including those of sculpture and
architecture, the theory is opposed by our ordinary way of speak-
ing, which implies quite another point of view in the aesthetic
contemplation of form, namely, that of a spectator external 10
the object contemplated. When our eye glides over the beauties
of a statue, our imaginative activity so far from transporting us
within the object carries us as tactual feelers outside the surface.
Similarly, when we delight in the divided spaces of a Gothic roof,
so far from being imaginatively engaged in taking part in the
efforts and strains of pillar, arch and the rest, we move in fancy
along the pathways defined by the designer, tactually feeling
and appreciating each dimension, each detail of form. The
attempt to force a theory fitted for poetry on sculpture and archi-
tecture would rob these of their distinctive aesthetic values;
in the one case, of the plastic beauty of finely moulded marble
surfaces as realized by imaginative excursions of the hand; and
in the other case, of the perfect stillness and stability which give
to great structures their solemn and quieting aspect.*
The theory of a vitalising play of imagination (EinfUUung)
running through all modes of aesthetic contemplation is an
exaggeration of the element of illusion which certainly AmmthMM
characterizes this contemplation. As suggested above, unMmT
by blotting out for the moment the perception of all
save that which pleases it substitutes a new for the more solid
reality of our practical mood. Moreover, as a state of perceptual
absorption in which one loses consciousness of the ordinary
self and its world, it has a certain resemblance to the state of
ecstasy and of the hypnotic trance.' It is favourable to the
play-like indulgence in a fanciful transformation of what is
seen or heard, which may be described as a "willing self-decep-
tion," more or less complete. Yet as we have seen, something
of the real everyday world survives even in our freer aesthetic
contemplation of form. Hence there is much to be said for the
idea that we have in aesthetic illusion to do with a kind of
double consciousness, a tendency to an illusory acceptance of
the product of our fancy as the reality, restrained by a sub-
conscious recognition of the everyday tangible reality behind. 1
It is evident that both in the more confined and in the freer
form the element of imaginative activity in aesthetic experience
will vary greatly among individuals and among peoples. Differ-
ences in past experience leading to diverse habits of association,
4 This Idea of imitative hand-movement in contemplating form
is supported by K. Groos, Der asth. Genius, pp. 49 ff.
• It is commonly spoken of as " feeling oneself into " (£ta-
fuklen), or as " sympathetic feeling " (iiitempfinden).
A Lipps' theory is developed in a number of works, the chief of
which to Asthetik: Psyckotogie des Sckdnen und der Kunst, see e»p. I"
Theilj I" to 3" Abschnitt; cf. Paul Stern, Einfuhtung und Associa-
tion, in which is to be found an historical sketch of the theory, and
A. Hildebrand, Form in der bildenden Kunst, The play of imagina-
tion in the contemplation of, form is discussed also by P. Souriau,
L'Estkitioue du mouvement, 3"* part., and La Suggestion dans fart,
pp. 300 ft. Cl. works of Karl Groos and K. Lang© named below
iBMiograpky).
1 See P. Souriau, La Suggestion dans Varl (i«" partie).
1 Cf. K. Lange, op. ciL Bd. i. p. soft.
284
AESTHETICS
as well as in those natural dispositions which prompt one person
to prefer motor images, another visual, another audile, will
, modify the process in this enjoyable enlargement and
transformation of what is presented to sense. It is
for aesthetics at once to recognize these variations
of imaginative activity and to determine the more
common and universal directions which it follows.
The recent inquiry into our way of contemplating form is,
in spite of exaggeration, valuable as showing that our distinc-
Fom aad tions of form and expression are not absolute. Just
1 as there is the rudiment of ideal significance in colour,
so form, even in its more abstract and elementary
aspects, is not wholly expressionless, but may be
endowed with something of life by the imagination.
The recognition of this truth does not, however, affect the validity
of our treating form and expression as two broadly distinguish-
able factors of aesthetic pleasure. A line may be pleasing to
sense-perception, and in addition illustrate expressional value
by suggested ease of movement or pose. Similarly, a concrete
form. e.g. that of a sculptured human figure in repose, or of a
graceful birch or fern, owes its aesthetic value to a happy com-
bination of pleasing lines and of interesting ideas.
In close connexion with the determination of the imaginative
factor in aesthetic contemplation, the psychologist is called on
to define the special characteristics of aesthetic emo-
tion. That our attitude when we watch a beautiful
object, say the curl of a breaker as it falls, or some
choice piece of sculpture, is an emotional one is certain, and
ingenious attempts have been made by Home (Lord Karnes)
and others to equip the emotion with a full accompaniment
of corporeal activity, such as heightened respiratory activity. 1
Yet aesthetic emotion is to be contrasted with the more violent
and passionate state of love and other emotions, and this differ-
ence calls for further investigation. A closer inquiry into the
features of that calm yet intense emotion which a rapt state of
aesthetic contemplation induces is a necessary preliminary to a
scientific demarcation of the sphere of beauty in the narrow or
more exclusive sense, from that of the sublime, the tragic and
the comic. Each of these departments of aesthetic experience
has well-marked emotional characteristics; and the definition
of these " modifications of the beautiful " has in the main been
reached through an analysis of the emotional states involved.
This chapter in the psychological treatment of aesthetic experi-
ence has to consider two points which have occupied a prominent
place in aesthetic theory. The first is the nature of " revived "
or " ideal " emotion, such as is illustrated in the feeling excited
sympathetically when we witness or bear of another's sorrow or
joy. The second point is the nature of those mixed emotional
states which are illustrated in our aesthetic enjoyment of the
sublime and the other " modifications," in all of which we can
recognize a kind of double emotional consciousness in which
painful elements accompany and modify pleasurable ones, in
such a manner that in the end the latter appear to be rather
strengthened than weakened. 1
The psychological treatment of aesthetic data here sketched
out cannot stop at an analysis of the aesthetic state or attitude
into a number of recognizable elements each of which
maafyMh /• contributes its own quantum of pleasurableness. Our
untbttk*. enjoyment in contemplating, say, a green alp set
above dark crags, is an indivisible whole. And it is a
consciousness of this fact which makes men disposed to resent
the dissection of their aesthetic enjoyment into a number of
constituent pleasures. Nor is this all. Every aesthetic object
1 See a curious passage in Home'* Elements of Criticism, chap, iv.,
in which the emotions excited by great and elevated objects are
said to express themselves externally by a special inflating inspira-
tion, and by stretching upward and standing " a-tiptoe respec-
tively; also an article on ' Recent Aesthetics " by Vernon Lee in
the Quarterly Review, 1 904, part i. pp. 430-443.
■ See Hume, Essays, " Essay of Tragedy?' and the important
discussions on the meaning of Aristotle's doctrine of the emotions of
tragedy and of emotional purification or "alleviating discharge"
(•Atom) touched on by Bosanquet, op. cit, pp. 64 ff. and 234 a.
is something unique, differing in individual characteristics from
all others; and as the object, so the mood of the contem-
plator. One may almost say that there are as many modes of
musical delight as there are worthy compositions. It would seem
either that this feeling of a unique indivisible whole must be
dismissed as an illusion, or that we have to admit an unexplained
residue in our aesthetic experience, which may some day be
explained by help of a larger and more exact conception of
aesthetic harmony, of the laws of interaction and of fusion of
psychical elements.*
We may now glance at the ideal purpose of this scientific
analysis and interpretation, namely, the construction of norma
or regulative principles corresponding to the severally Cnmttmi
essential elements of aesthetic value ascertained. The fls*«r
later psychological treatment of the subject has led JJJJJ?*
up to the formulation of certain ideal requirements a§fwm
in beautiful objects. The work of Fechner in this direction
{Vorsckule der Asthdik) was a noteworthy contribution
to this kind of construction, at once scientific and directed
to the construction of ideal demands, and is still a model for
workers in the same field. He has taught us how the attempt
to formulate one all-comprehensive principle-— e.g. unity in
variety, has led to a barren abstractedness, and that we need in
its place a number of more concrete principles. In formulating
these principles care must be taken to determine their respective
scopes and their mutual relations— to decide, for example, whether
expression, to which our modern feeling undoubtedly ascribes
a high value, is a universal demand in the same sense aa unity
or harmony of parts is admitted to be. A system of norms
must further supply some comprehensive criterion by help of
which degrees of aesthetic value may be determined, as determined
by the degrees of complctenessof the several pleasurable activities,
— sensuous, perceptual and imaginative,— iand justify the form
of judgment " this object is more beautiful (or of a higher kind
of beauty) than that." Such regulative principles and standards
of comparison will, it is clear, fail us just at the point where
analysis stops. Edmund Gurney urges that an aesthetic prin-
ciple such as unity in variety is complied with equally well by
musical compositions which are commonplace and leave us cold
and by those which evoke the full thrill of aesthetic delight, and
he concludes that the special beauty of form in the latter in-
stance is appreciated by a kind of intuition which cannot be
analysed (see The Power of Sound, ix.). The argument is hard
to combat It would seem that after all our efforts to define
aesthetic qualities and enumerate corresponding ideal require-
ments we are left with an unexplained remainder. This can
only be tentatively defined as the concrete object itself in its
wholeness, which is not only a perfectly harmonized combina-
tion of sensuous, formal and expressional values, but impresses
us as something which has a fresh individuality and the disttnc*
tion of aesthetic excellence.
Aesthetics is wont to treat of a certain kind of experience as
if it were a closed compartment. Yet there is in reality no such
perfect seclusion. Our enjoyment of beauty, though cmmertm
to be distinguished from our intellectual and our t*wt
practical interests, touches and interacts with these. *•***
With regard to intellectual interests it is clear that £££_
much of the mental activity which enters into our «««, (a )
aesthetic enjoyment is intellectual— e.f. in the per- wft»te-
ception of the relations of form, even though it stops J JJJ!!?
short of the abstract analysis of scientific observation.
Again, in appreciating beauty of type which involves according
to Taine a recognition of the most important characters of the
species, we are, it is evident, close to the scientific point of view.
Similarly, when scientific knowledge enables us in the mood of
aesthetic contemplation to retrace imaginatively the mode of
formation of a cloud or a mountain form, or the mode in
which a climbing plant finds its way upwards. It la for
aesthetics to recognize the fact, and to discriminate a
» That beauty implies a peculiar blending of formal and spiritual
(iristige) factors is recognized by H. Riegel, Die bUdemde &hufo.
pp. 16 ff
AESTHETICS
285
frgitirmtf aesthetic function of scientific ideas when they en-
large the scope of a pleasurable play of -the imagination, and
are freed from the control of a serious purpose of explaining
what is seen.
A similar remark applies to the contacts of our aesthetic with
our practical interests. While as dominant factors the latter
are excluded from aesthetic activity they may in-
y,,^} fluence our feeling for beauty in an indirect and sub-
Mmm ordinate way. This is recognized by those (e.g. Home)
who insist on a particular kind of aesthetic value
under the name of relative beauty, or the pleasing aspect of
fitness for a purpose. If a drinking-vesser please in part because
of its perfect adaptation to its purpose, the aesthetic value
ascribed to it seems to derive something from a feeling of respect
for utility itself. In another way beauty reasserts in modern
aesthetics that kinship with utility on which it insisted in the
_ . . . days of Socrates. The idea that typical beauty co-
tTSSmt urate with what is vigorous and conducive to the
mi mommy, conservation of the species is as old as Hobbes. 1
Darwin and his followers have developed- the bio-'
logical conception that sexual selection tends to develop
aesthetic preferences along lines which correspond to what
subserves the maintenance of the spedes or tribe. Recent
writers have shown how the rude germs of aesthetic activity in
primitive types of community would subserve necessary tribal
ends— t.g . musical rhythm by exercising members of the tribe
in concerted war-like action.* Yet these interesting specula-
tions have to do rather with the earlier stages of the evolution
of the aesthetic faculty than with its functions in the higher
stages. An idea of a social utility in aesthetic experience which
does demand the attention of the theorist is that the culture of
. beauty and art has a socializing influence, helping to
t SSm S^vc *° our emotional experience new forms of expres-
sion whereby our sympathies are deepened and en-
larged.* The further elucidation of this element of hu m a n iz in g
influence in aesthetic enjoyment may be expected to throw new
fight on the question, much discussed throughout the history
of aesthetics, of the relation of the science to ethics, by showing
that they have a common root in our sympathetic nature and
interest in humanity.
In order to complete the outline of aesthetic theory we need
to glance at the relation of general aesthetics to the special prob-
. - Mrt lems of Fine Art. It is evident that the definition of
rmm4 the aims and methods of art, both as a whole and in
its several forms, involving as it does special technical
• /-rt> knowledge, may with advantage be treated apart from
a general theory. (See Edte Axrs.) At the same time the
study of art raises larger problems which require to be dealt
with to some extent by this theory. We may instance the group
of problems which have to do with the relation of art to
" beauty " in its narrower sense, such as the function of the
painful and of the ugly in art, the meaning of artistic imitation
and truth to nature, of idealization, and the nature of artistic
illusion; also the question of the didactic and of the moral
function of art. Even more special problems of art, such as
the effect of the tragic, the nature of musical expression, can
only be adequately treated in the light of a general aesthetic
theory.
In conclusion, it may be pointed out that the psychological
theorist has of late been busy in an outlying region of art-lore,
inquiring into the nature of the artistic impulse and tempera-
ment, and into the processes of imaginative creation. These
inquiries have been carried out to some extent in connexion
with studies of the origin of art, and of the relation of art to the
1 See passage in Human Nature (first part of Tripes), ch. viiL 1 5
(Moiesworth's edition of Works, vol. iv. p. 38).
• See among others, R. Wallaacheck, Primitive Music, pp. 270 ff..
and Y. Hint, The Origin ef Art, pp. 9 ff. ; cf. W. Jerusalem, Einleitung
m eUo PkOosofhie, pp. 116. 117. ...
• The idea of this social utility in aesthetic enjoyment is touched
social environment Their importance for aesthetics lies in the
circumstance that they are fitted to throw light upon the aes-
thetic consciousness as it is developed in those who are not only
in a special sense cultivators of it, but represent in a peculiar
manner the ideas and the aims of art. 1
Hbtoiy or Theories
In the following summary of the most important contributions
to aesthetic doctrine, only such writings will be recognized as
contribute to a general conception of aesthetic objects or experi-
ence. These include the more systematic treatment of the sub-
ject in philosophic works as well as the more thoughtful kind of
discussion of principles to be met with in writings on art by
critics and others.
I. Creek Speculatume.^-Andcnt Greece supplies us with the first
important contributions . to aesthetic theory, though these are
scarcely, in quality or in quantity, what one might nave expected
from a people which had so high an appreciation of beauty and so
strong a bent for philosophic speculation. The first Greek thinker
of whose views on the subject we really know something is Socrates.
We learn from Xenophon's account of him that he regarded the
beautiful as coincident with the good t and both of them are resolvable
into the useful. Every beautiful object is so called because it serves
some rational end, whether the security or the gratification of man.
Socrates appears to have attached little importance to the t
gratification which a beautiful object affords to perception and
contemplation, but to have emphasized rather its power of further-
ing the more necessary ends 01 life. The really valuable point in
•his doctrine is the relativity of beauty. Unlike Plato, he recognized
no self-beauty («*tA to mXs») existing absolutely and out of all
relation to a perc ip ie n t mind.
Of the views of Plato on the suljrct, it is hardly less difficult to
gain a clear conception from the Dwlvguts, than Jr. it in the case
of ethical good. In some of thc*e; various definition! of «-**
the beautiful are rejected as inadequate by the Platonic
Socrates. At the same time we ma y toncl u dp t hi t Plato's m itid leaned
decidedly to the conception of an absolute beauty, which took iti
place in his scheme of ideas or self -eiistinp forms. This t rue bca u ty
IS nothing discoverable as an attribute in another thing, For these
are only beautiful things, not the beautiful itself. Love (Erosl pro*
duces aspiration towards this pure idea. Else where the wui'i in-
tuition of the self-beautiful is said to be a reminiscence of its pre*
natal existence. As to the precK- forms in which the idea of beauty
reveals itself, Plato is not very decided. His theory of an absolute
beauty does not easily adjust h>c[F to the notion of ita corttri bitting
merely a variety of sensuous pleasure, to which he appears to lean
in some dialogues. He tends tc< identify the self- beautiful with the
conceptions of the true and the food, and thus there arose the
Platonic formula c«Xm*7oM«. Sft far as hii writings embody the
notion of any common element in beautiful object*, it is proportion,
harmony or unity among their r*arts. He emphasizes unity in its
simplest aspect as seen in evenn. of line and purity of colour. He
recognizes in places the beauty of The mind, and seems to think that
the highest beauty of proportion it to be found in the union of a
beaut Jul. mind with a beautiful body. He had but a poor opinion
of art, regarding it as a trick of imitation (jttttmnt) which takes us
another step farther from the luminous sphere of rational intuition
into the shadowy region of the semblances of sense. Accordingly,
in his scheme for an ideal republic, he provided for the most inexorable
censorship of poets. 6Yc, so as to make art as far as possible an
instrument of moral and political training.
Aristotle proceeded to a more serious investigation of the aesthetic
phenomena so as to develop by scientific analysis certain principles
of beauty and art. In his treatises on poetry and rhetoric . illljt .
he gives us, along with a theory of these arts, certain *•»•' "™ w
general principles of beauty: and scattered among his other
writings we find many valuable suggestions on the same subject.
He seeks, (in the Metaphysics) to distinguish the good and
the beautiful by saying that the former is always in action (#» *oM+)
whereas the latter may exist in motionless things as well (lr sw+rmt).
At the same time he had as a Greek to allow that though essentially
different things the good might under certain conditions be called
beautiful. He further distinguished the beautiful from the fit, and
in a passage of the Politics set beauty above the useful and necessary.
He helped to determine another characteristic of the beautiful, the
absence of all lust or desire in the pleasure it bestows. The universal
elements of beauty, again, Aristotle finds (in the Metaphysics) to be
1 On the nature of the primitive art -culture, see Rutgers Marshall,
Aesthetic Principles, ch. iii. ; M. Baldwin, Social and Ethical Inter-
pretations, pp. 151 ff: Y. Hirn, The Origin of Art, ch. ii. On artistic
genius and itsxreative process, see H. Taine, The Philosophy of Art,
Part ii.; P. Souriau, V Imagination de Vartiste; G. Seailles. Essai
sur la genie dans fart; E. Grosse, Kunstunssen schaf Uich e Shtdien.
iii.; Arreat, Psychologie du peintre; L. Dauriac, Essai sur F esprit
286
AESTHETICS
order (rafts), symmetry and definiteneas or determtnateness (to
Aptop i mv). Intbe Poetics he addsanothet essential, namely, a certain
magnitude; it being desirable for a synoptic view of the whole that
the object should not be too large, while clearness of perception
requires that it should not be too small. Aristotle's views on art
are an immense advance on those of Plato. He distinctly recog-
nised Qn the Politics and elsewhere) that its aim is immediate
pleasure, as distinct from utility, which is the end of the mechanical
arts. He took a higher view of artistic imitation than Plato, hold-
ing that so far from being an unworthy trick, it implied knowledge
and discovery, that its objects not only comprised particular things
which happen to most, but contemplated what is probable and
what necessarily exists. The celebrated passage in the Poetics,
where he declares poetry to be more philosophical and serious a
matter (rswfaantsor) than philosophy, brings out the advance of
Aristotle on his predecessor. He jives us no complete classification
of the fine arts, and it is doubtful how far his principles, e.g. his
celebrated idea of a purification of the passions by tragedy, are to
be taken as applicable to other than the poetic art.
Of the later Creek and Roman writers the Neo-Platonist Plotinus
deserves to be mentioned. According to him, objective reason
. (mSh) as self-moving, becomes the formative influence
' mmmm * which reduces dead matter to form. Matter when thus
formed becomes a notion (M*e*)» And its form is beauty.
Objects, are ugly so far as they are unacted upon by reason, and
therefore formless. The creative reason is absolute beauty, and is
called the more than beautiful. There are three degrees or stages
of manifested beauty: that of human reason, which is the highest;
of the human soul, which is less perfect through its connexion with
a material body; and of real objects, which is the lowest mani-
festation of alL As-to the precise forms of beauty, he supposed, in
oppos iti on to Aristotle, that a single thins not divisible into •parts
might be beautiful through its unity ana simplicity. He gives a
high place to the beauty of colours in which material darkness is
overpowered by light and warmth. In reference to artistic beauty
he said that when the artist has notions as models for his creations,
these may become more beautiful than natural objects. This is
clearly a step away from Plato's doctrine towards out
conception of artistic i dealisa tion.
a. German Writers, — We may pass by die few thought* on the
subject to be found among medieval* writers and turn to modern
theories, beginning with those of German writers aa
the most numerous and most elaborately set forth. The
first of the German* who attempted to develop an aes-
thetic theory a* a part of a system of philosophy was
Baumgart en (A tstktika ) , Adopt i ng t he Leih n Elz- wol Elian
theory of knowledge, he «ou|ht to complete it by setting
over against the dear scientific or " logical m knowledge
of the understanding, the confused knowledge of the
senses, to which (as we have seen) be gave the name " aesthetic"
Beauty with him thus correspond* with perfect sense-knowledge.
Baumgarten is clearly a a intellectual 1st la aesthetics reducing taste
to an intellectual act and ignoring the element of feeling. The
details of his aesthetics are mostly unimportant, Arguing from
Leibnitz's theory of the world as the best possible. Baumgarten
concluded that nature is the highest embodiment of beauty, and
that art must seek its supreme function io the strictest possible
imitation of nature.
The neat important treatment of aesthetics by a ptiilosopher is
that of Kant. He deals with the " Judgment of Taste " in the
Critique of Ike Power of Judgment (J. H. Bernard's trans-
lation, l8oa), which treatise supplements the two better-
known critiques {vide Kant), and by investigating the conditions
of the validity of feeling mediates between their respective subjects,
cognition ana desire (volition). He takes an important step in deny-
ing objective existence to beauty. Aesthetic value for him is fitness
to please as object of pure cnntrmplatTon. This aestnet! is-
faction ij more than mere agrecablcnese, since it must be disinter-
ested and free — that is to say, from all concern about the rrat c-xitt-
ence of the object, and about our dependence on it* He appears to
etflos de a certain formal objectivity to beauty in his doctrine of
an appearance of purposivencM. (Zweckm&siigktii) in tbe beautiful
object, this being denned as its harmony with the cog native faculties
involved in an aesthetic judgment (imagination, and understand-
ing); a harmony the consciousness of which underlies our aesthetic
*— tly developed.
; valid jr nd
(a)
pleasure Yet this part of his doctrine is very imperfectly
While beauty thus ceases with Kant to have objective v,
s valid only for the contemplator, he claims for it untrrrsal
subjective validity, since the object we pronounce to be beautiful is
fitted to please all men- We know that this must be so from re-
flecting on the disinterestedness of our pleasure, on Its entire inde-
pendence of personal inclination* Kant insists that the aesthetic
judgment is always, in 'ojjical phrase, an " individual," i.e. a singu-
lar one, of the form " This object (*.£, rose) it beautiful/ 4 He
denies that we can reach a valid universal aesthetic judgment of the
form " All object* possessing such and such qualities are beautiful."
(A judgment of this form would >he considers, be logical, not aesthetic)
fa dealing: with beauty Kant is thinking of nature, ranking this as a
source oT aesthetic pleasure high above art, for which he chows
of contempt* He seem* to retreat from his doctrine of
pure subjectivity when he says that the highest significance of
beauty is to symbolize moral good; going further than Ruskin when
he attaches ideals of modesty, frankness, courage, Ac, to the seven
primary colours of Newton's system. He has made a solid contribu-
tion to the theory of the sublime, and has put forth a suggestive
if a rather inadequate view of the ludicrous. But his main service
to aesthetics consists in the preliminary critical determination of
its aim and its fundamental problems. *
Schelling is the first thinker to attempt a Philosophy of Art. He
develops this as tbe third part of his system of transcendental ideal-
ism following theoretic and practical philosophy. (See ^ . — .
Schelling ; also Schilling's Werke, Bd. v., and J. Watson* m * jmj *
SckeUing's Transcendental Idealism, ch. vii., Chicago, 1882.) Ac-
cording to Schelling a new philosophical significance is fiven to art
by the doctrine that the identity of subject and object — which is
half disguised in ordinary perception ana volition — is only dearly
seen in artistic perception. The perfect perception of its real self
by intelligence in the work of art is accompanied by a feeling of
in fini t c sat isf act ion . Art in t h u s effecting a re velat ion of t he ab&oTut e
seems to attain a dignity not merely Above ihat of nature but above
that of philosophy itself, Schelling throws but little light on the con-
crete forma of beauty. His classification of the arts, based on his anti-
thesis of object and subject H u a curiosity in intricate arrangement.
He applies his conception in a suggestive way to classical tragedy.
In Hegel's system of philosophy art is viewed »i the first stage 0/
the absolute spirit- (See Her. el; also Wtrk* t Bd* t, and Boaan-
autt'ti Introduction to Hegel's Philosophy of Fine Art) In -
lis stage the absolute is immediately present to sense- ■*■*
Brrcention, an idea which shows the writer's complete rupture with
ant s doctrine of the " subjectivity H of beauty. The beautiful nr
defined as the ideal showing itself to sense or through a sensuous
medium. It is said to have its life in show or semblance (Sckrue)
and so differs from the true, which is not really sensuous, but the
universal idea contained in sense for thought. The form of the
beautiful is unity of the manifold- The notion iBegtift give*
. . _ ity in mutual dependence of parts (unity), while the reality
demand* the semblance [Sehein) of liberty in the parts. He
discusses very fully the brauty of nature as immediate unity 0/
notion and reality, and lays great emphasis on the beauty of
organic life. Hut it is in art that, like Schelling, Hegel finds
the highest revelation of the beautiful. Art makes up for the
deficiencies of natural beauty by bringing the Idea into clearer
light, by showing the external world in its life and spiriiL
animation. The several species of art in the ancient and modern
worlds depend on the various combinations of matter and form-
He classifies the individual arts according to this same principle
of the relative supremacy of form and matter, the lowest bong
arch i lecture, the highest, poetry*
Curious developments of the Hegelian conception are to be found
in the dialectical treatment of beauty in its relation to the urf;
sublime, &c, by Hegel'* Uibdples. e,f, C. H. Woue and J. ]
Rose n k r 3 n z. T he most i m port antproductoftheHegeliai
School is the elaborate ay stem of aesthetics published by .
F. T* Vischrr tfitkeiik, 3 Thcile, 1 846-1854}- It illustrates gJS
S*
the difficulties of the Hcpelian thought and terminology; m
yet in dialing with art it i.i full tif knowledge and highly suggestive,
Thr aesthetic problem is also treated by two other philosophers
whose thought set out from certain tendencies in Kant's system,
vtr. Schopenhauer and Ilrrbart, Schopenhauer fsee *._._
ScJiorpxHAi'FR, also Tht World as Will and Idea, trans- '
latrd by R, B. Haldane. esp. vol, i. pp. JIQ-J46), abandon* •*■■* '
ing a I 1 *) Kant's doctrine of the subjectivity of beauty, found in
aesthetic con tcmpl.it ion the perfect emancipation of intellect from
will. In ilu3 contemplation the mind is filled with pure uuuickiwu
forms, the " Platonic Ideas " as he calls them, which are objecti-
fications of the will at a certain grade of completeness of representa-
tion. He exalts the state of artistic contemplation as the one in
"which, a- r'-rc intellect set free from will, the misery of existence b
surmounted and something of blissful ecstasy attained. He holds
that all things are in some degree beautiful, ugliness being viewed
as merely imperfect manifestation or objectification of wflL In this
way t h e beau fy of nature, somewhat slighted by Schelling and Hegel,
is rehabilitated.
J. F. Hcrbart (q.v.) struck out another way of escaping from
Kant's idea of a purely subjective beauty (Kerbacha edition of
Werkt, Bd. Li. pp. 339 et seq.\ Bd. iv. pp. 105 el sty.,
and Bd. ix. pp. 01 et seq.). He did, indeed, adopt Kant's
view of the aesthetic judgment as singular ( M individual *j; tnougn
he secure* a certain degree of logical universality for it by emphssai-
int Lac point ikic the predicate (beauty) b permanently true of the
same aesthetic object. At tbe same time, by referring the beauty of
concrete objects to certain aesthetic relations, he virtually a cce p te d
the possibility of universal aesthetic judgments (cf. supra). Since
be thus reduces beauty to abstract relation* he b known as a for-
malist, and the founder of the formalistic school in aesthetics. He
sets out with the idea that only relations please— in the Kantian
sense of producing pleasure devoid of desire; and his aim b to
determine the '"aesthetic elementary relations," or tbe simplest
rebtions which produce thb pleasure. These include those of will,
so that, as he admits, ethical judgments are in a manner brought
AESTHETICS
**7
eamler an aesthetic form. Hb typical example of aesthetic relations
fal obju-ia of sense-perception is that of harmony between tones.
The science of thorough-bass has, he thinks, done for music what
shook! be done also for other departments of aesthetic experience.
This doctrine of elementary relations is brought into connexion with
the anther's psychological doctrine of presentations with their
tfnrifcirt to mutual inhibition and to fusion, and of the varying
feefiag-toaes to which these processes give rise. This mode of treat-
ing the p robl em of beauty and aesthetic perception has been greatly
d t s tsuuul and worked up into a complete system of aesthetics by
One of Herbert's disciples, Robert Zimmermann (Asthetik, 1858).
Leasing, in his £0*000* and elsewhere, sought to deduce the special
Inaction of an art from a consideration of the means at its disposal.
• ,,__. He took pains to define the boundaries of poetry and
- painting, and in so doing he reached general reflexions
•poo the ends and appliances of art. Among these his distinction
between arts which employ the coexistent in space and those which
employ the successi ve (as poetry and music) is of lasting value. In
his dramatic criticisms he similarly endeavoured to develop dear
general principles on such points as poetic truth, improving upon
Aristotle, on whose teaching he mainly relies.
Goethe wrote several tracts on aesthetic topics, as well as many
* ' %. He attempts to mediate between the claims of ideal
beauty, as taught by J. I. Wtnckelmann, and the aims of
individualization. Schiller (q.v.) discusses, in a number
of disconnected essays and letters, some of the main ques-
tions in the philosophy, of art. He looks at art from the side of
culture and the forces of human nature, and finds in an aesthetically
cultivated soul the reconciliation of the sensual and rational. His
letters 00 aesthetic education (Vber die dsiketische Erwiehung des
Menschtm, trans, by I. Weiss, Boston, 1845) are valuable, bringing
out among! other pouts the connexion between aesthetic activity
and the universal impulse to play (Spieltrieb). Schiller's thoughts
on a es t heti c subjects are pervaded with the spirit of Kant's philo-
sophy. Another example of this kind of reflective discussion of
art by literary men is afforded us in the VorschuU der Asthetik of
kg.iL-1 Jean Paul Richter. This is a rather ambitious discussion.
of the sublime and ludicrous, which, however, contains
much valuable matter on the nature of humour in romantic
poetry. Among other writers who reflect more or less philosophically
on the problems to which modern poetry* gives rise are Wilhelm von
Humboldt, the two Schlegels and Cervinus.
A word may be said in conclusion on the attempts of German
— to apply a knowledge of physiological conditions to the
investigation of the sensuous elements of aesthetic effect,
as weU as to introduce into the study of the simpler
aesthetic forms the methods of natural science. The classic
work of Helmholtx on " Sensations of Tone " is a highly
successful attempt to ground the known facts and laws of
awsical composition on physics and physiology. The endeavour to
determine with a like degree of precision the physiological conditions
of the pleasurable effects of colours and their combinations by
E. W. Brucke, EwakJ Herine and more recent investigators, has so
far failed to realize the desideratum laid down by Herbert, that
there should be a theory of colour-relations equal in completeness
and exactness to that of tone-relations. The experimental inquiry
into simple aesthetically pleasing forms was begun by G. T. Fechner
in seeking to test the soundness of Adolf Zeistng's hypothesis that
the most pleasing proportion in dividing a line, say the vertical part
of a cross, is the golden section," where the smaller division is to
the larger as the latter to the sum. He describes in his work on
** Experimental Aesthetics " (Zur experimental™ Asthetik) a series
of experiments carried out on a large number of persons, bearing on
this p oint, t he results of which he considers to be in favour of Zebwg'e
3. French Writers. — In France aesthetic speculation grew out of
1 by poets and critics on the relation of modern art, and
_ penally poetry, to ancient. The writings of Malherbe
and Boueau in the 17th century, the development of the
dispute b e t we en the ancients ' and the " moderns " at
the end of the 17th century by B. le Bouvier de Fontenelle
and Charles Perrault, and the continuation of the discus-
sion as to the aims of poetry and of art,. generally in the
18th century by Voltaire, Bayle, Diderot and others, not only offer
to the modern theorists valuable material in the shape of a record by
experts of their aesthetic experience, but disclose glimpses of im-
portant aesthetic principles. A more systematic examination of
the several arts (corresponding to that of Leasing) is to be found in
the Cemrs de belles lettrcs of Charles Batteux (1765), in which the
meaning and value of the imitation of nature by art are further
elucidated, and the arts are classified (as by Leasing) according as
they employ the forms of space or those of time.
The beginning of a more scientific investigation of beauty in
general is connected with the name of Pere Bufner (see First Truths,
English translation, 1780). He confines himself to organic
form, and illustrates his theory by the human face. A
beautiful face is at once the most common and most rare
among members of the species. This seems to be a clumsy
way of saying that it is a clear expression of the typical
form of the species. This idea of typical beauty (which was adopted
by Reynolds) has been Worked out more recently by H. Taine. la
his work, The Ideal in Art (trans, by J. Durand), he proceeds in the
manner of a botanist to determine a scale of characters t^m.
in the physical and moral man. The degree of the um- ^^^
versality or importance of a character, and of its be n efic en ce or
adaptation to the ends of life, determine the measure of its a
value, and render the work of art, which seeks to r ep r esent it in its
purity, an ideal work.
The only elaborated systems of aesthetics In French literature
are those constructed by the spiritualistes, the philosophic writers
who under the influence of German thinkers effected a - .
reaction against the crude sensationalism of the 18th f
century. They aim at elucidating the higher and spiritual
ions, appearing to ignore any
- r material of affording a true
aesthetic delight. V. Cousin and Jean Charles Leveque
are the principal writers of this school. The latter developed
an elaborate system of the subject (La Science du beau). All
beauty is regarded as spiritual in its nature. The
several beautiful characters of an organic body— of which
the principal are magnitude, unity and variety of parts, intensity
capability in the sensuous material of ana
n!y true delight, namely, spiritual enjoyment.
Francis Hutcheson, in his System of Moral P
festarJons of an invisible vital force. Similarly the beauties of in-
organic nature are to be viewed as the grand and orderly displays
of an immaterial physical force. Thus all beauty b in its objective
essence either spirit or unconscious force acting with fulness and in
order.
4. English Writers.— Then is nothing answering to the German
conception of a system of aesthetics In English literature. The
inquiries of English thinkers have been directed for the most part
to such modest problems as the psychological process by which we
perceive the beautiful— discussions which are apt to be regarded by
German historians as devoid of real philosophical value. The writers
may be conveniently arranged in two divisions, answering to the two
opposed directions of English thought: (1) the Intuitionaliats, those
who recognize the existence of an objective beauty which b a simple
unanalysable attribute or principle of things: and (2) the Analytical
theorists, those who follow the analytical and psychological method,
concerning themselves with the sentiment 01 beauty as a complex
growth out of simpler elements.
Shaftesbury is the first of the intuitional writers on beauty. In
his Characteristics the beautiful and the good are combined in one
ideal conception, much as with Plato. Matter in itself is __ tmt .
ugly. The order of the world, wherein all beauty really "^ T"
resides, is a spiritual principle, all motion and life being the TZzZ
product of spirit. The principle of beauty is perceived T~T
not with the outer sense, but with an internal or moral '*
sense which apprehends the good as well. This perception yields the
„ Philosophy, though he
adopts many of Shaftesbury's ideas, distinctly disclaims any inde-
pendent self-existing beauty in objects. " All beauty," he jfestaw-
says, " b relative to the sense of some mind perceiving it." ##-
The cause of beauty b to be found not in a simple sense- *
tion such as colour or tone, but in a certain order among the parts, or
" uniformity amidst variety." The faculty by which thb principle
b discerned b an internal sense which b defined as " a passive power
of receiving ideas of beauty from all objects in which there b
uniformity in variety." This inner sense resembles the external
senses in the immedbteness of the pleasure which its activity brings;
and further in the necessity of its impressions: a beautiful thing
being always, whether we wfll or no. beautiful. He distinguishes
two kinds of beauty, absolute or original, and relative or compara-
tive. The latter b discerned in an object which b regarded as an
imitation or semblance of another. He distinctly states that " an
exact imitation may still be beautiful though the original were
entirely devoid of it." He seeks to prove the universality of thb
sense of beauty, by showing that all men, in proportion to the eiuarge-
ment of their intellectual capacity, are more delighted with uni-
formity than the opposite. mmm
In his Essays on the Intellectual Powers (viii. " Of Taste ") Thomas
Reid applies his principle of common sense to the problem of beauty
by saying that objects of beauty agree not only in pro- p^
during a certain agreeable emotion, but in the excitation
along with thb emotion of a belief that they possess some perfection
or excellence, that beauty exists in the objects independently of
our minds. Hb theory of beauty b severely spiritual. All beauty
resides primarily in the faculties of the mind, intellectual and moral.
The beauty which b spread over the face of visible nature b an
emanation from thb spiritual beauty, and b beauty because it sym-
boHze* and expresses the btter. Thus the beauty of a plant resides
in its perfect adaptation to its end, a perfection which is an expres-
sion of the wisdom of its Creator. ....... , _
In hb Lectures on Metaphysics Sir W. Hamilton gives a short
account of the sentiments of taste, which (with a superficial resem-
blance to Kant) he regards as subserving both the sub- fftm m,*
sidiary and the ebborative faculties in cognition, that is.
the imagination and the understanding. The activity of the
288
AESTHETICS
former corresponds to the element of variety In a beautiful object,
that of the latter with its unity. He explicitly excludes all other
lands of pleasure, such as the sensuous, from the proper gratification
of beauty. He denies that the attribute of beauty belongs to fitness.
John Ruskin's well-known speculations on the nature of beauty
In Modem Painters (" Of ideas of beauty "). though sadly wanting in
g„ lfl , scientific precision, have a certain value in the history
t history of
I typical of
aesthetics. For him beauty b spiritual and .-.
divine attributes. Its true nature is appreciated by the theoretic
faculty which is concerned in the moral conception and apprecia-
tion of ideas of beauty, and must be distinguished from the imagina-
tive or artistic faculty, which is employed in regarding in a certain
way and combining the ideas received from external nature. He
distinguishes between typical and vital beauty. The former is the
external quality of bodies which typifies some divine attribute. The
latter consists in " the appearance of felicitous fulfilment of function
in living things." The forms of typical beauty are: — (i) infinity,
the type of the divine incomprehenaibUity ; (a) unity, the type of the
divine comprehensiveness; (3) repose, toe type of the divine per-
manence; (4) symmetry, the type of the divine justice; (5) purity,
the type of the divine energy; and (6) moderation, the type of
government by law. Vital beauty, again, is regarded as relative
when the degree of exaltation of the function is estimated, or generic
if only the degree of conformity of an individual to the appointed
functions of the species b taken into account. Rusldn's writings
illustrate the extreme tendency to identify aesthetic with moral
perception.
Addison's "Essays on the Imagination," contributed to the
Spectator, though they belong to popular literature, contain the germ
Thm of scientific analysis in the statement that the pleasures
of imagination (which arise originally from sight; fall into
two classes:— <i) primary pleasures, which entirely pro-
ceed from objects before our eyes; and (2) secondary
pleasures, flowing from the ideas of visible objects. The
Utter are greatly extended by the addition of the proper enjoyment
of resemblance, which b at the basis of all mimicry and wit. Addison
recognises, too, to some extent, the influence of association upon
our aesthetic preferences.
In the Elements of Criticism of Home (Lord Karnes) another at-
tempt b made to resolve the pleasure of beauty into its elements.
- Beauty and ugliness are simply the pleasant and un-
^^ pleasant in the higher senses of sight and hearing. He
appears to admit no general characteristic of beautiful objects
beyond this power of yielding pleasure. Like Hutcheson, he divides
beauty into intrinsic and relative, but understands by the latter the
appearance of fit nets and utility, which b excluded from the beautiful
by Hutcheson.
Passing by the name of Sir Joshua Reynolds, whose theory of
beauty closely resembles that of Pere Burner, we come to the
speculationsof another artistand painter, William Hogarth.
He discusses, in his A naiysis of Beauty, all the elements of
visual beauty. He finds in this the following elements: — (1) fitness
of the parts to some design ; (2) variety in as many ways as possible :
(3) uniformity, regularity or symmetry; which b only Beautiful
when it helps to preserve the character of fitness; (4) simplicity or
distinctness, which gives pleasure not in itself, but through its
enabling the eye to enjoy variety with ease; (5) intricacy, which
provides employment lor our active energies, leading the eye " a
wanton kind of chase"; (6) quantity or magnitude, which draws
our attention and produces admiration and awe. The beauty of
proportion he resolves into the needs of fitness. Hogarth applies
these principles to the determination of the degrees of beauty in
lines, figures and groups of forms. Among lines he singles out for
special honour the serpentine (formed by drawing a line once round
from the base to the apex of a long slender cone).
Burke's speculations, in hb Inquiry into the Origin of our Ideas of
Ike Sublime and Beautiful, illustrate the tendency of English writers
to treat the problem as a psychological one and to intro-
duce physiological considerations. He finds the elements
of beauty to be: — (1) smallness; (2) smoothness; (3) gradual variation
of direction in jgentle curves;
_ _ ... „j delicacy, or the appearance of
fragility: (3) brightness, purity and softness of colour. The sublime
b rather crudely resolved into astonishment, which he thinks always
contains an element of terror. Thus " infinity has a tendency to
fill the mind with a delightful horror." Burke seeks what he calls
"efficient causes" for these aesthetic impressions incertain affections
of the nerves of sight analogous to those of other senses, namely,
the soothing effect of a relaxation of the nerve fibres, The arbitrari-
ness and narrowness of this theory cannot well escape the reader's
attention.
Alison, in hb well-known Essays on Ike Nature and Principles of
Task, proceeds by a method exactly the opposite to that of Hogarth
.„.__ and Burke. He seeks to analyse the mental process when
' we experience the emotion of beauty or sublimity. He
finds that this consists in a peculiar operation of the imagination,
namely, the flow of a train of ideas through the mind, which ideas
always correspond to some simple affection or emotion (e.g. cheer-
fulness, sadness, awe) awakened by the object. He thus makes
association the sole source of aesthetic delight, and denies the exist-
ence of a primary source in sensations themselves. He illustrates
the working of the principle of association at great length, and with
much skill ; yet hb attempt to make it the unique source of aesthetic
pleasure fails completely. Francis Jeffrey's Essays on Beauty (in
the Edinburgh Rewum, and Encyclopaedia Britannica, 8th edition) are
little more than a modification of Alison's theory.
D. Stewart's chief contribution to aesthetic dis cu s si o n in hb
Philosophical Essays consists in pointing out the unwarranted
assumption lurking in the doctrine of a single quality gummuj
running through alTvarieties of beautiful object. He seeks sanrarfc
to show how the successive changes in the meaning of the
term " beautiful " have arisen. He suggests that it originally connoted
the pleasure of colour. The value otnb discussion resides more in
the criticism of hb predecessors than in the contribution of new
ideas. Hb conception of the sublime, suggested by the etymology
of the word, emphasises the element of height in objects.
Of the association psychologists James Mill did little more towards
the analysis of the sentiments of beautythan re-state Alison's doc-
trine. Alexander Bain, in hb treatise, The Emotions and -—
the WiU (" Aesthetic Emotions "), carries thb examination
considerably further. He seeks to differentiate aesthetic from other
disagreeable
(3) their eminently sympathetic or shareable nature. He takes a
comprehensive view of the constituents of aesthetic enjoyment, in-
cluding the pleasures of sensation and of its revived or its " ideal "
form; of revived emotional states; and lastly the satisfaction of
those wide-ranging susceptibilities which we call the love of novelty,
of contrast and of harmony. The effect of sublimity b connected
with the manifestation of superior power in its highest degrees,
which manifestation excites a sympathetic elation in the beholder.
The ludicrous, again, b defined by Bain, improving; on Aristotle
and Hobbes, as the degradation of something poss es si n g dignity in
circumstances that exate.no other strong emotion.
Herbert Spencer, in hb First Principles, Principles of Psychology
and Essays, has given an interesting turn to the psychology of
aesthetics by the application of hb doctrine of evolution. Adopting
Schiller's idea of a connexion between aesthetic activity
and play, he seeks to make it the starting-point in tracing
the evolution of aesthetic activity. Play is defined as the
activities supply a simibr mode of self-relieving discharge to the
higher organs of perception and emotion; and they further agree
with play in not directly subserving any processes conducive to
life ; in being gratifications sought for their own sake only. Spencer
seeks to construct a hierarchy of aesthetic pleasures according to
the degree of complexity of the faculty exercised: from those of
sensation up to the revived emotional experiences which constitute
the aesthetic sentiment proper. Among the more vaguely revived
emotions Spencer includes more permanent feelings of the race
transmitted by heredity; as when he refers the deep and indefinable
emotion excited by music to associations with vocal tones e
of feeling built up during the past history of our spedea.
logical treatment of aesthetic activity has had a wide influei
(e.g. Grant Allen) being content to develop hb evolutional method.
Yet, aa suggested above, hb theory b now recogniaed aa taking na
only a little way towards an adequate understanding of our aesthetic
experience.
Bibliography.' — (a) Works on General Aesthetics.
English and American. — There are no important recent works
which deal with the whole subject. The following will be found
helpful: Herbert Spencer, Principles of Psychology, pt. viii. c 9.
" Aesthetic Sentiments," and the papers on " Use and Beauty,
" Origin and Function of Music " and others in the Essays; A. Bain.
Emotions and Will. "Aesthetic Emotions": J. Sully, Human
Mind, ii. "Aesthetic Sentiment"; Grant Allen, " Physiological
Aesthetics" (Meth., PI., Senses, Play); Rutgers Marshall, Paw,
Pleasure and Aesthetics, and Aesthetic Principles (Meth.. PI., Play).
French and Italian Worhs.—M. Guyau, LesProbUmesdereUkHique
contemporaine (1 884) (PL. Play) ; E, Veron. L*EsthBique(l9*>) (slight
PI.); L. Bray, Du Beau (iqoaV (PI., Play); P. Sauriau. la Beauti
rathnneUe (1904) (Meth., PI., Senses, Einf.); M. Pilo, Estetica (PI..
Senses); A. Rolls. Storia deUe idee esteticke in Italia (190*) (full
account of ideas of Dante and other medieval writers, as well aa of
modern systems).
German Works.— K. Kostlin, Prolegomena tur Asthetik (1689)
1 Only recent works are included. Important points in each are
indicated by abbreviations, namely :—
Einf., for Einfuhlung (cxpree- PI., for theory of pleasure.
aional element m form). Play, for Play and aesthetic
Evol., for bearings of evolution. enjoyment.
III., for aesthetic illusion. Senses, for aesthetic value of
Judg., for aesthetic judgment. higher senses.
Meth., for method of aesthetics. Val., for aesthetic value.
Norm., for normative function of
AESTIVATION — ^THELFRITH
289
(fOOd Intr od u c ti on to tubjecO ; K- Gro<w H Df ^iihrtinkt G««uf
(190?) (Meth., Judr , FUy. Senv*. Emf and hi.) : J. Volkelt.^taH
aVifatlcft*(lO03) (very f til! and dear) (Meth., Nnrnr, EveU 5ens«,
Ess*.); J- Cohn. AU t tmtine Attktti* (190D (Vat., Hay. Einf.); K-
UMe,Z)wK f w«ic> A'yHi/ (1901) (Mirth.. Einf. III, Play).
(b) War** mi flWMf al <4rJ'*4tf j.— K> LtJia, tojfAitUe aV
jfjtfcafift «■ DctttMfrW: St. Scha*ler t A'nHjta* G«ca*c*tt aW
Asthttih (fall and elaborate, dealing with ancient and mo'tern
theories); E. von Hart m an n. Z>tr dtutsti* Aitfatik sett Kant
(Augew&hlte Werke, HL)j K* H, von Stein, Oil EmtUchunt drr
n enmrtn Asthttth (theories of French entice Ac): F. Brunei irre,
L'Eneemtiou des fenrrs (History of critical discussion* in the 17th
and 18th centum*); B, Bosanqurt, Hiitory *f Aesthetics (wry- lull,
pfSuSL:
on anciert theories and German iy*temi); W, Knight,
f of the 3rantif*I, pt- i, "History 4 " (L'niv.
Pk&osoPhj of the Meantijid^ pi, i, " History " (Univ. £\temion
Manuals, a popular r»uro« wkh quotat ions). J . S-'i
AERIVATIOII (from Lat oestivore, to spend the a«tar, or
tummer; the word is sometimes spelled " estivation "), literally
M summer residence," a term used in zoology for the condition
of torpor* into which certain animals pass during the hottest
season in hot and dry countries, contrasted with the similar
winter condition known as hibernation (g.v.). In botany the
word b used of the praefloration or folded arrangement of the
petals in a flower before expansion in the summer, contrasted with
" VCTPa t * on " °f kaves which unfold in the spring.
ATHELBALD, king of Merda, succeeded Ceolred a.d. 7x6.
According to Felix, Life of St Guihlac, he visited the saint at
Crowiand, when exiled by Ceolred and pursued by his emissaries
before Ins accession, and was cheered by predictions of his future
greatness. According to Bede, the whole of Britain as far north
as the Humber was included within the sphere of his authority.
His energy in preserving his influence is shown by several entries
in the Chronicle. He made an expedition against Wessex in
733; in which year he took the royal vill of Somerton. In 740
he took advantage of the absence of Eadberht of Northumbria
in a campaign against the Picts to invade his kingdom. In 743
he fought with Cuthred, king of Wessex, against the Welsh, but
the alliance did not last long, as in 75a Cuthred took up arms
against htm. In 757 jEthelbald was slain by his guards at
Scc ki ngton (Warwickshire) and buried at Repton. He seems to
have been the most powerful and energetic king of Merda be-
tween Penda and Offa. A letter of St Boniface is preserved,
in which he rebukes this king for his immoralities and encroach-
ments on church property, while recognizing his merits as a
monarch. By a charter of 749 he freed ecdesiastical lands from
all obligations except the trinoda necessitas.
See Bede. Hist. Ecc (ed. Plummet-), v. 23 and Continuatio s.a. 740,
750. 757J Saxon Chronicle (Earle and Plummer), s.a. 716. 733, 737,
740, 741, 743, 755; Mabillon, Ado Sanctorum, ti. pp. 264, 275, 276,
279, 283-284; P. Jaffe, Monumenta Monntiaca, ui. pp. 168-177,
W.de G. Birch, Cortut. Saxon. 178 (1885-1893). (F.G.M B.)
aYTHELBAU), king of Wessex, was the son of jEthelwulf,
with whom he led the West Saxons to victory against the Danes
at Aden, 851. According to Asser he rebelled against his
father on the biter's return from Rome in 856, and deprived
him of Wessex, which he ruled until his death in 860. On his
father's death in 858 he married his widow, Judith.
See Aaaer, Life of Alfred (W. H. Stevenson, 1904), 12; Saxon
Ch ronicl e, sjo. 851, 855, 86a
JRHILBBRHT, king of Rent, son of Eormenric, probably
came to the throne in a.d. 560. The first recorded event of
his reign was a serious reverse at the hands of Ceawlin of
Wessex in the year 568 (Chronicle) at a place called Wibbandune.
iEthdberht married Berhta, daughter of Charibert, king of Paris,
who brought over Bbhop Liudhard as her private confessor.
According to Bede, jEthelberht's supremacy in 597 stretched
over all the English kingdoms as far as the Humber. The nature
of this supremacy has been much disputed, but it was at any
rate sufficient to guarantee the safety of Augustine in his con-
ference with the British bishops. jEthdberht exercised a
stricter sway over Essex, where his nephew Saberht was king.
In 597 the mission of Augustine bnded in Thanet and was re-
ceived at first with some hesitation by the king. He seems to
have acted with prudence and moderation during the conversion
of fab kingdom and did not countenance compulsory proselytbm.
i£thelberht gave Augustine a dwelling-place in Canterbury, and
Christ Church was consecrated in 603. He also made grants to
found the see of Rochester, of which Justus became first bbhop
in 604, and hb influence established Mellitus at London in the
same year. A code of bws issued by him which b still extant
b probably the oldest document in the English language, and
contains a lbt of money fines for various crimes. Towards
the dost of hb reign hb pre-eminence as Bretwalda was dis-
turbed by the increasing power of Racdwald of East Anglia.
He died probably in 616. and was succeeded by hb son Eadbald.
See Bede. Hist. Ecc (Plummer) i. 25, 26, ii. 3, 5; Saxon Chronicle
(Earle and Plummer), m. 568. (F. G. M. B.)
JETHBLBERHT, king of the West Saxons, succeeded to the
sub-kingdom of Rent during the lifetime of hb father jEthelwulf ,
and retained it until the death of hb elder brother jEthelbald in
860, when he became sole king of Wessex and Rent, the younger
brothers jEthelred and Alfred renouncing their claim. He ruled
these kingdoms for five years and died in 865. Hb reign was
marked by two serious attacks on the part of the Danes, who
destroyed Winchester in 860, in spite of the resistance of the
ealdormen Osric and jEthelwulf with the levies of Hampshire
and Berkshire, while in 865 they treacherously ravaged Kent.
See Soxwi Chronicle (Earle and Plummer), s*. 860, 86s;MC»ftf
Alfred 's Will; W. de G. Birch, Cartnl. Saxon. 553.
' ATHELFLAED (Etheltleda), the " Lady of the Mercians,"
the eldest child of Alfred the Great, was educated with her
brother Edward at her father's court. As soon as she was of
marriageable age (probably about a.d. 886), she was married to
iEthdred, earl of Merda, to whom Alfred entrusted the control
of Merda. On the accession of her brother Edward, jEthelflaed
and her husband continued to hold Merda. In 007 they fortified
Chester, and in 009 and 910 either jEthelflaed or her husband
must have led the Mercian host at the battles of Tettenhall and
Wednesfield (or Tettenhall- Wednesfidd, if these battles are one
and the same). It was probably about this time that jEthelred
fell ill, and the Norwegians and Danes from Ireland unsuccessfully
besieged Chester. iEthelflaed won the support of the Danes
against the Norwegians, and seems also to have entered into an
alliance with the Scots and the Welsh against the pagans. In
91 x jEthelred died and Edward took over Middlesex and Oxford-
shire. Except for thb jEthelflaed's authority remained un-
impaired. In 912 she fortified "Scergeat" and Bridgenorth,
Tamworth and Stafford in 913, Eddbbury and Warwick in 914,
Cherbury, " Weardbyrig " and Runcorn in 91 5. In 916 she sent
an expedition against the Welsh, which advanced as far as
Brecknock. In 917 Derby was captured from the Danes, and
in the next year Leicester and York both submitted to her.
She died in the same year at Tamworth (June 12), and was
buried in St Peter's church at Gloucester. Thb noble queen,
whose career was as distinguished as that of her father and
brother, left one daughter, iElfwyn. For some dghteen months
iElfwyn seems to have wielded her mother's authority, and then,
just before the Christmas of 919, Edward took Merda into his
own hands, and iElfwyn was " led away " into Wessex. /Ethel-
flaed and her husband wielded almost kingly authority, and the
royal title b often given them by the chroniclers.
See The Saxon Chronicle, sub ann. (especblly the Mercbn register
in MSS. B, C and D)| Florence of Worcester; Fragments of Irish
Annals (ed. O'Conor), pp. 227-237 ; D.N.B., s.v. (A. Mw.)
JETHBLFRITH, king of Northumbria, b said to have come
to the throne in a.d. 593, bring the son of jEthelric (probably
reigned 568-572). He married Acha, daughter of Ella GEUe),
king of Ddra, whom he succeeded probably in 605, expelling
hb son Edwin. In 603 he repdled the attack of Aidan, king of
the Dalriad Scots, at Daegsastan, defeating him with great loss.
The appearance of Hering, son of Hussa, jEthelfrith's prede-
cessor, on the side of the invaders seems to indicate family
quarrels in the royal house of Bernida. Later in hb reign,
probably in 614, he defeated the Welsh in a great battle at
Chester and massacred the monks of Bangor who were assembled
to aid them by thdr prayers. This war may have been due
partly to jEthelfrith's persecution of Edwin, but it had a stra-
tegic importance in the separation of the North Welsh from the
Strathdyde Britons. In 6x7 iEthelfrith was defeated and slain
2go
^THELING— &THELRED II.
at the river Idle by Rcdwald of East Anglia, whom Edwin had
persuaded to take up his cause.
See Bede, Chronica Majoro, | 531 ; Hist. Ecc. (Plummer) i. 34,
ii. 2; Saxon Chronicle, s.a. 593, 603, 605, 616; Hist. BritUmum,
II 57. 63; Annates Cambria*,* a. 613. (F. G. M. B.)
CTHBLING. an Anglo-Saxon word compounded of athcU, or
elhel, meaning noble, and ing, belonging to, and akin to the
modern German words Adel, nobility, and adeUg, noble. During
the earliest years of the Anglo-Saxon rule in England the word
was probably used to denote any person of noble birth. Its
use was, however, soon restricted to members of a royal family,
and in the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle it is used almost exclusively
for members of the royal house of Wessex. It was occasionally
used after the Norman Conquest to designate members of the
royal family. The earlier part of the word formed part of the
name of several Anglo-Saxon kings, e.g. jEthelbert, jEthelwulf,
jEthelred, and was used obviously to indicate their noble birth.
According to a document which probably dates from the 10th
century, the wergild of an ctheling was fixed at 15,000 thrymsas,
or 1 1 ,250 shillings. This wergild is equal to that of an archbishop
and one- half of that of a king.
JETHELMOTH (d. 1038), archbishop of Canterbury, known
also as Egelnodus or Ednodus, was a son of the ealdorxmuu
jEthdmaer, and a member of the royal family of Wessex. He
became a monk at Glastonbury, then dean of the monastery of
Christ Church, Canterbury, and chaplain to King Canute, and
on the 13th of November 1020 was consecrated archbishop of
Canterbury. In 1022 he went to Rome to obtain the pallium,
and was received with great respect by Pope Benedict VIII.
Returning from Rome he purchased at Pavia a relic said to
be an arm of St Augustine of Hippo, for a hundred talents of
silver and one of gold, and presented it to the abbey of Coventry.
He appears to have exercised considerable influence over Canute,
largely by whose aid he restored his cathedral at Canterbury.
A story of doubtful authenticity tells how he refused to crown
King Harold I., as he had promised Canute to crown none but a
son of the king by his wife, Emma. jEthelnoth, who was called
the " Good," died on the 29th of October 1038, and his name
appears in the lists of saints.
ATHELRED, king of Merda, succeeded his brother Wulfhere
in a.d. 675. In 676 he ravaged Kent with fire and sword,
destroying the monasteries and churches and taking Rochester.
/Ethelrcd married Osthryth, the sister of Ecgfrith, king of
Northumbria, but in spite of this connexion a quarrel arose
between the two kings, presumably over the possession of the
province of Lindsey, which Ecgfrith had won back at the close
of the reign of Wulfhere. In a battle on the banks of the Trent
in 679, the king of Merda was victorious and regained the
province. jElfwine, the brother of Ecgfrith, was slain on this
occasion, but at the intervention of Theodore, archbishop of
Canterbury, jEthelred agreed to pay a wergild for the North-
umbrian prince and so prevented further hostilities. Osthryth
was murdered in 697 and jEthelred abdicated in 704, choosing
Ccenred as his successor. He then became abbot of Bardney,
and, according to Eddius, recommended Wilfrid to Ccenred on
his return from Rome. jEthelred died at Bardney in 7x6. (See
Wilfrid.)
Sources.— Eddius, Vita Wilfridi (Raine), 23 40, 43, 45-48, 57;
Bede, Hist. Ecc. (ed. Plummer), ill 11, iv. 12, ax; Saxon Chronicle,
s.a. 676. 679, 704, 716. (F. G. M. B.)
JETHELRED I., king of Wessex and Kent (866-871), was
the fourth son of jEthelwulf of Wessex, and should, by his
father's will, have succeeded to Wessex on the death of his eldest
brother jEthdbald. He seems, however, to have stood aside in
favour of his brother jEthelberht, king of Kent, to whose joint
kingdoms he succeeded in 866. jEthdred's reign was one long
struggle against the Danes. In the year of his succession a
large Danish force landed in East Anglia, and in the year 868
jEthelred and his brother Alfred went to help Burgred, or
Burhred, of Merda, against this host, but the Mercians soon
made peace with their foes. In 871 the Danes encamped at
Reading, where they defeated jEthdred and his brother, but
later in the year the English won a great victory at " jEscesdun."
A fortnight later they were defeated at Basing, but partially
retrieved their fortune by a victory at " Masretun " (perhaps
Marden in Wiltshire), though the Danes held the field. In the
Easter of this year jEthelred died, perhaps of wounds received
in the wars against the Danes, and was buried at Wimborne.
He left a son, jEthelwold, who gave some trouble to his cousin
Edward the Elder, when the latter succeeded to the kingdom.
jEthdweard the historian was also a descendant of this king.
Authorities.— The Saxon Chronicle, sub ann.; Birch, CartnV
Saxon, vol. ii. No*. 516-526; D.N.B., s.v.; Eng. Hist, Renew. I
218-234. (A- Mw.)
• JETHELRED II. (or Etbelred) (c. 068-1016), king of the
English (surnamed The Unready, i.e. without rede or counsel),
son of King Edgar by his second wife jElfthryth, was born in
068 or 969 and succeeded to the throne on the murder of his
step-brother Edward (the Martyr) in 979. His reign was dis-
astrous from the beginning. The year after his accession the
Danish invasions, long unintermitted under Edgar the Peaceful,
recommenced; though as yet their object was plunder only,
not conquest, and the attacks were repeated in 981, 982 and 988.
In 991 the Danes burned Ipswich, and defeated and slew the
East Saxon ealdorman Brihtnoth at Maldon. After this, peace
was purchased by a payment of £io,ooo— a disastrous expedient
The Danes were to desist from their -ravages, but were allowed
to stay in England. Next year /Ethelred himself broke the peace
by an attack on the Danish ships. Despite the treachery of
jElfric, the English were victorious; and the Danes sailed off to
ravage Lindsey and Northumbria. In 004 Olaf Tryggvason,
king of Norway, and Sweyn, king of Denmark, united in a great
invasion and attacked London. Foiled by the valour of the
citizens, they sailed away and harried the coast from Essex to
Hampshire. jEthelred now resorted to the old experiment
and bought them off for £16,000 and a promise of supplies.
Olaf also visited jEthdred at the tatter's request and, receiving
a most honourable welcome, was induced to promise that he
would never again come to England with hostile intent, an en-
gagement which he faithfully kept. The Danish attacks were
repeated in 097, 998, 999, and in 1000 jEthdred availed himself
of the temporary absence of the Danes in Normandy to invade
Cumberland, at that time a Viking stronghold. Next year,
however, the Northmen returned and inflicted worse evil than
ever. The national defence seemed to have broken down alto-
gether. In despair jEthelred again offered them money, which
they again accepted, the sum paid on this occasion being £24,000.
But soon afterwards the king, suspecting treachery, resolved to
get rid of his enemies once and for all Orders were issued
commanding the slaughter on St Brice's day (December 2) of
" all the Danish men who were in England." Such a decree
could obviously not be carried out literally; but we cannot
doubt that the slaughter was great. This violence, however,
only made matters worse. Next year Sweyn returned, his
hostility fanned by the desire for revenge. For two years he
ravaged and slew, in 1003 Exeter was destroyed; Norwich
and Thetford in 1004. No effectual resistance was offered,
despite a gallant effort here and there; the disorganisation of
the country was complete. In 1005 the Danes were absent in
Denmark, but came back next year, and emboldened by the utter,
lack of resistance, they ranged far inland. In 1007 JEthdred
bought them off for a larger sum than ever (£36,000), and for
two years the land enjoyed peace. In 1009, however, in accord-
ance with a resolution made by the witan in the preceding year,
jEthelred collected such a fleet " as never before had been in
England in any king's day"; but owing to a miserable court
quarrel the effort came to nothing. The king then summoned
a general levy of the nation, with no better result Just as he
was about to attack, the traitor Edric prevented him from doing
so, and the opportunity was lost In xoxo the Danes returned,
to find the kingdom more utterly disorganised than ever. "There
was not a chief man in the kingdom who could gather a force,
but each fled as he best might; nor even at last would any then
resist another." Incapable of offering resistance, the king again
offered money, this time no less than £481000. While it was being
iETHELSTAN— ^THELWEARD
291
collected, the Danes tacked Canterbury and barbarously slew
the archbishop Alphege. The tribute was r*id soon afterwards;
and about the tame time the Danish leader Thurkill entered the
Engfoh service. From 1013 an important change fa discernible
in the character of the Danish attacks, which now became
definitely political in their aim. In this year Sweyn sailed up
the Trent and received the submission of northern England,
and then marching sooth, he attacked London. Failing 10 take
h% he hastened west and at Bath received the submission of
Wessex. Then he returned northwards, and after that " all the
nation considered him as full king." London soon acknowledged
him, and iEthelred, after taking refuge for a while with ThurkiU's
fleet, escaped to Normandy. Sweyn died in February 1014,
and iEthelred was recalled by the witan, on giving a promise
to reign better in future. At once he hastened north against
Canute, Sweyn's son, who claimed to succeed his father, but
Canute sailed away, only to return next year, when the traitor
Edric joined him and Wessex submitted. Together Canute and
Edric harried Merda, and were preparing to reduce London,
when iEthelred died there on the 23rd of April 1016. Weak,
self-indulgent, improvident, he had pursued a policy of oppor-
tunism to a fatal conclusion.
JEthelred's wife was Emma, or £lfgif u, daughter of Richard I.
the Fearless, duke of the Normans, whom he married in 1002.
After the king's death Emma became the wife of Canute the
Great, and after his death in 1035 she struggled hard to secure
England for her son, Hardicanute. In 1037, however, when
Harold Harefoot became sole king, she was banished; she went
to Flanders, returning to England with Hardicanute in 1040.
In 2043, after Edward the Confessor had become king he seized
the greater part of Emma's great wealth, and the queen lived
in retirement at Winchester until her death on the 6th of March
1051. By iEthelred Emma had two sons, Edward the Confessor
and the sstheling iElfred (d. 2036), and by Canute she was the
mother of Hardicanute. Emma's marriage with iEthelred was
an important step in the history of the relations between
England and Normandy, and J. R. Green says " it suddenly
opened for its rulers a distinct policy, a distinct course of
action, which led to the Norman conquest of England. From
the moment of Emma's marriage Normandy became a chief
factor in English politics."
Atrrnonrras.— 7** Anglo-Saxon Chronicle (edition by C.
Plnmmer, a vols. Oxford, 1892-1899): Florence of Worcester (ed. B.
Thorpe, London, 1848-1849) ; Encomium Emmae (ed. by G. H. Pertz
m the Scriptores Rernm Cermanicarum, Band xix., Hanover, 1866)
for the latter part of the reian. See also J. M. Kemble, Codex Diplo-
wmtkwi am Saxonici (London, 1839- 1 848) ; and B. Thorpe, Ancient
U rn (Lon don, 1840)- (CTS.P.*)
MTBBLSTAM (e. 804-040), Saxon king, was the son
(probably illegitimate) of Edward the elder. He had been the
favourite of his grandfather Alfred, and was brought up in the
household of his aunt iEtbelftaed, the " Lady of the Mercians."
On the death of his father in 924, at some date after the 12th
of November, iEthelstan succeeded him and was crowned at
Kingston shortly after. The succession did not, however, take
place without opposition. One iElfred, probably a descendant
of Abetted L, formed a plot to seize the king at Winchester;
the plot was discovered and iElfred was sent to Rome to defend
himself, but died shortly after. The king's own legitimate
brother Edwin made no attempt on the throne, but in 933 he
was drowned at sea under somewhat mysterious circumstances;
the Inter chroniclers ascribe his death to foul play on the part
of the king, but this seems more than doubtfuL
One of Athenian's first public acts was to hold a conference
atTamworth with Sihtric, the Scandinavian king of Northumbria,
and an a result Sihtric received iEthelstan's sister in marriage.
In the next year Sihtric died and iEthelstan took over the
Northumbrian kingdom, He now received, at Dacre in Cumber-
land, the submission of all the kings of the island, via. Howel Dda,
long of West Wales, Owen, king of Cumbria, Constantine, king
of the Scots, and Ealdred of Bamburgh, and henceforth he calls
himsflf "res totius Britanniae." About this time (the exact
dtf onosbgy is uncertain) iEthelstan expelled Sihtric's brother
Guthfrith, destroyed the Danish fortress at York, received the
submission of the Welsh at Hereford, fixing their boundary along
the line of the Wye, and drove the Comishmen west of the Tamar,
fortifying Exeter as an English city.
In 934 he invaded Scotland by land and sea, perhaps owing
to an alliance between Constantine and Anlaf Sihtricsson. The
army advanced as far north as Dunottar, in Kincardineshire,
while the navy sailed to Caithness. Simeon of Durham speaks
of a submission of Scotland as a result;' if it ever took place it
was a mere form, for three years later we find a great confederacy
formed in Scotland against iEthelstan. This confederacy of
937 was joined by Constantine, king of Scotland, the Welsh of
Strathdyde, and the Norwegian chieftains Anlaf Sihtricsson
and Anlaf Godfredsson, who, though they came from Ireland,
had powerful English connexions. A great battle was fought
at Brunanburh (perhaps Brunswark or Birrenswark hill in S.E.
Dumfriesshire), in which iEthelstan and his brother Edmund were
completely victorious. England had been freed from its greatest
danger since the days of the struggle of Alfred against Guthnuri.
iEthelstan was the first Saxon king who could claim in any
real sense to be lord paramount of Britain. In his charters he
is continually called " rex totius Britanniae," and he adopts for
the first time the Greek title basileus. This was not merely an
idle flourish, for some of his charters are signed by Welsh and
Scottish kings as subrcguli. Further, iEthelstan was the first
king to bring England into close touch with continental Europe.
By the marriage of his half-sisters he was brought into connexion
with the chief royal and princely houses of France and Germany.
His sister Eadgif u married Charles the Simple, Eadhild became
the wife of Hugh the Great, duke of France, Eadgyth. was
married to the emperor Otto the Great, and her sister iElfgifu to
a petty German prince. Embassies passed between iEthelstan
and Harold Fairhair, first king of Norway, with the result
that Harold's son Haakon was brought up in England and is
known in Scandinavian history as Haakon Adaisteinsfostri.
iEthelstan died at Gloucester in 940, and was buried at Malmes-
bury, an abbey which he had munificently endowed during his
lifetime. Apparently he was never married, and he certainly
had no issue.
A considerable body of law has come down to us in iEthel-
Stan's name. The chief collections are those issued at Grately in
Hampshire, at Exeter, at Thunresjdd, and the Judicia cmtatit
Lundonie. In the last-named one personal touch is found when
the king tells the archbishop how grievous it is to put to death
persons of twelve winters for stealing. The king secured the
raising of the age limit to fifteen.
A UTHORJTixs.— Primary: The Saxon Chronicle, subann.; William
of Malmesbury, Cesta Regum, i. 141-157, Rolls Series, contain-
ing valuable original information (v. StubbV Introduction, II. lx.-
Ixvii.); Birch, Cartul. Saxon, vol. ii. Nos. 641-747; AJS. Laws,
(ed. Liebermann), i. 146-183; iEthelweard, Florence of Worcester.
Secondary: Saxon Chronicle (ed. Plummer), vol. ii. pp. 132-142;
D.N.B.,/t. (A.*!*.)
JBTHELWEARD (Ethelwaxd), Anglo-Saxon historian, was
the great-grandson of iEthelred, the brother of Alfred, and
ealdorman or earl of the western provinces (i.e. probably of the
whole of Wessex). He first signs as dux or ealdorman in 973,
and continues to sign until 998, about which time his death
must have taken place. In the year 991 he was associated with
archbishop Sigeric in the conclusion of a peace with the victorious
Danes from Maldon, and in 994 he was sent with Bishop iEliheah
(Alphege) of Winchester to make peace with Olaf at Andover.
iEthelweard was the author of a Latin Chronicle extending to
the year 97s. Up to the year 892 he is largely dependent on
the Saxon Chronicle, with a few details of his own; later he is
largely independent of it. iEthelweard gave himself the bom-
bastic title " Patridus Consul Quaestor Ethelwerdus," and un-
fortunately this title is only too characteristic of the man.
His narrative is highly rhetorical, and as he at the same time
attempts more than Tadtean brevity his narrative is often
very obscure. iEthelweard was the friend and patron of iElfric
the grammarian.
AuTHoaiTrxs.— Primary: The Sawn Chronicle, 904 E; Birch,
292
Cortulorium Saxonicnm; A.S. Laws (ed. Liebermann), pp. 230-234;
Fabii Ethdwerdi Chron., Mon. Hist. Brit. 440-45* .Secondary:
Plummcr, 5mm CkronicU, vol. ii. p. d.; Napier and Stevenson,
Crawford Charters, pp. 118-120; D.N.B., u. (A. Mw.)
£THELWULF, king of the West Saxons, succeeded his father
Ecgberht in a.d. 839. It is recorded in the Saxon Chronicle for
823 that he was sent with Eahlstan, bishop of Sherborne, and
the ealdorman Wulfheard to drive out Baldred, king of Kent,
which was successfully accomplished. On the accession of
iEthelwulf, jEthelstan, his son or brother, was made sub-king of
Kent, Surrey, Sussex and Essex. jEthelwulf's reign was chiefly
occupied with struggles against the Danes. After the king's
defeat 843-844, the Somerset and Dorset levies won a victory at
the mouth of the Parret, c. 850. In 851 Ceorl, with the men of
Devon, defeated the Danes at Wigganburg, and jEthelstan of
Kent was victorious at Sandwich, in spite of which they wintered
in England that year for the first time. In 851 also iEthelwulf
and jEthelbald won their great victory at Adea, probably the
modern Ockley. In 853 iEthelwulf subdued the North Welsh,
in answer to the appeal of Burgred of Merck, and gave him his
daughter jEthelswith in marriage. 855 is the year of the Dona-
tion of iEthelwulf and of his journey to Rome with Alfred. On
his way home he married Judith, daughter of Charles the Bald.
According to Asser he was compelled to give up Wessex to his
son jEthelbald on his return, and content himself with the
eastern sub-kingdom. He died in 858.
See Asser, Life of Alfred (W. H. Stevenson, 1904), 1-16: Saxon
CkronicU, sm. 823, 836, 840, 851. 853, 855. (F. G. M. B.)
AETHER, or Ether (Gr. olftfrp, probably from aWot, I burn,
though Plato in his Cratylus (410 b) derives the name from
its perpetual motion— on del Btt vcpl row aipa £W, AetMp
tuoivt &> xaXoiro), a material substance of a more subtle
kind than visible bodies, supposed to exist in those parts of
space which are apparently empty.
" The hypothesis of an aether has been maintained by different
speculators for very different reasons. To those who maintained
the existence of a plenum as a philosophical principle, nature's
abhorrence of a vacuum was a sufficient reason for imagining
an all-surrounding aether, even though every other argument
should be against it. To Descartes, who made extension the
sole essential property of matter, and matter a necessary condi-
tion of extension, the bare existence of bodies apparently at a
distance was a proof of the existence of a continuous medium
between them. But besides these high metaphysical necessities
for a medium, there were more mundane uses to be fulfilled by
aethers. Aethers were invented for the planets to swim in, to
constitute electric atmospheres and magnetic effluvia, to convey
sensations from one part of our bodies to another, and so on,
till all space had been filled three or four times over with aethers.
It is only when we remember the extensive and mischievous
influence on science which hypotheses about aethers used for-
merly to exercise, that we can appreciate the horror of aethers
which sober-minded men had during the x8th century, and
which, probably as a sort of hereditary prejudice, descended
even to John Stuart MilL The disciples of Newton maintained
that in the fact of the mutual gravitation of the heavenly bodies,
according to Newton's law, they had a complete quantitative
account of their motions; and they endeavoured to follow out
the path which Newton had opened up by investigating and
measuring the attractions and repulsions of electrified and
magnetic bodies, and the cohesive forces in the interior of
bodies, without attempting to account for these forces. Newton
himself, however, endeavoured to account for gravitation by
differences of pressure in an aether; but he did not publish his
theory, ' because he was not able from experiment and observa-
tion to give a satisfactory account of this medium, and the
manner of its operation in producing the chief phenomena of
nature/ On the other hand, those who imagined aethers in
order to explain phenomena could not specify the nature of the
motion of these media, and could not prove that the media, as
imagined by them, would produce the effects they were meant to
explain. The only aether which has survived is that which was
invented by Huygens to explain the propagation of light. The
jETHELWULF— aether
evidence for the existence of the luminiferous aether has accumu-
lated as additional phenomena of light and other radiations
have been discovered; and the properties of this medium, as
deduced from the phenomena of light, have been found to be
precisely those required to explain electromagnetic phenomena,''
This description, quoted from James Clerk Maxwell's article
in the 9th edition of the Encyclopaedia Briionmca, represents the
historical position of the subject up till about i860, when Maxwell
began those constructive speculations in electrical theory, based
on the influence of the physical views of Faraday and Lord Kelvin,
which have in their subsequent development largely transformed
theoretical physics into the science of the aether.
In the remainder of the article referred to, Maxwell reviews
the evidence for the necessity of an aether, .from the met that
light takes time to travel, while it cannot travel as a snbstanrr,
for if so two interfering lights could not mask each other in the
dark fringes (see Intexyskencb 07 Light). light is therefore
an influence propagated as wave-motion, and moreover by trans-
verse undulations, for the reasons brought out by Thomas Young
and Augustin Fresnel; so that the aether is a medium which
possesses elasticity of a type analogous to rigidity. It must be
very different from ordinary matter as we know it, for waves
travelling in matter constitute sound, which is propagated
hundreds of thousands of times slower than light.
If we suppose that the aether differs from ordinary matter in
degree but not in kind, we can obtain some idea of its quality
from a knowledge of the velocity of radiation and of its possible
intensity near the sun, in a manner applied long ago by Lord
Kelvin (Trans. R. S. Edin. xxi. 1854). According to modem
measurements the solar radiation imparts almost 3 gramme-
calories of energy per minute per square centimetre at the
distance of the earth, which is about 1*3 Xio* ergs per sec. per
cm. 1 The energy in sunlight per cubic cm. just outside the
earth's atmosphere is therefore about 4X10"** ergs; applying
the law of inverse squares the value near the sun's surface would
be i-8 ergs. Let e be the effective elasticity of the aether;
then E-pc*, where p is its density, and c the velocity of light
which is 3X10 » cm./sec. If £-a cos* (t-x/c) is the linear
vibration, the stress is E d£/dx; and the total energy, which is
twice the kinetic energy }p(d£/dt)*dx, is ipftW per cm,, which
is thus equal to z*8 ergs as above. Now X-arc/w, so that
if A/X-A, we have v p(2*c*)'-i-8, giving p-xo~"*-* and
E- io -1 *"*. Lord Kelvin assumed as a superior limit of A, the
ratio of amplitude to wave-length, the value io~*, which is a
very safe limit. It follows that the density of the aether must
exceed io~ u , and its elastic modulus must exceed 10 s , which
is only about xo"* of the modulus of rigidity of glass. It thus
appears that if the amplitude of vibration could be as much as
io - * of the wave-length, the aether would be an excessively rare
medium with very slight elasticity; and yet it would be capable
of transmitting the supply of solar energy on which all terrestrial
activity depends. But on the modern theory, which includes
the play of electrical phenomena as a function of the aether,
there are other considerations which show that this number io"*
is really an enormous overestimate; and it is not impossible
that the co-efficient of ultimate inertia of the aether is greater
than the co-efficient of inertia (of different kind) of any existing
material substance.
The question of whether the aether is carried along by the
earth's motion has been considered from the early days of the
undulatory theory of light In reviving that theory at the be-
ginning of the 19th century, Thomas Young stated his conviction
that material media offered an open structure to the substance
called aether, which passed through them without hindrance
" like the wind through a grove of trees." Any convection of
that medium could be tested by the change of effective velocity
of light, which would be revealed by a prism as was suggested
by F. J. D. Arago. Before 1868 MaxweU conducted the experi-
ment by sending light from the illuminated cross-wires of an
observing telescope forward through the object-glass, and
through a train of prisms, and then reflecting it back along the
same path; any influence of convection would conspire in
AETHER
293
altering both r efractions, but yet no displacement of the image
drpenrfing on the earth's motion was detected. As will be seen
later, modem experiments have confirmed the entire absence of
any effect, such as convection would produce, to very high
precision. It has further been verified by Sir Oliver Lodge that
even in very narrow spaces the aether is not entrained by its
siirroumhngs when they are put into rapid motion.
A train of ideas which strongly impressed itself on Clerk
Maxwell's mind, in the early stages of his theoretical views,
was put forward by Lord Kelvin in 1858; he showed that the
special characteristics of the rotation of the plane of polarisation,
discovered by Faraday in light propagated along a magnetic
field, viz. that it is doubled instead of being undone when the
light retraces its path, requires the operation of some directed
agency of a rotational kind* which must be related to the
magnetic' field. Lord Kelvin was thereby induced to identify
magnetic force with rotation, involving, therefore, angular
momentum in the aether. Modern theory accepts the deduction,
but ascribes the momentum to the revolving ions in the molecules
of matter traversed by the light; for the magneto-optic effect
is present only in material media. Long previously Lord Kelvin
himself came nearer this view, in offering the opinion that
magnrthm consisted, in some way, in the angular momentum
of the material molecules, of which the energy of irregular
translations constitutes heat; but the essential idea of moving
electric ions of both kinds, positive and negative, in the molecules
had still to be introduced.
The question of the transparency of the celestial spaces
presents itself in the present connexion. Light from stars at
unfathomable distances reaches us in such quantity as to suggest
that space itself is absolutely transparent, leaving open the
question as to whether there is enough matter scattered through
it to absorb a sensible part of the light in its journey of years
from the luminous body. If the aether were itself constituted
of discrete molecules, on the model of material bodies, such
transparency would not be conceivable. We must be content
to treat the aether as a plenum, which places it in a class by
itself; and we can thus recognize that it may behave very
differently from matter, though in some manner consistent with
ttsdf— a remark which is fundamental in the modern theory.
Action across a Distance contrasted with Transmitted Action. —
In the mechanical processes which we can experimentally modify
at will, and which therefore we learn to apprehend with greatest
fulness, whenever an effect on a body, B, is in causal connexion
with a process instituted in another body, A, it is usually possible
to discover a mechanical connexion between the two bodies
which allows the influence of A to be traced all the way across
the intervening region. The question thus arises whether, in
electric attractions- across apparently empty space and in gravi-
tational attraction across the celestial regions, we are invited
or requ i red to make search for some similar method of continuous
transmission of the physical effect, or whether we should rest
content with an exact knowledge of the laws according to which
one body affects mechanically another body at a distance.
The view that our knowledge in such cases may be completely
represented by means of laws of action at a distance, expressible
in terms of the positions (and possibly motions) of the interacting
bodies without taking any heed of the intervening space, belongs
to modern times. It could hardly have been thought of before
Sir Isaac Newton's discovery of the actual facts regarding uni-
versal gravitation. Although, however, gravitation has formed
the most perfect instance of an influence completely expressible,
up to the most extreme refinement of accuracy, in terms of laws
of direct action across space, yet, as is well known, the author
of this ideally simple and perfect theory held the view that it is
not possible to conceive of direct mechanical action independent
of means of transmission. In this belief he differed from his
pupa, Roger Cotes, and from most of the great mathematical
astronomers of the 18th century, who worked out in detail the
task sketched by the genius of Newton. They were content
with a knowledge of the truth of the principle of gravitation;
1 of essaying to explain it further by the properties of a
transmitting medium, they in fact modelled the whole of their
natural philosophy on that principle, and tried to express all
kinds of material interaction in terms of laws of direct mechanical
attraction across space. If material systems are constituted of
discrete atoms, separated from each other by many times the
diameter of any of them, this simple plan of exhibiting their
interactions in terms of direct forces between them would
indeed be exact enough to apply to a wide range of questions,
provided we could be certain that the laws of the forces depended
only on the positions and not also on the motions of the atoms.
The most important example of its successful application has
been the theory of capillary action elaborated by P. S. Laplace;
though even here it appeared, in the hands of Young, and in
complete fulness afterwards in those of C. F. Gauss, that the
definite results attainable by the hypothesis of mutual atomic
attractions really reposed on much wider and less special prin-
ciples—those, namely, connected with the modern doctrine of
energy.
Idea of an Aether.— The wider view, according to which the
hypothesis of direct transmission of physical influences expresses
only part of the facts, is that all space is filled with physical
activity, and that while an influence is passing across from a
body, A, to another body, B, there is some dynamical process in
action in the intervening region, though it appears to the senses
to be mere empty space. The problem is whether we can repre-
sent the facts more simply by supposing the intervening space
to be occupied by a medium which transmits physical actions,
after the manner that a continuous material medium, solid or
liquid, transmits mechanical disturbance. Various analogies of
this sort are open to us to follow up: for example, the way in
which a fluid medium transmits pressure from one immersed
solid to another— or from one vortex ring belonging to the fluid
to another, which is a much wider and more suggestive case;
or the way in which an elastic fluid like the atmosphere transmits
sound; or the way in which an elastic solid transmits waves of
transverse as well as longitudinal displacement. It is on our
familiarity with modes of transmission such as these, and with
the exact analyses of them which the science of mathematical
physics has been able to make, that our predilection for filling
space with an aethereal transmitting medium, constituting a
universal connexion between material bodies, largely depends;
perhaps ultimately it depends most of all, like all our physical
conceptions, on the intimate knowledge that we can ourselves
exert mechanical effect on outside bodies only through the
agencies of our limbs and sinews. The problem thus arises,
Can we form a consistent notion of such a connecting medium?
It must be a medium which can be effective for transmitting all
the types of physical action known to us; it would be worse
than no solution to have one medium to transmit gravitation,
another to transmit electric effects, another to transmit light,
and so on. Thus the attempt to find out a constitution for the
aether will involve a synthesis of intimate correlation of the
various types of physical agencies, which appear so different to
us mainly because we 'perceive them through different senses.
The evidence for this view, that all these agencies are at bottom
connected together and parts of the same scheme, was enormously
strengthened during the latter half of the 19th century by the
development of a relation of simple quantitative equivalence
between them; it has been found that we can define quantities
relating to them, under the names of mechanical energy, electric
energy, thermal energy, and so on, so that when one of them
disappears, it is replaced by the others to exactly equal amount.
This single principle of energy has transformed physical science
by making possible the construction of a network of ramifying
connexions between its various departments; it thus stimulates
the belief that these constitute a single whole, and encourages .
the search for the complete scheme of interconnexion of which
the principle of energy and the links which it suggests form
only a single feature.
In carrying out this scientific procedure false steps will from
time to time be made, which will have to be retraced, or rather
amended, but the combination of experimental science with
294
AETHER
theory has elevated our presumption of the rationality of all
natural processes, so far as we can apprehend them at all, into
practical certainty; so that, though the mode of presentation of
the results may vary from age to age, it is hardly conceivable
that the essentials of the method are not of permanent validity.
Atomic Structure of Matter— The greatest obstacle to such a
search for the fundamental medium is the illimitable complexity
of matter, as contrasted with the theoretical simplicity and uni-
formity of the physical agencies which connect together its
different parts. It has been maintained since the times of the
early Greek philosophers, and possibly even more remote ages,
that matter is constituted of independent indestructible units,
which cannot ever become divided by means of any mutual
actions they can exert Since the period, a century ago, when
Dalton and his contemporaries constructed from this idea a
scientific basis for chemistry, the progress of that subject has
been wonderful beyond any conception that could previously
have been entertained; and the atomic theory in some form
appears to be an indispensable part of the framework of physical
science. Now this doctrine of material atoms is an almost
necessary corollary to the doctrine of a universal aether. For if
we held that matter is continuous, one of two alternatives would
be open. We might consider that matter and aether can co-
exist in the same space; this would involve the co-existence
and interaction of a double set of properties, introducing great
complication, which would place any coherent scheme of physical
action probably beyond the powers of human analysis. Or we
might consider that aether exists only where matter is not,
thus making it a very rare and subtle and elastic kind of matter;
then we should have to assign these very properties to the matter
itself where it replaces aether, in addition to its more familiar
properties, and the complication would remain. The other
course is to consider matter as formed of ultimate atoms, each
the nucleus or core of an intrinsic modification impressed on
the surrounding region of the aether; this might conceivably
be of the nature of vortical motion of a liquid round a ring-core,
thus giving a vortex atom, or of an intrinsic strain of some sort
radiating from a core, which would give an electric atom. We
recognise an atom only through its physical activities, as mani-
fested in its interactions with other atoms at a distance from it;
this field of physical activity would be identical with the sur-
rounding field of aethereal motion or strain that is inseparably
associated with the nucleus, and is carried on along with it as it
moves. Here then we have the basis-of a view in which there are
not two media to be considered, but one medium, homogeneous
in essence and differentiated as regards its parts only by the
presence of nuclei of intrinsic strain or motion— in which the
physical activities of matter are identified with those arising
from the atmospheres of modified aether which thus belong to
its atoms. As regards laws of general physical interactions, the
atom is fully represented by the constitution of this atmosphere,
and its nucleus may be left out of our discussions; but in the
problems of biology great tracts of invariable correlations have
to be dealt with, which seem hopelessly more complex than any
known or humanly possible physical scheme. To make room for
these we have to remember that the atomic nucleus has remained
entirely undefined and beyond our problem; so that what may
occur, say when two molecules come into close relations, is outside
physical science— not, however, altogether outside, for we know
that when the vital nexus in any portion of matter is dissolved, the
atoms will remain, in their number, and their atmospheres, and
all inorganic relations, as they were before vitality supervened.
Nature of Properties of Material Bodies.— -It thus appears
that the doctrine of atomic material constitution and the doctrine
of a universal aether stand to each other in a relation of mutual
• support; if the scheme of physical laws is to be as precise as
observation and measurement appear to make it, both doctrines
are required In our efforts towards synthesis. Our direct know-
ledge of matter can, however, never be more than a rough
knowledge of the general average behaviour of its molecules;
for' the smallest material speck that, is sensible to our coarse
perceptions contains myriads of atoms. The properties of the
most minute portion of matter which we can examine are thus
of the nature of averages. We may gradually invent means of
tracing more and more closely the average drifts of translation
or orientation, or of changes of arrangement, of the atoms; but
there will always remain an unavenged residue devoid of any
recognised regularity, which we can only estimate by its total
amount. Thus, if we are treating of energy, we can separate out
mechanical and electric and. other constituents in it; and there
will be a residue of which we know nothing except its quantity,
and which we call thermal. This merely thermal energy—
which is gradually but very slowly being restricted in amount as
new subsidiary organized types become recognized in it — though
transmutable in equivalent quantities with the other kinds, yet
is so only to a limited extent; the tracing out of the laws of this
limitation belongs to the science of thermodynamics. It is the
business of that science to find out what is the greatest amount
of thermal energy that can possibly be recoverable into organized
kinds under given circumstances. The discovery of definite laws
in this region might at first sight seem hopeless; but the argu-
ment rests on an implied postulate of stability and continuity of
constitution of material substances, so that after a cyde of
transformations we expect to recover them again as they were
originally— on the postulate, in fact, that we do not expect them
to melt out of organized existence in our hands. The laws of
thermodynamics, including the fundamental principle that a
physical property, called temperature, can be defined, which
tends towards uniformity, are thus relations between the
properties of types of material bodies that can exist permanently
in presence of each other; why they so maintain themselves
remains unknown, but the fact gives the point d'oppui. The
fundamental character of energy in material systems here
comes into view; if there were any other independent scalar
entity, besides mass and energy, that pervaded them with
relations of equivalence, we should expect the existence of yet
another set of qualities analogous to those connected with
temperature. (See Energetics.)
Returning now to the aether, on our present point of view
no such complications there arise; it must be regarded as a
continuous uniform medium free from any complexities of
atomic aggregation, whose function is confined to the transmis-
sion of the various types of physical effect between the portions
of matter. The problem of its constitution is thus one which
can be attacked and continually approximated to, and which
may possibly be definitely resolved. It has to be competent to
transmit the transverse waves of light and electricity, and the
other known radiant and electric actions; the way in which
this is done is now in the main known, though there are still
questions as to the mode of expression and formulation of our
knowledge, and also as regards points of detail This great
advance, which Is the result of the gradual focussing of a century's
work in the minute exploration of the exact laws of optical and
electric phenomena, clearly carries with it deeper insight into
the physical nature of matter itself and its modes of inanimate
interaction.
If we rest on the synthesis here described, the energy of the
matter, even the thermal part, appears largely as potential
energy of strain in the aether which interacts with the kinetic
energy associated with disturbances involving finite velocity
of matter. It may, however, be maintained that an ultimate
analysis would go deeper, and resolve all phenomena of elastic
resilience into consequences of the kinetic stability of steady
motional states, so that only motions, but not strains, would
remain. On such a view the aether might conceivably be a
perfect fluid, its.fundamental property of elastic reaction arising
(as at one time suggested by Kelvin and G. F. FitzGerald) from
a structure of tangled or interlaced vortex filaments pervading
its substance, which might conceivably arrange themselves into
a stable configuration and so resist deformation. This raises
the further question as to whether the transmission of gravitation
can be definitely recognized among the properties of an ultimate
medium, if so, we know that it must be associated with some
feature, perhaps very deep-seated, or on the other hand perhaps
AETHER
295
*T»«<fii»g simply on incompw u ibflity, which if not sensibly
indicated in the electric and optical activities. With reference
to all such farther refinements of theory, it is to be borne in
mind that the perfect fluid of hydrodynamic analysis is not a
merely passive inert plenum; it is also a continuum with the
property that no finite internal slip or discontinuity of motion
can ever arise in it through any kind of disturbance; and this
property must be pos tu lated, as it cannot be explained.
Motion of Material Atom throuth the Aether.— An important
question arises whether, when a material body is moved through
the aether, the nucleus of each atom carries some of the surround-
ing aether along with it; or whether it practically only carries
on its strain-form or physical atmosphere, which is transferred
from one portion of aether to another after the manner of a
shadow, or rather like a loose knot which can slip along a rope
without the rope being required to go with it. We can obtain
a pertinent illustration from the motion of a vortex ring in a fluid;
if the circular core of the ring is thin compared with its diameter,
and the vortkity is not very great, it is the vortical state of
motion that travels across the fluid without transporting the
latter bodily with it except to a slight extent very dose to the
core. We might thus examine a structure formed of an aggrega-
tion of very thin vortex rings, which would move across the fluid
without sensibly disturbing it; on the other hand, if formed of
stronger v ortices, it may transport the portion of the fluid that
Js within, or adjacent to, its own structure along with it as if it
were a solid mass, and therefore also push aside the surrounding
fluid as it passes. The motion of the well-known steady spherical
vortex is an example of the latter case.
Convection of Optical Waves .— The nature of the motion, if any,
that is produced in the surrounding regions of the aether by the
tr"" 1 '^ of matter through it can be investigated by optical
experiment. The obvious body to take in the first instance is
the earth itself, which on account of its annual orbital motion is
travelling through space at therate of about 18 miles per second.
If the surrounding aether is thereby disturbed, the waves of
fight arriving from the stars will partake of its movement; the
ascertained phenomena of the astronomical aberration of light
show that the rays travel to the observer, across this disturbed
tether near the earth, in straight lines. Again, we may split a
aanow beam of light by partial reflexion from a transparent
plate, and recombme the constituent beams after they have
traversed different circuits of nearly equivalent lengths, so as
to obtain interference fringes. The position of these fringes will
depend on the total retardation in time of the one beam with
respect to the other; and thus it might be expected to vary
with the direction of the earth's motion relative to the apparatus.
But it is found not to vary at all, even up to the second order
of the ratio of the earth's velocity to that of light. It has in
fact been found, with the very great precision of which optical
; is capable, that all terrestrial optical phenomena—
, refraction, polarisation linear and circular, diffraction
t entirely nnaffrrtfd by the direction of the earth's motion,
wmle the stone result has recently been extended to electrostatic
forces; and this is our main experimental due.
We puss on now to the theory. We shall make the natural
supposition that motion of the aether, say with velocity (u,v,w)
at the point (xjj), is simply superposed on the velocity V of
the optical undulations through that medium, the latter not
being mtrinskauy altered. Now the direction and phase of the
fight are those of the ray which reaches the eye; and by Fermat's
principle, establ is h ed by Hoygens for undulatory motion, the
path of a ray is that track along which the disturbance travels
in least time, in the restricted sense that any alteration of any
short reach of the path will increase the time. Thus the path of
the say when the aether fa at rest is the curve which makes
y*j/V least; but when it is in motion it is the curve which makes
/2*/(V+/«+sw+*») least, where (l,mjt) is the direction vector
of It. The latter integral becomes, on expanding in a series,
tdt-ix. If the path is to be unaltered by the motion of
the aether, as the law of astronomical aberration suggests, this
must differ from/fo/V by terms not depending on the path—
that is, by terms involving only the beginning and end of it. In
the case of the free aether V is constant; thus, if we neglect
squares like («/V)*, the condition Is that udx +vdy+wds be the
exact differential of some function <f>. If this relation is true
along all paths, the velocity of the aether must be of irrotational
type, like that of Motionless fluid. Moreover, this Is precisely
the condition for the absence of interference between the com-
ponent of a split beam; because, the time of passage being to
the first order
/b/V-/[flrf*+*tf>+w4i)V»,
the second term will then be independent of the path (£ being a
single valued function) and therefore the same for the paths of
both the interfering beams. If therefore the aether can be put
into motion, we conclude (with Stokes) that such motion, in free
space, must be of strictly irrotational type.
But our experimental data are not confined to free space. If
c is the velocity of radiation in free space and /* the refractive
Index of a transparent body, V~c/p; thus it is the txptt*>
sioncr*//rX«'d*+*'rfy+w'is) that is to be Integrable explidtly,
where now (tt'/,«0 is what is added to V owing to the velocity
(u,v,w) of the medium. As, however, our terrestrial optical appa-
ratus is now all in motion along with the matter, we must
deal with the rays relative to the moving system, and to these
also Fermat's prindple dearly applies; thus V+ (/a'-rW+mO
is here the velodty of radiation in the direction of the ray, but
relative to the moving material system. Now the expression
above given cannot be integrable exactly, under all circumstances
and whatever be the axes of co-ordinates, unless (jrV,jrV,/rV)
is the gradient of a continuous function. In the simplest case,
that of uniform translation, these components of the gradient
will each be constant throughout the region; at a distant place
in free aether where there is no motion, they must thus be equal
to -«,-«,-v, as they refer to axes moving with the matter.
Hence the paths and times of passage of all rays relative to the
material system will not be altered by a uniform motion of the
system, provided the velodty of radiation relative to the system,
in material of index n, is diminished by /*"• times the velodty of
the system in the direction of the radiation, that is, provided the
absolute velodty of radiation is increased by i-/*"* times the
velodty of the material system; this involves that the free
aether for which /* is unity shall remain at rest. This statement
constitutes the famous hypothesis of Fresnel, which thus ensures
that all phenomena of ray-path and refraction, and all those
depending on phase, shall be unaffected by uniform convection
of the material medium, in accordance with the results of
experiment.
Is the Aether Stationary or Mobile f— This theory secures that
the times of passage of the rays shall be independent of the
motion of the system, only up to the first order of the ratio of
its velodty to that of radiation. But a classical experiment of
A. A. Michelson, in which the ray-path was wholly in air, showed
that the independence extends to higher orders. This result is
inconsistent with the aether remaining at rest, unless we assume
that the dimensions of the moving system depend, though to an
extent so small as to be not otherwise detectable, on its orienta-
tion with regard to the aether that is streaming through it. It is,
however, in complete accordance with a view that would make
the aether near the earth fully partake in its orbital motion— a
view which the null effect of convection on all terrestrial optical
and electrical phenomena also strongly suggests. But the aether
at a great distance must in any case be at rest; while the facts of
astronomical aberration require that the motion of that medium
must be irrotational. These conditions cannot be consistent
with sensible convection of the aether near the earth without
involving discontinuity in its motion at some intermediate
distance, so that we are thrown back on the previous theory
Another powerful reason for taking the aether to be stationary
is afforded by the character of the equations of electrodynamics;
they are all of linear type, and superposition of effects is possible.
Now the kinetics of a medium in which the parts can have finite
296
AETHER
relative motions will lead to equations which are not linear— as,
for example, those of hydrodynamics— and the phenomena will
be far more complexly involved. It is true that the theory of
vortex rings in hydrodynamics is of a simpler type; but electric
currents cannot be likened to permanent vortex rings, because
their circuits can be broken and the element of cyclic steadiness
on which the simplicity depends is thereby destroyed.
Dynamical Theories of the Aether.— The analytical equations
which represent the propagation of light in free aether, and also
in aether modified by the presence of matter, were originally
developed on the analogy of the equations of propagation of
elastic effects in solid media, Various types of elastic solid
medium have thus been invented to represent the aether, without
complete success in any case. In T. MacCullagh's hands the
correct equations were derived from a single energy formula by
the principle of least action; and while the validity of this
dynamical method was maintained, it was frankly admitted
that no mechanical analogy was forthcoming. When Clerk
Maxwell pointed out the way to the common origin of optical
and electrical phenomena, these equations naturally came to
repose on an electric basis, the connexion having been first
definitely exhibited by FitzGerald in 1878; and according as
the independent variable was one or other of the vectors which
represent electric force, magnetic force or electric polarity, they
took the form appropriate to one or other of the elastic theories
above mentioned.
In this place it must suffice to indicate the gist of the more
recent developments of the electro-optical theory, which .in-
volve the dynamical verification of Frond's hypothisis regard-
ing optical convection and the other relations above described.
The aether is taken to be at rest; and the strain-forms belong-
ing to the atoms are the electric fields of the intrinsic charges,
or electrones, involved in their constitution. When the atoms
are in motion these strain-forms produce straining and unstrain-
ing in the aether as they pass across it, which in its motional or
kinetic aspect constitutes the resulting magnetic field; as the
strains are slight the coefficient of ultimate inertia here involved
must be great. True electric current arises solely from con-
vection of the atomic charges or electrons; this current is there-
fore not restricted as to form in any way. But when the rate of
change of aethereal strain—that is, of (/,/» specified as Max-
well's electric displacement in free aether— is added to it, an
analytically convenient vector (u,v,v>) is obtained which possesses
the characteristic property of being circuital like the flow of
an incompressible fluid, and has therefore been made funda-
mental in the theory by Maxwell under the name of the total
electric current.
As already mentioned, all efforts to assimilate optical pro-
pagation to transmission of waves in an ordinary solid medium
have failed; and though the idea of regions of intrinsic strain,
as for example, in unannealed glass, is familiar in physics, yet
on account of the absence of mobility of the strain no attempt
had been made to employ them to illustrate the electric fields
of atomic charges. The idea of MacCullagh's aether, and its
property of purely rotational elasticity which had been ex-
pounded objectively by W. J. M. Rankine, was therefore much
vivified by Lord Kelvin's specification (Comptes Rendus, 1889)
of a material gyrostatically constituted medium which would
possess this character. More recently a way has been pointed
out in which a mobile permanent field of electric force could
exist in such a medium so as to travel freely in company with
its nucleus or intrinsic charge — the nature of the mobility of the
latter, as well as its intimate constitution, remaining unknown.
A dielectric substance is electrically polarized by a field of
electric force, the atomic poles being made up of the displaced
positive and negative intrinsic charges in the atom : the polariza-
tion per unit volume (/*,/,*') may be defined on the analogy of
magnetism, and d/dtifjjt) thus constitutes true electric current
of polarization, £«. of electric separation in the molecules,
specified per unit volume. The convection of a medium thus
polarized involves electric disturbance, and therefore must con-
tribute to the true electric current; the determination of this
constituent of the current fa the most delicate point in the in-
vestigation. The usual definition of the component current in
any direction, as the net amount of electrons which crosses,
towards the positive side, an element of surface fixed in space
at right angles to that direction, per unit area per unit time,
here gives no definite result. The establishment and convection
of a single polar atom constitutes in fact a fwaw-magnetixation,
in addition to the polarization current as above defined, the
negative poles completing the current circuits of the positive
ones. But in the transition from molecular theory to the electro-
dynamics of extended media, all magnetism has to be replaced
by a distribution of current; the latter being now specified by
volume as well as by flow so that (*,v,w) or is the current in the
element of volume ©V. In the present case the total dielectric
contribution to this current works out to be the change per unit
time in the electric separation in the molecules of the element
of volume, as it moves uniformly with the matter, all other
effects being compensated molecularly without affecting the
propagation. 1 On subtracting from this total the current of
establishment of polarization d/dtl(fjjf) ** formulated above,
there remains vd/dx{fjfjt) as the current of convection of
polarization when the convection is taken for simplicity to.be
in the direction of the axis of x with velocity v. The polariza-
tion itself is determined from the electric force (P,QJt) by the
usual statical formula of linear type which becomes for an iso-
tropic medium
<r.cw-J^<p.Q,R).
because any change of the dielectric constant K arising from the
convection of the material through the aether must be inde-
pendent of the sign of v and therefore be of the second order.
Now the electric force (P,Q,R) is the force acting on the electrons
of the medium moving with velocity v; -consequently by Fara-
day's electrodynamic Law
(P,Q,R).(F,Q'-^R'+^)
where (r y ,Q',R') is the force that would act on electrons at
rest, and (a,b,c) is the magnetic induction. The latter force is,
by Maxwell's hypothesis or by the dynamical theory of an aether
pervaded by electrons, the same as that which strains the aether,
and may be called the aethereal force; it thereby produces an
aethereal electric displacement, say (/»*>*)» according to the
relation </.**) -( 4 «9 -'(P'.Q'.R 1 ).
in which C is a constant belonging to the aether, which turns
out to be the velocity of light The current of aethereal dis-
placement d/dt(J'4Jh) is what adds on to the true electric current
to produce the total circuital current of Maxwell.
We have now to substitute these data in the universally valid
circuital relations— namely, (i) line integral of magnetic force
round a circuit is equal to ar times the current through its
aperture, which may be regarded as a definition of the constitu-
tion of the aether and its relation to the electrons involved in
it; and (ii) line integral of the electric force belonging to any
material circuit (i.e. acting on the electrons situated on it which
move with the velocity of the matter) is equal to minus the
time-rate of change of the magnetic induction through that
circuit as it moves with the matter, this being a dynamical
consequence of the aethereal constitution assigned in (i).
We may now, as is somewhat the more natural course in the
terrestrial application, take axes (x,yj) which move with the
matter; but the current must be invariably denned by the flux
across surfaces fixed in space, so that we may say that relation
(i) refers to a circuit fixed in space, while (ii) refers to one moving
with the matter. These circuital relations, when expressed
analytically, are then for a dielectric medium of types
&-£-4~.
where <«*•) - (£+ «£) (AtW+aC/**).
dR rfO da
»nd J7"aT a7
1 See H. A. Lorentc. loe. cit. infra; J. Larmor. Aether and Matter.
p. 262 and passim.
AETHICUS ISTER
297
where, when magnetic quality is inoperative, the magnetic
indu ct ion {aj>*) is identical with the magnetic force (a£/y).
These equations determine all the phenomena. They take
this simple form, however, only when the movement of the
matter is one of translation. If v varies with respect to locality,
or if there is a velocity of convection (p,qs) variable with respect
to direction and position, and analytical expression of the re-
lation (ii) assumes a more complex form; we thus derive the
most general equations of electrodynamic propagation for
matter treated as continuous, anyhow distributed and moving
in any manner.
For the simplest case of polarized waves travelling parallel
to the axis of x, with the magnetic oscillation y along s and
the electric oscillation Q along y, all the quantities are functions
of x and / alone; the total current is along y and given with
respect to our moving axes by
also the circuital relations here reduce to
8-
giving, on substitution for v,
-£■
thus
«*&-*&+&■
For a simple wave-train, Q varies as sin m(x-\t), leading on
substitution to the velocity of propagation V- relative to the
moving material, by means of the equation KV*-f auV-c 4 — u*;
this gives, to the first order, of v/c, V-c/K*— w/K, which is in
accordance with Fresnel's law. Trains of waves nearly but not
quite homogeneous as regards wave-length will as usual be
propagated as wave-groups travelling with the slightly different
velocity d(V\- l )ld\-\ the- value of K occurring in V being a
function of X determined by the law of optical dispersion of the
For purposes of theoretical discussions relating to moving
radiators and reflectors, it is important to remember that the
dynamics of all this theory of electrons involves the neglect of
terms of the order (v/c) 1 , not merely in the value of K but
throughout.
Recent Experimental Developments.— The modification of the
spectrum of a radiating gas by a magnetic field, such as would
result from the hypothesis that the radiators are the system of
revolving or oscillating electrons in the molecule, was detected
by P. Zecman in 1896, and worked up, in conjunction with H. A.
Lorentx, on the general lines suggested by the electron-theory
of molrailar constitution. While it cannot be said that the full
si gnifi c anc e of this very definite phenomenon, consisting of the
splitting of the spectral line into a number of polarized com-
ponents, has yet been made out, a wide field of correlation with
optical theory, especially in the neighbourhood of absorption
bands, has been developed by Zeeman himself, by A. H. Bec-
querel, by D. Macaluso and O. M. Corbino, and by other workers.
The most fundamental experimental confirmation that the
theory of the aether has received on the optical side in recent
years has been the verification of Maxwell's proposition that
radiation exerts mechanical force on a material system, on which
ft falls, which may be represented in all cases as the resultant
of pressures operating along the rays, and of intensity equal at
each point of free space to the density of radiant energy. A
high vacuum is needed for the detection of the minute forces
here concerned; but just in that case the indirect radiometer-
effect of the heating of the residual gas masks the effect. P. N.
Lebedew in xooo succeeded, by operating on metallic vanes so
thin that the exposed and averted faces were practically at the
same temperature, in satisfactorily verifying the relation for
metals; and very soon after, £. F. Nichols and G. F. Hull
published accounts of an exact and extensive research, in which
the principle had been fully and precisely confirmed as regards
both transparent and opaque bodies. The experiment of J. H.
Poynting may also be mentioned, in which the tangential com-
ponent of the thrust of obliquely incident radiation is separately
put in evidence, by the torsion produced in an arrangement
which is not sensitive to the normal component or to the radio-
meter-pressure of the residual gas. (See Radiometer.)
Next to these researches on the pressure of radiation, which,
by forming the mechanical link between radiation and matter,
are fundamental for the thermodynamics of radiant energy, the
most striking recent result has been the discovery of H. Rubens
and E. Hagen that for dark heat rays of only about ten times the
wave-length of luminous radiation, the properties of metals are
determined by their electric resistance alone, which then masks
all resonance due to periods of free vibration of the molecules;
and, moreover, that the resistance for such alternations is practi-
cally the same as the ohmic resistance for ordinary steady cur-
rents. They found that the absorbing powers of the metals, and
therefore, by the principle of exchanges, their radiating powers
also, are proportional to the square roots of their electric con-
ductivities. Maxwell had himself, at an early stage of his theory,
tested the absorbing power of gold-leaf for light, and found that
the effective conductivity for luminous vibrations must be very
much greater than its. steady ohmic value; it is, in fact, there a
case of incipient conductivity, which is continually being undone
on account of the rapid alternation of force before it is fully
established. That, however, complete conduction should arrive
with alternations only ten times slower than light was an un-
expected and remarkable fact, which verifies the presumption
that the process of conduction is one in which the dynamic
activities of the molecules do not come into play. The corollary,
that the electric resistance of a metal can be determined in
absolute units by experiments on the reflexion of heat -rays
from its surface, is a striking illustration of the unification of
the various branches of physical science, which has come in the
train of the development of the theory of the aether. (See
Radiation.)
Finally, reference should be made to the phenomena of radio-
activity, whether excited by the electric discharge in vacuum
tubes, foreshadowed in part by Sir Wm. Crookes and G. G.
Stokes, and later by A. Schuster and others, but first fully
developed with astonishing results including the experimental
discovery of the free electron by J. J. Thomson, or the correlated
phenomena occurring spontaneously in radio-active bodies as
discovered by H. Becquerel and by M. and Mme Curie, and
investigated by them and by E. Rutherford and others. These
results constitute a far-reaching development of the modern or
electrodynamic theory of the aether, of which the issue can
hardly yet be foreseen.
References.— Maxwell, Collected Papersi H. A. Lorentz, Archives
NUrlandaises, xxi. 1887, and xxv. 1 89 2, and a tract, Versvch einer
Band v. 13, 14; O. Lodge, " On Aberration Problems," Phil. Trans.
1893 and 1897; J. Larmor, Phil. Trans. 1894-95-97, and a treatise.
Aether and Matter (1900), where full references are given. Of recent
years most treatises on physical optics, e.g. those of P. K. L. Drude.
A. Schuster, R. W. Wood, have been written largely on the basis of
the general physics of the aether; while the Collected Papers of
LordRavlcigh should be accessible to all who desire a first-hand know-
ledge of the development of the optical side of the subject. See
also Molecule, Electricity, Light and Radiation. (J. L.*)
AETHICUS (-Ethicus) ISTER, "the philosopher of Istria,"
the supposed but unknown author of a description of the world
written in Greek. An abridgment, under the title of Cosmo-
graphic Ethici, written in barbarous Latin, and wrongly described
as the work of St Jerome, probably belongs to the 7th century.
After a discussion of the creation of the world and a description
of the earth, an account of the wonderful journeys of Aethicus
is given, with digressions on various subjects, such as Alexander
the Great and the kings of Rome, full of obscure and fabulous
details.
The name Aethicus is also attached to another geographical
treatise probably dating from the 6th century, a reproduction,
298
AETIOLOGY— AETOLIA
with some unimportant additions, of the cosmography — little
else than a dry list of names — of Julius Honorius.
Editions.— D'Avexac (1852); Pert* (1853); Wuttke (1854);
Kiese's Ceotraphi Latini Minores (1878); see also Bunbury, Hist
of Ancient Geography.
AETIOLOGY, or Etiology (from Gr. alrla, cause, and
\<yyia, discourse), strictly, the science or philosophy of causation,
but generally used to denote the part of any special science (and
especially of that of medicine and disease) which investigates the
causes and origin of its phenomena. An aeliological myth is
one which is regarded as having been invented ex post fado to
eiplain some fact, name or coincidence, the true account or
origin of which has been forgotten. Such myths were often
based on grotesque philological analogies, according to which
an existing connexion between two personalities (cities, &c.)
was traced back to a common mythical origin. For a good
example of the evolution of such myths, see the argument under
Aecina, History,
ACTION, or Eetion, a Greek painter, mentioned by Cicero,
Pliny and Ludan. His most noted work, described in detail
by Ludan (Herodotus or Eetion, 5), was a picture representing
the marriage of Alexander and Roxana. He is said to have
exhibited it at the Olympic games, and by it so to have won
the favour of the president that he gave him his daughter in
marriage. Through a misunderstanding of the words of Ludan,
Aetion has been supposed to belong to the age of the Antonines;
but there can be little doubt that he was. a contemporary of
Alexander and of Apelles (Brunn, Gesckickte der griedriscken
KUnstter, ii. p. 243). Pliny gives his date as 3 so B.C.
ABTIUS (fl. 350), surnamed " the Atheist," founder of an
extreme sect of Arians, was a native of Coele-Syria. After
working as a vine-dresser and then as a goldsmith he became a
travelling doctor, and displayed great skill in disputations on
medical subjects; but his controversial power soon found a
wider field for itsVcxerdse in the great theological question of
the time. He studied successively under the Arians, Paulinus,
bishop of Antioch, Athanasius, bishop of Anazarbus, and the
presbyter Antonius of Tarsus. In 3 50 he was ordained a deacon
by Leontius of Antioch, but was shortly afterwards forced by
the orthodox party to leave that town. At the first synod of
Sirmium he won a dialectic victory over the homoiousian bishops,
Basilius and Eustathius, who sought in consequence to stir up
against him the enmity of Caesar Gallus. In 356 he went to
Alexandria with Eunomius (q.v.) in order to advocate Arianism,
but he was banished by Constantius. Julian recalled him from
exile, bestowed upon him an estate in Lesbos, and retained him
for a time at his court in Constantinople. Being consecrated
a bishop, he used his office in the interests of Arianism by creating
other bishops of that party. At the accession of Valens (364)
he retired to his estate at Lesbos, but soon returned to Constanti-
nople, where he died in 367. The Anomoean sect of the Arians,
of whom he was the leader, are sometimes called after him
Actions. His work De Fide has been preserved in connexion
with a refutation written by Epiphanius (Haer. lxxvi. 10). Its
main thought is that the Homousia, i.e. the doctrine that the
Son (therefore the Begotten) is essentially God, is self-con-
tradictory, since the idea of unbegottenness is just that which
constitutes the nature of God.
See A. Haraack, History of Dogma, vol. iv. passim.
AETIUS, a Greek physician, born at Amida in Mesopotamia,
flourished at the beginning of the 6th century a.d. He studied
at Alexandria, and became court physician at Byzantium and
comes obsequii, one of the chief officers of the imperial household.
He wrote a large medical work in sixteen books, founded on
Oribasius and compiled from various sources, especially Galen
(Galenos). Superstition and mystidsm play a great part in
his remedies. Eight books of the Greek original were printed
at Venice, 1534, and a complete Latin translation by Comariua
appeared at Basel, 1542.
See Weigel, AeHanarumexercitationum specimen (1701) : Daaelius,
Beitrag war Augenkeilkunde des Aetius (1880); Zernoa, Aetii sermo
sextideeimms et ulhmns, editio princeps (ioo0>
ABTIUS (d. 454), a Roman general of the dosing period of the
Western empire, born at Dorostolus in Moesia, late in the 4th
century. He was the son of Gaudentius, who, although possibly
of barbarian family, rose in the service of the Western empire to
be master of the horse, and later count of Africa. Aetius passed
some years as hostage, first with Alaric and the Goths, and later
in the camp of Rhuas, king of the Huns, acquiring in this way the
knowledge which enabled him afterwards to defeat them. In 424
he led into Italy an army of 60,000 barbarians, mostly Huns,
which he employed first to support the primicerius Joannes, who
had proclaimed himself emperor, and, on the defeat of the latter,
to enforce his claim to the supreme command of the army in Gaul
upon Placidia, the empress-mother and regent for Valentinian III.
His calumnies against his rival, Count Boniface, which were at
first believed by the emperor, led Boniface to revolt and call the
Vandals to Africa. Upon the discovery of the truth, Boniface,
although defeated in Africa, was received into favour by Valen-
tinian; but Aetius came down against Boniface from his Gallic
wars, like another Julius Caesar, and in the battle which followed
wounded Boniface fatally with his own javelin. From 433 to 450
Aetius was the dominating personality in the Western empire.
In Gaul he won his military reputation, upholding for nearly
twenty years, by combined policy and daring, the falling fortunes
of the empire. His greatest victory was that of Chftlons-sur-
Marne (September 20, 451), in which be led the Gallic forces
against Attila and the Huns. This was the last triumph of the
empire. Three years later (454) Aetius presented himself at
court to claim the emperor's daughter in marriage for his son
Gaudentius; but Valentinian, suspecting him of designs upon the
crown, slew him with his own hand.
See T. Hodgkin, Italy and her Invaders, vols. i. and it (1880).
AETOLIA, a district of northern Greece, bounded on the S.
by the Corinthian Gulf, on the W. by the river Achelous, on the
N. and E. by the western spurs of Parnassus and Oeta. The
land naturally falls into two divisions. The basins of the lower
Achelous (mod. Aspropolamo) and Euenus (Phidharis) form a
series of alluvial valleys intersected by detached ridges which
mostly run parallel to the coast. This district of " Old Aetolia "
lacks a suitable sea-board, but the inland, and especially the plain
of central Aetolia lying to the north of Lakes Hyria and Trichonis
and Mount Aracynthus, forms a rich agricultural country. The
northern and eastern regions are broken by an extensive complex
of chains and peaks, whose rugged limestone flanks are dad at
most with stunted shrubs and barely leave room for a few pre-
carious mule-tracks. These heights often rise in the frontier-
ranges of Tymphrestua, Oxia and Corax to more than 7000 ft.;
the snow-capped pinnacle of Kiona attains to 8240 ft. A few
defiles pass through this barrier to the other side of the north
Greek watershed.
In early legend Old Aetolia, with its dries of Pleuron and
Calydon, figures prominently. During the great migrations (see
Dorians) the population was largely displaced, and the old
inhabitants long remained in a backward condition. In the 5th
century some tribes were still living in open villages under petty
kings, addicted to plunder and piracy, and hardly recognized
as Hellenes at all. Yet their military strength was not to be
despised: in 426 their archers and slingers easily repelled an
Athenian invasion under Demosthenes. In the 4th century the
Aetolians began to take a greater part in Greek politics, and, in
return for helpingEpaminondas (367)and Philip of Macedon (338),
recovered control of their sea-board, to which they annexed the
Acarnanian coast and the Oeniadae. Aetolia's prosperity dates
from the period of Macedonian supremacy. It may be ascribed
partly to the wealth and influence acquired by Aetolian mer-
cenaries in Hellenistic courts, but chiefly to the formation of a
national Aetolian league, the first effective institution of this
kind in Greece. Created originally to meet the peril of an in-
vasion by the Macedonian regents Antipater and Craterus, who
had undertaken a punitive expedition against Aetolia after the
Lamian War (322), and by Cassander (3x4-311), the confederacy
grew rapidly during the subsequent period of Macedonian wea>-
ts. Since 290 it had extended its power over all the uplands d
AFARS— AFFECTION
299
cental Greece, where itacommand over Heracleia (280) provided
it with an important defensive position against northern invaders,
its control of Delphi and the Amphictyonk council with a useful
political instrument. The valour of the Aetolians was con-
spicuously displayed in 979, when they broke the strength of the
Otitic inuptfcm by slaughtering great hordes of marauders. The
commemorative festival of the Soteria, which the league estab-
lished at Delphi, obtained recognition from many leading Greek
states. After annexing Boeotia (by 24s) the Aetolians controlled
all central Greece. Endeavouring next to expand into Pelopon-
nesus, they allied themselves with Antigonus Gonatas of Mace-
donia against the Achaean league (?.*.), and besides becoming
protectors of Elis and Messenia won several Arcadian cities.
Their naval power extended to Cephalonia, to the Aegaean
islands and even to the Hellespont. The league at itssenith had
thus a truly imperial status.
Later in the century its power began to be sapped by Mace-
donia. To check King Demetrius (230-339) the Aetolians joined
arms with the Achaeans. In 224 they held Heracleia Trachis
against Antigonus Doson, but lost control of Boeotia and Phocia.
Since 228 their Arcadian possessions had been abandoned to
Sparta. At the same time a new enemy arose in the IOyrian
pirate fleets, winch outdid them in untcrupulousness and violence.
The raids of two Aetohan chiefs in Achaean territory (220) led to
a coalition be t ween Achaea and Philip V. of Macedon, who
assailed the invaders with great energy, driving them out of
Peloponnesus and marching into Aetolia itself, where he surprised
and sacked the federal capital Thermon. After buying peace by
the cession of Acarnania (217) the league concluded a compact
with Rome, in which both states agreed to plunder ruthlessly
their common enemies (211). In the great war of their Roman
allies against Philip the federal troops took a prominent part,
their cavalry being largely responsible for the victory of Cynos-
cenhalac (197). The Romans in return restored central Greece
to the league, but by withholding its former Thessalian posses-
sions excited its deep resentment. The Aetolians now invited
Antwchus IIL of Syria to European Greece, and so precipitated
a conflict with Rome. But in the war they threw away their
chances. In 192 they wasted, themselves in an unsuccessful
attempt to secure Sparta. In 191 they supported Antiochus
badly, and by their tlsfknm in the defence of Thermopylae
made his position in Greece untenable. Having thus isolated
themselves the Aetolians stood at bay behind their walls against
the Romans, who refused all compromises, and, after the general
smi cnd cf in 180, restricted the league to Aetolia proper and
stswmcd control over its foreign relations. In 167 the country
suffered s ev erely from the intrigues of a phuo-Roman party,
which caused a series of judicial murders and the deportation of
many patriots to Italy. By the time of Sulla, when the league
is mentioned for the last time, its functions were purely nominal
The federal constitution closely resembled that of the Achaean
league (f.v.), for which ft doubtless served as a model The
general assembly, convoked every autumn at Thermon to elect
officials, and at other places 4n special emergencies, shaped the
league's general policy; it was nominally open to all freemen,
though no doubt the Aetohan chieftains really controlled it.
The council of deputies from the confederate cities undertook
the routine of administration and jurisdiction. The stratepts
(general), aided by 30 apocUti (ministers), had complete control
m the field and presided over the assembly, though with restricted
advisory powers. The Aetolians also used the Amphictyonk
synod for passing solemn enactments. The league's relation to
outlying dependencies is obscure; many of these were probably
mere protectorates or " allied states " and secured no representa-
tion. The federal executive was certainly much more efficient
than that of the Achaeans. and its councils suffered less from
disunion; but its generals and admirals, official or otherwise,
enjoyed undue licence; hence the league deservedly gained an
evfl name for the numerous acts of lawlessness or violence which
its troops committed. But as a champion of republican Greece
against foreign enemies no other power of the age rendered equal
After the first overthrow of the Byzantine empire
Aetolia* passed to a branch of the' old imperial house (1205).
In the 15th century it was held by Scanderbeg (q.v.) and by
the Venetians, but Mahommed II. brought it definitely under
Turkish rule. In the War of Independence the Aetolians by
their stubborn defence, culminating in the sieges of Missolonghi
(q.v.), formed the backbone of the rebellion. Northern Aetolia
remains a desolate region, inhabited mainly by Vlach shep-
herds. The south-western plain, though rendered unhealthy by
lagoons, and central Aetolia yield good crops of currants, vine,
maize and tobacco, which are conveyed by railway from Agrinion
and Anatolikon to the coast. The country, which forms part of
the modern department of Acarnania and Aetolia, contains
numerous fragments of ancient fortifications. It has contributed
a notable proportion of distinguished men to modern Greece.
Authorities,— Strabo pp. 450 •Q/M Thucydides til 04-98;
Diodorut xviii. 34. 5; Pausanias x. 20 so,.; Polybius and Livy
passim; W. J. Woodhouae. Attclia (Oxford, 1807); M. Dubois,
Us Lupus ackhnne et Hdientu (Paris. 1885); E. A. Freeman.
Fed*rafG<mrnmtfU (ed. 1893, London), ch. vi. : B. V. Head. Historic
Numorum (Oxford, 1887), pp. 283-284; M. Holleaux in BulUtin de
Corrtspondancs HeUtmiqm (1905. pp. 362-372); G. Sotiriadet in
'Btowgs 'AmoioXfyut. (I9«>) pp. 163-212, (1903) pp. 73.94, and
in Bulletin de CorresPondauc* HeUtmque (1907), pp. 139-184;
C. Salvetti in Stud* d* Stcria Ante*, vol U. (Rome, 1803), pp.
270-320. (M. O. B. C.)
AFARS (Danaul), a tribe of African "Arabs" of Hamitic
stock. They occupy the arid coast-lands between Abyssinia
and the sea. They claim to be Arabs, but are more akin to the
Galla and Soman'. The tribe is roughly divisible into a pastoral
and a coast-dwelling group. Their religion is chiefly fetich
and tree-worship; many, nominally, profess Mahommedanism.
They are distinguished by narrow straight noses, thin lips and
small pointed chins; their cheekbones are not prominent.
They are more scantily clothed than the Abyssinians or Galla,
wearing, generally, nothing but a waist-doth. Their women,
when quite young, are pretty and graceful Their huts are often
tastefully decorated, the floors being spread with yellow mats,
embroidered with red and violet designs. The Afars are divided
into many sub-tribes, each having an hereditary sultan, whose
power is, however, limited. They are desperate fighters and in
1875 successfully resisted an attempt to bring them under
Egyptian rule. In 1883-1888, however, their most important
sultan concluded treaties placing his country under Italian
protection. The Afar region is now partly under Abyssinian
and partly under Italian authority. The Afars are also found in
considerable numbers in French Somahland. They have a
saying " Guns are only useful to frighten cowards." They were
formerly redoubtable pirates, but the descendants of these
corsairs are now fishermen, and are the only sailors in the Red
Sea who hunt the dugong.
See Fr. Scazamiicci and E. H. Giglioli. Notixu sui Danakil (1884) ;
P. Paulitschke, Etknorraphi* Nordost-AJrihas (2 vols.. Berlin, 1893-
1896), and Die teorrapkiuke Erj 'orschumg der Addl-Ldnder und Harare
in Ost-Afriko (Lefpztg, 1884).
AFER, D0MITH7S, a Roman orator and advocate, born at
Nemausus (Nlmes) In Gallia Narbonensis, nourished in the
reigns of Tiberius, Caligula, Claudius and Nero. His pupil
Quintilian calls him the greatest orator he had ever known;
but he disgraced his talents by acting as public informer against
some of the most distinguished personages in Rome. He
gained the favour of Tiberius by accusing Claudia Pulcra, the
widow of Germanicus, of adultery and the use of magic arts
against the emperor. Judicious flattery secured him the consul-
ship under Caligula (39) ; and under Nero he was superintendent
of the water supply. He died a.d. 60, according to Jerome, of
over-eating. Quintilian quotes some of his witty sayings (dicta),
collections of which were published, and mentions two books by
him On Witnesses.
Quintilian, Instil, vi. 3. 43, viii. J. 16, x. I. 118, Ac; Tac Ann
iv. 52; Dio Cassius lix. 19, lx. 33; Pliny, Epp. viil 18.
AFFECTION (Lat. ad, and facere, to do something to, sc. a
person), literally, a mental state resulting generally from an
external influence. It b popularly used of a (elation between
persons amounting to more than goodwill or friendship. By
ethical writers the word has been used generally of distinct
3oo
AFFIDAVIT— AFFILIATION
states of feeling, both lasting and spasmodic; some contrast it
with " passion " as being free from the distinctively sensual
element. More specifically the word has been restricted to
emotional states which are in relation to persons. In the former
sense, it is the Gr. to0oc, and as such it appears in Descartes
and most of the early British ethical writers. On various
grounds, however — e.g. that it does not involve anxiety or excite-
ment, that it is comparatively inert and compatible with the
entire absence of the sensuous element— it is generally and use-
fully distinguished from passion. In this narrower sense the
word has played a great part in ethical systems, which have
spoken of the social or parental " affections " as in some sense
a part of moral obligation. For a consideration of these and
similar problems, which depend ultimately on the degree in
which the affections are fegarded as voluntary, see H. Sidgwick,
Methods of Ethics, pp. 345-340.
In psychology the terms " affection " and " affective " are
of great importance. As all intellectual phenomena have by
experimentalists been reduced to sensation, so all emotion has
been and is regarded as reducible to simple mental affection,
the element of which all emotional manifestations are ultimately
composed. The nature of this element is a problem which has
been provisionally, but not conclusively, solved by many
psychologists; the method is necessarily experimental, and all
experiments on feeling are peculiarly difficult. The solutions
proposed are two. In the first, all affection phenomena are
primarily divisible into those which are pleasurable and those
which are the reverse. The main objections to this are that it
does not explain the infinite variety of phenomena,~and that
it disregards the distinction which most philosophers admit
between higher and lower pleasures. The second solution is
that every sensation has its specific affective quality, though by
reason of the poverty of language many of these have no name.
W. Wundt, Outlines of Psychology (trans. C. H. Judd, Leipzig,
1897), maintains that we may group under three main affective
directions, each with its negative, all the infinite varieties in
question; these are (a) pleasure, or rather pleasantness, and the
reverse, (b) tension and relaxation, (c) excitement and depres-
sion. These two views are antithetic and no solution has been
discovered.
Two obvious methods of experiment have been tried. The
first, introduced by A. Mosso, the Italian psychologist, consists
in recording the physical phenomena which are observed to
accompany modifications of the affective consciousness. Thus
it is found that the action of the heart is accelerated by pleasant,
and retarded by unpleasant, stimuli; again, changes of weight
and volume are found to accompany modifications of affection —
and so on. Apart altogether from the facts that this investigation
is still in its infancy and that the conditions of experiment are
insufficiently understood, its ultimate success is rendered highly
problematical by the essential fact that real scientific results
can be achieved only by data recorded in connexion with a
perfectly normal subject; a conscious or interested subject
introduces variable factors which are probably incalculable.
The second is Fechner's method; it consists of recording the
changes in feeling-tone produced in a subject by bringing him
in contact with a series of conditions, objects or stimuli graduated
according to a scientific plan and presented singly in pairs or in
groups. The result is a comparative table of likes and dislikes.
Mention should also be made of a third method which has
hardly yet been tried, namely, that of endeavouring to isolate
one of the three " directions " by the method of suggestion or
even hypnotic trance observations.
For the subject of emotion in general see modern text-books of
psychology, e.g. those of J. Sully, W. James, G. T. Fechner, O.
Kulpe; Angclo Mosso, La Paura (Milan, 1884, 1900; Eng. trans.
E. Lough and F. Kiesow, Lond. 1896); E. B. Titchener, Experi-
mental Psychology (1905) ; art. Psychology and works there quoted.
AFFIDAVIT (Med. Lat. for " he has declared upon oath,"
from affidare, fides, faith), a written statement sworn or affirmed
to before some person who has authority to administer an oath
or affirmation. Evidence is chiefly taken by means of affidavits
in the Chancery Division of the High Court of Justice in England
on a petition, summons or motion. Interlocutory proceedings
before trial are conducted by affidavits, e.g. for discovery of
documents, hence called affidavit of documents. Affidavits are
sometimes necessary as certificates that certain formalities have
been duly and legally performed (such as service of proceed-
ings, &c). They are extensively used in bankruptcy practice,
in the administration of the revenue and in the inferior and
county courts. In testamentary causes, all documents of any
kind, such as wills, codicils, drafts or instructions of same must
be filed in the form of affidavits (termed affidavits of scripts).
In Scotland the testimony of witnesses by affidavit is almost
unknown, except in a few non-contentious cases as prima facie
evidence. In the rules of the Supreme Court (R-S.C. Ord.
XXXVIII.) certain formal requirements are laid down for aU
affidavits and affirmations in causes or matters depending in
the High Court. An affidavit must consist of title, body or
statement and jurat. It must be written or printed on foolscap,
book wise, in the first person; give correctly the names of the
parties to the action; and the description and true place of
abode of the deponent. An affidavit is confined, except on
interlocutory motions, to such facts as the witness is able of
his own knowledge to prove. The signature of the deponent
must be written opposite to the jurat, which must contain the
place, date and time of swearing, and this signed by the officer
or magistrate before whom the affidavit is sworn. An affidavit
sworn on a Sunday is not invalid. Quakers, Moravians and
Separatists were first privileged to make a solemn declaration
or affirmation, and by the Common Law Procedure Act 1852
and other statutes all persons prevented by religious belief from
taking an oath were allowed to affirm; and, finally, by the Oaths
Act 1888, every person who objects to be sworn is allowed to
affirm in all places and for all purposes where an oath is required
by law. By an act of 1835 justices are permitted to take affi-
davits in any matter by declaration, and a person making a
false affidavit in this way is liable to punishment. The same
act prohibited justices of peace from administering oaths in any
matter in which they had not jurisdiction as judges, except when
an oath was specially authorized by statute, as in the bankruptcy
law, and excepting criminal inquiries, parliamentary proceedings
and instances where oaths are required to give validity to docu-
ments abroad. Scottish justices can act in England and vice
versa. The Oaths Act 1888 and the Commissioner of Oaths
Act 1889 consolidated all previous enactments relating to oaths
and gave the lord chancellor power to appoint commissioners
for oaths to take affidavits for all purposes (see Oath). Under
the Debtors Act 1869 a plaintiff may file an affidavit for the
arrest of a debtor (affidavit to hold to bail) when the debt
amounts to £50 or upwards, where it can be shown that the
debtor's absence from the kingdom would materially prejudice
the prosecution of the action.
Affidavits may be made abroad before any British ambassador,
envoy, minister, chargi d'affaires, secretary of embassy or lega-
tion, consul or consular agent.
In the United States affidavit has the same meaning as in
England and its general uses are the same, but it is not sub-
stituted for oral evidence in court to anything like the extent
to which that is done in the English courts of chancery. The
statutes of each state designate the persons before whom affi-
davits may be made outside the state, and special commissioners
are appointed for that purpose by each state. Affidavits made
abroad must be made before such commissioners or persons
so designated, who are usually diplomatic and consular officials,
justices, notaries public or mayors. " Affidavit of documents "
is not generally used in the United States; discovery is procured
by motion.
AFFILIATION (from Lat. ad-filiare, to adopt as a son),
In law, the procedure by which the paternity of a bastard child
is determined, and the obligation of contributing 'to its support
enforced. In England a number of statutes on the subject
have been passed, the chief being the Bastardy Act of 1845,
and the Bastardy Laws Amendment Acts of 187s and 1873.
The mother of a bastard may summon the putative father to
AFFINITY— AFFRE
301
petty teutons within twelve months of the birth (or at any later
time if he is proved to have contributed to the child's support
within twelve months after the birth), and the justices, after
bearing evidence on both sides, may, if the mother's evidence
be corroborated in some material particular, adjudge the man
to be the putative father of the child, and order him to pay a
sum not exceeding five shillings a week for its maintenance,
together with a sum for expenses incidental to the birth, or the
funeral expenses, if it has died before the date of order, and the
costs of the proceedings- An order ceases to be valid after the
child reaches the age of thirteen, but the justices may in the
order direct the payments to be continued until the child is
sixteen years of age. An appeal to quarter sessions is open to
the defendant, and a further appeal on questions of law to the
King's Bench by rule nisi or certiorari. Should the child after-
wards become chargeable to the parish, tbe sum due by the father
may be received by the parish officer. When a bastard child,
whose mother has not obtained an order, becomes chargeable
to the parish, tbe guardians may proceed against the putative
lather for a contribution. Any woman who is single, a widow,
or a married woman living apart from her husband, may make
an application for a summons, and it is immaterial where the
child is begotten, provided it is born in England. An application
for a summons may be made before the birth of the child, but
in this case the statement of the mother must be in the form of
a sworn deposition. The defendant must be over fourteen years
of age. No agreement on the part of the woman to take a sum
down in discharge of the liability of the father Is a bar to the
making of an affiliation order. In the case of twins it is usual
to make separate applications and obtain separate summonses.
The Summary Jurisdiction Act 1879 makes due provision for
the enforcement of an order of affiliation. In the case of soldiers
an affiliation order cannot be enforced in the usual way, but by
the Army Act 1881, if an order has been made against a soldier
of the regular forces, and a copy of such order be sent to the
secretary of state, he may -order a portion of the soldier's pay
to be retained. There is no such special legislation with regard
to sailors in the royal navy.
In the British colonies, and in the states of the United States
(with the exception of California, Idaho, • Missouri, Oregon,
Texas and Utah), there is some procedure (usually termed
filiation) akin to that described above, by means of which a
mother can obtain a contribution to the support of her illegitimate
chfld from the putative father. The amount ordered to be paid
may subsequently be increased or diminished (1005; 04 N.Y.
Supplt. 373). On the continent of Europe, however, the legis-
lation of the various countries differs rather widely. France,
Belgium, Holland, Italy, Russia, Servia and the canton of
Geneva provide no means of inquiry into the paternity of an
illegitimate child, and consequently all support of the child falls
upon the mother; on tbe other hand, Germany, Austria, Norway,
Sweden, Denmark and tbe majority of the Swiss cantons pro-
vide for an inquiry into the paternity of illegitimate children,
and the law casts a certain amount of responsibility upon the
Affiliation, in France, is a term applied to a species of adoption
by which the person adopted succeeds equally with other heirs
to the acquired, but not to the inherited, property of the dftmsfd,
(See Adoption. Also Bastard; Pooa Laws.)
AuTHoaiTias.— Saunders, Law and Practice of Orders of Affilia-
tion; Lushington, Law of Affiliation and Bastardy; Little, Poor
U m J^ UU ' (T ' K l)
AFFINITY (Lat affinitas, relationship by marriage, from
affinis, bordering on, related to; finis, border, boundary), in law,
as distinguished from consanguinity (q.v.), the term applied to
the relation which each party to a marriage, the husband and
wife, bears to the kindred of the other. Affinity is usually de-
scribed as of three kinds. (1) Direcl: that relationship which
subsists between tbe husband and his wife's relations by blood or
between the wife and the husband's relations by blood. Tbe
marriage having made them one person, the blood relations of each
are held as related by affinity in the same degree to the one spouse
as by consanguinity to the other But the relation is only with
the married parties themselves, and docs not bring those in
affinity with them in affinity with each other, so a wife's sister
has no affinity to her husband's brother. This is (2) Secondary
affinity. (3) Collateral affinity is the relationship subsisting
between the husband and the relations of his wife's relations.
The subject is chiefly important from the matrimonial prohibi-
tions by which the canon law has restricted relations by affinity.
Taking the table of degrees within which marriage is prohibited
on account of consanguinity, the rule has been thus extended
to affinity, so that wherever relationship to a man himself would
be a bar to marriage, relationship to his deceased wife will be
the same bar, and vice versa on the husband's decease.
Briefly, direct affinity is a bar to marriage. This rule has been
founded chiefly on interpretations of the eighteenth chapter of
Leviticus. Formerly by law in England, marriages within the
degrees of affinity were not absolutely null, but they were liable
to be annulled by ecclesiastical process during the lives of both
parties; in other words, the incapacity was only a canonical,
not a civil, disability. By the Marriage Act 1835 &U marriages
of this kind not disputed before the passing of the act were
declared absolutely valid, while all subsequent to it were declared
null. This rendered null in England, and not merely voidable, a
marriage with a deceased wife's sister or niece. (See Consan-
guinity; Marmace.)
AFFINITY, CHEMICAL, the property or relation in virtue of
which dissimilar substances are capable of entering into chemi-
cal combination with each other. (See Chemistry; Chemical
Action; Valency.)
AFFIRMATION (from Lat affirmare, to assert), the declara-
tion that something is true; in logic, a positive judgment, the
union of the subject and predicate of a proposition; particularly,
in law, the solemn declaration allowed to those who conscien-
tiously object to taking an oath. (See Oath.)
AFFRAY, in law, the fighting of two or more persons in a
public place to the terror (d /' ejfroi ) of the lieges. The offence is
a misdemeanour at English common law, punishable by fine and
imprisonment A fight in private is an assault and battery, not
an affray. As those engaged in an affray render themselves also
liable to prosecution for Assault (q.v.), Unlawful Assembly (see
Assembly, Unlawful), or Riot (q.v.), it is for one of these
offences that they are usually charged. Any private person may,
and constables and justices must, interfere to put a stop to an
affray. In the United States the English common law as to
affray applies, subject to certain modifications by the statutes
of particular states (Bishop, Amer. Crim. Law, 8th ed., 1803,
vol L § 535). The Indian Penal Code (sect 159) adopts the
English definition of affray, with the substitution of " actual
disturbance of the peace " for " causing terror to the lieges."
The Queensland Criminal Code of 1899 (sect 72) defines affray
as taking part in a fight in a public highway or taking part in a
fight of such a nature as to alarm the public in any other place
to which the public have access. This definition is taken from
that in the English Criminal Code Bill of x88o, cL 96. Under the
Roman Dutch law in force in South Africa affray falls within the
definition of vis publico.
AFFRE, DENIS AUGUSTS (1793-1848), archbishop of Paris,
was born at St Rome, in the department of Tarn, on the 27th
of September 1793. He was educated for the priesthood at St
Sulpice, where in 18 18 he became professor of dogmatic theology.
After filling a number of ecclesiastical offices, he was elevated to
the archbishopric of Paris in 1840. Though opposed to the
government of Louis Philippe, he took no part in politics, but
devoted himself to his pastoral work. His episcopate, however,
is chiefly remembered owing to its tragic dose. During the
insurrection of June 1848 the archbishop was led to believe that
by his personal interference peace might be restored between
the soldiery and the insurgents. Accordingly, in spite of the
warning of General Cavaignac, he mounted the barricade at the
entrance to the Faubourg St Antoine, bearing a green branch
as sign of peace. He had spoken only a few words, however,
when the insurgents, hearing some shots, and fancying they
J02
AFFREIGHTMENT
were betrayed, opened fire upon the national guard, and the
archbishop fell, struck by a stray bullet. He was removed to
his palace, where he died on the 27th of June 1848. Next day
the National Assembly issued a decree expressing their great
sorrow on account of his death, and the public funeral on the
7th of July was one of the most striking spectacles of its kind.
The archbishop wrote several treatises of considerable value,
including an Essai sur Us kUroglypkes egypttens (Paris, 1834).
in which he showed that ChampoUioo's system was insufficient
to explain the hieroglyphics.
See Ricard. Us grands Maues it Figlise it France au XIXt
siicU (Lille, 1893); L. Alazard, Denis- Augusts Affre, archevtqut it
Paris (Paris, 1905).
AFFREIGHTMENT (from "freight," q.t.). Centred of
Affreightment is the expression usually employed to describe
the contract between a shipowner and some other person
called the freighter, by which the shipowner agrees to carry goods
of the freighter in his ship, or to give to the freighter the use of
the whole or part of the cargo-carrying space of the ship for the
carriage of his goods on a specified voyage or voyages or for a
specified time; the freighter on his part agreeing to pay a
specified price, called " freight," for the carriage of the goods
or the use of the ship. A ship may be let Hke a house to some
person who takes possession and control of it for a specified
term. The person who hires a ship in this way occupies during
the currency of his term the position of shipowner. The contract
by which a ship is so let may be called a charter-party; but it
is not, properly speaking, a contract of affreightment, and is
mentioned here only because it is necessary to remember the
distinction between a charter-party of this kind, which is some-
times called a demise of the ship, and a charter-party which is a
form of contract of affreightment, as will hereinafter appear.
The law with regard to the contract of affreightment is, of
course, a branch of the general law of contract The rights and
obligations of the shipowner and the freighter depend, as in the
case of all parties to contracts, upon the terms of the agreement
entered into between them. The law, however, interferes to
some extent in regulating the effect to be given to contracts.
Certain contracts are forbidden by the law, and being illegal are,
therefore, incapable of enforcement. The most important
example of illegality in the case of contracts of affreightment is
when the contract involves trading with an enemy. The law
interferes again with regard to the interpretation of the contract.
The meaning to be given to the words of the contract, or, in
other words, its construction, when a dispute arises about it,
must -be determined by the judge or court. The result is, that
certain more or less common clauses in contracts of affreightment
have come before the courts for construction, and the decisions
in these cases are treated practically, though not perhaps quite
logically, as rules of law determining the sense to be put upon
certain forms of expression in common use in shipping contracts.
A third way in which the law interferes is by laying down certain
rules by which the rights of the parties are to be regulated in the
absence of any express stipulation with regard to the matter
dealt with by such rules. This is done cither by statutory
enactment, as by that part (Part VIII.) of the Merchant Shipping
Act 1804 which deals with the liability of shipowners; or by
established rules of the unwritten law, the "common law"
as it is called, as, for instance, the rule that the common
SfSw. carrier is absolutely responsible for the safe delivery of
the goods carried, unless it is prevented by the act of
God or the king's enemies. These rules of law, whether common
law or statute law, regulating the obligations of carriers of goods
by sea, are of most importance in cases which are uncommon
though not unknown at the present day, in which there is an
affreightment without any written agreement of any kind. It
will, therefore, be convenient to consider first cases of this kind
where there is no express agreement, oral or written, except as
to the freight and destination of the goods, and where, conse-
quently, the rights and obligations of the parties as to all other
terms of carriage depend wholly upon the rules of law, remember-
ing always that these same rules apply when there is a written
contract, except in so far as they are qualified or negatived by
the terms of such contract.
The rules of the common or ancient customary law of England
with regard to the carriage of goods were no doubt first considered
by the courts and established with regard to the carriage of
goods by common carriers on land. These rules were applied to
common carriers by water, and it may now be taken to be the
-general rule that shipowners who carry goods by sea are by the
English law subject to the liabilities of common carriers. (See,
as to the grounds and precise extent of this doctrine, the judg-
ments in Liver Alkali Company v. Johnson (1874), L.R., o Ex.
338, and Nugent v. Smith (1876) 1 C.P.D. 4*3-) In practice
goods are not often shipped without a written contract or
acknowledgment of the terms upon which they are to be carried.
For each separate consignment or parcel of goods shipped a
bill of lading is almost invariably given, and when a whole cargo
is agreed to be carried the terms are set out in a document called
a charter-party, signed by or on behalf of the shipowner on the
one part, and the shipper, who is called the charterer, on the
other part But at present we are considering the relations of
shipowner and shipper independently of any express contract,
as in a case when goods are shipped and received to be carried
to the place to which the ship is bound for a certain freight, but
without any further agreement as to the terms of carriage. In
such a case the rights of the parties depend on the rules of law,
or, which is much the same thing, upon the warranties Aih—
or promises which though not expressed must, as the JJmJJwL
courts have held, be implied as arising from the relation e—trwa.
between the parties as shipper and carrier. The obli-
gations on the one side and the other may be defined shortly to
be as follows: — The shipper must not ship goods of a nature or
in a condition which he knows, or ought, if he used reasonable
care, to know to be dangerous to the ship, or to other goods,
unless the shipowner has notice of or has sufficient opportunity
to observe their dangerous character. The shipper must be
prepared, without notice from the ihipowner, to take delivery
of his goods with reasonable despatch on the arrival of the ship
at the place of destination, being reaMy there to discharge in
some usual discharging place. The shipper m ust pay the agreed
freight, and will not be entitled to claim delivery until the freight
has been paid. In other words, the shipowner has a lien on the
goods carried for the freight payable in respect of the carriage.
On the other hand, the obligation upon the shipowner is first
and foremost to deliver safely at their destination the goods
shipped, and this obligation is, by the common law, subject to
this exception only that the shipowner is not liable for loss or
damage caused by the act of God or the king's enemies; but by
statute (Merchant Shipping Act 1804, Part VIII.) it is further
qualified to this extent that the shipowner is not liable for loss,
happening without his actual fault or privity, by fire on board
the ship, or by the robbery or embezzlement of or making away
with gold or silver or jewellery, the true nature and value of
which have not been declared in writing at the time of shipment;
and, further, the shipowner is not liable for damage to or loss of
goods or merchandise beyond an aggregate amount, not exceeding
eight pounds per ton for each ton of the ship's tonnage. The
shipowner is bound by an implied undertaking, or, in other
words, is made responsible by the law as if he had entered into
an express undertaking: (1) that the ship is seaworthy; (a) that
she shall proceed upon the voyage with reasonable despatch, and
shall not deviate without necessity from the usual course of the
voyage.
It is not our purpose in this article to discuss minute or
doubtful questions; but in their general outline the obligations
of shipper and shipowner, where no terms of carriage have been
agreed, except as to the freight and destination of the goods,
are such as have been described above. The importance of
appreciating dearly this view of the relations of shipper and
shipowner arises from the fact that these fundamental rules
apply to all contracts of affreightment, whether by bill of lading,
charter-party or otherwise, except in so far as they are modified
or negatived by the express terms of the contract
AFFREIGHTMENT
303
BUls of Lading.
The document signed by the master or agent for the ship-
owner, by which are acknowledged the shipment of a parcel of
goods and the terms upon which it is to be carried, is called a
BOI of Lading. Very many different forms of bills of lading are
used. For the purpose of illustration the following form (from
Mr Sainton's book on Charter-parties and Bills of Lading) has
been selected as a sample:—
Shipped, in apparent good order and condition by in
and upon the good Vessel called the _ now lying in the port of
id for , with liberty to call at any ports in
any order, to sail without Pilots, and to tow and assist Vessels in dis-
tress, and to deviate for the purpose of saving life or property ;
and to be delivered in the like good order and condition at the afore-
said port of unto or to his or their assigns, freight
and all other conditions as per Charter Party. The act of God, perils
of the sea, bre, barratry of the Master and Crew, enemies, pirates,
and thieves, arrests, and restraints of princes, rulers, and people,
coQasiona, stranding, and other accidents of navigation excepted,
even when occasioned by negligence, default, or error in judgment
of the Pilot. Master. Mariners, or other servants of the Shipowners.
Ship not answerable for losses through explosion, bursting of
boners, breakage of shafts, or any latent defect in the machinery or
hull, not resulting from want of due diligence by the Owners of the
Ship, or any of them, or by the Ship's Husband or Manager.
General Average payable according to York-Antwerp Rules.
In Witness whereof, the Master or Agent of the said Ship hath
affirmed to three Bills of Lading, all of this tenor and date, drawn
as first, second and third, one of which Bills being accomplished, the
others to stand void.
Dated in thb day of 188.
The bill of lading is an acknowledgment of the shipment of
goods in a named vessel for carriage to a specified destination
00 terms set forth in the document. It is usually signed by the
master of the vessel, but very commonly by the agents of the
shipowner or sometimes of the charterers of the vessel. A vessel
may be employed by its owners to earn freight in various ways:
(1) It may be placed, as it is said, on the berth as a general ship,
to receive cargo from any shippers who may desire to send
goods to the port, or one of the ports, to which the vessel is
bound. The mate or chief officer usually superintends the load-
ing, and, as goods are shipped, a mate's receipt is given as an
acknowledgment of the shipment. The mate's receipt is after-
wards exchanged for the bill of lading. In the case of a shipment
by a general ship the bOl of lading is the evidence and memor-
andum of the contract between the shipowner and the shipper,
(a) A shipper may, however, require the whole cargo space of
the vessel to carry, for example, a full cargo of grain. In such a
case the vessel will be chartered by the shipowner to the shipper,
and the contract will be the charter-party. Even in such a case
a biD or bffls of lading will usually be given to enable the shipper
to deal more conveniently with the goods by way of sale or
otherwise, By the ancient custom of merchants recognized
and incorporated in the law, the bill of lading is a document of
title, representing the goods themselves, by the transfer of
which symbolical delivery of the goods may be made. But when
a cargo is shipped under a charter-party, although bills of lading
may be given to the charterer, it is the charter-party, and not
the bills of lading, which constitutes the record of the contract
betw e en the parties— of charter-parties we shall treat below (3)
There b a third class of case which is a combination of the two
with whkh we have dealt above. A vessel is very commonly
chartered by her owner to a charterer who has no intention to
ship and does not ship any cargo on his own account, but places
the vessel on the berth to receive cargo from shippers who ship
trader bills of lading. The charterer receives the bill of lading
freight and pays the charter-party freight, his object being of
course to obtain a total bill of lading freight in excess of the
chartered freight, and so make a profit The master, although
he usually remains the servant of the shipowner during the term
of the charter-party, acts nevertheless under the directions and
on behalf of the charterer in signing bills of lading. The legal
effect of this situation is that shippers who ship goods under bills
of lading without knowledge of the terms of the charter-party
are entitled to rook to the shipowner as the person responsible
to them for the safe carriage of their goods. This right depends
essentially on the fact that the master who signs' the bills of
lading, although in doing so he is acting for the charterer, remains
nevertheless the servant of the shipowner, who is not allowed
to deny as against third persons, who do not know the relations
between the charterer and the shipowner, that his servant, the
master of the ship, has the ordinary authority of a master to
bind his owner by signing bills of lading.
The forms of bills of lading vary very much, and their clauses
have been the subject of judicial consideration and decision in a
vast number of reported cases. The essential particulars, or at
all events those common to all bills of lading, may be stated as
follows:
x. The name of the shipper.
a. The name of the ship.
3. The place of loading and destination of the ship.
4. A description of the goods shipped.
5. The place of delivery.
6. The persons to whom delivery is to be made.
7. The freight to be paid.
8. The excepted perils.
9. The shipowner's lien.
The description of (1) the shipper and (a) the ship calls for no
remark. The (3) description of the voyage is important, because
there is, as we have already explained, an implied undertaking
by the shipowner in every contract of carriage not unnecessarily
to deviate from the ordinary route of the voyage upon which the
goods are received to be carried. The consequences of a deviation
are serious, inasmuch as the shipowner is liable, not only for any
loss or damage which the shipper suffers in consequence of the
deviation, but for any loss of goods which occurs after the devia-
tion, even though such loss is caused by one of the excepted
perils. The only exception to this rule is. that a deviation may
be made to save life, but not to save property. It is, however,
very usual to qualify the strictness of this implied undertaking
by introducing in the bill of lading certain " liberties " to deviate,
as, for example, in the form given above, " liberty to call at any
ports in any order, to tow and assist vessels in distress, and to
deviate for the purpose of saving life and property." The nature
and extent of the liberty will depend on the words of the contract.
The inclination of English courts has been to construe clauses
giving a liberty to deviate somewhat strictly against the ship-
owner.
The (4) importance of the description of the goods shipped
and their condition is obvious, as the contract is to deliver them
as described and in the like good condition, subject, of course,
to the exceptions. It must, moreover, be noted that, as against
the master or person who has himself signed the bill of lading,
the statement therein of the goods shipped is absolutely con-
clusive. But as against the shipowner, unless he has himself
signed the bill of lading, the statement of the goods snipped is
not conclusive. It is evidence as against him that the goods
described were shipped, but he is allowed to rebut this evidence
by proving, if he can, that the goods mentioned, or some of
them, were not in fact shipped.
As to (5) the place of delivery, very serious questions frequently
arise. Primarily, of course, the shipowner is Sound to deliver
at the place named. Should he be prevented by some obstacle
or difficulty which is of a temporary nature, the vessel must
wait, and delivery must be made as soon as possible. Where,
however, the obstacle is permanent, or at all events, such as
must cause unreasonable delay, having regard to the nature
of the adventure, the shipowner is excused from delivery at the
place named in the bill of lading, provided the difficulty arises
from an excepted peril, or in consequence of delivery at the place
named being forbidden by the law of England, as may happen,
for example, in the case of a declaration of war between Great
Britain and the state in which the port named in the bill of lading
is situate. A party to a contract cannot be held liable for break-
ing his contract if its performance has become illegal. There
may be other cases in which, from the circumstances of the
voyage and adventure, it must be inferred that the parties
intended the performance of the contract to be conditional on
3<H
AFFREIGHTMENT
the existence at the time of performance of a certain state of
things, the non-existence of which would render performance
impossible. For instance, if the port named in the bill of lading
became permanently closed and inaccessible to shipping in
consequence of an earthquake, it would probably be held that
the continued existence of the place named as a port was an
implied condition of the contract, and that the shipowner was
excused. Where, however, the performance of the contract
remains lawful, and is not excused by the express terms of the
contract, or by some implied condition, the shipowner is liable
for any loss or damage suffered by the shipper by reason of
his goods not being delivered at the named place, even though
such delivery has become impossible. There is another reason
why the precise description of the place of delivery often becomes
important. It is only on the arrival of the ship at the place
described as the place of delivery that the obligation of the
consignee of the goods to take delivery commences. Delay in-
volves considerable loss and expense to the shipowner. The
shipper or consignee is not responsible for any delay which
occurs before the ship has arrived at the place of delivery
described in the bill of lading.
(6) The goods may be deliverable by the terms of the bill of
lading to a named consignee, and to turn only, but more usually
they are made deliverable to the " order or assigns " of the
named consignee or of the shipper. If the goods are made
deliverable to order or assigns the bill of lading is a negotiable
instrument, or, in other words, the right to the goods, and the
rights and liabilities under the contract contained in the bill of
lading, may be transferred by indorsement and delivery of the
document When an indorsement has once been made by the
shipper or consignee writing his name and nothing more on the
back of the bill of lading, the rights in and under it may be trans-
ferred from hand to hand by mere delivery. A bill of lading so
indorsed is said to be indorsed " in blank." But the shipper or
consignee may restrict the negotiability of the bill of lading by
indorsing it not "in blank," but with a direction requiring
delivery to be made to a particular person or indorsee, or to his
order. This is called an indorsement " in full." When an in-
dorsement has been made " in full " to a named indorsee or order,
such indorsee must again indorse " in blank " or " in full " to
effect a new transfer of the rights in the bill of lading.
(7) The amount or rate of freight payable is stated in the bill
of lading, either expressly, or, not uncommonly when the freight
under the bill of lading is the same as under the charter-party,
by reference to the charter-party. A common form of such
reference is " freight and other conditions, as per charter-party."
It may here be mentioned that this form of words does not in-
corporate in the contract under the bill of lading all the terms
and conditions of the charter-party, but only those which apply
to the person who is to take delivery, and relate to matters
ejusdem generis, or similar to the payment of freight, such as
demurrage and the like. The conditions of the charter-party
thus incorporated do not include, for instance, the exceptions
in the charter-party so as to add them to the exceptions in the
bill of lading. Freight, unless it is otherwise provided by the
contract, is payable only on delivery of the goods at their
destination. If the voyage is interrupted and its completion
becomes impossible, the shipowner cannot claim payment of
freight even pro rata itineris. He loses his freight altogether.
This is so even when the completion of the voyage is prevented
by causes for which the shipowner is not responsible, such as the
act of God or the king's enemies, or perils which are within the
express exceptions in the bill of lading. When the voyage is
interrupted by accident, and indeed in any case, the goods may,
by agreement between the shipowner and the consignee, be
delivered at some place short of their destination upon payment
of a freight pro rata; that is to say, proportional to the length
of voyage accomplished, and such an agreement may be implied
in certain circumstances from the conduct of the consignee in
taking delivery before they arrive at their destination. In all
such cases it will be a question of fact whether the goods were in
fact delivered upon the terms, express or implied, that freight
pro rata should be paid. As a rule such an agreement would not
be implied where the shipowner is unable or unwilling to forward
the goods to their destination, and the owner of the goods,
therefore, has no option but to take delivery where offered.
When the ship is disabled and cannot proceed, or she is pre-
vented by some obstacle from proceeding to the place of delivery
named in the bill of lading, and the shipowner is unwilling or
unable to forward the goods by another ship, even though he
may be excused for his failure to carry the goods to their destina-
tion, he is not entitled to be paid any part of the freight; and
the consignee is entitled to have the goods delivered to him
either at the place where the vessel has taken refuge in her
disabled condition, or, if the obstacle arises without disablement
of the vessel, at the place which is nearest and most reasonably
convenient at the time and in the circumstances when the
further prosecution of the voyage has to be abandoned. On the
other hand, after the goods have been shipped, so long as the
shipowner is ready and willing to carry the goods to their destina-
tion, or, if the ship is disabled, to forward them to their destina-
tion by some other ship without unreasonable delay, the owner
of the goods cannot require the goods to be delivered to him at
any place short of their destination without payment of the full
freight. Sometimes the freight, either wholly or in part, is made
payable iff advance. If freight payable in advance has become
due, even though the ship is lost before it is paid, it must, in
the absence of some special provision to the contrary, still be
paid, and freight already paid in advance does not become
repayable because the goods do not reach their destination.
If, however, goods upon which freight has been paid in advance
are lost, and the shipowner is liable for their loss, the amount of
freight paid in advance must be taken into account in assessing
the damage recoverable from the shipowner.
(8) There is no part of the bill of lading which is of greater
practical importance or which demands more careful considera-
tion by shipowner and shipper alike than that which sets forth
the excepted perils: those perils, or in other words causes of
loss, for which the shipowner is to be exempt from liability. By
the common law, as we have seen, the exemption of the carrier,
apart from express contract, extended only to loss by the act
of God or the king's enemies. The expression " act of God "
requires a word of explanation. It will be sufficient to say
that it is not synonymous with force majeure; but it includes
every loss by force majeure in which human agency, by act or
negligence, has had no part. The list of excepted perils varies
much in different forms of bills of lading. In the older forms it
usually included perils of the seas, robbers and pirates, restraint
of princes and rulers, fire and barratry (that is, wilful wrong-
doing) of the master and crew. The list, however, has grown in
modern times, and is still growing; the tendency being to
exempt the shipowner from liability for all loss which does not
arise from his own personal default, or from the negligence of
his managers or agents in failing to provide a vessel seaworthy
and fit for the voyage at its commencement It is important
to point out in this connexion that there are two duties which
the shipowner is always presumed to undertake, and which are
assumed to be unaffected and unqualified by the exceptions,
unless a contrary intention is very clearly expressed by the
terms of the contract. In the first place, he undertakes abso-
lutely that the ship in which the goods are shipped is fit at the
commencement of the voyage for the service to be performed.
If during the voyage loss arises even from dangers of the seas or
other excepted peril which would not have occurred if the vessel
had been seaworthy and fit for the voyage at its commencement,
the shipowner is not protected by the exceptions, and is liable
for the loss. In the second place, there is an implied undertaking
by the shipowner that all reasonable care will be taken by
himself, his servants and agents, safely to carry and deliver at
t heir dest ination the goods received by him for carriage. Should
loss or damage occur during the voyage, though the direct cause
of such loss or damage be perils of the seas or other excepted
peril, still the shipowner cannot claim exemption under the
exceptions, if the shipper can prove that the loss or damage
AFFREIGHTMENT
30S
would not have occurred but for the negligence of the master
or crew, or other servants of the shipowner. The shipowner, in
other words, is bound, with his servants, to use all reasonable care
to prevent loss by excepted perils and by any other cause.
It must not be supposed that even these primary obligations,
~\ are introduced into every contract of affreightment not by
words but by implication, may not be excluded by the
express terms 01 the contract. It has now become
A .-„ common" form to stipulate that the shipowner shall not
be liable for any loss arising from the negligence of his
servants, or that he shall not be liable lor loss by the excepted perils
even when brought about by the negligence of his servant*. And with
regard tosea worthiness, it is not uncommon fortheshipownertostipu-
late that he shall not be responsible for loss arising even from the
unseaworthiness of the ship on sailing, provided that due care has
been taken by the owner and his agents and servants to make the
ship seaworthy at the commencement of the voyage There is indeed
no rale of English law which prevents a -shipowner from exempting
himself by the terms of the bill of lading from liability for damage
and loss of every kind, whether arising from unseaworthiness or any
other cause whatsoever. In such a case the goods are carried at
their owner's risk, and if he desires protection he must obtain it
by insurance. In this respect the law of England permits greater
freedom of contract than is allowed by the law of some other states.
The owners, agents and masters of vessels loading in the United
States of America are forbidden by an act of Congress, commonly
called the Harter Act, passed in the year 1893, to insert in their
contracts of affreightment any clause exempting the shipowner
from liability for the negligence of his servants; but it is at the
same time enacted that, provided all reasonable skill and care has
been exercised by the shipowner to make the vessel seaworthy and
fit for the voyage at its commencement, the shipowner shall not be
liable for any loss caused by the negligence of the master or crew
in the navigation of the vessel, or by perils of the sea or certain
other causes set forth in the act. It is now very usual to insert
in the bills of lading of British vessels loading in the United States
a reference to the Harter Act, incorporating its provisions so as to
make them terms and conditions of the bill of lading.
The difficulty of construing the terms of bills of lading with regard
to the excepted perils, often expressed in obscure and inexact lan-
guage, has given rise to much litigation, the results of which are
recorded in the law reports. Where such difficulties arise the ques-
tion must be. What is the true and natural meaning of the language
used by the parties? This question is not governed by the general
rules which we have endeavoured to explain: but the words of the
contract must always be considered with reference to these rules,
which are founded upon the well-established customs of merchants
recognized and formulated by the court* of law.
(9) The bill of lading sometimes contains a clause as to the
shipowner's lien. Without any express provision for it the ship-
owner has by the common law a lien for freight If it is desired
to give the shipowner a lien for demurrage (see below) or other
charges, it must be expressly provided for. The lien is the right
of the shipowner to retain the goods carried until payment has
been made of the freight or the demurrage, or other charge for
which a lien has been given. The lien may be waived, and is lost
by delivery of the goods, or by any dealing with the consignee
which is inconsistent with a right of the shipowner to retain
possess io n of the goods until payment has been made. The ship-
owner may preserve his lien by landing the goods and retaining
them in bis own warehouse, or by storing them in a public ware-
bouse, subject to the conditions required by the Merchant
Shipping Act 1804.
Charter-parties.
Charter-parties are, as we have already explained, either for
a voyage or for a period of time. ( 1 ) A charter-party for a voyage
is a formal agreement made between the owner of the vessel and
the charterers by which it is agreed that the vessel " being tight,
staunch and strong, and every way fitted for the voyage," shall
load at a certain named place a full cargo either of goods of a
specified description or of general merchandise, and being so
loaded shall proceed with all possible despatch either to a specified
place or to a place to be named at a specified port of call, and
there deliver the cargo to the charterers or their assigns. There
are clauses which provide for the amount of freight to be paid and
the manner and time of payment; for the time, usually described
as lay days, to be allowed for loading and discharging, and for the
demurrage to be paid if the vessel is detained beyond the lay days;
usually also a clause requiring " the cargo to be brought to and
taken from alongside at merchant's risk and expense "; a clause
that i he master shall sign bills of lading for the cargo shipped
cither at the same rate of freight as is payable under the charter-
party or very commonly at any rate of freight (but in this case
with a stipulation that, if the total bill of lading freight is less
than the total freight payable under the charter-party, the dif-
ference is to he paid by the charterers to the master before the
sailing of the vessel); and there is usually w hat is called the
ztsstr iUust, by which the charterer's liability under the charter-
party is to cease on shipment of the cargo, the shipowner taking
a lien on the cargo for freight, dead freight and demurrage. The
c ha rt e r -pa r i y is made subject to exceptions similar to those which
are found in bills of lading. There are also usually clauses pro-
viding lor the commissions to be paid to the brokers on signing
the charter party, the " address " commission to be paid to the
ogirnta for the vessel at the port of discharge, and other matters
of detail. The clauses in charter-parties vary, of course, inde-
finitely, but the above is probably a sufficient outline of the
ordinary form of a charter-party for a voyage.
What Has h*i»n said with regard to bills of lading as to the voyage,
the place, of <J 1. 'livery, the exceptions and excepted perils, ana the
liability of the shipowner and his lien applies equally to charter-
panics, ft m.iy be desirable to add a few words on demurrage, dead
fmtht, and 01 the cesser clause.
Dtm titrate h, properly speaking, a fixed sum per day or per hour
aRri'.-ii to U- paid by the charterer for any time during which the
vessel i* detained in loading or discharging over and above the time
allowed, which is, as we have said, usually described as the laydays.
Sometimes t he number of days during which the vessel may be kept
on demttmfc it the agreed rate is fixed by the charter-party. If no
demurrage h provided foe by the charter-party, and the vessel is
kept loading or discharging beyond the lay days, the shipowner is
enthted to cl.nn damages in respect of the loss which he has suffered
by the detention of his ship; or, if the vessel is detained beyond the
fined nun!- 1 of demurrage days, damages for detention will be re-
cove rahJc. sometimes there is no time fixed by the charter-party
fur U jading «r discharging. The obligation in such cases is to load
or diu ):.• th all despatch that is possible and reasonable in the
rircum 1: - -- J !t **•- »— -* ! J; — *- — -*-- * -»--- - ■-*-
tuch reaiw
damages f r . . . _ ^ , ,,
will ^-ner.iJly l« accepted as the measure of the damages for deten-
tion, but is not necessarily the true measure. When the claim is for
detention and not demurrage the actual loss is recoverable, which
may be more or may be less than the agreed rate of demurrage.
The contract usually provides that Sundays and holidays shall be
excepted in c >.unting the lay days, but unless expressly stipulated
thii exception does not apply to the computation of the period of
detention after the lay days nave expired.
Dtcd frtigfki is the name given to the amount of freight lost, and
Ihcn-fure jLL'.verable by the shipowner from the charterer as
d.i M, 1 ,.. -, if a 1 ull and complete cargo is not loaded in accordance with
the term* of i he charter-party.
The cesirr u'ause has come into common use because very fre-
quently the 1 harterers are not personally interested in the cargo
shipped. They may be agents merely, or they may have chartered
Hit- vessel as a speculation to make a profit upon the bill of lading
fre.nght- The effect of the clause is that when the charterers have
shipped .1 r,il! 1 argo they have fulfilled all their obligations, the ship-
owner discharging them from all further liability and taking instead
a Hen "M it" 'argo for payment of all freight, demurrage or dead
freight 1 hat in *y be payable to him. It has become an established
rn Ic for I lie 1 ..I .struction of the ce r rrr douse that, if the language used
will permit it, the cesser of liability is assumed to be eo-extrniive
only with the lien given to the shipowner; or h in other word*, (he
chartLTLTs are released from those liabilities only for which a Hen
is Riven to the shipowner. The shipowner is Jurtner secured by the
stipulation .1! ready referred to, that if the total freight payable under
the bills of tiling is less than the full chartered freight the difference
shall be paid U> theshipowner before the vessel sails. A difficulty
which sometimes arises, not withstanding these precaution*, if chit
although an ample lien is given by the charier -party, the terms, 01
the tjilEi of lading may be insufficient to preserve the same extensive
t n ■ n as :u;.nri -c the holder of the bills of lading. The shippers under
the bilU of lading, if they are not the charterers* are not liable for
the chartered freight, but only for the bill of lading freight; and
unless the bill of lading exprcwuy refcrves it, they aie not subject to
a fieri for the chartered freight, The master may guard against this
dilticufE y by n fusing to sign bill* of lading which do not preserve
the shipowner' 3 lien for his full chartered freight. But he is often
put imo a difficulty by a somewhat improvident clause in the charter-
part v requiring him to sign bills of lading as prtwitcd. See Kr*str
v. Sdori Jrjrdfl, 1907 A. C. 272.
' (2) A time charter-party is a contract between the shipowner
and charterers, by which the shipowner agrees to let and the
-Mi:. 1 ■ ; and if the loading or discharging b not done with
ca enable despatch, the shipowner will be entitled to claim
es for detention of his ship. The rate of demurrage (if any)
306
AFGHANISTAN
charterers to hire the vessel for a specified term for employment,
either generally in any lawful trade or upon voyages within
certain limits. A place is usually named at which the vessel is to
be re-delivered to the owners at the end of the term, and the
freight is payable until such re-delivery; the owner almost always
pays the wages of the master and crew, and the charterers provide
coals and pay port charges; the freight is usually fixed at a certain
rate per gross register ton per month, and made payable monthly
in advance, and provision is made for suspension of hire in certain
cases if the vessel is disabled; the master, though he usually is
and remains the servant of the owner, is required to obey the
orders of the charterers as regards the employment of the vessel,
they agreeing to indemnify the owners from all liability to which
they may be exposed by the master signing bills of lading or
otherwise complying with the orders of the charterers; and the
contract is made subject to exceptions similar to those in bills of
lading and voyage charter-parties. This is the general outline
of the ordinary form of a time charter-party, but the forms and
their clauses vary, of course, very much, according to the circum-
stances of each case.
It is apparent that under a time charter-party the shipowner
to a large extent parts with the control of his ship, which is
employed within certain limits according to the wish and direc-
tions, and for the purposes and profit of, the charterers. But, as
we have already explained at the beginning of this article, the
shipowner continues in possession of his vessel by his servant the
master, who remains responsible to his owner for the safety and
proper navigation of the ship. The result of this, as has been
already pointed out, is that the holder of a bill of lading signed by
the master, if he has taken the bill of lading without knowledge
of the terms of the time charter-party, may hold the owner
responsible for the due performance of the contract signed by
the master in the ordinary course of his duties, and within his
ostensible authority as servant of the shipowner, although in fact
in signing the bill of lading the master was acting as agent for and
at the direction of the time charterer, and not the shipowner. In
the language of the ordinary time charter-party the ship is let to
the charterers; but there is no true demise, because, as we have
pointed out, the vessel remains in the possession of the shipowner,
the charterer enjoying the advantages and control of its employ-
ment. Where the possession of a ship is given up to a hirer,
who appoints his own master and crew, different considera-
tions apply; but though the instrument by which the ship is
let may be called a charter-party, it is not truly a contract of
affreightment
There are certain rights and obligations arising out of the
relationship of shipowner and cargo-owner in circumstances of
r extraordinary peril or urgency in the course of a voyage,
' which, though not strictly contractual, are well estab-
lished by the customs of merchants and recognized by
the law. It is obvious that, when a ship carrying a cargo is in
the course of a voyage, the master to some extent represents the
owners of both ship and cargo. In cases of emergency it may be
necessary that the master should, without waiting for authority
or instructions, incur expense or make sacrifices as agent not only
of his employer, the shipowner, but also of the cargo-owner.
Ship and cargo may be in peril, and it may be necessary for the
safety of both to put into a port of refuge. There it may be
necessary to repair the ship, and to land and warehouse, and
afterwards re-ship the cargo. For these purposes the master will
be obliged to incur expense, of which some part, such as the cost
of repairing the ship, will be for the benefit of the shipowner;
part, such as the warehousing expenses, will be for the benefit of
the cargo-owner; and part, such as the port charges incurred in
order to enter the port of refuge, are for the common benefit and
safety of ship and cargo. Again, in a storm at sea, it may be
necessary for the safety of ship and cargo to cut away a mast or
to jettison, that is to say, throw overboard part of the cargo. In
such a case the master, acting for the shipowner or cargo-owner,
as the case may be, makes a sacrifice of part of the ship or part of
the cargo, in either case for the purpose of saving ship and cargo
from a danger common to both. Voluntary sacrifices so made
and extraordinary expenses incurred for the common safety an
called general average (see Average) sacrifices and expenses,
and are made good to the person who has made the sacrifice or
incurred the expense by a general average contribution, which is
recoverable from the owners of the property saved in proportion
to its value, or, in other words, each contributes rateably accord-
ing to the benefit received. The law regulating the rights of the
parties with regard to such contribution is called the law of
General Average. It must, however, be remembered that the
owner of the cargo is entitled under the contract of affreightment
to the ordinary service of the ship and crew for the safe carriage
of the cargo to its destination, and the shipowner is bound to pay
all ordinary expenses incurred for the purpose -of the voyage.
He must also bear all losses arising from damage to the ship by
accidents. But when extraordinary expense has been incurred
by the shipowner for the safety of the cargo, he can recover such
expense from the owner of the cargo as a special charge on cargo;
or when an extraordinary expense has been incurred or a volun-
tary sacrifice made by the shipowner to save the ship and cargo
from a peril common to both, he may require the owner of cargo
to contribute in general average to make good the loss.
See Carver, Carriage by Sea (London, 1905) ; Scrutton, Charter'
parties and Bills of Lading (London, 1904). (W.)
AFGHANISTAN, a country of Central Asia. Estimated area
245,000 sq. m. (including Badakshan and Kafiristan). Pop.
about 5,000,000. It is bounded on the N. by Russian Turkestan,
on the W. by Persia, and on the E. and S. by Kashmir and the
independent tribes of the North- West Frontier of India and
Baluchistan. The chief importance of Afghanistan in modern
days is due to its position as a " buffer state " intervening be*
tween the two great empires of Asiatic Russia and British India.
During the last quarter of the 19th century our knowledge of
the country was greatly increased, and its boundaries on the
N., E, and S. were strictly delimited. The second Afghan war
of 1878-80 afforded an opportunity for the extension of wide
geographical surveys on a scientific basis. The Russian-Afghan
Boundary Commission of 1884-1886 resulted in the delimitation
and mapping of the northern frontier. The Durand agreement
of 1893 led to the partition of the Pathan tribes on the southern
and eastern frontiers. The Pamir Commission of 1895 settled
its north-eastern border. Finally the Perso-Baluch Commission
of 1004-1005 defined its western face.
Beginning with the Persian border at Zulfikar on the Hari
Rud river, the boundary between Afghanistan and Russia follows
a line roughly parallel to the course of the Paropamisus, and
about 35 m. to the north of it, till it strikes the Kushk river in
Jamshidi territory at a point which was once known as Chahil
Dukteran, but is now the Russian post KushkinskJ, and the
terminus of a branch railway from Merv. Kushkinski is about
20 m. below the old Jamshidi settlement of Kushk, which is
the capital of Badghis. The settlement and the post originally
called Kushk must not be confused together. From Kushk-
inski the boundary runs north-east, crossing the Murghab river
near Maruchak (which is an Afghan fortress), and thence passea
north-east through the hills of the Chul, and the undulating
deserts of the Aleli Turkmans, to the Oxus, leaving the valleys
of Charshamba and of Andkhui (to which it runs approximately
parallel) within Afghan limits. These valleys denote the limits
of cultivation in this direction. Throughout all this region the
boundary is generally of an artificial character, marked by pillars,
but it is here and there indicated by natural features forming
local lines of water-parting or water-course. The boundary meets
the Oxus at Khamiab at the western extremity of the culti-
vated district of Khwaja Salar, and from that point to the
eastern end of Lake Victoria in the Pamirs the main channel of
the Oxus river forms the northern limits of Afghanistan. (See
Oxus.) Eastwards from Lake Victoria the frontier line was
determined by the Pamir Boundary Commission of 1895. A
part of the little Pamir is included in Afghan territory, but the
boundary crosses this Pamir before the great bend northwards of
the Aksu takes place, and, passing over a series of crags and un-
traversable mountain ridges, is lost on the Chinese frontier In the
AFGHANISTAN
307
snowfidds of SarikoL Bending back westwards upon Itself, the
fine of Afghan frontier now follows the water-parting of the
Hindu Kush; and as the Hindu Kush absolutely overhangs the
Oxus nearly opposite Ishkashim, it follows that, at this point,
Afghanistan is about zo m. wide. Thus a small and highly
elevated portion of the state extends eastwards from its extreme
north-eastern corner, and is attached to the great Afghan quadri-
lateral by the thin link of the Panja valley. These narrow limits
(called Wakhan) include the lofty spurs of the northern flank
of the Hindu Kush, an impassable barrier at this point, where
the gladal passes reach 19,000 ft in altitude, and the enclosing
peaks 24,000 ft The backbone or main water-divide of the
Hindu Kush continues to form the boundary between Afghan-
istan and those semi-independent native states which fringe
Kashmir in this mountain region, until it reaches Kafiristan.
From near the Dorah pass (14,800 ft.), which connects Chitral
with the Panja (or Oxus) river, a long, straight, snow-dad spur
reaches southwards, which divides the Kafiristan valley of
Bashgol from that of Chitral, and this continues to denote the
eastern limits of Afghanistan till it nearly touches the Chitral
river opposite the village of Arnawai, 45 m. south of Chitral.
Here the Bashgol and Chitral valleys unite and the boundary
passes to the water-divide east of the Chitral river, after crossing
it by a spur which leaves the insignificant Arnawai valley to
the north; along this water-divide it extends to a point nearly
opposite the quaint old town of Pashat in the Kunar valley (the
Chitral river has become the Kunar in its course southwards),
and then stretches away in an uneven and undefined line, dividing
certain sections of the Mohmands from each other by hypo-
thetical landmarks, till it strikes the Kabul river near PaJosi
Thence following a course nearly due south, it reaches Land!
KotaL From the abutment of the Hindu Kush on the Sarikol
in the Pamir regions to Landi Kotal, and throughout its eastern
and southern limits, the boundary of Afghanistan touches
districts which were brought under British political control with
the formation of the North- West Frontier Provinces of India in
1001. From the neighbourhood of Landi Kotal the boundary
is carried to the Safed Koh overlooking the Afridi Tirah, and
then, rounding off the cultivated portions of the Kurram valley
below the Peiwar, it crosses the Kaitu and passes to the upper
reaches of the Tochi. Crossing these again, it is continued on
the west of Waziristan, finally striking the Gomal river at
DomandL South of the Gomal it separates the interests of
Afghanistan from those of Baluchistan, which here adjoins the
North-West Frontier Province. From Domandi (the junction
of the Kundar river with the Gomal) the Afghan boundary
marches with that of Baluchistan. (See Baluchistan.) It is
carried to the south-west on a line which is largely defined by
the channels of the Kundar and the Kadanai to a point beyond
the Sind-Peshin terminal station of New Chaman, west of the
Khojak range, and then drops southward to Shorawak and
Nushki. From Nushki it crosses the Helmund desert, touching
the crest of a well-defined mountain watershed for a great part
of the way, and, leaving Chagai to Baluchistan, it strikes nearly
west to the Persian frontier, and joins it on the Kob-i- Malik Siah
mountain, south of Sdstan. Two points of this part of the
Afghan boundary are notable. It leaves some of the most
fanatical of the Durani Afghan people on the Baluch side of the
frontier in the Toba district, north of the Quetta-Chaman line
of railway; and it passes 50 m. south of the Helmund river*
3o8
AFGHANISTAN
enclosing within Afghanistan the only approach to Seistan from
India which is available during the seasons of ! ft! round overflow*
Between Afghanistan and Persia the boundary was defined by
SirF. Goldsmid's Commission in 187a from the Malik-Siah-Koh
to the Helmund Lagoons, and rectified hy the Commission under
Sir Henry MacMahon in 1003-1005. Beyond these Lagoons to
Hashtadan it is still indefinite. The eastern li mils of Hashtadan
had been previously fixed as far north as the Hari Rud river
at Toman Agha. From this point to Zulnkai the Hari Rud is
itself the boundary.
Within the limits of this boundary Afghanistan comprises
four main provinces, Northern Afghanistan or Kabul, Southern
Afghanistan or Kandahar, Herat and Afghan Tuifcft-
2*JjL- tan, together with the minor dependencies of the
* nnmmw ' Ghilzai and Hazara Highlands, Ghazni. Jalalabad and
Kafiristan. All these are described in separate articles, The
kingdom of Kabul is the historic Afghanistan; the Jink which
unites it to Kan dahar , Herat and the other outlying provinces
having been frequently broken and again restored by amirs of
sufficient strength and capability. The H e ra t p rovi nee is largely
Persian, while Afghan Turkestan is chic Ay Usbog; and in neither
is the sentiment of loyalty to the central govern merit very strong.
The bond is geographical and political rather than racial The
geographical divisions of the country are created by the basins
of its chief rivers, the Kabul, the Helmund. the Hari Rud and
the Oxus. The Kabul tiver drains Northern Afghanis la n f the
Hari Rud the province of Herat, and the Oxus that of Afghan
Turkestan. Afghanistan is largely a country of mountains and
deserts; but there are wide tracts of highly irrigated and most
productive country where fruit is grown in such abundance
as to become an important item in the export trade. The
Afghans are expert agriculturists and make profitable use of all
the natural sources of water-supply. As practical irrigation
engineers they. are only rivalled by the Chinese.
The dominant mountain system of Afghanistan is the Hindu
Kush, and that extension westwards of its water-divide which
is indicated by the Koh-i-TJaba to the north -west of
Kabul, and by the Firozkhoi plateau (Karjistan),
which merges still farther to the west by gentle
gradients into the Paropamisus, and which may be traced across
the Hari Rud to Mashad.
The culminating peaks of the Koh-i-B^ba overlooking th* sources
of the Hari Rud, the Helmund, the Kundut and the Kabul very
and Tashkurghan.
to a ehori 2$ m,
Opposite Tathkurgnan the Oxus plain 1
On the south this great band of roughly un-
dulating central plateau is bounded by the Kohi-Baba, to tne west
f Kabul, and by the Hindu Kush 10 the north and north-east o* that
Thus the main routes from Kabul to Afghan Turkestan must
nearly reach 17,000 ft. in height (Shah Fuladi, the highest, is 16,870),
and from them to the south-west long spur? divide the upper tribu-
taries of the Helmund, and separate its b^in from that of the Farah
Rud. These spurs retain a considerable altitude, for they a re marked
by peaks exceeding 11,000 ft. Theysweispina broad band of roughly
parallel ranges to the south-west, preserving their genera! direction
till they abut on the Great Registan desert to the west of Kandahar,
where they terminate in a series of detar hed and broken anticlinal*
whose sides are swept by a sea of encroaching sand. The long,
straight, level-backed ridges which divid. the Argandab. the Tarnak
and Arghastan valleys, and flank the rout*; f™m Kandahar to Ghazni .
determining the direction of that route, are out Lien of this system,
which geographically includes the Khojak, or Kwaja Am ran. range
in Baluchistan.
North of the main water-parting of Afghanistan the broad syn-
clinal plateau into which the Hindu Ku-m it merged is traversed
by the gorges of the Saighan, Bamian and Kamard tributaries of
the Kurtduc, and farther to the west by the Bandi-Amir or Balkh
river. Between the debouchment of th Upper Murghab from I he
Firoskhoi uplands into the comparative W low level of the valley
above Bala Murghab, extending eastwards in a nearly straight line
to the upper sources of the Shibarghan stream, the hbnd-t-Turkcstan
range forms the northern ridge between the plateau and the sand
formations of the Chul. It is a level, str a i g lit ba c ked line of sombre
mountain ridge, from the crest of which, as from a wall, the extra-
ordinary configuration of that immense Ions deposit called the Chul
can be seen stretching away north wards to the Oxus— ridge upon
ridge, wave upon wave, like a vast yelleu -grey sea of storm- twisted
billows. The Band-i-Turkestan anticlinal may be traced eastwards
of the Balkh-ab (the Band-i-Amir) within the Fold* of the Kara Koh
to the Kunduz, and beyond; but the Kara Koh does not mark the
northern wall of the great plateau nor overlook the sanda of the
Oxus plain, as does the Band-i-Turkestan > Here there intervenes
a second wide synclinal plateau, of which thr northern edge is* defined
by the flat outlines of the Elburz to the south of Maiar-i- Sharif, a nd
immediately at the foot of this range lie the alluvial plains of Maxar
ofl
city.
cross cither one or other of these ranges, and must traverse one or
other of the terrific defiles which have been carved out of them by
the upper tributaries of the rivers running northwards towards the
Oxus. Probably in no country in the world are there gathered
together within comparatively narrow jimits «> many clean-cut
waterways, measuring thousands of feet in depth, affording audi a
stupendous system o (narrow roadways through the hills.
After the Hindu Kush and the Turkestan mountains, that range
which divide* Ningrahar (or the valley of Jalalabad) from Kurram
and the Afridi Tirah. and is called Safed Koh [also the name of the
range south of the Hari Rud J. u the most important, as it is the
most impressive, in Afghanistan; . .
The bkheat peak of the Safed Koh, Sikaram. is 15,600 ft. above
sea level. From Lhis central dominating peak it falls gently towards
the west, and gradually subsides in long spurs, reaching to within a
few miles of Kabul and barring the road from Kabul to Ghazni. At
a point which i* not far east of the Kabul meridian an offshoot is
directed southwards, which becomes the water-parting between the
Kurram and the Logar at Shutargardan, and can be traced to a
connexion with the great watershed of the frontier dividing the
Indus basin from that of the Helmund This roam watershed
retains its high altitude far to the south. There are peaks measur-
ing over 1 j.oog it. on the divide between the Tochi and the Ghaxni
plains,
So far as We know at present the geological history of Afghan-
is lan differs widely from that of India* When, somewhere at
the co mine nee merit of the Cretaceous period, the
peninsula of India was connected by land with Mada-
gascar and Southern Africa, all Afghanistan Baluchistan and
Persia formed part of an area which was not continuously below
sea-level, but exhibited alternations of land and sea. The end
of the Cretaceous period saw the beginning of a series of great
earth movements ushered in by volcanic eruptions on a scale
such as the earth has never since witnessed, which resulted
in the upheaval of the Himalayas by a process of crushing
and folding of the sedimentary rocks till marine fossils were
forced to an altitude of 20,000 ft. above the sea. It was not
till the Tertiary age t and even late in that age, that much
of the land area of Afghanistan was raised above the sea-level
Then the ocean gradually retired into the great Central Asian
depressions.
Everywhere there have been great and constant changes of level
since that period, and the process of flexure and the formation of
anticlinal* traversing the northern distrieti of Afghanistan is a
p roccss w h ich is st il L in action . So rapid haa been the land elevation
of Central Afghanistan that the erosive action of nvers has not been
able to keep pace with that of upheaval: and the result all through
Afghanistan (but specially marked in the great central highlands
between Kabul and Herat) w the formation of those immensely deep
gorges and de files which are locally known ai darn*. One of these,
in the Aatarabi to the south-east of Maimana, is but 30 yds. wide,
and is enclosed between perpendicular limestone cliffs 1500 ft. high.
C. L. Griesbach considers that the general outline of the land con-
figuration has remained much Lhe same since Pliocene times, and
that the force which brought about the wrinkling of the older de-
posits still continues to add fold on fold. The highlands which shut
off the T u 1 Itesta n p rovi ncc* f ro m Soot hern Af gna nistan have afforded
the best opportunities for giuloj^kal investigation, and as might be
expected from their geographical position, the general result of the
examination of exposed sections leads to the identification of geo-
logical affinity with Himalayan* Indian and (Vrsian regions. The
ceneral configuration of the Turkestan highlands has been already
indicated.
Against the last great fold which terminates this mountain area
northward* arc rapped the Tertiaries and recent deposits. North
of Maimana thev form low undulating loess hub, in which most
of the Ha mM Turkestan drainage is lost. This wide-spreading loess
arca p formrd partly of windblown sand and partly of detntus
from the mountains. 11 known as Chul. and merges into the great
plains south of the Oxus river, a great part of which is covered with
modern aerial di-praita, Beneath this Chul formation the older beds
of the outer nnd Turkestan ranges dip and past to an irregular out*
crop near the tia n ks of the Onus. Between the Oxus and the hills
there has alrcactv h<jen formed * rise or flexure in the ground, which
extends more or kss parallel to the northern edge of the hills, snd,
shutting in the cultivated area of the ptoins, arrests all tnbuunet
seeking to effect a junction with the Onus from the south, andkadi
to the formation of marshes and swamps. This appears to he the
ginning of a new anticlinal which has altered the levels of the
Balkh plain, and is indicative of those elevating processes which
AFGHANISTAN
309
mv have been effective within historic times in changing the climate
and the agricultural prospects of this part of Central Asia. The Oxus
itself issteadily encroachingon its right banks and depositing detritus
on the left.
No fresh discoveries of minerals likely to be of high economic
value to Afghanistan have been made of late years. Such as
are known and worked at present have been worked from very
ancient times, and their capacity is not likely to develop greatly
under the Kabul government. The most important feature in
this connexion which was noted by the geologist of the Russo-
Afghan Commission is the existence of vast coal beds in northern
Afghanistan. In 1903 some coal mines were discovered in the
Jagdalak districts.
There are no glaciers now to be found in Afghan Turkestan; but
evidences of their recent existence are abundant. The great boulder
bed terraces in some of the valleys of the northern slopes of the
Feroxkhoi plateau are probably of glacial origin. In the mountains
west of Kabul glaciers have retired, leaving the moraines perfectly
undisturbed. They are probably contemporary with the older
alluvia. (T.H.H.*)
The oldest rocks which have yet been identified ' in Afghanistan
occur along the axis of the main watershed, and have been referred
Hi,*,, to the Carboniferous. At Robat-i-Pai near Herat, for
example, there b a dark Producius limestone which seems
to be identical with tht Product tu limestone of the Central Himalayas.
These beds are conformably succeeded, along the Central Asian
watershed, by a continuous series of strata which apparently repre-
sent the Permian, Trias and Jurassic of Europe. They consist of
marine beds alternating with freshwater and littoral deposits,
together with plant beds and coal-seams of considerable thickness.
The lowest beds of this series, which from their position may belong
either to the Permian or to the upper part of the Carboniferous,
have yielded no recognizable fossils; but they include a conglomerate
which closely resembles the boulder bed near the base of the Talchir
series in India. The Upper Trias has been definitely identified by
the occurrence of Halobta and other fossils; while in the higher beds
of the series marine forms belonging to the middle and upper Jurassic
have been found.
The plant beds occur at several horizons, and among the remains
which have been found in them are several forms which occur
also in the Gondwana beds of India. There can be no doubt
that the series as a whole is the equivalent of the Gondwana
system, and when the country has been more closely examined
the association of marine fossils with Gondwana plants will be of
the greatest value in determining the precise homotaxis of the
Indian deposits.
The Jurassic beds are followed, generally with perfect conformity,
by the Cretaceous, which covers a large part of Afghan Turkestan
aad probably forms the greater part of the ranges which run south
and south-west from the principal watershed. The lowest beds
consist of red grits which contain Neocomian fossils, while the middle
and upper Cretaceous consist chiefly of limestone and chalk. The
entire system may be represented in the west, but in the Herat
province and in Afghan Turkestan the middle Cretaceous seems to
be absent, and it is probable that, as in oth«r regions, the upper
Cretaceous covers a much wider area than the lc * e r beds. Tertiary
and recent deposits are widely spread, filling most of the valley* and
covering the plains of the Helmund. Eocene beds have net yet been
proved to exist; but this is probably owing to the imperfect know-
ledge of the country, for the formation is known in Persia, Baluch-
istan and the Suliman Hills. The lower part of the \fioccnc is
marine in Herat and Afghan Turkestan; but the upper Mk<tnc is
usually of freshwater or estuarine origin. In Afghani tian. .1* in
other regions near the great Eurasian system of fold*, the Miocene
includes extensive deposits of gypsum and salt It was during this
period that the forces which finally raised (he country above the
level of the sea began to take effect. The Pliocene consists entirely
of freshwater ana terrestrial deposits, which were probably laid
down at the foot of the rising hills and on the floors of the Intervening
valleys. As the elevation continued, they were sometime* involved
in the folding to which the mountains owe Mr origin. During
this period the gradual desiccation of the cnuntry continued, and
wind-blown deposits, such as the loess, began to nuke their
Tutbough volcanic cones are known both in Persia and In Baluch-
istan, none have yet been described in Afghanistan itself. There
is, however, ample evidence that at several distinct geological periods
the region has been the seat of great volcanic activity. According to
C. L. Griesbach, basic volcanic rocks are interbedded with the lowest
part of the plant-bearing series, and enormous outbursts took place
during the Neocomian period. But the most important igneous
masses are the great intrusions of syenhic granite and of basic rock
which penetrate the Cretaceous beds. These are probably of Eocene
or of late Cretaceous age. (P. La.)
1 We owe our knowledge of the geology of Afghanistan almost
entirely to the observations of C. L. Griesbach, and a summary of
his researches will be found in Records of Ike GeologUai Survey of
India, vol. xx. (1887), pp. 93-103, with map.
Omitting the group of northern routes to India from Central
Asia, which pass between Kashmir and Afghanistan _ .
through the defiles of Chitral and of the Indus (see *•****«•
Hindu Kush), the highways of Afghanistan may be
classed under two heads: (x) Foreign trade routes, and (2)
Internal communications.
(1) Of the many routes which cross the frontiers of Afghanistan
the most important commercially are those which connect the Oxus
regions and the Central Asian khanates with Kabul, and those which
lead from Kabul, Ghaxni and Kandahar to the plains of India.
Kabul is linked with Afghan Turkestan and Badakshan by three
main lines of communication across the Koh-i-Baba and the Hindu
Kush. One of these routes follows the Balkh river to its head from
Tashkurghan, and then, prewr.-*— ,t Tii^h pencr.il level of 8000 to
9000 ft., it passes over the watcr-dmr]cs separating the upper tribu-
taries of the Kumtui river, and drops into the 1 jlfey formed by an-
other tributary a t Ua mi a n. From Ba mia.n i t passes over the central
mountain chain to Kabul either by I he u .1 1 ■Ln...tfn passes of Irak
(marking the water-divide of the Koh-i-D ah .» > nn.1 of Unai (marking
the summit of the Sanglafch, a branch or the Hindu Kush), or else,
turning eastward* » U erouc* i nt 1 be G h ley by the Shibar,
a pass which is considerably b*er than the Irak ond is very seldom
snowbound. Frum the foot of the Unai pas* it follows the Kabul
river, and from 1 he foot of the Shibar it fellow* 1 Ije circuitous route
which is offered by tU drainage of iIm L.lioiL^:id valley to Charikar,
and thence southwards to Kabul. The main points on this route are
Haibak, Bajgah and Bamian. It is full of awkward grades and
minor passes, but it does not maintain a high level generally, no pass
(if the Shibar route be adopted) much exceeding 10,000 ft. That
this has for centuries been regarded as the main route northward
from Kabul, the Buddhist relics of Bamian and Haibak bear silent
witness: but it may be doubted whether Abdur Rahman's talent for
roadmaldng has not opened out better alternative lines. One of his
roads connects Haibak with the Ghorband valley by the Chahardar
pass across the Hindu Kush. The pass is high (nearly 14,000 ft.),
but the road is excellently well laid out, and the route, which, south
of Haibak, traverses a corner of the Ghori and Baghlan districts of
Badakshan, is more direct. A third route also passes through
Badakshan, and connects Kunduz with Charikar by the Khawik
pass and Panishir river. The latter joins the Ghorband close to
Charikar. The Khawik (11,600 ft.) is not a high pass; the grades
are easy and the snowfall usually light. This high road is stated (on
Afghan authority) to be kept open for khafila traffic all the year
round by the employment of forced labour for clearing snow. It is
a recently developed route and one of great importance to Kabul,
both strategically and commercially.
Routes that pass through the mountain barriers of the frontier
between Peshawar and the Comal occur at intervals along the western
border, and in the northern section of the Indian frontier they
are all well marked. The Khyber, Kurram and Tochi are the best
known, inasmuch as all these lines of advance into Afghanistan arc
held by British troops or Indian levies. But the Bara valley route
into the heart of the Afridi Tirah is not to be altogether overlooked,
although it is not a trade route of any importance. Between Kabul
and Jalalabad there are two roads, one by the Lataband pass, and
the other and more difficult by the Khurd-Kabul and lagdalak
passes, the latter being the scene of the massacre of a British brigade
in 1 9a*. Between Jalalabad and Peshawar is the Khyber pass (q.v.).
The Khyber was not in ancient times the main route of advance from
Kabul to Peshawar. From Kabul the old route followed the Kabul
river through the valley of Laghman (or Lamghan, as the Afghans
call it) over a gentle water-parting into the Kunar valley, leaving
Ningrahar and Jalalabad to the south. From the Kunar it crossed
into Bajour by one of several open and comparatively easy passes,
and from Bajour descended into India either by the Malalcand or
some other contiguous frontier gateway to the plains of Peshawar.
The Kurram route involves the Peiwar and Shutargardan passes
(8600 and 10,800 ft. respectively) across the southern extensions of
the Safed Koh rang?, ana ha*, never been a great trade route, however
suitable as an alternative mfittiry line of advance.
Trade does not cm end ljr k rtfy between Afghanistan and India
by the Tochi route, being local [y confined to the valley and the dis-
tricts at its head, vet this is the shortest and most direct route
between Ghaxni a I ihe Frontier, and in the palmy days of Ghazni
raiding was the m M ie great robber Mahmud occasionally
descended on to t , ' ■ as. Traces of his raiding and road-
making are still vi-.i.!.-. l.-ui n i - certain that he made use of the more
direct route to rVdmwar fir oiore frequently than he did of the
Tochi. The exact nature of the connexion between the head of the
Tochi and the Gluuni pu..» is -till unknown to us.
The Gomal is the great central trade route between Afghanistan
and India; and the position, which is held by a tribal post at Wana,
will do much to ensure its continued popularity. The Gomal in-
volves no passes of any great difficulty, although it is impossible to
follow the actual course of the river on account of the narrow defiles
which have been cut through the recent conglomerate beds which
flank the plains of the Indus. It has been carefully surveyed for a
possible railway alignment; and an excellent road now connects
3io
AFGHANISTAN
Tank (at its foot) with the Zhob line of communication* to Quetta.
and with Wana on the louthern flank of Waziristan. The Gomal
route U of immense importance, both at a commercial and strategic
line, and in both particulars is of far greater significance than either
the Kurram or the Tochi.
(2) Of thcinteriorlincsof communication, tho«ewhichconnectthe
great cities of Afghanistan, Herat. Kabul and Kandahar, are obvi-
ously the most important. Between Kabul and Herat there is no
" royal " road, the existing route passing over the frequently snow-
bound wastes that lie below the southern flank of the great Koh-i-
Baba into the upper valleys of the Hari Rud tributaries. It is a
waste, elevated, desolate region that the route traverses, and the
road itself is only open at certain seasons of the year. Between
Kabul and Kandahar exists the well-known and oft-traversed route
by Ghazniand Kalat-i-Ghilzai. Thereisbutoneinsignificant water-
parting— or kotal— a little to the north of Ghazni; and the road,
although unmade, may be considered equal to any road of its length
in Europe for military purposes. Between Kandahar and Herat
there b the recognized trade route which crosses the Helmund at
Girishk and passes through Farah and Sabsawar. It includes about
360 miles of easy road, with spaces where water is scarce. There is
not a pass of any great importance, nor a river of any great difficulty,
to be encountered from end to end, but the route is flanked on the
north between Kandahar and Girishk by the Zamindawar hills, con-
taining the most truculent and fanatical clans of all the Southern
Afghan tribes. Little need be said of the 65 m. of route between
Kandahar and the Baluchistan frontier at New Chaman. It b on
the whole a route across open plains and hard, stony
route which would offer no greatdifftailties to that railway <
from Chaman which has so long been contemplated. A very con-
siderable trade now passes along thb route to India, in spite of almost
prohibitive imposts; but the trade does not follow the railway from
New Chaman to the eastern foot of the Khojalc Long strings of
camels may still be seen from the train windows patiently treading
their slow way over the Khojak pass to Kila Abdullah, whilst the
train alongside them rapidly twists through the mountain tunnel
into the Peshin valley.
The variety of climate b immense, as might be expected.
Taking the highlands of the country as a whole, there b no
*m .. great difference between the mean temperature of
Afghanistan and that of the lower Himalayas. Each
may be placed at a point between 50° and 6o° F. But the remark-
able feature of Afghan climate (as also of that of Baluchistan) is
its extreme range of temperature within limited periods. The
least daily range in the north b during the cold weather, the
greatest in the hot For seven months of the year (from May
to November) thb range exceeds 30° F. daily. Waves of intense
cold occur, lasting for several days, and one may have to endure
a cold of 1 a below zero, rising to a maximum of 17° below
freezing-point On the other hand the summer temperature b
exceedingly high, especially in the Oxus regions, where a shade
maximum of 1 io° to 1 20* b not Uncommon. At Kabul, and over
all the northern part of the country to the descent at Gandamak,
winter b rigorous, but especially so on the high Arachosian
plateau. In Kabul the snow lies for two or three months; the
people seldom leave their houses, and sleep close to stoves. At
Ghazni the snow has been known to lie long beyond the vernal
equinox; the thermometer sinks to xo° and 15° below zero
(Fahr.); and tradition relates the entire destruction of the
population of Ghazni by snowstorms more than once.
At Jalalabad the winter and the climate generally assume an
Indian character. The summer heat b great everywhere in
Afghanistan, but most of all in the districts bordering on the
Indus, especially Sewi, on the lower Helmund and in Sebtan.
All over Kandahar province the summer heat b intense, and the
simoon b not unknown. The hot season throughout this part of
the country b rendered more trying by frequent dust storms and
fiery winds; whibt the bare rocky ridges that traverse the
country, absorbing heat by day and radiating it by night, render
the summer nights most oppressive. At Kabul the summer sun
has great power, though the heat b tempered occasionally by
cool breezes from the Hindu Kush, and the nights are usually
cool. At Kandahar snow seldom falls on the plains or lower
hills; when it does, it melts at once.
At Herat, though 800 ft lower than Kandahar, the summer
climate b more temperate; and, in fact, the climate altogether
b far from disagreeable. From May to September the wind
blows from the N.W. with great violence, and thb extends
across the country to Kandahar, The winter b tolerably mild;
snow melts as it falb, and even on the mountains does not fie
long. Three years out of four at Herat it does not freeze hard
enough for the people to store ice; yet it was not very far from
Herat, and could not have been at a greatly higher level (at
Kafir Kala, near Kassan) that, in 1750, Ahmad Shah's army,
retreating from Persia, b said to have lost 18,000 men from cold
in a single night. In the northern Herat districts, too, records
of the coldest month (February) show the mean minimum as
17° F. f and the maximum 38°. The eastern reaches of the Hari
Rud river are frozen hard in the winter, rapids and all, and the
people travel on it as on a road.
The summer rains that accompany the S.W. monsoon in
India, beating along the southern slopes of the Himalaya,
travel up the Kabul valley as far as Laghman, though they are
more clearly felt in Bajour and Panjkora, under the high spars
of the Hindu Kush, and in the eastern branches of Saied Koh.
Rain also falb at thb season at the head of Kurram valley.
South of thb the Suliman mountains may be taken as the
western limit of the monsoon's action. It b quite unfelt in the
rest of Afghanistan, in which, as in all the west of Asia, the
winter rains are the most considerable. The spring rain, though
less copious, b more important to agriculture than the winter
rain, unless where the latter falb in the form of snow. In the
absence of monsoon influences there are steadier weather indica-
tions than in India. The north-west blizzards which occur in
winter and spring are the most noticeable feature, and their
influence b clearly felt on the Indian frontier. The cold b then
intense and the force of the wind cyclonic. Speaking generally,
the Afghanistan climate b a dry one. The sun shines with
splendour for three-fourths of the year, and the nights are even
more clear than the days. Marked characteristics are the great
differences of summer and winter temperature and of day and
night temperature, as well as the extent to which change of
climate can be attained by slight change of place. As the
emperor Baber said of Kabul, at one day's journey from it you
may find a place where snow never falls, and at two hours'
journey a place where snow almost never melts I
The Afghans vaunt the salubrity and charm of some local
climates, as of the Toba hills above the Kakar country, and of
some of the high valleys of the Saied Koh.
The people have by no means that immunity from disease
which the bright, dry character of the climate and the fine
physical aspect of a large proportion of them might lead us to
expect. Intermittent and remittent fevers are very prevalent;
bowel complaints are common, and often fatal in the autumn.
The universal custom of sleeping on the house-top in summer
promotes rheumatic and neuralgic affections; and in the Koh
Daman of Kabul, which the natives regard as having the finest
of climates, the mortality from fever and bowel complaint,
between July and October, b great, the immoderate use of
fruit predisposing to such ailments.
The term Afghan really applies to one section only of the
mixed conglomeration of nationalities which forms the people
of Afghanistan, but thb b the dominant section known Pm ^ la .
as the Durani. The Ghilzai (who b almost as powerful SSr**
as the Durani) claims to be of Turkish origin; the
Hazaras, the Chahar-Aimak, Tajiks, Uzbegs, Kafirs and others
are more or less subject races. Popularly any inhabitant of
Afghanbtan b known as Afghan on the Indian frontier without
distinction of origin or language; but the language division
between the Parsiwan (or Persian-speaking Afghan) and the
Pathan b a very distinct one. The predominance of the Afghan
in Afghanbtan dates from the middle of the 18th century, when
Ahmad Shah carved out Afghanbtan from the previous con-
quests of Nadir Shah and called it the Durani empire. *
The Durani Afghans claim to be Ben-i-Israel, and insist on
their descent from the tribes who were carried away captive
from Palestine to Media by Nebuchadrezzar. Yet they also
claim to be Pukhtun (or Pathan) in common with all other
Pushtu-speaking tribes, whom they do not admit to be Afghan,
The bond of affinity between the various peoples who compose
the Pathan community b simply the bond of a common language.
AFGHANISTAN
3"
AH of them recognise a common code or unwritten law called
Pukhtunwali, which appears to be similar in general character
to the old Hebraic law,, though modified by Mahommedau
ordinances, and strangely similar in certain particulars to
Rajput custom. Besides their division into clans and tribes,
the whole Afghan people may be divided into dwellers in tents
and dwellers in houses; and this division is apparently not
coincident with tribal divisions, for of several of the great clans
at least a part is nomad and a part settled. Such, t.g., is the
case with the Durani and with the Ghilzai.
The settled Afghans form the village communities, and in
part the population of the few towns. Their chief occupation
is with the soil. They form the core of the nation and the
main part of the army. Nearly all own the land on which they
Kv the*r? wnXcn tbcy cultivate with their own hands or by
n4at. oour. Roundly speaking, agriculture and soldiering
Manna sole occupations. No Afghan will pursue a handicraft
Jotsii;m% shop, though the Ghilzai Povindahs engage largely in
i* " 1 * ?a trade and transport of goods. As a race the Afghans
is obtain handsome and athletic, often with fair complexion and
thought beard, generally black or brown, sometimes, though
In nMred; the features highly aquiline. The hair is shaved
ally in i the forehead to the top of the head, the remainder at
Uu _es being allowed to fall in large curb over the shoulders.
Their step is full of resolution; their bearing proud and apt to
be rough.
The women have handsome features of Jewish cast (the last
trait often true also of the men); fair complexions, sometimes
rosy, though usually a pale sallow; hair braided and plaited
behind in two long tresses terminating in silken tassels. They
are rigidly secluded, but intrigue is frequent.
The Afghans, inured to bloodshed from childhood, are familiar
with death, and audacious in attack, but easily discouraged by
failure; excessively turbulent and unsubmissive to law or dis-
cipline; apparently frank and affable in manner, especially when
they hope to gain some object, but capable of the grossest
brutality when that hope ceases. They are unscrupulous in
perjury, treacherous, vain and insatiable, passionate in vindic-
tiveness, which they will satisfy at the cost of their own lives and
in the most cruel manner. Nowhere is crime committed on such
trifling grounds, or with such general impunity, though when it
is punished the punishment is atrocious. Among themselves the
Afghans are quarrelsome, intriguing and distrustful; estrange*
ments and affrays are of constant occurrence; the traveller
conceals and misrepresents the time and direction of his journey.
The Afghan is by breed and nature a bird of prey. If from habit
and tradition he respects a stranger within his threshold, he yet
considers it legitimate to warn a neighbour of the prey that is
afoot, or even to overtake and plunder his guest after he has
quitted his roof. The repression of crime and the demand of
taxation he regards alike as tyranny. The Afghans are eternally
boasting of their lineage, their independence and their prowess.
They look on the Afghans as the first of nations, and each man
looks on himself as the equal of any Afghan.
They are capable of enduring great privation, and make
excellent soldiers under British discipline, though there are but
few in the Indian army. Sobriety and hardiness characterize the
bulk of the people, though the higher classes are too often stained
with deep and degrading debauchery. The first impression made
by the Afghan is favourable. The European, especially if he
come from India, is charmed by their apparently frank, open-
hearted, hospitable and manly manners; but the charm is not
of long duration, and he finds that the Afghan is as cruel and
crafty as he is independent. No trustworthy statistics exist
showing either present numbers or fluctuations in the population
of Afghanistan, Within the amir's dominions there are probably
from four to five millions of people, and of these the vast majority
are agriculturists.
The cultivators, including landowners, tenants, hired labourers
and slaves, represent the working population of the country, and
•M industrious and successful agriculturists they are unsurpassed
in Asia. They have carried the art of irrigation to great per-
fection, and they utilise every acre of profitable soil. Certain
Ghilzai clans are specially famous for their skill in the construc-
tion of the kares or underground water-channel.
The religion of the country throughout is Mahommedan.
Next to Turkey, Afghanistan is the most powerful Mahommedan
kingdom in existence. The vast majority of Afghans j^w^,
are of the Sunni sect; but there are, in their midst,
such powerful communities of Shiahs as the Hazaras of the central
districts, the Kizilbashes of Kabul and the Turis of the Kurram
border, nor is there between them that bitterness of sectarian
animosity which is so marked a feature in India. The Kafirs of
the mountainous region of Kafiristan alone are non-Mahom-
medan. They are sunk in a paganism which seems to embrace
some faint reflexion of Greek mythology, Zoroastrian principles
and the tenets of Buddhism, originally gathered, no doubt, from
the varied elements of their mixed extraction. Those contiguous
Afghan tribes, who have not so long ago been converted to the
faith of Islam, are naturally the most fanatical and the most
virulent upholders of the faith around them. In and about the
centre of civilization at Kabul, instances of Ghazism are com-
paratively rare. In the western provinces about Kandahar
(amongst the Durani Afghans—the people who claim to be Ben-
i -Israel), and especially in Zamindawar, the spirit of fanaticism
runs high, and every other Afghan is a possible Ghazi— a man
who has devoted his life to the extinction of other creeds.
Persian is the vernacular of a large part of the non-Afghan
population, and is familiar to all educated Afghans; it is the
language of the court and of literature. Pushtu, how-
ever, is the prevailing language, though it does not JJJ"
seem to be spoken in Herat, or, roughly speaking, west mtntm:
of the Helmund. Turki is spoken in Afghan Turkestan.
There is a respectable amount of Afghan literature. The oldest
work in Pushtu is a history of the conquest of Swat by Shaikh
Mali, a chief of the Yusafzais, and leader in the conquest (a.d.
14x3-34). In 1494 Kaju Khan became chief of the same clan;
during his rule Buner and Panjkora were completely conquered,
and he wrote a history of the events. In the reign of Akbar,
Bayazid Ansari, called Pir-i-Roshan, " the Saint of Light," the
founder of an heretical sect, wrote in Pushtu; as did his chief
antagonist, a famous Afghan saint called Akhund Darweza.
The literature is richest in poetry. Abdur Rahman ( 1 7th century)
is the best known poet. Another very popular poet is Khushal
Khan, the warlike chief of the Khattaks in the time of Aurangzeb.
Many other members of his family were poets also. Ahmad
Shah, the founder of the monarchy, likewise wrote poetry.
Ballads are numerous.
Education is confined to most elementary principles in Afghan-
istan. Of schools or colleges for the purposes of a higher educa-
tion befitted to the sons of noblemen and the more ^c*tfo».
wealthy merchants there are absolutely none; but
the village school is an ever-present and very open spectacle to
the passer-by. Here the younger boys are collected and in-
structed in the rudiments of reading, writing and religious creed
by the village mullah, or priest, who thereby acquires an early
influence over the Afghan mind* The method of teaching is
confined to that wearisome system of loud-voiced repetition
which is so annoying a feature in Indian schools; and the Koran
is, of course, the text-book in all forms of education. Every
Afghan gentleman can read and speak Persian, but beyond
this acquirement education seems to be limited to the physical
development of the youth by instruction in horsemanship and
feats of skill. Such advanced education as exists in Afghan-
istan is centred in the priests and physicians; but the ignorance
of both is extreme.
The government of Afghanistan is an absolute monarchy under
the amir, and succession to the throne is hereditary. There are
five chief political divisions in the country— namely,
Kabul, Turkestan Herat, Kandahar and Badakshan,
each of which is ruled by a " naib " or governor, who
is directly responsible to the amir. Under the governors
of provinces the nobles and kazis (or district judges) dispense
justice much in the feudal fashion. There are three classes of
312
AFGHANISTAN
chiefs who form the council or durbar of the king. These are
the sirdars, the khans and the mullahs. The sirdars are
hereditary nobles, the khans are representatives of the people,
and the mullahs of Mahommedan religion. The khan is elected
by the clan or tribe. The clannish attachment of the Afghans is
rather to the community than to the chief. These three classes of
representatives arc divided into two assemblies, the Durbar Shahi
or royal assembly, and the Rharwanin Mulkhi or commons. The
mullahs take their place in one or the other according to their
individual rank. The executive officials of the amir have a
selected body, called the Khilwat, which acts as a cabinet council,
but no member can give advice to the crown without being asked
to do so, or beyond the jurisdiction of his own department. The
amir, in addition to being chief executive officer, is chief judge
and supreme court of appeal. Any one has the right to appeal to
the amir for trial, and the great amirs, Dost Mahommed and
Abdur Rahman, were accessible at all times to the petitions of their
subjects. Next to the amir comes the court of the kazi, the chief
centre of justice, and beneath the kazi comes the kotwal, who
performs, as in India, the ordinary functions of a magistrate. In
large provincial towns there is a punchait, or council, for the
trial of commercial cases. There are government departments
for the administration of revenue, customs, post-office, military
affairs, &c. The general law administered in all the courts of
Afghanistan is that of Islam and of the customs of the country,
with developments introduced by the Amir Abdur Rahman.
The Afghan army probably numbers 50,000 regulars distributed
between the military centres of Herat, Kandahar, Kabul, Mazar-
Dwfroc* i-Sharif, Jalalabad and Asmar, with detachments at
frontier outposts on the side of India. Abdur Rahman
claimed that he could put 100,000 men into the field within a
week for the defence .of Herat. In 1806 he introduced a system
of semi-enforced service whereby one man in every eight between
the ages of sixteen and seventy lakes his turn at military
training. In this way he calculated that he could have raised
1,000,000 men armed with modern weapons, but his chief
difficulty would be money and transport. The pay of the
army is apt to be irregular. The amir's factories at Kabul for
arms and ammunition are said to turn out about 20,000
cartridges and 15 rifles daily,, with 2 guns per week; but the
arms thus produced are very heterogeneous, and the different
varieties of cartridge used would cause endless complications.
The two chief fastnesses of Northern Afghanistan are Herat
and Dehdadi near Balkh. The latter fort took twelve years to
build, and commands all the roads leading from the Oxus into
Afghan Turkestan. It is armed with naval quick-firing guns,
Krupp,Hotchkiss, Nordenfeld and Maxim. The chief cantonment
for the same district is at Mazar-i-Sharif, um. from Balkh.
Financially, Afghanistan has never, since it first became a
kingdom, been able to pay for its own government, public works
FtOMMC9m and army. There appears to be no inherent reason
why this should be so. Whilst it can never (in the
absence of any great mineral wealth) develop into a wealthy
country, it can at least support its own population; and it
would, but for the short-sighted trade policy of Abdur Rahman,
certainly have risen to a position of respectable solvency. Its
revenues (about which no trustworthy information is available)
are subject to great fluctuations, and probably never exceed the
value of one million sterling per annum. They fell in Shere AJi's
time to £700,000. The original subsidy to the amir from the
Indian government was fixed at 12 lakhs of rupees (£80,000)
per annum, but in 1893, in connexion with the boundary settle-
ment, it was increased to £120,000.
Few minerals are wrought in Afghanistan, though Abdur
Rahman claims in his autobiography that the country is rich
Wirmft * n mines - S° me sma ^ quantity of gold is taken from
the streams in Laghman and the adjoining districts.
Famous silver mines were formerly worked near the head of the
Panjshir valley in Hindu Kush. Kabul is chiefly supplied
with iron from the Permuli (or Farmuli) district, between the
Upper Kurrara and Gomal, where it is said to be abundant
Iron ore is most abundant near the- passes leading to Bamian,
and in other parts of Hindu Kush. Copper Ore from various
parts of Afghanistan has been seen, but it is nowhere worked.
Lead is found in Upper Bangash (Kurram district), and in the
Shinwari country (also among the branches of Safed Koh), and
in the Kakar country. There are reported to be rich lead mines
near Herat scarcely worked. Lead, with antimony, is found
near the Arghand-ab, 32 m. north-west of Ghazni, and in the
Ghorband valley, north of Kabul. Most of the lead used, how-
ever, comes from the Haxara country, where the ore is described
as being gathered on the surface. An ancient mine of great
extent and elaborate character exists at Feringal, in the Ghor-
band valley. Antimony is obtained in considerable quantities
at Shah-Maksud, about 30 m. north of Kandahar. Sulphur is
said to be found at Herat, dug from the soil in small Cpfnents,
but the chief supply comes from the Hazara coe, * n( £d Kocm
Pirkisri, on the confines of Seistan, wb^^fcited 1*. valley,
to be a crater, or fumarole. Sal-ammoni je tbeit M ^
same place. Gypsum is found in large qi * keep t j n ^
Kandahar, being dug out in fragile core traveu^ C> ^
the surface. Coal (perhaps lignite) is said axe vc *?though
(between the Upper Kurram and the Go flowing w i nt er
Nitre abounds in the soil over all the soul rarely. j n the
and often affects the water of the karez < off ^^ndica-
The characteristic distribution of vegetatiou *u i:+ aid". ,„ aUls
of Afghanistan is worthy of attention. The great
mass of it is confined to the main ranges and their ^jy*
immediate off-shoots, whilst on the more distant and
terminal prolongations it is almost entirely absent; in fact,
these are naked rock and stone.
Take, for example, the Safed Koh. On the alpine ranee itself and
its immediate branches, at a height of 6000 to 10,000 ft., we have
abundant growth of large forest trees, among which conifers are the
most noble and prominent, men as Cedrus Deodara, Abies excels*.
Pinus longifolia, P. Pinaster, P. Pinea (the edible pine) and the larch .
We have also the yew. the hasel, juniper, walnut, wild peach and
almond. Growing under the shade of these are several varieties of
rose, honeysuckle, currant, gooseberry, hawthorn, rhododendron
and a luxuriant herbage, among which the ranunculus family is im-
portant for frequency and number of genera. The lemon and wild
vine are also here met with, but are more common on the northern
mountains. The walnut and oak (evergreen, holly-leaved and
kermes) descend to the secondary heights, where they become mixed
with alder, ash, khinjak, Arbor-vitas, juniper, with species of Astra-
galus, Ac. Here also are Indigoferae and dwarf laburnum.
Lower again, and down to 3000 ft. we have wild olive, species of
rock-rose, wild privet, acacias and mimosas, barberry and Zisypkus;
and in the eastern ramifications of the chain, Ckamaerops numilis
(which is applied to a variety of useful purposes), Bignonia or trumpet
flower, sissu, Salvadora persica, verbena, acanthus, varieties of
Gesnerae.
The lowest terminal ridges, especially towards the west, are. as
has been said, naked in aspect. Their scanty vegetation is almost
wholly herbal ; shrubs are only occasional ; trees almost non-exist-
ent. Labiate, composite and umbelliferous plants are most common.
Ferns and mosses are almost confined to the higher ranges.
In the low brushwood scattered over portions of the dreary plains
of the Kandahar table-lands, we find leguminous thorny plants of
the papilionaceous sub-order, such as camel-thorn (Hedysarum
Alhagi), Astragalus in several varieties, spiny rest-harrow (Ononis
spinosa), the fibrous roots of which often serve as a tooth-brush;
plants of the sub-order Mimosas, as the sensitive mimosa; a plant of
the rue family, called by the natives lipdd; the common worm-
wood; also certain orchids, and several species of Salsola. The
rue and wormwood are in general use as domestic medicines— the
former for rheumatism ana neuralgia; the latter in fever, debility
and dyspepsia, as well as for a vermifuge. The lip&d, owing to its
heavy nauseous odour, is believed to keep off evil spirits. In some
places, occupying the sides and hollows of ravines, are found the
rose bay (Nertum Oleander), called in Persian kkar-sarah, or ass-bane,
the wild laburnum and various Indigoferae.
In cultivated district* the chief trees seen are mulberry, willow,
poplar, ash, and occasionally the plane ; but these are due to man's
planting.
One of the most important of these is the gum-resin of f/arthex
asafetida, which grows abundantly in the high and dry plains of
Western Afghanistan, especially between Kandahar and t JmeatMU
Herat. The depot for it is Kandahar, whence it finds its Xmtotms*.
way to India, where it is much used as a condiment. It A—- 1/
is not so used in Afghanistan, but the Seistan people eat J2.
the green stalks of the plant preserved in brine. The
collection of the gum-resin ia almost entirely in the hands of the
Kakar clan of Afg?
AFGHANISTAN
3»3
In the highlands of Kabul edible rhubarb is an important local
luxury. The plants grow wild in the mountains. The bleached
rhubarb, which has a very delicate flavour, is altered by covering
the young leaves, as they sprout from the soil, with loose stones
or an empty jar. The leaf-sulks are gathered by the neighbouring
hill people, and carried down for sale. Bleached and unbleached
rhubarb are both largely consumed, both raw and cooked.
The walnut and edible pine-nut are both wild growths, which are
exported.
The sanjtl (Elaeaguns orientalis), common on the banks of water-
courses, furnishes an edible fruit.- An orchis found in the mountain
yields the dried tuber which affords the nutritious mucilage called
saUp; a good deal of this goes to India.
Pistacta kkinjak affords a mastic The fruit, mixed with its resin,
is used for food by the Achakzais in Southern Afghanistan. The true
pistachio is found only on the northern frontier; the nuts are im-
ported from Badakshan and Kundux.
Mushrooms and other* fungi are largely used as food, especially
by the Hindus of the towns, to whom they supply a substitute for
Manna, of at least two kinds, is sold in the bazaars. One, called
turanjbtn, appears to exude, in small round tears, from the camel-
thorn, and also from the dwarf tamarisk; the other, sir-kaskt, in
large grains and irregular masses or cakes with bits of twig imbedded,
is obtained from a tree which the natives call siak ckob (black wood),
thought by Bellew to be a Fraxinus or Ornus.
In most parts of the country there are two harvests, as gener-
ally in India. One of these, called by the Afghans bahdrak, or
the spring crop, is sown in the end of autumn and
^SLn. Raped in summer. It consists of wheat, barley and a
variety of lentils. The other, called pdisak or tlrm&i,
the autumnal, is sown in the end of spring, and reaped in autumn.
It consists of rice, varieties of millet and sorghum, of maize,
Pkaseolus Mungo, tobacco, beet, turnips, &c. The loftier regions
have but one harvest
Wheat is the staple food over the greater part of the country.
Rice is not largely distributed. In much of the eastern moun-
tainous country bdjra {Hokus spicatus) is the chief grain. Most
English and Indian garden-stuffs are cultivated; turnips in
some places very largely, as cattle food.
The growth of melons, water-melons and other cucurbitaceous
plants b reckoned very important, especially near towns; and
this crop counts for a distinct harvest
Sugar-cane is grown only in the rich plains; and though
cotton is grown in the warmer tracts, most of the cotton cloth is
imported.
Madder is an important item of the spring crop in Ghazni and
Kandahar districts, and generally over the west, and supplies
the Indian demand. It is said to be very profitable, though it
takes three years to mature. Saffron is grown and exported.
The castor-oil plant is everywhere common, and furnishes most
of the ofl of the country. Tobacco is grown very generally;
that of Kandahar has, much repute, and is exported to India
and Bokhara. Two crops of leaves are taken.
Lucerne and a trefoil called skaftal form important fodder
crops in the western parts of the country, and, when irrigated,
are said to afford ten or twelve cuttings in the season. The
komal {Prangos pabularia) is abundant in the hill country of
Ghazni, and b said to extend through the Hazara country to
Herat It b stored for winter use, and forms an excellent
fodder. Others are derived from the Hokus sorghum, and from
two kinds of panick. It b common to cut down the green wheat
and barley before the ear forms, for fodder, and the repetition
of this, with barley at least, is said not to injure the grain crop.
Bellew gives the following statement of the manner in which
the soil u sometimes worked in the Kandahar district:— Barley
b sown in November; in March and April it b twice cut for
fodder; in June the grain b reaped, the ground is ploughed
and manured and sown with tobacco, which yields two cuttings.
The ground b then prepared for carrots and turnips, which are
gathered in November or December.
Of great moment are the fruit crops. All European fruits
are produced profusely, in many varieties and of excellent
quality. Fresh or preserved, they form a principal food of a
large class of the people, and the dry fruit b largely exported.
In the valleys of Kabul mulberries are dried, and packed in
skins for winter use. This mulberry cake b often reduced to
flour, and used as such, forming in some valleys the main food
of the people.
Grapes are grown very extensively, and the varieties are very
numerous. The vines are sometimes trained on trellises, but
most frequently over ridges of earth 8 or 10 ft. high. The
principal part of the garden lands in villages round Kandahar is
vineyard, and the produce must be enormous.
Open canals are usual in the Kabul valley, and in eastern
Afghanistan generally; but over all the western parts of the
country much use b made of the kara, which b a subterranean
aqueduct uniting the waters of several springs, and conducting
their combined volume to the surface at a lower level.
As regards vertebrate zoology, Afghanistan lies on the frontier
of three regions, viz. the Eurasian, the Ethiopian (to
which region Baluchistan seems to belong) and the
J ndo- Malayan. Hence it naturally partakes somewhat of the
forms of each, but b in the main Eurasian.
Felidae. — P. coins, F. ekaus (both Eurasian); P. caracal (Ivur..
Ind., Eth.), about Kandahar; a small leopard, stated to be found
almost all over the country, perhaps rather the cheetah (f! . jubatus,
Ind. and Eth.); F. tardus, the common leopard (Eth. and Ind.).
The tiger exists in Afghan Turkestan.
Cantdae. — The jackal (C. aureus, Eur., Ind., Eth.) abounds on
the Helmund and Argand-ab, and probably elsewhere. Wolves (C
BengaUnsis) are formidable in the wilder tracts, and assemble in
troops on the snow, destroying cattle and sometimes attacking
single horsemen. The hyena (H. striata, Africa to India) b common.
These do not hunt in packs, but will sometimes singly attack a
bullock ; they and the wolves make havoc among sheep. A favourite
feat of the boldest of the young men of southern Afghanistan b to
enter the hyena's den, single-handed, muffle and tie him. There are
wild dogs, according to Elphinstone and Conolly. The small Indian
fox (Vulpes BtngaUnsis) b found; also V. fiavescens, common to
India and Persia, the skin of which b much used as a fur.
Mustelidae. — Species of mungoose (Herpestes), species of otter.
Mustelo erminea, and two ferrets, one of them with tortoise-shell
marks, tamed by the Afghans to keep down vermin; a marten (M.
fiavigula, Indian).
Bears are two: a black one, probably Ursus torquatus; and one
of a dirty yellow, V. Isabellinus, both Himalayan species.
Ruminants. — Capra aegagrus and C. megaceros', a wild sheep
(Chris cydoceros or Vignet); Casella subgutturosa—thttc are often
netted in batches when they descend to drink at a stream ; C. dorcas
perhaps: Cervus Wallkkit, the Indian barasingha, and probably
some other Indian deer, in the north-eastern mountains.
The wild hog (Sus scroja) b found on the lower Helmund. The
wild ass, Gorkkar of Persia (Equus onager), b frequent on the sandy
tracts in the south-west.
The Himalayan varieties of the markhor and ibex are abundant
in Kafiristan.
Tdpidae.—& mole, probably Talpa Europaeai Sorex Indkus;
Efinmtm etfkrit (Indian)* and £r. aurilus (Eurasian).
Eats believed to be Phylkrkmus cineraceus (Punjab species),
Statafihtlui Belt ii (W. India), Hp#. ouritus and V. barbosteUus, both
found from En^tand to India,
Radrntia, — A squirrel {Sziurui Syriacus?); Mus Indkus and M.
Gerbfttinm; a jerboa {Dipui jWuwi?); Alactaga Bactriana; Gerbil-
iuA fndicut, And G. tryihriitui (Peruan and Indian); Lagomys Nepal-
frtm, a Central Asian specie*. A hare ; probably L. ruficaudatus,
Bird*.— The large*! list of Afghan birds that we know of is given
by Captain Hutton in Ehc J. As. Soc. Bengal, vol. xvi. pp. 775 sea;.;
tut it i «^;> lar from complete. Of 124 species in that list,
?5 are pronounced to be Eurasian, 17 Indian, 10 both Eurasian and
ndian, I (Turtur risorius) Eur., Ind. and Eth.; and 1 only, Carpo*
dacus (Bucaneles) crassiroslris, peculiar to the country. Afghanistan
appears to be, during the breeding season, the retreat of a variety
of Indian and some African (desert) forms, whilst in winter the
avifauna becomes overwhelmingly Eurasian.
Reptiles.— The following particulars are from Gray: — Lizards
— Pseudopus gracilis (Eur.), Arryropkis Horsfieldii, Salea Horsfieldii,
Calotes Maria, C. versicolor, C. minor, C. Emma, Pkrynocepkalus
Tkkelii—a\l Indian forms. A tortoise (Testudo Horsfieldii) appears
to be peculiar to Kabul. There are apparently no salamanders or
tailed Amphibia. The frogs are partly Eurasian, partly Indian;
and the same may be said of the fish, but they are as yet most
imperfectly known.
The camel b of a more robust and compact breed than the tall
beast used in India, and is more carefully tended. The two-
humped Bactrian camel is commonly used in the Oxus regions,
but b seldom seen near the Indian frontier.
Horses form a staple export to India. The best of these,
however, are reserved for the Afghan cavalry. Those exported
to India are usually bred in Maimana and other places in Afghan
3 H
AFGHANISTAN
Turkestan. The indigenous hone is the yabu, a stout, heavy-
shouldered animal, of about 14 hands high, used chiefly for
burden, but also for riding. It gets over incredible distances
at an ambling shuffle, but is unfit for fast work and cannot
stand excessive heat. The breed of horses was much improved
under the amir Abdur Rahman, who took much interest in it
Generally, colts are sold and worked too young.
The cows of Kandahar and Seistan give very large quantities
of milk. They seem to be of the humped variety, but with the
hump evanescent. Dairy produce is important in Afghan diet,
especially the pressed and dried curd called kriU (an article and
name perhaps introduced by the Mongols).
There are two varieties of sheep, both having the fat tail.
One bears a white fleece, the other a russet or black one. Much
of the white wool is exported to Persia, and now largely to
Europe by Bombay. Flocks of sheep are the main wealth of
the nomad population, and mutton is the chief animal food of
the nation. In autumn large numbers are slaughtered, their
carcases cut up, rubbed with salt and dried in the sun. The
same is done with beef and camel's flesh.
The goats, generally black or parti-coloured, seem to be a
degenerate variety of the shawl-goat
The climate is found to be favourable to dog-breeding.
Pointers are bred in the Kohistan of Kabul and above Jalala-
bad— large, heavy, slow-hunting, but fine-nosed and staunch;
very like the old double-nosed Spanish pointer. There are grey-
hounds also, but inferior in speed to second-rate English dogs.
The manufactures of the country have not developed much
during recent yean. Poshtins (sheepskin clothing) and the
Tr . mm - many varieties of camel and goat's hair-doth which,
^^y under the name of " barak," " karak," &c, are manu-
factured in the northern districts, are still the chief
local products of that part of Afghanistan. Herat and Kandahar
are famous for their silks, although a large proportion of the
manufactured silk found on the Herat market, as well as many of
the felts, carpets and embroideries, are brought from the Central
Asian khanates. The district of Herat produces many of the
smaller sorts of carpets (" galickas " or prayer-carpets), of
excellent design and colour, the little town of Adraskand being
especially 'famous for this industry; but they are not to be
compared with the best products of eastern Persia or of the
Turkman districts about Panjdeh.
The nomadic Afghan tribes of the west are chiefly pastoral, and
the wool of the southern Herat and Kandahar provinces is famous
for its quality. In this direction, the late boundary settlements
have undoubtedly led to a considerable development of local
resources. A large quantity of wool, together with silk, dried
fruit, madder and asafetida, finds its way to India by the
Kandahar route.
It is impossible to give accurate trade statistics, there being
no trustworthy system of registration. The value of the imports
from Kabul to India in 1892-1893 was estimated at 321,000 Rx(or
tens of rupees). In 1809 it was little over 21 7,000 Rx, the period
of lowest intermediate depression being in 1897. These imports
include horses, cattle, fruits, grain, wool, silk, hides, tobacco,
drugs and provisions (ghi, &c). All this trade emanates from
Kabul, there being no transit trade with Bokhara owing to the
heavy dues levied by the amir. The value of the exports from
India to Kabul also shows great fluctuation. In the year x 892-1 893
it was registered at nearly 61 1,000 Rx. In 1804-1895 it had sunk
to 274,000 Rx, and in 1809 it figured at 204,600 Rx. The chief
items are cotton goods, sugar and tea. In 1808-1809 the imports
from Kandahar to India were valued at 330,000 Rx, and the
exports from India to Kandahar at about 264,000 Rx. Three-
fourths of the exports consist of cotton goods, and three-eighths
of the imports were raw wool The balance of the imports was
chiefly made up of dried fruits. Comparison with trade statistics
of previous years on this side Afghanistan is difficult, owing
to the inclusion of a large section of Baluchistan and Persia
within the official " Kandahar " returns; but it does not appear
that the value of the western Afghanistan trade is much on the
increase. The opening up of the route between Quetta and
Seistan has doubtless affected a trade which was already seriously
hampered by restrictions. In the year after the mission of Sir
Louis Dane to' Kabul in 1905 it was authoritatively stated that
the trade between Afghanistan and India had nearly doubled in
value.
The basin of the Kabul river especially abounds in remains
of the period when Buddhism flourished. Bamian is famous
for its wall-cut figures, and at Haibak (on the route
between Tashkurghan and Kabul) there are some most
interesting Buddhist remains. In the Koh-Daman,
north of Kabul, are the sites of several ancient cities, the greatest
of which, called Beghram, has furnished coins in scores of
thousands, and has been supposed to represent Alexander's
Nicaea. Nearer Kabul, and especially on the hills some miles
south of the city, are numerous topes. In the valley of Jalalabad
are many remains of the same character.
In the valley of the Tarnak are the ruins of a great city (Ulan
Robat) supposed to be the ancient Arachosia. About Ghishk, on
the Helmund, are extensive mounds and other traces of build-
ings, and the remains of several great cities exist in the plain of
Seistan, as at Pulki, Peshawaran and Lakh, relics of ancient
Drangiana. An ancient stone vessel preserved in a mosque
at Kandahar is almost certainly the same that was treasured
at Peshawar in the 5th century as the begging pot of Sakya-
Muni. In architectural relics of a later date than the Graeco-
Buddhist period Afghanistan is remarkably deficient. Of the
city of Ghazni, the vast capital of Mahmud and his race, no
substantial relics survive, except the tomb of Mahmud and two
remarkable brick minarets. A vast and fruitful harvest of coins
has bean gathered in Afghanistan and the adjoining regions.
Biblxogvlathy.— RAwMnson, EnglandandRussiain the East {iB7$);
H. M. Durand. The First Afghan War (1879); Wyllie's Essays on the
External Policy of India (1875) ; Elphinstone, Account of the Kingdom
of Kabul (1809); Parliamentary Papers, " Afghanistan "; Curxon,
Problems in the Far East; HoldJch, Indian Borderland^ lOpi); India
(1903) ; Indian Survey Reports; Russo-Afghan Boundary Commission
(1886) ; Pamir Boundary Commission (1896). (T. H. H.°)
History
The Afghan chroniclers call their people Beni-tsraU (Arab,
for Children of Israel), and claim descent from King Saul (whom
they call by the Mahommedan corruption Tdl&t) through a son
whom they ascribe to him, called Jeremiah, who again had a
son called Afghana. The numerous stock of Afghans were
removed by Nebuchadrezzar, and found their way to the moun-
tains of Ghor and Feroza (east and north of Herat). Only nine
years after Mahommed's announcement of his mission they heard
of the new prophet, and sent to Medina a deputation headed by a
wise and holy man called Kais, to make inquiry. The deputation
became zealous converts, and on their return converted their
countrymen. From Kais and his three sons the whole of the
genuine Afghans claim descent
This story is repeated in great and varying detail in sundry
books by Afghans, the oldest of which appears to be of the x6th
century; nor do we know that any trace of the legend is found of
older date. In the version given by Major Raverty (Introd. to
Afghan Grammar), Afghanah is settled by King Solomon himself
in the Sulimani mountains', there is nothing about Nebuchad-
rezzar or Ghor. The historian Ferishta says he had read that
the Afghans were descended from Copts of the race of Pharaoh.
And one of the Afghan histories, quoted by Mr Bellew, relates
"a current tradition " that, previous to the time of Kais, BiU
the father of the Biluchis, Usbak (evidently the father of the
Usbegs) and Afghana were considered as brethren. As Mahom-
med Usbeg Khan, the eponymus of the medley of Tatar tribes
called Usbegs, reigned in the 14th century A.D., this gives some
possible light on the value of these so-called traditions.
We have analogous stories in the literature of almost all
nations that derive their religion or their civilization from a
foreign source. To say nothing of the Book of Mormon, a con-
siderable number of persons have been found to propagate
the doctrine that the English people are descended from the
tribes of Israel. But the Hebrew ancestry of the Afghans m
AFGHANISTAN
315
more worthy At least of consideration, for a respectable number
of intelligent officers, well acquainted with the Afghans, have
been strong in their belief of it; and though the customs alleged
in proof will not bear the stress laid on them, undoubtedly a
prevailing type of the Afghan physiognomy has a character
strongly Jewish. This characteristic is certainly a remarkable
one; but it is shared, to a considerable extent, by the Kash-
miris (a circumstance which led Bernier to speculate on the
Kashmiris representing the lost tribes of Israel), and, we believe,
by the Tajik people of Badakshan.
Relations with the Greeks.— In the time of Darius Hystaspes
(500 B.C.) we find the region now called Afghanistan embraced
in the Achaemenian satrapies, and various parts of it occupied
by Saranpans (in Seistan), Avians (in Herat), Sattagydians
(supposed in highlands of upper Helmund and the plateau of
Ghazni), Dadicae (suggested to be Tajiks), Aparytae (mountain-
eers, perhaps of Safed Koh, where lay the Paryetae of Ptolemy),
Candarii (in Lower Kabul basin) and Paktyts, on or near the
Indus. In the last name it has been plausibly suggested that
we have the Pukhtun, as the eastern Afghans pronounce their
name. Indeed, Pusht, Paskt or Pakkt would seem to be the
oldest name of the country of the Afghans in their traditions.
The Ariana of Strabo corresponds generally with the existing
dominions of Kabul, but overpasses their limits on the west and
south.
About 310 B.C. Seleucus is said by Strabo to have given to
the Indian Sandrocottus (Chandragupta), in consequence of a
marriage-contract, some part of the country west of the Indus
occupied by an Indian population, and no doubt embracing a
part of the Kabul basin. Some sixty years later occurred the
establishment of an independent Greek dynasty in Bactria.
(See Bactria, Meow, Eucratxdes, Menander of India, Euthy-
demus, and Persia, Ancient History.) Of the details of their
history and extent of their dominion in different reigns we know
almost nothing, and conjecture is often dependent on such vague
data as are afforded by the collation of the localities in which the
coins of independent princes have been found. But their power
extended certainly over the Kabul basin, and probably, at times,
over the whole of Afghanistan. The ancient architecture of
Kashmir, the tope of Manikyala in the Punjab, and many
sculptures found in the Peshawar valley, show unmistakable
Greek influence. Demetrius (c. 190 B.C.) is supposed to have
reigned in Arachosia after being expelled from Bactria, much
as, at a later date, Baber reigned in Kabul after his expulsion
from Samarkand. Eucratides (181 B.C.) is alleged by Justin
to have warred in India. With his coins, found abundantly in
the Kabul basin, commences the use of an Arianian inscription,
in addition to the Greek, supposed to imply the transfer of rule
to the south of the mountains, over a people whom the Greek
dynasty sought to conciliate. Under Heliocles (147 B.C.?),
the Parthians, who had already encroached on Ariana, pressed
their conquests into India. Menander (126 B.C.) invaded India
at least to the Jumna, ancl perhaps also to the Indus delta. The
coinage of a succeeding king, Hermaeus, indicates a barbaric
irruption. There is a general correspondence between classical
and Chinese accounts of the time when Bactria was overrun
by Scythian invaders. The chief nation among these, called by
the Chinese Yue-Cki, about 126 B.C. established themselves in
Sogdiana and on the Oxus in five hordes. Near the Christian
era the chief of one of these, which was called Kushan, subdued
the rest, and extended his conquests over the countries south of
the Hindu Kush, including Sind as well as Afghanistan, thus
establishing a great dominion, of which we hear from Greek
writers as Indo-Scythia. (See Yue-Chi.)
Buddhism had already acquired influence over the people of
the Kabul basin, and some of the barbaric invaders adopted
that system. Its traces are extensive, especially in the plains of
Jalalabad and Peshawar, but also in the vicinity of Kabul.
Various barbaric dynasties succeeded each other. A notable
monarch was Kanishka (see India, History) or Kanerkes, whose
date is variously fixed at from 58 B c. to a.d. 125. and whose power
extended over the upper Oxus basin, Kabul, Peshawar, Kashmir
and probably far into India. His name and legends still filled the
land, or at least the Buddhist portion of it, 600 years later, when
the Chinese pilgrim, Hsttan Tsang, travelled in India; they bad
even reached the great Mahommedan philosopher, traveller and
geographer, AbQ-r-Raihin Muhammad al-BlrQnl (see BIrOnI),
in the nth century; and they are still celebrated in the Mongol
versions of Buddhist ecclesiastical story.
Turkoman Dynasties.— In the time of Hsuan Tsang (a.d. 630-
645) there were both Indian and Turk princes In the Kabul
valley, and in the succeeding centuries both these races seem
to have predominated in succession. The first Mahommedan
attempts at the conquest of Kabul were unsuccessful, though
Seistan and Arachosia were permanently held from an early
date. It was not till the end of the xoth century that a Hindu
prince ceased to reign in Kabul, and it fell into the hands of the
Turk Sabuktagin, who had established his capital at Ghazni.
There, too, reigned his famous son Mahmud, and a series of
descendants, till the middle of the 12th century, rendering the
city one of the most splendid in Asia. We then have a powerful
dynasty, commonly believed to have been of Afghan race; and
if so, the first. But the historians give them a legendary descent
from Zohak, which is no Afghan genealogy. The founder of
the dynasty was Alauddin, chief of Ghor, whose vengeance for
the cruel death of his brother at the hands of Bahrain the
Ghaznevide was wreaked in devastating the great city. His
nephew, Shahabuddin Mahommed, repeatedly invaded India,
conquering as far as Benares. His empire in India indeed —
ruled by his freedmen who after his death became independent
.—may be regarded as the origin of that great Mahommedan
monarchy which endured nominally till 1857. For a brief period
the Afghan countries were subject to the king of Khwarixm,
and it was here chiefly that occurred the gallant attempts of
Jalaluddin of Khwarixm to withstand the progress of Jenghix
Khan.
A passage in Ferishta seems to imply that the Afghans in the
Sulimani mountains were already known by that name in the
first century of the Hegira, but it is uncertain how far this may
be built on. The name Afghans is very distinctly mentioned in
'Utbi's History of Sultan Mahmud, written about a.d. 2030,
coupled with that of the Kkiljis. It also appears frequently in
connexion with the history of India in the 13th and 14th cen-
turies. The successive dynasties of Delhi are generally called
Palhan, but were really so only in part. Of the Kkiljis (1288-
1321) we have already spoken. The Tughlaks (1321-1421) were
originally Tatars of the Karauna tribe. The Lodis (1450-1526)
were pure Pathans. For a century and more after the Mongol
invasion the whole of the Afghan countries were under Mongol
rule; but in the middle of the 14th century a native dynasty
sprang up in western Afghanistan, that of the Kurts, which
extended its rule over Ghor, Herat and Kandahar. The history
of the Afghan countries under the Mongols is obscure; but that
regime must have left its mark upon the country, if we judge
from the occurrence of frequent Mongol names of places, and
even of Mongol expressions adopted into familiar language.
Tke Mogul Dynasty.— All these countries were included in
Thnur's conquests, and Kabul at least had remained in the
possession of one of his descendants till 1501, only three years
before it fell into the hands of another and more illustrious one,
Sultan Baber. It was not till 1522 that Baber succeeded in
permanently wresting Kandahar from the Arg)iuns\ a family of
Mongol descent, who had long held it. From the time of his
conquest of Hindustan (victory at Panipat, April 21, 1526),
Kabul and Kandahar may be regarded as part of the empire
of Delhi under the (so-called) Mogul dynasty which Baber
founded. Kabul so continued till the invasion of Nadir Shah
(1738). Kandahar often changed hands between the Moguls
and. the rising Safavis (or Sufis) of Persia. Under the latter it
had remained from 1642 till 1708, when in the reign. of Husain,
the last of them, the Ghilzais, provoked by the oppressive
Persian governor Shahnawaz Khan (a Georgian prince of the
Bagratid house), revolted under Mir Wais, and expelled the
1 Persians. Mir Wais was acknowledged sovereign of Kandahar,
3*6
AFGHANISTAN
and eventually defeated the Persian armies tent against him,
but did not long survive (d. 2715).
Mahmud, the son of Mir Wais, a man of great courage and
energy, carried out a project of his father's, the conquest of
Persia itself. After a long siege, Shah Husain came forth from
Ispahan with all his. court, and surrendered the sword and
diadem of the Sufis into the hands of the Ghilzai (October 1722).
Two years later Mahmud died mad, and a few years saw the end
of Ghilzai rule in Persia.
The Durani Dynasty. — In 1737-38 Nadir Shah both recovered
Kandahar and took KabuL But he gained the goodwill of the
Afghans, and enrolled many In his army. Among these was a
noble young soldier, Ahmad Khan, of the Saddozai family of the
Abdali dan, who after the assassination of Nadir (1747) was
chosen by the Afghan chiefs at Kandahar to be their leader,
and assumed kingly authority over the eastern part of Nadir's
empire, with the style of Dur4-Durdn t " Pearl of the Age,"
bestowing that of Durani upon his clan, the Abdalis. With
Ahmad Shah, Afghanistan, as such, first took a place among
the kingdoms of the earth, and the Durani dynasty, which he
founded, still occupies its throne. During the twenty-six years
of his reign he carried his warlike expeditions far and wide.
Westward they extended nearly to the shores of the Caspian;
eastward he repeatedly entered India as a conqueror. At his great
battle of Panipat (Jtnu&ry 6, 1761), with vastly inferior num-
bers, he inflicted on the Mahrattas, then at the zenith of their
power, a tremendous defeat, almost annihilating their vast army;
but the success had for him no important result Having long
suffered from a terrible disease, he died in 1773, bequeath-
ing to his son Timur a dominion which embraced not only
Afghanistan to its utmost limits, but the Punjab, Kashmir and
Turkestan to the Oxus, with Sind, Baluchistan and Khorasan
as tributary governments.
Timur transferred his residence from Kandahar to Kabul,
and continued during a reign of twenty years to stave off the
anarchy which followed close on his death. He left twenty-
three sons, of whom the fifth, Zaman Mirza, by help of Payindah
Khan, head of the Barakxai family of the Abdalis, succeeded in
grasping the royal power. For many years barbarous wars raged
between the brothers, during which Zaman Shah, Shuja-ul-
Mulk and Mahmud successively held the throne. The last
owed success to Payindah's son, Fatteh Khan (known as the
"Afghan Warwick "), a man of masterly ability in war and
politics, the eldest of twenty-one brothers, a family of notable
intelligence and force of character, and many of these he placed
over the provinces. Fatteh Khan, however, excited the king's
jealously by his powerful position, and provoked the malignity
of the king's son, Kamran, by a gross outrage on the Saddozai
family. He was accordingly seized, blinded and afterwards
murdered with prolonged torture, the brutal Kamran striking
the first blow.
The Barakzai brothers united to avenge Fatteh Khan. The
Saddozais were driven from Kabul, Ghazni and Kandahar, and
with difficulty reached Herat (1818). Herat remained thus till
Kamran's death (1842), and after that was held by his able and
wicked minister Yar Mahommed. The rest of the country was
divided among the Barakzais— Dost Mahommed, the ablest,
getting Kabul. Peshawar and the right bank of the Indus fell
to the Sikhs after their victory at Nowshera in 1823. The last
Afghan hold of the Punjab had been lost long before — Kashmir
in 1819; Sind had cast off all allegiance since 1808; the Turkes-
tan provinces had been practically independent since the death
of Timur Shah.
The First Afghan War, 1838-4*.— In 1809, in consequence of
the intrigues of Napoleon in Persia, the Hon. Mountstuart
Elphtnstone had been sent as envoy to Shah Shuja, then in power,
and had been well received by him at Peshawar. This was the
first time the Afghans made any acquaintance with Englishmen.
Lieut. Alex. Burnes (afterwards Sir Alex. Burnes) visited Kabul
on his way to Bokhara in 1832. In 1837 the Persian siege of
Herat and the proceedings of Russia created uneasiness, and
Burnes was sent by the governor-general as resident to the
amir's court at Kabul. But the terms which the Dost sought
were not conceded by the government, and the rash resolution
was taken of re-establishing Shah Shuja, long a refugee in
British territory. Ranjit Singh, king of the Punjab, bound
himself to co-operate, but eventually declined to let the expedi-
tion cross his territories.
The war began in March 1838, when the "Army of the Indus,"
amounting to 21 ,000 men, assembled in Upper Sind and advanced
through the Bolan Pass under the command of Sir John Keane.
There was hardship, but scarcely any opposition. Kohandxl
Khan of Kandahar fled to Persia. That dty was occupied in
April 1839, and Shah Shuja was crowned in his grandfather'!
mosque. Ghazni was reached 21st July; a gate of the dty was
blown open by the engineers (the match was fired by Lieut.,
afterwards Sir Henry, Durand), and the place was taken by
storm. Dost Mahommed, finding his troops deserting, passed
the Hindu Kush, and Shah Shuja entered the capital (August 7).
The war was thought at an end, and Sir John Keane (made a
peer) returned to India with a considerable part of the force,
leaving behind 8000 men, besides the Shah's force, with Sir W.
Macnaghten as envoy, and Sir A. Burnes as his colleague.
During the two following years Shah Shuja and his allies
remained in possession of Kabul and Kandahar. The British
outposts extended to Saighan, in the Oxus basin, and to Mullah
Khan, jn the plain of Seistan. Dost Mahommed surrendered
(November 3, 1840) and was sent to India, where he was honour 1
ably treated. From the beginning, insurrection against the new
government had been rife. The political authorities were over-
confident, and neglected warnings. On the 2nd of November 1841
the revolt broke out violently at Kabul, with the massacre of
Burnes and other officers. The position of the British camp, its
communications with the dtadel and the location of the stores
were the worst possible; and the general (Elphinstone) was
shattered in constitution. Disaster after disaster occurred, not
without misconduct. At a conference (December 23) with the
Dost's son, Akbar Khan, who had taken the lead of the Afghans,
Sir W. Macnaghten was murdered by that chiefs own hand. On
the 6th of January 1842, after a convention to evacuate the
country had been signed, the British garrison, still numbering
4500 soldiers (of whom 690 were Europeans), with some 22,000
followers, inarched out of the camp. The winter was severe, the
troops demoralised, the march a mass of confusion and massacre,
and the force was finally overwhelmed in the Jagdalak past
between Kabul and Jalalabad.
On the 13th the last survivors mustered at Gandamak only
twenty muskets. Of those who left Kabul, only Dr Brydon
reached Jalalabad, wounded and half dead. Ninety-five
prisoners were afterwards recovered. The garrison of Ghazni
had already been forced to surrender (December xo). But
General Nott held Kandahar with a stern hand, and General
Sale, who had reached Jalalabad from Kabul at the beginning of
the outbreak, maintained that important point gallantly.
To avenge these disasters and recover the prisoners prepara-
tions were made in India on a fitting scale; but it was the 16th of
April 1842 before General Pollock could relieve Jalalabad, after
fordng the Khyber Pass. After a long halt there he advanced
(August 20), and gaining rapid successes, occupied Kabul
(September 15), where Nott, after retaking and dismantling
Ghazni, joined him two days later. The prisoners were happily
recovered from Bamian. The dtadd and central bazaar of
Kabul were destroyed, and the army finally evacuated Afghan*
istan, December 1842.
This ill-planned and hazardous enterprise was fraught with
the elements of inevitable failure. A ruler imposed upon a free
people by foreign arms is always unpopular; he is unable to
stand alone; and his foreign auxiliaries soon find themselves
obliged to choose between remaining to uphold his power, or
retiring with the probability that it will fall after thdr departure.
The leading chiefs of Afghanistan percdved that the maintenance
of Shah Shuja's rule by British troops would soon be fatal to
their own power and position in the country, and probably to
thdr national independence. They were insatiable in their
AFGHANISTAN
3»7
i for office and emolument, and when they discovered
that the shah, acting by the advice of the British envoy, was
levying from among their tribesmen regiments to be directly under
his control, they took care that the plan should fail. Without a
regular revenue no effective administration could be organized;
but the attempt to raise taxes showed that it might raise the
people, so that tot both men and money the shah's government
was still obliged to rely principally upon British aid. All these
circumstances combined to render the new regime weak and
unpopular, since there was no force at the ruler's command
except foreign troops to put down disorder or to protect those
who submitted, while the discontented nobles fomented dis-
affection and the inbred hatred of strangers in race and religion
among the general Afghan population.
British and Russian Relations.— It Jias been said that the
declared object of this policy had been to maintain the inde-
pendence and integrity of Afghanistan, to secure the friendly
alliance of its ruler, and thus to interpose a great barrier of
mountainous country between die expanding power of Russia in
Central Asia and the British dominion in India. After 1849,
when the annexation of the Punjab had carried the Indian north-
western frontier up to the skirts of the Afghan highlands, the
corresponding advance of the Russians south-eastward along the
Oxus river became of closer interest to the British, particularly
when, in 1856, the Persians again attempted to take, possession
of Herat Dost Mahommed now became the British ally, but on
his death in 1863 the kingdom fell back into civil war, until his
son, Shere Ali, had won his way to undisputed rulership in 1868.
In the same year Bokhara became a dependency of Russia. To
the British government an attitude of non-intervention in Afghan
affairs appeared in this situation to be no longer possible. The
meeting between the amir Shere Ali and the viceroy of India
(Lord Mayo) at Umballa in 1869 drew nearer the relations
between the two governments; the amir consolidated and began
to centralize his power; and the establishment of a strong,
friendly and united Afghanistan became again the keynote of
British policy beyond the north-western frontier of India.
When, therefore, the conquest of Khiva in 1873 by the
Russians, and their gradual approach towards the amir's
northern border, had seriously alarmed Shere Ali, he applied for
support to the British; and his disappointment at his failure to
obtain distinct pledges of material assistance, and at Great
Britain's refusal to endorse all his claims in a dispute with Persia
over Seistan, so far estranged him from the British connexion
that he began to entertain amicable overtures from the Russian
authorities at Tashkend. In 1869 the Russian government had
assured Lord Clarendon that they regarded Afghanistan as
completely outside the sphere of their Influence; and in 1872 the
boundary line of Afghanistan on the north-west had been settled
between England and Russia so far eastward as Lake Victoria.
Nevertheless the correspondence between Kabul and Tash-
kend continued, and as the Russians were now extending their
dominion over all the region beyond Afghanistan on the north-
west, the British government determined, in 1876, once more to
undertake active measures for securing their political ascendancy
in that country. But the amir, whose feelings of resentment
had by no means abated, was now leaning toward Russia, though
be mainly desired to hold the balance between two equally
formidable rivals. The result of overtures made to him from
India was that in 1877, when Lord Lytton, acting under direct
instructions from Her Majesty's ministry, proposed to Shere
Ali a treaty of alliance, Shere AH showed himself very little
disposed to welcome the offer; and upon his refusal to admit
a British agent into Afghanistan the negotiations finally broke
down.
Second Afghan War, 1878-80.— In the course of the following
year (1878) the Russian government, to counteract the inter-
ference of England with their advance upon Constantinople,
sent an envoy to Kabul empowered to make a treaty with the
amir. It was immediately notified to him from India that a
British mission would be deputed to his capital, but he demurred
to receiving it; and when the British envoy was turned back
on the Afghan frontier hostilities were proclaimed by the viceroy
in November 1878, and the second Afghan War began. Sir
Donald Stewart's force, marching up through Baluchistan by
the Bolan Pass, entered Kandahar with little or no resistance;
while another army passed through the Khyber Pass and took
up positions at Jalalabad and other places on the direct road to
Kabul. Another force under Sir Frederick Roberts marched
up to the high passes leading out of Kurram into the interior
of Afghanistan, defeated the amir's troops at the Peiwar Kotal,
and seized the Shutargardan Pass which commands a direct
route to Kabul through the Logar valley. The amir Shere Ali
fled from his capital into the northern province, where he died
at Mazar-i-Sharif in February 1879. In the course of the next
six months there was much desultory skirmishing between the
tribes and the British troops, who defeated various attempts
to dislodge them from the positions that had been taken up;
but the sphere of British military operations was not materi-
ally extended. It was seen that the farther they advanced the
more difficult would become their eventual retirement; and the
problem was to find a successor to Shere Ali who could and would
make terms with the British government.
In the meantime Yakub Khan, one of Shere Ali's sons, had
announced to Major Cavagnari, the political agent at the head-
quarters of the British army, that he had succeeded his father
at Kabul. The negotiations that followed ended in the con-
clusion of the treaty of Gandamak in May 1879, by which Yakub
Khan was recognized as amir; certain outlying tracts of Afghan-
istan were transferred to the British government; the amir
placed in its hands the entire control of his foreign relations,
receiving in return a guarantee against foreign aggression; and
the establishment of a British envoy at Kabul was at last con-
ceded. By this convention the complete success of the British
political and military operations seemed to have been attained;
for whereas Shere Ali had made a treaty of alliance with, and
had received an embassy from Russia, his son had now made
an exclusive treaty with the British government, and had agreed
that a British envoy should reside permanently at his court.
Yet it was just this final concession, the chief and original object
of British policy, that proved speedily fatal to the whole settle-
ment. For in September the envoy, Sir Louis Cavagnari, with
his staff and escort, was massacred at Kabul, and the entire
fabric of a friendly alliance went to pieces. A fresh expedition
was instantly despatched across the Shutargardan Pass under
Sir Frederick Roberts, who defeated the Afghans at Charasia
near Kabul, and entered the city in October. Yakub Khan,
who had surrendered, was sent to India; and the British army
remained in military occupation of the district round Kabul
until in December (1879) its communications with India were
interrupted, and its position at the capital placed in serious
jeopardy, by a general rising of the tribes. After they had been
repulsed and put down, not without some hard fighting, Sir
Donald Stewart, who had not quitted Kandahar, brought a
force up by Ghazni to Kabul, overcoming some resistance on
his way, and assumed the supreme command. Nevertheless
the political situation was still embarrassing, for as the whole
country beyond the range of British effective military control
was masterless, it was undesirable to withdraw the troops before
a government could be reconstructed which could stand without
foreign support, and with which diplomatic relations of some
kind might be arranged. The general position and prospect
of political affairs in Afghanistan bore, indeed, an instructive
resemblance to the situation just forty years earlier, in 1840,
with the important differences that the Punjab and Sind had
since become British, and that communications between Kabul
and India were this time secure.
Reign of Abdur Rahman.— Abdur Rahman, the son of the
late amir Shere Ali's elder brother, had fought against Shere Ali
in the war for succession to Dost Mahommed, had been driven
beyond the Oxus, and had lived for ten years in exile with the
Russians. In March 1880 he came back across the river, and
began to establish himself in the northern province of Afghan-
istan. The viceroy of India, Lord Lytton, on hearing of his
3*8
AFGHANISTAN
reappearance, Instructed the political authorities at Kabul to
communicate with him. By skilful negotiations a meeting was
arranged, and after pressing in vain for a treaty he was induced
to assume charge of the country upon his recognition by the
British as amir, with the understanding that he should have no
relations with other foreign powers, and with a formal assurance
from the viceroy of protection from foreign aggression, so long
as he should unreservedly follow the advice of the British govern-
ment in regard to his external affairs. The province of Kandahar
was severed from the Kabul dominion; and the sirdar Shere
Ali Khan, a member of the Baraluai family, was installed by
the British representative as its independent ruler.
For the second time in the course of this war a conclusive
settlement of Afghan affairs seemed now to have been attained;
and again, as in 1879, it was immediately dissolved. In July
1880, a few days after the proclamation of Abdur Rahman
as amir at Kabul, came news that Ayub Khan, Shere Ali's
younger son, who had been holding Herat since his father's
death, had marched upon Kandahar, had utterly defeated at
Maiwand a British force that went out from Kandahar to oppose
him, and was besieging that dty. Sir Frederick Roberts at
once set out from Kabul with 10,000 men to its relief, reached
Kandahar after a rapid march of 313 miles, attacked and routed
Ayub Khan's army on the zst of September, and restored British
authority in southern Afghanistan. As the British ministry
had resolved to evacuate Kandahar, the sirdar Shere Ali Khan,
who saw that he could not stand alone, resigned and withdrew to
India, and the amir Abdur Rahman was invited to take posses-
sion of the province. But when Ayub Khan, who had meanwhile
retreated to Herat, heard that the British forces had retired,
early in 1881, to India, he mustered a fresh army and again
approached Kandahar. In June the fort of Girishk, on the
Helmund, was seized by his adherents; the amir's troops were
defeated some days later in an engagement, and Ayub Khan
took possession of Kandahar at the end of July. The amir
Abdur Rahman, whose movements had hitherto been slow and
uncertain, now acted with vigour and decision. He marched
rapidly from Kabul at the head of a force, with which he en-
countered Ayub Khan under the walls of Kandahar, and routed
his army on 22nd September, taking all his guns and equipage.
Ayub Khan fled toward Herat, but as the place had meanwhile
been occupied by one of the amir's generals he took refuge
in Persia. By this victory Abdur Rahman's rulership was
established.
In 1884 it was determined to resume the demarcation, by a
joint commission of British and Russian officers, of the northern
boundary of Afghanistan. The work went on with much diffi-
culty and contention, until in March 1885, when the amir was
at Rawalpindi for a conference with the viceroy of India, Lord
Dufferin, the news came that at Panjdeh, a disputed place on
the boundary held by the Afghans, the Russians had attacked
and driven out with some loss the amir's troops. For the
moment the consequences seemed likely to be serious; but the
affair was arranged diplomatically, and the demarcation pro-
ceeded up to a point near the Oxus river, beyond which the
commission were unable to settle an agreement
During the ten years following his accession in 1880 Abdur
Rahman employed himself in extending and consolidating his
dominion over the whole country. Some local revolts among
the tribes were rigorously suppressed; and two attempts to
upset his rulership— the first by Ayub Khan, who entered
Afghanistan from Persia, the second and more dangerous one
by Ishak Khan, the amir's cousin, who rebelled against him
in Afghan Turkestan — were defeated. By 1891 the amir had
enforced his supreme authority throughout Afghanistan more
completely than any of his predecessors. In 1805 the amir's
troops entered Kafiristan, a wild mountainous tract on the
north-east, inhabited by a peculiar race that had hitherto
defied all efforts to subjugate them, but were now gradually
reduced to submission. Meanwhile the delimitation of the
northern frontier, up to the point where it meets Chinese territory
on the east, was completed and fixed by arrangements between
the governments of Russia and Great Britain; and the eastern
border of the Afghan territory, towards India, was also mapped out
and partially laid down, in accordance with a convention between
the two governments. The amir not only received a large annual
subsidy of money from the British government, but he also
obtained considerable supplies of war material; and he, moreover,
availed himself very freely of facilities that were given him for
the importation at his own cost of arms through' India. With
these resources, and with the advantage of an assurance from
the British government that he would be aided against foreign
aggression, he was able to establish an absolute military despot-
ism inside his kingdom, by breaking down the power of the
warlike tribes which held in check, up to his time, the personal
autocracy of the Kabul rulers, and by organizing a regular army
well furnished with European rifles and artillery. Taxation of
all kinds was heavily increased, and systematically collected.
The result was that whereas in former times the forces of an
Afghan ruler consisted mainly of a militia, furnished by the chiefs
of tribes who held land on condition of military service, and who
stoutly resisted any attempt to commute this service for money
payment, the amir had at his command a large standing army,
and disposed of a substantial revenue paid direct to his treasury.
Abdur Rahman executed or exiled all those whose political
influence he saw season to fear, or of whose disaffection he had
the slightest suspicion; his administration was severe and his
punishments were cruel; but undoubtedly he put down disorder,
stopped the petty tyranny of local chiefs and brought violent
crime under some effective control in the districts. Travelling
by the high roads during his reign was comparatively safe;
although it must be added that the excessive exactions of dues
and customs very seriously damaged the external trade. In
short, Abdur Rahman's reign produced an important political
revolution, or reformation, in Afghanistan, which rose from the
condition of a country distracted by chronic civil wars, under
rulers whose authority depended upon their power to hold down
or conciliate fierce and semi-independent tribes in the outlying
parts of the dominion, to the rank of a formidable military state
governed autocratically. He established, for the first time in
the history of the Afghan kingdom, a powerfully centralized
administration strong enough to maintain order and to enforce
obedience over all the country which he had united under his
dominion, supported by a force sufficiently armed and disciplined
to put down attempts at resistance or revolt. His policy, con-
sistently maintained, was to permit no kind of foreign inter-
ference, on any pretext, with the interior concerns or the econo-
mical copditions of his country. From the British government
he accepted supplies of arms and subsidies of money; but he
would make no concessions in return, and all projects of a
strategical or commercial nature, such as railways and telegraphs,
proposed either for the defence or the development of his posses-
sions, seem to have been regarded by the amir with extreme
distrust, as methods of what has been called pacific penetration
— so that on these points he was immovable. It was probably
due to the strength and solidity of the executive administration
organized, during his lifetime, by Abdur Rahman that, for the
first time in the records of the dynasty founded by Ahmad Shah
in the latter part of the 18th century, his death was not followed
by disputes over the succession or by civil war.
Succession of Habibuilak. — The amir Abdur Rahman died on
the 1st of October 1901; and two days later his eldest son,
Habibullah, formally announced his accession to the rulership.
He was recognized with acclamation by the army, by the religious
bodies, by the principal tribal chiefs and by all classes of the
people as their lawful sovereign; while a deputation of Indian
Mahommedans was despatched to Kabul from India to convey
the condolences and congratulations of the viceroy. The amir's
first measures were designed to enhance his popularity and to
improve his internal administration, particularly with regard to
the relations of his government with the tribes, and to the
system introduced by the late amir of compulsory military
service, whereby each tribe was required to supply a propor-
tionate number of recruits. With this object a council of state
AFGHAN TURKESTAN— AFIUM-KARA-HISSAR
319
for tribal affairs was established; and it was arranged that
a representative of each tribe should be associated with the
provincial governors for the adjudication of tribal cases.
In the important matter of foreign relations Habibullah
showed a determination to adopt the policy of his father, to
whom the British government had given an assurance of aid to
repel foreign aggression, on the condition that the amir should
follow the advice of that government in regard to external
affairs. This condition was loyally observed by the new amir,
who referred to India all communications of an official kind
received from the Russian authorities in the provinces bordering
on Afghanistan. But toward the various questions left pending
between the governments of India and Afghanistan the new amir
maintained also his father's attitude. He gave no indications of
a disposition to continue the discussion of them, or to entertain
proposals for extending or altering his relations with the Indian
government. An invitation from the viceroy to meet him in
India, with the hope that these points might be settled in
conference, was put aside by dilatory excuses, until at last the
project was abandoned, and finally the amir agreed to receive
at Kabul a diplomatic mission. The mission, whose chief was
Sir Louis Dane, foreign secretary to the Indian government,
reached Kabul early in December 1904, and remained there
four months in negotiation with the amir personally and with
his representatives. It was found impossible, after many inter-
views, to obtain from Habibullah his consent to any addition
to or variation of the terms of the assurance given by the British
government in 1880, with which he professed himself entirely
satisfied, so that the treaty finally settled in March 1005 went no
further than a formal confirmation of all engagements previously
concluded with the amir's predecessor. It was felt in British
circles at the time that a very considerable concession to Habi-
buhah's independence of attitude was displayed in the fact that
he was styled in the treaty " His Majesty "; but, in the circum-
stances, it seems to have been thought diplomatic to accede to
the amir's determination to insist on this matter of style. But
the rebuff showed that it was desirable in the interests both of
the British government and of Afghanistan that an opportunity
should be made for enabling the amir to have personal acquaint-
ance with the highest Indian authorities. A further step,
calculated to strengthen the relations of amity between the two
governments, was taken when it was arranged that the amir
should pay a visit to the viceroy, Lord Minto, in India, in
January 1007; and this visit took place with great cordiality and
The Anglo-Russian Convention, signed on the 31st of August
1007, contained the following important declarations with regard
to Afghanistan. Great Britain disclaimed any intention of
altering the political status or (subject to the observance of the
treaty of 1905) of interfering in the administration or annexing
any territory of Afghanistan, and engaged to use her influence
there in no manner threatening to Russia. Russia, on her part,
recognized Afghanistan as outside her sphere of influence.
AcTfioumE*. — MacGregor, Cattttrrt of Afghanistan (1871):
ElitfiinHQ ne t A re ovnl of thr Kingdom of Kabiu {*&&>) ; r-'t frier, History
of thf Afghani (i8*8>; Btlkw. Afghanistan and tht Afghans (1879):
B»bcf# Mtmviri (184.4)1 Kaye, Itiifcty of the War in Afghanistan
fi&7*): Millttort, Hiitvy of Afgh&mttan (1879); Hcusman, The
A tgkam IVar ( t&Si ) ; Sir H M , Durand. Thf Fit si Afckan War (1879) I
Forbcn, Tht Aft kan Wan (rtyj); Rawlin^m, £.n*tan,l and Russia
in the East (thjtfs Wyllie, Etwyi on the Etttrnaf Policy of India
((lia) ; A. C. Y*te, fin'tfand and Kmuia Fate to Fact in Asia (1887) ;
C. E, Yate, .Vatthrtn Aft^niiton fr&88}; Curion, Problems of ike
Fat East {i&m); Robert wn. The Kafir of ike Hindu Kush (1896):
Hftldich, Indian Borderland (1901); Thorburn h Attain' Neighbours
0*95); Lord Roberta. Tarty -mt Year* in India (1898); Lady
Betty Bailout Lard Lyttont Indian Adminnirahan (1899); Hanna,
Smtm i A Man War (1899); Gray H At the Court of iht Amir (1895);
Suhan Mohammad khan, Constitution and Lawj of Afghanistan
(1900); Life of Abdur Rahman (I900); Angu* Hamilton, Afghan-
«f*a(i9o6), (II. Y; A.C.L.)
AFQHAJI TURKESTAN, the most northern province of
Afghanistan. It is bounded on the E. by Badakshan, on the N.
by the Oxus river, on the N.W. and W. by Russia and the Hari
Rod river, and on the S. by the Hindu Kush, the Koh-i-Baba
and the northern watershed of the Hari Rud basin. Its northern
frontier was decided by the Anglo-Russian agreement of 1873,
and delimited by the Russo-Afghan boundary commission of
1885, which gave rise to the Panjdeh incident. The whole
territory, from the junction of the Rokcha river with the Oxus
on the north-east to the province of Herat on the south-west, is
some 500 m. in length, with an average width from the Russian
frontier to the Hindu Kush of 114 m. It thus comprises about
5 7, 000 sq. m. or roughly two-ninths of the kingdom of Afghan-
istan. Except in the river valleys it is a poor territory, rough
and mountainous towards the south, but subsiding into undulat-
ing wastes and pasture-lands towards the Turkman desert, and
the Oxus riverain which is highly cultivated. The population,
which is mostly agricultural, settled in and around its towns
and villages, is estimated at 750,000. The province includes
the khanates of Kunduz, Tashkurgan, Balkh with Akcha; the
western khanates of Saripul, Shibarghan, Andkhui and Maimana,
sometimes classed together as the Chahar Villayet, or " Four
Domains"; and such parts of the Hazara tribes as lie north of
the Hindu Kush and its prolongation. The principal town is
Mazar-i- Sharif, which in modern times has supplanted the
ancient city of Balkh; and TakKtapul, near Mazar, is the chief
Afghan cantonment north of the Hindu Kush.
Ethnically and historically Afghan Turkestan is more con-
nected with Bokhara than with Kabul, of which government
it has been a dependency only since the time of Dost Mahommed.
The bulk of the people of the cities are of Persian and Uzbeg
stock, but interspersed with them are Mongol Hazaras and
Hindus with Turkoman tribes in the Oxus plains. Over these
races the Afghans rule as conquerors and there is no bond of
racial unity between them. Ancient Balkh -or Bactriana was
a province of the Achaemenian empire, and probably was
occupied in great measure by a race of Iranian blootf. About
250 b.c. Diodotus (Theodotus), governor of Bactria under the
Seleucidae, declared his independence, and commenced the
history of the Greco-Bactrian dynasties, which succumbed to
Parthian and nomadic movements about 126 B.C. After this
came a Buddhist era which has left its traces in the gigantic
sculptures at Bamian and the rock-cut topes of Haibak. The
district was devastated by Jenghiz Khan, and has never since
fully recovered its prosperity. For about a century it belonged
to the Delhi empire, and then fell into Uzbeg hands. In the
1 8th century it formed part of the dominion of Ahmad Khan
Durani, and so remained under his son Timur. But under the
fratricidal wars of Timur's sons the separate khanates fell back
under the independent rule of various Uzbeg chiefs. At the
beginning of the 19th century they belonged to Bokhara; but
under the great amir Dost Mahommed the Afghans recovered
Balkh and Tashkurgan in 1850, Akcha and the four western
khanates in 1855. and Kunduz in 1859. The sovereignty over
Andkhui, Shibarghan, Saripul and Maimana was in dispute
between Bokhara and Kabul until settled by the Anglo-Russian
agreement of 1873 in favour of the Afghan claim. Under the
strong rule of Abdur Rahman these outlying territories were
closely welded to Kabul; but after the accession of Habibullah
the bonds once more relaxed. (T. H. H.*)
AFIUM-KARA-HISSAR (afium, opium), the popular name of
Kara-hissar Sahib, a city of Asiatic Turkey, in the vilayet of
Brusa, nearly 200 m. E. of Smyrna, and 50 m. S.S.E. of Kutaiah.
Pop. 18,000 (Moslems, 13,000, Christians, 5000). Called
Nicopolis by Leo III. after his victory over the Arabs in 740,
its name was changed by the Seljuk Turks to Kara-hissar. It
stands partly on level ground, partly on a declivity, and above
it rises a precipitous trachytic rock (400 ft.) on the summit of
which are the ruins of an ancient castle. From its situation
on the route of the caravans between Smyrna and western Asia
on the one hand, and Armenia, Georgia, &c, on the other, the
city became a place of extensive trade, and its bazaars are well
stocked with the merchandise of both Europe and the East.
Opium in large quantities is produced in its vicinity and forms
the staple article of its commerce; and there are, besides,
manufactures of black felts, carpets, arms and saddlery. Afium
320
A FORTIORI— AFRICA
contains several mosques (one of them a very handsome building),
and is the seat of an Armenian bishop. The town is connected
by railway with Smyrna, Konia, Angora and Constantinople.
See V. Cuinet, Turquie d'Asie (Paris, 1894), vol. iv.
A FORTIORI (Lat. " from a stronger [reason] "), a term used
of an argument which justifies a statement not itself specifically
demonstrated by reference to a proved conclusion which includes
it; thus, if A is proved less than B, and is known to be greater
than C, it follows ajortiori that C is less than B without further
proof. The argument is frequently based merely on a comparison
of probabilities (cf. Matt. vi. 30), when it constitutes an appeal
to common sense.
AFRANIUS, LUCIUS, Roman general, lived in the times of
the Sertorian (79-72), third Mithradatic (74-61) and Civil Wars.
Of humble origin (Cic. ad AU. i. 16. 30), from his early years
he was a devoted adherent of Pompey. In 60, chiefly by
Pompey's support, he was raised to the consulship, but in per-
forming the duties of that office he showed an utter incapacity
to manage civil affairs. In the following year, while governor
of Cisalpine Gaul, he obtained the honour of a triumph, and on
the allotment of Spain to Pompey (55), Afranius and Marcus
Petreius were sent to take charge of the government. On the
rupture between Caesar and Pompey they were compelled,
after a short campaign in which they were at first successful,
to surrender to Caesar at Ilerda (49), and were dismissed on
promising not to serve again in the war. Afranius, regardless
of his promise, joined Pompey at Dyrrhachium, and at the
battle of Pharsalus (48) had charge of Pompey's camp. On the
defeat of Pompey, Afranius, despairing of pardon from Caesar,
went to Africa, and was present at the disastrous battle of
Tbapsus (46). Escaping from the field with a strong body of
cavalry, he was afterwards taken prisoner, along with Faustus
Sulla, by the trodps of Sittius, and handed over to Caesar, whose
veterans rose in tumult and put them to death.
See Hirtius, Bell. Afric. 95; Plutarch, Pompey; Dio Cassius
xxxvii., xli.-xliii.; Caesar, B.C. i. 37-87; Appian, B.C. ii.; for the
history of the period, articles on Caesar and Pompbv.
AFRANIUS, LUCIUS, Roman comic poet, flourished about
04 B.C. His comedies chiefly dealt with everyday subjects from
Roman middle-class life, and he himself tells us that he borrowed
freely from Mcnander and others. Hb style was vigorous and
correct; his moral tone that of the period.
Horace, Epp. ii. 1. 57; Cicero, Brutus, 45, de Fin. i. t; Quintilian
x. 1. 100; fragments, about 400 lines, in Ribbeck, Scatnicae
Romanorum Potsis Fragmenta, ii. (1898).
AFRICA, the name of a continent representing the largest of
the three great southward projections from the main mass of
the earth's surface. It includes within its remarkably regular
outline an area, according to the most recent computations, of
11,262,000 sq. m., excluding the islands. 1 Separated from
Europe by the Mediterranean Sea, it is joined to Asia at its N.E.
extremity by the Isthmus of Suez, 80 m. wide. From the most
northerly point, Ras ben Sakka, a little west of Cape Blanc,
in 37° 21' N., to the most southerly point, Cape Agulhas,
34° 51' 15" S., is a distance approximately of 5000 m.; from
Cape Verde, 17° 33' 22" W., the westernmost point, to Ras
Ha fun, 51 27' 52" E., the most easterly projection, is a dis-
tance (also approximately) of 4600 m. The length of coast-line is
16,100 m. and the absence of deep indentations of the shore is
shown by the fact that Europe, which covers only 3,760,000
sq. m., has a coast-line of 19,800 m.
I. Physical Geography
The main structural lines of the continent show both the
cast- to- west direction characteristic, at least in the eastern
hemisphere, of the more northern parts of the world, and the
north- to-south direction seen in the southern peninsulas. Africa
is thus composed of two segments at right angles, the northern
running from east to west, the southern from north to south,
the subordinate lines corresponding in the main to these two
directions.
Main Orographical Features.— The mean elevation of the con-
1 With the islands, 11,498,000 sq. m.
tinent approximates closely to 2000 ft., which is roughly the
elevation of both North and South America, but is considerably
less than that of Asia (31 17 ft.). In contrast with the other
continents it is marked by the comparatively small area both of
very high and of very low ground, lands under 600 ft. occupying
an unusually small part of the surface; while not only are the
highest elevations inferior to those of Asia and South America,
but the area of land over 10,000 ft. is also quite insignificant,
being represented almost entirely by individual peaks and
mountain ranges. Moderately elevated tablelands are thus the
characteristic feature of the continent, though the surface of
these is broken by higher peaks and ridges. (So prevalent arc
these isolated peaks and ridges that a special term [Inselberg-
landschaft] has been adopted in Germany to describe this kind
of country, which is thought to be in great part the result of
wind action.) As a general rule, the higher tablelands lie to
the east and south, while a progressive diminution in altitude
towards the west and north is observable. Apart from the low-
lands and the Atlas range, the continent may be divided into
two regions of higher and lower plateaus, the dividing line
(somewhat concave to the north-west) running from the middle
of the Red Sea to about 6° S. on the west coast. We thus obtain
the following four main divisions of the continent: — (1) The
coast plains — often fringed seawards by mangrove swamps —
never stretching far from the coast, except on the lower courses
of streams. Recent alluvial flats are found chiefly in the delta
of the more important rivers. Elsewhere the coast lowlands
merely form the lowest steps of the system of terraces which
constitutes the ascent to the inner plateaus. (/) The Atlas
range, which, orographically, is distinct from the rest of the
continent, being unconnected with any other area of high ground,
and separated from the rest of the continent on the south by a
depressed and desert area (the Sahara), in places below sea-level.
(3) The high southern and eastern plateaus, rarely falling below
2000 ft., and having a mean elevation of about 3 500 ft. (4) The
north and west African plains, bordered and traversed by bands
of higher ground, but generally below 2000 ft. This division
includes the great desert of the Sahara.
The third and fourth divisions may be again subdivided
Thus the high plateaus include:— -(a) The South African plateau
as far as about 1 2° S., bounded east, west and south by bands
of high ground which fall steeply to the coasts. On this account
South Africa has a general resemblance to an inverted saucer.
Due south the plateau rim is formed by three parallel steps with
level ground between them. The largest of these level areas,
the Great Karroo, is a dry, barren region, and a large tract of
the plateau proper is of a still more arid character and is known
as the Kalahari Desert. The South African plateau is connected
towards the north-east with (b) the East African plateau, with
probably a slightly greater average elevation, and marked by
some distinct features. It is formed by a widening out of the
eastern axis of high ground, which becomes subdivided into
a number of zones running north and south and consisting in
turn of ranges, tablelands and depressions. The most striking
feature is the existence of two great lines of depression, due
largely to the subsidence of whole segments of the earth's crust,
the lowest parts of which are occupied by vast lakes Towards
the south the two lines converge and give place to one great
valley (occupied by Lake Nyasa), the southern part of which
is less distinctly due to rifting and subsidence than the rest of*
the system. Farther north the western depression, sometimes
known as the Central African trough or Albertine rift-valley,
is occupied for more than half its length by water, forming the
four lakes of Tanganyika, Kivu, Albert Edward and Albert,
the first-named over 400 m. long and the longest freshwater
lake in the world. Associated with these great valleys are a
number of volcanic peaks, the greatest of which occur on a
meridional line cast of the eastern trough. The eastern
depression, known as the East African trough or rift-valley,
contains much smaller lakes, many of them brackish and without
outlet, the only one comparable to those of the western trough
being Lake Rudolf or Basso Norok. At no great distance east
nix. i
CEOGRAPHYI
AFRICA
321
of thfa rift-valley are Kilimanjaro—with its two peaks Kibo
and Mawenxi, the former 19,321 ft, and the culminating point
of the whole continent— and Kenya (17,007 ft.). Hardly less
important is the Ruwensori range (over 16,600 ft), which lies
east of the western trough. Other volcanic peaks rise from the
floor of the valleys, some of the Kirunga (Mfumbiro) group,
north of Lake Kivu, being still partially active, (c) The third
division of the higher region of Africa is formed by the Abys-
sinian highlands, a nigged mass of mountains forming the
largest continuous area of its altitude in the whole continent,
tittle of its surface falling below 5000 ft, while the summits
reach heights of 15,000 to 16,000 ft This block of country
lies just west of the line of the great East African trough, the
northern continuation of which passes along its eastern escarp-
ment as it runs up to join the Red Sea. There is, however, in
the centre a circular basin occupied by Lake Tsana.
Both in the east and west of the continent the bordering
highlands are continued as strips of plateau parallel to the coast,
the Abyssinian mountains being continued northwards along
the Red Sea coast by a series of ridges reaching in places a height
of 7000 ft In the west the zone of high land is broader but
somewhat lower. The most mountainous districts lie inland
from the head of the Gulf of Guinea (Adamawa, &c), where
heights of 6000 to 8000 ft are reached. Exactly at the head of
the gulf the great peak of the Cameroon, on a line of volcanic
action continued by the islands to the south-west, has a height
of 13,370 ft, while Clarence Peak, in Fernando Po, the first
of the line of islands, rises to over 0000. Towards the extreme
west the Futa Jallon highlands form an important diverging
point of rivers, but beyond this, as fax as the Atlas chain, the
elevated rim of the continent is almost wanting.
The area between the east and west coast highlands, which
north of 17° N. is mainly desert, is divided into separate basins
by other bands of high ground, one of which runs nearly centrally
through North Africa in a line corresponding roughly with the
curved axis of the continent as a whole. The best marked of
the basins so formed (the Congo basin) occupies a circular area
bisected by the equator, once probably the site of an inland sea.
The arid region, the Sahara— the largest desert in the world,
covering 3,500,000 sq. m.— extends from the Atlantic to the
Red Sea. Though generally of slight elevation it contains
mountain ranges with peaks rising to 8000 ft Bordered N W.
by the Atlas range, to the N.E. a rocky plateau separates it
from the Mediterranean; this plateau gives place at the extreme
east to the delta of the Nile. That river (see below) pierces the
desert without modifying its character. The Atlas range, the
north-westerly part of the continent, between its seaward and
landward heights encloses elevated steppes in places 100 m.
broad. From the inner slopes of the plateau numerous wadis
take a direction towards the Sahara. The greater part of that
now desert region is, indeed, furrowed by old water-channels.
The following table gives the approximate altitudes of the
chief mountains and lakes of the continent:—
Mountains. Ft. Lakes. Ft.
Rungwe (Nyasa) . 10400 Chad .... 850*
Drakensberg . . 11.700 1 Leopold II .1100
Lereko or Sattima 13.214' Rudolf . 1250
(Aberdare Range) Nyasa . 1645*
Cameroon . 13,370 Albert Nyanza . 2028 1
£ l8 ° n . ^.,w> • , *» I 5 at Tanganyika . . 3624*
Kanswmbi (Mfum- , Ngami . 2950
biro) . 14,683* Mweru . 3000
Meru . 14,955* Albert Edward . 3004*
Tagharat (Atlas) . 15,000 s Bangweulu. . 3700
Simen Mountains, 15,160* Victoria Nyanza . 3720*
Abyssinia Abai . 4200
Ruwensori . 16.619* Kivu . 4829*
Kenya .... 17.007J Tsana . . . 5690
Kilimanjaro . . 19,321* Naivasha . 6135*
Tht Hydrograpkic Systems.— From the outer margin of the
African plateaus a large number of streams run to the sea with
comparatively short courses, while the larger rivers flow for long
1 Estimated.
* See the calculations of Capt T. T. Behrens, G*og. Journal, vol.
■six. (1007).
distances on the interior highlands before breaking through the
outer ranges. The main drainage of the continent is to the north
and west, or towards the basin of the Atlantic Ocean. The high
lake plateau of East Africa contains the head-waters of the Nile
and Congo: the former the longest, the latter the largest river
of the continent The upper Nile receives its chief supplies
from the mountainous region adjoining the Central African
trough in the neighbourhood of the equator. Thence streams
pour east to the Victoria Nyanza, the largest African lake
(covering over 26,000 sq. m.), and west and north to the Albert
Edward and Albert Nyanzas, to the latter of which the effluents
of the other two lakes add their waters. Issuing from it the Nile
flows north, and between 7° and 10° N. traverses a vast marshy
level during which its course is liable to blocking by floating
vegetation. After receiving the Bahr-el-Ghazal from the west
and the Sobat, Blue Nile and Atbara from the Abyssinian
highlands (the chief gathering ground of the flood-water), it
crosses the great desert and enters the Mediterranean by a
vast delta. The most remote head-stream of the Congo is the
Chambezi, which flows south-west into the marshy Lake Bang-
weulu. From this lake issues the Congo, known in its upper
course by various names. Flowing first south, it afterwards
turns north through Lake Mweru and descends to the forest-dad
basin df west equatorial Africa. Traversing this in a majestic
northward curve and receiving vast supplies of water from many
great tributaries, it finally turns south-west and cuts a way to
the Atlantic Ocean through the western highlands. North of
the Congo basin and separated from it by a broad undulation
of the surface is the basin of Lake Chad— a flat-shored, shallow
lake filled principally by the Shari coming from the south-east
West of this is the basin of the Niger, the third river of Africa,
which, though flowing to the Atlantic, has its principal source
in the far west, and reverses the direction of flow exhibited by
the Nile and Congo. An important branch, however — the
Benue — comes from the south-east. These four river-basins
occupy the greater part of the lower plateaus of North and
West Africa, the remainder consisting of arid regions watered
only by intermittent streams which do not reach the sea. Of
the remaining rivers of the Atlantic basin the Orange, in the
extreme south, brings the drainage from the Drakensberg on
the opposite side of the continent, while the Kunene, Kwanza,
Ogow6 and Sanaga drain the west coast highlands of the
southern limb; the Volta, Komoe, Bandama, Gambia and
Senegal the highlands of the western limb. North of the Senegal
for over 1000 m. of coast the arid region reaches to the Atlantic.
Farther north are the streams, with comparatively short courses,
which reach the Atlantic and Mediterranean from the Atlas
mountains.
Of the rivers flowing to the Indian Ocean the only one draining
any large part of the interior plateaus is the Zambezi, whose
western branches rise in the west coast highlands. The main
stream has its rise in n* 21' 3" S. 24 22' E. at an elevation of
5000 ft It flows west and south for a considerable distance
before turning to the east All the largest tributaries, including
the Shire', the outflow of Lake Nyasa, flow down the southern
slopes of the band of high ground which stretches across the
continent in xo° to 12 S. In the south-west the Zambezi
system interlaces with that of the Taukhe (or Tioghe), from
which it at times receives surplus water. The rest of the water
of the Taukhe, known in its middle course as the Okavango, is
lost in a system of swamps and saltpans which formerly centred
in Lake Ngami, now dried up. Farther south the Limpopo
drains a portion of the interior plateau but breaks through the
bounding highlands on the side of the continent nearest its
source. The Rovuma, Rufiji, Tana, Juba and Webi Shebeli
principally drain the outer slopes of the East African highlands,
the last named losing itself in the sands in dose proximity to
the sea. Another large stream, the Hawash, rising in the
Abyssinian mountains, is lost in a saline depression near the
Gulf of Aden. Lastly, between the basins of the Atlantic and
Indian Oceans there is an area of inland drainage along the
centre of the East African plateau, directed chiefly into the
322
AFRICA
IGEOGRAPHY
lakes in the great rift-valley. The largest river is the Omo,
which, fed by the rains of the Abyssinian highlands, carries
down a large body of water into Lake Rudolf. The rivers of
Africa are generally obstructed either by bars at their mouths
or by cataracts at no great distance up-stream. But when
these obstacles have been overcome the rivers and lakes afford a
network of navigable waters of vast extent.
The calculation of the areas of African drainage systems,
made by Dr A. Bludau (Petermanns MitteUungen, 43, 1897,
pp. 184-186) gives the following general results:—
Basin of the Atlantic .... 4,070.000 sq. m.
„ „ Mediterranean . • . 1,680,000 „
„ .. Indian Ocean • . . 3.086,000 „
Inland drainage area 3452,000 „
The areas of individual river-basins are: —
Congo (length over 3000 m.) . . 1,425,000 sq. m.
Nile ( „ fully 4000 m.) . . 1, 082,000* „
Niger t „ about 2600 m.) . . 808,000* „
Zambezi ( „ „ 2000 m.) . . 513,500 „
Lake Chad 394.000 „
Orange (length about 1300 m.) . . 370,500* „
„ (actual drainage area) . . 172,500 ,,
The area of the Congo basin is greater than that of any other
river except the Amazon, while the African inland drainage
area is greater than that of any continent but Asia, in which the
corresponding area is 4,000,000 sq. m.
The principal African lakes have been mentioned in the
description of the East African plateau, but some of the pheno-
mena connected with them may be spoken of more particularly
here. As a rule the lakes which occupy portions of the great
rift-valleys have steep sides and are very deep. This is the case
with the two largest of the type, Tanganyika and Nyasa, the
latter of which has depths of 430 fathoms. Others, however,
are shallow, and hardly reach the steep sides of the valleys in
the dry season. Such are Lake Rukwa, in a subsidiary depression
north of Nyasa, and Eiassi and Manyara in the system of the
eastern rift-valley. Lakes of the broad type are of moderate
depth, the deepest sounding in Victoria Nyanza being under
50 fathoms. Apart from the seasonal variations of level, most
of the lakes show periodic fluctuations, while a progressive
desiccation of the whole region is said to be traceable, tending to
the ultimate disappearance of the lakes. Such a drying up has
been in progress during long geologic ages, but doubt exists as
to its practical importance at the present time. The periodic
fluctuations in the level of Lake Tanganyika are such that its
outflow is intermittent. Besides the East African lakes the
principal are:— Lake Chad, in the northern area of inland
drainage; Bangweulu and Mweru, traversed by the head-stream
of the Congo; and Leopold II. and Ntomba (Mantumba),
within the great bend of that river. All, except possibly Mweru,
are more or less shallow, and Chad appears to by drying up. The
altitudes of the African lakes have already been stated.
Divergent opinions have been held as to the mode of origin
of the East African lakes, especially Tanganyika, which some
geologists have considered to represent an old arm of the sea,
dating from a time when the whole central Congo basin was
under water; others holding that the lake water has accumulated
in a depression caused by subsidence. The former view is based
on the existence in the lake of organisms of a decidedly marine
type. They include a jelly-fish, molluscs, prawns, crabs, &c,
and were at first considered to form an isolated group found
in no other of the African lakes; but this supposition has been
proved to be erroneous.
Islands.— With one exception— Madagascar— the African
islands arc small. Madagascar, with an area of 229,820 sq. m.,
is, after New Guinea and Borneo, the largest island of the world.
It lies of! the S.E. coast of the continent, from which it is
separated by the deep Mozambique channel, 250 m. wide at its
narrowest point Madagascar in its general structure, as in flora
and fauna, forms a connecting link between Africa and southern
Asia. East of Madagascar are the small islands of Mauritius
and Reunion. Sokotra lies E.N.E. of Cape Guardafui. Off the
■ The estimate of Capt. H. G. Lyons in 1905 was 1,107,227 sq. m.
1 Including waterless tracts naturally belonging to the river-basin.
north-west coast are the Canary and Cape Verde archipelagoes.
Which, like some small islands in the Gulf of Guinea, are of
volcanic origin.
Climate and Health.— Lying almost entirely within the tropics,
and equally to north and south of the equator, Africa does not
show excessive variations of temperature. Great heat is ex-
perienced in the lower plains and desert regions of North Africa,
removed by the great width of the continent from the influence
of the ocean, and here, too, the contrast between day and night,
and between summer and winter, is greatest. (The rarity of the
air and the great radiation during the night cause the temperature
in the Sahara to fall occasionally to freezing point.) Farther
south, the heat is to some extent modified by the moisture
brought from the ocean, and by the greater elevation of a large
part of the surface, especially in East Africa, where the range of
temperature is wider than in the Congo basin or on the Guinea
coast. In the extreme north and south the climate is a warm
temperate one, the northern countries being on the whole hotter
and drier than those in the southern zone; the south of the
continent being narrower than the north, the influence of the
surrounding ocean is more felt. The most important climatic
differences are due to variations in the amount of rainfall. The
wide heated plains of the Sahara, and in a lesser degree the
corresponding zone of the Kalahari in the south, have an ex-
ceedingly scanty rainfall, the winds which blow over them from
the ocean losing part of their moisture as they pass over the
outer highlands, and becoming constantly drier owing to the
heating effects of the burning soil of the interior; while the
scarcity of mountain ranges in the more central parts likewise
tends to prevent condensation. In the inter-tropical zone of
summer precipitation, the rainfall is greatest when the sun is
vertical or soon after. It is therefore greatest of all near the
equator, where the sun is twice vertical, and less in the direction
of both tropics. The rainfall zones are, however, somewhat
deflected from a due west-to-east direction, the drier northern
conditions extending southwards along the east coast, and
those of the south northwards along the west. Within the
equatorial zone certain areas, especially on the shores of the
Gulf of Guinea and in the upper Nile basin, have an intensified
rainfall, but this rarely approaches that of the rainiest regions of
the world. The rainiest district in all Africa is a strip of coast-
land west of Mount Cameroon, where there is a mean annual
rainfall of about 300 in. as compared with a mean of 458 in.
at Cherrapunji, in Assam. The two distinct rainy seasons of
the equatorial zone, where the sun is vertical at half-yearly
intervals, become gradually merged into one in the direction
of the tropics, where the sun is overhead but once. Snow falls
on all the higher mountain ranges, and on the highest the climate
is thoroughly Alpine. The countries bordering the Sahara are
much exposed to a very dry wind, full of fine particles of sand,
blowing from the desert towards the sea. Known in Egypt as
the khamsin, on the Mediterranean as the sirocco, it is called
on the Guinea coast the harmattan. This wind is not invariably
hot, its great dryness causes so much evaporation that cold
is not infrequently the result. Similar dry winds blow from
the Kalahari in the south. On the eastern coast the monsoons
of the Indian Ocean are regularly felt, and on the south-east
hurricanes are occasionally experienced.
While the climate of the north and south, especially the south,
is eminently healthy, and even the intensely heated Sahara is
salubrious by reason of its dryness, the tropical zone as a whole
is, for European races, the most unhealthy portion of the world.
This is especially the case in the lower and moister regions, such
as the west coast, where malarial fever is very prevalent and
deadly; the most unfavourable factors being humidity with
absence of climatic variation (daily or seasonal). The higher
plateaus, where not only is the average temperature lower, but
such variations are more extensive, are more healthy; and in
certain localities (e.g. Abyssinia and parts of British East Africa)
Europeans find the climate suitable for permanent residence.
On tablelands over 6500 ft. above the sea, frost is not uncommon
at night, even in places directly under the equator. The
FLORA AND FAUN Al A FRIC A
acclimatisation of white men in tropical Africa generally is
dependent largely on the successful treatment of tropical diseases.
Districts which had been notoriously deadly to Europeans
-were rendered comparatively healthy after the discovery, in
1899, of the species of mosquito which propagates malarial
fever, and the measures thereafter taken for its destruction and
the filling up of swamps. The rate of mortality among the
natives from tropical diseases is also high, one of the most fatal
being that known as sleeping sickness. (The ravages of this
disease, which also attacks Europeans, reached alarming pro-
portions between 1893 and 1007, and in the last-named year
an international conference was held in London to consider
measures to combat it) When removed to colder regions natives
of the equatorial districts suffer greatly from chest complaints.
Smallpox also makes great ravages among the negro population.
Fhra.— The vegetation of Africa follows very closely the dis-
tribution of heat and moisture. The northern and southern
temperate zones have a flora distinct from that of the continent
generally, which is tropical. In the countries bordering the Medi-
terranean are groves of oranges and olive trees, evergreen oaks,
cork trees and pines, intermixed with cypresses, myrtles, arbutus
and fragrant tree-heaths. South of the Atlas range the conditions
alter. The zones of minimum rainfall have a very scanty flora,
consisting of plants adapted to resist the great dryness. Charac-
teristic of the Sahara is the date-palm, which flourishes where
other vegetation can scarcely maintain existence, while in the
semi-desert regions the acacia (whence is obtained gum-arabic)
is abundant. The more humid regions have a richer vegetation
— dense forest where the rainfall is greatest and variations of
temperature least, conditions found chiefly on the tropical coasts,
and in the west African equatorial basin with its extension
towards the upper Nile; and savanna interspersed with trees on
the greater part of the plateaus, passing as the desert regions are
approached into a scrub vegetation consisting of thorny acacias,
fcc Forests also occur on the humid slopes of mountain ranges
up to a certain elevation. In the coast regions the typical tree
is the mangrove, which flourishes wherever the soil is of a swamp
character. The dense forests of West Africa contain, in addition
to a great variety of dicotyledonous trees, two palms, the Elaeis
gmncenris (oil-palm) and Rap hie vinifera (bamboo-palm), not
found, generally speaking, in the savanna regions. The bombax
or silk-cotton tree attains gigantic proportions in the forests,
which are the home of the indiarubber-producing plants and of
many valuable kinds of timber trees, such as odum (Chhrophora
exceha), ebony, mahogany (Khaya scnegalcnsis), African teak or
oak (Oidfleidia africana) and camwood (Baphia nilida). The
climbing plants in the tropical forests are exceedingly luxuriant
and the undergrowth or " bush " is extremely dense. In the
savannas the most characteristic trees are the monkey bread tree
or baobab (Adansonia digitate), doom palm (Hyphaene) and
euphorbias. The coffee plant grows wild in such widely
separated places as Liberia and southern Abyssinia. The higher
mountains have a special flora showing close agreement over
wide intervals of space, as well as affinities with the mountain
flora of the eastern Mediterranean, the Himalayas and Indo-
China (cf. A. Engler, Vber die Hochgcbirgs flora des tropischen
Afrika, 1892).
In the swamp regions of north-east* Africa the papyrus and
associated plants, including the soft-wooded ambach, flourish in
immense quantities—and little else is found in the way of
vegetation. South Africa is largely destitute of forest save in
the lower valleys and coast regions. Tropical flora disappears,
and in the semi-desert plains the fleshy, leafless, contorted
species of kapsias, mesembryanthemums, aloes and other succu-
lent plants make their appearance. There are, too, valuable
timber trees, such as the yellow pine (Podocarpus elongatus),
stink wood (Ocoka), sneezewood or Cape ebony (PUroxylon utile)
and ironwood. Extensive miniature woods of heaths are found
in almost endless variety and covered throughout the greater
part of the year with innumerable blossoms in which red is very
prevalent Of the grasses of Africa alfa is very abundant in the
plateaus of the Atlas range.
323
Fauna.— The fauna again shows the effect of the character-
istics of the vegetation. The open savannas are the home of
large ungulates, especially antelopes, the giraffe (peculiar to
Africa), zebra, buffalo, wild ass and four species of rhinoceros;
and of carnivores, such as the lion, leopard, hyaena, &c. The
okapl (a genus restricted to Africa) is found only in the dense
forests of the Congo basin. Bears are confined to the Atlas
region, wolves and foxes to North Africa. The elephant (though
its range has become restricted through the attacks of hunters)
is found both in the savannas and forest regions, the latter being
otherwise poor in large game, though the special habitat of the
chimpanzee and gorilla. Baboons and mandrills, wi th few excep-
tions, are peculiar to Africa. The single-humped camel—as a
domestic animal— is especially characteristic of the northern
deserts and steppes.
The rivers in the tropical zone abound with hippopotami andi
crocodiles, the -former entirely confined to Africa. The vast
herds of game, formerly so characteristic of many parts of Africa,
have much diminished with the increase of intercourse with the
interior. Game reserves have, however, been established in
South Africa, British Central Africa, British East Africa, Somali-
land, &c, while measures for the protection of wild animals
were laid down in an international convention signed in May
xooo.
The ornithology of northern Africa presents a close resemblance
to that Of southern Europe, scarcely a species being found which
does not also occur in the other countries bordering the Mediter-
ranean. Among the birds most characteristic of Africa are the
ostrich and the secretary-bird. The ostrich is widely dispersed,
but is found chiefly in the desert and steppe regions. The
secretary-bird is common in the south. The weaver birds and
their allies, including the long-tailed whydahs, are abundant, as
are, among game-birds, the francolin and guinea-fowl. Many of
the smaller birds, such as the sun-birds, bee-eaters, the parrots
and halcyons, as well as the larger plantain-eaters, are noted
for the brilliance of their plumage. Of reptiles the lizard and
chameleon are common, and there are a number of venomous
serpents, though these are not so numerous as in other tropical
countries. The scorpion is abundant. Of insects Africa has
many thousand different kinds; of these the locust is the pro-
verbial scourge of the continent, and the ravages of the termites
or white ants are almost incredible. The spread of malaria by
means of mosquitoes has already been mentioned. The tsetse fly,
whose bite is fatal to all domestic animals, is common in many
districts of South and East Africa. Fortunately it is found
nowhere outside Africa. (E. Hb.; F. R. C.)
II. Geology
In shape and general geological structure Africa bears a close
resemblance to India. Both possess a meridional extension with
a broad east and west' folded region in the north. In both a
successive series of continental deposits, ranging from the Car-
boniferous to the Rhaetic, rests on an older base of crystalline
rocks. In the words of Professor Suess, " India and Africa are
true plateau countries."
Of the primitive axes of Africa few traces remain. Both on
the east and west a broad zone of crystalline rocks extends parallel
with the coast-line to form the margin of the elevated plateau of
the interior. Occasionally the crystalline belt comes to the coast,
but it is usually reached by two steps known as the coastal belt
and foot-plateau. On the flanks of the primitive western axis
certain ancient sedimentary strata are thrown into folds which
were completed before the commencement of the mesozoic period.
In the south, the later palaeozoic rocks are also thrown into acute
folds by a movement acting from the south, and which ceased
towards the close of the mesozoic period. In northern Africa the
folded region of the Atlas belongs to the comparatively recem
date of the Alpine system. None of these earth movements
affected the interior, for here the continental mesozoic deposits
rest, undisturbed by folding, on the primary sedimentary and
crystalline rocks. The crystalline massif, therefore, presents a
solid block which has remained elevated since early palaeozoic
324
AFRICA
(GEOLOGY
times, and against which earth waves of several geological periods
have broken.
The formations older than the mcsozoic are remarkably un-
fossiliferous, so that the determination of their age is frequently
a matter of speculation, and in the following tabic the European
equivalents of the pre- Karroo formations in many regions must
be regarded as subject to considerable revision.
Rocks of Archean age cover wide areas in the interior, in
West and East Africa and across the Sahara. Along the coastal
margins they underlie the newer formations and appear in the
deep valleys and kloofs wherever denudation has laid them bare.
The prevailing types are granites, gneisses and schists. In the
central regions the predominant strike of the foliae is north and
south. The rocks, for convenience classed as pre-Cambrian,
occur as several unconformable groups chiefly developed in
the south where alone their stratigraphy has been determined.
They are unfossiliferous, and in the absence of undoubted
Cambrian, Ordovician and Silurian strata in Africa they may be
regarded as of older date than any of these formations. The
general occurrence of jasper-bearing rocks is of interest, as
these are always present in the ancient pressure-altered sedi-
mentary formations of America and Europe. Some unfossili-
ferous conglomerates, sandstones and dolomites in South Africa
and on the west coast arc considered to belong to the Cambrian,
Ordovician and Silurian formations, but merely from their
occurrence beneath strata yielding Devonian fossils. In Cape
Colony the Silurian age of the Table Mountain Sandstone is
based on such evidence.
The Devonian and Carboniferous formations are well repre-
sented in the north and south and in northern Angola.
Up to the close of the palaeozoic period the relative positions
of the ancient land masses and oceans remain unsolved; but
the absence of marine strata of early palaeozoic age from Central
Africa points to there being land in this direction. In late Car-
boniferous times Africa and India were undoubtedly united to
form a large continent, called by Suess Gondwana Land. In each
country the same succession of the rocks is met with; over both
the same specialized orders of reptiles roamed and were entombed.
The interior of the African portion of Gondwana Land was
occupied by several large lakes in which an immense thickness-
amounting to over 18,000 ft in South Africa — of sandstones
and marls, forming the Karroo system, was laid down. This is
par excellence the African formation, and covers immense areas
in South Africa and the Congo basin, with detached portions in
East Africa. During the whole of the time — Carboniferous to
Rhae tic— that this great accumulation of freshwater beds was
taking place, the interior of the continent must have been
undergoing depression. The commencement of the period was
marked by one of the most wonderful episodes in the geological
history of Africa. Preserved in the formation known as the
Dwyka Conglomerate, are evidences that at this time the
greater portion of South Africa was undergoing extreme glacia-
tion, while the same conditions appear to have prevailed in India
Table op Formations
Pleistocene.
Pliocene.
Miocene,
(Higocene.
Eocene.
Cretaceous,
C Jurassic.
Trias.
.Permian.
Carboniferous.
Devonian.
Silurian.
Ordovician.
Cambrian.
Sedimentary.
Alluvium ; travertine ;
coral; sand dunes; con-
tinental dunes. Gener-
ally distributed.
Ancient alluviums and
Sveis; travertine,
nerally distributed.
N. Africa; Madagascar.
N.Africa.
N.Africa.
N. Africa, along east and
west coasts; Madagas-
car.
Extensively developed in
N. Africa; along coast
and foot-plateaus in east
and west; Madagascar.
Igneous.
N. Africa;
Madai
E. Africa ;
dagascar; Stormberg
period (Rhae tic) in S.
Africa.
Beaufort Series in S.
Africa; Congo basin;
Central Africa; Algeria;
Tunis.
Ecca Series in S. Africa.
N. Africa; Sabaki Shales
in E. Africa; Dwyka
and Witteberg Series in
S. Africa.
N. Africa; Angola; Bokke-'
veld Series in S. Africa.
'Table Mountain Sandstone'
in S. Africa, Silurian(?).
Doubtfully represented
in N. Africa, French
Congo, Angola and by
Vaal River and Water-
Some volcanic islands;
rift-valley v
A long-continued suc-
cession in the cen-
tral and northern
regions and among
• the island groups.
Doubtfully repre-
sented south of the
Zarofr^ri.
Diamond pipes of S.
Africa ; Kaptian
. fissure eruptions;
Ashanpi traps of
Abyssinia.
,Chief volcanic period
in S. Africa.
v berg Series in S. Africa.
Pre-Cambrian. Quartzites, conglomerates,]
phyllites, jasper-bearing S. Africa and gener
rocks and schists. Gener- 1 ' ally.
ally distributed. J
Archean. Gneisses and schists of the
continental platform.
Feebly, if anywhere
developed.
Not recorded.
Klipriversberg and
Ventersdorp Series
of the Transvaal (?).
Igneous complex of
■ sheared igneous
rocks: granites.
and Australia. At the close of the Karroo period there was
a remarkable manifestation of volcanic activity which again
has its parallel in the Deccan traps of India.
How far the Karroo formation extended beyond its present
confines has not been determined. To the east it reached India.
In the south all that can be said is that it extended to the south
of Worcester in Cape Colony. The Crystal Mountains of Angola
may represent its western boundary; while the absence of
mesozoic strata beneath the Cretaceous rocks of the mid-Sahara
indicates that the system of Karroo lakeland had here reached
its most northerly extension. Towards the close of the Karroo
period, possibly about the middle, the southern rim of the great
central depression became ridged up to form the folded regions
of the Zwaarteberg, Cedar berg and Langeberg mountains in
Cape Colony. This folded belt gives Africa its abrupt southern
ETHNOLOGY]
AFRICA
325
termination, and may be regarded as an embryonic indication of
its present outline. The exact date of the maximum develop-
ment of this folding is unknown, but it had done its work and
some 10,000 ft. of strata had been removed before the com-
mencement of the Cretaceous period. It appears to approximate
in time to the similar earth movement and denudation at the
dose of the palaeozoic period in Europe. It was doubtless
connected with the disruption of Condwana Land, since it is
known that this great alteration of geographical outline com-
menced in Jurassic times.
The breaking up of Gondwana Land is usually considered
.to have been caused by a series of blocks of country being let
down by faulting with the consequent formation of the Indian
Ocean. Other blocks, termed horsts, remained unmoved, the
island of Madagascar affording a striking example. In the
African portion Ruwenzori is regarded by some geologists to be
a block mountain or horst.
In Jurassic times the sea gained access to East Africa north
of Mozambique, but does not appear to have reached far beyond
the foot-plateau except in Abyssinia.
The Cretaceous seas appear to have extended into the central
Saharan regions, for fossils of this age have been discovered in
the interior. On the west coast Cretaceous rocks extend con-
tinuously from Mogador to Cape Blanco. From here they are
absent up to the Gabon river, where they commence to form a
narrow fringe as far as the Kunene river, though often overlain
by recent deposits; They are again absent up to the Sunday river
in Cape Colony, where Lower Cretaceous rocks (for long con-
sidered to be of Oolitic age) of an inshore character are met
with. Strata of Upper Cretaceous age occur in Pondoland and
Natal, and are of exceptional interest since the fossils show
an intermingling of Pacific types with other forms having Euro-
pean affinities. In Mozambique and in German East Africa,
Cretaceous rocks extend from the coast to a distance inland of
over 100 m.
Except in northern Africa, the Tertiary formations only occur
in a few isolated patches on the east and west coasts. In northern
Africa they are well developed and of much interest. They
contain the well-known numtaulitic limestone of Eocene age,
which has been traced from Egypt across Asia to China. The.
Upper Eocene rocks of Egypt have also yielded primeval types
of the Proboscidee and other mammalia. Evidences for the
greater extension of the Eocene seas than was formerly con-
sidered to be the case have been discovered around Sokoto.
During Miocene times Passarge considers that the region of the
Zambezi underwent extreme desiccation.
The effect of the Glacial epoch in Europe is shown in northern
Africa by the moraines of the higher Atlas, and the wider exten-
sion of the glaciers on Kilimanjaro, Kenya and Ruwenzori, and
by the extensive accumulations of gravel over the Sahara.
The earliest signs of igneous activity in Africa are to be
found in the granites, intrusive into the older rocks of the Cape
peninsula, into those of the Transvaal, and into the gneisses
and schists of Central Africa. The Ventersdorp boulder beds
of the Transvaal may be of early palaeozoic age; but as a whole
the palaeozoic period in Africa was remarkably free from volcanic
and igneous disturbances, The close of the Stormberg period
(Rhaetic) was one of great volcanic activity in South Africa.
Whilst the later Secondary and Tertiary formations were being
laid down in North Africa and around the margins of the rest
of the continent, Africa received its last great accumulation of
strata and at the same time underwent a consecutive series of
earth-movements. The additional strata consist of the immense
quantities of volcanic material on the plateau of East Africa,
the basalt flows of West Africa and possibly those of the Zambezi
basin. The exact period of the commencement of volcanic
activity is unknown. In Abyssinia the Ashangi traps are cer-
tainly post-Oolitic In East Africa the fissure eruptions are con-
sidered to belong to the Cretaceous. These early eruptions were
followed by those of Kenya, Mawenzi, Elgon, Chibcharagnani,
and these by the eruptions of Kibo, Longonot, Suswa and
the Kyulu Mountains. The last phase of vulcanidty took
place along the great meridional rifts of East Africa, and though
feebly manifested has not entirely passed away. In northern
Africa a continuous sequence of volcanic events has taken place
from Eocene times to latest Tertiary; but in South Africa it is
doubtful if there have been any intrusions later then Cretaceous.
During this long continuance of vulcanicity, earth-movements
were in progress In the north the chief movements gave rise
to the system of latitudinal folding and faulting of the Moroccan
and Algerian Atlas, the last stages being represented by the
formation of the Algerian and Moroccan coast-outline and the
sundering of Europe from Africa at the Straits of Gibraltar.
Whilst northern Africa was being folded, the East African
plateau was broken up by a series of longitudinal rifts extending
from Nyasaland to Egypt. The depressed areas contain the
long, narrow, precipitously walled lakes of East Africa. The
Red Sea also occupies a meridional trough.
Lastly there are the recent elevations of the northern coastal
regions, the Barbary coast and along the cast coast. ( W G.*)
III. Ethnology
In attempting a review of the races and tribes which inhabit
Africa, their distribution, movements and culture, it is advisable
that three points be borne in mind. The first of these is the
comparative absence of natural barriers in the interior, owing to
which intercommunication between tribes, the dissemination of
culture and tribal migration have been considerably facilitated.
Hence the student must be prepared to find that, for the most
part, there are no sharp divisions to mark the extent of the
various races composing the population, but that the number of
what may be termed " transitional " peoples b unusually large.
The second point is that Africa, with the exception of the lower
Nile valley and what is known as Roman Africa (see Africa,
Roman), is, so far as its native inhabitants are concerned, a
continent practically without a history, and possessing no records
from which such a history might be reconstructed. The early
movements of tribes, the routes by which they reached their
present abodes, and the origin of such forms of culture as may be
distinguished in the general mass of customs, beliefs, &c, are
largely matters of conjecture. The negro is essentially the child
of the moment; and his memory, both tribal and individual, is
very short. The third point is that many theories which have
been formulated with respect to such matters are unsatisfactory
owing to the small amount of information concerning many of
the tribes in the interior.
Excluding the Europeans who have found a home in various
parts of Africa, and the Asiatics, Chinese and natives of India
introduced by them (sec section History below), the -^^^
population of Africa consists of the following elements : diWma
— the Bushman, the Negro, the Eastern Hamite, nee*.
the Libyan and the Semite, from the intermingling
of which in various proportions a vast number of " transi-
tional" tribes has arisen. The Bushmen (q.v.), a race
of short yellowish-brown nomad- hunters, inhabited, in the
earliest times of which there is historic knowledge, the land
adjoining the southern and eastern borders of the Kalahari
desert, into which they were gradually being forced by the
encroachment of the Hottentots and Bantu tribes. But signs of
their former presence are not wanting as far north as Lake
Tanganyika, and even, it is rumoured, still farther north. With
them may be classed provisionally the Hottentots, a pastoral
people of medium stature and yellowish-brown complexion, who
in early times shared with the Bushmen the whole of what is now
Cape Colony. Though the racial affinities of the Hottentots have
been disputed, the most satisfactory view on the whole is that
they represent a blend of Bushman, Negroid and Hamitic
elements. Practically the rest of Africa, from the southern fringe
of the Sahara and the upper valley of the Nile to the Cape, with
the exception of Abyssinia and Galla and Somali-lands, is peopled
by Negroes and the " transitional " tribes to which their ad-
mixture with Libyans on the north, and Semites (Arabs) and
Hamites on the north-east and east, has given rise. A slight
qualification of the last statement is necessary, in so far as, among
326
AFRICA
(ETHNOLOGY
the Fula in the western Sudan, and the Ba-Hima, ftc, of the
Victoria Nyanza, Libyan and Hamitic elements are respectively
stronger than the Negroid. Of the tracts excepted, Abyssinia is
inhabited mainly by Semito-Hamites* (though a fairly strong
negroid element can be found), and Somali and Galla-lands by
Hamites. North of the Sahara in Algeria and Morocco are the
Libyans (Berbers, q.v.), a distinctively white people, who have in
certain respects (e.g. religion) fallen under Arab influence. In
the north-east the brown-skinned Hamite and the Semite mingle
in varied proportions. The Negroid peoples, which inhabit the
vast tracts of forest and savanna between the areas held by
Bushmen to the south and the Hamites, Semites and Libyans to
the north, fall into two groups divided by a line running from the
Cameroon (Rio del Rey) crossing the Ubangi river below the
bend and passing between the Ituri and the Semliki rivers, to
Lake Albert and thence with a slight southerly trend to the coast
North of this Jine are the Negroes proper, south are the Bantu.
The division is primarily philological. Among the true Negroes
the greatest linguistic confusion prevails; for instance, in certain
parts of Nigeria it is possible to find half-a-dozen villages within
a comparatively small area speaking, not different dialects, but
different languages, a fact which adds greatly to the difficulty of
political administration. To the south of the line the condition
of affairs fa entirely different; here the entire population speaks
one or another dialect of the Bantu Languages (q.v.). As said
before, the division is primarily linguistic and, especially upon the
border line, does not always correspond with the variations of
physical type. At the same time it is extremely convenient
and to a certain extent justifiable on physical and psycho-
logical grounds; and it may be said roughly that while the
linguistic uniformity of the Bantu is accompanied by great
variation of physical type, the converse fa in the main true of the
Negro proper, especially where least affected by Libyan and
Hamitic admixture, e.g. on the Guinea coast The variation of
type among the Bantu fa due probably to a varying admixture of
alien blood, which is more apparent as the east coast is approached.
This foreign element cannot be identified with certainty, but
since the Bantu seem to approach the Hamites in those points
where they differ from the Negro proper, and since the physical
characteristics of Hamites and Semites are very similar, it seems
probable that the last two races have entered into the composi-
tion of the Bantu, though it is highly improbable that Semitic
influence shduld have permeated any distance from the east coast
An extremely interesting section of the population not hitherto
mentioned is constituted by the Pygmy tribes inhabiting the
densely forested regions along the equator from Uganda to the
Gabun and living the life of nomadic hunters. The affinities of
this little people are undecided, owing to the small amount of
knowledge concerning them. The theories which connected them
with the Bushmen do not seem to be correct. It is more probable
that they are to be classed among the Negroids, with whom they
appear to have intermingled to a certain extent in the upper basin
of the Ituri, and perhaps elsewhere. As far as is known they
speak no language peculiar to themselves but adopt that of the
nearest agricultural tribe. They are of a dark brown complexion,
with very broad noses, lips but slightly everted, and small but
usually sturdy physique, though often considerably emaciated
owing to insufficiency of food. Another peculiar tribe, also of
short stature, are the Vaalpens of the steppe region of the north
TransvaaL Practically nothing is known of them except that
they are said to be very dark in colour and live in holes in the
ground, and under rock shelters.
Having indicated the chief races of which in various degrees
of purity and intermixture the population of Africa is formed,
it remains to consider them in greater detail, particu-
t£2X!st ^y from ^ o^ti"*! standpoint This is hardly
ofiMM possible without drawing attention to the main physical
characters of the continent, as far as they affect
the inhabitants. For ethnological purposes three principal cones
may be distinguished; the first two are respectively a
large region of steppes and desert in the north, and a smaller
region of steppes and desert in the south. These two tones are
connected by a vertical strip of grassy highland lying mainly
to the east of the chain of great lakes. The third zone is a vast
region of forest and rivers in the west centre, comprising the
greater part of the basin of the Congo and the Guinea coast
The rainfall, which also has an important bearing upon the
culture of peoples, will be found on the whole to be greatest in
the third zone and also in the eastern highlands, and of course
least in the desert, the steppes and savannas standing midway
between the two. As might be expected these variations are
accompanied by certain variations in culture. In the .best-
watered districts agriculture is naturally of the greatest import-
ance, except where the density of the forest renders the work
of clearing too arduous. The main portion therefore of the
inhabitants of the forest zone are agriculturists, save only the
nomad Pygmies, who live in the inmost recesses of the forest
and support themselves by hunting the game with which it
abounds. Agriculture, too, flourishes in the eastern highlands,
and throughout the greater part of the steppe and savanna
region of the northern and southern zones, especially the latter.
In fact the only Bantu tribes who are not agriculturists are the
Ova-Herero of German South- West Africa, whose purely pastoral
habits are the natural outcome of the barren country they in-
habit But the wide open plains and slopes surrounding the
forest area are eminently suited to cattle-breeding, and there are
few tribes who do not take advantage of the fact. At the same
time a natural check is imposed upon the desire for cattle,
which fa so characteristic of the Bantu peoples. This is con-
stituted by the tsetse fly, which renders a pastoral life absolutely
impossible throughout large tracts in central and southern
Africa. In the northern zone this check is absent, and the
number of more essentially pastoral peoples, such as the eastern
Hamites, Masai, Dinka, Fula, &c, correspondingly greater.
The desert regions yield support only to nomadic peoples, such
as the Tuareg, Tibbu, Bedouins and Bushmen, though the
presence of numerous oases in the north renders the condition
of life easier for the inhabitants. Upon geographical conditions
likewise depend to a large extent the political conditions pre-
vailing among the various tribes. Thus among the wandering
tribes of the desert and of the heart of the forests, where large
communities are impossible, a patriarchal system prevails with
the family as the unit Where the forest is less dense and small
agricultural communities begin to make their appearance, the
unit expands to the village with its headman. Where the forest
thins to the savanna and steppe, and communication is easier,
are found the larger kingdoms and " empires " such as, in the
north those established by the Songhai, Hausa, Fula, Bagirmi,
Ba-Hima, &c, and in the south the states of Lunda, Kaxembe,
the Ba-Rotse, &c
But if ease of communication is favourable to the rise of
large states and the cultural progress that usually accompanies
it, it is, nevertheless, often fatal to the very culture which, at
first, it fostered, in so far as the absence of natural boundaries
renders invasion easy. A good example of this is furnished by
the history of the western Sudan and particularly of East and
South-East Africa. From its geographical position Africa looks
naturally to the east and it is on this side that it has been most
affected by external culture both by land (across the Sinaitic
peninsula) and by sea. Though a certain amount of Indonesian
and even aboriginal Indian influence has been traced in African
ethnography, the people who have produced the most serious
ethnic disturbances (apart from modern Europeans) are the
Arabs. This is particularly the case in East Africa, where the
systematic slave raids organized by them and carried out with
the assistance of various warlike tribes reduced vast regions
to a state of desolation. In the north and west of Africa, how -
ever, the Arab has had a less destructive but more extensive
and permanent influence in spreading the Mahommedan religion
throughout the whole of the Sudan.
The fact that the physical geography of Africa affords fewer
natural obstacles to racial movements on the side most exposed
to foreign influence, renders it obvious that the culture most
characteristically African must be sought on the other side*.
AFRICA
ETHNOLOGYl
It is therefore in the forests of the Congo, and among the lagoons
and estuaries of the Guinea coast, that this earlier culture will
Ttm char- most probably be found. That there is a culture
■mi win distinctive of this area, irrespective of the linguistic
***— line dividing the Bantu from the Negro proper, has
now been recognised. Its main features may be
summed as follows:— a purely agricultural life, with the plan-
tain, yam and manioc (the last two of American origin) as the
staple food; fflnnirnitiwm common; rectangular houses with
ridged roofs; scar-tattooing; clothing of bark-doth or palm-fibre;
occasional chipping or extraction of upper incisors; bows with
strings of cane, as the principal weapons, shields of wood or
wickerwork; religion, a primitive form of fetishism with the
belief that death is due to witchcraft; ordeals, secret societies,
the use of masks and anthropomorphic figures, and wooden
gsngs. With this may be contrasted the culture of the Bantu
peoples to the south and east, also agriculturists, but in addition,
Where possible, great cattle-breeders, whose staple food is millet
and milk. These are distinguished by circular huts with domed
or conical roofs; clothing of skin or leather; occasional chipping
or extraction of lower incisors; spears as the principal weapons,
bows, where found, with a sinew cord, shields of hide or leather;
religion, ancestor-worship with belief in the power of the
magicians as rain-makers. Though this difference in culture
may well be explained on the supposition that the first is the
older and more representative of Africa, this theory must not
be pushed too far. Many of the distinguishing characteristics
of the two regions are doubtless due simply to* environment,
even the difference in religion. Ancestor-worship occurs most
naturally among a people where tribal organisation has reached
a fairly advanced stage, and is the natural outcome of patriotic
reverence for a successful chief and his councillors. Rain-making,
too, is of little importance in a well-watered region, but a matter
of vital interest to an agricultural people where the rainfall
fa slight and irregular.
Within the eastern, and southern Bantu area certain cultural
variations occur; beehive huts are found among the Zulu-
Xosa and Hereto, giving place among the Bechuana to the
cylindrical variety with conical roof, a type which, with few
exceptions, extends north to Abyssinia. The tanged spear-
bead characteristic of the south is replaced by the socketed
variety towards the north. Circumcision, characteristic of the
Zulu-Xosa and Bechuana, is not practised by many tribes farther
north; tooth-mutilation, on the contrary, h absent among the
more southern tribes. The lip-plug is found in the eastern area,
especially among the Nyasa tribes, but not in the south. The
head-rest common in the south-east and the southern fringe of
the forest area is not found far north of Tanganyika until the
Horn of Africa is reached.
In the regions outside the western area occupied by the Negro
proper, exclusive of the upper Nile, the similarities of culture
outweigh the differences. Here the cylindrical type of hut
prevails; clothing is of skin or leather but is very scanty; iron
ornaments are worn in profusion; arrows are not feathered;
shields of hide, spears with leather sheaths are found and also
fighting bracelets. Certain small differences appear between
the eastern and western portions, the dividing line being formed
by the boundary between Bornu and Hausaland. Characteristic
of the east are the harp and the throwing-club and throwing-
knife, the last of which has penetrated into the forest area.
Typical of the west are the bow and the dagger with the ring
hilt The tribes of the upper Nile are somewhat specialised,
though here, too, are found the cylindrical hut, iron ornaments,
fighting bracelets, &c, characteristic of the Sudanese tribes.
Here the removal of the lower incisors is common, and circum-
cision entirely absent
Throughout the rest of the Sudan is found Semitic culture
introduced by the Arabized Libyan. Circumcision, as is usual
among Mahommedan tribes, is universal, and tooth-mutilation
absent; of other characteristics, the use of the sword has pene-
trated to the northern portion of the forest area. The culture
prevailing in the Horn of Africa is, naturally, mainly Hamito-
327
Semitic; here are found both cylindrical and bee-hive huts,
the sword (which has been adopted by the Masai to the south),
the lyre (which has found its way to some of the Nilotic tribes)
and the head-rest Circumcision is practically universal
As has been said earlier, the history of Africa reaches back
but a short distance, except, of course, as far as the lower Nile
valley and Roman Africa is concerned; elsewhere no records
exist, save tribal traditions, and these only relate to very recent
events. Even archaeology, which can often sketch the main
outlines of a people's history, is here practically powerless,
owing to the insufficiency of data. It is true that stone imple-
ments of palaeolithic and neolithic types are found sporadically
in the Nile valley, Somaliland, on the Zambezi, in Cape Colony
and the northern portions of the Congo Free State, as well as
in Algeria and Tunisia; but the localities are far too few and
too widely separated to warrant the inference that they are to
be in any way connected. Moreover, where stone implements
are found they are, as a rule, very near, even actually on, the
surface of the earth; nothing occurs resembling the regular
stratification of Europe, and consequently no argument based
on geological grounds is possible.
The lower Nile valley, however, forms an exception; flint
implements of a palaeolithic type have been found near Thebes,
not only on the surface of the ground, which for several thousand
years has been desert owing to the contraction of the river-bed,
but also in stratified gravel of an older date. References to a
number of papers bearing on the discussion to which their
discovery has given rise may be found in an article by Mr H. R.
Hall in Man, 1005, No. 10. The Egyptian and also the Somali-
land finds appear to be true palacoliths in type and remarkably
similar to those found in Europe. But evidence bearing on the
Stone age in Africa, if the latter existed apart from the localities
mentioned, is so slight that little can be said save that from 'the
available evidence the palaeoliths of the Nile valley alone can
with any degree of certainty be assigned to a remote period of
antiquity, and that the chips scattered over Mashonaland and
the regions occupied within historic times by Bushmen are
the most recent; since it has been shown that the stone flakes
were used by the medieval Makalanga to engrave their hard
pottery and the Bushmen were still using stone implements in
the 19th century. Other early remains, but of equally uncertain
date, are the stone circles of Algeria, the Cross river and the
Gambia. The large system of ruined forts and " dries " in
Mashonaland, at Zimbabwe and elsewhere, concerning which so
many ingenious theories have been woven, have been proved to
date from medieval times.
Thus while in Europe there is a Stone age, divided into periods
according to various types of implement disposed in geological
strata, and followed in orderly succession by the ages orhjamad
of Bronze and Iron, in Africa can be found no true
Stone age and practically no Bronze at all. The reason
is not far to seek; Africa is a country of iron, which is
found distributed widely throughout the continent in ores so
rich that the metal can be extracted with very little trouble
and by the simplest methods. Iron has been worked from
time immemorial by the Negroid peoples, and whole tribes
are found whose chief industry is the smelting and forging
of the metal Under such conditions, questions relating to the
origin and spread of the racial stocks which form the population
of Africa cannot be answered with any certainty; at best only a
certain amount of probability can be attained.
Five of these racial stocks have been mentioned: Bushman,
Negro, Hamite, Semite, Libyan, the last three probably related
through some common ancestor. Of these the honour of being
considered the most truly African belongs to the two first It
is true that people of Negroid type are found elsewhere, princi-
pally in Melanesia, but as yet their possible connexion with the
African Negro is little more than theoretical, and for the present
purposes it need not be considered.
The origin of the Bushman is lost in obscurity, but he may be
conceived as the original inhabitant of the southern portion of
the continent The original home of the Negro, at first an
3^8
AFRICA
(ETHNOLOGY
agriculturist, is most probably to be found in the neighbourhood
of the great lakes, whence he penetrated along the fringe of the
Sahara to the west and across the eastern highlands southward.
Northerly expansion was prevented by the early occupation
of the Nile valley, the only easy route to the Mediterranean,
but there seems no doubt that the population of ancient Egypt
contained a distinct Negroid element. The question as to the
ethnic affinities of the pre-dynastic Egyptians is still unsolved;
but they may be regarded as, in the main, Hamitic, though it is
a question how far it is just to apply a name which implies a
definite specialization in what may be comparatively modern
times to a people of such antiquity.
The Horn of Africa appears to have been the centre from
which the Hamites spread, and the pressure they seem to have
applied to the Negro tribes, themselves also in process of expan-
sion, sent forth larger waves of emigrants from the latter. These
emigrants, already affected by the Hamitic pastoral culture,
and with a strain of Hamitic blood in their veins, passed rapidly
down the open tract in the east, doubtless exterminating their
predecessors, except such few as took refuge in the mountains
and swamps. The advance-guard of this wave of pastoral
Negroids, in fact primitive Bantu, mingled with the Bushmen
and produced the Hottentots. The penetration of the forest
area must certainly have taken longer and was probably accom-
plished as much from the south-cast, up the Zambezi valley,
as from any other quarter. It was a more peaceful process,
since natural obstacles are unfavourable to rapid movements of
large bodies of immigrants, though not so serious as to prevent
the spread of language and culture. A modern parallel to the
spread of Bantu speech is found in the rise of the Hausa language,
which is gradually enlarging its sphere of influence in the western
and central Sudan. Thus those qualities, physical and otherwise,
in which the Bantu approach the Hamites gradually fade as we
proceed westward through the Congo basin, while in the east,
among the tribes to the west of Tanganyika and on the upper
Zambezi, " transitional " forms of culture are found. In later
times this gradual pressure from the south-east became greater,
and resulted, at a comparatively recent date, in the irruption of
the Fang into the Gabun.
The earlier stages of the southern movement must have been
accompanied by a similar movement westward between the
Sahara and the forest; and, probably, at the same time, or even
earlier, the Libyans crossing the desert had begun to press upon
the primitive Negroes from the north. In this way were produced
the Fuia, who mingled further with the Negro to give birth to
the Mandingo, Wolof and Tukulor. It would appear that either
Libyan (Fula) or, less probably, Hamitic, blood enters into the
composition of the Zandch peoples on the Nile-Congo watershed.
These Libyans or Berbers, included by G. Sergi in his " Mediter-
ranean Race," were active on the north coast of Africa in very
early times, and had relations with the Egyptians from a pre-
historic period. For long these movements continued, always
in the same direction, from north to south and from east to
west; though, of course, more rapid changes took place in the
open country, especially in the great eastern highway from
north to south, than in the forest area. Large states arose in
the western Sudan; Ghana flourished in the 7th century a.d.,
Melle in the 1 ith, Songhai in the 14th, and Bornu in the 16th.
Meanwhile in the east began the southerly movement of the
Bechuana, which was probably spread over a considerable
period. Later than they, but proceeding faster, came the
Zulu-Xosa (" Kaffir ") peoples, who followed a line nearer the
coast and outflanked them, surrounding them on the south.
Then followed a time of great ethnical confusion in South
Africa, during which tribes flourished, split up and disappeared;
but ere this the culture represented by the ruins in Rhodesia
had waxed and waned. It is uncertain who were the builders of
the forts and " cities," but it is not improbable that they may be
found to have been early Bechuana. The Zulu-Xosa, Bechuana
and Hereto together form a group which may conveniently be
termed " Southern Bantu."
Finally began a movement hitherto unparalleled in the
history of African migration; certain peoples of Zulu blood
began to press north, spreading destruction in their wake. Of
these the principal were the Matabele and Angoni. The move-
ment continued as far as the Victoria Nyanza. Here, on the
border-line of Negro, Bantu and Hamite, important changes
had taken place. Certain of the Negro tribes had retired to
the swamps of the Nile, and had become somewhat specialized,
both physically and culturally (Shilluk, Dinka, Alur, Acholi,
&c). These had blended with the Hamites to produce such
races as the Masai and kindred tribes. The old Kitwara empire,
which comprised the plateau land between the Ruwenzori
range and Kavirondo, had broken up into small states, usually
governed by a Hamitic (Ba-Hima) aristocracy. The more
extensive Zang (Zenj) empire, of which the name Zanzibar
(Zanguebar) Is a lasting memorial, extending along the sea-board
from Somaluand to the Zambezi, was also extinct. The Arabs
had established themselves firmly on the coast, and thence made
continual slave-raids into the interior, penetrating later to the
Congo. The Swahili, inhabiting the coast-line from the equator
to about x6°S., are a somewhat heterogeneous mixture of Bantu
with a tinge of Arab blood.
In the neighbourhood of Victoria Nyanza, where Hamite,
Bantu, Nilotic Negro and Pygmy are found in close contact,
the ethnic relations of tribes are often puzzling, but the Bantu not
under a Hamitic domination have been divided by F. Stuhlmann
into the Older Bantu (Wanyamwezi, Wasukuma, Wasambara,
Waseguha, Wasagara, Wasaramo, &c.) and the Bantu of Later
Immigration (Wakikuyu, Wakamba, Wapokomo, Wataita,
Wachaga, &c), who are more strongly Hamitized and in many
cases have adopted Masai customs. These peoples, from the
Victoria Nyanza to the Zambezi, may conveniently be termed
the " Eastern Bantu."
Turning to the Congo basin in the south, the great Luba and
Lunda peoples are found stretching nearly across the continent,
the latter, from at any rate the end of the 16th century until the
close of the 19th century, more or less united under a single ruler,
styled Muata Yanvo. These seem to have been the most recent
immigrants from the south-east, and to exhibit certain affinities
with the Barotse on the upper Zambezi Among the western
Baluba, or BashOange, a remarkable politico-religious revolution
took place at a comparatively recent date, initiated by a secret
society termed Bcna Riamba or " Sons of Hemp," and resulted
in the subordination of the old fetishism to a cult of hemp, in
accordance with which all hemp-smokers consider themselves
brothers, and the duty of mutual hospitality, &c, is acknow-
ledged. North of these, in the great bend of the Congo, are the
Balolo, &c, the Balolo a nation of iron-workers; and westward,
on the Kasai, the Bakuba, and a large number of tribes as yet
imperfectly known. Farther west are the tribes of Angola, many
of whom were included within the old " Congo empire," of which
the kingdom of Loango was an offshoot. North of the latter lies
the Gabun, with a large number of small tribes dominated by the
Fang who are recent arrivals from the Congo. Farther to the
north are the Bali and other tribes of the Cameroon, among whom
many primitive Negroid elements begin to appear. Eastward
are the Zandeh peoples of the Welle district (primitive Negroids
with a Hamitic or, more probably, Libyan strain), with whom the
Dor tribe of Nilotes on their eastern border show certain affinities;
while to the west along the coast are the Guinea Negroes of
primitive type. Here, amidst great linguistic confusion, may be
distinguished the tribes of Yoruba speech in the Niger delta and
the east portion of the Slave Coast; those of Ewe speech, in the
western portion of the latter; and those of Ga and Tshi speech,
on the Gold Coast. Among the last two groups respectively may
be mentioned the Dahomi and Ashanti. Similar tribes are found
along the coast to the Bissagos Islands, though the introduction
in Sierra Leone and Liberia of settlements of repatriated slaves
from the American plantations has in those places modified the
original ethnic distribution. Leaving the forest zone and entering
the more open country there are, on the north from the Niger
to the Nile, a number of Negroids strongly tinged with Libyan
blood and professing the Mahommedan religion. Such arc (he
ETHNOIjOCYI
AFRICA
329
Mandingo, the Songhai, the Fula, Hausa, Kanuri, Bagfrmi,
Kanembu, and the peoples of Wadai and Darfur; the few
aborigines who persist, on the southern fringe of the Chad basin,
are imperfectly known.
The island of Madagascar, belonging to the African continent,
still remains for discussion. Here the ethnological conditions are
peculiar. Before the French occupation the dominant
people were the Hova, a Malayo-Indonesian people
who must have come from the Malay Peninsula or the
adjacent islands. The date of their immigration has been
the subject of a good deal of dispute, but it may be argued that
their arrival must have taken place in early times, since Malagasy
speech, which is the language of the island, is principally Malayo-
Poiynesian in origin, and contains no traces of Sanskrit. Such
traces, introduced with Hinduism, are present in all the cultivated
languages of Malaysia at the present day. The Hova occupy the
table-land of Imcrina and form the first of the three main groups
into which the population of Madagascar may be divided. They
are short, of an olive-yellow complexion and have straight or
faintly wavy hair. On the east coast are the Malagasy, who in
physical characteristics stand halfway between the Hova and the
Sakalava, the last occupying the remaining portion of the island
and displaying almost pure Negroid characteristics.
Though the Hova belong to a race naturally addicted to sea-
faring, the contrary is the case respecting the Negroid population,
and the presence of the latter in the island has been explained by
the supposition that they were imported by the Hova. Other
authorities assign less antiquity to the Hova immigration and
believe that they found the Negroid tribes already in occupation
of the island.
As might be expected, the culture found in Madagascar con-
tains two elements, Negroid and Malayo-Indonesian. The first of
these two shows certain affinities with the culture characteristic
of the western area, of Africa, such as rectangular huts, clothing of
bark and palm-fibre, fetishism, &c, but cattle-breeding is found
as well as agriculture. However, the Negroid tribes are more and
more adopting the customs and mode of life of the Hova, among
whom are found pile-houses, the sarong, fadi or tabu applied to
food, a non-African form of bellows, &c, all characteristic of
their original home. The Hova, during the 19th century, em-
braced Christianity, but retain, nevertheless, many of their old
animistic beliefs; their original social organization in three
classes, andriana or nobles, hova or freemen, and andevo or slaves,
has- been modified by the French, who have abolished kingship
and slavery. An Arab infusion is also to be noticed, especially on
the north-east and south-east coasts.
It is impossible to give a complete list of the tribes inhabiting
Africa, owing to the fact that the country is not fully explored.
Even where the names of the tribes are known their ethnic
relations are still a matter of uncertainty in many localities.
The following list, therefore, must be regarded as purely tenta-
tive, and liable to correction in the light of fuller information:—
AFRICAN TRIBAL DISTRIBUTION
LIBYANS
{North Africa, excluding Egypt)
Berbers, including—
Kabylea
Mzab
Shawia
Tuareg
UBYO-NEGROID TRANSITIONAL
Fula (Went Sudan)
Tibbu (Central Sudan)
HA MITES
{Pest Sudan and Horn of Africa)
Beja, including—
Hadendoa
Bisharin
Beni-Amer
Hamran
HAlilTES— continued
(Most Sudan and Ham of Africa)— continued
Galla
Somali
Danakil (Afar)
Ba-Hima, including—
Wa-Tusst
Wa-Hha
Wa-Rundl
Wa- Ruanda
HAUITO-SEMITES
Feflahin (Egypt)
Abyssinian* (with Negroid admixture)
RAMITO-NEGROID TRANSITIONAL
Masai
Wa-Kuafi
NEGROID TRIBES
West*
tudan
Central Sudan
Eastern
Tukulor
Songhai
Fur Kareo
Dago Kulfan
Wolof
Hausa #
Screr
Bagioni
Kunjara Kolaji
Leybu t
Kanembu
Tcgcle Tumali
Nuba
Mandingo, including— Kanuri
Kassonke
Tama
Yallonke
Maba
Zandeh Tribes
Soninke.
Bambara
Vei
Birkit
Massalit
Korunga
(Akin to Nilotic*, but
probably with Fula
element)
Susu
Soli ma
Kabbaga
Azandeh (Niam Niam)
Makaraka
Malinke
Mundu
Probably also—
Mangbettu
Ababwa
Mora
Borgu
Mege
Abuanga
Tombo
Gurma
Gurunga
Dagomba
Me
Allied are —
Mampursi
.2 5 J
Banziri Languassi
Gonja
2S"
Ndris Wia-Wia
Ac ,
a*
Togbo Awaka
4c,
NEGROES
West African Tribes
Tribes of Tshi and Ga Tribes of Yoruba
Khabunke
speech, including —
speech, including—
Balanta
Ashanti
Yoruba
Bagnori
Safwi
Ibadan
Bagnum
Felup, including —
Denkera
Ketu
Bekwai
Egba
jebu
Kemo
Ayamat
Jola
Tigush
Vaca
Nkoranza
Adanst
Asain
Ode
Wassaw
Illorin
loat
Karon
Ahanta
Fanti
Ijesa
Ondo
Banyum
Banjar
Agona
Akwapim
Mahin
Bini
Fulum
Akim
Kakanda
"r
Akwamu
Wari
Kwao
I bo
Bujagos
Ga
Efik
Biafare
Andoni
Landuman
Tribes of Eke speech.
Kwa
Nalu "
including —
Ibibio
Baga
Ekoi
Sape
Bulam
Dahomi
Inokun
Eweawo
Akunakuna
Mendi
Limba
Agotine
Krepi
Munabi
Ikwe
Gallina
Avenor
Timni
Awuna
Peasi
Gola
Agbosoml
Aflao
Kondo
Ataklu
Baasa
Krikpr
Km
Grebo
A wli mi lit!
Gen?
AttalcpamJ
Ewcmj
a*™
Oshiu
Aopa
33°
AFRICA
[ETKKOLOCY
NEGROES-continued
Central Negroes
Bolo
Yako
Taagala
Kali
Miahi
Doma
Moagu, including—
Mandara
Margi
Logon
Gamergu
Keribina
Yedina
Kuri
Ac.
NUotics with affinity
with Zondek tribes
Dor (Bongo)
NEGRO-BANTU
TRANSITIONAL
Ba-Kwiri
Abo
Bali
Ba-Koasi
Ba-Ngwa
Ba-Nyang
Ngolo
Ba-Fo
Ba-Kundn
Iaubu
Dualla
Bassa
Ba-Noko
Ba-Puko
Ba-Koko
Eastern Negroes
Pure NUotics
Shilluk
Nuer
Dinka
iur (Diur)
fittu
Jibbeh
Madi
Lendu
Alur (Lur)
Lango
Abaka
Goto
NUotics with affinity
vithMasat
Latuka
Ban
NILOTIC-BANTU
TRANSITIONAL
Ja-Luo
PYGMY TRIBES
(Central Africa)
Akka
Ba-Mbute
Ba-Bongo
Aahango
Ac.
Western
Ogowe
Aanira
Ishogo
Aahango
Bakalat
Nkorai
Orungu
Mpongwe
Osheklaiii
Benga
Ininga
Galao
Apingi
Okanda
Osaka
Aduma
Mbamba
Umbete
Bule
Bane
Yaunde
Maka
Bomone
Kunabembe
Fang (recent im-
migrants from
the Congo
group)
&c.
Ba-Kongp, in-
eluding —
Mushi- Kongo
MuMorongo
Kabinda
Ka-Kongo
Ba-Vili
Ma-Yumbc
Ba-Lumbo
Ba-Sundi
Ba-Bweade
Ba-Lali
Ba-Kunya
BANTU NEGROIDS
Central
Eastern
Lnba-Lunda Group Lacnstrians
Ba-Luba, including— Ba-Nyoro
Ba-Toro
Wa-Siba
Wa-Stnja
Wa-Kerewe
Wa-Shashi
Wa-Rundi
Ba-Iro
Ba-Ganda
Probably connected Ba-Spga
Ba-Kavirondo, includ-
ing —
Awaware
Awarimi
Awakisii
Ac.
Ba-Songe
Wa-Rua
Wa-Guha
Ba-ShUange (with
Ba-Kete ele-
ment)
Ba-Lunda
Manvema
Ba-Kumu
Wa-Regga
Ba-Rotse, including—
Ma-MbunUa
Ma-Supia
Ma-Shukulumbwe
Ba-Tonga
and probably
Va-Lovale
Tribes of the Congo
Ba-Kussu
Ba-Tetela
Ba-Songo Mino
Ba-Kuba
Ba-Lolo
Ba-Kuti
Ba-Mbala
Ba-Huana
Ba-Yaka
Ba-Pindi
Ba-Kwete
Ac
Tribes of the Congo
Wa-Genia
Ba-Soko
Ba-Poto
MobaU
Mogwandi
n VT , fconnected
Ba-gfc^JwHhZan-
B»-B*ng»|deh group
Wa-Buma
Bantu of Recent
Immigration
Wa-Kikuyu
WaKamba
Wa-Pokomo
Wa-Duruma
Wa-Digo
Wa-Giriama
Wa-Taiu
Wa-Nyaturu
Wa-lramba
Wa-Mbugwe
Wa-Kaguru •
w.^ogoJKSS te
Wa-Chaga| c i eiIl ent
Older Bantu
Wa-Nyamwesi,includ-
BANTU NEGROIDS— continued
Western
Central
Ba-Nunu
Ba-Loi
Ba-Teke
Wa-Pfuru
Wa-Mbundu
Wa-Mfumu
Ba-Nsinik
Ma-Wumba
Ma-Yakalla
Ac.
TRANSITIONAL
FROM CENTRAL
TO SOUTHERN
BANTU
Amboela
Ganguela
Kioko
Minungo
Imbangala
Ba-Achinji
Golo
Hollo
Ac.
Mbunda peoples in-
cluding—
Bihe
Dembo
Mbaka
Ngola
Bondo
Ba-Ngala
Songo
Haku
Lubolo
Kisama
Ac.
Eastern
Wa-Gunda
Wa-Guru
Wa-Galla
Wa-Sambara
Wa-Seguha
Wa-Nguru
WaSagara
Wa-Doe
Wa-Khutu
Wa-Saramo
WaHehe
Wa-Bena
Wa-Sanga
Wa-Swahili (with
elements)
Connected are—
Wa-Kisi
Wa-Mpoto
Ba-Tonga
Ba-Tumbuka
Wa-Nyika
Wa-Nyamwanga
A-Mambwe
Wa-Fipa
Wa-Rungu
A-Wemba
A-Chewa
A-Maravi
Ba-Senga
Ba-Bisa
A-Jawa (Yaos)
Wa-Mwera
Wa-Gindo
Ma-Konde
Ma-Wia
Ma-Nganja
Ma-Kua
Arab
-a
■58
SOUTHERN BANTU
(.South and South-East Africa)
Ba-Nyai
Ma-Kalanga t
including
Mashona
Ba-Ronga
Be-Chuana, includ-
ing—
Ba-Tlapin
Ba-Rolong
Ba-Ratlou
Ba-Taung
Ba-Rapulana
Ba-Seleka
Ba-Hurutsi
Ba-Tlaru
Ba-Mangwato
Ba-Tauana
Ba-Ngwaketae
Ba-Kuena
Ac.
HAMITO-BANTU
.BUSHMAN
TRANSITIONAL
Hottentots, inO
eluding — [
Ama-Zulu, including-*
Ama-Swari
Ama-Tonga
Matabelo
Angoni
Ma-Gwangwara
Ma-Huhu
Ma-Viti
Ma-Situ
Ma-Hcnge
Ac.
Ama-Xosa, including—*
Ama-Gcaleka
Ama-Hahabe
Ama-Ngqika
Ama-Tcmbu
Ama-Pondo
Ac.
Ova-Herero
Ova-Mpo
BUSHMEN
Namaqua
Koranna
Wa-Sukuma
Wa-Sumbwa
Wa-Nyanyembe
Wa-Jut
Wa-Kimbu
Wa-Kanongo .
Wa-Wende
MALA YO-INDONESIANS
Hova , .
Betaileo (slight Bantu admixture)
HOVA-BANTU
TRANSITIONAL
Malagasy/including^—
Beatimiaaraka AnUnost
Antambahoaka Antahanaka
Antaimoro Antanala
Antaifarina Antaisara
S.W.
TAfrica
TRIBES IN MADAGASCAR
BANTU-NEGROIDS
Sakalava, including—*
Menabe
Milaka
Ronondra
CT.A.J.)
HISTORY]
AFRICA
33»
IV. Hstokv
The origin and meaning of the name of the continent are
discnned elsewhere (see Antica, Roman). The word Africa was
applied originally to the country in the immediate neighbour-
hood of Carthage, that part of the continent first known to the
Romans, and it was subsequently extended with their increas-
ing knowledge, till it came at last to include all that they knew
of the continent The Arabs still confine the name Ifrikia to the
territory of Tunisia.
The valley of the lower Nile was the home in remotest antiquity
of a civilized race. Egyptian culture had, however, remarkably
ra Mutton little direct influence on the rest of the continent, a
Mm4Qrm* result due in large measure to the fact that Egypt is
a**** 1 **" shut off landwards by immense deserts. If ancient
"""* Egypt And Ethiopia (9.?.) be excluded, the story of
Africa is largely a record of the doings of its Asiatic and
European conquerors and colonizers, Abyssinia being the
only state which throughout historic times has maintained its
independence. The countries bordering the Mediterranean were
first exploited by the Phoenicians, whose earliest settlements
were made before 1000 B.C. Carthage, founded about 800 B.C.,
speedily grew into a city without rival in the Mediterranean,
and the Phoenicians, subduing the Berber tribes, who then as
now formed the bulk of the population, became masters of all
the habitable region of North Africa west of the Great Syrtis,
and found in commerce a source of immense prosperity. Both
Egyptians and Carthaginians made attempts to reach the un-
known parts of the continent by sea. Herodotus relates that an
expedition under Phoenician navigators, employed by Necho,
king of .Egypt, c. 600 B.C., circumnavigated Africa from the Red
Sea to the Mediterranean, a voyage stated to have been accom-
plished in three years. Apart from the reported circumnaviga-
tion of the continent, the west coast was well known to the
Phoenicians as far as Cape Nun, and c. 520 B.C. Hanno, a Cartha-
ginian, explored the coast as far, perhaps, as the Bight of Benin,
certainly as far as Sierra Leone. A vague knowledge of the
Niger regions was also possessed by the Phoenicians.
Meantime the first European colonists had planted themselves
in Africa. At the point where the continent approaches nearest
the Greek islands, Greeks founded the city of Cyrene (c. 632 B.C.).
Cyrenaica became a flourishing colony, though being hemmed in
en all sides by absolute desert it had little or no influence on
inner Africa. The Greeks, however, exerted a powerful influence
in Egypt. To Alexander the Great the city of Alexandria owes
its foundation (33a B.C.), and under the Hellenistic dynasty of
the Ptolemies attempts were made to penetrate southward, and
in this way was obtained some knowledge of Abyssinia. Neither
Cyrenaica nor Egypt was a serious rival to the Carthaginians,
but all three powers were eventually supplanted by the Romans.
After centuries of rivalry for supremacy 1 the struggle was
ended by the fall of Carthage in 146 B.C. Within little more
than a century from that date Egypt and Cyrene had become
incorporated in the Roman empire. Under Rome the settled
portions of the country were very prosperous, and a Latin strain
was introduced into the land. Though Fezzan was occupied by
fhem, the Romans elsewhere found the Sahara an impassable
barrier. Nubia and Abyssinia were reached, but an expedition
sent by the emperor Nero to discover the source of the Nile
ended in failure. The utmost extent of geographical knowledge
of the continent is shown in the writings of Ptolemy (and century
A.O.), who knew of or guessed the existence of the great lake
reservoirs of the Nile and had heard of the river Niger. Still
Africa for the civilized world remained simply the countries
bordering the Mediterranean. The continual struggle between
Rome and the Berber tribes; the introduction of Christianity
and the glories and sufferings of the Egyptian and African
Churches; the invasion and conquest of the African provinces
a Commercial treaties between Carthage and Rome were made
in the 6th and 5th centuries B.C. The first armed conflict between
the rival powers, begun in 204 a.c, was a contest for the pos se ss ion
oTSicily.
by the Vandals in the 5th century; the passing of the supreme
power in the following century to the Byzantine empire— all
these events are told fully elsewhere.
In the 7th century of the Christian era occurred an event
destined to have a permanent influence on the whole continent
Invading first Egypt, an Arab host, fanatical believers /VWtt
in the new faith of Mahommed, conquered the whole AJHcm
country from the Red Sea to the Atlantic and carried «"■*■*•*
the Crescent into Spain. Throughout North Africa *£*
Christianity well-nigh disappeared, save in Egypt
(where the Coptk Church was suffered to exist), and Upper
Nubia and Abyssinia, which were not subdued by the Moslems.
In the 8th, oth and 10th centuries the Arabs in Africa were
numerically weak; they held the countries, they had conquered
by the sword only, but in the nth century there was a great
Arab immigration, resulting in a large absorption of Berber
blood. Even before this the Berbers had very generally adopted
the speech and religion of their conquerors. Arab influence and
the Mahommedan religion thus became indelibly stamped on
northern Africa. Together they spread southward across the
Sahara. They also became firmly established along the eastern
sea-board, where Arabs, Persians and Indians planted flourishing
colonies, such as Mombasa, Malindi and Sofala, playing a role,
maritime and commercial, analogous to that filled in earlier
centuries by the Carthaginians on the northern sea-board. Of
these eastern cities and states both Europe and the Arabs of
North Africa were long ignorant.
The first Arab invaders had recognized the -authority of the
caliphs of Bagdad, and the Aghlabite dynasty — founded by
Aghlab, one of Haroun al Raschid's generals, at the close of the
8th century — ruled as vassals of the caliphate. However, early
in the zoth century the Fatimite dynasty established itself in
Egypt, where Cairo had been founded a.d. 068, and from there
ruled as far west as the Atlantic. Later still arose other dynasties
such as the Almoravides and Almohades. Eventually
the Turks, who had conquered Constantinople in 1453, J
and had seized Egypt in x si 7, established the regencies
of Algeria, Tunisia and Tripoli (between 1510 and
i5S0» Morocco remaining an independent Arabized Berber state
under the Sharifan dynasty, which had its beginnings at the end
of the 13th century,. Under the earlier dynasties Arabian or
Moorish culture had attained a high degree of excellence, while
the spirit of adventure and the proselytizing zeal of the followers
of Islam led to a considerable extension of the knowledge of the
continent. This was rendered more easy by their use of the
camel (first introduced into Africa by the Persian conquerors of
Egypt), which enabled the Arabs to traverse the desert. In
this way Senegambia and the middle Niger regions fell under
the influence of the Arabs and Berbers, but it was not until 1591
that Timbuktu— a city founded in the nth century— became
Moslem. That city had been reached in 135a by the great Arab
traveller Ibn Batuta, to whose journey to Mombasa and Quiloa
(Kilwa) was due the first accurate knowledge of those flourishing
Moslem cities on the east African sea-boards. Except along this
sea-board, which was colonized directly from Asia, Arab progress
southward was stopped by the broad belt of dense forest which,
stretching almost across the continent somewhat south of io° N.,
barred their advance as effectually as had the Sahara that of
their predecessors, and cut them off from knowledge of the
Guinea coast and of all Africa beyond. One of the regions which
came latest under Arab control was that of Nubia, where a
Christian civilization and state existed up to the 14th century.
For a time the Moslem conquests in South Europe had virtually
made of the Mediterranean an Arab lake, but the expulsion in
the xxth century of the Saracens from Sicily and southern Italy
by the Normans was followed by descents of the conquerors on
Tunisia and Tripoli. Somewhat later a busy trade with the
African coast-lands, and especially with Egypt, was developed
by Venice, Pisa, Genoa and other cities of North Italy. By the
end of the 15th century Spain had completely thrown off the
Moslem yoke, but even while the Moors were still in Granada,
Portugal was strong enough to carry the war into Africa.
33*
AFRICA
[HISTORY
9ttb0
In 141 5 a Portuguese force captured the citadel of Ceuta on the
Moorish coast. From that time onward Portugal repeatedly
interfered in the affairs of Morocco, while Spain ac-
quired many ports in Algeria and Tunisia. Portugal,
imrmtotbo however, suffered a crushing defeat in 1578 at al Kasr
*£•* al Kebir, the Moors being led by Abd el Malek I. of
^"^ the then recently established Sharitan dynasty. By that
time the Spaniards had lost almost all their African possessions.
The Barbary states, primarily from the example of the Moors
expelled from Spain, degenerated into mere communities of
pirates, and under Turkish influence civilization and commerce
declined. The story of these states from the beginning of the
1 6th century to the third decade of the 19th century is largely
made up of piratical exploits on the one hand and of ineffectual
reprisals on the other. In Algiers, Tunis and other cities were
thousands of Christian slaves.
But with the battle of Ceuta Africa had ceased to belong solely
to the Mediterranean world. Among those who fought there was
one, Prince Henry " the Navigator," son of King
John L, who was fired with the ambition to acquire
for Portugal the unknown parts of Africa. Under his
inspiration and direction was begun that series of
SJ^jJL voyages of exploration which resulted in the circum-
(ru(t0 navigation of Africa and the establishment of Portu-
guese sovereignty over large areas of the coast-lands.
Cape Bojador was doubled in 1434, Cape Verde in 1445, and by
1480 the whole Guinea coast was known. In 148a Diogo Cam
or Cao discovered the mouth of the Congo, the Cape of Good
Hope was doubled by Bartholomew Diaz in 1488, and in 1498
Vasco da Gama, after having rounded the Cape, sailed up the east
coast, touched at Sbfaia and Malindi, and went thence to India.
Over all the countries discovered by their navigators Portugal
claimed sovereign rights, but these were not exercised in the ex-
treme south of the continent. The Guinea coast, as the first dis-
covered and the nearest to Europe, was first exploited. Numerous
forts and trading stations were established, the earliest being Sao
Jorge da Mina (Elmina) , begun in 1 482. The chief commodities
dealt in were slaves, gold, ivory and spices. The discovery of
America (1492) was followed by a great development of the slave
trade, which, before the Portuguese era, had been an overland
trade almost exclusively confined to Mahommedan Africa. The
lucrative nature of this trade and the large quantities of alluvial
gold obtained by the Portuguese drew other nations to the Guinea
coast. English mariners went thither as early as 1553, and they
were followed by Spaniards, Dutch, French, Danish and other
adventurers. Much of Senegambia was made known as a result
of quests during the 16th century for the " hills of gold " in
Bambuk and the fabled wealth of Timbuktu, but the middle
Niger was not reached. The supremacy along the coast passed in
the 17 th century from Portugal to Holland and from Holland
in the 18th and 19th centuries to France and England. The
whole coast from Senegal to Lagos was dotted with forts and
" factories " of rival powers, and this international patchwork
persists though all the hinterland has become either French or
British territory.
Southward from the mouth of the Congo 1 to the inhospit-
able region of Damaraland, the Portuguese, from 1491 onward,
acquired influence over the Bantu-Negro inhabitants, and in the
early part of the 16th century through their efforts Christianity
was largely adopted in the native kingdom of Congo. An irrup-
tion of cannibals from the interior later in the same century broke
the power of this semi-Christian state, and Portuguese activity
was transferred to a great extent farther south, Sao Paulo de
Loanda being founded in 1 576 The sovereignty of Portugal over
this coast region, except for the mouth of the Congo, has been
once only challenged by a European power, and that was in 1640-
1648, when the Dutch held the seaports.
Neglecting the comparatively poor and thinly inhabited
regions of South Africa, the Portuguese no sooner discovered
1 This river was called by the Portuguese the Zaire. They appear
to have made no attempt to trace its course beyond the rapids which
stop navigation from the sea.
than they coveted the flourishing cities held by Arabized peoples
between Sofala and Cape GuardafuL By 1520 all these Moslem
sultanates had been seized by Portugal, Mozambique Th0
being chosen as the chief city of her East African r
possessions. Nor was Portuguese activity confined to *■ But
the coast-lands. The lower and middle Zambezi valley *?**.*?*
was explored (16th and 17th centuries), and here the
Portuguese found semi-civilized Bantu-Negro tribes, who had
been foe many years in contact with the coast Arabs. Strenuous
efforts were made to obtain possession of the country (modern
Rhodesia) known to them as the kingdom or empire of Monomo-
tapa, where gold had been worked by the natives from about the
1 2th century a.d., and whence the Arabs, whom the Portuguese
dispossessed, were still obtaining supplies in the 16th century.
Several expeditions were despatched inland from 1569 onward
and considerable quantities of gold were obtained. Portugal's
hold on the interior, never very effective, weakened during the
17th century, and in the middle of the x8th century ceased with
the abandonment of the forts in the Manica district.
At the period of her greatest power Portugal exercised a
strong influence in Abyssinia also. In the ruler of Abyssinia (to
whose dominions a Portuguese traveller had penetrated before
Vasco da Gama's memorable voyage) the Portuguese imagined
they had found the legendary Christian king, Prester John, and
when the complete overthrow of the native dynasty and the
Christian religion was imminent by the victories of Mahommedan
invaders, the exploits of a band of 400 Portuguese under Christo-
pher da Gama during 1541-1543 turned the scale in favour of
Abyssinia and had thus an enduring result on the future of North-
East Africa. After da Gama's time Portuguese Jesuits resorted
to Abyssinia. While they failed in their efforts to convert the
Abyssinians to Roman Catholicism they acquired an extensive
knowledge of the country. Pedro Paez in 16x5, and, ten years
later, Jeronimo Lobo, both visited the sources of the Blue Nile.
In 1663 the Portuguese, who had outstayed their welcome, were
expelled from the Abyssinian dominions. At this time Portu-
guese influence on the Zanzibar coast was waning before the
power of the Arabs of Muscat, and by 1730 no point on the east
coast north of Cape Dclgado was held by Portugal.
It has been seen that Portugal took no steps Uf acquire the
southern part of the continent. To the Portuguese the Cape of
Good Hope was simply a landmark on the road to
India, and mariners of other nations who followed in J^pjtrt
their wake used Table Bay only as a convenient spot mt Tab*
wherein to refit on their voyage to the East. By the JjT"^**
beginning of the 17th century the bay was much re- fym JS$4
sorted to for this purpose, chiefly by English and Dutch
vessels. In 1620, with the object of forestalling the Dutcn, two
officers of the East India Company, on their own initiative,
took possession of Table Bay in the name of King James, fearing
otherwise that English ships would be " frustrated of watering
but by license." Their action was not approved in London
and the proclamation they issued remained without effect.
The Netherlands profited by the apathy of the English. On the
advice of sailors who had been shipwrecked in Table Bay the
Netherlands East India Company, in 1651 , sent out a fleet of three
small Vessels under Jan van Riebeek which reached Table Bay on
the 6th of April 1652, when, 164 years after its discovery, the
first permanent while settlement was made in South Africa. The
Portuguese, whose power in Africa was already waning; were not
in a position to interfere with the Dutch plans, and England was
content to seize the island of St Helena as her half-way house to
the East.* In its inception the settlement at the Cape was not
intended to become an African colony, but was regarded as the
most westerly outpost of the Dutch East Indies. Nevertheless,
despite the paucity of ports and the absence of navigable rivers,
the Dutch colonists, freed from any apprehension of European
trouble by the friendship between Great Britain and Holland,
and leavened by .Huguenot bjood, gradually spread northward,
* France acquires, as stations for her ships on the voyage to and
from India, settlements in Madagascar and the neighbouring islands.
The first settlement was made in 1643
HISTORY] AFRICA
stamping their language, law and religion indelibly upon South
Africa. This process, however, was exceedingly slow.
During the 18th century there is little to record in the history
of Africa. The nations of Europe, engaged in the later half of the
century in almost constant warfare, and struggling for
supremacy in America and the East, to a large extent
lost their interest in the continent Only on the west
coast was there keen rivalry, and hete the motive was
the securance of trade rather than territorial acqui-
sitions. In this century the slave trade reached its highest de-
velopment, the trade in gold, ivory, gum and spices being small
Id comparison. In the interior of the continent— Portugal's
energy being expended— no interest was shown, the nations with
establishments on the coast " taking no further notice of the
inhabitants or their land than to objain at the easiest rate what
they procure with as little trouble as possible, or to carry them off
for slaves to their plantations in America " ( Encyclopaedia Britan-
nica, 3rd ed, 1797). Even the scanty knowledge acquired by the
ancients and the Arabs was in the main forgotten or disbelieved
It was the period when —
Geographers, in Afric maps.
With savage pictures filled their gaps.
And o'er unhabitable downs
Placed elephants for want of towns.
{Poetry, a Rhapsody. By, Jonathan Swift .)
The prevailing ignorance may be gauged by the statement in the
third edition of the Encyclopaedia Britannica that " the Gambia
and Senegal rivers are only branches of the Niger." But the
closing years of the 18th century, which witnessed the partial
awakening of the public conscience of Europe to the iniquities
•f the slave trade, were also notable for the revival of interest
in inner Africa, A society, the African Association, 1 was formed
in London in 1788 for the exploration of the interior of the
continent The era of great discoveries had begun a little earlier
in the famous journey (1770-1772) of James Bruce through
Abyssinia and Sennar, during which he determined the course
of the Blue Nile. But it was through the agents of the African
Association that knowledge was gained of the Niger regions.
The Niger itself was first reached by Mungo Park, who travelled
by way of the Gambia, in 1795. Park, on a second journey in
1805, passed Timbuktu and descended the Niger to Bussa, where
he lost his life, having just failed to solve the question as to where
the river reached the ocean. (This problem was ultimately
solved by Richard Lander and his brother in 1830.) The first
scientific explorer of South-East Africa, Dr Francisco de Lacerda,
a Portuguese, also lost his life in that country. Lacerda travelled
up the Zambezi to Tete, going thence towards Lake Mweru, near
which he died in 1798. The first recorded crossing of Africa was
accomplished between the years 1802 and 181 1 by two half-caste
Portuguese traders, Pedro Baptists and A. Jos*, who passed from
Angola eastward to the Zambezi.
Although the Napoleonic wars distracted the attention of
Europe from exploratory work in Africa, those wars nevertheless
exercised great influence on the future of the con-
tinent, both in Egypt and South Africa. Theoccupa-
t lion of Egypt (1708-1803) first by France and then
by Great Britain resulted in an effort by Turkey to
regain direct control over that country, 1 followed in
181 1 by the establishment under Mehemet Ali of an
almost independent state, and the extension of Egyp-
tian rule over the eastern Sudan (from 1820 onward). In South
Africa the struggle with Napoleon caused Great Britain to
take possession of the Dutch settlements at the Cape, and in 1 814
Cape Colony, which had been continuously occupied by British
troops since 1806, was formally ceded to the British crown.
The dose of the European conflicts with the battle of Waterloo
was followed by vigorous efforts on the part of the British govern-
ment to become better acquainted with Africa, and to substitute
colonisation and legitimate trade for the slave traffic, declared
"The Association, in 1831. was merged in the Royal Geographical
Society.
• The Mamelukes, whom the Turks had overthrown in the 16th
cswtury. had regained practically independent power
333
illegal for British subjects in 1807 and abolished by all other
European powers by 1836. To West Africa Britain devoted
much attention. The slave trade abolitionists had already,
in 1788, formed a settlement at Sierra Leone, on the Guinea
coast, for freed slaves, and from this establishment grew the
colony of Sierra Leone, long notorious, by reason of its deadly
climate, as "The White Man's Grave."* Farther east the
establishments on the Gold Coast began to take a part in the
politics of the interior, and the first British mission to Kumasi,
despatched in 1817, led to the assumption of a protectorate
over the maritime tribes heretofore governed by the As hand.
An expedition sent in 1816 to explore the Congo from its
mouth did not succeed in getting beyond the rapids which bar
the way to the interior, but in the central Sudan much better
results were obtained. In 1823 three English travellers, Walter
Oudney, Dixon Denham and Hugh Clapperton, reached Lake
Chad from Tripoli— the first white men to reach that lake. The
partial exploration of Bornu and the Hausa states by Clapperton,
which followed, revealed the existence of large and flourishing
cities and a semi-civilized people in a region hitherto unknown.
The discovery in 1830 of the mouth of the Niger by Clapperton's
servant Lander, already mentioned, had been preceded by the
journeys of Major A. G. Laing (1826) and Rene" Caillie (1827) to
Timbuktu, and was followed (1832-1833) by the partial ascent of
the Benue affluent of the Niger by MacGregor Laird. In 1841
a disastrous attempt was made to plant a white colony on the
lower Niger, an expedition (largely philanthropic and anti-
slavery in its inception) which ended in utter failure. Never-
theless from that time British traders remained on the lower
Niger, their continued presence leading ultimately to the acquisi-
tion of political rights over the delta and the Hausa states by
Great Britain. 4 Another endeavour by the British government
to open up commercial relations with the Niger countries resulted
in the addition of a vast amount of information concerning the
countries between Timbuktu and Lake Chad, owing to the labours
of Hcinrich Barth (1850-1855), originally a subordinate, but the
only surviving member of the expedition sent out
Meantime considerable changes had been made in other parts
of the continent, the most notable being — the occupation of
Algiers by France in 1830, an end being thereby put to the
piratical proceedings of the Barbary states; the continued
expansion southward of Egyptian authority with the consequent
additions to the knowledge of the Nile; and the establishment
of independent slates (Orange Free State and the Transvaal)
by Dutch farmers (Boers) dissatisfied with British rule in Cape
Colony. Natal, so named by Vasco da Gama, had been made
a British colony (1843), the attempt of the Boers to acquire it
being frustrated. The city of Zanzibar, on the island of that
name, founded in 1832 by Seyyid Said of Muscat, rapidly attained
importance, and Arabs began to penetrate to the great lakes of
East Africa,* concerning which little more was known (and less
believed) than in the time of Ptolemy. Accounts of a vast inland
sea, and the discovery in 1848- 1849, by the missionaries Ludwig
Krapf and J. Rebmann, of the snow-dad mountains of Kili-
manjaro and Kenya, stimulated in Europe the desire for further
knowledge. .
At this period, the middle of the 19th century, Protestant
missions were carrying on active propaganda on the Guinea
coast, in South Africa and in the Zanzibar dominions.
Their work, largely beneficent was being conducted IJjJJJJ
in regions and among peoples little known, and in M jj£w»
many instances missionaries turned explorers and
became pioneers of trade and empire. One of the first to
attempt to fill up the remaining blank spaces in the map was
David Livingstone, who had been engaged since 1 840 in missionary
work north of the Orange. In 1849 Livingstone crossed the
Kalahari Desert from south to north and reached Lake N garni
'In imitation of the British example, an American society
founded in 1822 the negro colony (now republic) of Liberia
ialacquisition made by Great B
The first territorial ,
region was in 1851. when Lagos Island wa
* As early as 1848 an Arab from Zanzil
continent had arrived at Beng ueUa
was annexed.
Britain in this
the
i
334
AFRICA
[HISTORY
and between 1851 and 1856 he traversed the continent from
west to east, making known the great waterways of the upper
Zambezi. During these journeyings Livingstone discovered,
November 1855, the famous Victoria Falls, so named after the
queen of England. In 1858-1864 the lower Zambezi, the Shirt
and Lake Nyasa were explored by Livingstone, Nyasa having
been first reached by the confidential slave of Antonio da Silva
Porto, a Portuguese trader established at Bihl in Angola, who
crossed Africa during 1853- 1856 from Benguella to the mouth of
the Rovuma. While Livingstone circumnavigated Nyasa, the
more northerly lake, Tanganyika, had been visited (1858) by
Richard Burton and J. H. Speke, and the last named had sighted
Victoria Nyanza, Returning to East Africa with J. A. Grant,
Speke reached, in 1862, the river which flowed from Victoria
Nyanza, and following it (in the main) down to Egypt, had the
distinction of being the first man to read the riddle of the Nile.
In 1864 another Nile explorer, Samuel Baker, discovered the
Albert Nyanza, the chief western reservoir of the river. In 1866
Livingstone began his last great journey, in which he made known
Lakes Mweru and Bangweulu and discovered the Lualaba (the
upper part of the Congo), but died (1873) before he had been
able to demonstrate its ultimate course, believing indeed that
the Lualaba belonged to the NQe system. Livingstone's lonely
death in the heart of Africa evoked a keener desire than ever
to complete the work he left undone. H. M. Stanley, who had
in 187 1 succeeded in finding and succouring Livingstone, started
again for Zanzibar in 1874, and in the most memorable of all
exploring expeditions in Africa circumnavigated Victoria Nyanza
and Tanganyika, and, striking farther inland to the Lualaba,
followed that river down to the Atlantic Ocean— reached in
August 1877 — and proved it to be the Congo. Stanley had been
preceded, in 1874, at Nyangwe, Livingstone's farthest point on
the Lualaba, by Lovett Cameron, who was, however, unable
farther to explore its course, making his way to the west coast
by a route south of the Congo.
While the great mystery of Central Africa was being solved
explorers were also active in other parts of the continent.
Southern Morocco, the Sahara and the Sudan were traversed
in many directions between i860 and 1875 by Gerhard Rohlfs,
Georg Schweinfurth and Gustav Nachtigal. These travellers
not only added considerably to geographical knowledge, but
obtained invaluable information concerning the people, languages
and natural history of the countries in which they sojourned. 1
Among the discoveries of Schweinfurth was one that confirmed
the Greek legends of the existence beyond Egypt of a pygmy
race. But the first discoverer of the dwarf races of Central
Africa was Paul du Chaillu, who found them in the Ogowt district
of the west coast in 1865, five years before Schweinfurth 's first
meeting with the Pygmies; du Chaillu having previously, as
the result of journeys in the Gabun country between 1855 *nd
i8sq, made popular in Europe the knowledge of the existence
of the gorilla, perhaps the gigantic ape seen by Hanno the Cartha-
ginian, and whose existence, up to the middle of the 19th century,
was thought to be as legendary as that of the Pygmies of Aristotle.
In South Africa the filling up of the map also proceeded apace.
The finding, in 1869, of rich diamond fields in the valley of the
Vaal river, near its confluence with the Orange, caused a rush
of emigrants to that district, and led to conflicts between the
Dutch and British authorities and the extension of British
authority northward. In 187 1 the ruins of the great Zimbabwe
in Mashonaland, the chief fortress and distributing centre of
the race which in medieval times worked the goldfields of South-
East Africa, were explored by Karl Mauch. In the following
year F. C. Selous began his journeys over South Central Africa,
which continued for more than twenty years and extended over
every part of Mashonaland and Matabeleland. (F. R. C.)
V. Partition among Eukopean Powers
In the last quarter of the 19th century the map of Africa was
transformed After the discovery of the Congo the story of
* Another great traveller of this stamp was Wilhelm Junker, who
•pent the greater part of the period 1875-1886 in the east centralSudan.
exploration takes second place; the continent becomes the
theatre of European expansion. Lines of partition, drawn often
through trackless wildernesses, marked out the possessions of
Germany, France, Great Britain and other powers. Railways
penetrated the interior, vast areas were opened up to civilized
occupation, and from ancient Egypt to the Zambezi the continent
was startled into new life.
Before 187s the only powers with any considerable interest
in Africa were Britain, Portugal and France. Between 18 15
and 1850, as has been shown above, the British government
devoted much energy, not always informed by knowledge, to
western and southern Africa. In both directions Great Britain
had met with much discouragement; on the west coast, diseav,
death, decaying trade and useless conflicts with savage foes
had been the normal experience; in the south recalcitrant
Boers and hostile Kaffirs caused almost endless trouble. The
visions once entertained of vigorous negro communities at once
civilized and Christian faded away; to the hot fit of philan-
thropy succeeded the cold fit of indifference and a disinclination
to bear the burden of empire. The low-water mark of British
interest in South Africa was reached in 1854 when independence
was forced on the Orange River Boers, while in 1865 the mind
of the nation was fairly reflected by the unanimous resolution
of a representative House of Commons committee:* "that all
further extension of territory or assumption of government, or
new treaty offering any protection to native tribes, would be
inexpedient." For nearly twenty years the spirit of that resolu-
tion paralysed British action in Africa, although many circum-
stances—the absence of any serious European rival, the in-
evitable border disputes with uncivilized races, and the activity
of missionary and trader— conspired to make British influence
dominant in large areas of the continent over which the govern-
ment exercised no definite authority. The freedom with which
blood and treasure were spent to enforce respect for the British
flag or to succour British subjects in distress, as in the Abyssinian
campaign of 1867-08 and the Ashanti war of 1873, tended furthe^
to enhance the reputation of Great Britain among African races?
while, as an inevitable result of the possession of India, British
officials exercised considerable power at the court of Zanzibar,
which .indeed owed its separate existence to a decision of Lord
Canning, the governor-general of India, in 186 1 recognizing the
division of the Arabian and African dominions of the imam of
Muscat.
It has been said that Great Britain was without serious rival.
On the Gold Coast she had bought the Danish forts in 1850 and
acquired the Dutch, 1871-1872, in exchange for establishments in
Sumatra. But Portugal still held, both in the east and west
of Africa, considerable stretches of the tropical coast-lands, and
it was in 1875 that she obtained, as a result of the arbitration
of Marshal MacMahon, possession of the whole of Delagoa Bay.
to the southern part of which England also laid claim by virtue
of a treaty of cession concluded with native chiefs in 1823. The
only other European power which at the period under considera-
tion had considerable possessions in Africa was France. Besides
Algeria, France had settlements on the Senegal, where in 1854
the appointment of General Faidherbe as governor marked the
beginning of a policy of expansion; she had also various posts
on the upper Guinea coast, had taken the estuary of the Gabun
as a station for her navy, and had acquired (z86a) Obok at the
southern entrance to the Red Sea.
In North Africa the Turks had (in 1835) assumed direct
control of Tripoli, while Morocco had fallen into a state of decay
though retaining its independence. The most remarkable
change was in Egypt, where the Khedive Ismail had introduced
a somewhat fantastic imitation of European civilization. In
addition Ismail had conquered Darfur, annexed Harrar and the
Somali ports on the Gulf of Aden, was extending his power
southward to the equatorial lakes, and even contemplated reach-
ing the Indian Ocean. The Suez Canal, opened in 1869, had a
great influence on the future of Africa, as it again made Egypt
the highway to the East, to the detriment of the Cape route.
■ Specially appointed to consider West African affairs.
HISTORY?
AFRICA
335
Any estimate of the area of African territory held by European
tattoos in 1875 is necessarily but approximate, and varies chiefly
YtoitM. as the compiler of statistics rejects or accepts the
«*•*«/ c*« vague claims of Portugal to sovereignty over the
c—um—i hinterland of her coast possessions. At that period
Jmtsrs, otner European nations— with the occasional excep-
tion of Great Britain — were indifferent to Portugal's preten-
sions, and her estimate of her African empire as covering
over 700,000 sq. m. was not challenged. 1 But the area under
effective control of Portugal at that time did not exceed 40,00b
sq. m. Great Britain then held some 350,000 sq. m. f France
about 170,000 sq. m. and Spain 1000 sq. m. The area of the
independent Dutch republics (the Transvaal and Orange Free
State) was some 150,000 sq. m. t so that the total area of Africa
ruled by Europeans did not exceed 1,271,000 sq. m.; roughly
one-tenth of the continent This estimate, as it admits the full
extent of Portuguese claims- and does not include Madagascar,
in reality considerably overstates the case.
Egypt and the Egyptian Sudan, Tunisia and Tripoli were
subject in differing ways to the overlordship of the sultan of
Turkey, and with these may be ranked, in the scale of organized
governments, the three principal independent states, Morocco,
Abyssinia and Zanzibar, as also the negro republic of Liberia.
There remained, apart from the Sahara, roughly one half of
Africa, lying mostly within the tropics, inhabited by a multitude
of tribes and peoples living under various forms of govern-
ment and subject to frequent changes in respect of political
organization. In this region were the negro states of Ashantl,
Dahomey and Benin on the west coast, the Mahommedan
sultanates of the central Sudan, and a number of negro kingdoms
in the east central and south central regions. Of these Uganda
on the north-west shores of Victoria Nyanza, Cazembe and
Muata Hianvo (or Yanvo) may be mentioned. The two last-
named kingdoms occupied respectively the south-eastern and
south-western parts of the Congo basin. In all this vast region
the Negro and Negro-Bantu races predominated, for the most
part untouched by Mahommedanism or Christian influences.
They lacked political cohesion, and possessed neither the means
nor the inclination to extend their influence beyond their own
borders. The exploitation of Africa continued to be entirely
the work of alien races.
The causes which led to the partition of Africa may now be
considered. They are to be found in the economic and political
f Wtlf state of western Europe at the time. Germany,
w*fc* jm strong and united as the result of the Franco-Prussian
tmpm* War of 1870, was seeking new outlets for ber energies
**** — new markets for her growing industries, and with
the markets, colonies. Yet the idea of colonial expansion was
of slow growth in Germany, and when Prince Bismarck at length
acted Africa was the only field left to exploit, South America
being protected from interference by the known determination
of the United States to enforce the Monroe Doctrine, while
Great Britain, France, the Netherlands, Portugal and Spain
already held most of the other regions of the world where coloniza-
tion was possible. For different reasons the war of 1870 was
also the starting-point for France in the building up of a new
colonial empire. In her endeavour to regain the position lost
In that war France had to look beyond Europe. To the two
causes mentioned must be added others. Great Britain and
Portugal, when they found their interest* threatened, bestirred
themselves, while Italy also conceived it necessary to become
an African power. Great Britain awoke to the need for action
top late to secure predominance in all the regions where formerly
hers was the onry European influence. She had to contend not
only with the economic forces which urged her rivals to action,
but had also to combat the jealous opposition of almost every
European nation to the further growth of British power. Italy
alone acted throughout in cordial co-operation with Great
Britain.
It was not, however, the action of any of the great powers
•See the tobies in Beam and Wagner's BaBUmung dtr Erdt
(Gotha, 187a). r ■ ^
of Europe which precipitated the struggle. This was brought
about by the ambitious projects of Leopold II., king of the
Belgians. The discoveries of Livingstone, Stanley and others
had aroused especial interest among two classes of men in
western Europe, one the manufacturing and trading class,
which saw in Central Africa possibilities of commercial develop-
ment, the other the philanthropic and missionary class, which
beheld in the newly discovered lands millions of savages to
Christianize and civilize. Thje possibility of utilizing both these
classes in the creation of a vast state, of which he should be the
chief, formed itself in the mind of Leopold II. even before Stanley
had navigated the Congo. The king's action was immediate; it
proved successful; but no sooner was the nature of his project
understood in Europe than it provoked the rivalry of France
and Germany, and thus the international struggle was begun.
At this point it is expedient, in the light of subsequent events,
to set forth the designs then entertained by the European powers
that participated in the struggle for Africa, Portugal ^^^
was striving to retain as large a share as possible of ^ mmUm
her shadowy empire, and particularly to establish her Omi •/
claims to the Zambezi region, so as to secure a belt of f f*
territory across Africa from Mozambique to Angola.
Great Britain, once aroused to the imminence of danger, ,r
put forth vigorous efforts in East Africa and on the Niger, but
her most ambitious dream was the establishment of an unbroken
line of British possessions and spheres of influence from south to-
north of the continent, from Cape Colony to Egypt Germany's
ambition can be easily described. It was to secure as much as
possible, so as to make up for lost opportunities. Italy coveted
Tripoli, but that province could not be seized without risking
war. For the rest Italy's territorial ambitions were confined
to North-East Africa, where she hoped to acquire a dominating
influence over Abyssinia. French ambitions, apart from Mada-
gascar, were confined to the northern and central portions of
the continent To extend her possessions on the Mediterranean
littoral, and to connect them with her colonies in West Africa,
the western Sudan, and on the Congo, by establishing her in-
fluence over the vast intermediate regions, was France's first
ambition. But the defeat of the Italians in Abyssinia and the
impending downfall of the khalifa's power in the valley of the
upper Nile suggested a still more daring project to the French
government— none other than the establishment of French
336
influence over a broad belt of territory stretching across the
continent from west to east, from Senegal on the Atlantic coast
to the Gulf of Aden. The fact that France possessed a«small
part of the Red Sea coast gave point to this design. But these
conflicting ambitions could not all oe realized, and Germany
succeeded in preventing Great Britain obtaining a continuous
band of British territory from south to north, while Great Britain,
by excluding France from the upper Nile valley, dispelled the
French dream of an empire from west to east.
King Leopold's ambitions have already been indicated. The
part of the continent to which from the first he directed his
energies was the equatorial region. In September 1876 he took
what may be described as the first definite step in the modern
partition of the continent. He summoned to a conference
at Brussels representatives of Great Britain, Belgium, France,
Germany, Austria-Hungary, Italy and Russia, to deliberate
on the best methods to be adopted for the exploration and
civilization of Africa, and the opening up of the interior of the
continent to commerce and industry The conference was
entirely unofficial. The delegates who attended neither repre-
sented nor pledged their respective governments. Their
deliberations lasted three days and resulted in the foundation
of " The International African Association," with its head-
quarters at Brussels. It was further resolved to establish
national committees in the various countries represented, which
should collect funds and appoint delegates to the International
Association The central idea appears to have been to put the
exploration and development of Africa upon an international
footing. But it quickly became apparent that this was an
unattainable ideal. The national committees were soon working
independently of the International Association, and the Associa-
tion itself passed through a succession of stages untif it became
purely Belgian in character, and at last developed into the Congo
Free State, under the personal sovereignty of Ring Leopold.
At first the Association devoted itself to sending expeditions
to the great central lakes from the east coast; but failure, more
or less complete, attended its efforts in this direction, and it
was not until the return of Stanley, in January 1878, from his
great journey down the Congo, that its ruling spirit, King
Leopold, definitely turned his thoughts towards the Congo. In
June of that year, Stanley visited the king at Brussels, and in
the following November a private conference was held, and a
committee was appointed for the investigation of the upper
Congo.
Stanley's remarkable discovery had stirred ambition in other
capitals than Brussels. France had always taken a keen interest
Th* in West Africa, and in the years 1875 to 1878 Savorgnan
stmggh de Brazza had carried out a successful exploration of
*" '*• the Ogow6 river to the south of the Gabun De Brazza
a *°' determined that the Ogowe* did not offer that great
waterway into the interior of which he was in search, and he
returned to Europe without having heard of the discoveries
of Stanley farther south. Naturally, however, Stanley's dis-
coveries were keenly followed in France. In Portugal, too, the
discovery of the Congo, with its magnificent unbroken waterway
of more than a thousand miles into the heart of the continent,
served to revive the languid energies of the Portuguese, who
promptly began to furbish up claims whose age was in inverse
ratio to their validity. Claims, annexations and occupations
were in the air, and when, in January 1879 Stanley left Europe
as the accredited agent of King Leopold and the Congo com-
mittee, the strictest secrecy was observed as to his real aims and
intentions. The expedition was, it was alleged, proceeding up
the Congo to assist the Belgian expedition which had entered
from the east coast, and Stanley himself went first to Zanzibar.
But in August 1879 Stanley found himself again at Banana
Point, at the mouth of the Congo, with, as he himself has written,
'* the novel mission of sowing along its banks civilized settlements
to peacefully conquer and subdue it, to remould it in harmony
with modern ideas into national states, within whose limits the
European merchant Shall go hand in hand with the dark African
trader, and justice and law and order shall prevail, and murder
AFRICA [HISTORY
and lawlessness and the cruel barter of slaves shall be overcome."
The irony of human aspirations was never perhaps more plainly
demonstrated than in the contrast between the ideal thus set
before themselves by those who employed Stanley, and the actual
results of their intervention in Africa. Stanley founded his first
station at Vivi, between the mouth of the Congo and the rapids
that obstruct its course where it breaks over the western edge
of the central continental plateau. Above the rapids he estab-
lished a station on Stanley Pool and named it Leopoldville,
founding other stations on the main stream in the direction of
the falls that bear his name.
Meanwhile de Brazza was far from idle. He had returned to
Africa at the beginning of 1880, and while the agents of King
Leopold were making treaties and founding stations along the
southern bank of the river, de Brazza and other French agents
were equally busy on the northern bank. De Brazza was sent
out to Africa by the French committee of the International
African Association, which provided him with the funds for the
expedition. His avowed object was to explore the region
between the Gabun and Lake Chad. But his real object was to
anticipate Stanley on the Congo. The international character of
the association founded by King Leopold was never more than
a polite fiction, and the rivalry between the French and the
Belgians on the Congo was soon open , if not avowed. In October
1880 de Brazza made a solemn treaty with a chief on the north
bank of the Congo, who claimed that his authority extended
over a large area, including territory on the southern bank of
the river. As soon as this chief had accepted French protection,
de Brazza crossed over to the south of the river, and founded
a station dose to t he presen t si te of Leopold ville. The discovery
by Stanley of the French station annoyed King Leopold's agent,
and he promptly challenged the rights of the chief who purported
to have placed the country under French protection, and him-
self founded a Belgian station close to the site selected by
de Brazza. In the result, the French station was withdrawn
to the northern side of Stanley Pool, where it" js now known
as Brazzaville.
The activity of French and Belgian agents on the Congo had
not passed unnoticed in Lisbon, and the Portuguese government
saw that no time was to be lost if the claims it had never ceased
to put forward on the west coast were not to go by default
At varying periods during the 19th century Portugal had put
forward claims to the whole of the West African coast, between
5° 1 2' and 8° south. North of the Congo mouth she claimed the
territories of Kabinda and Molemba, alleging that they had been
in her possession since 1484. Great Britain had never, however,
admitted this claim, and south of the Congo had declined to
recognize Portuguese possessions as extending north of Ambriz.
In 1856 orders were given to British cruisers to prevent by force
any attempt to extend Portuguese dominion north of that place,
But the Portuguese had been persistent in urging their claims,
and in 1882 negotiations were again opened with the British
government for recognition of Portuguese rights over both
banks of the Congo on the coast, and for some distance inland,
into the details of the negotiations, which were conducted for
Great Britain by the 2nd Earl Granville, who was then secretary
for foreign affairs, it is unnecessary to enter; they resulted
in the signing on the 26th of February 1884 of a treaty, by which
Great Britain recognized the sovereignty of the king of Portugal
" over that part of the west coast of Africa, situated between
8° and 5° 12' south latitude," and inland as far as Noki, on the
south bank of the Congo, below Vivi. The navigation of the
Congo was to be controlled by an Anglo-Portuguese commission.'
The publication of this treaty evoked immediate protests, not
only on the continent but in Great Britain. In face of the
disapproval aroused by the treaty, Lord Granville found himself
unable to ratify it. The protests had not been confined to France
and the king of the Belgians. Germany had not yet acquired
formal footing in Africa, but she was crouching for the spring
prior to taking her part in the scramble, and Prince Bismarck
had expressed, in vigorous language, the objections entertained
by Germany to the Anglo- Portuguese treaty.
HIST0RY1
AFRICA
337
daf4ia
For some time before 1884 there had been growing up t general
conviction that it would be desirable for the powers who were
interesting themselves in Africa to come to some agreement
as to " the rules of the game/' and to define their respective
interests so far as that was practicable. Lord Granville's ill-
fated treaty brought this sentiment to a head, and it was agreed
Co hold an international conference on African affairs. But
before discussing the Berlin conference of 1884-1885, it will be
well to see what was the position, on the eve of the conference,
in other parts of the African continent. In the southern section
of Africa, south of the Zambesi, important events had been
happening. In 1876 Great Britain had concluded an agreement
with the Orange Free State for an adjustment of
frontiers, the result of which was to leave the Kimberley
diamond fields in British territory, in exchange for
a payment of £00,000 to the Orange Free State. On
the 1 2th of April 1877 Sir Theophilus Shepstone had
issued a proclamation declaring the Transvaal—the
South African Republic, as it was officially designated— to be
British territory (see Transvaal). In December 1880 war
broke out and lasted until March 1881, when a treaty of peace
was signed. This treaty of peace was followed by a convention,
signed in August of the same year, under which complete self-
government was guaranteed to the inhabitants of the Transvaal,
subject to the suzerainty of Great Britain, upon certain terms
and conditions and subject to certain reservations and limitations.
No sooner was the convention signed than it became the object
of the Boers to obtain a modification of the conditions and limita-
tions imposed, and in February 1884 a fresh convention was
signed, amending the convention of 1&81. Article IV. of the new
convention provided that '"The South African Republic will
conclude no treaty or engagement with any state or nation
other than the Orange Free State, nor with any native tribe to
the eastward or westward of the Republic, until the same has
been approved by Her Majesty the Queen." The precise effect
of the two conventions has been the occasion for interminable
discussions, but as the subject is now one of merely academic
interest, it is sufficient to say that when the Berlin conference
held its first meeting in 1884 the Transvaal was practically
independent, so far as its internal administration was con-
cerned, while its foreign relations were subject to the control
just quoted.
But although the Transvaal had thus, between the years 187s
and 1884, become and ceased to be British territory, British
influence in other parts of Africa south of the Zambezi had
been steadily extended. To the west of the Orange Free State,
Griqualand West was annexed to the Cape in 1880, while to the
east the territories beyond the Kei river were included in Cape
Colony between 1877 and 1884, so that in the latter year, with
the exception of Pondoland, the whole of South-East Africa was
in one form or another under British control North of Natal,
Zululand was not actually annexed until 1887, Although since
1879, when the military power of the Zulus was broken up,
British influence had been admittedly supreme. In December
1884 St Lucia Bay— upon which Germany was casting covetous
eyes— had been taken possession of in virtue of its cession to
Great Britain by the Zulu king in 1843, and three years later
an agreement of non-cession to foreign powers made by Great
Britain with the regent and paramount chief of Tongaland
completed the chain of British possessions on the coast of South
Africa, from the mouth of the Orange river on the west to Kosi
Bay and the Portuguese frontier on the east In the interior
of South Africa the year 1884 witnessed the beginning of that
final stage of the British advance towards the north which was
to extend British influence from the Cape to the southern shores
of Lake Tanganyika. The activity of the Germans on the west,
and of the Boer republic on the east, had brought home to both
the imperial and colonial authorities the impossibility of relying
on vague traditional claims. In May 1884 treaties were made
with native chiefs" by which the whole of the country north
of Cape Colony, west of the Transvaal, south of 32° S. and
east of 90* £., was placed under British protection, though
a protectorate was not formally declared until the following
January.
Meanwhile some very interesting events had been taking place
on the west coast, north of the Orange river and south of the
Portuguese province of Mossamedes. It must be sufficient hen
to touch very briefly on the events that preceded the foundation
of the colony of German South-West Africa. For many years
before 1884 German missionaries-had settled among the Damans
(Herero) and Namaquas, often combining small trading opera-
tions with their missionary work. From time to time trouble
arose between the missionaries and the native chiefs, and appeals
were made to the German government for protection.
The German government in its turn begged the British
government to say whether it assumed responsibility
for the protection of Europeans in Damaraland and
Namaqualand. The position of the British government was
intelligible, if not very intelligent. It did not desire to see any
other European power in these countries, and it did not want to
assume the responsibility and incur the expense of protecting the
few Europeans settled there. Sir Bartle Frere, when governor of
the Cape (1877-1880), had foreseen that this attitude portended
trouble, and had urged that the whole of the unoccupied coast-
line, up to the Portuguese frontier, should be declared under
British protection. But he preached to deaf ears, and it was as
something of a concession to him that in March 1878 the British
flag was hoisted at Walfish Bay, and a small part of the adjacent
land declared to be British. The fact appears to be that British'
statesmen failed to understand the change that had come over
Germany. They believed that Prince Bismarck would never
give his sanction to the creation of a colonial empire, and, to the
German inquiries as to what rights Great Britain claimed in
Damaraland and Namaqualand, procrastinating replies were
sent. Meanwhile the various colonial societies established in
Germany had effected a revolution in public opinion, and, more
important still, they had convinced the great chancellor-.
Accordingly when, in November 1882, F. A. E. Ltideriu, a
Bremen merchant, informed the German government of his
intention to establish a factory on the coast between the Orange
river and the Little Fish river, and asked if he might rely on the
protection of his government in case of need, he met with no
discouragement from Prince Bismarck. In February 1883 the
German ambassador in London informed Lord Granville of
Luderitz's design, and asked " whether Her Majesty's government
exercise any authority in that locality." It was intimated that
if Her Majesty's government did not, the German government
would extend to Lttderita's factory " the same measure of pro-
tection which they give to their subjects in remote parts of the
world, but without having the least design to establish any foot-
ing in South Africa." An inconclusive reply was sent, and on
the 9th of April LUdcriU's agent landed at Angra Pequena, and
after a short delay concluded a treaty with the local chief, by
which some 215 square miles around Angra Pequena were ceded
to Lttderitz. In England and at the Cape irritation at the news
was mingled with incredulity, and it was fully anticipated that
Ltideriu would be disavowed by his government. But for this
belief it can scarcely be doubted that the rest of the unoccupied
coast-line would have been promptly declared under British
protection. Still Prince Bismarck was slow to act. In November
the German ambassador again inquired if Great Britain made
any claim over this coast/ and Lord Granville replied that Her
Majesty exercised sovereignty only over certain parts of the
coast, as at Walfish Bay, and suggested thatarrangements might
be made by which Germany might assist in the settlement of
Angra Pequena. By this time Ltideriu had extended his acquisi-
tions southwards to the Orange river, which had been declared
by the British government to be the northern frontier of Cape
Colony. Both at the Cape and in England it was now realized
that Germany had broken away from her former purely con-
tinental policy, and, when too late, the Cape parliament showed
great eagerness to acquire the territory which had lain so long at
its very doors, to be had for the taking. It is not necessary to
follow the course of the subsequent negotiations. On the 15th
338
AFRICA
[HISTORY
of August 1884 an official note was addressed by the German
consul at Capetown to the high commissioner, intimating that
the German emperor had by proclamation taken " the territory
belonging to Mr A. LUderitz on the west coast of Africa under the
direct protection of His Majesty " This proclamation covered
the coast-line from the north bank of the Orange river to 26* S.
latitude, and 20 geographical miles inland, including " the
islands belonging thereto by the law of nations." On the 8th
of September 1884 the German government intimated to Her
Majesty's government " that the west coast of Africa from 26°
S. latitude to Cape Frio, excepting Walfish Bay, had been placed
under the protection of the German emperor." Thus, before the
end of the year 1884, the foundations of Germany's colonial
empire had been laid in South-West Africa.
In April of that year Prince Bismarck intimated to the British
government, through the German chargf d'affaires in London,
NacMgara that " the imperial consul-general, Dr Nachtigal, has
misMtoato been commissioned by my government to visit the west
"£* coast of Africa in the course of the next few months,
in order to complete the information now in the posses-
sion of the Foreign Office at Berlin, on the state of German com-
merce on that coast With this object Dr Nachtigal will shortly
embark at Lisbon, on board the gunboat ' MOwe.' He will put
himself into communication with the authorities in the British
possessions on the said coast, and is authorized to conduct, on
behalf of the imperial government, negotiations connected with
certain questions. I venture," the official communication proceeds,
" in accordance with my instructions, to beg your excellency to be
so good as to cause the authorities in the British possessions in
West Africa to be furnished with suitable recommendations."
Although at the date of this communication it must have been
apparent, from what was happening in South Africa, that
Germany was prepared to enter on a policy of colonial expansion,
and although the wording of the letter was studiously vague, it
does not seem to have occurred to the British government that
the real object of Gustav Nachtigal's journey was to make other
annexations on the west coast. Yet such was indeed his mission.
German traders and missionaries had been particularly active of
late years on the coast of the Gulf of Guinea. German factories
were dotted all along the coast in districts under British protec-
tion, under French protection and under the definite protection
of no European power at all. It was to these latter places that
Nachtigal turned his attention. The net result of his operations
was that on the 5th of July 1884 a treaty was signed with the
king of Togo, placing his country under German protection, and
that just one week later a German protectorate was proclaimed
over the Cameroon district. Before either of these events had
occurred Great Britain had become alive to the fact that she could
no longer dally with the subject, if she desired to consolidate her
possessions in West Africa. The British government had again
and again refused to accord native chiefs, the protection they
demanded. The Cameroon chiefs had several times asked for
British protection, and always in vain. But at last it became
apparent, even to the official mind, that rapid changes were being
effected in Africa, and on the 16th of May Edward Hyde Hewett,
British consul, received instructions to return to the west coast
and to make arrangements for extending British protection over
certain regions. He arrived too late to save either Togoland or
Cameroon, in the latter case arriving five days after King Bell and
the other chiefs on the river had signed treaties with Nachtigal.
But the British consul was in time to secure the delta of the river
Niger and the Oil Rivers District, extending from Rio del Rey
to the Lagos frontier, where for a long period British traders
had held almost a monopoly of the trade.
Meanwhile France, too, had been busy treaty-making. While
the British government still remained under the spell of the
Pnockmrn***^ resolution of 1865, the French government was
BrtatM strenuously endeavouring to extend France's influence
£"*r *» in West Africa, in the countries lying behind the coast-
y2f ff hne. During the year 1884 no fewer than forty-two
treaties were concluded with native chiefs, an even
larger number having been concluded in the previous twelve
months. In this fashion France was pushing on towards
Timbuktu, in steady pursuance of the policy which resulted in
surrounding all the old British possessions in West Africa with
a continuous band of French territory. There was, however,
one region on the west coast where, notwithstanding the lethargy
of the British government, British interests were being vigorously
pushed, protected and consolidated. This was on the lower
Niger, and the leading spirit in the enterprise was Mr Goldie
Taubman (afterwards Sir George Taubman Goldie). In 1877
Sir George Goldie visited the Niger and conceived the idea of
establishing a settled government in that region. Through
his efforts the various trading firms on the lower Niger formed
themselves in 1879 into the " United African Company," and
the foundations were laid of something like settled administra-
tion. An application was made to the British government for a
charter in 1881, and the capital of the company increased to a
million sterling. Henceforth the company was known as the
" National African Company," and it was acknowledged that
its object was not only to develop the trade of the lower Niger,
but to extend its operations to the middle reaches of the river,
and to open up direct relations with the great Fula empire of
Sokoto and the smaller states associated with Sokoto under a
somewhat loosely defined suzerainty. The great development
of trade which followed the combination of British interests
carried out under Goldie's skilful guidance did not pass unnoticed
in France, and, encouraged by Gambetta, French traders made a
bold bid for a position on the river. Two French companies,
with ample capital, were formed, and various stations were
established on the lower Niger. Goldie realized at once the
seriousness of the situation, and lost no time in declaring com-
mercial war on the newcomers. His bold tactics were entirely
successful, and a few days before the meeting of the Berlin
conference he had the satisfaction of announcing that he had
bought out the whole of the French interests on the river, and
that Great Britain alone possessed any interests on the lower
Niger.
To complete the survey of the political situation in Africa at
the time the plenipotentiaries met at Berlin, it is necessary to
refer briefly to the course of events in North and East ti»*m#-
Africa since 1875. In 1881 a French army entered tHmta
Tunisia, and compelled the bey to sign a treaty placing ZS S f r
that country under French protection. The sultan of *■•****
Turkey formally protested against this invasion of Ottoman
rights, but the great powers took no action, and France was
left in undisturbed possession of her newly acquired territory.
In Egypt the extravagance of Ismail Pasha had led to he
establishment in 1879, in the interests of European bond-
holders, of a Dual Control exercised by France and Great Britain.
France had, however, in 1882 refused to take part in the suppres-
sion of a revolt under Arabi Pasha, which England accomplished
unaided. As a consequence the Dual Control had been abolished
in January 1883, since when Great Britain, with an army
quartered in the country, had assumed a predominant position
in Egyptian affairs (see Egypt). In East Africa, north of the
Portuguese possessions, where the sultan of Zanzibar was the
most considerable native potentate, Germany was secretly
preparing the foundations of her present colony of German
East Africa. But no overt act had warned Europe of what
was impending. The story of the foundation of German East
Africa is one of the romances of the continent Early in 1884
the Society for German Colonization was founded, with the
avowed object of furthering the newly awakened colonial
aspirations of the German people. 1 It was a society inspired
and controlled by young men, and on the 4th of November 1884,
eleven days before the conference assembled at Berlin, three
young Germans arrived as deck passengers at Zanzibar. They
were disguised as mechanics, but were in fact Dr Karl Peters,
the president of the Colonization Society, Joachim Count Pfeu\
and Dr Jtthlke, and their stock-in-trade consisted of a number
1 In 1887 this society united with the German Colonial Society,
an organization founded in 1882. The united society took the title
of the German Colonial Company.
HISTORY]
AFRICA
339
of German flags and a supply of blank treaty forms. They
proposed to land on the mainland opposite Zanzibar, and
m_ to conclude treaties in the back country with native
chiefs placing their territories under German pro-
tection. The enterprise was frowned upon by the
German government; but, encouraged by German
residents at Zanzibar, the three young pioneers crossed
to the mainland, and on the 19th of November, while the diplo-
matists assembled at Berlin were solemnly discussing the rules
which were to govern the game of partition, the first " treaty "
was signed at Mbuzini, and the German flag raised for the first
time in East Africa.
Italy had also obtained a footing on the African continent
before the meeting of the Berlin conference. The Rubattino
Steamship Company as far back as 1870 had bought the port of
Assab as a coaling station, but it was not until 1882 that it was
declared an Italian colony. This was followed by the conclusion
of a treaty with the sultan of Assab, chief of the Danakil, signed
on the 15th of March 1883, and subsequently approved >y the
king of Shoa, whereby Italy obtained the cession of part of Ablis
(Aussa) on the Red Sea, Italy undertaking to protect with her
fleet the Danakil littoral.
One other event must be recorded as happening before the
meeting of the Berlin conference. The king of the Belgians had
been driven to the conclusion that, if his African
ammo! ate enterprise was to obtain any measure of permanent
tmur- success, its international status must be recognized.
***2*f To this end negotiations were opened with various
jff 1 *' government*. The first government to " recognize
the flag of the International Association of the Congo
as the flag of a friendly government " was that of the United
States, its declaration to that effect bearing date the 22nd of
April 1884. There were, however, difficulties in the way of
obtaining the recognition of the European powers, and in order
to obtain that of France, Ring Leopold, on the 23rd of April
1884, while labouring under the feelings of annoyance which
had been aroused by the Anglo-Portuguese treaty concluded by
Lord Granville in February, authorized Colonel Strauch, presi-
dent of the International Association, to engage to give France
" the right of preference if, through unforeseen circumstances,
the Association were compelled to sell its possessions." France's
formal recognition of the Association as a government was,
however, delayed by the discussion of boundary questions until
the following February, and in the meantime Germany, Great
Britain, Italy, Austria-Hungary, Holland and Spain had all recog-
nized the Association; though Germany alone had done so — on
the 8th of November — before the assembling of the conference.
The conference assembled at Berlin on the 15th of November
1884, and after protracted deliberations the " General Act of
Thm the Berlin Conference " was signed by the representa-
tives of all the powers attending the conference, on
the 26th of February 1885. The powers represented
were Germany, Austria-Hungary, Belgium, Denmark,
Spain, the United States, France, Great Britain, Italy,
Holland, Portugal, Russia, Sweden and Norway, and Turkey,
to name them in the alphabetical order adopted in the preamble
to the French text of the General Act. Ratifications were
deposited by all the signatory powers with the exception of the
United States. It is unnecessary to examine in detail the
results of the labours of the conference. The General Act dealt
with six specific subjects: (1) freedom of trade jn the basta of
the Congo, (2) the slave trade, (3) neutrality of territories tn the
basin of the Congo, (4) navigation of the Congo, (5) navigation
of the Niger, (6) rules for future occupation on the coasts of the
African continent. It will be seen that the act dealt with other
matters than the political partition of Africa; but, so far as
they concern the present purpose, the results effected by the
Berlin Act may be summed up as follows. The signatory powers
andertook that any fresh act of taking possession on any portion
of the African coast must be notified by the power taking -posses-
sion, or assuming a protectorate, to the other signatory powers.
It was further provided that any such occupation to be valid
must be effective. It is also noteworthy that the first reference
in an international act to the obligations attaching to " spheres
of influence " is contained in the Berlin Act
It will be remembered that when the conference assembled,
the International Association of the Congo had only been recog-
nized as a sovereign state by the United States and
Germany. But King Leopold and his agents had oommitmm
taken full advantage of the opportunity which the ffip
conference afforded, and before the General Act was
signed the Association had been recognized by all the signatory
powers, with the not very important exception of Turkey, and
the fact communicated to the conference by Colonel Strauch.
It was not, however, until two months later, in April 1885, that
King Leopold, with the sanction of the Belgian legislature,
formally assumed the headship of the new state; and on the
1st of August in the same year His Majesty notified the powers
that from that date the " Independent State of the Congo "
declared that " it shall be perpetually neutral " in conformity
with the provisions of the Berlin Act Thus was finally consti-
tuted the Congo Free State, under the sovereignty of King
Leopold, though the boundaries claimed for it at that time were
considerably modified by subsequent agreements.
From 1885 the scramble among the powers went on with
renewed vigour, and in the fifteen years that remained of the
century the work of partition, so far as international yw
agreements were concerned, was practically completed, <**/
To attempt to follow the process of acquisition year mmriitiem
by year would involve a constant shifting of attention »■■*■■•
from one part of the continent to another, inasmuch as the
scramble was proceeding simultaneously all over Africa. It will
therefore be the most convenient plan to deal with the continent
in sections. Before doing so, however, the international agree-
ments which determined in the main the limits of the possessions
of the various powers may be set forth. They are : —
I. The agreement of the zst of July 1800 between Great
Britain and Germany defining their spheres of influence in East,
West and South-West Africa. This agreement was the most
comprehensive of all the " deals " in African territory, and in-
cluded in return for the recognition of a British protectorate
over Zanzibar the cession of Heligoland to Germany.
II. The Anglo-French declaration of the 5th of August 1800,
which recognized a French protectorate over Madagascar,
French influence in the Sahara, and British .influence between
the Niger and Lake Chad.
III. The Anglo- Portuguese treaty of the nth of June 1801,
whereby the Portuguese possessions on the west and east coasts
were separated by a broad belt of British territory, extending
north to Lake Tanganyika.
IV. The Franco-German convention of the 15th of March
1804, by which the Central Sudan was left to France (this region
by an Anglo-German agreement of the 15th of November 1893
having been recognized as in the German sphere) By this
convention France was able to effect a territorial junction of
her possessions in North and West Africa with those in the Congo
region.
V. Protocols of the 24th of March and the 15th of April 1801,
for the demarcation of the Anglo-Italian spheres in East Africa.
VI. The Anglo-French convention of the 14th of June 1808,
for the delimitation of the possessions of the two countries west
of Lake Chad, with the supplementary declaration of the 21st
of March 1809 whereby France recognized the upper Nile valley
as in the British sphere of influence.
Coming now to a more detailed consideration of the operations
of the powers, the growth of the Congo Free Slate, which occu-
pied, geographically, a central position, may serve as y^
the starting-point for the story of the partition after growth mi
the Berlin conference. In the notification to the **f"* l#
powers of the 1st of August 1885, the boundaries of the
Free State were set out in considerable detail. The limits thus
determined resulted partly from agreements made with France,
Germany and Portugal, and partly from treaties with native
chiefs. The state acquired the north bank of the Congo from
340
AFRICA
(HISTORY
its mouth to a point in the unnavigable" reaches, and in the
interior the major part of the Congo basin. In the north-east
the northern limit was 4° N. up to 30° E., which formed the
eastern boundary of the state. The south-eastern frontier
claimed by King Leopold extended to Lakes Tanganyika, Mweru
and Bangweulu, but it was not until some years later that it
was recognized and defined by the agreement of May 1804 with
Great Britain. The international character of King Leopold's
enterprise had not long been maintained, and his recognition as
sovereign of the Free State confirmed the distinctive character
which the Association had assumed, even before that event.
In April 1887 France was informed that the right of pre-
emption accorded to her in 1884 had not been intended by King
Leopold to prejudice Belgium's right to acquire the Congo State,
and in reply the French minister at Brussels took note of the
explanation, " in so far as this interpretation is not contrary to
pre-existing international engagements." By his will, dated the
2nd of August 1880, King Leopold made Belgium formally heir to
the sovereign rights of the Congo Free State. In 1805 an annexa-
tion bill was introduced into the Belgian parliament, but at that
time Belgium had no desire to assume responsibility for the
Congo State, and the bill was withdrawn. In xoox ,- by the terms
of a loan granted in 1800, Belgium had again an opportunity pf
annexing the Congo State, but a bill in favour of annexation was
opposed by the government and was withdrawn after King
Leopold had declared that the time was not ripe for the transfer.
Concessionaire companies and a Domain* it la Couronne had been
created in the state, from which the sovereign derived consider-
able revenues— facts which helped to explain the altered attitude
of Leopold II. The agitation in Great Britain and America
against the Congo system of government, and the admissions of
an official commission of inquiry concerning its maladministra-
tion, strengthened, however, the movement in favour of transfer.
Nevertheless in June 1006 the king again declared himself
opposed to immediate annexation. But under pressure of public
opinion the Congo government concluded, 28th of November
1907, a new annexation treaty. As it stipulated for the continued
existence of the crown domain the treaty provoked vehement
opposition. Leopold II. was forced to yield, and an additional
act was signed, 5th of March 1008, providing for the suppression
of the domain in return for financial subsidies. The treaty, as
amended, was approved by the Belgian parliament in the session
of 1008. Thus the Congo state, after an existence of 24 years
as an independent power, became a Belgian colony. (See
Congo Free State.)
The area of the Free State, vast as it was, did not suffice to
satisfy the ambition of its sovereign. King Leopold maintained
that the Free State enjoyed equally with any other state the
right to extend its frontiers. His ambition involved the state in
the struggle between Great Britain and France for the upper
Nile. To understand the situation it is necessary to remember
the condition of the Egyptian Sudan at that time. The mahdi,
Mahoramcd Ahmed, had preached a holy war against the
Egyptians, and, after the capture of Khartum and the death of
General C. G. Gordon, the Sudan was abandoned to the dervishes.
The Egyptian frontier was withdrawn to Wadi Haifa, and the
vast provinces of Kordofan, Darfur and the Babr-el-Ghazal were
given over to dervish tyranny and misrule. It was obvious that
Egypt would sooner or later seek to recover her position in the
Sudan, as the command of the upper Nile was recognized as
essential to her continued prosperity. But the international
position of the abandoned provinces was by no means clear.
The British government, by the Anglo-German agreement of
July 1800, had secured the assent of Germany to the statement
that the British sphere of influence in East Africa was bounded
on the west by the Congo Free State and by " the western water-
shed of the basin of the upper Nile "; btft this claim was not
recognized either by France or by the Congo Free State. From
her base on the Congo, France was busily engaged pushing
forward along the northern tributaries of the great river. On
the 27th of April 1887 an agreement was signed with the Congo
Free State by which the right bank of the Ubangi river was
secured to French influence, and the left bank to the Congo Free
State. The desire of France to secure a footing in the upper
Nile valley was partly due, as has been seen, to her anxiety to
extend a French zone across Africa, but it was also and to a Urge
extent attributable to the belief, widely entertained rbm
in France, that by establishing herself on the upper <
Nile France could regain the position in Egyptian '
affairs which she had sacrificed in 1882. With these '
strong inducements France set steadily to work to consolidate
her position on the tributary streams of the upper Congo basin,
preparatory to crossing into the valley of the upper Nile. Mean-
while a similar advance was being made from the Congo Free
State northwards and eastwards. King Leopold had two objects
in view— to obtain control of the rich province of the Bahr-el-
Ghazal and to secure an outlet on the Nile. Stations were
established on the Welle river, and in February 1891 Captain
van Kerckhoven left Leopoldville for the upper Welle with the
most powerful expedition which had, up to that time, been
organized by the Free State. After some heavy fighting the
expedition reached the Nile in September 1892, and opened up
communications with the remains of the old Egyptian garrison
at Wadelai. Other expeditions under Belgian officers penetrated
into the Bahr-el-Ghazal, and it was apparent that King Leopold
proposed to rely on effective occupation as an answer to any
claims which might be advanced by either Great Britain or
France. The news of what was happening in this remote region
of Africa filtered through to Europe very slowly, but King
Leopold was warned on several occasions that Great Britain
would not recognize any claims by the Congo Free State on the
Bahr-el-Ghazal. The difficulty was, however, that neither from
Egypt, whence the road was barred by the khalifa (the successor
of the mahdi), nor from Uganda, which was far too remote from
the coast to serve as the base of a large expedition, could a
British force be despatched to take effective occupation of the
upper Nile valley. There was, therefore, danger lest the French
should succeed in establishing themselves on the upper Nile
before the preparations which were being made in Egypt for
" smashing " the khalifa were completed.
In these circumstances Lord Rosebery, who was then British
foreign minister, began, and his successor, the 1st earl of
Kimberlcy, completed, negotiations with King Leopold j^ tj<|fc
which resulted in the conclusion of the Anglo-Congolese Coagohm
agreement of 1 2 th May 1 804. By this agreement King yjjjjj* -
Leopold recognized the British sphere of influence •"***•
as laid down in the Anglo-German agreement of July 1800,
and Great Britain granted a lease to King Leopold of certain
territories in the western basin of the upper Nile, extending on
the Nile from a point on Lake Albert to Fashoda, and westwards
to the Congo-Nile watershed. The practical effect of this agree •
ment was to give the Congo Free State a lease, during its
sovereign's lifetime, of the old Bahr-el-Ghazal province, and to
secure after His Majesty's death as much of that territory as
lay west of the 30th meridian, together with access to a port on
Lake Albert, to his successor. At the same time the Congo Free
State leased to Great Britain a strip of territory, 15! m. in
breadth, between the north end of Lake Tanganyika and the
south end of Lake Albert Edward. This agreement was hailed
as a notable triumph for British diplomacy. But the triumph
was short-lived. By the agreement of July 1800 with Germany.
Great Britain had been reluctantly compelled to abandon her
hopes of through communication between the British spheres
in the northern and southern parts of the continent, and to
consent to the boundary of German East Africa marching with
the eastern frontier of the Congo Free State. Germany frankly
avowed that she did not wish to have a powerful neighbour
interposed between herself and the Congo Free State. It was
obvious that the new agreement would effect precisely what
Germany had declined to agree to in 1800. Accordingly Germany
protested in such vigorous terms that, on the 22nd of June 1804.
the offending article was withdrawn by an exchange of notes
between Great Britain and the Congo Free State. Opinion in
France was equally excited by the new agreement It was
HISTORY]
AFRICA
34 *
obvious that the lease to the Congo Free State was Intended
to exclude France from the Nile by placing the Congo Free State
as a barrier across hex path. Pressure was brought to bear on
King Leopold, from Paris, to renounce the rights acquired under
the agreement, and on the 14th of August 1894 King Leopold
signed an agreement with France by which, in exchange for
France's acknowledgment of the Mbomu river as his northern
frontier, His Majesty renounced all occupation and all exercise
of political influence west of 30° £., and north of a line drawn
from that meridian to the Nile along 5° 3c/ N.
This left the way still open for France to the Nile, and in
June 1896 Captain J. Marchand left France with secret instruc-
tions to lead an expedition into the Nile valley. On the 1st of
March in the following year he left Brazzaville, and began a
journey which all but plunged .Great Britain and France into
war. The difficulties which Captain Marchand had to overcome
were mainly those connected with transport In October 1897
the expedition reached the banks of the Sue, the waters of which
eventually flow into the Nile. Here a post was established and
the " Faidherbe," a steamer which had been carried across the
Congo-Nile watershed in sections, was put together and launched.
On the xst of May 1808 Marchand started on the final stage of
his journey, and reached Fashoda on the zoth of July, having
established a chain of posts en route. At Fashoda the French
flag was at once raised, and a " treaty " made with the local
chief. Meanwhile other expeditions had been concentrating on
Fashoda— a mud-fiat situated, in a swamp, round
gy^cnut which for many months raged the angry passions of
rmtatft two great peoples. French expeditions, with a certain
amount of assistance from the emperor Menelek of
Abyssinia, had been striving to reach the Nile from the east, so
as to join hands with Marchand and complete the line of posts
Into the Abyssinian frontier. In this, however, they were un-
successful. No better success attended the expedition under
Colonel (afterwards Sir) Ronald Macdonald, R.E., sent by the
British government from Uganda to anticipate the French in the
occupation of the upper Nile. It was from the north that
claimants arrived to dispute with the French their right to
Fashoda, and all that the occupation of that dismal post implied.
In 1806 an Anglo-Egyptian army, under the direction of Sir
Herbert (afterwards Lord) Kitchener, had begun to advance
southwards for the reconquest of the Egyptian Sudan. On the
and of September 1898 Khartum was captured, and the khalifa's
army dispersed. It was then that news reached the Anglo-
Egyptian commander, from native sources, that there were
white men flying a strange flag at Fashoda. The sirdar at once
proceeded in a steamer up the Nile, and courteously but firmly
requested Captain Marchand to remove the French flag. On
his refusal the Egyptian flag was raised close to the French flag,
and the dispute was referred to Europe for adjustment between
the British and French governments. A critical situation ensued.
Neither government was inclined to give way, and for a time
war seemed imminent Happily Lord Salisbury was able to<
announce, on the 4th of November, that France was willing to
recognize the British claims, and the incident was finally closed
on the axst of March 1809, when an Anglo-French declaration
was signed, by the terms of which France withdrew from the
Nile valley and accepted a boundary line which satisfied her
earlier ambition by uniting the whole of her territories in North,
West and Central Africa into a homogeneous whole, while effectu-
ally preventing the realization of her dream of a transcontinental
empire from west to east By this declaration it was agreed
that the dividing fine between the British and French spheres,
north of the Congo Free State, should follow the Congo-Nile
water-parting up to Its intersection with the nth parallel of
north latitude, from which point it was to be " drawn as far
as the 15th parallel in such a manner as to separate in principle
the kingdom of Wadai from what constituted in 1882 the province
of Darfur," but in no case was it to be drawn west of the axst
degree of east longitude, or east of the 23rd degree. From the
15th parallel the line was continued north and north-west to the
intersection of the Tropic of Cancer with io°E. French influence
Pmttot
was to prevail west of this line, British influence to the east
Wadai was thus definitely assigned to France.
When, by the declaration of the axst of March 1809, France
renounced all territorial ambitions in the upper Nile basin, King
Leopold revived his claims to the Bahr-el-Ghazal
province under the terms of the lease granted by
Article a of the Anglo-Congolese agreement of 1894.
This step he was encouraged to take by the assertion
of Lord Salisbury, in his capacity as secretary of state for foreign
affairs during the negotiations with France concerning Fashoda,
that the lease to King Leopold was still in full force. But the
assertion was made simply as a declaration of British right to
dispose of the territory, and the sovereign of the Congo State
found that there was no disposition in Great Britain to allow
the Bahr-el-Ghazal to fall into his hands. Long and fruitless
negotiations ensued. The king at length (1904) sought to force
a settlement by sending armed forces into the province. Diplo-
matic representations having taxied to secure the withdrawal of
these forces, the Sudan government issued a proclamation
which had the effect of cutting off the Congo stations from
communication with the Nile, and finally King Leopold con-
sented to an. agreement, signed in London on the 9th of May
xoo6, whereby the 1894 lease was formally annulled. The
Bahr-el-Ghazal thenceforth became undisputedly an integral
part of the Anglo-Egyptian Sudan. King Leopold had, however,
by virtue of the 1894 agreement administered the comparatively
small portion of the leased area in which his presence was not
resented by France. This territory, including part of the west
bank of the Nile and known as the Lado Enclave, the 1906
agreement allowed King Leopold to " continue during his reign
to occupy." Provision was made that within six months of
the termination of His Majesty's reign the enclave should be
handed over to the Sudan government (see Congo Free State).
In this manner ended the long struggle for supremacy on the
upper Nile, Great Britain securing the withdrawal of all European
rivals.
The course of events in the southern half of the continent
may now be traced. By the convention of the 14th of February
1885, in which Portugal recognized the sovereignty of Poriagar»
the Congo Free State, and by a further convention tnm*
concluded with France in 1886, Portugal secured ff)*^* f
recognition of her claim to the territory known as
the Kabinda enclave, lying north of the Congo, but not to the
northern bank of the river. By the same convention of 1885
Portugal's claim to the southern bank of the river as far as Noki
(the limit of navigation from the sea) had been admitted. Thus
Portuguese possessions on the west coast extended from the
Congo to the mouth of the Kunene river* In the interior the
boundary with the Free State was settled as far as the Kwango
river, but disputes arose as to the right to the country of Lunda,
otherwise known as the territory of the Muato Yanvo. On the
35th of May 1891 a treaty was signed at Lisbon, by which this
large territory was divided between Portugal and the Free State.
The interior limits of the Portuguese possessions in Africa south
of the equator gave rise, however, to much more serious discus-
sions than were involved in the dispute as to the Muato Yanvo'S
kingdom. Portugal, as has been stated, claimed all the territories
between Angola and Mozambique, and she succeeded in inducing
both France and Germany, in 1886, to recognize the king of
Portugal's " right to exercise his sovereign and civilizing influence
in the territories which separate the Portuguese possessions of
Angola and Mozambique." The publication of the treaties
containing this declaration, together with a map showing
Portuguese claims extending over the whole of the Zambezi
valley, and over Matabeleland to the south and the greater part
of Lake Nyasa to the north, immediately provoked a formal
protest from the British government On the 13th of August
1887 the British charge d'affaires at Lisbon transmitted to the
Portuguese minister for foreign affairs a memorandum from
Lord Salisbury, in which the latter formally protested " against
any claims not founded on occupation," and contended that the
doctrine of effective occupation had been admitted in principle
34*
AFRICA
[HISTORY
by all the parties to the Act of Berlin. Lord Salisbury further
stated that "Her Majesty's government cannot recognize
Portuguese sovereignty in territory not occupied by her in
sufficient strength to enable her to maintain order, protect
foreigners and control the natives." To this Portugal replied
that the doctrine of effective occupation was expressly confined
by the Berlin Act to the African coast, but at the same time
expeditions were hastily despatched up the Zambezi and some
of its tributaries to discover traces of former Portuguese occu-
pation. Matabdeland and the districts of Lake Nyasa Were
specially mentioned in the British protest as countries in which
Her Majesty's government took a special interest As a matter
of fact the extension of British influence northwards to the
Zambezi had engaged the attention of the British authorities
ever since the appearance of Germany in South- West Africa
and the declaration of a British protectorate over Bechuanaland.
There were rumours of German activity in Matabdeland, and
Aftodtate of a Boer trek north of the Limpopo. Hunters and
$*an*4ior explorers had reported in eulogistic terms on the rich
£»* goldfidds and healthy plateau lands of Matabdeland
agaMa ' and Mashonaland, over both of which countries a
powerful chief, Lobengula, claimed authority. There were many
suitors for Lobengula's favours; but on the nth of February
1888 he signed a treaty with J. S. Moffat, the assistant commis-
sioner in Bechuanaland, the effect of which was to place all his
territory under British protection. Both the Portuguese and
the Transvaal Boers were chagrined at this extension of British
influence. A number of Boers attempted unsuccessfully to
trek into the country, and Portugal opposed her ancient claims
to the new treaty. She contended that Lobengula's authority
did not extend over Mashonaland, which she claimed as part of
the Portuguese province of Sofala.
Meanwhile preparations were being actively made by British
capitalists for the exploitation of the mineral and other resources
of Lobengula's territories. Two rival syndicates obtained, or
claimed to have obtained, concessions from Lobengula; but in
the summer of 1889 Cedl Rhodes succeeded in amalgamating
the conflicting Interests, and on the 29th of October of that year
the British government granted a charter to the British South
Africa Company (see Rhodesia). The first article of the charter
declared that " the principal field of the operations " of the
company " shall be the region of South Africa lying immediately
to the north of British Bechuanaland, and to the north and west
of the South African Republic, And to the west of the Portuguese
dominions." No time was lost in making preparations for
effective occupation. On the advice of F. C. Selous it was deter-
mined to despatch an expedition to eastern Mashonaland by a
new route, which would avoid the Matabele country. This plan
was carried out in the summer of 1890, and, thanks to the rapidity
with which the column moved and Selous's intimate knowledge
of the country, the British flag was, on the xxth of September,
hoisted at a spot on the Makubusi river, where the town of
Salisbury now stands, and the country taken possession of In
the name of Queen Victoria. Disputes with the Portuguese
ensued, and there were several frontier incidents which for a
time embittered the relations between the two countries.
Meanwhile, north of the Zambezi, the Portuguese were
making desperate but futile attempts to repair the neglect
of centuries by hastily organized expeditions and the
hoisting of flags. In 1888 an attempt to dose the
•«* Zambezi to British vessels was frustrated by the firm-
gjjf! ness of Lord Salisbury. In a despatch to the British
J£taT minister at Lisbon, dated the 25th of June 1888, Lord
Salisbury, after brushing aside the Portuguese claims
founded on doubtful discoveries three centuries old, stated the
British case in a few sentences:—
It is (he wrote) an undisputed point that the recent discoveries
of the English traveller, Livingstone, were followed by organised
attempt* on the part of English religious and commercial bodies to
open up and dvillse the districts surrounding and adjoining the lake.
Many British settlements have been established, the access to which
from the sea is by the rivers Zambesi and Shirt. Her Majesty's
government and the British public are much interested in the welfare
of these settlements. Portugal does not occupy, and 1
pied, any portion of the lake, nor of the bhirt; she has neither
authority nor influence beyond the confluence of the Shire and
Zambesi, where her interior custom-house, now withdrawn, was
placed by the terms of the Mozambique Tariff of 1877.
In 1889 it became known to the British government that a
considerable Portuguese expedition was being organized under
the command of Major Serpa Pinto, for operating in the 7*i?y«
region. In answer to inquiries addressed to the Portuguese
government, the foreign minister stated that the object of the
expedition was to visit the Portuguese settlements on the upper
Zambezi. The British government was, even so late as 1889,
averse from declaring a formal protectorate over the Nyasa
region;, but early in that year H. H. (afterwards Sir Harry)
Johnston was sent out to Mozambique as British consul, with
instructions to travd in the interior and report on the troubles
that had arisen with the Arabs on Lake Nyasa and with the
Portuguese. The discovery by D. J. Rankin in 1889 of a navi-
gable mouth of the Zambezi— the Chinde— and the offer by
Cedl Rhodes of a subsidy of £10,000 a year from the British
South Africa Company, removed some of the objections to
a protectorate entertained by the British government; but
Johnston's instructions were not to prodaim a protectorate
unless circumstances compelled him to take that course. To
bis surprise Johnston learnt on his arrival at the Zambezi that
Major Serpa Pinto's expedition had been suddenly deflected to
the north: Hurrying forward, Johnston overtook the Portu-
guese expedition and warned its leader that any attempt to
establish political influence north of the Ruo river would compd
him to take steps to protect British interests. On arrival at the
Ruo, Major Serpa Pinto returned to Mozambique for instruc-
tions, and in his absence Lieutenant Coutinho crossed the river,
attacked the Makololo chiefs and sought to obtain possession of
the Shirt highlands by a coup de main. John Buchanan, the
British vice-consul, lost no time in declaring the country under
British protection, and his action was subsequently confirmed
by Johnston on his return from a treaty-making expedition on
Lake Nyasa. On the news of these events reaching Europe the
British government addressed an ultimatum to Portugal, as the
result of which Lieutenant Coutinho's action was disavowed,
and he was ordered to withdraw the Portuguese forces south
of the Ruo. After prolonged negotiations, a convention was
signed between Great Britain and Portugal on the 20th of August
1800, by which Great Britain obtained a broad belt of territory
north of the Zambezi, stretching from Lake Nyasa on the east,
the southern end of Tanganyika on the north, and the Kabompo
tributary of the Zambezi on the west; while south of the Zambezi
Portugal retained the right bank of the river from a point ten
miles above Zumbo, and the western boundary of her territory
south of the river was made to coincide roughly with the 33rd
degree of east longitude. The publication of the convention
aroused deep resentment in Portugal, and the government,
unable to obtain its ratification by the chamber of deputies,
resigned. In October the abandonment of the convention was
accepted by the new Portuguese ministry as a /aft accompli;
but on the 14th of November the two governments signed an
agreement for a modus vwendi, by which they engaged to recog-
nize the territorial limits indicated in the convention of 20th
August " in so far that from the date of the present agreement
to the termination thereof ntither Power will make mMhi
treaties, accept protectorates, nor exercise any act of mmiPwt**
sovereignty within the spheres of influence assigned i
to the other party by the said convention." The '
breathing-space thus gained enabled feeling inPortugal '
to cool down, and on the nth of June 1891 another treaty was
signed, the ratifications bring exchanged on the 3rd of July.
As already stated, this is the main treaty defining the British
and Portuguese spheres both south and north of the Zambezi.
It contained many other provisions relating to trade and naviga-
tion, providing, inUr alia, a maximum transit duty of 3%
on imports and exports crossing Portuguese territories on the
east coast to the British sphere, freedom of navigation of the
HOT JRY1 AFRICA
Zac abezi and Shirt for the ships of all nations, tad stipula-
te una as to the making of railways, roads and telegraphs. The
territorial readjustment effected was slightly more favourable
t to Portugal than that agreed upon by the 1800 convention.
\»*' xal was given both banks of the Zambesi to a point tea
* est of Zumbo — the farthest settlement of the Portuguese
** /er. South of the Zambezi the frontier takes a south
^ c a east course till it reaches the edge of the continental
**** ence running, roughly, along the line of 33 P. south-
2£p~ north-eastern frontier of the Transvaal. Thus by
4srj^ - ortugal was left in the possession of the coast-lands,
-J* oreat Britain maintained her right to Matabele and
Mashona lands. The boundary between the Portuguese sphere
of influence on the west coast and the British sphere of influence
north of the Zambezi was only vaguely indicated; but it was
to be drawn in such a manner as to leave the Barofse country
within the British sphere, Lewanika, the paramount chief of
the Marotse, claiming that his territory extended much farther
to the west than was admitted by the Portuguese. In August
1003 the question what were the limits of the Barotse kingdom
was referred to the arbitration of the king of Italy. By his
award, delivered in June 1905, the western limit of the British
sphere runs from the northern frontier of German South-West
Africa up the Kwando river to 22° E., follows that meridian north
to 13° S., then runs due east to 24 £., and then north again to
the frontier of the Congo State.
Before the conclusion of the treaty of June i8ot with Portugal,
the British government had made certain arrangements for the
administration of the large area north of the Zambezi reserved
to British influence. On the zst of February Sir Harry Johnston
was appointed imperial commissioner in Nyasaland, and a fort-
night later the British South Africa Company intimated a
desire to extend its operations north of the Zambezi Negotia-
tions followed, and the field of operations of the Chartered
Company was, on the and of April i8ox, extended so as to cover
(with the exception of Nyasaland) the whole of the British
sphere of influence north of the Zambezi (now known as Northern
khodesia). On the 14th of May a formal protectorate was
declared over Nyasaland, including the Shire highlands and a
belt of territory extending along the whole of the western shore
of Lake Nyasa. The name was changed in 1803 to that of the
British Central Africa Protectorate, for which designation was
substituted in 1907 the more appropriate title of Nyasaland
Protectorate.
At the date of the assembling of the Berlin conference the
German government had notified that the coast-line on the
Ovmsaya south-west of the continent, from the Orange river to
whan of Cape Frio, had been placed under German protection.
J-** On the 13th of April 1885 the German South-West
***** Africa Company was constituted under an order of the
imperial cabinet with the rights of state sovereignty, including
mining royalties and rights, and a railway and telegraph mono-
poly. In that and the following years the Germans vigorously
pursued the business of treaty-making with the native chiefs in
the interior; and when, in July 1800, the British and German
governments came to an agreement as to the limits of their
respective spheres of influence in various parts of Africa, the
boundaries of German South-West Africa were fixed in their
present position. By Article HX of this agreement the north
bank of the Orange river up to the point of Its intersection by the
soth degree of east longitude was made the southern boundary
of the German sphere of influence. The eastern boundary fol-
lowed the 20th degree of east longitude to its intersection by the
sand parallel of south latitude, then ran eastwards along that
parallel to the point of its intersection by the 21st degree of east
longitude. From that point it ran northwards along the last-
named meridian to the point of its intersection by the 18th
parallel of south latitude, thence eastwards along that parallel to
the river Chobe or Kwando, and along the main channel of that
river to its junction with the Zambezi, where it terminated. The
northern frontier marched with the southern boundary of Portu-
guese West Africa. The object of deflecting the eastern boundary
3+3
near its northern termination was to give Germany access by her
own territory to the Upper waters of the Zambesi, and it was
declared that this strip of territory was at no part to be less than
so English miles in width.
To complete the survey of the political partition of Africa south
of the Zambezi, it is necessary briefly to refer to the events con-
nected with the South African Republic and the Orange
Free State. In October x886 the British government £•£
made an agreement with the New Republic, a small
community of Boer farmers who had in 1884-85 seized
part of Zululand and set up a government of their own, defining
the frontier between the New Republic and Zululand; but in
July x888 the New Republic was incorporated in the South
African Republic In a convention of July-August 1800 the
British government and the government of the South African
Republic confirmed the independence of Swaziland, and on the
8th of November 1893 another convention was signed with the
same object; but on the 19th of December 1894 the British
government agreed to the South African Republic exercising
"all rights and powers of protection, legislation, jurisdiction
and administration over Swaziland and the inhabitants thereof,"
subject to certain conditions and provisions, and to the non-
incorporation of Swaziland in the Republic. In the previous
September Pondoland had been annexed to Cape Colony; on the
23rd of April 1895 Tongaland was declared by proclamation to
be added to the dominions of Queen Victoria, and in December
1897 Zululand and Tongaland, or Amatongaland, were incor-
porated with the colony of Natal. The history of the events that
led up to the Boer War of 1 800-1002 cannot be recounted here (see
Transvaal, History), but in October 1809 the South African
Republic and the Orange Free State addressed an ultimatum to
Great Britain and invaded Natal and Cape Colony. As a result
of the military operations that followed, the Orange Free State
was, on the 28th of May xooo, proclaimed by Lord Roberts a
British colony under the name " Orange River Colony," and the
South African Republic was on the 25th of October xooo incor-
porated in the British empire as the " Transvaal Colony." In
January X003 the districts of Vryheid (formerly the New Re-
public), Utrecht and part of the Wakkerstroom district, a tract
of territory comprising in all about 7000 aq. m., were transferred
from the Transvaal colony to Natal. In x 007 both the Transvaal
and Orange River Colony were granted responsible government
On the east coast the two great rivals were Germany and Great
Britain. Germany on the 30th of December x886, and Great
Britain on the xxth of June 1891, formally recognized ltmtt$
the Rovuma river as the northern boundary of the otrmam
Portuguese sphere of influence on that coast; but it j£"* T *
was to the north of that river, over the vast area of jJULm.
East or East Central Africa in which the sultan of
Zanzibar claimed to exercise suzerainty, that the struggle be-
tween the two rival powers was most acute. The independence
of the sultans of Zanzibar had been recognized by the govern-
ments of Great Britain and France in 1862, and the sultan's
authority extended almost uninterruptedly along the coast of the
mainland, from Cape Delgado in the south to Warsheik on the
north— a stretch of coast more than a thousand miles long-
though to the north the sultan s authority was confined to certain
ports. In Zanzibar itself, where Sir John Kirk, Livingstone's
companion in his second expedition, was British consul-general,
British influence was, when the Berlin conference met, practically
supreme, though German traders had established themselves on
the island and created considerable commercial interests. Away
from the coasts the limits and extent of the sultan's authority
were far from being dearly defined. The sultan himself claimed
that it extended as far as Lake Tanganyika, but the claim did not
rest on any very solid ground of effective occupation. The little-
known region of the Great Lakes had for some time attracted the
attention of the men who were directing the colonial movement
in Germany; and, as has been stated, a small band of pioneers
actually landed on the mainland opposite Zanzibar in November
1884, and made their first " treaty " with the chief of Mbuzini
on the 19th of that month. Pushing up the Wami river the three
344
adventurers reached the Usagara country, tnd concluded more
" treaties," the net result being that when, In the middle of
December, Karl Peters returned to the coast he brought back
with him documents which were claimed to concede some 6q,ooo
sq. m. of country to the German Colonization Society. Peters
hurried back to Berlin, and on the 17th of February 1885 the
German emperor issued a " Charter of Protection " by which
His Majesty accepted the suzerainty of the newly-acquired
territory, and "placed under our Imperial protection the
territories in question." The conclusion of these treaties was,
on the 6th of March, notified to the British government and to
the sultan of Zanzibar. Immediately on receipt of the notifica-
tion the sultan telegraphed an energetic protest to Berlin, alleging
that the places placed under German protection had belonged to
the sultanate of Zanzibar from the time of his fathers. The
German consul-general refused to admit the sultan's claims, and
meanwhile agents of the German society were energetically
pursuing the task of treaty-making. The sultan (Seyyid Bargash)
despatched a small force to the disputed territory, which was
subsequently withdrawn, and in May sent a more imposing
expedition under the command of General Lloyd Mathews, the
commander-in-chief of the Zanzibar army, to the Kilimanjaro
district, in order to anticipate the action of German agents.
Meanwhile Lord Granville, then at the British Foreign Office, had
taken up an extremely friendly attitude towanb the
German claims. Before these events the sultan of
Zanzibar had, on more than one occasion, practically
invited Great Britain to assume a protectorate over
JJJ^^ his dominions. But the invitations had been declined.
Omm*my. Egyptian affairs were, in the year 1885, causing con-
siderable anxiety to the British government, and the
fact was not without influence on the attitude of the British
foreign secretary. On the 35th of May 1885, In a despatch to the
British ambassador at Berlin, Lord Granville instructed Sir E.
Malet to communicate the views of the British cabinet to Prince
Bismarck: —
I have to request your Excellency to state that the supposition
that Her Majesty's Government have no intention of opposing the
German scheme of colonization in the neighbourhood of Zanzibar
is absolutely correct. Her Majesty's Government, on the contrary,
view with favour these schemes, the realization of which will entail
the civilization of large tracts over which hitherto no European
influence has been exercised, the co-operation of Germany with
Great Britain in the work of the suppression of the slave gangs, and
the encouragement of the efforts of the Sultan both in the extinc-
tion of the slave trade and in the commercial development of his
dominions.
In the same despatch Lord Granville instructed Sir E. Malet
to intimate to the German government that some prominent
capitalists had originated a plan for a British settlement in the
country between the coast and the lakes, which are the sources
of the White Nile, " and for its connexion with the coast by a
railway." But Her Majesty's government would not accord
to these prominent capitalists the support they had called for,
"unless they were fully satisfied that tvtry precaution was
taken to ensure that it should in no way conflict with the interests
of the territory that has been taken under German protectorate,"
and Prince Bismarck was practically invited to say whether
British capitalists were or were not to receive the protection of
the British government. The reference In Lord Granville's des-
patch was to a proposal made by a number of British merchants
and others who had long been interested in Zanzibar, and who
saw in the rapid advance of Germany a menace to the interests
which had hitherto been regarded as paramount in the sultanate.
In 1884 H. H. Johnston had concluded treaties with the chief
of Taveta in the Kilimanjaro district, and had transferred these
treaties to John Hutton of Manchester. Hutton, with Mr (after-
wards Sir William) Mackinnon, was one of the founders of what
subsequently became the Imperial British East Africa Company.
But in the early stages the champions of British interests in East
Africa received no support from their own government, while
Germany was pushing her advantage with the energy of a recent
convert to colonial expansion, and had even, on the coast, opened
negotiations with the sultan of Witu, a small territory situated
AFRICA [HlSTORf
north of the Tana river, whose ruler claimed to be independent
of Zanzibar. On the 5th of May 1885 the sultan of Witu executed
a deed of sale and cession to a German subject of certain tracts
of land on the coast, and later in the same year other treaties
or sales of territory were effected, by which German subjects
acquired rights on the coast-line claimed by the sultan. Inland
treaties had been concluded on behalf of Germany with the chies}
of the Kilimanjaro region, and an intimation to that effect macjf
to the British government But before this occurred the Gernifce
government had succeeded in extracting an acknowledgmejK
of the validity of the earlier treaties from the sultan of Zanzit^er
Early in August a powerful German squadron appeared a**
Zanzibar, and on the 14th of that month the sultan yielded to
the inevitable, acknowledged the German protectorate over
Usagara and Witu, and undertook to withdraw his soldiers.
Meanwhile negotiations had been opened for the appointment
of an international commission, " for the purpose of inquiring
into the claims of the sultans of Zanzibar to sovereignty
over certain territories on the east coast of Africa,
and of ascertaining their precise limits." The govern-
ments to be represented were Great Britain, France
and Germany, and towards the end of 1885 commis-
sioners were appointed. The commissioners reported on the
9th of June 1886, and assigned to the sultan the islands of Zan-
zibar, Pemba, Lamu, Mafia and a number of other small islands.
On the mainland they recognized as belonging to the sultan a
continuous strip of territory, xo sea-miles in depth, from the
south bank of the Minengani river, a stream a short distance
south of the Rovuma, to Kipini, at the mouth of the Tana river,
some 600 m. in length. North of Kipini the commissioners
recognized as belonging to the sultan the stations of Kismayu,
Brava, Marka and Mukdishu, with radii landwards of zo sea-
miles, and of Warsheik with a radius of 5 sea-miles. By an
exchange of notes in October-November 1886 the governments
of Great Britain and Germany accepted the reports of the de-
limitation commissioners, to which the sultan adhered on the
4th of the following December. But the British and German
governments did more than determine what territories were to
be assigned to the sultanate of Zanzibar. They agreed to a
delimitation of their respective spheres of influence in East
Africa. The territory to be affected by this arrangement was
to be bounded on the south by the Rovuma river, " and on the
north by a line which, starting from the mouth of the Tana river,
follows the course of that river or its affluents to the point of
intersection of the equator and the 38th degree of east longitude,
thence strikes direct to the point of intersection of the xst degree
of north latitude with the 37th degree of east longitude, where
the line terminates." The line of demarcation between the
British and the German spheres of influence was to start from
the mouth of the river Wanga or Umba (which enters the ocean
opposite Pemba Island to the north of Zanzibar), and running
north-west was to skirt the northern base of the Kilimanjaro
range, and thence to be drawn direct to the point on the eastern
side of Victoria Nyanza intersected by the xst degree of south
latitude. South of this line German influence was to prevail;
north of the line was the British sphere. The sultan's dominions
having been thus truncated, Germany associated herself with
the recognition of the " independence " of Zanzibar in which
France and Great Britain had joined in x86s. The effect of
this agreement was to define the spheres of influence of the two
countries as far as Victoria Nyanza, but it provided no limit
westwards, and left the country north of the Tana river, in which
Germany had already acquired some interests near the coast,
open for fresh annexations. The conclusion of the agreement
immediately stimulated the enterprise both of the German East
African Company, to which Peters's earlier treaties had been
transferred, and of the British capitalists to whom reference
had been made in Lord Granville's despatch. The German East
African Company was incorporated by imperial charter in March
1887, and the British capitalists formed themselves into the
British East Africa Association, and on the 94th of May 1887
obtained, through the good offices of Sir William Mackinnon,
"^StORYI
AFRICA
345
Ct3
^concession of the lo-miles strip of coast from the Umba river
in the south to Kipini in the north. The British association
further sought to extend its rights in the sphere reserved to
British influence by making treaties with the native chiefs be-
hind the coast strip, and for this purpose various expeditions
were sent into the interior. When they had obtained conces-
sions over the country for some 200 m. inland the associated
t^fmattum capitalists applied to the British government for a
•r art** charier, which was granted on the 3rd of September
1888, and the association became the Imperial British
East Africa Company (see British East Africa).
The example set by the British company in obtaining a lease
of the coast strip between the British sphere of influence and the
sea was quickly followed by the German association, which, on
the 28th of April 1888, concluded an agreement with the sultan
Khalifa, who had succeeded his brother Bargash, by which the
association leased the strip of Zanzibar territory between the
German sphere and the sea. It was not, however, until August
that the German officials took over the administration, and their
want of tact and ignorance of native administration almost
immediately provoked a rebellion of so serious a character that
it was not suppressed until the imperial authorities had taken
the matter in hand. Shortly after its suppression the administra-
tion was entrusted to an imperial officer, and the sultan's rights
on the mainland strip were bought outright by Germany for
four millions of marks (£200,000).
Events of great importance had been happening, meanwhile,
in the country to the west and north of the British sphere of
influence. The British company had sent caravans into the
interior to survey the country, to make treaties with the native
chiefs and to report on the commercial and agricultural possi-
bilities. One of these had gone up the Tana river. But another
and a rival expedition was proceeding along the northern bank
of this same river. Karl Peters, whose energy cannot be denied,
whatever may be thought of his methods, set out with an armed
caravan up the Tana on the pretext of leading an expedition to
the relief of Emin Pasha, the governor of the equatorial province
of the Egyptian Sudan, then reported to be hemmed in by the
dervishes at Wadelai. His expedition was not sanctioned by
the German government, and the British naval commander had
orders to prevent his landing. But Peters succeeded in evading
the British vessels and proceeded up the river, planting German
flags and fighting the natives who opposed his progress. Early
in 1800 be reached Kavirondo, and there found letters from
Mwanga, king of Uganda, addressed to F. J. Jackson, the
leader of an expedition sent out by the British East Africa
Company, imploring the company's representative
»r to come to 'his assistance and offering to accept the
British flag. To previous letters, less plainly couched,
from the king, Jackson had returned the answer that
his instructions were not to enter Uganda, but that he would
do so in case of need. The letters that fell into Peters's hands
were in reply to those from Jackson. Peters did not hesitate
to open the letters, and on reading them he at once proceeded
to Uganda, where, with the assistance of the French Roman
Catholic priests, he succeeded in inducing Mwanga to sign a
loosely worded treaty intended to place him under German
protection. On hearing of this Jackson at once set out for
Uganda, but Peters did not wait for his arrival, leaving for the
south of Victoria Nyanza some days before Jackson arrived
at Mengo, Mwanga's capital. As Mwanga would not agree to
Jackson's proposals, Jackson returned to the coast, leaving a
representative at Mengo to protect the company's interests.
Captain (afterwards Sir) F. D. Lugard, who had recently entered
the company's employment, was at once ordered to proceed to
Uganda. But in the meantime an event of great importance
had taken place, the conclusion of the agreement between Great
Britain and Germany with reference to their different spheres of
influence in various parts of Africa.
The Anglo-German agreement of the 1st of July 1800 has
already been referred to and its importance insisted upon.
Here we have to deal with the provisions in reference to East
Africa. In return for the cession of Heligoland, Lord Salisbury
obtained from Germany the recognition of a British protectorate
over the dominions of the sultan of Zanzibar, including the
islands of Zanzibar and Pemba, but excluding the strip leased to
Germany, which was subsequently ceded absolutely to Germany.
Germany further agreed to withdraw the protectorate declared
over Witu and the adjoining coast up to Kismayu in favour of
Great Britain, and to recognize as within the British sphere of
influence the vast area bounded, on the south by the frontier
line laid down in the agreement of 1886, which was to be extended
along the first parallel of south latitude across Victoria Nyanza
to the frontiers of the Congo Free State, on the west by the
Congo Free State and the western watershed of the Nile, and on
the north by a line commencing on the coast at the north bank of
the mouth of the river Juba, then ascending that bank of the
river until it reached the territory at that time regarded as
reserved to the influence of Italy 1 in Gallaland and Abyssinia,
when it followed the frontier of the Italian sphere to the confines
of Egypt. To the south-west of the German sphere in East
Africa the boundary was formed by the eastern and northern
shore of Lake Nyasa, and round the western shore to the mouth
of the Songwe river, from which point it crossed the Nyasa-
Tanganyika plateau to the southern end of the last-named lake,
leaving the Stevenson Road on the British side of the umttMot
boundary. The effect of this treaty was to remove atrmam
all serious causes of dispute about territory between ****
Germany and Great Britain in East Africa. It ren- ffij^j
dered quite valueless Peters's treaty with Mwanga
and his promenade along the Tana; it freed Great Britain from
any fear of German competition to the northwards, and recog-
nized that her influence extended to the western limits of the
Nile valley. But, on the other hand, Great Britain had to relin-
quish the ambition of connecting her sphere of influence in the
Nile valley with her possessions in Central and South Africa. On
this point Germany was quite obdurate; and, as already stated,
an attempt subsequently made (May 1894) to secure this object
by the lease of a strip of territory from the Congo Free State was
frustrated by German opposition.
Uganda having thus been assigned to the British sphere of
influence by the only European power in a position to contest
its possession with her, the subsequent history of that region,
and of the country between the Victoria Nyanza and the coast,
must be traced in the articles on British East Africa and
Uganda, but it may be well briefly to record here the following
facts: — The Imperial British East Africa Company, finding the
burden of administration too heavy for its financial resources,
and not receiving the assistance it felt itself entitled to receive
from the imperial authorities, intimated that it would be com-
pelled to withdraw at the end of the year 1892. Funds were
raised to enable the company to continue its administration until
the end of March 1893, and a strong public protest against
evacuation compelled the government to determine in favour
of the retention of the country. In January 1893 Sir Gerald
Portal left the coast as a special commissioner to inquire into the
"best means of dealing with the country, whether through
Zanzibar or otherwise." On the 31st of March the union jack
was raised, and on the 29th of May a fresh treaty was concluded
with King Mwanga placing his country under British protection.
A formal protectorate was declared over Uganda proper on the
19th of June 1804, which was subsequently extended so as to
include the countries westwards towards the Congo Free State,
eastwards to the British East Africa protectorate and Abyssinia,
and northwards to the Anglo-Egyptian Sudan. The British
East Africa protectorate was constituted in June 1895, when
the Imperial British East Africa Company relinquished all its
rights in exchange for a money payment, and the administration
was assumed by the imperial authorities. On the 1st of April
1002 the eastern province of the Uganda protectorate was
transferred to the British East Africa protectorate, which thus
secured control of the whole length of the so-called Uganda
1 At this period negotiations between Great Britain and Italy
had begun but were not concluded.
3+6
AFRICA
[HISTO&T
Itsfyla
railway, and at the same time obtained access to the Victoria
Nyanza.
Early in the 'eighties, as already seen, Italy had obtained her
first formal footing on the African coast at the Bay of Assab
(Aussa) on the Red Sea. In 1885 the troubles in
which Egypt found herself involved compelled the
khedive and his advisers to loosen their hold on
the Red Sea littoral, and, with the tacit approval
of Great . Britain, Italy took possession of Massawa and
other ports on that coast. By 1888 Italian influence had
been extended from Ras Kasar on the north to the northern
frontier of the French colony of Obok on the south, a distance
of some 650 m. The interior limits of Italian influence were
but ill denned, and the negus Johannes (King John) of Abyssinia
viewed with anything but a favourable eye the approach of the
Italians towards the Abyssinian highlands. In January 1887 an
Italian force was almost annihilated at Dogali, but the check
only served to spur on the Italian government to fresh efforts.
The Italians occupied Keren and Asmara in the highlands, and
eventually, in May 1889, concluded a treaty of peace and friend-
ship with the negus Menelek, who had seized the throne on the
death of Johannes, killed in battle with the dervishes in March
of the same year. This agreement, known as the treaty of
Ucdalli, settled the frontiers between Abyssinia and the Italian
sphere, and contained the following article: —
XVII. His Majesty the King of Kinn of Ethiopia consents to
avail himself of the Italian government for any negotiations which
be may enter into with the other powers or governments.
In Italy and by other European governments this article
was generally regarded as establishing an Italian protectorate
over Abyssinia; but this interpretation was never accepted by
the emperor Menelek, and at no time did Italy succeed in
establishing any very effective control over Abyssinian affairs.
North of the Italian coast sphere the Red Sea littoral was still
under Egyptian rule, while immediately to the south a small
stretch of coast on the Gulf of Tajura constituted the sole
French possession on the East African mainland (see Somau-
land) - Moreover, when Egyptian claims to the jSomali coast
were withdrawn, Great Britain took the opportunity to establish
her influence on the northern Somali coast, opposite Aden.
Between the zst of May 1884 and the 15th of March x886 ten
treaties were concluded, placing under British influence the
northern Somali coast from Ras Jibuti oh the west to Bandar
Ziada on the east. In the meantime Italy, not content with her
acquisitions on the Red Sea, had been concluding treaties with
the Somali chiefs on the east coast The first treaty was made
with the sultan of Obbia on the 8th of February 1889. Later
in the same year the British East Africa Company transferred
to Italy—the transference being subsequently approved by the
sultan of Zanzibar-— the ports of Brava, Marka, Mukdishu and
Warsheik, leased from Zanzibar. On the 24th of March 1891
an agreement between Italy and Great Britain fixed the northern
bank of the Juba up to latitude 6° N. as the southern boundary
of Italian influence in Somaliland, the boundary being provision-
ally prolonged along tinea of latitude and longitude to the inter-
section of the Blue Nile with 35° E. longitude. On the 15th of
April 1 801 a further agreement fixed the northern limit of the
Italian sphere from Ras Kasar on the Red Sea to the point on
the Blue Nile just mentioned. By this agreement Italy was to
haye .the right temporarily to occupy Kassala, which was left
in the Anglo-Egyptian sphere, in trust for Egypt— a right of
which she availed herself in 1804. To complete the work of
delimitation the British and Italian governments, on the 5th of
May 1804, fixed the boundary of the British sphere of influence
in Somaliland from the Anglo-French boundary, which had been
settled in February 1888.
But while Great Britain was thus lending her sanction to
Italy's ambitious schemes, the Abyssinian emperor was becoming
more and more incensed at Italy's pretensions to exercise a
protectorate over Ethiopia. In 1803 Menelek denounced the
treaty of Uccialli, and eventually, in a great battle, fought at
Adowa on the 1st of March 1896, the Italians were disastrously
defeated. By the subsequent treaty of Adis Ababa, condoled
on the 26th of October 1806, the whole of the country to the
south of the Mareb, Belesa and Muna .rivers was
restored to Abyssinia, and Italy acknowledged the
absolute independence of Abyssinia. The effect of
this was practically to destroy the value of the
Anglo-Italian agreement as to the boundaries to the
south and west of Abyssinia; and negotiations were
afterwards set on foot between the emperor Menelek and his
European neighbours with the object of determining the
Abyssinian frontiers. Italian Somaliland, bordering 00 the
south-eastern frontier of Abyssinia, became limited - to a
belt of territory with a depth inland from the Indian
Ocean of from 180 to 250 m. The negotiations concerning
the frontier lasted until 1908, being protracted over the
question as to the possession of Lugh, a town on the Juba.
which eventually fell to Italy. After the battle of Adowa. the
Italian government handed over the administration of the
southern part of the country to the Benadir Company, but in
January 1005 the government resumed control and at the same
time transformed the leasehold rights it held from the sultan of
Zanzibar into sovereign rights by the payment to the sultan of
£144,000. To facilitate her communications with the interior,
Italy also secured from the British government the lease of a
small area of land immediately to the north of Kismayu. In
British Somaliland the frontier fixed by agreement with Italy in
1804 was modified, in so far as it marched with Abyssinian terri-
tory, by an agreement which Sir Rennell Rodd concluded with
the emperor Menelek in 1897. The effect of this agreement was
to reduce the area of British Somaliland from 75,000 to 68,000
sq. m. In the same year France concluded an agreement
with the emperor, which is known to have fixed the frontier of
the French Somali Coast protectorate at a distance of 90
kilometres (56 m.) from the coast. The determination of the
northern, western and southern limits of Abyssinia proved a
more difficult matter. A treaty of July 1000 followed by an
agreement of November 1001 defined the boundaries, of Eritrea
on the side of Abyssinia and the Sudan respectively. In certain
details the boundaries thus laid down were modified by an Anglo-
Italian- Abyssinian treaty signed at Adis Ababa on the 15th of
May 1902. On the same day another treaty was signed at the
Abyssinian capital by Sir John Harrington, the British minister
plenipotentiary, and the emperor Menelek, whereby the western,
or Sudan-Abyssinian, frontier was defined as far south as the
intersection of 6° N, and 35° E. Within the British sphere
were left the Atbara up to GaUabat, the Blue Nile up to Famaka
and the Sobat up to the junction of the Baro and Pibor. While
not satisfying Abyssinian claims to their full extent, the frontier
laid down was on the whole more favourable to Abyssinia than
was the line fixed in the Anglo-Italian agreement of 1891. On
the other hand, Menelek gave important economic guarantees
and concessions to the Sudan government.
In Egypt the result of the abolition of the Dual Control was
to make British influence virtually predominant, though theo-
retically Turkey remained the suzerain power; and after the
reconquest of the Sudan by the Anglo-Egyptian army a con-
vention between the British and Egyptian governments was
signed at Cairo on the 19th of January 1809, which, inter alia,
provided for the joint use of the British and Egyptian flags in
the territories south of the 22nd parallel of north latitude.
From the international point of view the British position in
Egypt was strengthened by the Anglo-French declaration of
the 8th of April 1904. For some time previously there had been
a movement on both sides of the Channel in favour of „_
the settlement of a number of important questions t
in which British and French interests were involved! ,
The movement was no doubt strengthened by the '
desire to reduce to their least dimensions the possible ^g/Jft
causes of trouble between the two countries at a time
when the outbreak of hostilities between Russia (the ally of
France) and Japan (the ally of Great Britain) rendered the
European situation peculiarly delicate. On the 8th of April
HISTORY)
AFRICA
3+7
1904 there was signed in London by the British foreign secretary,
the marquess of Lansdo wne, and the French ambassador, M. Pan!
Cambon, a series of agreements relating to several parts of the
globe. Here we are concerned only with the joint declaration
respecting Egypt and Morocco and a convention relating, in part,
to British and French frontiers in West Africa. The latter we
shall have occasion to refer to latex. The former, notwithstand-
ing the declarations embodied in it that there was " no intention
of altering the political status " either of Egypt or of Morocco,
cannot be ignored in any account of the partition in Africa.
With regard to Egypt the French government declared " that
they will not obstruct the action of Great Britain in that country
by asking that a limit of time be fixed for the British occupation
or in any other manner." France also assented— as did sub-
sequently the other powers interested— to a khedivial decree
simplifying the international control exercised by the Caissede
la Dette over the finances of Egypt
In order to appreciate aright that portion of the declaration
relating to Morocco it is necessary to say a few words about the
coarse of French policy in North- West Africa. In Tunisia the
work of strengthening the protectorate established in 1881 had
gone steadily forward; but it was in Algeria that the extension
of French influence had been most marked. The movement of
expansion southwards was inevitable. With the progress of
exploration it became increasingly evident that the Sahara con-
stituted no insurmountable barrier between the French posses-
sions in North and West Central Africa. But France had not only
the hope of placing Algeria in touch with the Sudan to spur her
forward. To consolidate her position in North- West Africa she
desired to make French influence supreme in Morocco. The re-
lations between the two countries did not favour the realization of
that ambition. The advance southwards of the French forces of
occupation evoked loud protests from the Moorish government,
particularly with regard to the occupation in xooo-xoox of the
Toat Oases. Under the Franco-Moorish treaty of 1845 the frontier
between Algeria and Morocco was defined from the Mediterranean
coast as far south as the pass of Texjiet el Sassi, in about 34 N.;
beyond that came a tone In which no frontier was defined, but
in which the tribes and desert villages (ksurs) belonging to the
respective spheres of influence were named; while south of the
desert villages the treaty stated that in view of the character of
the country " the delimitation of it would be superfluous."
Though the frontier was thus left undefined, the sultan main-
tained that In her advance southwards France had trespassed
on territories that unmistakably belonged to Morocco. After
some negotiation, however, a protocol was signed in Paris on
the 20th of July toox, and commissioners appointed to
devise measures for the co-operation of the French and
Moorish authorities in the maintenance of peaceful
conditions in the frontier region. It was reported that
in April 1902 the commissioners signed an agreement whereby
the Sharifan government undertook to consolidate its authority
on the Moorish side of the frontier as far south as Figig. The
agreement continued: " Le Gouvernement fran$ais t en raison de
Mtmfoisinagejuiprilera son oppui, en cos de besom. Le Gouverne-
ment Jranfois itabiira son outoriti e$ la paix dans Us rigions du
Sahara, el le Couvernement marocain, son voisin, lui aidera de
tout son pouvotr." Meanwhile in the northern districts of Morocco
the conditions of unrest under the rule of the young sultan, Abd
el Axis IV., were attracting an increasing amount of attention in
Europe and were calling forth demands for their suppression.
It was in these circumstances that in the Anglo-French declara-
tion of April 1004 the British government recognized " that it
appertains to France, more particularly as a power whose
dominions are conterminous for a great distance with those of
Morocco, to preserve order in that country, and to provide
assistance for the purpose of all administrative, economic,
financial and military reforms which it may require." Both
parties to the declaration, " inspired by their feeling of sincere
friendship for Spain, take into special consideration the interests
which that country derives from her geographical position and
from her territorial possessions on the Moorish coast of the
Mediterranean. In regard to these interests the French govern-
ment will come to an understanding with the Spanish govern-
ment" The understanding thus foreshadowed was reached
later in the same year, Spain securing a sphere of interest on the
Mediterranean coast In pursuance of the policy marked out in
the Anglo-French declaration, France was seeking to strengthen
her influence in Morocco when in 1905 the attitude of Germany
seriously affected her position. On the 8th of July France
secured from the German government formal " recognition of
the situation created for France in Morocco by the contiguity of
a vast extent of territory of Algeria and the Sharifan empire, and
by the special relations resulting therefrom between the two
adjacentcountries, as well as by the special interest for France,
due to this fact, that order should reign in the Sharifan Empire."
Finally, In January-April zoo6, a conference of the powers was
held at Algeciras to devise, by invitation of the sultan, a scheme
of reforms to be introduced into Morocco (?.».). French capital
was allotted a larger share than that of any other power in the
Moorish state bank which it was decided to institute, and French
and Spanish officers were entrusted with the organization .of a
police force for the maintenance of order In the principal coast
towns. The new regime had not been fully inaugurated ,- however,
when a series of outrages led, In X007, to the military occupation
by France of Udja, a town near the Algerian frontier, and of the
port of Casablanca on the Atlantic coast of Morocco.
It only remains to be noted, in connexion with the story of
French activity in North- West Africa, that with such energy was
the -penetration of the Sahara pursued that in April 1004 flying
columns from Insalah and Timbuktu met by arrangement in
mid-desert, and in the following year it was deemed advisable to
indicate on the maps the boundary between the Algerian and
French West African territories.
Brief reference must be made to the position of Tripoli. While
Egypt was brought under British control and Tunisia became a
French protectorate, Tripoli remained a province of the Turkish
empire with undefined frontiers in the hinterland, a state of
affairs which more than once threatened to lead to trouble with
France during the expansion of the latter's influence in the
Sahara. As already stated, Italy early gave evidence that it was
her ambition to succeed to the province, and, not only by the
sultan of Turkey but in Italy also, the Anglo-French declaration
of March 1899, respecting the limits of the British and French
spheres of influence in north Central Africa, was viewed with
some concern. By means of a series of public utterances on the
part of French and Italian statesmen in the winter 1901-1902 it
was made known that the two powers had come to an __
understanding with regard to their interests in North £5^,^/0
Africa, and in May 190a Signor Prinetti, then Italian n**&
minister for foreign affairs, speaking in parliament in
reply to an interpellation on the subject of Tripoli, declared that
if " the status quo in the Mediterranean were ever disturbed, Italy
would be sure of finding no one to bar the way to her legitimate
aspirations."
At the opening of the Berlin conference Spain had established
no formal claim to any part of the coast to the south of Morocco;
but while the conference was sitting, on the 9th of January 1885,
the Spanish government intimated that in view of the importance
of the Spanish settlements on the Rio de Oro, at Angra de Cintra,
and at Western Bay (Cape Blanco), and of the docu-
ments signed with the independent tribes on that
coast, the king of Spain had taken under his protection
44 the territories of the western coast of Africa comprised between
the fore-mentioned Western Bay and Cape Bojador." The in-
terior limits of the Spanish sphere were defined by an agreement
concluded in 1900 with France. By this document some 70,000
sq. m. of the western Sahara were recognized as Spanish.
The same agreement settled a long-standing dispute between
Spain and France as to the ownership of the district aTound the
Muni river to be south of Cameroon, Spain securing a block of
territory with a coast-line from the Campo river on the north to
the Muni river on the south. The northern frontier is formed by
the German Cameroon colony, the eastern by 1 1° 20' E., and the
348
AFRICA
(HISTORY^
southern by the first parallel of north latitude to its point of inter-
section with the Muni river.
Apart from this small block of Spanish territory south of
Cameroon, the stretch of coast between Cape Blanco and the
mouth of the Congo is partitioned among four European
' * powers— Great Britain, France, Germany and Portugal
— and the negro republic of Liberia. Following the
coast southwards from Cape Blanco is first the French
colony of Senegal, which is indented, along the Gambia river, by
the small British colony of that name, and then the comparatively
small territory of Portuguese Guinea, all that remains on this
coast to represent Portugal's share in the scramble in a region
where she once played so conspicuous a part To the south of
Portuguese Guinea is the French Guinea colony, and still going
south and east are the British colony of Sierra Leone, the republic
of Liberia, the French colony of the Ivory coast, the British Gold
Coast, German Togoland, French Dahomey, the British colony
(formerly known as the Lagos colony) and protectorate of
Southern Nigeria, the German colony of Cameroon, the Spanish
settlements on the Muni river, the French Congo colony, and the
small Portuguese enclave north of the Congo to which reference
has already been made, which is administratively part of the
Angola colony. When the General Act of the Berlin conference
was signed the whole of this coast-line had not been formally
claimed; but no time was lost by the powers interested in
notifying claims to the unappropriated sections, and the con-
flicting claims put forward necessitated frequent adjustments by
international agreements. By a Franco-Portuguese agreement
of the i sth of May z886 the limits of Portuguese Guinea— sur-
rounded landwards by French territory— were denned, and by
agreements with Great Britain in 1885 and France in 1892 and
1007 the Liberian republic was confined U> an area of about
43,000 sq. m.
The real struggle in West Africa was between France and
Great Britain, and France played the dominant part, the ex-
haustion of Portugal, the apathy of the British government
and the late appearance of Germany In the field being all elements
that favoured the success of French policy. Before tracing the
steps in the historic contest between France and Great Britain
it is necessary, however, to deal briefly with the part played
by Germany. She naturally could not be disposed of by the
chief rivals as easily as were Portugal and Liberia. It will be
remembered that Dr Nachtigal, while the proposals for the
Berlin conference were under discussion, had planted the German
flag on the coast of Togo and in Cameroon in the month of July
1884. In Cameroon Germany found herself with Great Britain
for a neighbour to the north, and with France as her southern
neighbour on the Gabun river. The utmost activity was dis-
played in making treaties with native chiefs, and in securing
as wide a range of coast for German enterprise as was possible.
After various provisional agreements had been concluded between
Great Britain and Germany, a " provisional line of demarcation "
was adopted in the famous agreement of the 1st of July 1800,
starting from the head of the Rio del Rey creek and going to
the point, about o° 8' E., marked "rapids" on the British
Admiralty chart By a further agreement of the 14th of April
1893, the right bank of the Rio del Rey was made the boundary
between the Oil Rivers Protectorate (now Southern Nigeria) and
Cameroon. In the following November (1893) the boundary
was continued from the "rapids" before mentioned, on the
Calabar or Cross river, in a straight line towards the centre of
the town of Yola, on the Benue river. Yola itself, with a radius
09rmmH9 of some 3 m., was left in the British sphere, and the
tm wt German boundary followed the circle eastwards from
c*Mi the point of intersection as it neared Yola until it
**** met the Benue river. From that point it crossed the
river U the intersection of the 13th degree of longitude with
the 10th degree of north latitude, and then made direct for a
point on the southern shore of Lake Chad " situated 35 minutes
east of the meridian of Kuka." By this agreement the British
government withdrew from a considerable section of the upper
waters of the Benue with which the Royal Niger Company had
entered into relations. The limit of Germany's possible extension
eastwards was fixed at the basin of the river Shari, and Dartur,
Rordofan and the Bahr-el-Ghasal were to be excluded from
her sphere of influence. The object of Great Britain in making
the sacrifice she did was two-fold. By satisfying Germany's
desire for a part of Lake Chad a check was put on French designs
on the Benue region, while by recognizing the central Sudan
(Wadai, &c.) in the German sphere, a barrier was interposed
to the advance of France from the Congo to the Nile. This
last object was not attained, inasmuch as Germany in coming
to terms with France as to the southern and eastern limits of
Cameroon abandoned her claims to the central Sudan. She had
already, on the 24th of December 1885, signed a protocol with
France fixing her southern frontier, where it was coterminous
with the French Congo colony. But to the east German explorers
were crossing the track of French explorers from Jthe northern
bank of the Ubangi, and the need for an agreement was obvious.
Accordingly, on the 4th of February 1894, a protocol — which,
some weeks later, was confirmed by a convention — was signed
at Berlin, by which France accepted the presence of Germany
on Lake Chad as a fait accompli and effected the best bargain
she could by making the left bank of the Shari river, from its
outlet Into Lake Chad to the zoth parallel of north latitude,
the eastern limit of German extension. From this point the
boundary line went due west some 230 m., then turned south,
and with various indentations joined the south-eastern frontier,
which had been slightly extended so as to give Germany access
to the Sanga river — a tributary of the Congo. Thus, early in
1894, the German Cameroon colony had reached fairly definite
limits. In 1008 another convention, modifying the frontier,
gave Germany a larger share of the Sanga, while France^ among
other advantages, gained the left bank of the Shari to io° 40' N.
The German Togoland settlements occupy a narrow strip
of the Guinea coast, some 35 m. only in length, wedged in
between the British Gold Coast and French Dahomey. At
first France was inclined to dispute Germany's claims to Little
Popo and Porto Seguro; but in December 1885 the French
government acknowledged the German protectorate over these
places, and the boundary between French and German
territory, which runs north from the coast to the nth
degree of latitude, was laid down by the Franco-
German convention of the 12th of July 1897. The
fixing of the nth parallel as the northern boundary
of German expansion towards the interior was not accomplished
without some sacrifice of German ambitions. Having secured
an opening on Lake Chad for her Cameroon colony, Germany
was anxious to obtain a footing on the middle Niger for Togoland.
German expeditions reached Gando, one of the tributary states
of the Sokoto empire on the middle Niger, and, notwithstanding
the existence of prior treaties with Great Britain, sought to con-
clude agreements with the sultan of that country. But this
German ambition conflicted both with the British and the French
designs in West Africa, and eventually Germany had to be content
with the nth parallel as her northern frontier. On the west
the Togoland frontier on the coast was fixed in July 1886 by
British and German commissioners at i° xo' E. longitude, and
its extension towards the interior laid down for a short distance.
A curious feature in the history of its prolongation was the
establishment in x888 of a neutral tone wherein neither power
was to seek to acquire protectorates nor exclusive influence.
It was not until November 1809 that, as part of the Samoa
settlement, this neutral zone was partitioned between the two
powers and the frontier extended to the nth parallel.
The story of the struggle between France and Great Britain
in West Africa may roughly be divided into two sections, the
first dealing with the Coast colonies, the second deal-
ing with the struggle for the middle Niger and Lake
Chad. As regards the Coast colonies, France was
wholly successful in her design of isolating all Great
Britain's separate possessions in that region, and of
securing for herself undisputed possession of the upper Niger
and of the countries lying within the great bend of that river.
Wm*
HlSTORYl
AFRICA
349
When the British government awoke to the consciousness of
what was at stake France had obtained too great a start.
French governors of the Senegal had succeeded, before the Berlin
conference, in establishing forts on the upper Niger, and the
advantage thus gained was steadily pursued. Every winter season
French posts were pushed farther and farther along the river, or
in the vast regions watered by the southern tributaries of the Sene-
gal and Niger rivers. This ceaseless activity met with its reward.
Great Britain found herself compelled to acknowledge accom-
plished facts and to conclude agreements with France, which
left her colonies mere coast patches, with a very limited extension
towards the interior. On the 10th of August 1889 an agreement
was signed by which the Gambia colony and protectorate was
confined to a narrow strip of territory on both banks of the river
for about 200 m. from the sea. In June 1882 and in August
1889 provisional agreements were made with France fixing the
western and northern limits of Sierra Leone, and commissioners
were appointed to trace the line of demarcation agreed upon
by the two governments. But the commissioners failed to agree,
and on the a 1 st of January 1895 a fresh -agreement was made,
the boundary being subsequently traced by a mixed commission.
Sierra Leone, as now definitely constituted, Jias a coast-line of
about 180 m. and a maximum extension towards the interior
of some 200 m.
At the date of the Berlin conference the present colonies of
Southern Nigeria and the Gold Coast constituted a single colony
under the title of the Gold Coast colony, but on the 13th of
January 1886 the territory comprised under that title was erected
into two separate colonies—Lagos and the Gold Coast (the name
of the former being changed in February 1006 to the colony of
Southern Nigeria). The coast limits of the new Gold Coast
colony were declared to extend from 5° W. to a° E., but these
limits were subsequently curtailed by agreements with France
and Germany. The arrangements that fixed the eastern frontier
of the Gold Coast colony and its hinterland have already been
stated in connexion with German Togoland. "On the western
frontier it marches with the French colony of the Ivory Coast,
and in July 1893, after an unsuccessful attempt to achieve the
same end by an agreement concluded in 1889, the frontier was
defined from the neighbourhood of the Tano lagoon and river
of the same name, to the 9th degree of north latitude. In
August 1806, following the destruction of the Ashanti power
and th'e deportation of King Prempeh, as a result of the second
Ashanti campaign, a British protectorate was declared over the
whole of the Ashanti territories and a resident was installed at
Kumasi. But no northern limit had been fixed by the 1893
agreement beyond the 9th parallel, and the countries to the
north — Gurunsi (Grusi), Mossi and Gurma— were entered from
all sides by rival British, French and German expeditions.
The conflicting claims established by these rival expeditions
may, however, best be considered in connexion with the struggle
for supremacy on the middle Niger and in the Chad region, to
which it is now necessary to turn.
A few days before the meeting of the Berlin conference Sir
George Goldie had succeeded in buying up all the French interests
on the lower Niger. The British company's influence had at
that date been extended by treaties with the native chiefs up the
main Niger stream to its junction with the Benue, and some
distance along this latter river. But the great Fula states of
the central Sudan were still outside European influence, and this
fact did not escape attention in Germany. German merchants
had been settled for some years on the coast, and one of them,
E. R. Flegel, had displayed great interest in, and activity on,
the river. He recognized that in the densely populated states
of the middle Niger, Sokoto and Gando, and in Bornu to the west
of Lake Chad, there was a magnificent field for Germany's new-
born colonizing zeal. The German African Company 1 and the
German Colonial Society listened eagerly to Hegel's proposals,
and in April 1885 he left Berlin on a mission to the Fula states
•This association, formed in 1878 by a union of associations
primarily intended for the exploration of Africa, ceased to exist in
1891.
of Sokoto and Gando. But it was impossible to keep his inten-
tions entirely secret, and the (British) National African Company
had no desire to see the French rivals, whom they had with so
much difficulty dislodged from the river, replaced by the even
more troublesome German. Accordingly Joseph Thomson, the
young Scottish explorer, was sent out to the Niger, and had the
satisfaction of concluding on the xst of June 1885 a treaty with
" Umoru, King of the Mussulmans of the Sudan and Sultan of
Sokoto," which practically secured the whole of the trading
rights and the control of the sultan's foreign relations to the
British company. Thomson concluded a similar treaty with
the sultan of Gando, so as to provide against the possibility of
its being alleged that Gando was an independent state and not
subject to the suzerainty of the sultan of Sokoto. As Thomson
descended the river with his treaties, he met Flegel going up the
river, with bundles of German flags and presents for the chiefs.
The German government continued its efforts to secure a footing
on the lower Niger until the fall of Prince Bismarck from power
in March z8oo, when opposition ceased, and on the failure of the
half-hearted attempt made later to establish relations with Gando
from Togoland, Germany dropped out of the competition for the
western Sudan and left the field to France and Great n0 Mxvr
Britain. After its first great success the National Compsor
African Company renewed its efforts to obtain a sraattd m
charter from the British government, and on the 10th etMrUr '
of July 1886 the charter was granted, and the company became
" The Royal Niger Company, chartered and limited." In June
of the previous year a British protectorate had been proclaimed
over the whole of the coast from the Rio del Rey to the Lagos
frontier, and as already stated, on the 13th of January 1886 the
Lagos settlements had been separated from the Gold Coast and
erected into a separate colony. It may be convenient to state
here that the western boundary of Lagos with French territory
(Dahomey) was determined in the Anglo-French agreement of
the 10th of August 1889, " as far as the 9th degree of north
latitude, where it shall stop." Thus both in the Gold Coast
hinterland and in the Lagos hinterland a door was left wide open
to the north of the 9th parallel.
Notwithstanding her strenuous efforts, France, in her advance
down the Niger from Senegal, did not succeed in reaching Sego
on the upper Niger, a considerable distance above Timbuktu,
until the winter of 1890-1891, and the rapid advance of British
influence up the river raised serious fears lest the Royal Niger
Company should reach Timbuktu before France could forestall
her. It was, no doubt, this consideration that induced the
French government to consent to the insertion in the agreement
of the 5th of August 1800, by which Great Britain recognized
France's protectorate over Madagascar, of the following article:
The Government of Her Britannic Majesty recognizes the sphere
of influence of France to the south of her Mediterranean possessions
up to a line from Say on the Niger to Barrua on Lake Chad, drawn
in such a manner as to comprise in the sphere of action of the Niger
Company all that fairly belongs to the kingdom of Sokoto; the line
to be determined by the commissioners to be appointed.
The commissioners never were in fact appointed, -and the
proper meaning to be attached to this article subsequently
became a subject of bitter controversy between the two countries.
An examination of the map of West Africa will show what possi-
bilities of trouble were left open at the end of 1800 by the various
agreements concluded up to that date. From Say on the Niger
to where the Lagos frontier came to an abrupt stop in 9° N.
there was no boundary line between the French and British
spheres of influence. To the north of the Gold Coast and of the
French Ivory Coast colony the way was equally open to Great
Britain and to France, while the vagueness of the Say-Barma
line left an opening of which France was quick to avail herself.
Captain P. L. Monteil, who was despatched by the French govern-
ment to West Africa in 1890, immediately after the conclusion of
the August agreement, did not hesitate to pass well to the south
of the Say-Barma line, and to attempt to conclude treaties with
chiefs who were, beyond all question, within the British sphere.
Still farther south, on the Benue river, the two expeditions
of Lieutenant Mizon— in 1890 and 1892 — failed to do any real
35°
AFRICA
(HISTORY
harm to British interests. In 1892 an event happened which
had an important bearing on the future course of the dispute.
After a troublesome war with Behanzin, king of
t the native state of Dahomey, France annexed some
portion of Dahomeyan territory on the coast, and
declared a protectorate over the rest of the kingdom.
Thus was removed the barrier which had up to that time
prevented France from pushing her way Nigerwards from her
possessions on the Slave Coast, as well as from the upper
Niger and the Ivory Coast. Henceforth her progress from
all these directions was rapid, and in particular Timbuktu was
occupied in the last days of 1893.
In 1894 it appears to have been suddenly realized in France
that, for the development of the vast regions which she was
placing under her protection in West Africa, it was extremely
desirable that she should obtain free access to the navigable
portions of the Niger, if not on the left bank, from which she was
excluded by the Say-Barrua agreement, then on the right bank,
where the frontier had still to be fixed by international agreement
In the neighbourhood of Bussa there is a long stretch of the
river so impeded by rapids that navigation is practically im-
possible, except in small boats and at considerable risk. Below
these rapids France had no foothold on the river, both banks
from Bussa to the sea being within the British sphere. In 1890
the Royal Niger Company had concluded a treaty with the emir
and chiefs of Bussa (or Borgu); but the French declared that
the real paramount chief of Borgu was not the king of Bussa,
but the king of Nikki, and three expeditions were despatched
in hot haste to Nikki to take the king under French protection.
Sir George Goldie, however, was not to be baffled. While
maintaining the validity of the earlier treaty with Bussa, he
despatched Captain (afterwards General Sir) F. D. Lugard to
Nikki, and Lugard was successful in distancing all his French
competitors by several days, reaching Nikki on the 5th of
November 1894 and concluding a treaty with the king and
chiefs. The French expeditions, which were in great strength,
did not hesitate on their arrival to compel the king to execute
fresh treaties with France, and with these in their possession
they returned to Dahomey. Shortly afterwards a fresh act of
aggression was committed. On the 13th of February 1895 a
French officer, Commandant Toutee, arrived on the right bank
of the Niger opposite Bajibo and built a fort. His presence
there was notified to the Royal Niger Company, who protested
to the British government against this invasion of their territory.
Lord Rosebery, who was then foreign minister, at once made
inquiries in Paris, and received the assurance that Commandant
Toutee was "a private traveller." Eventually Commandant
Toutee was ordered to withdraw, and the fort was occupied
by the Royal Niger Company's troops. Commandant Toutee
subsequently published the official instructions from the French
government under which he had acted: It was thought that the
recognition of the British claims, involved in the withdrawal of
Commandant Toutee, had marked the final abandonment by
France of the attempt to establish herself on the navigable
portions of the Niger below Bussa, but in 1897 the attempt was
renewed in the most determined manner. In February of that
year a French force suddenly occupied Bussa, and this act was
quickly followed by the occupation of Gomba and Illo higher up
the river. In November 1897 Nikki was occupied. The situation
on the Niger had so obviously been outgrowing the capacity of a
chartered company that for some time before these occurrences
the assumption of responsibility for the whole of the Niger region
by the imperial authorities had been practically de-
cided on; and early in 1808 Lugard was sent out to
the Niger with a number of imperial officers to raise a
local force in preparation for the contemplated change.
The advance of the French forces from the south and
west was the signal for an advance of British troops from the
Niger, from Lagos and from the Gold Coast protectorate. The
situation thus created was extremely serious. The British and
French flags were flying in close proximity, in some cases in the
same village. Meanwhile the diplomatists were busy in London
T*#
and in Paris, and in the latter capital a commission sat for many
mon ths to adjust the conflicting claims. Fortunately, by the tact
and forbearance of the officers on both sides, no local incident
occurred to precipitate a collision, and on the 14th of June 1898
a convention was signed by Sir Edmund Monson and M. G.
Hanotaux which practically completed the partition of this part
of the continent.
The settlement effected was in'the nature of a compromise.
France withdrew from Bussa, Gomba and Illo, the frontier line
west of the Niger being drawn from the 9th parallel to a point
ten miles, as the crow files, above Giri, the port of Illo. France
was thus shut out from the navigable portion of the middle and
lower Niger; but for purely commercial purposes Great Britain
agreed to lease to France two small plots of land on the river—
the one on the right bank between Leaba and the mouth of the
Moahi river, the other at one of the mouths of the Niger. By
accepting this line Great Britain abandoned Nikki and a great
part of Borgu as well as some part of Gando to France. East
of the Niger the Say-Barrua line was modified in favour of
France, which gained parts of both Sokoto and Bornu where
they meet the southern edge of the Sahara. In the Gold Coast
hinterland the French withdrew from Wa, and Great Britain
abandoned all claim to Mossi, though the capital of the latter
country, together with a further extensive area in the territory
assigned to both powers, was declared to be equally free, so far
as trade and navigation were concerned, to the subjects and
protected persons of both nationalities. The western boundary
of the Gold Coast was prolonged along the Black Volta as far
as latitude n° N., and this parallel was followed with slight de-
flexions to the Togoland frontier. In consequence of the acute
crisis which shortly afterwards occurred between France and
Great Britain on the upper Nile, the ratification of this agreement
was delayed until after the conclusion of the Fashoda agreement
of March 1899 already referred to. In 1900 the two patches on
the Niger leased to France were selected by commissioners
representing the two countries, and in the same year the Anglo-
French frontier from Lagos to the west bank of the Niger was
delimited.
East of the Niger the frontier, even as modified in 1898,
failed to satisfy the French need for a practicable route to Lake
Chad, and in the convention of the 8th of April 1904, to which
reference has been made under Egypt and Morocco, it was
agreed, as part of the settlement of the French shore ^
question in Newfoundland, to deflect the frontier line «— »_
more to the south. The new boundary was described y /f j ^*
at some length, but provision was made for its modifica-
tion in points of detail on the return of the commissioners engaged
in surveying the frontier region. In 1006 an agreement was
reached on all points, and the frontier at last definitely settled.
sixteen years after the Say-Barrua line had been fixed. This
revision of the Niger-Chad frontier did not, however, represent
the only territorial compensation received by France in West
Africa in connexion with the settlement of the Newfoundland
question. By the same convention of April 1004 the British
government consented to modify the frontier between Senegal
and the Gambia colony " so as to give to France Yarbutenda
and the lands and landing-places belonging to that locality,"
and further agreed to cede to France the tiny group of islands
off the coast of French Guinea known as the Los Islands.
Meantime the conclusion of the 1898 convention had left
both the British and the French governments free to devote
increased attention to the subdivision and control of their West
African possessions. On the xst of January 1000 the imperial
authorities assumed direct responsibility for the whole of the
territories of the Royal Niger Company, which became henceforth
a purely commercial undertaking. The Lagos protectorate was
extended northwards; the Niger Coast protectorate, likewise
with extended frontiers, became Southern Nigeria; while the
greater part of the territories formerly administered by the
company were constituted into the protectorate of Northern
Nigeria— all three administrations being directly under the
Colonial Office. In February 1006 the administration of the
HISTORY)
AFRICA
351
Southern Nigerian protectorate was placed under that of Lagos
at the same time as the name of the latter was changed to the
Colony of Southern Nigeria, this being a step towards the eventual
amalgamation of all three dependencies under one
•mmiaf governor or governor-general In French West Africa
[•J 1 ** changes in the internal frontiers have been numerous
and important The coast colonies have all been in-
creased in size at the expense of the French Sudan,
which has vanished from the maps as an administrative
entity. There are carved out of the territories com-
prised in what is officially known as French West Africa five
colonies— Senegal, French Guinea, the Ivory Coast, Dahomey
and the Upper Senegal and Niger, this last being entirely cut off
from the sea— and the civil territory of Mauritania. To the col-
ony of the Upper Senegal and Niger is attached the military
territory of the Niger, embracing the French Sahara up to the limit
of the Algerian sphere of influence. Not only are all these divisions
of French West Africa connected territorially, but administra-
tively they are united under a governor-general. Similarly the
French Congo territories have been divided into three colonies —
the Gabun, the Middle Congo and the Ubangi-Shari-Chad— all
united administratively under a commissioner-general.
There are, around the coast, numerous islands or groups of
ff? M "«K which are regarded by geographers as outliers of the
<hr— ni» African mainland. The majority of these African
•ft** islands were occupied by one or other of the European
«***"* powers long before the period of continental partition.
The Madeira Islands to the west of Morocco, the
Bisaagos Islands, off the Guinea coast, and Prince's Island and
St Thomas' Island, in the Gulf of Guinea, are Portuguese posses-
sions of old standing; while in the Canary Islands and Fernando
Po Spain possesses remnants of her ancient colonial empire which
are a more valuable asset than any she has acquired in recent
times on the mainland. St Helena in the Atlantic, Mauritius
and some small groups north of Madagascar in the Indian Ocean,
are British possessions acquired long before the opening of the
last quarter of the 19th century. Zanzibar, Pemba and some
smaller islands which the sultan was allowed to retain were, as
has already been stated, placed under British protection in 1890,
and the island of Sokotra was placed under the " gracious favour
and protection " of Great Britain on the 23rd of April 1886.
France's ownership of Reunion dates back to the 17th century,
but the Comoro archipelago was not placed under French protec-
tion untO April 1886. None of these islands, with the exception
of the Zanzibar group, have, however, materially affected the
partition of the continent, and they need not be enumerated in the
table which follows. But the important island of Madagascar
stands in a different category, both on account of its size and
because it was during the period under review that it passed
through the various stages which led to its becoming a French
colony. The first step was the placing of the foreign relations of
the island under French control, which was effected by the treaty
of the 17th of December 1885, after the Franco- Malagasy war
that had broken out in 1883. In 1800 Great Britain and Germany
recognized a French protectorate over the island, but the Hova
government declined to acquiesce in this view, and in May 1895
France sent an expedition to enforce her claims. The capital was
occupied on the 30th of September in the same year, and on the
day following Queen Ranavalona signed a convention recogniz-
ing the French protectorate. In January 1896 the island was
declared a French possession, and on the 6th of August was
declared to be a French colony. In February 1897 the last
vestige of ancient rule was swept away by the deportation of
the queen.
Thus in its broad outlines the partition of Africa was begun and
ended in the short space of a quarter of a century. There are
still many finishing touches to be put to the structure The
southern frontiers of Morocco and Tripoli remain undefined,
while the mathematical lines by which the spheres of influence
of the powers were separated one from the other are being
variously modified on the do ut its principle as they come to be
surveyed and as the effective occupation of the continent pro-
gresses. Much labour is necessary before the actual area of
Africa and its subdivisions can be accurately determined, but in
the following table the figures are at least approximately correct
Large areas of the spheres assigned to different European
powers have still to be brought under European control; but
this work is advancing by rapid strides.
British— Sa. m.
Cape Colony 276,995
Natal and Zululand 35.371
Basutoland 10,293
Bechuanaland Protectorate 225,000
Transvaal and Swaziland 1*7.732
On ru* River Colony • , 50,392
Rhodesia ♦ 450,000
NyAs-kUnd Protertorale 43.6o8
British t'a-it Afrit a Protectorate 240,000
IVawla Protectorate 125,000
ZannUar Protectorate 1,020
Somali land, , , 68,000
Northern Nigeria . 258,000
Souihrm Nigeria (colony and protectorate) . . 80,000
Gold Coast and hnifrictnd 82,000
Skmr Lconc (colony and protectorate) . . . 34.000
Gambia 4,000
. 2,101411
Total British Africa
Egypt and Libyan Desert 650,000
Anglo-Egyptian Sudan ....... 950,000
1,600,000
French—
Algeria and Algerian Sahara 945»ooo
Tunisia 51.000
French West Africa—
:* ne *?L .• 74.000
French Guinea 107,000
Ivory Coast 129,000
Dahomey 40,000
Upper Senegal and Niger, and Maur-
itania (including French West
African Sahara) . 1,581,000 1.931,000
French Congo 700,000
French Somaliland 12,000
Madagascar 227,950
Total French Africa .... 3.866.950
German—
East Africa 364,000
South-West Africa 322450
Cameroon .......... 190,000
Togoland 33.700
Total German Africa
910.150
Italian—
Eritrea 60,000
Italian Somaliland 140,000
Total Italian Africa .... 200,000
Portuguese—
Guinea , 14.000
West Africa 480,000
East Africa 293,500
Total Portuguese Africa
787.500
Spanish—
RiodeOro
Muni River Settlements
70,000
9,800
Total Spanish Africa .... 79.800
Siparati States—
Liberia 43.000
Morocco 220,000
Abyssinia 350.000
Total Independent Africa
613.000
352
AFRICA
[EXPLORATION
Thus, collecting the totals, the result of the " scramble "
has been to divide Africa among the powers as follows: —
Sq. m.
British Africa 2,101411
Egyptian Africa 1,600,000
French Africa 3,866,950
German Africa 9i°* I 5°
Italian Africa 200,000
Portuguese Africa 787.500
Spanish Africa 79.8oo
Belgian Africa 900,000
Turkish Africa 400,000
Independent Africa . 613,000
11,458,811
(J.S.K.)
VI. Exploration and Survey since 1875
In giving the history of the partition of the continent, the later
work of exploration, except where, as in the case of de.Brazza's
expeditions, it had direct political consequences, has of necessity
not been told. The results achieved during and after the period
of partition may now be indicated. Stanley's great journey down
the Congo in 187 5-1876 initiated a new era in African explora-
tion. The numbers of travellers soon became so great that the
once marvellous feat of crossing the continent from sea to sea
became common. With increased knowledge and much ampler
means of communication trans-African travel now presents few
difficulties. While d'Anville and other cartographers of the 18th
century, by omitting all that was uncertain, had left a great
blank on the map, the work accomplished since 1875 has filled it
with authentic topographical details. Moreover surveys of high
accuracy have been made at several points. As the work of
exploration and survey progressed journeys of startling novelty
became impossible — save in the eastern Sahara, where the
absence of water and boundless wastes of sand render exploration
more difficult, perhaps, than in any other region of the globe.
Within their respective spheres of influence each power undertook
detailed surveys, and the most solid of the latest accessions to
knowledge have resulted from the labours of hard-working
colonial officials toiling individually in obscurity. Their work it
is impossible here to recognize adequately; the following lines
record only the more obvious achievements.
The relations of the Congo basin to the neighbouring river
systems was brought out by the journeys of many travellers.
In 1877 an important expedition was sent out by the Portu-
guese government under Serpa Pinto, Brito Capello and Roberto
Ivens for the exploration of the interior of Angola.
y* 1 * * * The first named made his way by the head-streams of
Anfef* 10 the Rubango to the upper Zambezi , which he descended
to the Victoria Falls, proceeding thence to Pretoria
and Durban. Capello and Ivens confined their attention to the
south-west Congo basin, where they disproved the existence of
Lake Aquilunda, which had figured on the maps of that region
since the 16th century. In a later journey (1884- 1885) Capello and
Ivens crossed the continent from Mossamedes to the mouth of the
Zambezi, adding considerably to the knowledge of the border-
lands between the upper Congo and the upper Zambezi. More
important results were obtained by the German travellers Paul
Pngge and Hermann von Wissmann, who (1880-1882) passed
through previously unknown regions beyond Muata Yanvo's
kingdom, and reached the upper Congo at Nyangwe, whence
Wissmann made his way to the east coast In 1884-1885 a
German expedition under Wissmann solved the most important
geographical problem relating to the southern Congo basin by
descending the Kasai, the largest southern tributary, which, con-
trary to expectation, proved to unite with the Kwango and other
streams before joining the main river. Further additions to the
knowledge of the Congo tributaries were made at thesame time by
the Rev George Grenfell, a Baptist missionary, who (accompanied
in 1885 by K. von Francois) made several voyages in the steamer
" Peace," especially up the great Ubangi, ultimately proved to be
the lower course of the Welle, discovered in 1870 by Schweinfurth.
In East as in West Africa operations were suited by agents of
the Belgian committee, but with less success than on the Congo.
The first new journey of importance on this side was _
made (1878-1880) on behalf of the British African Ex- ^ "^*
ploration Committee by Joseph Thomson, who after the juttcm.
death of his leader, Keith Johnston, made his way from
the coast to the north end of Nyasa, thence to Tanganyika, 00
both sides of which he broke new ground, sighting the north end
of Lake Rukwa on the east In 1882-1884 the French naval
lieutenant Victor Giraud proceeded by the north of Nyasa to
Lake Bangweulu, of which he made the first fairly correct map.
North of the Zanzibar-Tanganyika route a large area of new ground
was opened in 1883-1884 by Joseph Thomson, who traversed
the whole length of the Masai country to Lake Baringo and
Victoria Nyanza, shedding the first clear light on the great East
African rift- valley and neighbouring highlands, including Mounts
Kenya and Elgon. A great advance in the region between
Victoria Nyanza and Abyssinia was made in 1887-1889 by the
Austrians, Count Samuel Teleki and Lieut Ludwig von H&hnei,
who discovered the large Basso Norok, now known as Lake
Rudolf, till then only vaguely indicated on the map as Samburu.
At this time Somaliland was being opened up by English and
Italian travellers. In 1883 the brothers F. L. and W. D. James
penetrated from Berbera to the Webi Shebeli; in 1892 Vittorio
Bottego (afterwards murdered in the Abyssinian highlands)
started from Berbera and reached the upper Juba, which he
explored to its source. The first person, however, to cross from
the Gulf of Aden to the Indian Ocean was an American,
A. Donaldson Smith, who in 1 894-1 805 explored the head-
streams of the Webi Shebeli and also explored the Omo, the
feeder of Lake Rudolf.
In the region north-west of Victoria Nyanza the greatest
additions to geographical knowledge were made by H. M. Stanley
in his last expedition, undertaken for the relief of Emin Pasha.
The expedition set out in 1887 by way of' the Congo to carry
supplies to the governor of the old Egyptian Equatorial province.
The route lay up the Aruwimi, the principal tributary of the
Congo from the north-east, by which the expedition made its way,
encountering immense difficulties, through the great equatorial
forest, the character and extent of which were thus for the first
time brought to light. The return was made to the east coast,
and resulted in the discovery of the great snowy range of Ruwen-
zori or Runsoro, and the confirmation of the existence of a third
Nile lake discharging its waters into the Albert Nyanza by the
Semliki river. A further discovery was that of a large bay,
hitherto unsuspected, forming the south-west corner of the
Victoria Nyanza.
Great activity was also displayed in completing the work
of earlier explorers in North and West Africa. Morocco was in
1883-1884 the scene of important explorations by r m
de Foucauld, a Frenchman who, disguised as a Jew, tt*m»im
crossed and re-crossed the Atlas and supplied the North ma*
first trustworthy infoVmation as to the orography of jjjt
many parts of the chain. In 1887-1889 Louis Gustave
Binger, a French officer, made a great journey through the countries
enclosed in the Niger bend, and in 1890-1892 Col. P. F. Monteil
went from St Louis to Say, on the Niger, thence through Sokoto
to Bornu and Lake Chad, whence he crossed the Sahara to
Tripoli. Meantime explorers had been busy in the region
between Lake Chad, the Gulf of Guinea and the Congo. The
Sanga, one of the principal northern tributaries of the Congo,
was reached from the north by Lieut. Louis Mizon, a French
naval officer, who drew the first line of communication between
the Benue and the Congo (1890-1892). In 1890 Paul Crampel,
who in the previous year had explored north of the Ogowe",
undertook a great expedition from the Ubangi to the Shan,
but was attacked and killed, with several of his companions, on
the borders of the Bagirmi. Several other expeditions followed,
and in 1896 Emile Gentil reached the Shari, launched a steamer
on its waters and pushed on to Lake Chad. Early in 1900 Lake
Chad was also reached by F. Fourcau, a French traveller, who
had already devoted twelve years to the exploration of the
EXPLORATION) AFRICA
Sahara and who on this occasion had crossed the desert from
Algeria and had reached the lake via Air and Zinder.
The last ten years of the 19th century also witnessed many
interesting expeditions in east Central Africa. In 1891 Emin
LMk0sm*4 Pa****! accompanied by Dr £ Stuhlmann, made his
moantata* way south of Victoria. Nyanza to the western Nile
•fEaas- lakes, visiting for the first time the southern and
^Jjjjj^ western shores of Albert Edward. Stuhlmann also
ascended the Ruwenzori range to a height of over
13,000 ft. In the same year Dr O. Baumann, who had already
done good work in Usambara, near the coast, started on a more
extended journey through the region of steppes between Kili-
manjaro and Victoria Nyanza, afterwards exploring the head-
streams of the Kagera, the ultimate sources of the Nile. In the
steppe region referred to he discovered two new lakes, Manyara
and Eiassi, occupying parts of the East African valley system.
This region was again traversed in 1803-1804 by Count von
Gdtzen, who continued his route westwards to Lake Kivu, north
of Tanganyika, which, though heard of by Speke over thirty years
before, had never yet been visited. He also reached for the first
time the line of volcanic peaks north of Kivu, one of which he
ascended, afterwards crossing the great equatorial forest by a
new route to the Congo and the west coast Valuable scientific
work was done in 1893 by Dr J. W. Gregory, who ascended
Mount Kenya to a height of 16,000 ft In 1893-1894 Scott
Elliot reached Ruwenzori by way of Uganda, returning by
Tanganyika and Nyasa, and in 1896 C. W. Hobley made the
circuit of the great mountain Elgon, north-east of Victoria
Nyanza. In 1899 Mount Kenya was ascended to its summit
by a party under H. J. Mackinder. The exploration of Mount
Kilimanjaro has been the special work of Dr Hans Meyer, who
first directed his attention to it in 1887.
The region south of Abyssinia proper and north of Lake
Rudolf, being largely the basin of the Sobat tributary of the Nile,
was traversed by several explorers, among whom may be men-
tioned Capt M. S. Wellby, who in 1898-1899 explored the chain
of small lakes in south-east Abyssinia, pushed on to Lake
Rudolf, and thence traversed hitherto unknown country to the
lower Sobat Donaldson Smith crossed from Berbera to the
Nile by Lake Rudolf in 1899-1900, and Major H. H. Austin com-
manded two survey parties between the Anglo-Egyptian Sudan
and Lake Rudolf during 1899-1901. Meantime in south Central
Africa the Barotse country had been partly made known by the
missionary F. Coillard, who settled there in 1884, while the
middle and upper Zambezi basin were scientifically explored
and mapped by Major A. St H. Gibbons and his assistants
in 1895-1896 and 1898-1900. In the same period, the Congo-
Zambezi watershed was traced by a Belgian officer, Capt. C.
Lemaire, who had ascended one of the upper tributaries of
theKasai.
In the early years of the 19th century the first recorded
crossing of Africa took place. That crossing and all subsequent
crossings had been made either from west to east or east to west
The first journey through the whole length of the continent
was accomplished in the two last years of the century when a
young Englishman, E. S. Grogan, starting from Cape Town
reached the Mediterranean by way of the Zambezi, the central
line of lakes and the Nile. Other travellers followed in Grogan's
footsteps, among the first, Major Gibbons.
Additions to topographical knowledge were made from about
1800 onwards by the international commissions which traced
the frontiers of the protectorates of the European
powers. On several occasions the labours of the
commissions disclosed errors of importance in the
maps upon which international agreements had been
based. Among those which yielded valuable results
were the Anglo-French commission which in 1903
traced the Nigerian frontier from the Niger to Lake
Chad, and the Anglo-German commission which in 1903-1904
fixed the Cameroon boundary between Yola, on the Benuc, and
Lake Chad. These expeditions and French surveys in the same
legion during 190 2- 1903 resul ted in the discovery that Lake Chad
353
Wort at
had greatly decreased in area since the middle of the 19th
century. In 1003 a French officer, Capt E. Lenfant, succeeded
in establishing the fact of a connexion between the Niger and
Chad basins. Subsequently Lenfant explored the western
basin of the Shari, determining (1907) the true upper branch
of that river.
In East Africa a German-Congolese commission surveyed
( 1 001-100 a) Lake Kivu and the volcanic region north of the
lake, R. Kandt making a special study of Kivu and the
Kagera sources, while the Anglo-German boundary commission of
1 00 2-1004 surveyed the valley of the lower Kagera, and fixed the
exact position of Albeit Edward Nyanza. Much new information
concerning the border-lands of British East Africa and Abyssinia
between Lake Rudolf and the lower Juba was obtained by the
survey executed in iooa-1903 by a British officer, Captain P.
Maud.
While political requirements led to the exact determination
of frontiers, administrative needs forced the governments
concerned to take in hand the survey of the countries under
their protection. Before the close of the first decade of the
20th century tolerably accurate maps had been made of the
German colonies, of a considerable part of West Africa, the
Algerian Sahara and the Anglo-Egyptian Sudan, mainly by
military officers. A British naval officer, Commander B.
Whitehouse, mapped the entire coast-line of Victoria Nyanza.
Government and railway surveys apart, the chief points of
interest for explorers during 1904- 1906 were the Ruwenzori range
and the connexion of the basin of Lake Chad with the Niger and
Congo systems. Lieut Boyd Alexander was the leader of a
party which during the years named surveyed Lake Chad and a
considerable part of eastern Nigeria, returning to England via
the Shari, the Ubangi and the Nile. Two members of the party,
Capt Claud Alexander and Capt G. B. Gosling, died during the
expedition. The Ruwenzori Mountains proved a great source
of attraction. Sir H. H. Johnston had in 1900 ascended beyond
the snow-line to 14,800 ft; in 1903 Dr J. J. David had reached
from the west to a height he believed to exceed 16,000 ft.; and
in the same year Capt T. T. Behrens, of the Anglo-German
Uganda boundary commission, fixed the highest summit at
16,619 ft During 1004-1906 some half-dozen expeditions were
at work in the region. That of the duke of the Abruzzi was the
most successful. In the summer of 1906 the duke or members
of his party climbed all the highest peaks, none of which reaches
17,000 ft, and determined the main lines of the watershed.
Major Powell-Cotton, a British officer who had previously done
good work in Abyssinia and British East Africa, spent 1905-
2906 in a detailed examination of the Lado enclave and the
country west of Ruwenzori and Albert and Albert Edward lakes.
This expedition was specially fruitful in additions to zoological
knowledge.
Archaeological research, stimulated by the reports of Thomas
Shaw, British consular chaplain at Algiers in 1719-1731, by James
Brace's exploration, 1765- 1767, of the ruins in Barbary, and by
the French conquest of Egypt in 1798, has been systematically
carried out in North Africa since the middle of the 19th century
(see Egypt and Africa, Rohan). In South Africa the first
thorough examination of the ruins in Rhodesia was made in
1905, when Randall-Maclver demonstrated that the great
Zimbabwe and similar buildings were of medieval or post-
medieval origin. (F. R. C.)
VII. Social and Economic Conditions
The eagerness with which the nations of western Europe
partitioned Africa between them was due, as has been seen, more
to the necessities of commerce than to mere land hunger. Yet,
except in the north and south temperate regions, the commercial
intercourse of the continent with the rest of the world had been
until the closing years of the 19th century of insignificant pro-
portions. In addition to slaves, furnished by the continent from
the earliest times, a certain amount of gold and ivory was ex-
ported from the tropical regions, but no other product supplied
the material for a flourishing trade with those parts. To their
35+
AFRICA
(ECONOMICS
Asiatic and European invaders the Africans indeed owed many
creature comforts— the introduction of maize, rice, the sugar
cane, the orange, the lemon and the lime, cloves, tobacco and
many other vegetable products, the camel, the horse and other
animals— but invaluable to Africa as were* these gifts they led
to little development of commerce. The continent continued
in virtual isolation from the great trade movements of the
world, an isolation due not so much to its poverty in
JjJJJJJf natural resources, as to the special circumstances which
likewise caused so large a part of the continent to
remain so long a terra incognita. The principal drawbacks may
be summarized as: (i) the absence of means of communication
with the interior; (2) the unhealthiness of the coast-lands; (3)
the small productive activity of the natives; (4) the effects of the
slave trade in discouraging legitimate commerce. None of these
causes is necessarily permanent, that most difficult to remove
being the third; the negro races finding the means of existence
easy have little incentive to toil. The first drawback has almost
disappeared, and the building of railways and the placing of
steamers on the rivers and lakes— a work continually progressing
— renders it year by year easier for producer and consumer to
come together. As to the second drawback, while the coast-lands
in the tropics will always remain comparatively unhealthy,
improved sanitation and the destruction of the malarial mosquito
have rendered tolerable to Europeans regions formerly notorious
for their deadly climate.
At various periods since the partition of the continent began,
united action has been taken by the powers of Europe in the
interests of African trade. The Berlin conference of 1884-1885
decreed freedom of navigation and trade on the Congo and the
Niger, and the Anglo-Portuguese treaty of 1801 secured like
privileges for the Zambezi. The Berlin conference likewise
enacted that over a wide area of Central Africa — the conventional
basin of the Congo— there should be complete freedom of trade, a
freedom which later on was held to be infringed in the Congo
State and French Congo by the granting to various companies
proprietary rights in the disposal of the product of the soil. More
important in their effect on the economic condition of the con-
tinent than the steps taken to ensure freedom of trade were the
measures concerted by the powers for the suppression of the slave
trade. The British government had for long borne the greater
part of the burden of combating the slave trade on the east coast
of Africa and in the Indian Ocean, but the changed conditions
which resulted from the appearance of other European powers in
Africa induced Lord Salisbury, then foreign secretary, to address,
in the autumn of 1888, an invitation to the king of the Belgians
to take the initiative in inviting a conference of the powers at
Brussels to concert measures for " the gradual suppression of the
SvpAiw sIave tradc on tIie cont > nent °f Africa, and. the im-
ttoaot mediate closing of all the external markets which it
thfimv still supplies." The conference assembled in November
***** 1889, and on the 2nd of July 1800 a general act was
signed subject to the ratification of the various governments
represented, ratification taking place subsequently at different
dates, and in the case of France with certain reservations. The
general act began with a declaration of the means which the
powers were of opinion might be most effectually adopted for
" putting an end to the crimes and devastations engendered by
the traffic in African slaves, protecting effectively the aboriginal
populations of Africa, and ensuring for that vast continent the
benefits of peace and civilization." It proceeded to lay down
certain rules and regulations of a practical character on the lines
suggested. The act covers a wide field, and includes no fewer
than a hundred separate articles. It established a zone "between
the 20th parallel of north latitude, and the 22nd parallel of south
latitude, and extending westward to the Atlantic and eastward
to the Indian Ocean and its dependencies, comprising the islands
adjacent to the coast as far as 100 nautical miles from the shore,"
within which the importation of firearms and ammunition was
forbidden except in certain specified cases, and within which also
the powers undertook either to prohibit altogether the importa-
tion and manufacture of spirituous liquors, or to impose duties
not below an agreed-on minimum.* An elaborate series of rules
was framed for the prevention of the transit of slaves by sea, the
conditions on which European powers were to grant to natives
the right to fly the flag of the protecting power, and regulating the
procedure connected with the right of search on vessels flying a
foreign flag. The Brussels Act was in effect a joint declaration
by the signatory powers of their joint and several responsibility
towards the African native, and notwithstanding the fact that
many of its articles have proved difficult, if not impossible, of
enforcement, the solemn engagement taken by Europe in the face
of the world has undoubtedly exercised a material influence on
the action of several of the powers. Moreover,' with the increase
of means of communication and the extension of effective
European control, slave-raiding in the interior was largelychecked
and inter-tribal wars prevented, the natives being thus given
security in the pursuit of trade and agriculture.
Other important factors in the economic as well as the social
conditions of Africa are the advance in civilization made by the
natives in several regions and the increase of the areas found
suitable for white colonization. The advance in civilization
among the natives, exemplified by the granting to them of
political rights in such countries as Algeria and Cape Colony,
leads directly to increased commercial activity; and commerce
increases in a much greater degree when new countries— 1.%.
Rhodesia and British East Africa— become the homes of Euro-
peans. Finally, in reviewing the chief factors which govern the
commercial development of the continent, note must be taken of
the sparsity of the population over the greater part of Africa, and
the efforts made to supplement the insufficient and often in-
effective native labour by the introduction of Asiatic labourers
in various districts— of Indian coolies in Natal and elsewhere, and
of Chinese for the gold mines of the Transvaal.
The resources of Africa may be considered under the head of:
(1) jungle products; (2) cultivated products; (3) animal pro-
ducts; (4) minerals. Of the first named the most
important are india-rubber and palm-oil, which in *j£tmsm*
tropical Africa supply by far the largest items in the nManMl
export list. The rubber-producing plants are found
throughout the whole tropical belt, and the most important are
creepers of the order Apocynaceac, especially various species of
Landolphia (with which genus Vahea is now united). In East
Africa Landolphia kirkii (Dyer) supplies the largest amount,
though various other species are known. Forms of apparently
wider distribution are L. hendelotii, which is found in the Bahr-el-
Ghazal, and extends right across the continent to Senegambia;
and L. (formerly Vahea) comorensis, which, including its variety
L.florida, has the widest distribution of all the species, occurring
in Upper and Lower Guinea, the whole of Central Africa, the
east coast, the Comoro Islands and Madagascar. In parts of
East Africa Clitandra orientalis is a valuable rubber vine. In
Lagos and elsewhere rubber is produced by the apocynaceous
tree, Funtumia clastica, and in West Africa generally by various
species of Ficus, some species of which are also found in East
Africa. The rubber produced is somewhat inferior to that of
South America, but this is largely due to careless methods of
preparation. The great destruction of vines brought about by
native methods of collection much reduced the supply in some
districts, and rendered it necessary to take steps to preserve and
cultivate the rubber-yielding plants. This has been done in
many districts with usually encouraging results. Experiments
have been made in the introduction of South American rubber
plants, but opinions differ as to the prospects of success, as the
plants in question seem to demand very definite conditions of
soil and climate. The second product, palm-oil, is derived from
a much more limited area than rubber, for although the oil palm
is found throughout the greater part of West Africa, from io° N.
to io° S., the great bulk of the export comes from the coast
districts at the head of the Gulf of Guinea. A larger supply,
1 Further conferences respecting the liquor traffic in Africa were
held in Brussels in 1899 and 1900. In both instances conventions
were signed by the powers, raising the minimum duty on imported
spirituous liquors.
economics] AFRICA
equal to any market demand, could easily be obtained. A third
valuable product is the timber supplied by the forest regions,
principally m West Africa. It includes African teak or oak
(OldJUldia africona), excellent for shipbuilding; the durable
odum of the Gold Coast (Chtorophora excelsa); African mahogany
{Kkaya senegalensis); ebony {Diospyros ebenum); camwood
{Bap kit nitida); and many other ornamental and dye woods.
The timber industry on the west coast was long neglected, but
since 1898 there have been large exports to Europe. In parts of
East Africa the Pilocarpus miianjianus, a conifer, is economically
Important Valuable timber grows too in South Africa, including
the yellow wood (Podocarpus), stink wood (OcoUa), sneezewood or
Cape ebony (Eucleo) and ironwood.
Other vegetable products of importance are: Gum arable,
obtained from various species of acacia (especially A. Senegal),
the chief supplies of which are obtained from Senegambia and the
steppe regions of North Africa (Kordofan, &c); gum copal, a
valuable resin produced by trees of the leguminous order, the
best, known as Zanzibar or Mozambique copal, coming from the
East African Trackylobium kornenannianum, and also found in
a fossil state under the soil; kola nuts, produced chiefly in the
coast-lands of Upper Guinea by a tree of the order Sterculiaceae
{Kola acuminata) ; archil or orchilla, a dye-yielding lichen
{Rocella tincioria and triciformis) growing on trees and rocks in
East Africa, the Congo basin, &c; cork, the bark of the cork oak,
which flourishes in Algeria; and alfa, a grass used in paper manu-
facture {Mackrockloa lenocissima), growing in great abundance
on the dry steppes of Algeria, Tripoli, &c. A product to which
attention has been paid in Angola is the Almeidina gum or resin,
derived from the juice of Euphorbia tirucatti.
The cultivated products include those of the tropical and
warm temperate zones. Of the former, coffee is perhaps the
most valuable indigenous plant. It grows wild in many parts,
the home of one species being in Kaffa and other Galla countries
south of Abyssinia, and of another in Liberia. The Abyssinian
coffee is equal to the best produced in any other part of the world.
Cultivation is, however, necessary to ensure the best results,
and attention has been given to this in various European colonies.
Plantations have been established in Angola, Nyasaland, German
East Africa, Cameroon, the Congo Free State, &c.
Copra, the produce of the cocoa-nut palm, is supplied chiefly
by Zanzibar and neighbouring parts of the east coast. Ground-
nuts, produced by the leguminous plant, Arachis hypogaea, are
grown chiefly in West Africa, and the largest export is from
Senegal and the Gambia; while Bambarra ground-nuts (Voand-
teia subierranea) are very generally cultivated from Guinea to
Natal. Cloves are extensively grown on Zanzibar and Pemba
islands, Pemba being the chief source of the world's supply of
doves. The chief drawbacks to the industry are the fluctuations
of the yield of the trees, and the risk of over-production in good
Cotton grows wOd in many parts of tropical Africa, and is
exported in small quantities in the raw state; but the main
export is from Egypt, which comes third among the world's
sources of supply of the article. It is also cultivated in West
Africa— the industry in the Guinea coast colonies having been
developed since the beginning of the aoth century— and in the
Anglo-Egyptian Sudan, whence came the plants from which
Egyptian cotton is grown. Sugar, which is the staple crop of
Mauritius, and in a lesser degree of Reunion, is also produced in
Natal, Egypt, and, to a certain extent, in Mozambique. Dates
are grown in Tunisia and the Saharan oases, especially Ta filet;
maize in Egypt, South Africa and parts of the tropical zone;
wheat in Egypt, Algeria and the higher regions of Abyssinia;
rice in Madagascar. Wine is largely exported from Algeria,
and in a much smaller quantity from Cape Colony; fruit and
vegetables from Algeria. Tobacco is widely grown on a small
scale, but, except perhaps from Algeria, has not become an
important article of export, though plantations have been
established in various tropical colonies. The cultivation of
cocoa has proved successful in the Gold Coast, Cameroon and
other colonies, and in various districts the tea plant is cultivated.
355
Indigo, though not originally an African product, has become
naturalized and grows wild in many parts, while it is also culti-
vated on a small scale. The main difficulty in the way of tropical
cultivation is the labour question, which has already been
referred to.
Of animal products one of the most important is ivory, the
largest export of which is from the Congo Free State. The
diminution in the number of elephants with the opening up of
the remoter districts must in time cause a falling-off in this
export Beeswax is obtained from various parts of the interior
of West Africa, and from Madagascar. Raw hides are exported
in large quantities from South Africa, as are also the wool and
hair of the merino sheep and Angora goat. Both hides and wool
are also exported from Algeria and Morocco, and hides from
Abyssinia and Somaliland. Ostrich feathers are produced
chiefly by the ostrich farms of Cape Colony, but some are also
obtained from the steppes to the north of the Central Sudan.
Live stock, principally sheep, is exported from Algeria and cattle
from Morocco.
The exploited minerals of Africa are confined to a few districts,
the resources of the continent in this respect being largely
undeveloped* Since the discovery of gold in the
Transvaal, particularly in the district known as the
Rand (1885), the output has grown enormously, so
that In 1898 the output of gold from South Africa was greater
than from any other gold-field in the world. The Anglo-Boer
War of 1899-1902 lost the Rand the leading position, but by
1905 the output— in that year over £20,800,000— was greater
than it had ever been. The supply of gold from South Africa
is roughly 25% of the world's output. The gold-yielding
formations extend northwards through Rhodesia. The Gold
Coast is so named from the quantity of gold obtained there, and
since the dose of the 19th century the industry has developed
largely in the hands of Europeans. In the Galla countries gold
has long been an article of native commerce. It is also found
in various parts of the Anglo-Egyptian Sudan and along the
western shore of the Red Sea. Diamonds are found in large
quantities in a series of beds known as the Kimberley shales,
the principal mines being at Kimberley, Cape Colony. Diamonds
are also found in Orange River Colony, while one of the richest
diamond mines in the world— the Premier— is situated in
the Transvaal near Pretoria. Some 80% of the world's pro-
duction of diamonds comes from South Africa. Copper is found
in the west of Cape Colony, in German South- West Africa, and
in the Katanga country in the southern Congo basin, where vast
beds of copper ore exist. There are also extensive deposits of
copper in the Broken Hill district of Northern Rhodesia. It
also occurs in Morocco, Algeria, the Bahr-el-Ghazal, &c. Rich
tin deposits have been found in the southern Congo basin and
in Northern Rhodesia. Iron is found in Morocco, Algeria
(whence there is an export trade), and is widely diffused, and
worked by the natives, in the tropical zone. But the deposits
are generally not rich. Coal is worked, principally for home con-
sumption, in Cape Colony, Natal, the Transvaal, Orange River
Colony, and in Rhodesia in the neighbourhood of the Zambezi.
Coal deposits also exist in the German territory north of Lake
Nyasa. Phosphates are exported from Algeria and Tunisia.
Of other minerals which occur, but are little worked, zinc, lead
and antimony are found in Algeria, lead and manganese in Cape
Colony, plumbago in Sierra Leone.
The imports from foreign countries into Africa consist chiefly
of manufactured goods, varying in character according to the
development of the different countries in civilization. In
Egypt, Algeria and South Africa they include most of the
necessaries and luxuries of civilized life, manufactured cotton
and woollen goods, especially the former, taking the first place,
but various food stuffs, metal goods, coal and miscellaneous
articles being also included. In tropical Africa, and generally
where few Europeans have settled, the great bulk of the imports
consists as a rule of cotton goods, articles for which there is a
constant native demand.
No continent has in the past been so lacking in means of
356
AFRICA
(COMMUNICATIONS
mtatof
communication as Africa, and it was only in the last decade
of the 19th century that decided steps were taken to
remedy these defects. The African rivers, with the
exception of the middle Congo and its affluents, and
the middle course of the three other chief rivers, are
generally unfavourable to navigation, and throughout
the tropical region almost the sole routes have been native foot-
paths, admitting the passage of a single file of porters, on whose
heads all goods have been carried from place to place. Certain
of these native trade routes are, however, much frequented,
and lead for hundreds of miles from the coast to the interior.
In the desert regions of the north transport is by caravans of
camels, and in the south ox-wagons, before the advent of
railways, supplied the general means of locomotion. The native
trade routes led generally from the centres of greatest population
or production to the seaports by the nearest route, but to this
rule there was a striking exception. The dense forests of Upper
Guinea and the upper Congo proved a barrier which kept the
peoples of the Sudan from direct access to the sea, and from
Timbuktu to Darfur the great trade routes were either west to
east or south to north across the Sahara. The principal caravan
routes across the desert lead from different points in Morocco
and Algeria to Timbuktu; from Tripoli to Timbuktu, Kano
and other great marts of the western and central Sudan; from
Bengazi to Wadai; and from Assiut on the Kile through the
Great Oasis and the Libyan desert to Darfur. South of the
equator the principal long-established routes are those from
Loanda to the Lunda and Baluba countries; from Benguella via
Bihe" to Urua and the upper Zambezi; from Mossamedcs across
the Kunene to the upper Zambezi; and from Bagamoyo, opposite
Zanzibar, to Tanganyika. Many of the native routes have been
superseded by the improved communications introduced by
Europeans in the utilization of waterways and the construction
of roads and railways. Steamers have been conveyed overland
in sections and launched on the interior waterways above the
obstructions to navigation. On the upper Nile and Albert
Nyanza their introduction was due to Sir S. Baker and General
C. G. Gordon (1871-1876); on the middle Congo and its affluents
to Sir H. M. Stanley and the officials of the Congo Free State,
as well as to the Baptist missionaries on the river; and on Lake
Nyasa to the supporters of the Scottish mission. A small vessel
was launched on Victoria Nyanza in 1806 by a British mercantile
firm, and a British government steamer made its first trip in
November 1900. On the other great lakes and on most of the
navigable rivers steamers were plying regularly before the close
of the 19th century. However, the shallowness of the water in
the Niger and Zambezi renders their navigation possible only
to light-draught steamers. Roads suitable for wheeled traffic
are few. The first attempt at road-making in Central Africa
on a large scale was that of Sir T. Fowell Buxton and Mr (after-
wards Sir W.) Mackinnon, who completed the first section of a
track leading into the interior from Dar-es- Salaam (1879). A
still more important undertaking was the " Stevenson road,"
begun in 1881 from the head of Lake Nyasa to the south end of
Tanganyika, and constructed mainly at the expense of Mr James
Stevenson, a director of the African Lakes Company— a company
which helped materially in the opening up of Nyasaland. The
Stevenson road forms a link in the "Lakes route" into the
heart of the continent. In British East Africa a road connecting
Mombasa with Victoria Nyanza was completed in 1897, but has
since been in great measure superseded by the railway. Good
roads have also been made in German East Africa and Cameroon
and in Madagascar.
Railways, the chief means of affording easy access to the
interior of the continent, were for many years after their first
introduction to Africa almost entirely confined to the extreme
north and south (Egypt, Algeria, Cape Colony and Natal).
Apart from short lines in Senegal, Angola and at Lourenco
Marques, the rest of the continent was in 1800 without a railway
system. In Egypt the Alexandria and Cairo railway dates from
1855, while in 1877 the lines open reached about 1100 miles,
and in 1890, in addition to the lines traversing the delta, the
Nile had been ascended to Assiut. In Algeria the construction
of an inter-provincial railway was decreed in 1857, but was still
incomplete twenty years later, when the total length of the lines
open hardly exceeded 300 miles. Before 1890 an extension to
Tunis had been opened, while the plateau had been crossed by
the lines to Ain Sefra in the west and Biskra in the east. In
Senegal the railway from Dakar to St Louis had been commenced
and completed during the 'eighties, while the first section of the
Senegal-Niger railway, that from Kayes to Bafulabe, was also
constructed during the same decade. In Cape Colony, where
in about 1880 the railways were limited to the neighbourhood
of Cape Town, Port Elizabeth and East London, the next
decade saw the completion of the trunk-line from Cape Town to
Kimberley,. with a junction at De Aar with that from Port
Elizabeth. The northern frontier had, however, nowhere been
crossed. In Natal, also, the main line had not advanced beyond
Ladysmith. The settlement, c. x8oo, of the main lines of the
partition of the continent was followed by many projects for
the opening up of the possessions and spheres of influence of
the various powers by the building of railways; several of these
schemes being carried through in a comparatively short time.
The building of railways was undertaken by the governments
concerned, nearly all the African lines being state-owned. In
the Congo Free State a railway, which took some ten years to
build, connecting the navigable waters of the lower and middle
Congo, was completed in 1898, while in 1906 the middle and upper
courses of the river were linked by the opening of a line past
Stanley Falls. Thus the vast basin of the Congo was rendered
easily accessible to commercial enterprise. In North Africa
the Algerian and Tunisian railways were largely extended, and
proposals were made for a great trunk-line from Tangier to
Alexandria. The railway from Ain Sefra was continued south-
ward towards Tuat, the project of a trans-Saharan line having
occupied the attention of French engineers since 1 880. In French
West Africa railway communication between the upper Senegal
and the upper Niger was completed in 1004; from the Guinea
coast at Konakry another line runs north-east to the upper
Niger, while from Dahomey a third line goes to the Niger at Gam.
In the British colonies on the same coast the building of railways
was begun in 1806. A line to Kumasi was completed in 1903,
and the line from Lagos to the lower Niger had reached Illorin in
1008. Thence the railway was continued to the Niger at Jebba.
From Baro, a port on the lower Niger which can be reached by
steamers all the year round, another railway, begun in 1007, goes
via Bida, Zungeru and Zaria to Kano, a total distance of 400
miles. A line from Jebba to Zungeru affords connexion with
the Lagos railway.
But the greatest development of the railway systems was in
the south and east of the continent. In British East Africa a
survey for a railway from Mombasa to Victoria Nyanza was
made in 1893. The first rails were laid in 1896 and the line
reached the lake in December 1901. Meanwhile, there had been
a great extension of railways in South Africa. Lines from Cape
Town, Port Elizabeth, East London, Durban and Dclagoa Bay
all converged on the newly risen city of Johannesburg, the centre
of the Rand gold mines. A more ambitious project was that
identified with the name of Cecil Rhodes, namely, the extension
northward of the railway from Kimbcrley with the object of
effecting a continuous railway connexion from Cape Town to
Cairo. The line from Kimberley reached Bulawayo in 1897.
(Bulawayo is also reached from Beira on the east coast by
another line, completed in 1002, which goes through Portuguese
territory and Mashonaland.) The extension of the line north-
ward from Bulawayo was begun in 1809, the Zambezi being
bridged, immediately below the Victoria Falls, in 1905. From
this point the railway goes north to the Katanga district of the
Congo State. In the north of the continent a step towards the
completion of the Cape to Cairo route was taken in the opening
in 1809 of the railway from Wadi Haifa to Khartum. A line
of greater economic importance than the last named is the
railway (completed in 1005) from Port Sudan on the Red Sea
to the Nile a little south of Berber, thus placing the Anglo-
BIBLIOGRAPHY]
AFRICA
357
Egyptian Sudan within easy reach of the markets of the world
A west to east connexion across the continent by rail and a Learner,
from the mouth of the Congo to Pari Sudan, was arranged in
iqo6 when an agreement was entered into by the Congo and
Sudan governments for the building of a railway from Lado, on
the Nile, to the Congo frontier, there to tnect a railway slatting
from the river Congo neai Stanley Falls. A railway of consul ar-
able importance is that from Jibuti in the Gujf of Aden to Harrar,
giving access to the markets of southern Abyssinia.
Besides the railways mentioned there arc several others of
less importance Lines run from Loanda and 01 her port* of
Angola towards the Congo Stale frontier, and from Tanga and
Da r-es- Salaam on the coast of German East Africa towards the
grcit lakes. In British Central Africa a railway connects Lake
Nyosa with the navigable waters of the Shire, and various Noes
have been built by the French in Madagascar
All the main railways in South Africa, the lines in British
West Africa, in the Anglo- Egyptian Sudan and in Egypt south
of Luxor are of 3 ft. 6 in. gauge. The maj n lines m Lower Egypt
and in Algeria and Tunisia are of 4 ft * J in. gauge, Elsewhere
as in French West and British East Africa the lines are of metre
(j 28 ft.) gauge.
The telegraphic system of Africa is on the whole older than
that of the railways, the newer European possessions having in
most cases been provided with telrgraph lines before railway
projects had been set on foot In Algeria, Egypt and Ope
Colony the systems date back to the middle of the inth century,
before the end of which the lines had in each country reached
some thousands of miles. In tropical Africa the systems of
French West Africa, where the line from Dakar to St Louis was
begun in 1862, were the first to be fuUy developed, tines having
been carried from different points on the coast of Senegal and
Guinea towards the Niger, the main line being prolonged north-
west to Timbuktu, and west and south to the coast of Dahomey.
The route for a telegraph line to connect Timbuktu with Algeria
was surveyed in 1005. The Congo region is furnished with
several telegraphic systems, the longest going from the mouth
of the river to Lake Tanganyika, From Ujiji on the cast coast
of that lake there is telegraphic communication via Tabora with
Dar-es-Salaam and via Nyasa and Rhodesia with Cape Town,
The last-named line is the longest Link in the trans-continental
line first suggested in 1870 hy Sir (then Mr) Edwin Arnold and
afterwards taken up by Cecil Rhodes. The northern Link from
Egypt to Khartum has been continued southward to Uganch,
while another line connects Uganda with Mombasa, At the
principal seaports the inland systems are connected with s Lib-
marine cables which place Africa in telegraphic communication
with the rest of the world
Numerous steamship lines run from Great Britain, Germany,
France and other countries to the Aid can seaports, the journey
from any place in western Europe to any port on the African
coast occupying, by the shortest route, not more than three
weeks. (E. Ha,, F R. C)
Bibliography. — Authoritative works dealing with Africa a§ a
whole in any of its aspects are comparatively ran, Besides such
voi uines the following list includes therefore books containing
valuable information concerning large or typical section* of the
continent : —
t I. General Descriptions.— fa) Ancient and Medieval. Herodo-
tus, ed. G. Rawlinson, 4 vol*. 1 (i&£o)l Ptolemy's Geograpkut, ed.
C. Muller, vol. i. (Paris, 1W3- IOOI ) ; Ibn Haulcal, ' Description de
1'Africjue " (transl. McG. de Stare), Nowv. Journal ajuwqne, 1845;
Edrisi, " Geographic " (transl. Jaubcreh Btc. deroyages ♦ ♦ ♦ Sot< de
Geogr. vol. v. (Paris, 1836} ; Abulfeda, Giographie (transl. Rcinaud
and Guyard, Paris, l84»-l&83): M. A. P. dAvezae, Description de
FAfnque ancienne (Pans. 1845}; L. de Marmol, Description general
de Africa (Granada, 1573): L. Sanuto, Gcopafia delf Africa {Venice,
15S8); F Pigafetta, / Report of the Kingdom of Congo, eVc. Ci597> ►
Leo African us. The History and Description of Africa ^tran&L j . Pory,
ed. R. Brown), 3 vols. (1896); O- Dapper, Naukeurtgt beschri/^nge
ier afnkaenscke gewesten, frc. ( Ajn a terda m, t66Bl Ulso English
version by OjpTvy, 1670, and Frrrt-h vi.-rwm. Amsterdam, ioHf>);
B. Telle*. "Travels of the Jesuit 1 in Ethiopia/' A A' no Collection
of Voyages. voL vii. (1710); G- A- Cavajmla Montecuccolo. IstorUa
• Where no place of publication is given, London it to be under-
stood.
Geographical and Commercial View of Northern and C
(Edinburgh, i8j 1) , Idem, Geographical Snney of Afri&i
Codley, Inner Ajrua laid open (1H5JJL E. Rcclus 4
Ike Afrmin Society,
; MiUrdungfjt der
DeicriUiane de tre Regm Ctm C o. MaUsmba, d Angola (Milan. 1600)
(account of the labour* of the Capuchin missionaries and thedi
ubtervations on the country and pvnptej , J Bajbot, " Description
at 1 he Coasts of North and Souih Cmnen and a( Ethiopia Inferior/ 1
Churchill's Voyages, vol. v, ti?QJ\ t W Bosnian, A New . .
Deuribtton of the CiM.it f of Guinea, &€^ and ed (17*1 >. J B- Labat*
SottOflie rrtetui* de I'Afrtoue ocxidentale, 5 volt, (Pari*. 1 7 Jfl ) ; Idem,
Rctalmn kutirrtqve de t'Elhiopte ou tdentaie } 5 vols. (Pari*, 17)2),
(M Modern- tf d'Anville, htemcite com. Us r meres de t' inter ieur
de i'Afrujue <P«ri*. n-dj. M V«llkummer, Die Quetten B 4 A nmlte 1
fur mine kntuche Karte mji Affika ( Munich, 1904) ; C Ruit-t , Uie
Erdtunde, 1. Thcil, 1 Buch h M Afnka "(Herlin, i»jj}, J M'^*,rn,
Geographical and Commercial View of ftartMern and Central A/rua
'^/Mtu(THinhW O
ccIuSh NowrUr tto*
gtapkie bHitrtiflle, vols. KHfuL {iS^S-iSSfl). A. H. Keauc, AJriea
(in Stanford" i Compendium), 1 vol* . lad ed. ( 1001-1007 J; F llabn
and W. Sic vers, Afrtka, 1. Auil (Leipzig, 1001): M. Fallei and
A. Mairey t L'Afrvme au debus Ju A .V* lOcie (Paris. 1006) j Sir C P,
Lucas, Historical i*e<irr if phY ,<f ike ttrttnh Coloniei, vols, iii. ami iv.
lOnfurd, tfto4. i 1 ^-*); F D. and A, J* Herbert son, Descriptive
Geographies f tom Oneituii Ammr Af'kaUq*t*t- Br%itskAfrua\The
Hrituh Emfntf Srriei, \>A. i\ ., i>Uw>, Jonrnoi of &- *
Comitf de VAfruiue francaiie. ftuJlstin. Pans;
ofnfan CeseMnhofi in Peuischlond (Jleriin, 1879- 1BA0,); hftiUi-
inngen . aui dm deulithen Jichutn-gebieten (Dcrlin); H Schirmcf*
L* Sahara {Paris, 1 80 J); Marv II Kmgsley, West African Studies,
md ed. (lOOlJ^ J Dryer, fmprruums of South Africa (I&97).
Sir Harry Johnson, Th* lg,mda Prtitettotaie r 1 vds. (ioojJ (vat ti. is
devoteij tuan|hropoli-k|ry) : E, D. Morel, Ajfein of West Aftmawwi)
% IE Gtwerapk? {Physical}, Geahey. Climate, Flora 4*d Fauna,—
(Fr>r Drsfripiive Geogt. sc* $ L)—C. Curicb, " UberWick iihrt den
grulng- Wiit des afr. Kontineni*/" Fcterm, Mitt,. 1^87; A, Knox,
Noks on the Geology of the Continent of Afrktt (1006 J (includes a
bilili,'p.-raphy); L, von Tlohn^l, A. Rosiwal, F. Toula and E r Suess*
flnirtitc car gcaLttuckm Kennlmisi des 6 ftlichrn Afrtka (Vienna, 1 891 J J
E Stmmen Die Ceologie der deuUfhen Schutigebieten in Afnka
(Munich, 1896); J. Chatanne h Afrtka im Lifkte unserrr Ta%*t
Bodeneestait, e>c. (Vienna, 1^1); F. tlrtdrich, " Die miitlerr Hfibe
Afrikas" Peter m. hftfi, 1N88; J. W. Gnrgory, The Great RtfU
Valley (iftoe); H. C. Lyons, The Physiography of the River Nile
and its Bonn (Cairo, iyoo>; S. L'a^iragc- Die Kalahari: Versuch
if'nw phviiuhteogT. Daritcllung , , its sudafr. Beckens (Berlin,
[904); lili-m, " |rist-JLipr K bnd>chaf[en im tropiarnen Afrika," Natune.
H\x hen uhrift, 1^14. t^sfas: J, £. $* Moore. The Tanganyika
Prnblrm (iijcijli W. H. fl mile-ton, "On the Ongin of ihelViarine
(MaTnliiTink:) Fauna of Like Tanganyika/* Joutn, of Trans. Victoria
insL t 1904, Jito-JSt [di^icu^^s the whole question of I he geottigical
history of equatorial Africa) ! E. Siromer, ' 1st der Tanannyika rin
Keltkten-See?" Prtrrm At at, 1001, 375-278; E. KoMschtincr,
" Die . . . Artjeiten der Pcndclc* octillion ... in Deutseh-Os^-Afrika/'
Verh. Deuts. GeogTaphentaits Breiliiu. loot. 133-153; J Cornet.
h 'La geulogie du bav^in du Conen," BuU. Sac. Beige gtot., 189B;
E< G. Rjivenstein, "The Clim.noWy of Africa" (ten reports}.
Reports But. Association. i8gt-i<>al; Idem, " OimatoWical
Observe I inni . . . 1. Trripk^l Africa {1904); H. C. Lyons, H On
the Relations IfOlwi-en Variations of Atmospheric Pressure . . . and
the Nik Flood." Froc. Roy. Sac. Scr, A, voL LxavL, 1005. P.
Reicharrt, " Zut Frage der Ausfrocknung Afnkas," Geogr. Zeitschrift.
*8^5: J- Hoffmann, "' Die tiefsicn TrmpcmtLirrn aui den Hoch-
Undern," &C-, Peierm. Mitt., 19**5; C FrBunbcrgur, "Stodicn ulie^r
die jahrlichcn NH't+rrrwhLiKsnienficn des alrik. Knniinonts/' Peterm.
MtiL, 1906; IX Oliver and Sir W. T r Thiselton-Dyer^ Flora of
Tropical Africa, to vols* (ifl.^8-1906) I K, QnctiaU, Anordnung
der Vegetation in Afrik* (Erlan^en, 1900); A, Engler, Ilochgetttrgi-
fara des traptsthen Afnka (Berlin, iSoj); Idem, Die Pjltanzentoett
Ottofrikaj unJ der Nathbareebiete, 3 vols. (Berlin, I WW); Idem,
Brilrate tur Flora ran Afrtka (Engler's Botan. Johrbucher. 14
vols- Ac); W. P. Hiem. CaJ^cgae of the African Plants entire 1*4 by Dr
Friedruh Wehoituk r* !&5J-lS6t, J vols. fiftyo-iooO . R- ScHtechter,
WtiLsftikantsthe KauUrkuk-Hxpedttton (Bed Hi. 1 900 ). H |!.ium t
K n mnm^Samhasi- Expedition ( Ber 1 1 n, 1 om ) ( la rpr I y c« m r r net) wi 1 h
"" Geography of Mammals, No. iv,
botany); W. L. 5clater +
Ethiopian Region/' Geog, Journal, March 1896; H- A. ilryd
and others, L,reai and Small Game of Africa (1899); FC. Srloi
-j; E. Nh Bu
The
Journal, March t Sot-; H^ A^ Hryden
logs,
African Suture Notes and Reminiscences \1008} ; E.W< Buismn, Two
African Trips: with Notes and Suggestions on B^-Game Preservation
in Africa (iooj) (contains pbair^r^pha of li^inp? nnim.jk); G.
Schillings, With Ftash-hghtand Rifle m Equatorial FnstAfrua (loofi);
Idem, In Wildest Africa ( 1 907) (striking rd lection of phiitogmpb* of
living wild animals); Exploration uifTilijique de FAIgeric: Hutotre
naturcMe, 14 voK and 4 at la.*™, Paris (ifl4b-ifi5ci); Annates du
Musi* du Cone?: Bntomque, Zwfaeie (Dni^'ls, im^B. &c). The
latest results o? getT^raphiol research »rtd a biblingrapby of current
liierarufe are given In ihe Geograpkuai fournat, puMi*ried monthly
by the Royal Geographical Soeiriy.
I III. Ethnology-— H. Harimann, Die Volket Aftikai f Leipzig,
1870); B. Ank^rtn.inn, " Kirlturkreise in Afrika, " Z,ett. f. Etn.,
■ <i, mull, (j. «,4- Idem, J ' Obef *ii;n ^venwartigen Stand der Cthno-
graptue def SudMlfte Afrikaa," Artk.f. Anih. a.i. iv. p. J4;G.Ser. i.
35«
AFRICA, ROMAN
Autropologia delta stirpe camitica (Turin, 1897). J- Dcniker. " Dis-
tribution geogr et caractcres physiques des Pygmecs africains, La
Giographte, Parii, vol viii. pp. 213-220; G. w. Stow and G. M.
ThcaJ.TA* Native Races of South Africa (1905) K Barthcl. Volker-
beweguneen auf der Sudhhlfte des afrtk Konttnents (Leipzig. 1803).
A. B. Ellis, The Tsht-speaktng Peoples of the Cold Coast (1887) . Idem,
The Ewe-speaksne, Peoples of the Slave Coast (1800). Idem, The
Yoruba-speaking Peoples of the Slave Coast (1894). H. Line Roth,
Great Benin, its Customs, &c. (Halifax. 1903). H. Frobcmus, Die
Heiden-Negcr des agypttstken Sudan (Berlin, 1891). Herbert Spencer
and D Duncan, Descriptive Sociology, vol. iv. African Races (187s)
A. dc Prcvillc. Les Sociites afrtcaines (Pans. 1894), D Macdonald t
Africana, or, the Heart of Heathen Africa. 2 vols. (1882); L. Fro-
bcmus, Der Ur sprung der afrtkanuchen Kulturen (Der Ur sprung der
Kultur, Band i.j (Berlin. 1898); Idem. " Die Masken und Gehcim-
bundc Afrikas,' ' Abhandl. Kaiserl. Leopotdin. Carotin. Dents. Akad.
Naturforscher, 1899, 1-278; G Schweinfurth, Artes afneanae:
Illustrations and Descriptions of . industrial Arts, Gfc. (in German
and English) (Leipzig, 187$); F. Raucl, Die afrtkanischen Bogen
. . . eine anthrop.-rcographiuke Studie (L "
Der afrihanische PJeit (Leipzig, 1899). H ^
Bautypen (Dauchau bei Munchen, 1894), H. Schurtz, Die afnkan.
Gewerbe (Leipzig, 1900), E. W. Blyden. Christianity, Islam and the
Negro Race (1887); James Stewart. Dawn in the Dark Continent,
or Africa and its Missions (Edinburgh and London, 1903); W H. J.
Blcelc, Comparative Grammar of South African Languages, 2 parts
(1869-1869) ; Idem, Vocabularies of the Districts of Louremo Marques,
Cfc, fire. (1900) ; R. N. Oust, Sketch of the Modern Languages of Africa,
2 vols. (1883) ; F W. Kolbe, A Language Study based on Bantu
(1888); J. T. Last, Polyglotta Africana orientalu (1885) ; J. Torrend,
Comparative Grammar of the South African Bantu Languages (1891);
S. W. Koclle, Potygtotta Africana (1854); C Velten, Schilderungen
der Suakeli von Expeditionen v. Wissmanns, fire, fire. (1901) (narra-
tives taken down from the mouths of natives); A. Vierkandt,
VolksgedickU im westlichen Central- Afrika (Leipzig. 1893). For latest
information the following periodicals shoula be consulted: —
Journal of the Anthropological Institute of Great Britain and
Ireland; Man (same publishers); Zeitschrtft f. Ethnologic; Archxo
f. Anthropologic; L' Anthropologic.
ft IV. Archaeology and A rl.— Publications of the Egyptian Ex-
' ition Fund; A. Maricyc-Bcy, The Monuments of upper E
Egypt
ition Fund; A. Maricttc-Bcy t . ..
ch, Die Ajyptologie (Leipzig, 1891); G. Maspero,
ptienne (Pans, 1890/); R. Lcpsius, Denkmdleraus
topien .... 6 vols. (Berlin, 1840-1859); G. A.
. Travels in Ethiopia . . illustrating the Antiquities of the
Ancient Kingdom of Meroe (1835); Records of the Past: being
English Translations of . . . Egyptian Monuments, vols. 2, 4. 6, 8, 10,
12(1873-1881): Ditto, new scries. 6 vols. (1890-1892); D Randall-
Mac I ver and A. Wilkin, Libyan Notes (iqoi) (archaeology and
ethnology of North Africa); G. Boissicr, L Afrique romaine: Pro-
menades archeotogiqucs en Algtrie et en Tunisie, 2nd cd. (Paris, 1901) ;
D. Randall- Mac I vcr, Mediaeval Rhodesia (1906); Prisse d'Avcnnes,
Histoirt de I' art igyptien d'aprh les monuments, &c. with atlas (Paris,
1879); G. Perrot and C. Cnipiez. History of Art in Ancient Egypt.
2 vols. (1883); H. Wallis, Egyptian Ceramic Art (1900). C. H. Read
and O. M. Dal ton, Antiquities from the City of Benin and from other
Parts of West Africa (1899).
JV. Travel and Exploration.— Dean W. Vincent, The Commerce
Navigation of the Ancients, vol. 2, The Periplus of the Erythraean
Sea (1807) ; G. E. de Azurara. Chronicle of the Discovery and Conquest
of Guinea (Eng. trans., 2 vols.. 1896, 1899); R. H. Major, Life of
Prince Henry the Navigator (1868) , E G. Ravenstcin, " The Voyages
of Diogo Cao and Barth. Diaz,"Geogr Journ., Dec. iqoo;0. Hartig,
" Alters Entdeckiingsgeschichte und Kartographic Afrikas," Mitt.
Geogr. GeseUs. Wien, 1905; J Leyden and H. Murray. Historical
Account of Discoveries, &c, 2 vols., 2nd ed. (1818); T. E. Bowditch,
Account of the Discoveries of the Portuguese in the Interior of Angola
and Mozambique (1824); P. Paulitschkc, Die geogr. Forschung des
afrihan. Continents (Vienna. 1880); A. Supan, "bin Jahrhundcrt
der Afrika-Forschung," Peterm. Mitt., 1888, R. Brown, The Story of
Africa and Us Explorers, 4 vols. (1892-1895); Sir Harry Johnston,
The Nile Quest (1903) ; James Bruce, Travels to discover the Source of
the Nile in 1768-1773, 5 vols., Edinburgh (1790); Proceedings of the
Association for . . . Discovery of the Interior Parts of Africa, 1790-
18 10; Mungo Park, Travels into the Interior Districts of Africa
('799) ; Idem, Journal of a Mission, fife. (1815) ; Capt. J. K. Tuckey,
Narrative of an Expedition to explore the River Zaire or Congo in
1816 (1818); D. Denham and H Clapperton, Narrative of Travels
and Discoveries in N and Cent. Africa (1826) ; R. Caillic, Journal d'un
voyage & Temboctu et & Jenni, 3 vols.. Paris (1830) ; D. Livingstone.
Missionary Travels . . . in South Africa (1857); The Last Journals
of David Livingstone in Central Africa, ed. H. Waller (1874): H.
Barth. Travels and Discoveries in North and Central Africa, 5 vols.
0^57) ; J. L. Krapf. Travels, Researches, fire, m Eastern Africa
(i860) ; Sir R. F. Burton. The Lake Regions of Central Africa, 2 vols.
(i860) ; J. H. Speke. Journal of the Discovery of the Source of the Nile
(1863); Sir S. W. Baker. The Albert Nyanea, 2 vols. (1866); G.
Schweinfurth, The Heart of Africa, 2 vols. (1871); V. L. Cameron,
Across Africa, 2 vols. (1877) ; T. Baines. The Gold Regions of South'
Eastern Africa ( 1 877) . Sir H . M . Stanley. Through the Dark Continent,
2 vols. (1878); Idem, In Darkest Africa, 2 vols. (1800). G. Nachcsnl,
Sahara und Sudan, 3 vols. (Berlin, 1879-1889) . P. S. de Brazza. Us
Voyages de (1875-1882). Paris, 1884; J Thomson. Through
Masai Land (1885); H. von Wissmann. Unter Deutscher Flagga
quer dutch A frika, fife. (Berlin, 1889). Idem. My Second Journey
through Equatorial Africa (1801). W Junker, Travels in Africa
1875-1886. 3 vols. (1890-1892); L G. Binger, Du Niger au Gotfe
de Guinie. arc. (Paris, 1892); O. Baumann, Durch Masasland snr
Nilquetle (Berlin, 1894); R- Kandt, Caput NUi (Berlin, 1904): C A
von Gotzen, Durch Afrika von Ost nock West (Berlin, 1896) . L Vanu-
tclli and C Citerni, Seconda spediuone Bdtteto L'Omo (Milan. 1899);
F. Foureau, D' Alger an Congo par le Tchad (Paris, 1902) ;C Lemairt.
Mission satntifique du Ka-Tauga. Journal de route. I vol., Risultau
des observations, 16 parts (Brussels. 1902) . A. St. H. Gibbons. Africa
from South to North through Marotseland, 2 vols. (1904), E Lenlaat,
La Grande Route du Tchad (Paris, 1905), Boyd Alexander. From the
Niger to the Nile, 2 vols. (1907)
j VI. Historical and Political.— H.Schuru, AfricalWetWs History,
vol. 3, part 3) (1903) ; Sir H. H. Johnston, History of the CoiomMcttou
of Africa by Alien Races (Cambridge, 1899) (reprint with additional
chapter "Latest Developments," 1905); A. H. L. Heeren. Reflec-
tions on the Politics, Intercourse and Trade of the Ancient Nations
of Africa, 2 vols. (Oxford, 1832); G. Rawtinson, History of Ancient
Egypt (1881); A. Graham, Roman Africa (1902); J de Barros. Asia:
Ira Decada, Lisbon (1552 and 1777-1778). J Strandes, Die Pcrtu-
Ostafrika (Berlin, 1899) , R Schuck. Brandenburg
gtesensmtvon _ .
Preussens Kohnial-Polxtxh . w . „. -
G. M'Call Theal, History and Ethnography of Africa south of
" ' * 'Hi' '" " "
1641-1721, 2 vols. (Leipzig. 1889).
Ethnography of Africa south of the
Zambesi . . .to 179$, 3 vols. (1908- ), and History^ South Africa
since September 1795 (to 1872) 5 vols. (1908): Idem. Records of
South-Eastem Africa, Q vols.. 1898-1903; Lady Lugard, A Tropical
Dependency: Outline of the History of the Western Sudan, fire (1905).
Sir E. Hertslet, The Map of Africa by Treaty. 3 vols, (jrd ed.. 1909) :
J. S, Keltic, The Partition of Africa, 2nd ed. (1895) ; F. Van Ortroy.
Conventions internationales dejinissant les limites . en Afrtque
(Brussels, 1898); General Act of the Conference of Berlin, 1885.
The Surveys and -Explorations of British Africa (Colonial Reports.
No. 500) (1906), and annual reports thereafter; Sir F. D. Lugard.
The Rise of our East African Empire, 2 vols. (1891): E. Pel it, Les
colonies franchises, 2 vols. (Paris. 1902-1904) , E. Rouard de Card.
rika," Petermanns Mitt., 1893, 220-221; A. Supan, "Die Be-
vOlkerung der Erde," xii., Peterm. Mitt. Ergftnzu&gah. 146 (Gotha,
1904) (deals with areas as well as population). .
ft VII. Commerce and Economics.— A. Silva White, The Develop-
ment of Africa, 2nd ed. (1892); K. Dove, " GrundzOge einer Wirt-
schaftsgeographie Afrikas ' r Geographische Zeitschrift, 1905, 1-18:
E. Hahn. ,? Die SteUung Afrikas in der Geschichte des Welthandels,' 1
Verhandl. it. Deutsch. Geographenlags at Bremen (Berlin, 1896);
L. de Launay, Les Richesses minhoJes de I' Afrique (Paris, loot);
K. Futterer, Afrika in seiner Bedeutung far die Gotdproduhum
(Berlin, 1894); P. Reichard. "Das afnkan. Elfenbein und seio
Handel." Deutsche geogr. Bldtter (Bremen, 1889); Sir A. Moloney,
Sketch of the Forestry of West Africa (1887); Dewevre. "Let
Caoutchoucs africains," Ann. Soc. Set. Bruxelles, 1895; Sir T. F.
Buxton, The African Slave Trade and its Remedy (1840); C M. A.
Lavigerie, L'Esdavage africain (Paris, 1888) ; E. de Rentyy Let
Chemins de fer coloniaux en Afrique, 3 vols. (Paris, 1 903-1905);
H. Meyer, Die Eisenbahnen im tropischen Afrika (Leipzig, 1902);
G. Grenfcll, " The Upper Congo as a Waterway." Geogr. Jourru,
A. St. H. Gibbons, R The Nile and Zanf *
Nov. 1902;
I Zambezi Systems as
Waterways," Journ. R. Colon. Inst.. 1901; K. Lent, " Verkehrs-
mittel in Ostafrika," Deutsches Kolonialbtatt, 1894; " Trade of
the United Kingdom with the African Continent in 1898- 1902,*'
Board of T. Journ., 1903; Diplomatic and Consular Reports, Annual
Series; Colonial Reports; T. H. Parke. Guide to Health in Africa
(1893); R- W. Fr" - " *--' «-■-—■*--•— -' •»•—•-» «-•
m Africa (1895).
(1893); R. W. Felkin, Geographical Distribution of Tropical Diseases
— Africa (1895).
The following bibliographies may also be consulted. J. Gay,
Bibliographic des ouvrages relatifs a I* Afrique, fife. (San Remo, 1875] ;
P. Paulitschke, Die Afriko-Literatur von i<oo bis 1750 (Vienm
1882); Catalogue of the Colonial Office Library, voLj, Africa
(specially for government publications). (b. Ha.)
AFRICA, ROMAN. The Romans gave the name of Africa to
that part of the world which the Greeks called Libya (At0vv).
It comprised the whole of the portion of the African continent
known to the ancients, except Egypt and Ethiopia. But besides
this general sense, which occurs in Pliny (UL 3), Pompontus
Mela (i. 8) and other authors, the official and administrative
language used the word Africa in a narrower sense, which is
noticed below. The term was certainly borrowed by the Romans
from the language of the natives. In Latin literature it was
employed for the first time by the poet Ennius, who wrote in the
interval between the First and Second Punic Wars (Ann. vi;
Sat. iil.). By him the term was confined to the territory of
AFRICA, ROMAN
359
<*arthag» and the regions composing the eastern group of the
Atlas. Among the numerous conjectures which have been made
as to the etymology of the term Africa (' AQpuci}) may be quoted
that which derives it from the Semitic radical rm (" separate "),
Africa being considered, in this connexion, as a Phoenician
settlement "separated" from the mother country, Asiatic
Phoenicia It has also been held that the word Africa comes
from friqi, farikia (the country of fruit). The best hypothesis
in the writer's opinion is that maintained by Charles Tissot,
who sees in the word " Africa " the name of the great Berber tribe,
the Aourigha (whose name would have been pronounced Afarika),
the modern Aouraghen, now driven back into the Sahara, but
in ancient times the principal indigenous element of the African
empire of Carthage (Tissot, Ciogr. comp. L 389). Thus Africa
was originally, in the eyes of the Romans and Carthaginians alike,
the country inhabited by the great tribe of Berbers or Numidians
called Afarik. Cyrenaica, on the east, attached to Egypt, was
then excluded from it, and, similarly, Mauretania, on the west.
At the time of the Third Punic War the Africa of the Cartha-
ginians was but a fragment of their ancient native empire. It
comprised the territory bounded by a vague line running from
the mouth of the Tusca (Wad el Kebir), opposite the island of
Tabraca (Tabarca). as far as the town of Thenae (Tina), at the
mouth of the Gulf of Gabes. The rest of Africa had passed into
the hands of the kings of Numidia, who were allies of the Romans.
After the capture of Carthage by Scipio (146 B.C.) this territory
was erected into a Roman province, and a trench, the fossa regie,
was dug to mark the boundary of the Roman province of Africa
and the dominions of the Numidian princes. There have been
discovered (1907) the remains of this ditch protected by a low
wall or a stone dyke; some of the boundary stones which marked
its course, and inscriptions mentioning it, have also been found.
From Testur on the Mejerda the fossa regia can be followed by
these indications for several miles along the Jebel esh-Shcid
The ditch ran northward to Tabarca and southward to Tina.
The importance of the discoveries lies in the fact that the ditch
which in later times divided the provinces of Africa vetus and
Africa nova was at the time of the Third Punic War the boun-
dary of Carthaginian territory (R. Cagnat, " Le fosse des fron-
ticres romaines " in Mtlanges Boissier, 1905, p. 227; L. Poinssot
in Comfits rendus de VAcad. des Inscript. et Belles Lettres, 1907,
p. 466-, Classical Review, 1907, December, p* 255). The govern-
ment of the Roman province thus delimited was entrusted to
a praetor or propraetor, of whom several are now known.
eg P Sextilius, propraetor Africae, according to coins of
Hadrumetum of the year 04 B.C. The towns which had fought
on the side of the Romans during the Third Punic War were
declared csvilates liber ae, and became exceedingly prosperous.
They were Utica (Bu Shatir), Hadrumetum (Susa), Thapsus
(Dimas), Leptis Minor (Lemta), Achulla (Badria), Uzalis (about
11 m from Utica) and Theudalis. Those towns, however,
which had remained faithful to Carthage were destroyed, like
Carthage itself
After the Jugurthine war in 106, the whole of the regie Tripoli-
tana, comprising Leptis Magna (Lebda), Oea (Tripoli), Sabrata,
and the other towns on the littoral of the two Syrtes, appears to
have been annexed to the Roman province in a more or less
regular manner (Tissot ii. 21). The battle of Thapsus in 46
made the Romans definitely masters of Numidia, and the spheres
of administration were clearly marked out Numidia was con*
verted into a new province called " Africa Nova/' and of this
province the historian Sallust was appointed proconsul and in-
vested with the imperium From that time the old province of
Africa was known as " Africa Vetus " or " Africa Propria."
This state of affairs, however, lasted but a short time. In
31 B c Octavius gave up Numidia, or Africa Nova, to Ring
Juba II Five years later Augustus gave Mauretania and some
Gaetulian districts to Juba, and received in exchange Numidia,
which thus reverted to direct Roman control Numidia, how-
ever, no longer formed a distinct government, but was attached
to the old province of Africa From 25 b.c the Roman province
of Africa comprised the whole of the region between the mouth
of the Ampsaga (Wad Rummel, Wad el Kebir) on the west, and
the two tumuli called the altars of the Philacni, the immutable
boundary between Tripolitana and Cyrenaica, on the east
(Tissot iL a6i). In the partition of the government of the
provinces of the Roman empire between the senate and the
emperor, Africa fell to the senate, and was henceforth ad-
ministered by a proconsul. Subordinate to him were the legatt
pro consult, who were placed at the head of districts called
dioceses. At first there were only three dioceses: Cartha-
giniensis, Hipponiensis (headquarters Hippo Diarrhytus, now
Biaerta), and Numidica (headquarters Cirta, now Constantine).
At a later date the diocesis Hadrumetina was formed, and perhaps
at some date unknown the diocesis Tripolitana.
The province of Africa was the only senatorial province whose
governor had originally been invested with military powers.
Hie proconsul of Africa, in fact, had command of the legio HI.
Augusta and the auxiliary corps. But in a.d. 37 Caligula de-
prived the proconsul of his military powers and gave them to the
imperial legate (legatus Augusti pro praetore provinciae Africae),
who was nominated directly by the emperor, and whose special
duty it was to guard the frontier zone (Tacitus, Hist. iv. 48;
Dio Cass. lix. 20). The headquarters of the imperial legate were
originally at Cirta and afterwards at Lambacsa (Lambessa).
The military posts were drawn up in echelon along the frontier
of the desert, especially along the southern slopes of the Aures,
as far as Ad Majorca (Besscriani), and on the Tripolitan frontier
as far as Cydamus (Ghadames), forming an immense arc extend-
ing from Cyrenaica to Mauretania. A network of military routes,
constructed and kept in repair by the soldiers, led from Lambacsa
in all directions, and stretched along the frontier as far as Leptis
Magna, passing Theveste (Tebessa), Thenae and Tacape (Gabes) .
The powers of the proconsul, however, extended scarcely beyond
the ancient Africa Vetus and the towns on the littoral Towards
104 Scptimius Scvcrus completed the reform of Caligula by
detaching from the province of Africa the greater part of Numidia
to constitute a special province governed by a procurator, sub-
ordinate to the imperial legate and resident at Cirta (Tissot
ii 34). This province was called Numidia Cirtensis, as opposed
to Numidia Inferior or proconsular Numidia.
In Diocletian's great reform of the administrative system of
the empire, the whole of Roman Africa, with the exception of
Mauretania Tingitana (which was attached to the province
of Spain), constituted a single diocese subdivided into six
provinces: Zcugitana (Carthage), Byaarium (Hadrumetum,
now Susa), Numidia Cirtensis (Cirta, Constantine), Tripolitana
(Tripolis), Mauretania Sitifcnsis (Sitifis, Setif), and Mauretania
Cacsaricn&is (Caesarea, now Chcrchel). These provinces were
administered, according to circumstances, by a praescs of sena-
torial rank, a legatus pro praetore, or a vir clarissimus consularis.
Some changes were eventually necessitated by the wars with the
Moors and the Vandals. By a treaty concluded in 476, the
emperor Zeno recognized Genscric as master of all Africa. Re-
conquered by Bdisarius in 534, Africa formed, under the name
of praeftctura Africae, one of the great administrative districts
of the Byzantine empire. It was subdivided into six provinces,
which were placed under the authority of the praetorian prefect
of Africa. These provinces were Zcugitana (the former Pro-
consularis), Carthage, Byxacium, Tripolitana, Numidia and
Mauretania. The civil government was carried on by consulates
or praesides, while the military government was in the hands of
four duces militum, who made strenuous efforts to drive out the
barbarians. The country was studded thickly with bur gi (small
forts) and clausurae (long walls), the ruins of which still subsist.
In 647 the Arabs penetrated into Ifrikia, which was destined to
fall for ever out of the grasp of the Romans. In 697 Carthage
was taken.
The bulk of the population of Roman Africa was invariably
composed of three chief elements: the indigenous Berber tribes,
the ancient Carthaginians of Phoenician origin and the Roman
colonists. The Berber tribes, whose racial unity is attested by
their common spoken language and by the comparatively
numerous Berber inscriptions that have come down to us, bore
360
AFRICA, ROMAN
in andent times the generic names of Numidians, Gaetulians
and Moon or Maurusiani. Herodotus mentions a great number
of these tribes. During the Roman period, according to Pliny,
there were settlements of 26 indigenous tribes extending from the
Ampsaga as far as Cyrenaica. The much more detailed list of
Ptolemy enumerates 39 indigenous tribes in the province of
Africa and 25 in Mauritania Caesariensis. Ammianus Marcel-
linus, Procopius and Flavius Cresconius Corippus give still
further names. Besides the Afri (Aourigha) of the territory of
Carthage, the principal tribes that took part in the wars against
the Romans were the Lotophagi, the Garamantes, the Maces, the
Nasamones in the regions of the S.E., the Misulani or Musulamii
(whence the name Mussulman), the Massyli and the Massaesyli in
the E., who were neighbours of the Moors. The non-nomads of
these Libyan tribes dwelt in huts made of stakes supporting
plaited mats of rush or asphodel. These dwellings, which were
called map alia, are the modern gourbis African epigraphy has
revealed the names of some of their deities: deus invidus Aulisva;
the god Motmanius, associated with Mercury; the god Lillcus;
Baldir Augustus; Kautus paler; the goddess Gilva, identified
with Tcllus, and 1/ru A uguslus (Tissot i. 486). The Jokannis of
Corippus mentions three native divinities: Sinifcre, Mastiman
and Gurzil. There were also local divinities in all the principal
districts. The rock bas-reliefs and other monuments showing
native divinities arc rare, and give only very summary representa-
tions. Dolmens, however, occur in great numbers in Tunisia
and the province of Const an tine Tumuli, too, are found through-
out northern Africa, the most celebrated being that near Cherchel,
the Kubr-er-Rumia ('* tomb of the Christian lady "), which was
regarded by Pomponius Mela as the royal burying-place of the
kings of Numidia.
During the Roman period the andent Carthaginians of Phoe-
nidan origin and the bastard population termed by ancient
authors Libyo-Phoenidans, like the modern Maltese, invariably
formed the predominant population of the towns on the littoral,
and retained the Punic language until the 6th century of the
Christian era. The municipal magistrates took the title of
sujfctes in place of that of duumvirs, and in certain towns the
Christian bishops were obliged to know the lingua Punka, since
it was the only language tha t the people understood. Neverthe-
less, the Roman functionaries, the army and the colonists from
Italy soon brought the Latin clement into Africa, where it
flourished with such vigour that, in the 3rd century, Carthage
became the centre of a Romano- African dvilixation of extra-
ordinary literary brilliancy, which numbered among its leaders
such men as Apuldus, Textullian, Arnobius, Cyprian, Augustine
and many others.
Carthage regained its rank of capital of Africa under Augustus,
when thousands of Roman colonists flocked to the town. Utica
became a Roman colony under Hadrian, and the cmtates libera*,
municipia, castella, pagi and tunes were peopled with Latins.
The towns of the andent province of Africa which received
(oloniae were very numerous: Abitcnsis (ftvito* Avtttensts Bibba),
Bisica Lucana (Tastour), Byzadum, Capsa (Gafsa), Carthage,
Cuina, Curubis (Kurba), Hadrumetum (Susa), Hippo Diarrhylus
or Zarytus (Bizcrta), Leptis Magna (Lebda). Maxula (C hades,
Radcs orGadcs),Neapolis(Nabd,Ncbcul), Oca (Tripoli). Sabrata
(Zoara), lofonia ScUlilana (Ghasrin), Sufes (Sbiba), Tacape
( Gabcs) ,Thacnae or Thenae (Tina) , Thdepte ( Medi net Kedi ma) ,
Thugga (Dugga), Thuburbo maius (Kasbat), Thysdrus (El Jem),
Uthina (Wadna) and Vallis (Median) Oi the municipia may be
mentioned Gigthis or Gigthi (Bu Crara), Thibussicensium Bure
(Tcbursuk), Zija and thefurrii Tamalleni (Tel mi n)
The province of Numidia was at first colonized principally by
the military settlements of the Romans Cirta (Constanline) and
Bulla Rcgia(Hammam Darraj), itschiel towns, received coloniae
of soldiers and veterans, as well as Theveste (Tebcssa) and
Thamugas (Timgad) The fine ruins which have been discovered
at the last -mentioned place have earned for it the surname of the
African Pompeii (sev below)
Archaeology — Roman Africa has been the subject of innumer-
able historical and archaeological researches, especially since the
conquest of Algeria and Tunisia by the French. The country is
covered with Roman and Byzantine remains. Each of these
ruins has been visited by archaeologists who have copied in-
scriptions, described the temples, triumphal arches, porticos,
mausoleums and the other monuments which are still standing,
collected statues or other antiquities; and in many cases they
have actually excavated. The results of all these labours have
been published, from about 1850 onwards, annually, and, indeed,
almost from day to day, in various sdentific periodicals. Among
the principal of these &it:—Mimoircs de la Sociiti arcktaUpqm
de Constanline, Bulletin de la SocitU gtograpkique et arektalogiqu*
a" Or an, Revue africaine of Algiers, to which we should add the
Revue arckiologique of Paris, the Archives des missions scice-
tifiques and the Bulletin arckiologique du Comiii des tratamx
historiques and the Melanges of the French School at Rome. In
all the towns of Algeria and Tunisia museums have been founded
for storing the antiquities of the region; the most important of
these are the museums of St Louis, Carthage and the palace of
Bardo (musce Alaoui) near Tunis, those of Susa, Constantine,
Lambessa, Timgad, Tebcssa, Philippeville, Cherchel and Oran.
Under the title of Musics el collections archiologiques de rAlg&ie
etdela Tunisie, the Ministry of Public Instruction publishes from
time to time illustrated descriptions of all these archaeological
treasures. In this collection have already appeared descriptions
of the museums of Algiers by G. Doublet; of Constantine by
G. Doublet and P. Gauckler; of Oran by R. de La Blanchere;
of Chcrchd by P. Gauckler; of Lambessa by R. Cagnat; of
Philippeville by S. Gsell and Bert rand; of the Bardo by R de La
Blanchere and P. Gauckler; of Carthage by R. P. Ddattre; oi
Tebessa by S. Gsdl; of Susa by P. Gauckler, of Timgad by
R. Cagnat and A. BaDu.
The archaeological exploration of Algeria has kept pace with
the expansion of French dominion. From 1 846 to 1 854 Ddamarre
published his Exploration arckiologique de I'AtgiHe, in collabora-
tion with the French officers. In 1850 Leon Renicr was officially
instructed to collect all the inscriptions in Algeria which should
be found by the military expeditionary columns. This scholar
examined first the ruins of Lambessa, an account of which he
published in 1854 in his Milanges d'tpigraphie; subsequently he
made his important collection of Inscriptions romaines de I'Algeru
(1855-1858) which formed the groundwork of the volume of the
Corpus Jnscr. Lot. of the Academy of Berlin, devoted to Roman
Africa. A little later General Faidherbe published his Collection
complete des inscriptions numidiques (1870). Apart from the
province of Constantine, Algeria is less rich in Roman remains
than Tunisia; mention must, however, be made of the excava-
tions of Victor Waillc at Cherchd, where were found fine statues
in the Greek style of the time of King Juba II. ; of P Ga vault at
Ttgzirt (Rusuccuru), and finally of those of Stephanc Gsdl at
Tipasa (basilica of St Salsa) and throughout the district of SctiJ
and at Khamissa (Thuburticum Numidarum) In the depart-
ment of Constantine, which is peculiarly rich in Roman remains,
Tebessa has been most carefully explored by M. Heron de
Villcfosse, who has laid bare a beautiful temple of Jupiter, a
triumphal arch of Caracalla, a Byzantine basilica and the gale
of the Byzantine general Solomon. But all these ruins fade into
insignificance in comparison with the majestic grandeur of those
of Timgad which are almost entirely laid bare, they are de-
scribed in Timgad, une citi africaine sous I' empire romam, by
R Cagnat, G Bocswillwald and A. Ballu.
In Tunisia, Carthage early became the object of archaeo-
logical investigation. Major Humbert was sent there by
Napoleon in 1808 and his notes are still preserved in the museum
of Leiden. Chateaubriand visited and described the ruins;
the Dane Falbe, the Englishman Nathan Davis, Beule. P de
Sainte- Marie and others also have carried out researches; for
more than twenty years Pc*re Delattre has explored the ruins of
Carthage iqv.) with extraordinary success. For the rest of
Tunisia, the first explorer interested in archaeology was Victor
Gulrin in i860, his results are contained in his remarkable
Voyage arckiologique dans la Rigence de Tunis (186a, * vols.).
A Daux, in the years preceding 1869, explored the sites of the
AFRICAN LILY— AFRIDI
361
WK^eitharboartofUtfc^HtdniiDctiim.ThapsufCDima*). But
it was the occupation of Tunisia by the French in 1881 which
really gave the impetus to modern investigations in this district
of ruined cities. They were put on a solid foundation by the
publication of the CiographU comport* of Charles Tissot (1884).
Trained scholars were sent there annually by the French govern-
ment: Cagnat, Saladin, Poinssot, La Blanchere, S. Reinach,
£. Babelon, Carton, Audollent, Steph. Gsell, J. Toutain, Espe-
randieu, Gauckler, Merlin, Homo and many others, to say
nothing of German scholars, such as Willmans and Schulten,
and especially of a great number of enthusiastic officers of the
army of occupation, who explored all the ancient sites, and in
many cases excavated with great success (for their results see
the works quoted above). It would be impossible to enumerate
here all the monographs describing, for example, the ruins of
Carthage, those of the temple of the waters at Mount Zaghuan,
the amphitheatre of £1 Jem (Thysdrus), the temple of Saturn,
the royal tomb and the theatre of Dugga (Thugga), the
bridge of Chemtu (Simitthu), the ruins and cemeteries of
Tebursuk and Medeina (AWtiburus), the rich villa of the
Laberii at Wadna (Utkino), the sanctuary of Saturn Balcara-
nensis on the hill called Bu-Kornam, the ruins of the district of
Enfida (Aphrodisium, Uppenna, Segermes), those of Leptis
minor (Lemta), of Thenae (near Sfax), those of the island of
Meninx (Jerba), of the peninsula of Zands, of Mactar, Sbeitla
(Sufetula), Gigthis (Bu-Grara), Gafsa (Capsa), Kef (Sicca
Veneria), Bulla Regia, &c
From this accumulation of results most valuable evidence
as to the history and more especially the internal administration
of Africa under the Romans has been derived. In particular
we know how rural life was there developed, and with what care
the water necessary for the growing of cereals was everywhere
provided. Sculpture throughout the district is very provincial
and of minor importance; the only exceptions are certain
statues found at Carthage and Cherchel, the capital of the
Mauretanian kings.
Authorities. — Amon? general works on the subject may be
mentioned: Morcelli, Africa Christiana (18x6); Gustave Boissiere,
ts afrittiinti (Ptocoitiuiiiire,- A'nirfij'iV, Mavrilartie)
ten romaint (ibg6-igoi); R t Cagn;U r VAtmee
Gaston &
Fastesdesl
sous la d
remain* £ ifrtfM (1892): A* Dai)X< f*& Emporia pkhnkkm fans
U Zeugis ft U Byzcuam (1S69); Ludwig Mullcr, Sumi^miiiquc de
tancitnn* Africa* {iS6o-t66jj Supplement, 1*74): ClL Dicrhl,
LAfrique byxanli*£ (i'6g&)i Stiphanp Csetl. Rctherchrt arthfo-
togifues en Afriqvt {:%}); Paul Moncau*. Tlisteiri Utthoirt it
VAfrique thtftunne (loot-ioo^: J. *"
" "~ " ' '1595); Adas OichiQietiqi
J of Public Instruction (1&95 full.)! Atl&t aftfteolaei M
de fAlgirU" pubiiihed by Sttphan* G»tl (,1900 lolL); Tnufut'te,
it thtiittnnt (X901-IQQ5V; J. Tuutain> Lrt CUrs rewaintl de
isie it!i9j); Adas a*cht6lo*ujut de la Tuniiie, published by
the Ministry of Public Instruction (i&^5 full.); /li/jj attkeologieue
la Tunisie 1
Geographic de VAfriw** tkritintne { 189J-1&U) : Corpus ititctiprittr.um
laiinarum, vol. vni. and Supplement (ihfli). Cf. a!*o articles
CAaTHACK,NuuiDtA,ck.*JucLTfmi a, and articles relating to Koman
History. IE. B.*>
AFRICAN ULY (Agapanlhus umbcUatus), A member of the
natural order Liliaceae, a native of the Cape of Good Hope,
whence it was introduced at the close of the 17th century. It is
a handsome greenhouse plant, which is hardy In the south of
England and Ireland if protected from severe frosts. It has a
short stem bearing a tuft of long, narrow, arching leaves, i to
2 ft. long, and a central Bower-stalk, a to 3 ft high, ending in an
umbel of bright blue, funnel-shaped flowers. The plants are
easy to cultivate, and are generally grown in large pots or tubs
which can be protected from frost in winter. During the summer
they require plenty of water, and are very effective on the
margins of lakes or running streams, where they thrive admirably.
They increase by offsets, or may be propagated by dividing the
root-stock in early spring or autumn. A number of forms are
known in cultivation; such are albidus, with white flowers,
aureus, with leaves striped with yellow, and wiegotus, with
leaves almost entirely white with a few green bands. There are
also double-flowered and larger and smaller flowered forms.
AFRICANUS, 8BZTU8 JULIUS, a Christian traveller and
historian of the 3rd century, was probably born in Libya, and
may have served under Septimius Severus against the Osrhoenians
in a.d. 195. Little is known of his personal history, except that
he lived at Emmaus, and that he went on an embassy to the
emperor Heliogabalus ! to ask for the restoration of the town,
which had fallen into ruins. His mission succeeded, and Emmaus
was henceforward known as Nicopolis. Dionysius bar-Salibi
makes him a bishop, but probably he was not even a presbyter.
He wrote a history of the world (Xpowrypc^m, in five books)from
the creation to the year aj>. 221, a period, according to his
computation, of 5723 years. He calculated the period between
the creation and the birth of Christ as 5400 years, and ante-dated
the latter event by three years. This method of reckoning
became known as the Alexandrian era, and was adopted by
almost all the eastern churches. The history, which had an
apologetic aim, is no longer extant, but copious extracts from it
are to be found in the Chronicon of Eusebius, who used it ex-
tensively in compiling the early episcopal lists. There are also
fragments in Syncellus, Cedrenus and the Paschal* Chronicon,
Eusebius {Hist, Ecc. i. 7, cf. vi. 31) gives some extracts from his
letter to one Aristides, reconciling the apparent discrepancy
between Matthew and Luke in the genealogy of Christ by a
reference to the Jewish law, which compelled a man to marry
the widow of his deceased brother, if the latter died without
issue. His terse and pertinent letter to Origen, impugning the
authority of the apocryphal book of Susanna, and Origen's
wordy and uncritical answer, are both extant. The ascription
to Africanus of an encyclopaedic work entitled Kcaroi (em-
broidered girdles), treating of agriculture, natural history,
military science* &c, has been needlessly disputed on account
of its secular and often credulous character. Neander suggests
that it was written by Africanus before he had devoted himself
to religious subjects. For a new fragment of this work see
Oxyrhynchus Papyri (Grenfell and Hunt), iii. 36 ff.
Authorities.— Edition in M. J. Routh, Rd. Sac. ii. 219-509;
translation in Anle-Nicene Fathers (S. D. F. Salmond) vi. 125-140.
See H. Gelzer, Sex. Jul. Africanus und die byzant. Ckronograpkie,
2 vols. (Leipzig, 1880-1885); G. Kruger, Early Christian Literature,
248-253; A. Harnack, Altchristl. LitL Cesch. i. 507, ii. 7a
AFRIDI, a Pathan tribe inhabiting the mountains on the
Peshawar border of the North- West Frontier province of India.
The Afridis are the most powerful and independent tribe on the
border, ahd the largest with the exception of the Waxiris. Their
special country is the lower and easternmost spurs of the Safed
Koh range, to the west and south of the Peshawar district, in-
cluding the Bazar and Bara valleys. On their east they are
Dounded by British districts, on the north by the Mohmands,
on the west hy the Shinwaris and on the south by the Orakzai
and Bangash tribes. Their origin is obscure, but they are said
to have Israelitish blood in their veins, and they have a decidedly
Semitic cast of features. They are possibly the Aparytai of
Herodotus, the names and positions being identical If this
theory is correct, they were then a powerful people, and held
a large tract of country, but have been gradually driven back
by the encroachments of other tribes. The tribe is divided into
the following eight dans:— Kuki Khel, tylalikdin Khel, Kambar
Rhel, Kamar Khel, Zakka Khel (the most numerous and the
most turbulent), Sipah, Aka Khel and Adam Khel The first
seven clans live in the vicinity of the Khyber Pass, and migrate
to Tirah in the summer months. The Adam Khel (5000 fighting
men) live round the Kohat Pass, and are more settled and less
migratory in their habits. In appearance the Afridi is a fine,
tall, athletic highlander with a long, gaunt face, high nose and
cheek-bones, and a fair complexion. On his own hillside be is
one of the finest skirmishers in the world, and in the Indian
army makes a first-rate soldier, but he is apt to be home-sick
when removed from the air of his native mountains. In character
the Afridi has obtained an evil name for ferocity, craft and
treachery, but Colonel Sir Robert Warburton, who lived eighteen
years in charge of the Khyber Pass and knew the Afridi better
than any other Englishman, says: — " The Afridi lad from his
1 So Eusebius. Syncellus says Alexander Severus.
$62
AFTERGLOW— AGA KHAN I.
earliest childhood is taught by the circumstances of his existence
and life to distrust all mankind, and very often his near relations,
heirs to his small plot of land by right of inheritance, are his
deadliest enemies. Distrust of all mankind, and readiness to
strike the first blow for the safety of his own life, have-therefore
become the maxims of the Afridi If you can overcome this
mistrust, and be kind in words to him, he will repay you by a
great devotion, and he will put up with any treatment you like
to give him except abuse." In short the Afridi has the vices
and virtues of all Pathans in an enhanced degree. The fighting
strength of the Afridis is said to be 27,000, but this estimate is
excessive, judged by the number and size of their villages. They
derive their importance from their geographical position, which
gives them command of the Khyber and Kohat roads, and the
history of the British connexion with them has been almost
entirely with reference to these two passes.
There have been several British expeditions against the
separate dans:—
(x) Expedition against the Kohat Pass Afridis under Sir
Colin Campbell in 185a Hie British connexion with the Adam
Khel Afridis commenced immediately after the annexation
of the Peshawar and Kohat districts. Following the example
of all previous rulers of the country, the British agreed to pay
the tribe a subsidy to protect the pass. But in 1850 a thousand
Afridis attacked, a body of sappers engaged in making the road,
killing twelve and wounding six. It was supposed that they
disliked the making of a road which would lay open their fast-
nesses to regular troops. An expedition of 3200 British troops
was despatched, which traversed the country and punished them.
(2) Expedition against the Jowaki Afridis of the Bori villages
in 1853. When the Afridis of the Kohat Pass misbehaved in
1850, the Jowaki Afridis offered the use of their route instead;
but they turned out worse than the others, and in 1853 a force
of 1700 British traversed their country and destroyed their
stronghold at Bori. The Jowaki Afridis are a clan of the Adam
Khel, who inhabit the country lying between the Kohat Pass
and the river Indus.
(3) Expedition against the Aka Khel Afridis under Colonel
Craigie in 1855. In 1854 the Aka Khels, not finding themselves
admitted to a share of the allowances of the Kohat Pass, com-
menced a series of raids on the Peshawar border and attacked a
British camp. An expedition of-i 500 troops entered the country
and inflicted severe punishment on the tribe, who made their
submission and paid a fine.
(4) Expedition against the Jowaki Afridis under Colonel
Mocatta in 1877. In that year the government proposed to
reduce the Jowaki allowance for guarding the Kohat Pass, and
the tribesmen resented this by cutting the telegraph wire and
raiding into British territory. A force of 1 500 troops penetrated
their country in three columns, and did considerable damage
by way of punishment.
(5) Expedition against the Jowaki Afridis under Brigadier-
General Keyes in 1877-78. The punishment inflicted by the
previous expedition did not prove sufficiently severe, the attitude
of the Jowakis continued the same and their raids into British
territory went on. A much stronger force, therefore, of 7400
British troops, divided Into three columns, destroyed their
principal villages and occupied their country for some time,
until the tribe submitted and accepted government terms. The
Kohat Pass was afterwards practically undisturbed.
(6) Expedition against the Zakka Khel Afridis of the Bazar
Valley under Brigadier-General Tytler in 1878. At the time of
the British advance into Afghanistan, during the second Afghan
War, the Zakka Khel opposed the British advance and attacked
their outposts. A force of 2500 British troops traversed their
country, and the tribesmen made their submission.
(7) Expedition against the Zakka Khel Afridis of the Bazar
Valley under Lieutenant-General Maude In 1879. After the
previous expedition the Afridis of the Khyber Pass continued
to give trouble during the progress of the second Afghan War,
so another force of 3750 British troops traversed their country,
and after suffering some loss the tribesmen made their submission.
After this both the Khyber and Kohat Passes were pat en a
stable footing, and no further trouble of any consequence occurred
in either down to the time of the frontier risings of 1897, when
the Afridis attacked the Khyber Pass, which was defended by
Afridi levies.
(8) For the Tirah Campaign of 1807 see Tisah Campaign.
(0) In the February of 1008 the restlessness of the Zakka Khel
again made a British expedition necessary, under Sir James
Willcocks; but the campaign was speedily ended, though in the
following April he had again to proceed against the Mohmands,
the situation being complicated by an incursion from Afghanistan.
See also Paget and Mason's Frontier Expeditions (1884) ; War*
burton's Eighteen Years in the Khyber (1900). (C. L.)
AFTERGLOW, a broad high arch of whitish or rosy light
appearing occasionally in the sky above the highest clouds in
the hour of deepening twilight, or reflected from the high snow-
fields in mountain regions long after sunset The phenomenon
is due to very fine particles of dust suspended in the high regions
of the atmosphere that produce a scattering effect upon the
component parts of white light After the eruption of Krakatoa
in 1883, a remarkable series of red sunsets appeared all over the
world. These were due to an enormous amount of exceedingly
fine dust blown to a great height by that terrific explosion, and
then universally diffused by the high atmospheric currents.
AFZEUUS, ADAM (1750-1837), Swedish botanist, was born
at Larf, Vestergotland, in 1750. He was appointed teacher of
oriental languages at Upsala in 1777, and in 1785 demonstrator
of botany. From 1792 he spent some years on the west coast
of Africa, and in 1797-1798 acted as secretary of the Swedish
embassy in London. Returning to Sweden, he founded the
Linnaean institute at Upsala in 1802, and in 181 a became
professor of materia medica at the university. He died at Upsala
in 1837. I Q addition to various botanical writings, he published
the autobiography of Linnaeus in 1823.
His brother, Johan Afzelius (i753-i837),known as AavrosoN,
was professor of chemistry at Upsala; and another brother.
Per af (1760-1843), who became professor of medicine at Upsala
in 1 801, was distinguished as a medical teacher and practitioner.
AFZEUUS, ARVID AUGUST (1785-1871), Swedish pastor,
poet, historian and mythologist, was bom on the 8th of October
1785. From 1828 till his death on the 25th of September 1871
he was parish priest of Enkttping. He is mainly known as a
collaborator with the learned historian, Erik Gustaf Geijer, in the
great collection of Swedish folk-songs, Svenske folkirsor fr&n
forntiden, 3 vols. (Stockholm, 1814-1816). He published also
translations of the S&munder Edda and Herwara-Saga, and a
history of Sweden to Charles XII., (of which a German transla-
tion was published in 1842), as well as original poems.
AGA, or Agha, a word, said to be of Tatar origin, signifying
a dignitary or lord. Among the Turks it is applied to the chief
of the janissaries, to the commanders of the artillery, cavalry
and infantry, and to the eunuchs in charge of the seraglio. It
is also employed generally as a term of respect in addressing
wealthy men of leisure, landowners, &c.
AGAIAMBO, or Agaumbu, a race of dwarf marsh-dwellers in
British New Guinea, now almost extinct. In his annual report
for 1904 the acting administrator of British New Guinea stated
that on a visit he paid to their district he saw six males and four
females. The Agaiambo live in huts erected on piles in the lakes
and marshes. Dwarfish in stature but broadly built, they are
remarkable for the shortness of their legs. They live almost
entirely in their " dug-outs " or canoes, or actually wading in
the water. Their food consists of sago, the roots of the water-
lily and fish. The Agaiambo are believed to have been formerly
numerous, but within the last few years have suffered from the
raids of their cannibalistic Papuan neighbours. In features,
colour and hair they closely resemble the true Papuans.
AGA KHAK I„ His Highness the (1800-1881), the title
accorded by general consent to Hasan An Shah (born in Persia,
1800), when, in early life, he first settled in Bombay under the
protection of the British government lie was believed to haw
descended in direct line from All by bis wife Fatima, the daughter
AGALMATOLITE— AGAMEMNON
363
of the Prophet Mahomet All's ion, Hosaln, having married
a daughter of one of the rulers of Persia before the time of
Mahomet, the Aga Khan traced his descent from the royal
house of Persia from the most remote, almost prehistoric, times.
His ancestors had also ruled in Egypt as caliphs of the Beni-
Fatimites for a number of years, at a period coeval with the
Crusades. Before the Aga Khan emigrated from Persia, he was
appointed by the emperor Fateh All Shah to be governor-general
of the extensive and important province of Kerman. His rule
was noted for firmness, moderation and high political sagacity,
and he succeeded for a long time in retaining the friendship and
confidence of his master the shah, although his career was beset
with political intrigues and jealousy on the part of rival and
court favourites, and with internal turbulence. At last, however,
the fate usual to statesmen in oriental countries overtook him,
and he incurred the mortal displeasure of Fateh AH Shah. He
fled from Persia and sought protection in British territory,
preferring to settle down eventually in India, making Bombay
his headquarters. At that period the first Afghan War was at
its height, and in crossing over from Persia through Afghanistan
the Aga Khan found opportunities of rendering valuable services
to the British army, and thus cast in his lot for ever with the
British. A few years later he rendered similar conspicuous
services in the course of the Sind campaign, when his help was
utilized by Napier in the process of subduing the frontier tribes,
a large number of whom acknowledged the Aga's authority as
their spiritual head. Napier held his Moslem ally in great
esteem, and entertained a very high opinion of his political
acumen and chivalry as a leader and soldier. Hie Aga Khan
reciprocated the British commander's confidence and friendship
by giving repeated proofs of his devotion and attachment to
the British government, and when he finally settled down in
India, his position as the leader of the large Ismailiah section of
Mahommedan British subjects was recognized by the govern-
ment, and the title of His Highness was conferred on him, with
a large pension. From that time until his death in 1881 the Aga
Khan, while leading the life of a peaceful and peacemaking
citizen, under the protection of British rule, continued to dis-
charge his sacerdotal functions, not only among his followers
in India, but towards the more numerous communities which
acknowledged his religious sway in distant countries, such as
Afghanistan, Khorasan, Persia, Arabia, Central Asia, and even
distant Syria and Morocco. He remained throughout unflinch-
ingly loyal to the British Raj, and by his vast and unquestioned
influence among the frontier tribes on the northern borders of
India he exercised a control over their unruly passions in times
of trouble, which proved of invaluable service in the several
expeditions led by British arms on the north-west frontier of
India. He was also the means of checking the fanaticism of the
more turbulent Mahommedans in British India, which in times
of internal troubles and misunderstandings finds vent in the shape
of religious or political riots.
He was succeeded by his eldest son, Aga Khan II. This prince
continued the traditions and work of his father in a manner that
won the approbation of the local government, and earned for him
the distinction of a knighthood of the Order of the Indian Empire
and a seat in the legislative council of Bombay.
Aga Khan III. (Sultan Mahommed Shah), only son of the
foregoing, succeeded him on his death in 1885, and became the
head of the family and its devotees. He was born in 1877, and,
under the care of his mother, a daughter of the ruling house of
Persia, was given not only that religious and oriental education
which his position as the religious leader of the Ismailiahs made
indispensable, but a sound European training, a boon denied to
his father and grandfather. This blending of the two systems of
education produced the happy result of fitting this Moslem chief
in an eminent degree both for the sacerdotal functions whieh
appertain to his spiritual position, and for those social duties of
a great and enlightened leader which he was called upon to dis-
charge by virtue of that position. He travelled in distant parts
of the world to receive the homage of his followers, and with the
object either of settling differences or of advancing their welfare
by pecuniary help and personal advice and guidance, The dis-
tinction of a knight commander of the Indian Empire was con-
ferred upon him by Oueen Victoria in 1897, and he received like
recognition for his public services from the German emperor, the
sultan of Turkey, the shah of Persia and other potentates.
See Naoroji M. Dumatia, A Brief History of Iko Am Khan
(1903). (M. *TBh.)
A0A1MAT0LITB (from Gr. fryaXjio, statue, and XMot,
stone), a soft species of mineral, also called pofodiU, used by the
Chinese for carving, especially into grotesque figures (whence
called " figure-stone ").
AGAMEDES, in Greek legend, son of Erginus, king of Orcho-
menus in Boeotia, He is always associated with his brother
Trophonius as a wonderful architect, the constructor of under-
ground shrines and grottos for the reception of hidden treasure.
When building a treasure-house for Hyrieus, the brothers fixed
one of the stones in the wall so that they could remove it whenever
they pleased, and from time to time carried off some of the
treasure. Hyrieus thereupon set a trap in which Agamedes was
caught; Trophonius, to prevent discovery, cut off his brother's
head and fled with it He was pursued by Hyrieus, and swal-
lowed up by the earth in the grove of Lebadeia. On this spot
was the oracle of Trophonius in an underground cave; those
who wished to consult it first offered the sacrifice of a ram and
called upon the name of Agamedes. A similar story is told of
Rhampsinitus by Herodotus (ii. xax). According to Pindar (opitd
Plutarch), the brothers built the temple of Apollo at Delphi;
when they asked for a reward, the god promised them one in
seven days; on the seventh day they died.
Pausanias ix. 37; Plutarch, Consoktio ad Apottonium, 14;
Cicero, Tusc. Disp. L 47.
AGAMEMNON, one of the most distinguished of the Greek
heroes, was the son of Atreus (king of Mycenae) and Aerope,
grandson of Pelops, great-grandson of Tantalus and brother of
Menelaus. Another account makes him the son of Pleisthenes
(the son or father of Atreus), who is said to have been Aerope's
first husband. Atreus was murdered by Aegisthus (q.v.), who
took, possession of the throne of Mycenae and ruled jointly
with his father Thyestes. During this period Agamemnon and
Menelaus took refuge with Tyndareus, king of Sparta, whose
daughters Clytaemnestra (more correctly Clytaemestra) and
Helen they respectively married. By Gytaemnestra, Agamemnon
had three daughters, Iphigeneia (Iphianassa), Electra (Laodice),
Chrysothemis, and ason, Orestes. Menelaus succeededTyndareus,
and Agamemnon, with his brother's assistance, droveout Aegisthus
and Thyestes, and recovered his father's kingdom. He extended
his dominion by conquest and became the most powerful prince
in Greece. When Paris (Alexander), son of Priam, had carried off
his brother's wife, he went round to the princes of the country and
called upon them to unite in a war of revenge against the Trojans.
He himself furnished xoo ships, and was chosen commander-in-
chief of the combined forces. The fleet, numbering 1200 ships,
assembled at the port of Aulis in Boeotia. But Agamemnon had
offended the goddess Artemis by slaying a bind sacred to her, and
boasting himself a better hunter. The army was visited by a
plague, and the fleet was prevented from sailing by the total
absence of wind. Calchas announced that the wrath of the
goddess could only be appeased by the sacrifice of Iphigeneia
Xq.v.). The fleet then set sail. Little is heard of Agamemnon
until his quarrel with Achilles (q.v.). After the capture of Troy,
Cassandra, the daughter of Priam, fell to his lot in the distribution
of the prizes of war. On his return, after a stormy voyage, he
landed in Argolis. His kinsman, Aegisthus, who in the interval
had seduced his wife Clytaemnestra, invited him to a banquet at
which he was treacherously slain, Cassandra also being put to
death by Clytaemnestra. According to the account given by
Pindar and the tragedians, Agamemnon was slain by his wife
alone in a bath, a piece of cloth or a net having first been thrown
over him to prevent resistance. Her wrath at the sacrifice of
Iphigeneia, and her jealousy of Cassandra, are said to have been
the motives of her crime. The murder of Agamemnon was
avenged by his son Orestes (q.v.). Although not the equal of
3*4
AGAPE
Achilles in bravery, Agamemnon Is a dignified representative
of kingly authority. As commander-in-chief, he summons the
princes to the council and leads the army in battle. He takes the
field himself, and performs many heroic deeds until he is wounded
and forced to withdraw to his tent His chief fault is his over-
weening haughtiness, due to an over-exalted opinion of his
position, which leads him to insult Chryses and Achilles, thereby
bringing great disaster upon the Greeks. But his family had been
marked out for misfortune from the outset His kingly office had
come to him from Pelops through the blood-stained hands of
Atreus and Thyestes, and had brought with it a certain fatality
which explained the hostile destiny which pursued him. The
fortunes of Agamemnon have formed the subject of numerous
tragedies, ancient and modern, the most famous being the
Oresteia of Aeschylus. In the legends of Peloponnesus, Agamem-
non was regarded as the highest type of a powerful monarch, and
in Spart» he was worshipped under the title of Zeus Agamemnon.
His tomb was pointed out among the ruins of Mycenae and at
Amyclae.
In works of art there is considerable resemblance between the
representations of Zeus, king of the gods, and Agamemnon, king
of men. He is generally characterized by the sceptre and diadem,
the usual attributes of kings.
See articles in Pauly-Wissowa's Realeneyclopddie and Roscher's
Ltxtkon der Mythotogie.
AGAPfi (Gr. d?din?, " Love "), the early Christian love-
feast. The word seems to be used in this sense in the epistle of
Jude ia: " These are they who are hidden rocks in your love-
feasts when they banquet with you." But this is not certain,
for in a Pet ii. i$ the verse is cited, but reading drdrcus
(" deceits ") for frydv-cuf, and the oldest MSS. hesitate. The
history of the agapi coincides, until the end of the and century,
with that of the eucharist (q.v.) t and it is doubtful whether the
following detailed account of the agapi given in Tcrtullian's
Apology (c. 39) is to be regarded as exclusive of an accompanying
eucharist: " It is the banquet (triclinium) alone of the Christians
that is criticised. Our supper (coena) shows its character by its
name. It is called by a word which in Greek signifies love (i.e.
agapi). Whatever it costs, it is anyhow a clear gain that it is
incurred on the score of piety, seeing that we succour the poorest
by such entertainments (refrigerio). We do not lie down at table
until prayer has been offered to God, as it were a first taste. We
eat only to appease our hunger, we drink only so much as it is
good for temperate persons to do. If we satisfy our appetites,
we do so without forgetting that throughout the night we must
say our prayers to God. If we converse, it is with the knowledge
that the Lord is listening. After washing our hands and lighting
the lamps, each is invited to sing a hymn before all to God, either
taken from holy writ or of his own composition. So we prove
him, and see how well he has drunk. Prayer ends, as it began,
the banquet; and we break up not in bands of brigands, nor in
groups of vagabonds, nor do we burst out into debauchery. . . .
This meeting of Christians we admit deserves to be made illicit,
if it resembles illicit acts; it deserves to be condemned, if any
complain of it on the same score on which complaints are levelled
at factious meetings. But to do harm to whom do we ever thus
come together?"
The evidence of Tertullian is good for Africa. But in Egypt
about the same time (180-210), Clement of Alexandria in his
Pedagogus (ii. 1) condemns the " little suppers which were called,
not without presumption, agapi." This word, he complains,
should denote the heavenly food, the reasonable feast alone, and
the Lord never used it of mere junketings. Clement wished the
name to be reserved for the eucharist, because the love-feasts
of the church had degenerated, as Tertullian too discovered,
as soon as he turned Motanist For in his tract on fasting
(ch. rvii.) he complains that the young men misbehaved with the
sisters after the agapi.
Among the spurious works of Athanasius Is printed a tract
entitled About Virginity, ch. xiii. of which directs how the sisters
after the synaxis of the ninth hour (3 p.m.) are to dine: " When
you sit down at a table and come to break bread, seal it thrice
with the sign of the cross and thus give thanks : • We thank thee,
our Father, for thy holy resurrection; for through Jesus thy
servant thou hast shewn it unto us. And as this bread on this
table was scattered, but has been brought together and become
one, so may thy church be brought together into thy kingdom.
For thine is the power and the glory, for ever and ever, Amen.'
This prayer as you break the bread, and are about to eat, you
must say. And when you lay it on the table and desire to eat it,
repeat the ' Our Father ' entire. But after dinner (or breakfast),
and when we rise from table, We use the prayer given above, vis.
* Blessed be God, who hath pity and nourisheth us from our
infancy, who giveth food to all flesh. Fill our hearts with joy
and gladness, that ever having of all things a sufficiency, we
may superabound in all good works, in Christ Jesus our Lord,
&&' " The writer then enjoins that, " if two or three other virgins
are present, they also shall give thanks over the bread set out,
and join in the prayers. But if a catechumen be found at the
table, she shall not be suffered to join with the full believers in
their prayers, nor shall the latter sit with her to eat the morsel ."
(^u/io>, used specially of the sanctified bread). " Nor shall
they sit with frivolous and joking women, if they can help it,
for they are sanctified to God, and their food and drink have
been hallowed by the prayers and holy words used over them.
. . « If a rich woman sits down with them at table, and they
see a poor woman, they shall invite her also to eat with them,
and not put her to shame because of the rich one." The last
words echo x Cor. x., and the prayer is nearly the same as that
which the teaching of the Apostles assigns for the eucharistk
rite. Here, then, we have pictured as late as the 4th century a
Lord's supper, which like the one described in x Cor. x. is agapi
and eucharist in one, and it is held in a private house and not
in church, and the celebrants are holy women 1
The historian Socrates (Hist. Ecd. v. 22) testifies to the
survival in Egypt of such Lord's suppers as were love-feasts
and eucharists in one. Around Alexandria and in the Thebaid,
he says, they hold services on the sabbath, and unlike other
Christians partake of the mysteries (i.e. sacrament). For after
holding good cheer and filling themselves with meats of all kinds,
they at eventide make the offering (xpo^opd) and partake of it
So Basil of Cappadoda (Epistle 93), about the year 350, records
that in Egypt the laity, as a rule, celebrated the communion in
their own houses, and partook of the sacrament by themselves
whenever they chose. In the old Egyptian church order, known
as the Canons of Hippdytus, there are numerous directions for
the service of the agapi, held on Sundays, saints' days or at
commemorations of the dead. The 74th canon of the council
of Trullo (a.d. 69a) forbade the holding of symposia known as
agapis in church. In his 54th homily (torn. v. p. 365) Chrysos-
tom describes how after the eucharistk synaxis was over, the
faithful remained in church, while the rich brought out meats
and drink from their houses, and invited the poor, and furnished
" common tables, common banquets, common symposia in the
church itself." The council of Gangra (a.d. 355) anathematized
the over-ascetic people who despised "the agapis based on
faith. 11 Only a few years later, however, the council of Laodicea
forbade the holding of agapis in churches. The 4 and canon of
the council of Carthage under Aurelius likewise forbade them,
but these were only local councils. In the age of Chrysostom
and Augustine the agapi was frequent
In the east Syrian, the Armenian and the Georgian churches,
respectively Nestorian, Monophysite and Greek Orthodox in
their tenets, the agapi was from the first a survival, under
Christian and Jewish forms, of the old sacrificial systems of a
pre-Christian age. Sheep, rams, bullocks, fowls are given
sacrificial salt to lick, and then sacrificed by the priest and
deacon, who has the levitical portions of the victim as his per-
quisite. In Armenia the Greek word agapi has been used ever
since the 4th century to indicate these sacrificial meals, which
either began or ended with a eucharistic celebration. The
earlier usage of the Armenians is expressed in the two following
rules recorded against them by a renegade Armenian prelate
named Isaac, who in the 8th century went over to the Bysantine
AGAPEMONITES
365
church: "Christ did not hand down to us the teaching to
celebrate the mystery o! the offering of the bread in church, but
in an ordinary house, and sitting at a common table. So then
let them not sacrifice the offering of bread in churches. It was
after supper, when his disciples were thoroughly sated, that
Christ gave them of his own body to eat. Therefore let them
first eat meats and be sated, and (hen let them partake of the
mysteries." These old canons are adduced by way of ridiculing
the Armenians, yet. they reflect old usage. They are given in
the Historic Monolhelitarum of Combefisius, coL 3x7. Older
MSS. of the Greek Euchologion contain numerous prayers to be
offered over animals sacrificed; and in the form of agapi such
sacrifices were common in Italy and Gaul on the natalis dies
of a saint, and Paulinus of Nola, the friend of Augustine, in his
Latin poems, describes them (c. 400) in detail Gregory the Great
sent to Mellitus, bishop of London, a written rite of sacrificing
bulls for use in the English church of the early 7th century.
In Augustine's work against Faustus the Manichean (xx. 4), the
latter taxes the Catholics with having turned the sacrifices of the
heathen into agapis, their idols into martyrs, whom they worship
with similar rites. " You appease," he says, " the shades of
the dead with wines and banquets, you celebrate the feast-days
of the heathen along with them ... in their way of living
you have certainly changed nothing." This was true enough,
but there is truth also in the remark of Prof. Sanday (" Eucha-
rist " in Hastings' Dictionary of the Bible) that Providence even
in its revolutions is conservative. The world could only be
christianized on condition that old holy days and customs were
continued. The early Christian agapi admitted of adaptation
to the older funeral and sacrificial feasts, and was so adapted.
The association in the synoptics of the earliest eucharist with
the paschal sacrifice provided a model, and long after the
eucharist was separated with the agapi on other days of the
year, we still find celebrated on the evening of Maundy Thursday
the sacrifice of the paschal lamb, immediately followed by an
eucharist. The 41st canon of the council of Carthage enacted
that the sacraments of the altar should be received fasting,
except on the anniversary of the Lord's supper. It is clear
that at an earlier date the agapi preceded the eucharist.
Pagan Analogues. — In ancient states common meals called
sussitia (ffvaalria) were instituted, particularly in the Doric
states, e.g. in Lacaedcmon and in Crete. Plato advocated them,
and perhaps the later Jews imitated the Spartan community.
Trade and other gilds in antiquity held subscription suppers or
Iffavoi, similar to those of the early Corinthian church, usually
to support the needs of the poorer members. These hetairiae
or dubs were forbidden (except in cities formally allied to Rome)
by Trajan and other emperors, as being likely to be centres of
disaffection; and on this ground Pliny forbade the agapi of the
Bithynian churches, Christianity not being a lawful religion
licensed for such gatherings. The custom which most resembles
the eucharist and agapi was that known as ckaristia described by
Valerius Maximus ii. x. 8. It was a solemn feast attended only
by members of one clan, at which those who had quarrelled
were at the sacrament of the table (a pud sacra mensae) reconciled.
It was held on the 20th of February. Ovid in his Fasti, ii.
617, alludes to it —
Proximo cognati dixere charistia cart,
Et venit ad socios turba propinqua deos.
Authorities. — " The Canons of Hippolytus," in Duchesne's
Orieines du cuUe Chretien (Paris, 1898): A. Allen, Christian Insti-
tutions (London, 1898); P. BatifTol, Etudes d' histoire (Paris, 1902
and 1905) ; F. X. Funk, " L' Agape," in the Revue de I' histoire eccUsi-
astique (Louvain, Jan. 1903); Ad. Harnack, " Brod und Wasser"
(Texts und Untersuch. vii. 2, Leipzig, 1891); J. F. Keating, The
Agapi and the Eucharist (London, 1901); F. X. Kraus, arts.
" Agapen " and " Mahle " in the Realencyhlop. d. christl. A Iter turner;
P. Ladeuze, " L'Eucharistie et les rcpas communs " in the Revue de
r orient chritien. No. 3, 1902; Sir W. M. Ramsay, The Church in the
Roman Empire (London, 1894); A. Spitta, Zur Geschichte und
LUUratur (Gottingen, 1893); E. von der Goltz, Das Cebet in dltesien
Christianheit (Leipzig, 1901); F. E. Warren, The Liturgy and Ritual
of the A ntenicene Church (London, 1897) ; T. Zahn, art. " Agapen "
in Hauck's Realencyhlop.; F. C. Conybeare, Rituale Armenorum
(Oxford, 1905; it contains the oldest Latin and Greek forms), The
Key of Truth (Oxford, 1898), an J art. on " The Survival of Animal
Sa nH It the A Merita* Journal of Theology (Chicago, Jan. 1903) ;
F. X. Funk, Didajtalta et ConuiisUiones Ajpostolorum (Paderborn,
1906); V. Ennoni, L 1 Agape (f^ris, 1904); C. Horner, The Statutes
oftMt Abo&tltiy translated from E thiopic and Arabic MSS. (London,
1904} ; Thcfr, Dreschcr, Dui. de veL Christianorum Agapis (Giesse,
I8J4?; L A. Mur.nu; 1. Anezdota Graeca, " De agapis sublatis"
iPdUvii, 1709)1 I. A, Fabririut. Bibliogr. Ant. p. 587; Muenter,
*rimcrd. Ecd. Afr* p, n 1 ; Walalrid Strabo, De Rebus Bales, capita
1 8, 19; Gregory or Tours. Dt miraculis S, Juliani, xxxL; Paulini
Nobrn Carmen xii. in S. rettf-cm* (F. C C.)
AGAPEMONITES, or Community op the Son of Man. This
sect, based upon the theories of various German religious mystics,
and having for its primary object the spiritualization of the
matrimonial state, was founded in 1846 by the Rev. Henry
James Prince, a clergyman of the Church of England (181 1-1899).
He studied medicine, obtained his qualifications in 1832 and was
appointed medical officer to the General Hospital in Bath, his
native city. Compelled by ill-health to abandon his profession,
he entered himself in 1837 as a student at St. David's Theo-
logical College, Lampeter, where he gathered about him a band
of earnest religious enthusiasts, known as the Lampeter Brethren,
and was eventually ordained to the curacy of Charlinch in
Somerset, where he had sole charge in the illness and absence
of the rector, the Rev. Samuel Starkey. By that time he had
contracted his first "spiritual marriage," and had persuaded
himself that he had been absorbed into the personality of God
and had become a visible embodiment of the Holy Spirit. During
his illness Mr. Starkey read one of his curate's sermons, and was
not only " cured " forthwith, but embraced his strange doctrines,
and together they procured many conversions in the countryside
and the neighbouring towns. In the end the rector was deprived
of his living and Prince's licence withdrawn, and together with
a few disciples they started the Charlinch Free Church, which
had a very brief existence. Prince shortly afterwards became
curate of Stoke in Suffolk, where, however, the character of
his revivalist zeal caused his departure at the end of twelve
months. It was now decided that Prince, Starkey (whose sister
Prince had married as his second wife) and the Rev. Lewis
Prince should leave the Church. of England and preach their
own gospel; Prince opened Adullam Chapel, Brighton, and
Starkey established himself at Weymouth. The chief success
lay in the latter town, and thither Prince soon migrated. A
number of followers, estimated by Prince at 500, but by his
critics at one-fifth of the number, were got together, and it was
given out by " Beloved " or " The Lamb " — the names by which
the Agapemonites designated their leader — that his disciples
must divest themselves of their possessions and throw them
into the common stock. This was done, even by the poor or ill-
furnished, all of whom looked forward to the speedy end of the
present dispensation, and were content, for the short remainder
of this world, to live in common, and, while not repudiating
earthly ties, to treat them as purely spiritual With the money
thus obtained the house at Spaxton, which was to become the
" Abode of Love," was enlarged and furnished luxuriously, and
three sisters, who contributed £6000 each, were immediately
married to three of Prince's nearest disciples. Despite the
purely spiritual ideas which underlay the Agapemonite view
of marriage, a son was born to one of these couples, and when
the father endeavoured to carry it away an action was brought
which resulted in the affirmation of the mother's right to its
custody. The circumstance in which a fourth sister who joined
the community was abducted by her brothers led to an inquiry
in lunacy and to her final settlement at Spaxton. A few years
after the establishment of the " Abode of Love," a peculiarly
gross scandal, in which Prince and one of his female followers
were involved, led to the secession of some of his most faithful
friends, who were unable any longer to endure what they regarded
as the amazing mixture of blasphemy and immorality offered
for their acceptance. The most prominent of those who remained
received such titles as the " Anointed Ones," the " Angel of
the Last Trumpet," the " Seven Witnesses " and so forth. In
1862 " Brother Prince " sent " to the kings and people of the
earth " letters " making known to all men that flesh is saved
366
AGAPETAE— AGASSIZ
from death." At that period the Agapemonites counted their
adherents at 600, and it was no doubt a grievous shock to them
when their deathless founder died on the 8th of March 1899,
four years after he had opened a branch church at Clapton,
London, which is said to have cost £20,000. This church,
decorated with elaborate symbolism, was styled the " Ark of
the Covenant," and in it the elect were to await the coming of
the Lord.
On the death of " Brother" Prince, the Rev. T. H. Smyth-
Pigott, pastor of the " Ark," became the acknowledged head
of the sect. He was born in 1852, of an old Somersetshire county
family, and, after a varied career as university man, sailor before
the mast, soldier, coffee-planter, curate in the Church of England
and evangelist in the Salvation Army, was converted about
1897 to the views of Prince. For five years after this he was
not heard of outside his own sect. On the 7th of September
1902, however, the congregation, assembled at the Ark of the
Covenant for service, found the communion table replaced by
a chair. In this Pigott presently seated himself and proclaimed
himself as the Messiah with the words, " God is no longer there,"
pointing upwards, " but here," pointing to himself. This aston-
ishing announcement was followed by an excellent sermon on
Christian love. Pigott's claim was at once admitted by the
members of his sect, including even his own wife, as the ful-
filment of the promise of Christ to appear in due time in the
"Ark." By the outside world the affair was greeted with mingled
ridicule and indignation, and the new Messiah had to be pro-
tected by the police from the violence of an angry mob. After
providing " copy " for the newspapers for a few days, however,
the whole thing was forgotten. Pigott retired to the head-
quarters of the sect, the " Abode of Love " in Somerset, and all
efforts to interview him or to obtain details of the life of the
community were abortive. At last, in August 1005, the long
and mysterious silence was broken by the announcement that
a son had been born to Pigott by his " spiritual wife," Miss Ruth
Preece, an inmate of the Agapemone. This event by no means
disconcerted the believers, who saw in it only another manifesta-
tion of Pigott's divinity, and proclaimed it aa " an earnest of
the total redemption of man." The child was registered as
" Glory," and, at the christening service in the chapel of the
Abode, hymns were sung in its honour as it lay In a jewelled
cradle in the chancel Another child by Miss Preece, christened
41 Power," was born on the 20th of August 1908. The publicity
given to this event renewed the scandal, and in November an
attempt to " tar and feather " Mr Pigott resulted in two men
being sent to prison. Later in the month proceedings were
instituted against him by the bishop of Bath and Wells under
the Clergy Discipline Act
One outcome of the disclosures connected with the Agapemone
deserves passing mention, as throwing some light on the origin of
the wealth of the community. Mr Charles Stokes Read, a resident
at the Agapemone and director of the V. V. Bread Company, was
requested by his fellow-directors to resign, on the ground that his
connexion with the sect was damaging the business of the company.
He denied this to be the case and refused to resign, pleading religious
liberty and the large interests of Agapemonites in the concern. On
the 13th of September 1905, a meeting of the shareholders of the
company was held, and Read " asked them to believe that it was not
in the interests of the company, but because he knew that the Lord
Jesus Christ had come again and was now dwelling at the Agapemone,
that he was thus cast out by his colleagues." The motion calling on
him to resign was carried on a poll being taken by 46,770 votes to
3953- (See The Times, 14th of September 1905.)
AGAPHTAB, a class of " virgins " who, in the church of the
early middle ages, lived with professedly celibate monks to whom
they were said to be united by spiritual love. The practice was
suppressed by the Lateran Council of 1139.
AGAPETUS, the name of two popes:—
Acapetus I., pope from 535 to 536. He was an enlightened
pontiff and collaborated with Cassiodorus in founding at Rome
a library of ecclesiastical authors. King Theodahad sent him
on an embassy to Constantinople, where he died, after having
deposed Anthimus, the monophysite bishop of that town, and
ordained Mcnas his successor.
Acapetus II.. pope from 046 to 955, at the time when Alberic,
son of Marozia, was governing the Independent republic of
Rome under the title of " prince and senator of the Romans."
Agapetus, a man of some fosce of character, did his best to put
a stop to the degradation into which the papacy had fallen,
the so-called " Pornocracy," which lasted from the accession
of Sergius III. in 004 to the deposition of John XII. in 963. His
appeal to Otto the Great to intervene in Rome remained without
immediate effect, since Alberic's position was too strong to be
attacked, but it bore fruit after his death. Agapetus died on
the 8th of November 955.
AGAPETUS, a deacon of the church of St Sophia at Constan-
tinople. He presented to the emperor Justinian, on his ac-
cession in 527, a work entitled Sckeda regia sive de officio regis,
which contained advice on the duties of a Christian prince. The
work was often reprinted and is included in Dom Anselme
Banduri's Imperium Orientate (Paris, 17x1). There is an English
translation by Thomas Paynell (1550) and a French trans-
lation, executed in 161 2 from a Latin version by Louis XIIL,
with the assistance of his tutor, David RivaulL
AGARDE, ARTHUR (1540-1615), English antiquary, was
born at Foston, Derbyshire, in 1 540. He was trained as a lawyer,
but entered the exchequer as a clerk. On the authority of
Anthony a Wood it has been stated that he was appointed by
Sir Nicholas Throckmorton to be deputy-chamberlain in 1570,
and that he held this office for forty-five years. His patent of
appointment, however, preserved in the Rolls Office, proves that
he succeeded one Thomas Reve in the post on the nth of July
1603. With his friends, Sir Robert Cotton and Camden, he was
one of the original members of the Society of Antiquaries. He
spent much labour, in cataloguing the records and state papers,
and made a special study of the Domesday Book, preparing an
explanation of its more obscure terms. Thomas Hearne, in his
Collection of Curious Discourses written by Eminent Antiquaries
(Oxford, 1720), includes six by Agarde on such subjects as the
origin of parliament, the antiquity of shires, the authority and
privileges of heralds, &c Agarde died on the 22nd of August
161 5 and was buried in the cloister of Westminster Abbey, on
his tomb being inscribed "Recerdontm regiorum kic prop*
depositorum diligens scrutator" He bequeathed to the exchequer
all his papers relating to that court, and to his friend Sir Robert
Cotton his other manuscripts, amounting to twenty volumes,
most of which are now in the British Museum.
ADAS, RAOULPH, or Ralph (c. 1 540-1621), English land-
surveyor, was born at Stoke-by-Nayland, Suffolk, about 1540,
and entered upon the practice of his profession in 1 566. Lette**
which he wrote to Lord Burghley, describing the methods of
surveying, are extant, and a kind of advertising prospectus of
his abilities, in which he describes himself as clever at arithmetic
and " skilled in writing smaule, after the skantelinge & pro-
portion of copiynge the Oulde & New Testamentes seven tymes
in one skinne of partchmente without anie woorde abreviate
or contracted, which maie also serve for drawinge discriptions
of contries into volumes portable in verie little cases." He is
best known for his maps of Oxford (1578), Cambridge (1592)
and London. Copies of the first two are preserved in the Bodleian
Library. Of the map of London and Westminster, which was
probably prepared about 1591, two copies have been preserved,
one by the Corporation of London and the other in the Pepystan
collection at Magdalene College, Cambridge. The map is over
six feet long, printed from wooden blocks, and gives a valuable
picture of the London of Elizabeth's time. Agas died on the
26th of November 1621.
AGASIAS. There were two Greek sculptors of this name.
Agasias, son of Dositheus, has signed the remarkable statue
called the Borghese Warrior, in the Louvre. Agasias, son of
MenophOus, is the author of another striking figure of a warrior
in the museum of Athens. Both belonged to the school of
Ephesus and flourished about 100 B.C.
See E. A. Gardner, Handbook of Creek Sculpture, fi. p. 475.
AGASSIZ. ALEXANDER EMANUEL (1835-1910), America*
man of science, son of J. L. R. Agassiz, was born in Neuchitd.
Switzerland, on the 17th of December 1835. He came to the
AGASSIZ
367
United States with his father in 1846; graduated at Harvard
in 1855, subsequently studying engineering and chemistry, and
taking the degree of bachelor of science at the Lawrence scien-
tific school of the same institution in 1857; and in 1859 became
an assistant in the United States Coast Survey. Thenceforward
he became a specialist in marine ichthyology, but devoted much
time to the investigation, superintendence and exploitation of
mines, being superintendent of the Calumet and Hecla copper
■nines, Lake Superior, from 1866 to 1869, and afterwards, as a
stockholder, acquiring a fortune, out of which he gave to
Harvard, for the museum of comparative zoology and other
purposes, some $500,000. In 1875 he surveyed Lake Titicaca,
Peru, examined the copper mines of Peru and Chile, and made
• collection of Peruvian antiquities for that museum, of which
be was curator from 1874 to 1885. He assisted Sir Wyvflle
Thomson in the examination and classification of the collections
of the "Challenger" exploring expedition, and wrote the
Review of Ike Echini (2 vols., 1873-1874) in the reports. Between
1877 and 1880 he took part in the three dredging expeditions of
the steamer " Blake," of the United States Coast Survey, and
presented a full account of them in two volumes (1888). Of his
other writings on marine zoology, most are contained in the
bulletins and memoirs of the museum of comparative zoology;
but he published in 1865 (with Elizabeth Gary Agassiz, his step-
mother) Seaside Studies in Natural History, a work at once exact
and stimulating, and in 1871 Marine Animals of Massachusetts
Bay.
AGASSIZ, JEAN LOUIS RODOLPHB (1807-1873), Swiss
naturalist and geologist, was the son of the Protestant pastor
of the parish of Motier, on the north-eastern shore of the Lake
of Morat (Murten See), and not far from the eastern extremity
of the Lake of Neuchatel. Agassiz was born at this retired place
on the 28th of May 1807. Educated first at home, then spending
four years at the gymnasium of Bienne, he completed his ele-
mentary studies at the academy of Lausanne. Having adopted
medicine as his profession, he studied successively at the uni-
versities of Zurich, Heidelberg and Munich; and he availed
himself of the advantages afforded by these universities for
extending his knowledge of natural history, especially of botany.
After completing his academical course, he took in 1829 his
degree of doctor of philosophy at Erlangen, and in 1830 that of
doctor of medicine at Munich.
Up to this time he had paid no special attention to the study
of ichthyology, which soon afterwards became the great occu-
pation of his life. Agassiz always declared that he was led into
khthyological pursuits through the following circumstances: —
In 18x9-1820, J. B. Spix and C. F. P. von Martius were engaged in
their celebrated Brazilian tour, and on their return to Europe,
amongst other collections of natural objects they brought home
an important set of the freshwater fishes of Brazil, and especially
of the Amazon river. Spix, who died in 1826, did not live long
enough to work out the history of these fishes; and Agassiz,
though little more than a youth just liberated from his academic
studies, was selected by Prof. Martius for this purpose. He at
once threw himself into the work with that earnestness of spirit
which characterized him to the end of his busy life, and the task
of describing and figuring the Brazilian fishes was completed
and published in 1829. This was followed by an elaborate re-
search into the history of the fishes found in the Lake of Neuchatel.
Enlarging his plans, he issued in 1830 a prospectus of a History
of the Freshwater Fishes of Central Europe. It was only in 1839,
however, that the first part of this publication appeared, and it
was completed in 1842. In 1832 he was appointed professor
of natural history in the university of Neuchatel. Having
become a professed ichthyologist, it was impossible that the
fossil fishes should fail to attract his attention. The rich stores
furnished by the slates of Glarus and the limestones of Monte
Bolca were already well known; but very little had been accom-
plished in the way of scientific study of them. Agassiz, as early
as 1829, with his wonted enthusiasm, planned the publication of
the work which, more than any other, laid the foundation of his
world-wide fame. Five volumes of his Recherches sur la poissons
fossiles appeared at intervals from 1833 to 1843 [1844]. They
were magnificently illustrated, chiefly through the labours of
Joseph Dinkel, an artist of remarkable power in delineating
natural objects. In gathering materials for this great work
Agassiz visited the principal museums in Europe, and meeting
Cuvier in Pari*, he received much encouragement and assistance
from him.
Agassiz found that his palaeontologies! labours rendered
necessary a new basis of khthyological classification. The fossils
rarely exhibited any traces of the soft tissues of fishes. They
consisted chiefly of the teeth, scales and fins, even the bones
being perfectly preserved in comparatively few instances. He
therefore adopted' his well-known classification, which divided
fishes into four groups— viz. Ganoids, Placoids, Cycloids and
Ctenoids, based on the nature of the scales and other dermal
appendages. While Agassiz did much to place the subject on
a scientific basis, his classification has not been found to meet
the requirements of modern research. As remarked by Dr A.
Smith Woodward, he sought to interpret the past structures
by too rigorous a comparison with those of living forms. (See
Catalogue of Fossil Fishes in the British Natural History Museum.)
As the important descriptive work of Agassiz proceeded, it
became obvious that it would over-tax his resources, unless
assistance could be afforded. The British Association came to
his aid, and the earl of EUesmere — then Lord Francis Egerton—
gave him yet more efficient help. The original drawings made for
the work, chiefly by Dinkel, amounted to 1 200 in number. These
were purchased by the Earl, and presented by him to the Geo-
logical Society of London. In 1836 the Wollaston medal was
awarded by the council of that society to Agassiz for his work
on fossil ichthyology; and in 1838 he was elected a foreign
member of the Royal Society. Meanwhile the invertebrate
animals engaged his attention. In 1837 he issued the "Pro-
drome " of a monograph on the recent and fossil Echinodermata,
the first part of which appeared in 1838; in 1830-1840 he
published two quarto volumes on the fossil Echinoderms of
Switzerland; and in 1840-1845 he issued his Etudes critiques sur
Us moUusques fossiles.
Subsequently to his first visit to England in 1834, the labours of
Hugh Miller and other geologists brought to light the remarkable
fishes of the Old Red Sandstone of the north-east of Scotland.
The strange forms of the Pterichthys, the Coccosteus and other
genera were then made known to geologists for the first time.
They naturally were of intense interest to Agassiz, and formed the
subject of a special monograph by him published in 1 844-1 845:
Monographic des poissons fossiles du Vieux Gres Rouge, ou
Sysleme Devonien (Old Red Sandstone) des lies Britauniqucs et dt
Russie.
^ The year 1836 witnessed the inauguration of a new investiga-
tion, which proved to be of the utmost importance to geological
science. Previously to this date de Saussure, Venetz, Char-
pentier and others had made the glaciers of the Alps the subjects
of special study, and Charpentier had even arrived at the
conclusion that the erratic blocks of alpine rocks scattered over
the slopes and summits of the Jura mountains had been conveyed
thither by glaciers. The question having attracted the attention
of Agassiz, he not only made successive journeys to the alpine
regions in company with Charpentier, but he had a hut con-
structed upon one of the Aar glaciers, which for a time he made
his home, in order to investigate thoroughly the structure and
movements of the ice. These labours resulted in the publication
of his grand work in two volumes entitled Eludes sur les glaciers,
1840. Therein he discussed the movements of the glaciers, their
moraines, their influence in grooving and rounding the rocks over
which they travelled, and in producing the striations and roches
moutonrties with which we arc now so familiar. He not only
accepted Charpenticr's idea that some of the alpine glaciers had
extended across the wide plains and valleys drained by the Aar
and the Rhone, and thus landed parts of their remains upon the
uplands of the Jura, but he went still farther. He concluded that,
at a period geologically recent, Switzerland had been another
Greenland; that instead of a few glaciers stretching across the
368
AGATE
areas referred to, one vast sheet of ice, originating in the higher
Alps, had extended over the entire valley of north-western
Switzerland until it reached the southern slopes of the Jura,
which, though they checked and deflected its further extension,
did not prevent the ice from reaching in many places the
summit of the range. The publication of this work gave a fresh
impetus to the study of glacial phenomena in all parts of the
world.
Thus familiarized with the phenomena attendant on the move-
ments of recent glaciers, Agassiz was prepared for a discovery
which he made in 1840, in conjunction with William Buckland.
These two savants visited the mountains of Scotland together, and
found in different localities clear evidence of ancient glacial
action. The discovery was announced to the Geological Society
of London in successive communications from the two distin-
guished observers-. The mountainous districts of England and
Wales and Ireland were also considered to constitute centres
for the dispersion of glacial debris; and Agassiz remarked " that
great sheets of ice, resembling those now existing in Greenland,
once covered all the countries in which unstratified gravel
(boulder drift) is found; that this gravel was in general pro-
duced by the trituration of the sheets of ice upon the subjacent
surface, &c."
In 1842-1846 he issued his Nomendator Zootogicus, a classified
list, with references, of all names employed in zoology for genera
and groups— a work of great labour and research. With the
aid of a grant of money from the king of Prussia, Agassiz,
in the autumn of 1846, crossed the Atlantic, with the twofold
design of investigating the natural history and geology of the
United States and delivering a course of lectures on zoology, by
invitation from J. A. Lowell, at the Lowell Institute at Boston;
the tempting advantages, pecuniary and scientific, presented to
him in the New World induced him to settle in the United
States, where he remained to the end of his life. He was ap-
pointed professor of zoology and geology in Harvard University,
Cambridge, U.S., in 1847. In 1852 he accepted a medical pro-
fessorship of comparative anatomy at Charlcstown, but this he
resigned in two years.
The transfer to a new field and the association w'th fresh objects
of interest gave his energies an increased stimulus. Volume
after volume now proceeded from his pen: some of his writings
were popular, but most of them dealt with the higher departments
of scientific research. His work on Lake Superior, and his four
volumes of Contributions to the Natural History of the United
Slates, 1857-1862, were of this latter character. We must not
overlook the valuable service he rendered to science by the
formation, for his own use, of a catalogue of scientific memoirs—
an extraordinary work for a man whose hands were already so
full. This catalogue, edited and materially enlarged by the late
Hugh E. Strickland, was published by the Ray Society under the
title of Bibliographic Zoologiae et Ceotogiae, in 4 vols., 1848-1854.
Nor must we forget that he was building up another magnificent
monument of his industry in the Museum of Natural History,
which rose under his fostering care, at Cambridge. But at length
the great strain on his physical powers began to tell. His early
labours among the fishes of Brazil had often caused him to cast
a longing glance towards that country, and he now resolved to
combine the pursuit of health with the gratification- of his long-
cherished desires. In April 1865 he started for Brazil, with
his wife and class of qualified assistants. An interesting account
of this expedition, entitled A Journey in Brazil (1868), was
published by Mrs Agassiz and himself after they returned home
in August 1866.
In 1871 he made a second excursion, visiting the' southern
shores of the North American continent, both on its Atlantic
and its Pacific sea-boards. He had for many years yearned after
the establishment of a permanent school where zoological science
could be pursued amidst the haunts of the living subjects of
study. The last, and possibly the most influential, of the labours
of his life was the establishment of such an institution, which
he was enabled to effect through the liberality of Mr John
Anderson, a citizen of New York. That gentleman, in 1873. aot
only handed over to Agassiz the island of Penikese, in Buzzard's
Bay, on the east coast, but also presented him with $50,000
wherewith permanently to endow it as a practical school of
natural science, especially devoted to the study of marine
zoology. Unfortunately he did not long survive the establish-
ment of this institution. The disease with which he had struggled
for some years proved fatal on the 14th of December 1873.
He was buried at Mount Auburn. His monument is a boulder
selected from the moraine of the glacier of the Aar near the site
of the old H6tel des Neuch&telois, not far from the spot where
his hut once stood; and the pine-trees which shelter his grave
were sent from his old home in Switzerland. His extensive
knowledge of natural history makes it somewhat remarkable
to find that from first to last he steadily rejected the doctrine
of evolution, and affirmed his belief in independent creations.
When studying the superficial deposits of the Brazilian plains in
1865, his vivid imagination covered even that wide tropical area,
as it had covered Switzerland before, with one vast glacier,
extending from the Andes to the sea. This view, however,
has not been generally accepted. His daring conceptions were
only equalled by the unwearied industry and genuine en-
thusiasm with which he worked them out; and if in details
his labours were somewhat defective, it was only because he
had ventured to attempt what was too much for any one man
to accomplish.
It may be interesting to mention that the charming verses
written by Longfellow on " The fiftieth birthday of Agassiz "
were read by the author at a dinner given to Agassis by the
Saturday Club in Cambridge, Mass., in 1857.
Louis Agassiz was twice married, and by his first wife he had
an only son, Alexander Agassiz (q.v.) t born in 1835; in 1850,
after her death, he married his second wife, Elizabeth Cabot
Cary of Boston, Mass., afterwards well known as a writer and
as an active promoter of educational work in connexion with
Radcliffe College (see an article on Raddiffe College, by Helen
Leah Reed in the New England Magazine for January 1895).
Authorities. — L.Agassi*,His Life and Correspondence ,2 vols., by
E..C (Mrs) Agassiz (London, 1 885) ; Louis Agassi*, His Life and Work,
by C. F. Holder (New York and London, 1893). (H. B. Wo.)
AGATE, a term applied not to a distinct mineral species, but
to an aggregate of various forms of silica, chiefly Chalcedony
(?.*.). According to Theophrastus the agate (dxAnjt) was
named from the river Achates, now the DrUlo, in Sicily, where
the stone was originally found. Most agates occur as nodules
in eruptive rocks, or ancient lavas, where they represent cavities
originally produced by the disengagement of vapour in the
molten mass, and since filled, wholly or partially, by siliceous
matter deposited in regular layers upon the walls. Such agates,
when cut transversely, exhibit a succession of parallel lines,
often of extreme tenuity, giving a banded appearance to the
section, whence such stones are known as banded agate, riband
agate and striped agate. Certain agates also occur, to a limited
extent, in veins, of which a notable example is the beautiful
brccciated agate of Schlottwitz, near Wesenstein in Saxony —
a stone mostly composed of angular fragments of agate cemented
with amethystine quartz.
In the formation of an ordinary agate, it is probable that
waters containing silica in solution — derived, perhaps, from the
decomposition of some of the silicates in the lava itself— per-
colated through the rock, and deposited a siliceous coating on
the interior of the vapour-vesicles. Variations in the character
of the solution, or in the conditions of deposit, may have caused
corresponding variation in the successive layers, so that bands
of chalcedony often alternate with layers of crystalline quartz,
and occasionally of opaline silica. By movement of the lava,
when originally viscous, the vesicles were in many cases drawn
out and compressed, whence the mineral matter with which
they became filled assumed an elongated form, having the longer
axis in the direction in which the magma flowed. From the fact
that these kernels are more or less almond-shaped they are called
amygdalcs, whilst the rock which encloses them is known as
an amygdaloid. Several vapour-vesicles may unite while the
AGATE
369
rock b viscous, tad thai form a large cavity which may become
the homo of an agate of exceptional size; thus a Brazilian geode,
lined with amethyst, of the weight of 35 tons, was exhibited
at the DOsseldorf Exhibition of 1002.
The first deposit on the wall of a cavity, forming the " skin "
of the agate, is .generally a dark greenish mineral substance)
like cdadonite, delessite or " green earth," which are hydrous
silicates rich in iron, derived probably from the decomposition
of the augite in the mother-rock. This green silicate may give
rise by alteration to a brown oxide of iron (limonite), producing
a rusty appearance on the outside of the agate-nodule. The
outer surface of an agate, freed from its matrix, is often pitted
and rough, apparently in consequence of the removal of the
original coating. The first layer spread over the wall of the
cavity has been called the "priming," and upon this basis
zeotitic minerals may be deposited, as was pointed out by Dr
M. F. Heddle. Chalcedony fa generally one of the earlier deposits
and crystallized quartz one of later formation. Tubular channels,
usually choked with siliceous deposits, are often visible in
sections of agate, and were formerly regarded, especially by
L. von Buch and J. Noggerath, as inlets of infiltration, by which
the siliceous solutions gained access to the interior of the amyg-
daloidal cavity. It seems likely, however, that the solution
transuded through the walls generally, penetrating the chalce-
dome layers, as Heddle maintained, by osmotic action. Much of
the chalcedony in an agate is known, from the method of arti-
ficially staining the stone, to be readily permeable. It. was
argued by £. Reusch that the cavities were alternately filled
and emptied by means of intermittent hot springs carrying
aflica; while G. lange, of Idar, suggested that the tension of
the confined steam might pierce an outlet through some weak
point in the coating of gelatinous silica, deposited on the walls,
so that the tubes would be channels of egress rather than of
ingress— a view supported by Heddle, who described them as
" tubes of escape."
It sometimes happens that horizontal deposits, or strata
usually opaline in character, are formed on the floor of a cavity
after the walls have been lined with successive layers of chalce-
dony. Many agates are hollow, since deposition has not pro-
ceeded far enough to fill the cavity, and in such cases the last
deposit commonly consists of quartz, often amethystine, having
the apices of the crystals directed towards the free space, so as
to form a crystal-lined cavity or geode.
When the deposits in an agate have been formed on a crop
of crystals, or on a rugose base, the cross-section presents a
zigzag pattern, rather like the plan of a fortress with salient
and retiring angles, whence the stone is termed fortification
agate. If the section shows concentric circles, due either to
stalactitic growth or to deposition in the form of bosses and beads
on the floor, the stone is known as ring agate or eye agate. A
Mexican agate, showing only a single eye, has received the name
of " cydops." Included matter of a green colour, like fragments
of " green earth," embedded in the chalcedony and disposed
in filaments and other forms suggestive of vegetable growth,
gives rise to moss agate. These inorganic enclosures in the agate
have been sometimes described, even after microscopic examina-
tion, as true vegetable structures. Dendritic markings of black
or brown colour, due to infiltration of oxides of munpjnfsf an d
Iron, produce the variety of agate known as Mocha stone. Agates
of exceptional beauty often pass in trade under the name of
Oriental agate. Certain stones, when examined in thin sections
by transmitted light, show a diffraction spectrum, due to
the extreme delicacy of the successive bands, whence they are
termed rainbow agates.
On the disintegration of the matrix In which the agates are
embedded, they are set free, and, being by their siliceous nature
extremely resistant to the action of air and water, remain as
nodules in the soil and gravel, or become rolled as pebbles in
the streams. Such is the origin of the " Scotch pebbles," used
as ornamental stones. They are agates derived from the andesitic
lavas of Old Red Sandstone age, chiefly in the Ochils and the
Sidlaws. In Hke manner, the South American agates, so largely
1. 7*
cut and polished at the present time, are found mostly as boulders
in the beds of rivers.
An enormous trade in agate-working is carried on in a small
district in Germany, around Oberstein on the Nahe, a tributary
of the Rhine at Bingen. Here the industry was located many
centuries ago, in consequence of the abundant occurrence of
agates in the amygdaloidal melaphyre of the district, notably
in the Galgenberg, or Steinkaulenberg, overlooking the village
of Idar, on the Idar Bach, about two miles from Oberstein.
The abundant water-power in the neighbourhood had also a
share in the determination of the industrial site. At the present
time, however, steam power and even electricity are employed
in the mills of the Oberstein district Although the agate-
industry is still carried on there, especially at Idar, the stones
operated on are not of indigenous origin, but are imported mostly
from Brazil (Rio Grande do Sul) and from Uruguay, where they
were discovered in 1827. Agate-working is also carried on to
a limited extent at Waldkirch in the Black Forest
Most commercial agate is artificially stained, so that stones
naturally unattractive by their dull grey tints come to be valuable
for ornamental purposes. The ait of staining the stone is believed
to be very ancient Possibly referred to by Pliny (bk. xxxvii.
cap. 75), it was certainly practised at an early date by the Italian
cameo-workers, and from Italy a knowledge of the art — long
kept secret and practised traditionally— passed in the early
part of the 19th century to the agate-workers in Germany,
by whom it has since been greatly developed. The colouring
matter is absorbed by the porosity of the stone, but different
stones and, even different layers in the same stone exhibit great
variation in absorptive power. The Brazilian agates lend them-
selves readily to coloration, while the German agates are much
less receptive.
To produce a dark brown or black colour, the stone is kept
perhaps for two or three weeks in a saccharine solution, or in
olive oil, at a moderate temperature. After removal from this
medium, the agate is well washed and then digested for a short
time in sulphuric acid, which entering the pores chars or carbonizes
the absorbed sugar or oil. Certain layers of chalcedony are
practically impermeable, and these consequently remain un-
colourcd, so that an alternation of dark and white bands is
obtained, thus giving rise to an onyx. If stained too dark, the
colour may be " drawn," or lightened, by the action of nitric
acid.
Agate is stained red, so as to form carnelian and sardonyx,
by means of ferric oxide. This may be derived from any iron
compound naturally present in the stone, especially from limonite
by dehydration on baking. Some stones are " burnt " by mere
exposure to the heat of the sun, whereby the brown colour
passes to red. Usually, however, an iron-salt, like ferrous
sulphate, is artificially introduced in solution and then decom-
posed by heat, so as to form in the pores a rich red pigment.
A blue colour, supposed to render the agate rather like lapis
lazuli, is produced by using first an iron salt and then a solution
of ferrocyanide or ferricyanide of potassium; a green colour,
like that of chrysoprase, is obtained by means of salts of nickel
or of chromium; and a yellow tint is developed by the action
of hydrochloric acid.
Among the uses to which agate is applied may be mentioned
the formation of knife-edges of delicate balances, small mortars
and pestles for chemical work, burnishers and writing styles,
umbrella-handles, paper-knives, seals, brooches and other
trivial ornaments. Most of these are cut and polished in the
Oberstein district, at a very cheap rate, from South American
stones.
Numerous localities in the United States and Canada yield
agates, as described by Dr G. F. Kunz. They are abundant
in the trap rocks of the Lake Superior region, some of the finest
coming from Michlpicoten Island, Ontario. A locality on the
shore of the lake is called Agate Bay. Wood agate, or agatized
wood, is not infrequently found in Colorado, California and
elsewhere in the West, the most notable locality being the famous
/' sflicified forest " known as Chalcedony Park, in Apache county,
37°
AGATHA— AGATHOCLES
Arizona. Here there are vast number* of water-rolled logs of
lilidfied wood, in rocks of Triassic age, but only a small quantity
of the wood is fine enough for ornamental purposes. The cellular
tissue of the vegetable matter is filled, or even replaced, by
various siliceous minerals like chalcedony, jasper, crystalline
quartz and semi-opal, the silica having probably been introduced
by thermal waters. Some of the agate shows the microscopic
structure of araucarian wood. The agatized wood is sometimes
known by the Indian name of shinarump.
In India agates occur abundantly in the amygdaloidal varieties
of the Decern and Rajmahal traps, and as pebbles in the detritus
derived from these rocks. Some of the finest are found in the
agate-gravels near Ratanpur, in Rajpipla. The trade in agates
has been carried on from early times at Cambay, where the stones
are cut and polished. Agates are also worked at Jubbulpore.
In many parts of New South Wales, agates, resulting from
the disintegration of trap rocks, are common in the river-beds
and old drifts. They occur also in Queensland, as at Agate Creek,
running into the Gilbert river. South Africa likewise yields
numerous agates, especially in the gravels of the Orange and
Vaal rivers.
It should be noted that in England agates are found not only
in old lavas, like the andesites of the Cheviots, but also to a
limited extent in the Dolomitic Conglomerate, an old beach-
deposit of Triassic age in the Mendips and the neighbourhood
of Bristol. They are also found as weathered pebbles in the
drift of Lichfield in Staffordshire.
For Scottish agates tee M. F. Heddle, " On the Structure of
Agates," Trans. Geolog. Soe. Glasgow, vol. xi. part ii., 1906, p. 153;
and Mineralogy of Scotland (1001), vol. L p. 58; J. G. Good-,
child, Proc. Phys. Soc. Edinburgh, vol. xiv., 1899, p. 191. For the
agate-industry see G. Lange, Die Halbedelsteine (Kreuznach, 1868).
For American agates, G. F. Kunz, Genu and Precious Stones
of North America (1890), p. 128. For agates in general see
Max Bauer's Precious Stones, translated by L. J. Spencer (London,
1904). (F- W. R.*)
AGATHA, SAINT, the patron saint of Catania, Sicily, where
her festival is celebrated on the 5th of February. The legend
is that she was a native of Sicily (probably of Catania, though
Palermo also claims her), of noble birth and great beauty. She
repelled the advances of the Roman prefect sent by the emperor
Dedus to govern Sicily, and was by his orders brutally tortured
and finally sent to the stake. As soon as the fire was lighted,
an earthquake occurred, and the people insisted on her release.
She died in prison on the 5th of February 951. The rescue of
Catania from fire during an eruption of Mount Etna was later
attributed to St Agatha's veil.
AQATHANQELUS, Acathange or Akathanjcelos, Armenian
historian, lived during the 4th century, and wrote a History
of Ike Reign of Dertad, or Tiridoles, and of the Preaching of
St Gregory the Illuminator. The text of this history has been
considerably altered, but it has always been in high favour with
the Armenians. It has been translated into several languages,
and Greek and Latin translations are found in the Acta Sanctorum
BoUandistarum, tome viii. As known to us the history consists of
three parts, a history of St Gregory and his companions, the doc-
trine of Gregory, and the conversion of Armenia to Christianity.
See V. Langloia, Collection des kistoriens ancient et modernes de
VArmtnie (Pans, 1868).
AOATHARCHIDES, or Agathabchvs, of Cnidus, Greek his-
torian and geographer, lived in the time of Ptolemy Philometor
(181-146 B.C.) and his successors. Amongst other works, he
wrote treatises on Asia, Europe and The Red Sea. Interesting
extracts from the last, of some length, are preserved in Photius
(cod. 213), who praises the style of the author, which was
modelled on that of Thucydides.
See H. Leopoldi, De Agatharchide Cnidio Dissertatio (1893) : C. W.
M filler, Fragmenta Histoneorum Graecorum, iii., and Geograpkt Graeei
Minores, I; E. H. Bunbury, Hist, of Ancient Geography, ii. (1879).
AGATHARCHUS, an Athenian painter of the 5th century B.C.
He is said by Vitruvius to have been the first to paint a scene for
the acting of tragedies. Hence some writers, such as Karl
Woermann, have supposed that he introduced perspective and
illusion into painting. This is a mistaken view, for ancient
writers know nothing of canvas scenes; the background painted
by Agatharchus was the wooden front of the stage building, and
it was painted, not with reference to any particular play, but at
a permanent decorative background, representing no doubt a
palace or temple. Agatharchus is said to have been seized by
Alcibiades and compelled by him to paint .the interior of his
house, which shows that at the time (about 435 B.C.) decorative
painting of rooms was the fashion.
AOATHIAS (c. a.d. 536-582), of Myrina in Aeolis, Greek poet
and historian. He studied law at Alexandria, completed ha
training at Constantinople and practised as an advocate (scheks-
ticus) in the courts. Literature, however, was his favourite
pursuit. He wrote a number of short love-poems in epic metre,
called Dapkniaca. He next put together a kind of anthology,
containing epigrams by earlier and contemporary poets and bin-
self, under the title of a Cycle of New Epigrams. About a hundred
epigrams by Agathias have been preserved in the Greek Antho-
logy and show considerable taste and elegance. After the death
of Justinian (565), some of Agathias's friends persuaded him to
write the history of his own times. This work, in five books,
begins where Procopius ends, and is the chief authority for the
period 55 2-558. It deals chiefly with the struggles of the Byzan-
tine army, under the command of the eunuch Naxses, against
the Goths, Vandals, Franks and Persians. The author prides
himself on his honesty and impartiality, but he is lacking is
judgment and knowledge of facts; the work, however, is valuable
from the importance of the events of which it treats. Gibbon
contrasts Agathias as/' a poet and rhetorician " with Procopius
" a statesman and soldier."
Authorities.— Editio princeps, by B. Vulcaidus (1594); in the
ann Corpus Scriptorum Bye. Hist., by B. G. Niebuhr (1828); ia
Migne, Patrologia Graeca, IxxxviiL; L. Dtndorf, Historic* Greed
Minores (1871); W. S. Teuffel," Agathias von Myrine," in PhUo-
ktgus 0. 1846); C. Krumbacher, Geschichte dor byumtuuschen
Litteratur (2nd ed. 1897).
AGATHO, pope from 678 to 681, was born in Sicily. He is
noteworthy as the pdfw who ordered St Wilfrid to be restored to
his bishopric at York in 679, and as the first to cease payment
of the tribute hitherto paid on election to the emperor at Con-
stantinople. It was during his pontificate that the 6th oecumenical
council was held at Constantinople, to which he sent his legates
and those from a Roman council held in 679. Agatho died 00
the zoth of January 681.
AOATHOCLB8 (361-289 B.C.), tyrant of Syracuse, was born at
Thermae Himeraeae (mod. Termini Imerese) in Sicily. The son
of a potter who had removed to Syracuse, he learned his father's
trade, but afterwards entered the army. In 333 he married the
widow of his patron Damas, a distinguished and wealthy citizen.
He was twice banished for attempting to overthrow the oligar-
chical party in Syracuse (q.v.) ; in 317 he returned with an army
of mercenaries under a solemn oath to observe the democratic
constitution which was then set up. Having banished or
murdered some 10,000 citizens, and thus made himself master
of Syracuse, he created a strong army and fleet and subdued the
greater part of Sicily. War with Carthage followed. In 310
Agathodes, defeated and besieged in Syracuse, took the desperate
resolve of breaking through the blockade and attacking the
enemy in Africa. After several victories he was at last completely
defeated (306) and fled secretly to Sicily. After concluding peace
with Carthage, Agathodes styled himself king of Sicily, and
established his rule over the Greek cities of the island more firmly
than ever. Even in his old age he displayed the same restless
energy, and Is said to have been meditating a fresh attack on
Carthage at the time of his death. His last years were hamerri
by ill-health and the turbulence of his grandson Archagathus, at
whose instigation he is said to have been poisoned; according to
others, he died a natural death. He was a born leader of mercen-
aries, and, although he did not shrink from cruelty to gain his
ends, he afterwards showed himself a nuld and popular "tyrant"
See Justin xxii., xsdii.; Diodorus Siculus six., xxL, ndl (foflewt
generally Timaeut who had a special grudge against Agathoctf);
Polybtus ix. 23; Schubert, Geschichte des AgathohUs (if ~
History of Greece, oh. 97 ; also Sicily, History.
r(i887); Greta,
AGATHODAEMON— AGDE
371
ASATBODAIHOM, la Greek mythology, the " good spirit "
of cornfields and vineyards. It was the custom of the Greeks to
drink a cup of pure wine in his honour at the end of each meal
(Aristophanes, £prftaf ,xo6). He was also regarded as the protect-
ing spirit of the state and of individuals. He was often accom-
panied by 'AyaJH) Tdxv (good fortune), and in this aspect may be
compared with the Roman Bonus Eventus (Pliny, Nat Hist,
xxxvi. S3), and Genius. He is represented in works of art in the
form of a serpent, or of a young man with a cornucopia and a
bowl in one hand, and a poppy *&d ears .of corn in the other.
See Gerhard, Cher Agaikoddmon und Bona Dea (Berlin, 1849).
AGATHQDAEMOMt of Alexandria, map designer, probably
lived in the rad century aj>. Some MSS. of the Geography of
Ptolemy contain twenty-seven maps, which are stated to have
been drawn by Agathodaemon of Alexandria, who " delineated
the whole world according to the eight books of Ptolemy's
geography." As Ptolemy speaks of HlMurcf to accompany his
treatise, these maps were probably the work of a contemporary
acting under his instructions. About 1470 Nicolaus Doris, a
Benedictine monk, brought out a revised edition of them, the
names being inserted in Latin instead of Greek!.
See Bunbury, History of Amcient Geography, H.
AOATHOH (c. 44&-400 B.c) # Athenian tragic poet, friend of
Euripides and Plato, best known from his mention by Aristo-
phanes (Tkesmopkoriaausae) and in Plato's Symposium, which
dftrrihrs the banquet given to celebrate his obtaining a prise for
a tragedy (4x6). He probably died at the court of Archelaus,
king of Macedonia. He introduced certain innovations, and
Aristotle (Poetica, 0) tells us that the plot of his 'Ayftx was
original, not, as usually, borrowed from mythological subjects.
See Aristophanes, Thosmoph. 50, 106, Ecdes. 100; Plato, Symp.
Ip§ e; Plutarch, Symp. t; Aelun, Var. Hist. xiv. i\; Rittch,
Opuoomta, I ; fragments in Nauck, Traguorum Graecorum Fragmenta.
AOATHYBJI, a people of Thradan origin, who in the earliest
historical times occupied the plain of the Maris (Maros), in the
region now known as Transylvania. Thyrsi is supposed to be a
Scythian form of Tpetwot (Trausi), a Thradan tribe mentioned
by Stephanos of Bysantium. They are described by Herodotus
(iv. X04) as of luxurious habits, wearing gold ornaments (the
district is still auriferous) and having wives in common. They
tattooed their bodies (picti, Aeneid iv. 136), degrees of rank
being indicated by the manner in which this was done, and
coloured their hair dark blue. Like the Gallic Druids, they
redted their laws in a kind of sing-song to prevent their being
forgotten, a practice still in existence in the days of Aristotle
{ProbUmata, six. s8). Valerius Flaccus (Argonautica, vi. 135)
calls them Thyrsagetae, probably in reference to their cele-
bration of orgiastic rites in honour of some divinity akin to the
Thradan Dionysus. In later times the Agathyrsi were driven
farther north, and their name was unknown to the Romans in
tbdr original home.
' See Ammiaous Marosfllaus xxxl. s. 17; Pliny, Nat. Hist, Iv. u
fe6). 88; Poropooius Mala it 1. 10; W. Tomaachek, " Die alien
Thraker," in Sitaungsber. dor philosophiseh-kistorischen Klosse dor
btdserl. Abod. dor Wise, exxviii. (Vienna, 1893).
AGAVE, a large botanical genus of the natural order Amarylli-
daceae, chiefly Mexican, but occurring also in the southern and
western United States and in central and tropical South America.
The plants have a large rosette of thick fleshy leaves generally
ending in a sharp noint and with a spiny margin; the stout stem
is usually short, the leaves apparently springing from the root
They grow slowly and flower but once after a number of years,
when a tall stem or " mast " grows from the centre of the leaf-
rosette and bears a large number of shortly tubular flowers.
After development of fruit the plant dies down, but suckers are
frequently produced from the base of the stem which become
new plants. The most familiar spedes is Agave americana (see
fig.), a native of tropical America, the so-called century plant
or American aloe (the maguey of Mexico). The number of years
before flowering occurs depends on the vigour of the individual,
the richness of the soil and the climate; during these years the
plant is storing in its fleshy leaves the nourishment required for
the effort of flowering. During the development of the inflor-
escence there is a rush of sap to the base of the young flower-
stalk. In the case of A. americana and other spedes this is used
by the Mexicans to make their national beverage, pulque; the
flower shoot is cut out and the sap collected and subsequently
fermented. By distillation a spirit called mescal is prepared.
The leaves of several spedes yield fibre, as for instance, A. rigida
var. sisalana, sisal hemp (?.v.), A. deciptcn*, false sisal hemp;
A. americana is the source of pita fibre, and is used as a fibre
plant in Mexico, the, West Indies and southern Europe. The
flowering stem of the last named, dried and cut in slices, forms
Agave americana, Century plant or American aloe.
U Flower ; 2, same flower split open above the
ovary ; 3, ovary cut across.
Pram UM Bctmittl Mag csfaw, by pennkatoo of Lovell IUtv« and Co.
natural razor strops, and the expressed juice of the leaves will
lather in water like soap. In the Madras Presidency the plant
is extensively used for hedges along railroads. Agave americana,
century plant, was introduced into Europe about the middle of
the 16th century and is now widely cultivated for its handsome
appearance; in the variegated forms the leaf has a white or
yellow marginal or central stripe from base to apex. As the
leaves unfold from the centre of the rosette the impression of the
marginal spines is very conspicuous on the still erect younger
leaves. The plants are usually grown in tubs and put out in
the summer months, but in the winter require to be protected
from frost. They mature very slowly and die after flowering,
but are easily propagated by the offsets from the base of the
stem.
AGDE, a town of southern Prance, in the department of
Herault, on the left bank of the river of that name, a} m. from
the Mediterranean Sea and 32 m. S.W. of Montpellier on the
Southern railway. Pop. (1006) 7146. The town lies at the foot
of an extinct volcano, the Montague St Loup, and is built of
black volcanic basalt, which gives it a gloomy appearance.
Overlooking the river is the church of St Andre*, which dates
partly from the 12th century, and, till the Revolution, was a
cathedral. It is a plain and massive structure with crenelated
walls, and has the aspect of a fortress rather than of a church.
The exterior is diversified by arched recesses forming machicola-
tions, and the same architectural feature is reproduced In the
square tower which rises like a donjon above the building.
The Canal du Midi, or Languedoc canal, uniting the Garonne
with the Mediterranean, passes under the walls of the town,
37+
AGENT-GENERAL— AGGLOMERATE
courtiers, or those whose functions were more distinctly confined
to transactions in merchandise, have been mixed up with those
applicable to agents de change. Down to the year 157s both
functions were tree; but at that period, partly for financial
reasons, a system of licensing was adopted at the suggestion
of the chancellor, l'Hdpital. Among the other revolutionary
measures of the year 1791, the professions of agent and courtier
were again opened to the public. Many of the financial con-
vulsions of the ensuing years, which were due to more serious
causes, were attributed to this indiscriminate removal of re-
strictions, and they were reimposed in i£oi. From that period
regulations have been made from time to time as to the quali-
fications of agents, the security to be found by them and the
like. They are now regarded as public officers, appointed, with
certain privileges and duties, by the government to act as
intermediaries in negotiating transfers of public funds and com-
mercial stocks and for dealing in metallic currency. (See Stock
Exchange: France,)
In diplomacy the term " agent " was originally applied to all
" diplomatic agents," including ambassadors. With the evolu-
tion of the diplomatic hierarchy, however, the term gradually
sank until it was technically applied only to the lowest class
of " diplomatic agents," without a representative character and
of a status and character so dubious that, hy the regulation
of the congress of Vienna, they were wholly excluded from the
immunities of the diplomatic service. (See Diplomacy.)
AGENT-GENERAL, the term given to a representative in
England of one of the self-governing British colonies. Agents-
general may be said to hold a position mid-way between agents
of provinces and ambassadors of foreign countries. They are
appointed, and their expenses and salaries provided, by the
governments of the colonics they represent, viz. Cape of Good
Hope, Natal, the Transvaal, New South Wales, Queensland,
South Australia, Tasmania, Victoria, Western Australia, New
Zealand and Canada (whose representatives are termed high
commissioners). Their duties are to look after the political and
economic interests of their colonies in London, to assist in all
financial and commercial matters in which their colonies may be
concerned, such as shipping arrangements and rates of freight,
cable communications and rates, tenders for public works, ftc.,
and to make known the products of their colonies. Those colonies
which are not under responsible government are represented
in London by crown agents.
AOESANDER, a Rhodian sculptor, whose title to fame is
that he is mentioned by Pliny (Nat. Hist, xxxvi 37) as author
(with Polydorus and Athenodorus) of the group of the Laocoon.
Inscriptions recently found at Lindus in Rhodes date Agesander
and Athenodorus to the period 42-21 B.C. The date of the
Laocoon seems thus finally settled, after long controversy. It
represents the culmination of a sentimental or pathetic tendency
in art, which is prominent in the somewhat earlier sculpture of
Pergamum. (See Greek Art.)
AGES1LAUS II., king of Sparta, of the Eurypontid family,
was the son of Archidamus II. and Eupolia, and younger step-
brother of Agis II., whom he succeeded about 401 B.C. Agis had,
indeed, a son Leotychides, but he was set aside as illegitimate,
current rumour representing him as the son of Aldbiades.
Agesilaus' success was largely due to Lysander, who hoped to
find in him a willing tool for the furtherance of his political
designs; in this hope, however, Lysander was disappointed,
and the increasing power of Agesilaus soon led to his downfall.
In 396 Agesilaus was sent to Asia with a force of 2000 Neoda-
modes (enfranchized Helots) and 6000 allies to secure the Greek
cities against a Persian attack. On the eve of sailing from Aulis
he attempted to offer a sacrifice, as Agamemnon had done before
the Trojan expedition, but the Thebans intervened to prevent
it, an insult for which he never forgave them. On his arrival
at Ephesus a three months' truce was concluded with Tissa-
phernes, the satrap of Lydia and Caria, but negotiations con-
ducted during that time proved fruitless, and on its termination
Agesilaus raided Phrygia, where he easily won immense booty
since Tissaphernes had concentrated his troops in Caria. After
spending the winter in organizing a cavalry force, he made a
successful incursion into Lydia in the spring of 305. Tithraustes
was thereupon sent to replace Tissaphernes, who paid with his
life for his continued failure. An armistice was ffrinimlrri
between Tithraustes and Agesilaus, who left the southern satrapy
and again invaded Phrygia, which he ravaged until the following
spring. He then came to an agreement with the satrap Pharns-
bazus and once more turned southward. It was said that he
was planning a campaign in the interior, or even an attack oa
Artaxerxes himself, when he was recalled to Greece owing to
the war between Sparta and the combined forces of Athens,
Thebes, Corinth, Argos and several minor states. A rapid march
through Thrace and Macedonia brought him to Thessaly, where
he repulsed the Thessalian cavalry who tried to impede him.
Reinforced by Phodan and Orchomenian troops and a Spartan
army, he met the confederate forces at Coronea in Boeotia,
and in a hotly contested battle was technically victorious, but
the success was a barren one and he had to retire by way of
Delphi to the Peloponnese. Shortly before this battle the
Spartan navy, of which he had received the supreme command,
was totally defeated off Cnidus by a powerful Persian fleet under
Conon and Pharnabazus.
Subsequently Agesilaus took a prominent part in the
Corinthian war, making several successful expeditions into
Corinthian territory and capturing Lechaeum and Piraeum.
The loss, however, of a mora, which was destroyed by Iphicrates,
neutralized these successes, and Agesilaus returned to Sparta.
In 389 he conducted a campaign in Acarnania, but two years
later the Peace of Antalcidas, which was warmly supported by
Agesilaus, put an end to hostilities. When war broke out afresh
with Thebes the king twice invaded Boeotia (378, 377), and it
was on his advice that Cleombrotus was ordered to march against
Thebes in 371. Cleombrotus was defeated at Leuctra and the
Spartan supremacy overthrown. In 370 Agesilaus tried to
restore Spartan prestige by an invasion of Mantinean territory,
and his prudence and heroism saved Sparta when her »n»wifs,
led by Epaminondas, penetrated Laconia that same year, and
again in 362 when they all but succeeded in seizing the city by
a rapid and unexpected march. The battle of Mantinea (36a),
in which Agesilaus took no part, was followed by a general peace:
Sparta, however, stood aloof, hoping even yet to recover her
supremacy. In order to gain money for prosecuting the war
Agesilaus had supported the revolted satraps, and in 361 he
went to Egypt at the head of a mercenary force to aid Tachos
against Persia. He soon transferred his services to Tachos**
cousin and rival Nectanabis, who, in return for his help, gave
him a sum of over 200 talents. On his way home Agesilaus died
at the age of 84, after a reign of some 41 years.
A man of small stature and unimpressive appearance, he was
somewhat lame from birth, a fact which was used as an argument
against his succession, an oracle having warned Sparta against
a " lame reign." He was a successful leader in guerilla warfare,
alert and quick, yet cautious— -a man, moreover, whose personal
bravery was unquestioned. As a statesman he won himself
both enthusiastic adherents and bitter enemies, but of his
patriotism there can be no doubt. He lived in the most frugal
style alike at home and in the field, and though his r«mp«frw
were undertaken largely to secure booty, he was content to
enrich the state and his friends and to return as poor as he had
set forth. The worst trait in his character is his implacable
hatred of Thebes, which led directly to the battle of Leuctra and
Sparta's fall from her position of supremacy.
See fives of Agesilaus by Xenophon (the panegyric of a friend).
Cornelius Nepos and Plutarch ; Xenophon's Hetientca and Diodorus
xiv., xv. Among modern authorities, besides the general histories of
Greece, J. C. F. Manso, Sparta, iii. 39 ft*. ; G. F. Hertzberg, Das Lobe*
monie (1884). (M. N. T.)~
AGGLOMERATE (from the Lat agglomerate, to form into a
ball, glomus, glomeris), a term used in botany, meaning crowded
in a close cluster or head, and, in geology, applied to Che
AGGLUTINATION— AGINCOURT
375
accumulations of coarse volcanic ejectamenta such as frequently
occur near extinct or active volcanoes. Agglomerates in the
geological sense, with which this article is concerned, consist
typically of blocks of various igneous rocks, mixed often with
more or less material of rudimentary origin and embedded in a
finer-grained matrix, similar in nature to the coarser fragments.
As distinguished from ordinary ash beds or tuffs, they are
essentially coarser, less frequently well-bedded; they are less
persistent and tend to occur locally, but may attain a very great
thickness. Showers of fine ash may be distributed over a wide
area of country and will form thin layers of great extent.
Coarser accumulations gather only near the actual foci of
eruption (craters, fissures, &&). When the activity of a volcanic
vent comes to an end, the orifice is often choked by masses of
debris, whkh will in time become compacted into firm agglomer-
ates. Hence rocks of this type very commonly mark the sites
of necks, the remains of once-active volcanic craters. In this
connexion they are of especial interest to geologists, as it is always
important to be able to locate the exact points at which volcanic
products, such as lavas and ash-beds, were emitted.
The blocks In agglomerates vary greatly in sire. Some are
thirty or forty feet in diameter, and weigh many tons; these
are usually pieces of the strata through which the volcano has
forced an outlet. They are never far from the crater; most of
them, In fact, lie within its boundaries, and cases are known in
which enormous masses of this kind (half an acre in area) have
been found in such situations. They are masses which have
been dislodged, by fissures and landslides, from the crater's
walls and have tumbled into the cavity. Pieces of sandstone,
limestone and shale occur in the agglomerates mixed with
volcanic materials, and very often have been baked and partly
recrystallixed by contact with the hot igneous rocks and the
gases discharged by the volcano. At Vesuvius such blocks of
altered limestone are rich in new minerals and are well known
to collectors.
Agglomerates also are usually full of volcanic bombs. These
are spongy globular masses of lava which have been shot from
the crater at a time when liquid molten lava was exposed in it,
and was frequently shattered by the sudden outbursts of steam.
These bombs were more or less viscous at the moment of ejection
and by rotation in the air acquired their spheroidal form. They
are commonly one or two feet in diameter, but specimens as
large as nine or twelve feet have been observed. There is less
variety in their composition at any volcanic centre than in the
case of the foreign blocks above described. They correspond in
nature to the lava which at the time fills the crater of the volcano,
and as this varies only very slowly the bombs belong mostly
to only a few kinds of rock and are similar in composition to the
lava flows.
Crystalline manes of a different kind occur in some numbers
in certain agglomerates. They consist of volcanic minerals
very much the same as those formed in the lavas, but exhibiting
certain peculiarities whkh indicate that they have formed slowly
under pressure at considerable depths. Hence they bear a
resemblance to plutonic igneous rocks, but are more correctly
to be regarded as agglomerations of crystals formed within the
liquid lava as it slowly rose towards the surface, and at a sub-
sequent period cast out by violent steam explosions. The
sanidinitea of the Eifel belong to this group. At Vesuvius,
Ascension, St Vincent and many other volcanoes, they form
a not inconsiderable part of the coarser ash-beds. Their
commonest minerals are olivine, anorthite, hornblende, augite,
biotite and leudte.
Agglomerates occur wherever volcanoes are known. In many
parts of Britain they attain a great development either in beds
alternating with lavas or as the material occupying necks. In the
latter case they are often penetrated by dikes. They also show a
steep, angular, funnel-shaped dip (e.g. Arthur's Seat, Edinburgh),
and may contain thin layers of day or ashy sand-stone, which
gathere d in th e crater during intervals of repose. (J. S. F.)
AGGLUTINATION (Lat. ad, and gluten, glutinare, literally to
fasten together with glue), a term used technically in philology
for the method of word-formation by which two significant
words or roots are joined together in a single word to express
a combination of the two meanings each of which retains its
force. This juxtaposition or conjoining of roots is characteristic
of languages such as the Turkish and Japanese, which are there-
fore known as agglutinative, as opposed to others, known
genericaUy as inflexional, in which differences of termination or
combinations in which all separate identity disappears are
predominant
The term was also formerly used by assodationist philosophers
for those mental associations which were regarded as peculiarly
dose. Combination in its simplest form has been called
Agglutination by W. Wundt
AGGRAVATION (from Lat ad, Increasing, and gravis,
heavy), the making anything graver or more serious, especially
of offences; also used as synonymous with "irritation." In
the canon law "aggravation" was a form 01 ecclesiastical
censure, threatening excommunication after three disregarded
admonitions.
AGGREGATION (from the Lat ad, to, gregare, to collect
together), in physics, a collective term for the forms or states
in which matter exists. Three primary " states of aggregation "
are recognised— -gaseous, liquid and solid. Generally, if a solid
be heated to a certain temperature, it mdts or fuses, assuming
the liquid condition (see Fusion); if the heating be continued
the liquid boils and becomes a vapour (see Vaporization). On
the other hand, if a gas be sufficiently cooled and compressed, it
liquefies; this transition is treated theoretically in the article
Condensation Of Gases, and experimentally in the artkle
Liquid Gases.
AGGTBLBK, a village of Hungary, in the county of Gemot,
situated to the south of .Rozsny6, on the road from Budapest
to Dobsina. Pop. (1900) 557. In the neighbourhood is the
celebrated Aggtelek or Baradla cavern, one of the largest and
most remarkable stalactite grottos in Europe. It has a length,
together with its ramifications, of over $ miles, and is formed
of two caverns— one known for several centuries, and another
discovered by the naturalist Adolf Schmidl in 1856. Two
entrances give access to the grotto, an old One extremely narrow,
and a new one, made in 1890, through which the exploration
of the cavern can be made in about 8 hours, half the time it took
before. The cavern is composed of a labyrinth of passages
and large and small halls, and is traversed by a stream. In these
caverns there are numerous stalactite structures, which, from
their curious and fantastic shapes, have received such names as
the Image of the Virgin, the Mosaic Altar, &c. The principal
parts are the Paradies with the finest stalactites, the Astro-
nomical Tower and the Beinhaus. Rats, frogs and bats form
actually the only animal life in the caves, but a great number
of antediluvian animal bones have been found here, as well
as human bones and numerous remains of prehistoric human
settlements.
AGINCOURT (Aztncourt), a village of northern France in the
department of Pas de Calais, 14 m. N.W. of St Pol by road,
famous on account of the victory, on the 25th of October 141 5, of
Henry V. of England over the French. The battle was fought in
the defile formed by the wood of Agincourt and that of Trame-
court, at the northern exit of which the army under d Albret,
constable of France, had placed itself so as to bar the way to
Calais against the English forces which had been campaigning on
the Somme. The night of the 24th of October was spent by the
two armies on the ground, and the English had but little shelter
from the heavy rain which fell. Early on the 25th, St Crispin's
day, Henry arrayed his little army (about 1000 men-alarms,
6000 archers, and a few thousands of other foot). It is probable
that the usual three " battles " were drawn up in line, each with
its archers on the flanks and the dismounted men-at-arms in the
centre; the archers being thrown forward in wedge-shaped
salients, almost exactly as at Crecy (q.v.)+ The French, on the
other hand, were drawn up in three lines, each line formed in deep
masses. They were at least four times more numerous than the
English, but restricted by the nature of the ground to the same
376
AGIO— AGIS
\
extent of front, they were unable to use their full weight (cf.
Bannockburn); further, the deep mud prevented their artillery
from taking part, and the crossbowmen were as usual relegated to
the rear of the knights and men-at-arms. All were dismounted
save a few knights and men-at-arms on the flanks, who were
intended to charge the archers of the enemy. For three hours
after sunrise there was no fighting; then Henry, finding that the
French would not advance, moved his army farther into the
defile. The archers fixed the pointed stakes, which they carried
to ward off cavalry charges, and opened the engagement with
flights of arrows. The chivalry of France, undisciplined and
careless of the lesson of Crccy and Poitiers, was quickly stung
into action, and the French mounted men charged, only to be
driven back in confusion. The constable himself headed the
leading line of dismounted men-at-arms; weighted with their
armour, and sinking deep into the mud with every step, they yet
reached and engaged the English men-at-arms; for a time the
fighting was severe. The thin line of the defenders was borne
back and King Henry was almost beaten to the ground. But at
this moment the archers, taking their hatchets, swords or other
weapons, penetrated the gaps in the now disordered French, who
could not move to cope with their unarmoured assailants, and
were slaughtered or taken prisoners to a man. The second line
of the French came on, only to be engulfed in the milie; its
leaders, like those of the first line, were killed or taken, and the
commanders of the third sought and found their death in the
battle, while their men rode off to safety. The closing scene of
the battle was a half-hearted attack made by a body of fugitives,
which led merely to the slaughter of the French prisoners, which
was ordered by Henry because he had not enough men both to
guard them and to meet the attack. The slaughter ceased when
the assailants drew off. The total loss of the English is stated at
thirteen men-at-arms (including the duke of York, grandson of
Edward III.) and about 100 of the foot. The French lost 5000 of
noble birth killed, including the constable, 3 dukes, 5 counts and
00 barons; 1000 more were taken prisoners, amongst them the
duke of Orleans (the Charles d'Orleans of literature).
See Sir Harris Nicolas, Battle of Atincourt; Fortescue, History of
Ike British Army, vol. I; and ft. B. George, Bottles of English
History.
AGIO (Ital. a wo, exchange, discount, premium), a term used
in commerce in three slightly different connexions, (a) The
variations from fixed pars or rates of exchange in the currencies
of different countries. For example, in most of the gold-standard
countries, the standard coin is kept up to a uniform point of
fineness, so that an English sovereign fresh from the mint will
bear the following constant relation to coins of other countries in
a similar condition:— £i-f res. 25-221 -mks. 20-429 -$4-867,
&c. This is what is known as the mint par of exchange. But
the mint par of exchange, say, between France and England is
not necessarily the market value of French currency in England,
or English currency in France. The balance of trade between the
various countries is the factor determining the rate of exchange.
Should the balance of trade (q.v.) be against England, money must
be remitted to France in payment of the indebtedness, but owing
to the cost for the transmission of specie there will be a demand
for bills drawn on Paris as a cheaper and more expeditious
method of sending money, and it therefore will be necessary, in
order to procure the one of the higher current value, to pay a
premium for it, called the agio. (6) The term is also used to
denote the difference in exchange between two currencies in the
same country; where silver coinage is the legal tender, agio is
sometimes allowed for payment in the more convenient form of
gold, or where the paper currency of a country is reduced below
the bullion which it professes to represent, an agio is payable on
the appreciated currency, (c) Lastly, in some states the coinage
is so debased, owing to the wear of circulation, that the real is
greatly reduced below the nominal value. Supposing that this
reduction amounts to 5%, then if 100 sovereigns were offered as
payment of a debt in England while such sovereigns were current
there at their nominal value, they would be received as just
payment; but if they were offered as payment of the same I
amount of debt in a foreign state, they would be received only at
their intrinsic value of {95, the additional £5 constituting the
agio. Where the state keeps its coinage up to a standard value
no agio is required.
A01RA (formerly San Filzppo d'Abgiro), a town of the
province of Catania, Sicily, with a railway station a| nx. to the
south of the town, 35 m. W. of Catania. Pop. (1901) 17,738- It
occupies the site of Agyrion, an ancient Sicel dty which was ruled
by tyrants, one of whom, Agyris, was the most powerful ruler in
the centre of Sicily. He was a contemporary of Dfonysius I., and
with him successfully resisted the Carthaginians when they
invaded the territory of Agyrium in 392 B.C. Agin was not
colonized by the Greeks until Timoleon drove out the last tyrant
in 339 b.c and erected various splendid buildings of which no
traces remain. Agyrion was the birthplace of the historian
Diodorus Siculus.
AGIS, the name of four Spartan kings:—
(1) Son of Eurysthenes, founder of the royal house of the
Agiadae (Pausanias iii. 2.1). His genealogy was traced through
Aristodemus, Aristomachus, Qeodaeus and Hyllus to Heracles
(Herodotus viL 204), and he belongs rather to mythology than
to history. Tradition ascribed to him the capture of the maritime
town of Helos, which resisted his attempt to curtail its guaranteed
rights, and the institution of the class of serfs called Helots (*;.».).
Ephorus op. Strabo, viiL p. 365.
(2) Son of Archidamus II., Eurypontid, commonly called
Agis L He succeeded his father, probably in 427 B.C., and from
his first invasion of Attica in 4 25 down to the close of the PeJopon-
nesian war was the chief leader of the Spartan operations on
land. After the conclusion of the peace of Nicias (421 b.c.)
he marched against the Argives in defence of Epidaurus, and
after skilful manoeuvring surrounded the Argive army, and
seemed to have victory within his grasp when he unaccountably
concluded a four months' truce and withdrew his forces. The
Spartans were indignant, and when, the Argives and their allies,
in flagrant disregard of the truce, took Arcadian Orchomenus
and prepared to march on Tegea, their fury knew no bounds,
and Agis escaped having his house rased and a fine of 100,000
drachmae imposed only by promising to atone for his error by
a signal victory. This promise he brilliantly fulfilled by routing
the forces of the Argive confederacy at the battle of Mantinea
(41S), the moral effect of which was out of all proportion to the
losses inflicted on the enemy. In the winter 4x7-416 a further
expedition to Argos resulted in the destruction of the half-
finished Long Walls and the capture of Hysiae. In 413, on the
suggestion of Alcibiades, he fortified Decelea in Attica, where he
remained directing operations until, after the battle of Aegoapo-
tami (405), he took the leading part in the blockade of Athens,
which was ended in spring 404 by the surrender of the city.
Subsequently he invaded and ravaged Elis, forcing the Eleans
to acknowledge the freedom of their perioed and to allow
Spartans to take part in the Olympic games and sacrifices. He
fell ill on his return from Delphi, where he had gone to dedicate
a tithe of the spoils, and, probably in 401, died at Sparta, where
he was buried with unparalleled solemnity and pomp.
Thuc. iii. 89, iv. a. 6, v.. vii. to. 27, viii.; Xenophoa, HtOemien.
1. 1, u. a. 3, ui. 2. 3; Diodorus xu. 35, xiii. 72, 73, 107; Fausamas
iii. 8. 3-8; Plutarch, Lysander ix. 14. 22. Alcibiades 23-2$, Lycmrgns
12, AgesilausL3.de TranquiU.Anim.6. (See Pblofonnisian War.)
(3) Son of Archidamus HI., of the Eurypontid line, commonly
called Agis II. He succeeded his father in 338 B.C., on the very
day of the battle of Chaeronea. During Alexander's Asiatic
campaign he revolted against Macedonia (3J3 B.C.) and, with
the aid of Persian money and ships and a force of 8000 Greek
mercenaries, gained considerable successes in Crete. In the
Peloponnese he routed a force under Corragus and, although
Athens held aloof, he was joined by Elis, Achaea (except Pellene)
and Arcadia, with the exception of Megalopolis, which the allies
besieged. Antipater marched rapidly to its relief at the head
of a large army, and the allied force was defeated after a desperate
struggle (33 1) and Agis was slain.
Pausanias ul 10. 3; Diodorus xv?L 48, 62, 63; Justin xfi. 1;
Quintus Curtius iv. 1, 39, vi. 1 ; Arriaa, Anabasis, u. 13.
AGISTMENT— AGNES, SAINT
377
(4) Son of EucUmidas II., of the Eurypontid family, commonly
called Agis III. He succeeded his father probably in 245 B.C.,
in his twentieth year. At this time the state had been brought
to the brink of ruin by the growth of avarice and luxury; there
was a glaring inequality in the distribution of land and wealth,
and the number of full citizens had sunk to 700, of whom about
100 practically monopolized the land. Though reared in the
height of luxury he at once determined to restore the traditional
institutions of Lycurgus, with the aid of Lysander, a descendant
of the victor of Aegospotami, and Mandrodeidas, a man of noted
prudence and courage; even his mother, the wealthy Agesistrata,
threw herself heartily into the cause. A powerful but not
disinterested ally was found in the king's uncle, Agesilaus,
who hoped to rid himself of his debts 'without losing his vast
estates. Lysander as ephor proposed on behalf of Agis that all
debts should be cancelled and that Laconia should be divided
into 19,500 lots, of which 4500 should be given to Spartiat«,
whose number was to be recruited from the best of the perioeci
and foreigners, and the remaining 15,000 to perioeci who could
bear arms. The Agiad king Leonidas having prevailed on the
council to reject this measure, though by a majority of only one,
was deposed in favour of his son-in-law Cleombrotus, who assisted
Agis in bearing down opposition by the threat of force. The
abolition of debts was carried into effect, but the land distribu-
tion was put off by Agesilaus on various pretexts. At this point
Aratus appealed to Sparta to help the Achaeans in repelling
an expected Aetolian attack, and Agis was sent to the Isthmus
at the head of an army. In his absence the open violence and
extortion of Agesilaus, combined with the popular disappoint-
ment at the failure of the agrarian scheme, brought about the
restoration of Leonidas and the deposition of Cleombrotus, who
took refuge at the temple of Apollo at Taenarum and escaped
death only at the entreaty of his wife, Leonidas's daughter
Chilonis. On his return Agis fled to the temple of Athene
Chalcioecus at Sparta, but soon afterwards he was treacherously
induced to leave his asylum and, after a mockery of a trial, was
strangled in prison, his mother and grandmother sharing the
same fate (241). Though too weak and good-natured to cope
with the problem which confronted him, Agis was characterized
by a sincerity of purpose and a blend of youthful modesty with
royal dignity, which render him perhaps the most attractive
figure in the whole of Spartan history.
See Plutarch's biography. Pausanias' accounts (ii. 8. 5, vii. 7. 3,
viti. 10. 5-8, 27. 13) of his attack on Megalopolis, his seizure of
Pcllene and his death at Mantinea fighting against the Arcadians,
Achaeans and Sicyonians arc without foundation (J. C. F. Manso,
Sparta, ui. 2. 123-127). See also Manso, op. cii. iii. 1. 276-302;
B. Niese, CesdtukU der grieckischen und maiedonischen Staaten, ii.
290-303. (M.N.T.)
AGISTMENT. To " agist " (from 0. Fr agister, derived from
glsir—LzL jacere—lo lie) is, in law, to take cattle to graze,
for a remuneration. " Agistment," in the first instance, referred
more particularly to the proceeds of pasturage in the king's
forests, but now means either (a) the contract for taking in and
feeding horses or other cattle on pasture land, for the considera-
tion of a weekly payment of money, or (6) the profit derived
from such pasturing. Agistment is a contract of bailment, and
the bailer is bound to take reasonable care of the animals entrusted
to him; he is responsible for damages and injury which result
from Ordinary casualties, if it be proved that such might have
been prevented by the exercise of great care. There is no lien
on the cattle for the price of the agistment, unless by express
agreement. Under the Agricultural Holdings Act 1883, agisted
cattle eannot be distrained on for rent if there be other sufficient
distress to be found, and if such other distress be not found, and
the cattle be distrained, the owner may redeem them on pay-
ing the price of their agistment The tithe of agistment or
" tithe of cattle and other produce of grass lands," was formally
abolished by the act of union in 1707, on a motion submitted
with a view to defeat that measure.
AGITATORS, or Adjutatobs, the name given to representa-
tives elected in 1647 by the different regiments of the English
Parliamentary army. The word really means an agent, but it
was confused with "adjutant," often called "agitant," a title
familiar to the soldiers, and thus the form "adjutator" came
into use. Early in 1647 the Long Parliament wished either to
disband many of the regiments or to send them to Ireland. The
soldiers, whose pay was largely in arrear, refused to accept
either alternative, and eight of the cavalry regiments elected
agitators, called at first commissioners, who laid their grievances
before the three generals, and whose letter was read in the House
of Commons on the 30th of April 1647. The other regiments
followed the example of the cavalry, and the agitators, who
belonged to the lower ranks of the army, were supported by
many of the officers, who showed their sympathy by signing
the Declaration of the army. Cromwell and other generals sue*
ceeded to some extent in pacifying the troops by promising the
payment of arrears for eight weeks at once; but before the return
of the generals to London parliament had again decided to
disband the army, and soon afterwards fixed the 1st of June
as the date on which this process was to begin. Again alarmed,
the agitators decided to resist; a mutiny occurred in one
regiment and the attempt at disbandment failed. Then
followed the seizure of the king by Cornet Joyce, Cromwell's
definite adherence to the policy of the army, the signing of the
manifestoes, a Humble Representation and a Solemn Engagement
and the establishment of the army council composed of officers
and agitators. Having, at an assembly on Thriplow Heath,
near Royston, virtually refused the offers made by parliament,
the agitators demanded a march towards London and the
" purging " of the House of Commons. Subsequent events are
part of the general history of England. Gradually the agitators
ceased to exist, but many of their ideas were adopted by the
Levellers (q.v.), who may perhaps be regarded as their successors.
Gardiner says of them, " Little as it was intended at the time,
nothing was more calculated than the existence of this elected
body of agitators to give to the army that distinctive political
and religious character which it ultimately bore."
See S. R. Gardiner, History of the Great Civil War, vols. iii. and tv.
(London, 1905).
AGUARDI, ANTONIO (1832- ), papal diplomatist, was
born at Cologno (Bergamo), Italy, on the 4th of September 1832.
He studied theology and canon law, and, after acting as parish
priest in his native diocese for twelve years, was sent by the pope
to Canada as a bishop's chaplain. On his return he was ap-
pointed secretary to the Propaganda. In 1884 he was created
by Leo XIII. archbishop of Caesarea in portions and sent to
India to report on the establishment of the hierarchy there. In
1887 he again visited India, to carry out the terms of the con-
cordat arranged with Portugal. The same year he was appointed
secretary to the Congregation super negotiis ecclesiae extraordi*
nor its, in 1889 became papal nuncio at Munich and in 1892
at Vienna. Allowing himself to be involved in the ecclesiastical
disputes by which Hungary was divided in 1895. he was made
the subject of formal complaint by the Hungarian government
and in 1806 was recalled. His services were rewarded by a
cardinalatc and the archbishopric of Ferrara. In 1003 he was
named vice-chancellor of the Roman Church.
AGNANO, LAOO DI, a circular lake, 5 m. W. of Naples, Italy.
It was apparently not formed until the middle ages, as it is not
mentioned by ancient writers; it was drained in 1870. It
occupied the crater of an extinct volcano, 4 m. in circumference.
On the south bank arc the Stufc di S. Germano, natural sul-
phureous vapour baths, and close by is the Grotta del Cane, from
the floor of which warm carbonic acid gas constantly rises to a
height of 18 in., the fumes of which render a dog insensible in
a few seconds. It is mentioned by Pliny (Nat. Hist. ii. 93).
Remains of an extensive Roman building and some statues
have been discovered close by.
AGNATES (Agnalt), in Roman law, persons related through
males only, as opposed to cognates. Agnation was founded on
the idea of the family held together by the patria potestas' t
cognatio involves simply the modern idea of kindred.
AGNES, SAINT, a virgin martyr of the Catholic Church. The
legend of St Agnes is that she was a Roman maid, by birth a
37«
AGNES OF MERAN— AGNOSTICISM
Christian, who suffered martyrdom when but thirteen during
the reign of the emperor Diocletian, on the 21 st of January 304.
The prefect Sempronius wished her to marry his son, and on her
refusal condemned her to be outraged before her execution, but
her honour was miraculously preserved. When led out to die
she was tied to a stake, but the faggots would not burn, where-
upon the officer in charge of the troops drew his sword and
struck off her head. St Agnes is the patron saint of young girls,
who, in rural districts, formerly indulged in all sorts of quaint
country magic on St Agnes' Eve (20th- 21st January) with a
view to discovering their future husbands. This superstition
has been immortalized in Keats's poem, " The Eve of St Agnes."
St Agnes's bones are supposed to rest in the church of her name
at Rome, originally built by Cbnstantine and repaired by Pope
Honorius in the 7U1 century. Here on her festival (21st of
January) two lambs are specially blessed after pontifical high
mass, and their wool is later woven into pallia (see Pallium).
AQNES OP HBRAN (d. xaoi), queen of France, was the
daughter of Bertold IV., duke of Meran in Tirol. She is called
Marie by some of the chroniclers. In June 1 106 she married
Philip II., king of France, who had repudiated Ingeborg of
Denmark in 1193. The pope espoused the cause of Ingeborg;
but Philip did not submit until 1200, when, interdict having
been added to excommunication, he consented to a separation
from Agnes. She died in July of the next year, at the castle
of Poissy, and was buried in the church of St Corentin, near
Nantes. Her two children by Philip II., Philip, count of Cler-
mont (d. x 234), and Mary, who married Philip, count of Namur,
were legitimized by Innocent III. in 1 201 on the demand of the
king. Little is known of the personality of Agnes, beyond the
remarkable influence which she exercised over Philip II. She
has been made the heroine of a tragedy by Francois Ponsard,
Agnes de Mir ante.
See the notes of Robert Davidsohn in PkUipp. II. August ton
Frankreich und Ingeborg (Stuttgart, 1888). A genealogical notice is
furnished by the Ckronicon of the monk Alberic (Aubry) of Trois-
Fontaincs, (Albericus Triura Fontium) in Pert*, Scripiores, vol. xxiii.
pp. 872 f., and by the Genealogia Wettinensis, ibid. p. 229.
AONESI, MARIA OABTANA (1718-1790), Italian mathe-
matician, linguist and philosopher, was born at Milan on the 16th
of May 1 7 18, her father being professor of mathematics in the
university of Bologna. When only nine years old she had such
command of Latin as to be able to publish an elaborate address
in that language, maintaining that the pursuit of liberal studies
was not improper for her sex. By her thirteenth year she had
acquired Greek, Hebrew, French, Spanish, German and other
languages. Two years later her father began to assemble in his
house at stated intervals a circle of the most learned men in
Bologna, before whom she read and maintained a series of theses
on the most abstruse philosophical questions. Records of these
meetings are given in de Brosse's Lettres sur Vltalie and in the
Propositions Philosophical, which her father caused to be
published in 1738. These displays, being probably not alto-
gether congenial to Maria, who was of a retiring disposition,
ceased in her twentieth year, and it is even said that she had
at that age a strong desire to enter a convent. Though the wish
was not gratified, she lived from that time in a retirement
almost conventual, avoiding all society and devoting herself
entirely to the study of mathematics. The most valuable result
of her labours was the Insiituzioni analiiiche ad uso delta
gioventu italiana f a work of great merit, which was published
at Milan in 1748. The first volume treats of the analysis of
finite quantities, and the second of the analysis of infinitesimals.
A French translation of the second volume by P. T. d'Antelmy,
with additions by Charles Bossut (1730-18 14), appeared at
Paris in 1775; and an English translation of the whole work
by John Colson (1680-1760), the Lucasian professor of mathe-
matics at Cambridge, was published in 1801 at the expense of
Baron Maseres. Madame Agnesi also wrote a commentary
on the Traill analytique des sections coniques of the marquis de
l*H6pital, which, though highly praised by those who saw it in
manuscript, was never published. She invented and discussed
the curve known as the " witch of Agnesi " (q.v.) or versiera.
In 1750, on the illness of her father, she was appointed by Pope
Benedict XIV. to the chair of mathematics and natural philo-
sophy at Bologna. After the death of her father in 1752 she
carried out a long-cherished purpose by giving herself to the
study of theology, and especially of the Fathers. After holding
for some years the office of directress of the Hospice Trivuloo
for Blue Nuns at Milan, she herself joined the sisterhood, and in
this austere order ended her days on the 9th of January 1790.
Her sister, Mama Texesa Agnesi (1724-1780), a well-known
Italian pianist and composer, was born at Milan in 1724. She
composed several cantatas, two pianoforte concertos and five
operas, Sofonisbe, Ciro in Armenia, Nitocri, II Re Pastore and
Insubria consortia.
See Antonio Francesco Frist, Eloge historique de MademoiseUe
Agnesi, translated by Boulard (Pans, 1807); Milcsi-Mojon. Vita
d% M. C. Agnesi (Milan, 1836); J. Boyer, "La Mathematkienae
Agnesi," in the Revue Cathotique ,'- ■ ■ ■- * --- - '-
(Paris. 1897).
nique des revues frangaises et itrangires
AONEW, DAVID HAYES (1818-1892), American surgeon,
was born in Lancaster county, Pennsylvania, on the 24th of
November 1818. He graduated from the medical department
of the university of Pennsylvania in 1838, and a few years later
set up in practice at Philadelphia and became a lecturer at the
Philadelphia School of Anatomy. He was appointed surgeon
at the Philadelphia Hospital in 1854 and was the founder of its
pathological museum. For twenty-six years (1863-1889) he was
connected with the medical faculty of the university of Penn-
sylvania, being elected professor of operative surgery in 2870
and professor of the principles and practice of surgery in the
following year. From 1865 to 1884— except for a brief interval
— he was a surgeon at the Pennsylvania Hospital. During the
American Civil War he was consulting surgeon in the Mower
Army Hospital, near Philadelphia, and acquired considerable
reputation for his operations in cases of gun-shot wounds. He
attended as operating surgeon when President Garfield was
fatally wounded by the bullet of an assassin in 1881. He was
the author of several works, the most important being The
Principles and Practice of Surgery (1878-1883). He died at
Philadelphia on the 22nd of March 1892.
AGNI, the Hindu God of Fire, second only to India in the
power and importance attributed to him in Vedic mythology.
His name is the first word of the first hymn of the Rig-veda:
" Agni, I entreat, divine appointed priest of sacrifice." The
sacrifices made to Agni pass to the gods, for Agni is a messenger
from and to the gods; but, at the same time, he is more than a
mere messenger, he is an immortal, for another hymn runs:
" No god indeed, no mortal is beyond the might of thee, the
mighty One. ..." He is a god who lives among men, mira-
culously reborn each day by the fire-drill, by the friction of the
two sticks which are regarded as his parents; he is the supreme
director of religious ceremonies and duties,and even has the power
of influencing the lot of man in the future world. He is wor-
shipped under a threefold form, fire on earth, lightning and the
sun. His cult survived the metamorphosis of the ancient Vedic
nature-worship into modern Hinduism, and there still are in
India fire-priests (agnihotri) whose duty is to superintend his
worship. The sacred fire-drill for procuring the temple-fire by
friction— symbolic of Agni's daily miraculous birth— is still used.
In pictorial art Agni is always represented as red, two-faced,
suggesting his destructive and beneficent qualities, and with
three legs and seven arms.
See W. J. Wflkins, Hindu Mythology (London, 1900); A. A.
Macdonell, Vedic Mythology (Strassburg, 1897).
AONOETAB (Gr. lyvoiw, to be ignorant of), a monophysite
sect who maintained that Christ's human nature was like other
men's in all respects, including limited knowledge. Its founder
was Themistius, a deacon in Alexandria in the 6th century.
The sect was anathematized by Gregory the Great
AONOI0L0OY (from Gr. ayvota, ignorance), the science or
study of ignorance, which determines its quality and conditions.
AGNOSTICISM. The term "agnostic" was invented by
Huxley in 1869 to describe the philosophical and religious
attitude of those who hold that we can have scientific or real
AGNOSTICISM
379
knowledge of phenomena onry r and that 10 far a* what may lie
behind phenomena a concerned — God, immortality, &c. — there
is no evidence which entitles u* either to deny or affirm anything.
The attitude itself is as old as Scepticism (q.v.); but the expres-
sions " agnostic " and " agnosticism " were applied by Huxley
to sum up his deductions from those contemporary developments
of metaphysics with which the names of Hamilton (" the Un-
conditioned ") and Herbert Spencer (" the Unknowable ") were
associated; and It is important, therefore, to fix precisely his
own intellectual standpoint in the matter. Though Huxley only
began to use the term " agnostic " in 1869, his opinions had taken
shape some time before that date. In a letter to Charles
Kingsley (September 2*3, i860) he wrote very fully concerning
his beliefs:—
" I neither affirm nor deny the immortality of man. I See no reason
for believing it, but, on the other hand, I have no meant of disprov-
ing it. I have no a priori objections to the doctrine. No man who
has to deal daily and hourly with nature can trouble himself about
a priori difficulties. Give me such evidence as would justify roe in
believing in anything else, and I will believe that. Why should I not?
It is not half so wonderful as the conservation of force or the inde-
structibility of matter. ...
M It is no use to talk to me of analogies and probabilities. I know
what I mean when I say I believe in the law of the inverse squares, and
I will not rest my life and my hopes upon weaker convictions. . . .
*• That my personality is the surest thing I know may be true. But
the attempt to conceive what it is leads roe into mere verbal subtleties.
I have champed up all that chaff about the ego and the non-ego,
sandph< .... -•-
I phenomena, and all the rest of it, too often not to know
that In attempting even to think of these questions, the human in-
tellect flounders at once out of its depth."
And again, to the same correspondent, the 5th of May 1863: —
M I have never had the least sympathy with the a priori reasons
against orthodoxy, and I have by nature and disposition the greatest
possible antipathy to all the atheistic and infidel school. Neverthe-
less I know that I am, in spite of myself, exactly what the Christian
would call, and, so far as I can see, is justified in calling, atheist and
infidel. I cannot see one shadow or tittle of evidence that the great
unknown underlying the phenomenon of the universe stands to us
in the relation of a Father-— loves us and cares for us as Christianity
asserts. So with regard to the other great Christian dogmas, im-
mortality of soul ana future state of rewards and punishments, what
possible objection can I — who am compelled perforce to believe in the
immortality of what we call Matter and Force, and in a very un-
mistakable present state of rewards and punishments for our deeds-
have to these doctrines? Give me a scintilla of evidence, and I am
seady to jump at them."
Of the origin of the name " agnostic " to cover this attitude,
Huxley gave (CoU Ess v. pp. 237-239) the following account:—
"When I reached intellectual maturity, and began to ask myself
whether I was an atheist, a tbeist or a pantheist, a materialist or an
idealist, a Christian or a freethinker, I found that the more I learned
and reflected, the less ready was the answer. The one thing on which
most of these good people were agreed was the one thing in which
1 differed from them. They were quite sure they had attained a
certain ' gnosis ' — had more or less successfully sofved the problem
of existence; while I was quite sure that I had not, and had a pretty
strong conviction that the problem was insoluble. This was my
situation when 1 had the good fortune to find a place among the
members of that remarkable confraternity of antagonists, the Meta-
physical Society. Every variety of philosophical and theological
opinion was represented there; most of my colleagues were -ists of
one sort or another: and I, the man without a rag of a belief to cover
himself with, could not fail to have gome of the uneasy feelings which
must have beset the historical fox when, after leaving the trap in
which his tail remained, he presented himself to his normally elon-
gated companions. So I took thought, and invented what I conceived
to be the appropriate title of ' agnostic. It came into my head
as suggestively antithetic to the ' gnostic of Church history, who
professed to know so much about the very things of which I was
ignorant. To my great satisfaction the term took."
This account is confirmed by R. H. Hutton, who in 1881 wrote
that the word " was suggested by Huxley at a meeting held
previous to the formation of the now defunct Metaphysical
Society at Mr Knowles's house on Clapham Common in 1869, in
my hearing. He took it from St Paul's mention of the altar to
the Unknown God.'* Hutton here gives a variant etymology for
the word, which may be therefore taken as partly derived from
aTffasrrot (the " unknown " God), and partly from an antithesis
to " gnostic "; but the meaning remains the same in either case.
The name, as Huxley said, " took "; it was constantly used by
Hutton in the Spectator and became ft fashionable label for
contemporary unbelief in Christian dogma. Hutton himself
frequently misrepresented the doctrine by describing it as " belief
in an unknown and unknowable God"; but agnosticism as
defined by Huxley meant not belief, but absence of belief, as much
distinct from belief on the one hand as from disbelief on the other;
it was the half-way house between the two, where all questions
were " open." All that Huxley asked for was evidence, either
for or against; but this he believed it impossible to get Occa-
sionally he too mis-stated the meaning of the word he had
invented, and described agnosticism as meaning " that a man
shall not say he knows or believes what he has no scientific
ground for professing to know or believe." But as the late Rev.
A. W. Momerie remarked, this would merely be " a definition
of honesty; in that sense we ought all to be agnostics."
Agnosticism really rests on the doctrine of the Unknowable,
the assertion that concerning certain objects— among them the
Deity— we never can have any " scientific " ground for belief.
This way of solving, or passing over, the ultimate problems of
thought has had many followers in cultured drcles imbued with
the new physical science of the day, and with disgust for the
dogmatic creeds of contemporary orthodoxy; and its outspoken
and even aggressive vindication by physicists of the eminence of
Huxley had a potent influence upon the attitude taken towards
metaphysics, and upon the form which subsequent Christian
apologetics adopted. As a nickname the term "agnostic " was
soon misused to cover any and every variation of scepticism, and
just as popular preachers confused it with atheism (q.v.) in their
denunciations, so the callow freethinker— following Tennyson's
path of " honest doubt "—classed himself with the agnostics,
even while he combined an instinctively Christian theism with a
facile rejection of the historical evidences for Christianity.
The term is now less fashionable, though the state of mind
persists. Huxley's agnosticism was a natural consequence of
the intellectual and philosophical conditions of the 'sixties, when
clerical intolerance was trying to excommunicate scientific dis-
covery because it appeared to clash with the book of Genesis.
But as the theory of evolution was accepted, a new spirit was
gradually introduced into Christian theology, which has turned
the controversies between religion and science into other channels
and removed the temptation to flaunt a disagreement. A
similar effect has been produced by the philosophical reaction
against Herbert Spencer, and by the perception that the canons
of evidence required in physical science must not be exalted into
universal rules of thought. It does not follow that justification
by faith must be eliminated in spiritual matters where sight
cannot follow, because the physicist's duty and success lie in
pinning belief solely on verification by physical phenomena, when
they alone are in question, and for mankind generally, though
possibly not for an exceptional man like Huxley, an impotent
suspension of judgment on such issues as a future life or the Being
of God is both unsatisfying and demoralizing.
It is impossible here to do more than indicate the path out of
the difficulties raised by Huxley in the letter to Kingsley quoted
above. They involve an elaborate discussion, not only of
Christian evidences, but of the entire subject-matter alike of
Ethics and Metaphysics, of Philosophy as a whole, and of the
philosophies of individual writers who have dealt in their different
ways with the problems of existence and epislemology It is,
however, permissible to point out that, as has been exhaustively
argued by Professor J Ward in his Gifford lectures for 1 896-1 808
(Naturalism and Agnosticism, 1899), Huxley's challenge ("I
know what I mean when I say I believe in the law of the inverse
squares, and I will not rest my life and my hopes upon weaker
convictions ") is one which a spiritualistic philosophy need not
shrink from accepting at the hands of naturalistic agnosticism.
If, as Huxley admits, even putting it with unnecessary force
against himself," the immortality of man is not half so wonderful
as the conservation of force or the indestructibility of matter,"
the question then is, how far ■ critical analysis of our belief in
the last-named doctrines will leave us in a position to regard
them as the bat stage in systematic thinking It is the pitfall
38o
AGNUS DEI— AGORA
of physical science, immersed as its students are apt to be in
problems dealing with tangible facts in the world of experience,
that there is a tendency among them to claim a superior status
of objective reality and finality for the laws to which their data
are found to conform. But these generalizations are not ultimate
truths, when we have to consider the nature of experience itself.
" Because reference to the Deity will not serve for a physical
explanation in physics, or a chemical explanation in chemistry,
it does not therefore follow," as Professor Ward says (op. tit.
vol. i. p. 24), " that the sum total of scientific knowledge is
equally intelligible whether we accept the theistic hypothesis
or not. It is true that every item of scientific knowledge is con-
cerned with some definite relation of definite phenomena, and
with nothing else; but, for all that, the systematic organisation
of such items may quite well yield further knowledge, which
transcends the spedal relations of definite phenomena."
At the opening of the era of modern scientific discovery, with
all its fruitful new generalizations, the still more highly generalized
laws of epistemology and of the spiritual constitutionof man might
well baffle the physicist and lead his intellect to " flounder."
It is fundamentally necessary, in order to avoid such floundering,
that the " knowledge " of things sensible should be kept distinct
from the " knowledge " of things spiritual; yet in practice they
arc constantly confused. When the physicist limits the term
" knowledge " to the conclusions from physical apprehensions,
his refusal to extend it to conclusions from moral and spiritual
apprehensions is merely the consequence of an illegitimate
definition. He relieson the validity of his perceptions of physical
facts; but the saint and the theologian are no less entitled to
rely on the validity of their moral and spiritual experiences. In
each case the data rest on an ultimate basis, undemonstrable,
indeed, to any one who denies them (even if he be called mad for
doing so), except by the continuous process of working out their
own proofs, and showing their consistency with, or necessity in,
the scheme of things terrestrial on the one band, or the mind
and happiness of man on the other. The tests in each case differ;
and it is as irrelevant for the theologian to dispute the " know-
ledge " of the physicist, by arguments from faith and religion,
as it is for the physicist to deny the " knowledge " of the theo-
logian from the point of view of one who ignores the possibility
of spiritual apprehension altogether. On the ground of secular
history and secular evidence both might reasonably meet, as
regards the facts, though not perhaps as to their interpretation;
but the reason why they ultimately differ is to be found simply
in the difference of their mental attitude towards the nature of
" knowledge "—itself a difference of opinion as to the nature
of man.
In addition to the literature cited above, see L. Stephen, An
Agnostic's Apology (1893); R. Flint, Agnosticism (1903); T. Bailey
Saunders, The Quest of Faith, chap. ii. (1899); A. W. Benn. English
Rationalism in the XlXlh Century (London, 1906). (H. Ch.)
AGNUS DEI, the figure of a lamb bearing a cross, symbolical
of the Saviour as the " Lamb of God." The device is common
in ecclesiastical art, but the name is especially given in the
Church of Rome to a small cake made of the wax of the Easter
candles and impressed with this figure. Since the 9th century
it has been customary for the popes to bless these cakes, and
distribute them on the Sunday after Easter among the faithful,
by whom they arc highly prized as having the power to avert
evil. In modem times the distribution has been limited to
persons of distinction, and is made by the pope on his accession
and every seven years thereafter
Agnus Dei is also the popular name for the anthem beginning
with these words, which is said to have been introduced into
the missal by Pope Scrgius I. (687-701). Based upon John i. 29,
the Latin form is Agnus Dei, qui tollis peccata mundi, miserere
nobis. In the celebration of the mass it is repeated three times
before the communion, and it is also appended to many of the
litanies. By the judgment in the case of " Read and others v.
The Bishop of Lincoln " it was decided in 1890 that the singing
of the Agnus Dei in English by the choir during the administra-
tion of the Holy Communion, provided that the reception of
the elements be not delayed till its conclusion, is sot illegal is)
the Church of England.
For the various ceremonies in the blessing of the Agma Dei see
A. Vacant, Did. dt UUoiogU (cols. 605-613).
AOOBARD (c. 779-840), Carolingian prelate and reformer,
became coadjutor to Leidrad, archbishop of Lyons, in 813, and
on the death of the latter succeeded him in the see (8x6). We
know nothing of his early life nor of his descent He pursued
the same vigorous policy as his predecessor, who had been one
of Charlemagne's most active agents in the reformation of the
Church. He was strongly opposed to the schemes of the empress
Judith for a redivision of the empire in favour of her son Charles
the Bald, which he regarded as the cause of all the subsequent
evils, and supported Lothair and Pippin against their father the
emperor Louis I. Deposed in 835 by the council of ThionviBe,
he made his peace with the emperor and Was reinstated in 837.
Agobard occupies an important place in the Carolingian re-
naissance. He wrote extensively not only theological works
but also political pamphlets and dissertations directed against
popular superstitions. These last works are unique in the
literature of the time. He denounced the trial by ordeal of fire
and water, the belief in witchcraft, and the ascription of tempests
to magic.maintained the Carolingianopposition to image-worship,
but carried his logic farther and opposed the adoration of the
saints. The basis for this crusade was theological, not scientific;
but it reveals a clear intellect and independent judgment. In
his purely theological works Agobard was strictly orthodox,
except that he denied the verbal inspiration of the Scriptures.
Agobard was reverenced as a saint in Lyons, and although his
canonization is disputed his life is given by the Bollandists,
Acta Sanctorum, Jun. ii. 748.
Bibliography.— Agobard '$ works were lost untO 1605, when a
manuscript was discovered in Lyons and published by Paptrius
Masson, again by Baluxe in 1666. For later editions see Pott hast,
BibHotheca Historico Medii Aevi. The life of Agobard in Ebert's
Ceschickte der Litteratur des MitUlalUrs (1880), Band ii., is still one
of the best to consult. For further indications see A. Molinicr.
Sources de Vhistoire dt France, L p. 235.
AGONAUA, in ancient Rome, festivals celebrated on the
9th of January, 1 7th of March, 2 1st of May, and 1 1 th of December
in each year in honour of various divinities (Ovid, Fasti, I
319-332). The word is derived either from agonia, " a victim,"
or from agonium, " a festival."
AGONIC LINES (from Gr. a-, privative, and ytMa, an angle),
the term given to the imaginary lines on the earth's surface
connecting points at which the magnetic needle points to the
geographical north and south. (See Magnetism, Tex*estriai_ )
AGONOTHETES, in ancient Greece, the president or super-
intendent of the sacred games. At first the person who instituted
the games and defrayed the expenses was the Agonothetes; but
in the great public games, such as the Olympic and Pythian,
these presidents were the representatives of different states, or
were chosen from the people in whose country the games were
celebrated; thus at the Panathenaic festival at Athens ten
athlotketae were elected for four years to superintend the various
contests. They were variously called eiav/ir$rot, 0pa/fcvroi,
dYMPapxeu, 6.yo)vo6Uai, aBXoOkroj, (at Athens), £a/9Ao0xot or
ba&bovbitx* (from the rod or sceptre emblematic of their
authority), but their functions were generally the same.
AGORA, originally, in primitive times, the assembly of the
Greek people, convoked by the king or one of his nobles. The
right of speech and vote was restricted to the nobles, the people
being permitted to express their opinion only by signs of applause
or disapproval. The word then came to be used for the place
where assemblies were held, and thus from its convenience as
a meeting-place the agora became in most of the dries of Greece
the general resort for public and especially commercial inter-
course, corresponding in general with the Roman forum. At
Athens, with the increase of commerce and political interest, it
was found advisable to call public meetings at the Pnyx or the
temple of Dionysus; but the important assemblies, such as
meetings for ostracism, were held in the agora. In the best days
of Greece the agora was the place where nearly all public traffic
AGORACRITUS— AGRA
381
wasconducted. It was most frequented in the forenoon, and then
only by men. Slaves did the greater part of the purchasing,
though even the noblest citizens of Athens did not scruple to
buy and sell there. Citizens were allowed a free market;
foreigners and metics had to pay a tolL Public festivals also
were celebrated in the open area of the agora. At Athens the
agora of classical times was adorned with trees planted by Cimon ;
around it numerous public buildings were erected, such as the
council chamber and the law courts (for its topography, see
Athens). Pausanias (especially vi. 24) is the great architectural
authority on the agorae of various Greek cities, and details are
aJso given by Vitruvius (v. 1).
AGORACRITUS, a Parian and Athenian sculptor of the age
of Phidias, and said to have been his favourite pupiL His most
noted work was the statue at Rhamnus of Nemesis, by some
attributed to Phidias himself. Of this statue part of the head
is in the British Museum; some fragments of the reliefs which
adorned the pedestal are in the museum at Athens.
AGORANOMI, magistrates in the republics of Greece, whose
position and duties were in many respects similar to those of the
aediles of Rome. In Athens there were ten, chosen annually by
lot, five of whom took charge of the city and five of the Peiraeus.
They maintained order in the markets, settled disputes, examined
the quality of the articles exposed for sale, tested weights and
measures, collected the harbour dues and enforced the shipping
regulations.
AGORDAT, a town of Eritrea, N.E. Africa, on the route
between Massawa and Kassala. At Agordat on the sxst of
December 1893 the Italian troops under Colonel Arimondi
inflicted a severe defeat on the followers of the khalifa. Agordat
is protected by a strong fort (See Eritrea and Sudan, History.)
AGOSTHO, LEONARDO, Italian antiquary of the 17th cen-
tury, was born at Siena. After being employed for some time
to collect works of art for the Barberini palace, he was appointed
by Pope Alexander VIL superintendent of antiquities in the
Roman states. He issued a new edition of Paruta's Sicilian
Medals, with engravings of 400 additional specimens; and in
conjunction with Giovanni Bellori (1615-1696) he also published
a work on antique sculptured gems, which was translated into
Latin by Jakob Gronovius (Amsterdam, 1685).
AGOST1N0, or Agosttni [Aucustxmus], PAOLO (1593-1629),
Italian musician, was born at Valerano, and studied under
G. B. Nanini, as we learn from the dedication In the third and
fourth books of his masses, subsequently becoming the son-in-
law of his master. He succeeded Ugolmi as conductor of the
pope's orchestra In St Peter's. His musical compositions are
numerous and of great merit, an Agnus Dei for eight voices being
specially admired.
AGOSTINO and AONOLO (or Akgzlo) DA SIENA, Italian
architects and sculptors in the first half of the 14th century.
Delia Valle and other commentators deny that they were
brothers. They certainly studied together under Giovanni
Pisano, and in 13x7 were jointly appointed architects of their
native town, for which they designed the Porto Romana, the
church and convent of St Francis, and other buildings. On the
recommendation of the celebrated Giotto, who styled them the
best sculptors of the time, they executed in 1330 the tomb of
Bishop- Guido Tarlati in the cathedral of Arezzo, which Giotto
had designed. It was esteemed one of the finest artistic works
of the 14th century, but unfortunately was destroyed by the
French under the duke of Anjou.
AGOULT, MARIS CATHERINE SOPHIE DR PLAVIGNY,
Covtesse d'(x8o5-i876), Frenchauthor, whose nam de plume was
" Daniel Stern, 1 ' was born at Frankfort-on-Main on the 31st of
December 1805. Her father was a French officer who had served
in the army of the emigrant princes, and her mother was the
daughter of a Frankfort banker. She was married in 1827 to the
comte Charles d'Agoult In Paris she gathered round her a
brilliant society which Included Alfred de Vigny, Sainte-Beuve,
Ingres, Chopin, Meyerbeer, Heine and others. She was separated
from her husband, and became the mistress of Franz Liszt
During her frequent travels in Switzerland, France and Italy she
made the acquaintance of George Sand, and figures in the Lettres
d'un voyageur as " Arabella." By Liszt she had three children—
a son who died young; Blandine, who married M. £mile Oilivier;
and Cosima, who married first Hans von BOlow and later Richard
Wagner. The story of her breach with Liszt is told under a very
slight disguise in her novel Nilida (1845). On her return to Paris
in 1841 she began to write art criticisms for the Presse, and in
1844 she contributed to the Revue des deux Monies articles on
Bettina von Arnim and on Heinrich Heine, but her views were not
acceptable to the editor, and Daniel Stern withdrew to become a
contributor to the Revue indipendante. Mme. d'Agoult was an
ardent apostle of the ideas of '48, and from this date her salon,
which had been literary and artistic, took on a more political
tone; revolutionists of various nationalities were welcomed by
her, and she had an especial friendship and sympathy for Daniele
Manin. In 1857 she produced a national drama, Jeanne Dare,
which was translated into Italian and presented with brilliant
success at Turin. The most important section of Daniel Stern's
work is her political and historical essays: Leltres rSpublicaines
(1848), Esquisses morales et paliliques (1849), Histoire de la in-
volution de 1848 (3 vols., 1850-1853), Histoire des commencements
de la Ripublique aux Pays-Bos (1872). Mme. d'Agoult died in
Paris on the 5th of March 1876. Her daughter Claire Christine
(b. 1830), who married Guy de Charnace, is known as a writer.
See Mme. d'Agoult, lies Souvenirs (1806-1833), 1877 ; A. Cuvillier
Fleury, Portraits rholutionnaires, vol. L (1889): J. Mazzini, Lettres
de Joseph Matzini d Daniel Stem (1872) : A. Pommier, Madame Id
comtessefAgpult (Daniel Stern), 1876; A. Ungherini, " Daniel Stern"
in the Revista repuMicono (1880, No. 9) ; S. Rocheblave, Une AmitU
romonesqus, George Sand et Madame efAgoult (1895).
AGOUTI, or Aguti, the West Indian name of Dasyproda aguti,
a terrestrial rodent of the size of a rabbit, common to Trinidad
and Guiana, and classed in the family CavUdae. Under the same
term may be included the other species of Dasyproda, of which
there are about half a score in tropical America. Agoutis are
slender-limbed rodents, with five front and three hind toes (the
first front toe very minute), and very short tails. The hair,
especially on the hind-quarters, is coarse and somewhat rough;
the colour being generally rufous brown. The molar teeth have
cylindrical crowns, with several islands and a single lateral fold of
enamel when worn. In habits agoutis are nocturnal, dwelling in
forests, where they conceal themselves during the day in hollow
tree-trunks, or in burrows among roots. Active and graceful in
their movements, their pace is either a kind of trot or a series of
springs following one another so rapidly as to look like a gallop.
They take readily to water, in which they swim welL Their food
comprises leaves, roots, nuts and other fruits. They do much
harm to plantations of sugar-cane andbananaa. In captivity the
females produce only one or two young at a birth.
AGRA, an ancient city of India, which gives its name to a
district and division in the United Provinces. It is famous for.
containing the most perfect specimens of Mogul architecture.
Agra, like Delhi, owes much of its importance m both historical
and modern times to the commercial and strategical advantages
of its position. The river Jumna, which washes the walls of
its fort, was the natural highway for the traffic of the rich delta
of Bengal to the heart of India, and it formed, moreover, from
very ancient times, the frontier defence of the Aryan stock settled
in the plain between the Ganges and the Jumna against their
western neighbours, hereditary freebooters who occupied the
highlands of Central India. No place was better fitted for both an
emporium and a frontier fortress. The river formed an unfordable
barrier and also a useful means of communication. Jehangir tells
us in his autobiography that before his father Akbar built the
present fort, the town was defended by a citadel of great antiquity.
For three hundred years the Afghans and other tribes came down
from the north and founded kingdoms; and their power radiated
from Delhi and Agra. It was Sikandar, of the house of Lodi
(aj>. 1500), the last of the Afghan dynasties, who realized the
strategic importance of Agra as a point for keeping in check his
rebellious vassals to the south. He removed his court there, and
Agra from being " a mere village of old standing," says a Persian
chronicler, became the capital of a kingdom. In 1526 the dty was
382
AGRA CANAI^-AGRAPHA
T4
captured by the emperor Baber, the famous Koh-i-noor diamond
being part of the loot; and it was here that Baber announced
that his invasion was to be a permanent conquest, and not a mere
temporary inroad. It was Baber's grandson Akbar that built the
present fort, whose strong and lofty walls of red sandstone are a
mile and a half in circumference. The building was completed in
1665, when Charles IL was on the throne of England and the
plague was devastating London. Another building of much the
same date is the red stone palace generally attributed to Akbar,
but probably of an earlier time, which is the finest example of
pure Hindu architecture; while the Moti Masjid, or Pearl Mosque,
is an equally perfect example of the Mahommedan style.
But the glory of Agra, the most splendidly poetic building in
the world, is the Taj Mahal; the mausoleum built (aj>. 1632) by
the emperor Shah Jahan for the remains of his
favourite wife, Mumtas Mahal, in which he himself also
lies buried. The building is built of white marble
throughout, crowned with a great white dome in the centre, and
with a smaller, dome at each of iu four corners. From the marble
terrace which surrounds.it rise four tall minarets of the same
material, one at each corner. The Taj has been modelled and
painted more frequently than any other building in the world, and
the word pictures of it are numberless. But it can only be
described as a dream in marble. It amply justifies the saying
that the Moguls designed like Titans and finished like jewellers.
In regard to colour and design the Taj ranks first in the world for
purely decorative workmanship; while the perfect symmetry of
its exterior once seen can never be forgotten, nor the aerial grace
of its domes, rising like marble bubbles into the azure sky. In his
History of ArckUedure t Fergusson says of it:—
" This building is an early example of that system of inlaying with
precious stones which became the neat characteristic of the style
of the Moghals after the death of Akbar. All the spandrils of the
Taj, all the angles and more important architectural details, are
heightened by being inlaid with precious stones such as agates,
bloodstones, jaspers and the like. These are combined in wreaths,
scrolls and frets, as exquisite In design as they are beautiful in colour.
and relieved by the pure white marble in which they are inlaid, they
and the screens which surround them, but more sparingly introduced
form the most beautiful and precious style of ornament ever adopted
in architecture. It is lavishly bestowed on the tombs themselves
on the mosque that forms one wing of the Taj, and on the fountains
and surrounding buildings. The judgment, indeed, with which this
style of ornament is apportioned to the various parts, is almost -as
remarkable as the ornament itself, and conveys a high idea of the
taste and skill of the architects otthis age."
Of the Taj as a whole Lord Roberts says in his Forty-one
Yean m India*—
" Neither words nor pencil could give to the most imaginative
reader the slightest idea of the all-satisfying beauty and purity of
this glorious conception. To those who pave not already seen it I
would say, 'Go to India. The Taj alone is well worth the journey."*
The Taj was designed by Ustad Isa, variously described as a
Byzantine Turk and a native of Shiraz in Persia. The pietra
dura work belongs to the Persian school; and the common
belief that it was designed by Austin de Bordeaux, a French
architect in the service of Shah Jahan, is probably incorrect.
Agra was formerly the capital of the North-West Provinces, but
after the Mutiny the seat of government was removed to Alla-
habad. Situated 841 m. from Calcutta it is now an important
railway centre, whence two main lines diverge southwards
towards Bombay. In xooi the population was 188,0a a, showing
an increase of z a % during the decade. The city contains cotton
mills, factories for ginning and pressing cotton, a tannery and
boot factory and flour znOL There are also two missionary
colleges.
The Disnicr or Agra has an area of 1856 sq. m. Its
general appearance is that common to the Doab, a level plain
intersected by watercourses and ravines. Its general elevation
is estimated at from 650 to 700 ft above the level of the sea. The
district is intersected by the Jumna, and is also watered by the
Agra canal The principal crops are millets, pulses, barley,
wheat, cotton and a little indigo. The population in ioox was
1,060,528, showing an increase of 6 % during the decade.
The nvonoN of Aosa has an area of 10,154 sq. m. In
1 001 the population was 5,249,54s, showing an increase of xo%
during the decade, attributed to the extension of irrigation from
canals. It comprises the six districts of Muttra, Agra, Farakh-
ahed, Mainpuri, Eta wan and Etah.
For an account of the architecture of Agra see Fergusson** Bisimrj
?f Architecture; Cities of India (1003), by G. W. Forrest; Enc&anted
ndia (1899), by Prince Bonder Karageorgevitch; and E. B. HaveU,
Handbook to Agra and the Taj (1904). (C L.)
AQRA CANAL, an important Indian irrigation work, available
also for navigation, in Delhi, Gurgaon, Muttra and Agra districts,
and Bharatpur state. The canal receives its water from the
Jumna river at Okla, about xo m. below Delhi. The weir serosa
the Jumna was the first attempted in Upper India upon a founda-
tion of fine sand; it is about 800 yds. long, and rises 7 ft. above
the summer level of the river. From Okla the canal follows the
high land between the Khari-nadi and the Jumna, and finally
joins the Banganga river about so m. below Agra. Navigable
branches connect the canal with Muttra and Agra. It was
opened in 1874.
AQRAM (Hungarian Zafrdb, Croatian Zagreb), the capital of
Croatia-Slavonia, and a royal free town of Hungary; pleas-
antly situated between the north bank of the Save and the
mountains which culminate in Sljeme (3306 ft); 187 m. by
rail S. of Vienna. Pop. (x8oo) 38,74a; (xooo) 57,930, or with
garrison 61,002. Agram is the seat of the ban, or viceroy, of
Croatia-Slavonia, of the Banal and Septemviral courts, the
highest in the land, and of a chamber of commerce. It is also
the meeting-place of the parliament; but local affairs are con-
ducted by a municipal council. The dty is divided into three
districts. The Kapitel-Stadt, sometimes called the Bishop's
Town, with the palace of the Roman Catholic archbishop, and his
late Gothic cathedral, dating from the x 5th century, lies-eastward
of the Medvescak, a brook which flows into the Save. The Upper
Town, on high ground west of the Medvelcak, contains the
palace of the ban and the natural history museum. On the
south, the Lower Town is separated from the other districts by
the Hica, a long street traversed by a cable tramway. In it an
the business and industrial quarters; the palace of justice; the
academy of science, with picture-galleries, a library and a
collection of antiquities; the theatre; the Frans Josef Univer-
sity, founded in 1874 to teach theology, law and philosophy;
the synagogue; and the only Protestant church existing in
the country at the beginning of the aoth century. Roman
Catholic churches and schools are numerous. Besides the large
Maximir park and botanical gardens, many of the squares are
planted with trees and adorned with statues; while the whole
dty is surrounded by vineyards and country houses. Tobacco,
leather, linen, carpets and war-material are manufactured in
Agram, which also contains the works of the Hungarian state
railways, and has a brisk trade in. grain, wine, potash, honey,
silk and porcelain.
In X004 Agram was founded by Ladislaus L of Hungary, as
the seat of a bishop; and on the expulsion of its Mongol colony,
in XS4S, it was raised to the rank of a royal free dty. For cen-
turies a bitter feud raged between the Kapitel-Stadt and the
Upper Town, until these rivals were forced to join hands against
the Turks. Agram, already »the political centre of Croatia-
Slavonia, was selected as the capital in 1867. It suffered severely
from earthquake in 1880 and xoox.
AORAPHA (U. " unwritten "), the name given to certain
utterances ascribed, with some degree of certainty, to Jems,
which have been preserved in documents other than the Gospels,
e.g. Acts xx. 35; x Tim. v. 18; x Cor. vii xo-xi, and the Logia
(q.v.) discovered in 1897 and 1903 at Oxyrhyncus. Two inter-
esting examples of such sayings may be quoted: <x) " That
which is weak shall be saved by that which is strong "; (a)
" Jesus, on whom be peace, has said: The world is rnerdy s
bridge; ye are to pass over it, and not to build your dwelling!
upon it'" The first of these is from the Apostolic Canons
(c. aj>. 300), the second was found by the missionary Alexander
Duff inscribed in Arabic on the gateway of the mosque at Fatah*
purSikrL
AGRARIAN LAWS
3»3
The earliest modern collection of foch aa;
BuUsioe Grata* Monumemta '
' p«i» (1698 and 1
ctJon of men sayings wu by Cotelerius,
to (1677-1688), followed by J. E. Grabe,
SpicoUgium (1698 and 1700), and J. B. Fabridus. Codex Apocrypk.
J^rT&iided.ri7iQ). ^alaoA:Reicb f ilfmpLi(Leips«,i88Q);
J. H. Rope*, DU SprtUhe Jesu (Ldpai|, 1896): and the article
"Sayings^ J. Hastings' PfctfeiMryV^^
AGRARIAN LAWS (Lat agar, land). Under this heading
we deal with the disposal of the public land (ager puUicus) of
smdentRome, It was a principle of the Republican constitution
that no gratuitous disposition of state property should be made
without the consent of the people. Hence many of the ordinances
affecting the public land were laws (leges) in the strictest sense of
that word. It is, however, both justifiable and convenient to
consider in this article all the regulations that were made for the
administration of the public land by the executive authorities,
as well as by the people during the Republic, and by the com-
mands of the emperor, which had the force of law during the
JPrindpete.
The existence of pubHc land, first in Italy, and then in the
Mediterranean world, was the outcome of two ideas which are
very familiar to students of antiquity. This land was the prise
of conquest and was one of the means of defraying the current
expenses of state-admiiristration. For the latter purpose land
is often leased or allowed to be occupied on the condition of the
payment of dues. But it may be made to fufil another purpose
as. well— this purpose being the satisfaction of the individual
needs of poorer citizens. To meet this object the land is usually
assigned, and on assignment generally ceases to be the property
of the state. But It often happens that the state is not wholly
disinterested in undertaking such acts of assignment It gains
security and territorial control by planting garrisons in conquered
country, and it relieves Itself of the necessity of providing for
its poorer classes whether by state-aid or by a hazardous tamper-
ing with the rights of private property. In this use to which
public land could be turned we see at once the connexion
between agrarian legislation and colonization— a connexion
which was so dose that when a Roman spoke of an agrarian law
he seems generally to have understood by it a law establishing
a colony— and also the two aspects of colonisation, the military
and the sodaL These two objects were indissohihly connected
throughout the whole of the earlier period of Roman agrarian
assignation. They only became separated in, the period subse-
quent to the Gracchi in so far as social motives still continued
to be operative when military precautions had ceased to be
necessary. It Is probable that one of the chief motives which
prompted infant Rome to war with her' neighbours was the
land-hunger of her dtisens. This hunger she satisfied after
conquest by annexing a portion of the enemy's territory. The
amount thus confiscated varied from time to time. It was
usually a third, but sometimes a half or even two-thirds, and
after the fall of Capua in the Second Punic War the whole terri-
tory of the state was annexed. It is possible that by the dose
of the and century B.C. one-half of the land of Italy belonged
to Rome whether in private ownership or as the property of the
state. Annexation was carried on in the provinces on a relatively
smaller scale; but Rome retained as domain-land much of the
territory of communities which had been destroyed,, such as
Carthage and Corinth, and the estates of former kings, such as
the lands of the Attalids in the Chersonese. Other domains in
Sicily and Greece, such as the territory of Leontinl in the former,
or Oropus in the latter case, are also found. This peculiar prop-
erty of the Roman state in the provinces must be carefully
distinguished from the general overlordship which Rome was
supposed to hold over all provincial soil, expressed In the state-
ment that provincials had only possession or usufruct of their
land (Gains u. 7; Gromatici, p. 36, Lachmann). This overlord-
ship was probably merely a legal fiction by which the juristic
mind assigned a reason for the fact that the provincials paid a
land tax from which Italians were exempt.
Such portions of the territories of conquered cities as were
not claimed by Rome were as a matter of course left in the un-
disturbed possession of these cities. If the dty was a federate
state (cmiasfoedarota), his possession was guaranteed by a treaty;
if it was a free dty, the guarantee was made by charter; if it
was neither federate nor free, the abandonment of the territory
by Rome must have been taken as a sufficient guarantee of the
dry's right to possess, although statements relative to the sur-
render may have been contained in the charter of the province
(foe provindae) to which the dty belonged. But, whether the
states were federate, free or stipendiary, there was only one case
in which it was important to specify precisely that land had
been restored (reddUus) to Its former occupants. This was the
case where Rome had marked out a territory for assignment to
her own dtisens, but where in or near the limits of the assignment
some of the land had been left in the hands oi its former pro-
prietors. Such land was noted in the state registers as reddUus
veteri possesion. Sometimes it was found that such an andent
possessor owned pieces of land separated from one another. In
such cases an exchange might be effected between him and some
Other possessor, so that his possessions might be continuous.
The tact of such an exchange was symbolized in the registers
by the entry of land reddUus d commutatus pro sua.
When the claims of earlier owners had been satisfied, the
state proceeded to deal with such land as it retained. It dealt
with It in two ways. It dther alienated it, whether in exchange
for a price or gratuitously; or it kept it as a source of revenue,
whether* on a system of lease or on some system of remunerative
occupation. We may first consider the esses in which the state
decided to alienate. The land might be sold for the benefit of
the treasury. Typical instances of this treatment are furnished
by the sale of some Campanian land during the Second Punic War
(Livy xxviii. 46, xxxii. 7). The censors may have directed the
sale, but it was executed by the quaestors as the regular officials
of the treasury. Hence such land was described as ager quaes-
tortus. The land was sold in definitely marked out plots, and
we must suppose that, as a rule, when tins sale had been effected,
the lots fell under the absolute ownership of their purchasers.
Yet there was some period of Roman history when this ownership
was (at least in certain cases) conditioned. The Roman writers
on agriculture speak of conditions and their neglect (Gromatici,
p. 1 1 5). The conditions were probably those of military service
or frontier defence. The epoch of history at which this con-
ditioned ownership was recognized cannot be determined. It
is a form of tenure that would be equally appropriate to the
needs of the earliest period of Roman history and to those of
imperial times.
The second m ode of alienation was that by assignation. Lands
thus assigned were known as agri dati assignati. The gift on
the part of the state was gratuitous, and ownership passed wholly
to the assignee. The land so given was definitely surveyed,
marked out and registered. Such an assignment might take
one of two possible forms. It might be the means of establishing
a new " plantation " (colonic), with some independent political
organization of its own, however slight— a settlement, therefore,
which could be thought of as an entity separate from the dty
of Rome and front any other municipality. Or it might be the
means of providing allotments for individuals who remained
domiciled at Rome or continued to be members of some already
existing municipality. It has been frequently held in modern
times that this latter method of assignment is the one which
our andent authorities describe as assignment to individuals
(viritim), and that the antithesis lies between the " colonial "
and the " viritane " method of distribution. It is true that the
passages which speak of the latter mode of assignation need not,
and perhaps cannot, be interpreted as presenting the antithesis
(Varro, do Re Rustica, 1. 2. 7, i. xo. 2; Livy iv. 48, v. 24;
Festus, p. 373; Gromatici, pp. 154, 160); yet it is not improb-
able that the antithesis is latent in this specific use of the term.
It seems dear that the idea of assignation to, and, therefore,
of ownership by, individuals must originally have been developed
in contrast to the idea of ownership by some larger group (sec
Roman Law). When the stage of individual ownership was
reached, all assignation was " viritane," but only some assigna-
tion was "colonial." "Viritane" was, therefore, the wider
term which would cover, and may sometimes have been used
3»4
AGRARIAN LAWS
specially to denote, the system of non-colonial assignment The
amount granted to individuals in assignments of both types
varied from time to time. It was reckoned in terms of the
jugerum* which was approximately f of an English acre. The
earliest and smallest assignment was 2 jugera— &n amount so
small that it seems to presuppose on the part of the recipient
some share in common or gentile property or some additional
private property of his own. Other quotas were 3, 3tV> 7, 10+ 14
jugera. The last was the maximum amount granted before the
time of Ti. Gracchus (133 B.C.), and it was held by representatives
of the old school that 7 jugera were as much as any frugal Roman
should want (Pliny, Historia Noiuralis, xviii. 18). The division
was carried out by commissions of 3, 5 or 10 men appointed by
the people (Cicero, de Lege Agrario ii. 7. 17). The land which
the state retained as ager publicus was always placed in the hands
of individuals, who occupied it in some manner remunerative
to the state. These individuals (possessore?) were never regarded
as owners of the land thus occupied. It remained the property
of the state, was held without a contract (precario) and could
be resumed by the state at will. But though the possessors
had no claim against, the state, their ownership could be defended .
against all other individual claimants; and it seems probable
that from an early date the praetor's possessory interdict was
used to protect all occupiers, provided their tenure had been,
acquired neither by force (w) nor by seixureof landin its occupiers'
absence (dam), nor by mere permission of the previous holder
to occupy (precario alter ab alter 0). Moreover, Appian says that
possessors of this type could transfer their land by inheritance,
and that the land was accepted as security by creditors. This
kind of occupation, therefore, though clearly distinguished from
ownership {dominium), was yet regarded as a perfectly secure
form of tenure. All occupiers of public land paid dues to the
state through a state contractor (puUicanus). These dues
varied in amount, and in the method of their collection. We
learn from Appian that the ordinary dues paid by occupiers of
arable land in Italy were -fa of seed crops and \ of plant produce.
Owners who turned cattle or sheep on pasture land belonging
to the state also paid fixed dues to the treasury. The occupiers
of the Roman public land in Campania paid a large rent (Cic.
de leg. Agr. I. 7. 21). Appian's account of the public land (Bell.
Civ. i. 7) would lead us to suppose that the amount of tax paid
by the occupier, and the method adopted by the state for the
collection of the revenues, depended upon the nature of the land
at the time when it first passed to a possessor. He says that
some of the public land which was in a good state of cultivation
was let on lease; but that with regard to the poor or devastated
land proclamation was made that anyone might squat on it
and till it in return for the small payment in kind mentioned
above. It has been questioned whether the land described by
Appian and by Cicero as let on lease, of which the Campanian
land and some lands in Sicily are typical, represents a legally
distinct class. It seems probable that the distinction is one of
practice rather than of law, and that the difference lay not in
the relation between the state and the possessor (as would be
the case if the leased land were really let to individuals by the
censor, while the occupied land was held by mere permission of
the state without any contract) but in the details of the contract
between the censor and the puUicanus with regard to the collec-
tion of the dues. The conditions of the tenure of the Roman
public land in Africa are known to us from the Lex Agr aria of
xxx B.C. (Bruns, Forties, i. 3. x x , w. 85 foil.). Here the puUicanus
is the middleman between the state and the possessor, and
purchases from the censor the right of collecting dues. The
law places no restriction on bargaining between the censor and
the puUicanus, but enacts that no possessor or pastor shall ever
be required by the puUicanus to pay more than the amount
prescribed by the censors of 1x5 B.C. These conditions may be
regarded as typical for the occupation of public lands. And
when Cicero speaks of public land as let on lease (locotus) by
the censor, he no doubt refers to the farming of the taxes to a
puUicanus for a fixed period, and not to the letting of the land.
This seems clear from a passage (in Verr. iii. 6. 12) where he
speaks of land in Sicily which had been restored by Rome to
former owners as being leased. The land itself could not be
leased by Rome if it belonged not to Rome but to the Sicilian
inhabitants; but the collection of the revenues due to Rome
could be so leased to Publicani (q.v.). And the same explanation
would apply to Cicero's statements that the Campanian land
was let on lease by the censors (d. Festus, s.v. venditiones) . The
view that there was a distinct class of the public land which was
let out for a fixed term of years to tenants on a definite lease,
unlike the ordinary public land which was always held in occupa-
tion merely at will (precario), has been maintained by W. A.
Becker, and seems to be supported, with the help of conjecture,
by a few passages in Cicero and by Hyginus (Cromatid, p. 116).
But the passage of Hyginus is barely intelligible even on this
supposition; and Cicero's repeated statement that the Campanian
land was expressly exempted from the legislation of the Gracchi
(cf. Lex Agraria, Bruns, he. cU. v. 6) shows that there was not
sufficient distinction between, the Campanian tenure and that
of other public land in Italy to make this definite exception
by name superfluous. The Sempronian law could obviously
not touch land which the state had leased to occupiers on the
basis of a definite contract. Moreover, we have absolutely no
evidence for such a contract, even in Cicero's speeches against
Rullus, when he might be expected to mention it as an objection
to Rullus's bilL That there were some distinctive characteristics
about the tenure of certain lands, of which the Campanian land
is typical, seems proved by the repeated association of these
lands with certain special lands in the provinces, especially at
Leontini in Sicily, and by some passages in the Cromatici where
ogri xectlgalcs are spoken of as a distinct class. But what these
characteristics were cannot be clearly determined. It seems
certain that in every case the possessor occupied precario, and
that only in the bargain between the censor and the middleman
was there room for contract Thus the state was justified in
the claim to resume public land which it made in many of the
Agrarian laws.
The earliest agrarian measures of which we have any record
are the distributions of land conquered in war to poor dtixens,
which later authorities attribute to Numa and Servius Tullius.
Such assignments, however, are not the result of legislative acts,
but of a voluntary surrender on the king's part of his own
portion of the spoils. It is probable that the agrarian law which
resulted from the proposals of Spurius Cassius (consul 486 b.c)
was the first attempt made by the Roman people to exercise its
control over the occupation of state territory. According to
the traditional account, Cassius proposed that such portion of
lands lately conquered from the Hernia as fell to the Roman
state should be divided in equal shares between the Roman
plebs and- the Latins; and further that poor citizens should
receive allotments of land previously conquered, and occupied
without any legal right by the Patridans. The induskm of
the Latins in the distribution was afterwards dropped; but the
law in its final form certainly asserted the right of the Plebeians
to take their share in the public land. The accounts given of it
by Livy and Dionysius are no doubt coloured by thdr know-
ledge of later agrarian legislation, and it seems hardly likely
that the proposal to resume and redistribute public land already
occupied was made at this early stage; but it probably challenged
the exdusive claim of Patridans to occupy. We hear of another
agrarian law proposed by the tribune Ludus Idlius in 456 B.C.
(Lex I cilia de Aventino puUicando) which regulated in some way
the tenure of public land on the Aventine. In 376 B.C. the
tribunes Iidnius and Sextius introduced into thdr laws, for
the promotion of the privileges of the plebs, a dause enacting
that no more than 500 jugera of land should be occupied by a
single cultivator. It seems almost certain from Lfvy's account
that this measure referred only to the occupation of ager puhiicus,
though some modem authorities have uphdd the view that it
dealt with land hdd on any kind of tenure, others again that it
dealt only with private property in land. According to Appian,
the law also enacted that only 100 cattle and 500 sheep might
be turned by one owner on the public pastures. But it failed
AGREDA
385
of its object because it did not provide any adequate machinery
for the resumption by the state of land held in excess of the
prescribed amount, and was therefore easily evaded. The next
agrarian law we hear of was a more special measure dealing with
lands conquered from the Senones and Picentines. In 232 B.C.
C. Flaminius, then tribune of the pUbs, proposed to resume
these lands for the state, although they were already occupied
by large landholders, and to distribute them in allotments to poor
citizens. The measure met with much opposition from the richer
classes, and did not gain the sanction of the senate; but
C. Flaminius ignored constitutional usage and brought it direct
before the council of the plebs % by which it was made law. In
133 B.C. the tribune Tiberius Gracchus (q.v.) re-enacted the
earlier measure of Licinius and Sextius, with the additional
provisions that each owner might occupy 250 jugera for each
son, in addition to the original 500, and that a commission of
three (iii. viri agris dandis adsignandis) should be appointed to
carry out the terms of the law. He also enacted that the land
occupied in excess of the prescribed amount, and on that account
resumed for the state by the land commission, should be dis-
tributed in inalienable lots to poor citizens. Subsequent modi-
fications of those provisions which dealt with the powers of
the land commission led to a re-enactment of the whole by
C. Gracchus, the brother of Tiberius, tribune in 123 B.C. But
within 15 years from the tribunate of C. Gracchus the whole
of his law had been rendered null by three further enactments.
The first of these permitted the sale of land allotted under the
law, which thus tended to return into the hands of its former
occupiers as private property, which the state had no longer
any right to resume. The second abolished the commission
appointed to carry out the terms of the law, thus putting a stop
to further resumption and distribution, and also transformed
existing occupiers into owners of the land they occupied, paying
only a small due to the treasury. The third (probably the sur-
viving Lex Agraria, Bnms, he. cit.) abolished the payment This
law belongs to the year in B.C. The dates of the two former
laws are uncertain, but it is probable that the first was passed in
tax, the second in 1x9 or 118. From this time forward a
change comes over land legislation. The ordinary public land
in Italy, in the hands of occupiers, which had given rise to all
the agrarian legislation between 376 and xix, had practically
ceased to exist The Campanian land still remained, but the
same reasons which led to its exemption from the Gracchan
legislation seem to have continued to protect its holders until
63 B.C. In the meantime several agrarian laws were passed
which provided for the distribution of land placed in some other
way at the disposal of the state. In 100 B.C. Appuleius Satur-
ninus (f.v.), tribune of the pUbs, proposed the allotment of lands
recently taken from the Cimbri in Gaul. This law was passed,
but eventually declared null by the senate, with the rest of
Saturninus's laws. A more dangerous precedent was set by
Sulla in his dictatorship (82-81 b.c). He was the first to con-
fiscate the lands of his political foes, and of communities which
had resisted him, and treating them as agar puUkus, assign
them to his veterans as a prize. This example was followed by
Octavian (Augustus) and Antony (M. Antonius) after their
proscriptions in 43 B.C. A third method of providing land for
distribution was that adopted by Servilius Rullus (q.v.) in
63 B.C. His bill enacted that land should be purchased in Italy
with money gained by the sale of Roman territories abroad, and
allotted to citizens. A commission of ten (x. viri agris dandis
adsignaiiiis) t annually elected by o out of the 35 tribes, was to
carry out the terms of the law. Rullus also ventured to propose
the distribution of the Campanian land, which had hitherto
been respected by all agrarian reformers. It was chiefly on this
ground that Cicero in his three speeches on the Agrarian law
succeeded in exciting such a general feeling against it that it was
eventually withdrawn. In 60 B.C. the tribune L. Flavius brought
forward a bfll for the distribution of lands to Pompey's veterans.
The Campanian land was certainly to be included in the dis-
tribution, and it is clear from Cicero that the bill in some way
dealt violently with the rights of private owners. It also, how-
Altertkimer, iii. 2, p. 142 (Leipzig, 1841); Marquardt, Rdmiuhe
>. 96 foil. (Leipzig. 1881); Madvig, Verjassung
,_„-_-l_ *— t .r\\ > 36. f n. (Ldpri- 1882).
(AH. J. G; A.M.O..)
ever, enacted that land should be purchased by the state with
the wealth which Pompey's conquests had brought into the
treasury. The last proposal was supported by Cicero, but the
bill seems to have been dropped, only to reappear in more
moderate form in the following year. A consular bill, the far
Julia Campana, was passed by Julius Caesar in 59 B.C., which
provided for the settlement of Pompey's veterans on the Cam-,
panian land, and other lands purchased by the state from private
owners in Italy with the full consent of the latter. In its
original form, the bill omitted all reference to the Campanian
land, which seems to have been included by Caesar in the dis-
tribution only when the 'continued and unreasoning opposition
of the senate had goaded him to extreme measures. A commission
of twenty was to be appointed to carry out the law, from which
Caesar himself was expressly excluded. This measure finally
settled the question of the Campanian land, which now passed
out of the category of ager publicus. The last agrarian, law of
the republic was that passed in 44 B.C. on the proposal of the
consul M. Antonius, or of his brother L. Antonius. We have
no detailed account of the measure, but it seems to have pro-
vided grants of land for veterans, and was to be administered by
seven commissioners. The law was afterwards cancelled by decree
of the senate, probably on the ground of some technical flaw.
The emperor Vespasian attempted to reclaim for the state small
oddments of land (subsecroa) which were held by neighbouring
owners to whom they had never been definitely assigned. The
attempt met with violent opposition, and though resumed by
Titus, was finally crushed by Domitian, who issued an edict re-
cognizing all oddments of land thus held to be private property.
Authorities.— Niebuhr, History of Rom* (English translation).
iL p. 129 foil. (Cambridge, 1832); Becker, Handbuch der r&mischen
Altertkimer. iii. 2, p. '" * --.»»- ........
Staatsverwaltung, I p. . r
und VerwaUung da rdmischen Staatet, iL p. j
(See also Rom, History.) (A
AGREDA, MARIA FERNANDEZ CORONEL, Abbess or,
known in religion as Sor (Sister) Maria de Jesus (1002-1665), was
the daughter of Don Francisco Coronel and of his wife Catalina
de Anna. She was born at Agreda, on the borders of Navarre
and Aragon, on the 2nd of April x 602. All her family were power-
fully influenced by the ecstatic piety of Spain in that age. Her
biographer, Samaniego, records that even as an infant in arms she
was filled with divine knowledge. Her stupidity as a child is
piously accounted for by extreme humility. From childhood she
was favoured by ecstasies and visions. When she was fifteen the
whole family entered religion. The father, now an old man, and
the two sons entered the Franciscan house of San Antonio de
Nalda. Maria, her mother and sister established a Franciscan
nunnery in the family house at Agreda, which, when Maria's
reputation had extended, was replaced by the existing building.
She began it with one hundred reals (one pound sterling) lent her
by a devotee, and it was completed id fourteen years by voluntary
gifts. Much against her own wish, we are told, she was appointed
abbess at the age of twenty-five. In 1668, four years after her
death, the Franciscans published a story that at the age of
twenty-two she had been miraculously conveyed to Mexico, to
convert a native people, %nd had made five hundred journeys
through the air for that purpose in one year. Though the rule
required the abbess to be changed every three years, Maria
remained the effective ruler of Agreda till her death. The Virgin
was declared abbess, and Maria acted as her locum tenens. In her
later years she inclined to the " internal prayer," and neglect of
the outward offices of the church, which was usual with the
" alumbrados " or Quietists. The Inquisition took notice of her,
but she was not proceeded against with severity. Maria's
importance in religion and Spanish history is based on two
grounds. In the earlier part of her life, while the Franciscan,
Francisco Andres de la Torre, was her confessor, she wrote an
Introduction to the History of the Most Blessed Virgin. It was
destroyed by the direction of another confessor. Later on, by the
order of her superiors, and under the guidance of her Franciscan
confessor, Andres de Fuen Mayor, she wrote The Mystic City of
Cod. It is an extraordinary book, full of apocryphal history,
386
AGRICOLA
visions and scholasticism, which professes to have been written by
divine inspiration, and is devoted to praise of the Virgin. In
1642 she sent to Philip IV. an account of a vision she had had, of
a council of the infernal powers for the destruction of Catholicism
and Spain. The king visited her when on his way to Aragon to
suppress the rebellion of Catalonia. A long correspondence,
which lasted till her death on the 29th of March 1665, was begun.
The king folded a sheet of paper down the middle and wrote on
the one side of the division. The answers were to be written on
the other and the sheet returned. By a pious fraud copies were
kept at Agreda. How far Maria was only the mouthpiece of the
Franciscans must of course be a matter of doubt. Her corre-
spondence was apparently suspended whenever her confessor was
absent. She must, however, have co-operated at least, and it is
certain that the Franciscans, who were very unfortunate in some
of their pious women, owed not a little to her. The letters are in
excellent Spanish, are curious reading, and are invaluable as
illustrations for the second part of the reign of Philip IV.
The correspondence of Sor Maria with the king has been published
in full by Don F. Siluela, Cartas de la YenerabkMadre Sor Maria de
Atrtday del SeHor Rey Don Filipe IV. (Madrid, 1885). The Mystic
CUyof God bone of the most characteristic monuments of Mariolatry ,
and has continued to be much in favour with supporters of the dogma
of the Immaculate Conception. It appeared in Madrid in 1668. with
a biographical introduction by Samaiuego, has been often reprinted,
and was translated into French and Italian. It was for a time
reserved by the Index, both Spanish and Papal, but was taken off
by the influence of the Franciscans and of Spain, the chief supporters
of the Immaculate Conception. An account of Maria de Agreda
will be found in the Tracts of Michael Geddes (London, 1706), vol. iii.,
written by a competent critic and Anglican divine of the 18th century
who detested " enthusiasm." (D. H.)
AGRICOLA, CHRISTOPH LUDWIO (1667-1719), German
landscape painter, was born and died at Regensburg (Ratisbon).
He spent a great part of his life in travel, visiting England,
Holland and France, and residing for a considerable period at
Naples. His numerous landscapes, chiefly cabinet pictures, are
remarkable for fidelity to nature, and especially for their skilful
representation of varied phases of climate. In composition his
style shows the Influence of Caspar Poussin, while in light and
colour he imitates Claude Lorraine. His pictures are to be found
in Dresden, Brunswick, Vienna, Florence, Naples and many
other towns of both Germany and Italy.
AGRICOLA (the Latinized form of the name Baxter), QBORO
(1400-1555), German scholar and man of science, known as " the
father of mineralogy," was born at Glauchau in Saxony on the
34th of March 1400. Gifted with a precocious intellect, he early
threw himself into the pursuit of the " new learning," with such
effect that at the age of twenty he was appointed Rector extra-
ordinarius of Greek at the so-called Great School of Zwickau, and
made his appearance as a writer on philology. After two years he
gave up bis appointment in order to pursue his studies at Leipzig,
where, as rector, he received the powerful support of the pro-
fessor of classics, Peter Mosellanus (1493-1524), * celebrated
humanist of the time, with whom he had already been in corre-
spondence. Here he also devoted himself to the study of medicine,
physics and chemistry. After the death of Mosellanus he went
for a short time to Italy, where he took his doctor's degree. On
his return he settled as practising physician in the Joachimsta), a
centre of mining and smelting works, his object being partly " to
fill in the gaps in the art of healing," partly to test what had been
written about mineralogy by careful observation of ores and the
methods of their treatment His thorough grounding in philology
and philosophy had accustomed him to systematic thinking, and
this enabled him to construct out of his studies and observations
of minerals a logical system which he began to publish In 1528.
Bermannus, sive de re metaUica diahgus, the first attempt to
reduce to scientific order the knowledge won by practical work,
brought Agricola in to notice. In 1 530 Prince Maurice of Saxony
appointed him historiographer with an annual allowance, and he
migrated to Chemnitz, the centre of the mining industry, in order
to widen the range of his observations. The citizens showed
their appreciation of bis learning by appointing him town
physician and electing him burgomaster. His popularity was,
however, short-lived. Chemnitz was a violent centre of the
Protestant movement, while Agricola never wavered in ha
allegiance to the old religion; and he was forced to resign his
office. He now lived apart from the contentious movements of
the time, devoting himself wholly to learning. His chief interest
was still in mineralogy; but he occupied himself also with
medical, mathematical, theological and historical subjects, his
chief historical work being the Dominatores Saxomici a prima
engine ad kanc aetatem, published at Freiberg. In 1544 he
published the De ortu el causis subterraneorum, in which he laid
the first foundations of a physical geology, and criticised the
theories of the ancients. In 1545 followed the De natmra cwnm
ouae effiuunl e terra; in 1546 the De ultribus el neris mtiattu,
a comprehensive account of the discovery and occurrence of
minerals; in 1548 the De animantibus tubterraneis; and in the
two following years a number of smaller works on the metals.
His most famous work, the De re metaUica, libri xii., was pub-
lished in 15(6, though apparently finished several years before,
since the dedication to the elector and his brother is dated 1 55a
It is a complete and systematic treatise on mining and metallurgy,
illustrated with many fine and interesting woodcuts and contain-
ing, in an appendix, the German equivalents for the technical
terms used in the Latin text. It long remained a standard work,
and marks its author as one of the most accomplished chemists
of- his time. Believing the black rock of the Schlossberg at
Stolpen to be the same as Pliny's basalt, he applied this name to
it, and thus originated a petrological term which has been per-
manently incorporated in the vocabulary of science.
In spite of the early proof that Agricola had given of the
tolerance of bis own religious attitude, he was not suffered to end
bis days in peace. He remained to the end a staunch Catbohc,
though all Chemnitz had gone over to the Lutheran creed; and
it is said that his life was ended by a fit of apoplexy brought on
by a heated discussion with a Protestant divine. He died at
Chemnitz on the aist of November 1555, and so violent was the
theological feeling against him, that he was not suffered to rest in
the town to which he had added lustre. Amidst hostile demon-
strations he was carried to Zeitz, seven miles from Chemnitz, and
there buried.
See article by Gflmbel in AUgem. Deutsche Biog. (1875):
F. L. Becher, Ceorg Agricola und Werner (Freiberg, 18 10); F. A.
Schmidt, Georg Agricola's Bermannus mil Einleitung fFrabeff.
1806); Poggendoffi, Biograpkisckes Haudwdrterbuch; AgrkoWs
works passim.
AGRICOLA, QNABUS JULIUS (aj>. 37-93), Roman states-
man and general, father-in-law of the historian Tacitus, was
born on the 13th of June a.d. 37 (according to others, 30) at
Forum Julii (Frejus) in Gallia Narbonensis. His father, Julius
Graednus, having been put to death by Caligula, Agricola was
brought up by his mother Julia Procilla. After studying philo-
sophy at Maisflia, he entered the army and served (59) under
Suetonius Paulinus in Britain. In 61 he returned to Rome,
where he married Domitia Decidiana, a Roman lady of dis-
tinction. In 63 he was quaestor in Asia, in 65 tribune, in 68
praetor, and when Vespasian was proclaimed emperor, he
immediately declared himself his supporter. In 70 he was
appointed to the command of the 20th legion in Britain, then
stationed at Deva (Chester). On his return to Rome at the end
of three years he was made censor, raised to the rank of patrician,
and appointed governor of Aquitania ( 74-78) . Appointed consul
tuffectus in the following year, he was admitted into the college
of pontiffs and made governor of Britain. In the same year
he betrothed his daughter to Tacitus. Although the legation of
Britain lasted as a rule only three years, Agricola held the post
for at least seven and succeeded in reconciling the inhabitants to
Roman rule and inducing them to adopt the customs and civil-
ization of their conquerors. His military achievements were
equally brilliant. After conquering the Ordovices in North
Wales and the island of Mona (Anglesey), during the next two
years he carried his victorious arms to the Taus (Tay; others
read Tana us, perhaps the north Tyne), and in his fourth cam-
paign fortified the country between Clota and Bodotria (the
firths of Clyde and Forth) as a protection against the attacks of
AGRICOLA— AGRICULTURAL GANGS
387
the Caledonians. Having explored the coasts of File and
Forfar, he gained a decisive victory over the Caledonians under
Calgacus at the Graupian hOl (see Butain, Roman). His
successes, however, had aroused the envy and suspicion of
Domhian. He was recalled to Rome, where he lived a life of
studied retirement, to avoid the possibility of giving offence to
the tyrant. He died in 93, poisoned, it was rumoured, by the
emperor's orders. The Life of Agricola by his son-in-law Tacitus
is practically a panegyric or funeral oration.
See Urlichs, De Vita et Honoribnt Africolas (1868); Dio Cassias
xxxix. 50, Izvi. 20; Mommsen, Provinces of Cat Roman Empire
(Eng. trans., 18*6). i. 183-184, 194*
AGRICOLA, JOHAim FRIEDR1CH (1710-1774), German
musician, was bom at Dobitschen in Saxe-Altenburg, on the
4th of January 1730. While a student of law at Leipzig he
studied music under Johann Sebastian Bach. In 1 741 he went
to Berlin, where be studied musical composition. He was soon
generally recognised as one of the most skilful organists of his
time; and in 1751, as the result of a comic opera, // Filosofo
amvinto in amo\§, performed at Potsdam, he was made court
composer to Frederick the Great. He died in Berlin on the
1st of December 1774. In 1759, on the death of Karl Heinrich
Graun, he was appointed conductor of the royal orchestra.
Besides several operas of merit, he composed instrumental
pieces and church music. His reputation chiefly rests, however,
on his theoretical and critical writings on musical subjects. He
wrote under the pseudonym of Flavio Anido Olibrio.
AGRICOLA (originally Schneidek, then Scmnrnft),
JOHANNES (1494-1566), German Protestant reformer, was born
on the toth of April 1494, at Eisleben, whence he is sometimes
called Magistor Islebius. He studied at Wittenberg, where he
soon gained the friendship of Luther. In 1519 he accompanied
Luther to the great assembly of German divines at Leipzig, and
acted as recording secretary. After teaching for some time in
Wittenberg, he went to Frankfort in 1525 to establish the re-
formed mode of worship. He had resided there only a month
when he was called to Eisleben, where he remained till 1526 as
teacher in the school of St Andrew, and preacher in the Nicolai
church. In 1536 he was recalled to teach in Wittenberg, and
was welcomed by Luther. Almost immediately, however, a
controversy, which had been begun ten years before and been
temporarily silenced, broke out more violently than ever.
Agricola was the first to teach the views which Luther was the
first to stigmatize by the now well-known name Antinomian
(9.*.), maintaining that while the unregenerate were still under
the Mosaic law, Christians were entirely free from it, being under
the gospel alone. In consequence of the bitter controversy with
Luther that resulted, Agricola in 1540 left Wittenberg secretly
for Berlin, where he published a letter addressed to the elector
of Saxony, which was generally interpreted as a recantation of
his obnoxious views. Luther, however, seems not to have so
accepted it, and Agricola remained at Berlin. The elector
Joachim II. of Brandenburg, having taken him into his favour,
appointed him court preacher and general superintendent. He
held both offices until his death In 1566, and his career in
Brandenburg was one of great activity and influence. Along
with Julius von Pflug, bishop of Naumburg-Zeitz, and Michael
Helding, titular bishop of Sidon, he prepared the Augsburg
Interim of 1548. He endeavoured in vain to appease the Adi-
aphoristic controversy (see Adiaprorists). He died during an
epidemic of plague on the 22nd of September 1566. Agricola
wrote a number of theological works which are now of little
interest. He was the first to make a collection of German
proverbs which he illustrated with a commentary. The most
complete edition, which contains seven hundred and fifty pro-
verbs, is that published at Wittenberg in 1592; a modern one
is that of Latendorf, 1862.
See Cordet, Joh. Arricola's Sckriften mdglickst veneichnet (Altona,
1817); Life by G. Kawerau (1881). who also wrote the notice in
Hauck-Herxog. Reaiencyk. fir prot. Thiol., where other literature is
cited.
AGRICOLA, MARTIN (c. 1500-1556), German musician, was
born about 1500 in Lower Silesia. His German name was Sohr
or Sore. From 1 534 till his death he lived at Magdeburg, where
he occupied the post of teacher or cantor in the Protestant
school The senator and music-printer Rhau, of Wittenberg,
was a close friend of Agricola, whose theoretical works, providing
valuable material concerning the change from the old to the
new system of notation, he published. Agricola was also the
first to harmonise in four parts Luther's chorale, Ein' fesU Burg.
Four other Agricolaa 1 are known as composers between the
end of the 15th century and the middle of the 17th.
In the 18th century we find Burney, in the course of his tour
in Germany (1773), much impressed by Johann Fkbdxich
Agricola (1720-1774), court composer and director of the royal
chapel to Frederick the Great. This Agricola was a pupil of
Bach, and a fine organist and clever writer on music, especially
on operatic style, the problems of which were beginning to be
raised by French writers and composers in preparation for the
work of Gluck.
AGRICOLA, R0D0LPHTJ8 (properly Roklot Huybmanh)
(1443-1485), Dutch scholar, was born at Baflo, near Groningrn, in
1443. He was educated at Louvain, where he graduated as
master of arts. After residing for some time in Paris, he went
in 1476 to Ferrara in Italy, and attended the lectures of the
celebrated Theodoras Gaza (1400-1478) on the Greek language.
Having visited Pavia and Rome, he returned to his native
country about 1479, and was soon afterwards appointed syndic
of Groningen. In 1482, on the invitation of Johann von Dalberg,
bishop of Worms (1445-1503), whose friendship he had gained
in Italy, he accepted a professorship at Heidelberg, and for
three years delivered lectures there and at Worms on the litera-
ture of Greece and Rome. By his personal influence much more
than by his writings be did much for the promotion of learning
in Germany; and Erasmus and other critics of the generation
immediately succeeding his own are full of his praises. In his
opposition to the scholastic philosophy he in some degree antici-
pated the great intellectual revolution in which many of his
pupils were conspicuous actors. He died at Heidelberg on the
28th of October 1485. His principal work is De invention*
diabetica, libri iii. t in which he attempts to change the scholastic
philosophy of the day.
See T F. Tresling, Vita el Merita Rudolpki Agricola* (Groningen,
1830); v. Bexold, K. Agricola (Munchen, 1884); and Ihm, Der
Humanist R. Agricola, stin Leben und tome Sckriften (Paderb., 1893).
AGRICULTURAL GANGS, groups of women, girls and boys
organized by an independent gang-master, under whose super-
vision they execute agricultural piece-work for farmers in certain
parts of England. They are sometimes called " public gangs "
to distinguish them from " private gangs " consisting of workers
engaged by the farmer himself, and undertaking work solely for
him, under his*own supervision or under that ol one of bis men.
The system was for long prevalent in the counties of Cambridge-
shire, Huntingdonshire, Lincolnshire, Nottinghamshire, Norfolk
and Suffolk, and is still to be found in a much modified form in
the fen district. The practice dates from the latter years of the
reign of George III., when the low-lying, marshy lands surround-
ing the basin of the Wash were being rapidly drained and con-
verted into rich alluvial districts. The unreformed condition of
the poor-law, under which the support of the poor fell upon each
individual parish, instead of a union of parishes, made landlords
reluctant to erect cottages on the reclaimed land for the benefit
of their tenants. Labour had to be obtained for the cultivation
of these new lands, and that of women, girls and boys, being
cheaper than the labour of men, was consequently very largely
employed. The tendency to moral and physical ruin which
resulted from this nomadic life was so great that an inquiry into
the condition of agricultural child-labour was included in the
reference to the commission on child-labour appointed in 1862,
and the results were so startling that the Agricultural Gangs
Act was passed in 1867, forbidding the employment of any child
under eight years old, and of any female under a male gang-
master unless a female licensed to act as gang-mistress were also
'Alexander, died 1506. Tohann, Jlor. 1600; Wolfgang Christoph,
flor. 1630; and George Lucfwig, 1643-1676.
388
AGRICULTURE
{ANCIENT SYSTEMS
present Gang-masters must be licensed by two justices, and
may not hold a liquor license. The distance to be traversed
on foot is fixed by the justices, and the licenses must be renewed
every six months. Later legislation made more stringent the
regulations under which children are employed in agricultural
gangs. By the Elementary Education Act 1876, repealing and
re-enacting the principal provisions of the Agricultural (Children)
Act 1873, no child shall be employed under the age of eleven
years, and none between eleven years and thirteen years before
the child has obtained a certificate of having reached the
standard of education fixed by a by-law in force in the district
AGRICULTURE (from Lat. agn, field, and colere, to cultivate),
the science, art and industry of utilizing the soil so as to produce
the means of human subsistence, embracing in its widest sense
the rearing of live-stock as well as the raising of crops. The
history of agriculture is the history of man in his most primitive,
and most permanent aspect. Hence the nations of antiquity
ascribed to it a divine origin; Brahma in Hindustan, Isis in
Egypt, Demeter in Greece, and Ceres in Italy, were its founders.
The simplest form of agriculture is that in which crops are raised
from one patch of ground till it is exhausted, when it is allowed
to go wild and abandoned for another. This "extensive"
husbandry is found in combination with a nomadic or semi-
nomadic and pastoral organization, such as that of the German
tribes described by Caesar and Tacitus (see especially Germania,
26). The discovery of the uses of the bare fallow and of manure,
by making it possible to raise crops from the same area for an
indefinite period, marks a stage of progress. This " intensive "
culture in a more or less developed form was practised by the
great nations of antiquity, and little decided advance was made
till after the middle ages. The introduction of new plants, which
made it possible to dispense with the bare fallow, and still later
the application to husbandry of scientific discoveries as to soils,
plant constituents and manures, brought about a revolution
in farming. But the progress of husbandry, evidenced by the
production of larger and better crops with more certainty, is
due to that rationalizing of agricultural practices which is the
work of modern times. What before was done in the light of
experience is nowadays done in the light of knowledge. Even
the earliest forms of intensive cultivation demand the practice
of the fundamental processes of husbandry— ploughing, manur-
ing, sowing, weeding, reaping. It is the improvements in methods,
implements and materials, brought about by the application
of science, that distinguish the husbandry of the 20th century
from that of medieval and ancient times.
Ancient Husbandry. — The monumental records of Egypt are
the source of the earliest information on farming. The Egypt
^ rpL of the Pharaohs was a country of great estates farmed
either by tenants or by slaves or labourers under the
superintendence of stewards. It owed its fertility to the Nile,
which, inundating the land near its banks, was distributed by
means of canals over more distant portions of its valley. The
autumnal subsidence of the river was followed by shallow
ploughing performed by oxen yoked to dumsy wooden ploughs,
the clods being afterwards levelled with wooden hoes by hand.
Next came the sowing, the seed being pressed into the soil by
the feet of sheep which were driven over the fields. At harvest
the corn was cut high on the stalk with short sickles and put
up in sheaves, after which it was carried to the threshing-floor
and there trodden out by the hoofs of oxen. Winnowing was
done by women, who tossed the grain into the air with small
wooden boards, the chaff being blown away by the winds. Whea t
and barley were the chief crops, and another plant, perhaps
identical with the durra, i.e. millet, of modern Egypt, was also
cultivated. The latter, when ripe, was pulled up by the roots,
and the grain was separated by means of an implement re-
sembling a comb. To these crops may be added peas, beans
and many herbs and esculent roots. Oxen were much prized,
and breeding was carried on with a careful eye to selection.
Immense numbers of ducks and geese were reared.
Diodorus Siculus, writing of later times, says that cattle were
sent during a portion of each year to the marshy pastures of
the delta, where they roamed under the care of herdsmen. They
were fed with hay during the annual inundation, and at other
times tethered in meadows of green clover. The flocks were
shorn twice annually (a practice common to several Asiatic
countries), and the ewes yeaned twice a year. (See also Egypt.)
The agriculture of the region bordering the Tigris and
Euphrates, like that of Egypt, depended largely on irrigation,
and traces of ancient canals are still to be seen in Babylonia.
But beyond the fact that both Babylonia and Assyria were
large producers of cereals, little is known of their husbandry.
The nomads of the patriarchal ages, whilst mainly dependent
upon their flocks and herds, practised also agriculture proper.
The tracts over which they roamed were in ordinary imntf
circumstances common to all shepherds alike. During rrrmrtt
the summer they frequented the mountainous districts, ■ — n r
and retired to the valleys to winter. Vast flocks of £?.. m .
sheep and of goat constituted their wealth, although
they also possessed oxen. When the last were abundant,
it seems to be an indication that tillage was practised.
Job, besides immense possessions in flocks* and herds, had
500 yoke of oxen, which he employed in ploughing, and a " very
great husbandry." Isaac, too, conjoined tillage with pastoral
husbandry, and that with success, for " he sowed in the land
Gerar, and reaped an hundred-fold " — a return which, it would
appear, in some favoured regions, occasionally rewarded Use
labour of the husbandman. In the parable of the sower, Jesus
Christ mentions an increase of thirty, sixty and an hundred fold.
Along with the Babylonians, Egyptians and Romans, the
Israelites are classed as one of the great agricultural nations of
antiquity. The Mosaic Institute contained an agrarian law,
based upon an equal division of the soil amongst the adult males,
a census of whom was taken just before their entrance into
Canaan. Provision was thus made for 600,000 yeomen, assignia;
(according to different calculations) from sixteen' to twenty-five
acres of land to each. This land, held in direct tenure from
Jehovah, their sovereign, was in theory inalienable. The
accumulation of debt upon it was prevented by the prohibition
of interest, the release of debts every seventh year, and the
reversion of the land to the proprietor, or his heirs, at each return
of the year of jubilee. The owners of these small farms cultivated
them with much care, and rendered them highly productive.
They were favoured with a soil extremely fertile, and one which
their skill and diligence kept in good condition. The stones
were carefully cleared from the fields, which were also watered
from canals and conduits, communicating with the brooks and
streams with which the country " was well watered everywhere."
and enriched by the application of manures. The seventh year's
fallow prevented the exhaustion of the soil, which was further
enriched by the burning of the weeds and spontaneous growth
of the Sabbatical year. The crops chiefly cultivated were wheat,
millet, barley, beans and lentils; to which it is supposed, on
grounds* not improbable, may be added rice and cotton. The
chief implements were a wooden plough of simple and light
construction, a hoe or mattock, and a light harrow. The ox
and the ass were used for labour. The word "oxen," which
occurs in our version of the Scriptures, as well as in the Scptua-
gint and Vulgate, denotes the species, rather than the sex. As
the Hebrews did not mutilate any of their animals, bulls were
in common use. The quantity of land ploughed by a yoke
of oxen in one day was called a yoke or acre. Towards the
end of October, with which month the rainy season begins, seed-
time commenced, and of course does so still. The seedtime,
begun in October, extends, for wheat and some other while
crops, through November and December; and barley continues
to be sown until about the middle of February. The seed
appears to have been sometimes ploughed in, and at other
times to have been covered by harrowing. The cold winds
which prevail in January and February frequently injured
the crops in the more exposed and higher districts. The
rainy season extends from October to April, during which time
refreshing showers fall, chiefly during the night, and generally
at intervals of a few days. The harvest was earlier or later as
AMCIBNT SYSTEM S|
AGRICULTURE
389
Ur rains tc^vafds the end of the sction were more or lot copious.
It, however, generally began in April, and continued through
May for the different crops in succession. In the south, and in
the plains, the harvest, as might be expected, commenced some
weeks earlier than in the northern and mountainous districts.
The slopes of the hills were carefully terraced and irrigated
wherever practicable, and on these slopes the vine and olive
were cultivated with great success. At the same time the hill
districts and neighbouring deserts afforded pasturage for
numerous flocks and herds, and thus admitted of the benefits of
a mixed husbandry. Not by a figure of speech but literally, every
Israelite sat under the shadow of his own vine and fig-tree;
whilst the country as a whole is described (2 Kings xviii. 32) as
" a land of corn and wine, a land of bread and vineyards, a land
of oil olive and of honey."
The earliest known forms of intensive husbandry were based
chiefly upon the proximity of rivers and irrigation. The agri-
Ammu culture of classical ages was slightly more developed in
so far as the husbandman of Greece and Rome was less
avble to leave to nature the fertilization of the soiL Greece being
a mountainous land was favourable to the culture of the vine
rather than to that of cereals. Scanty information on its agri-
culture is to be derived from the Works and Days of Hesiod (about
the 8th century B.C.), xhtOeconomicus of XenophoxsUth century
B.C.), the History of Plants and the Origin of Plants of Theo-
phrastus (4th century B.C.). The latter is the first writer on
botany, and his works also contain interesting remarks on
manures, the mixing of soils and other agricultural topics (see
also Geofonxcx). Greek husbandry had no salient character-
istics. The summer fallow with repeated ploughing was its basis.
The young crop was- hoed, reaping was performed with a sickle,
and a high stubble left on the ground as manure. The. methods
of threshing and winnowing were the same as those in use in
ancient Egypt. Wheat, barley and spelt were the leading crops.
Meadows were pastured rather than mown. Attica was famous
for its olives and figs, but general agriculture excelled in Pelo-
ponnesus, where, by means of irrigation and drainage, all the
available land was utilized.
In the early days of the Roman republic land in Italy was held
largely by small proprietors, and agriculture was highly esteemed
K%mm . and classed with war as an occupation becoming a free
man. The story of Cindnnatus, twice summoned from
the plough to the highest offices in the state, illustrates the status
of the Roman husbandman. The later tendency was towards the
absorption of smaller holdings into large estates. As wealth
increased the peasant-farmer gave way before the large land-
owner, who cultivated his property by means of slave-labour,
superintended by slave-bailiffs. The low price of grain, which
was imported in huge quantities from Sicily and other Roman
provinces, operated to crush the small holder, at the same time
as it made arable farming unremunerative. Sheep-raising,
involving larger holdings, less supervision and less labour, was
preferred by the capitalist land-holder to the cultivation of the
wheat, spelt, vines or olives which were the chief crops of the
country. Lupine, beans, peas and vetches were grown for
fodder, and meadows, often artificially watered, supplied hay.
Swine and poultry were used for food to a greater extent than
oxen, which were bred chiefly for ploughing. The following
epitome of Virgil's advice to the husbandman in the first book of
the Georgia suggests the outline of Roman husbandry: " First
learn the peculiarities of your soil and climate. Plough the
fallow in early spring, and plough frequently— twice in winter,
twice in summer unless your land is poor, when a light ploughing
in September will do. Either let the land lie fallow every other
year or else let spelt follow pulse, vetches or lupine. Repetition
of one crop exhausts the ground; rotation will lighten the
strain, only the exhausted soil must be copiously dressed with
manure or ashes. It often does good to burn the stubble on the
ground. Harrow down the clods, level the ridges by cross
ploughing, work the land thoroughly. Irrigation benefits a sandy
soil, draining a marshy sofl. It is weO to feed down a luxuriant
crop when the plants are level with the ridge tops. Geese and
cranci, chicory, mildew, thistles, cleavers, caltrops, darnel and
shade are farmer's enemies. Scare off the birds, harrow up the
weeds, cut down aU that shades the crop. Ploughs, waggons,
threshing-sledges, harrows, baskets, hurdles, winnowing-fans are
the farmer's implements. The plough consists of several parts
made of seasoned wood. The threshing-floor must be smooth and
rammed hard to leave no crevices for weeds and small animals to
get through. Some steep seed in soda and ofl lees to get a larger
produce. Careful annual selection by hand of the best seed is the
only way to prevent degeneration. It is best to mow stubble and
hay at night when they are moist"
In addition to the use of several kinds of animal and other
manures, green crops were sometimes ploughed in by the Romans.
The shrewdness which, more than inventiveness, characterized
their husbandry comes out well in the following quotation from
the x8th book of the Natural History of Pliny:—" Cato would
have this point especially to be considered, that the soil of a farm
be good and fertile; also, that near it there be plenty of labourers
and that it be not far from a large town; moreover, that it have
sufficient means for transporting its produce, either by water or
land. Also that the house be well built, and the land about it as
well managed. They are in error who hold the opinion that the
negligence and bad husbandry of the former owner is good for his
successor. Now, I say there is nothing more dangerous and
disadvantageous to the buyer than land so left waste and out of
heart; and therefore Cato counsels well to purchase land of one
who has managed it well, and not rashly to despise and make
light of the skill and knowledge of another."
Roman writers on agriculture (see Geoponici) are more
numerous than those of Greece. The earliest important treatises
are the Do re Rustica of Cato (234-149 B.C.) and the Return
Rusticarum Libri of Varro. More famous than either are the
Georgia of Virgil, published about 30 B.C., and treating of tillage,
horticulture, cattle-breeding and bee-keeping. The works of
Columella (zst century a.d.) and of Palladius (4th century a.d.)
are exhaustive treatises, and the Natural History of the elder
Pliny (aj>. 23-70) contains considerable information on hus-
bandry. Under the later empire agriculture sank into a condition
of neglect, in which it remained throughout the Dark Ages. In
Spain its revival was due to the Saracens, and by them, and their
successors the Moors, agriculture was carried to a high pitch of
excellence. The work on agriculture 1 of Ibn-al-Awam, who
lived in $e 12th century aj>., treats of the varieties of soils,
manuring, irrigation, ploughing, sowing, harvesting, stock,
horticulture, arboriculture and plant diseases, and is a lasting
record of their skill and Industry.
The subsequent history of agrteulture is treated in the following
pages primarily from the British standpoint. Doubtless Flanders
may claim to be the pioneer of " high farming " in medieval
times, other countries following her lead in many respects. It is
not, however, necessary to deal with the agricultural evolution of
continental Europe, the gradual progress of agriculture as a whole
being well enough typified in the story of its development in
England, which indeed has led the way in modern times. After
sections on the history and chief modern features of British
agriculture, a separate account is given of the general features of
American agriculture.
Hbtoxy of English Agbicultuxb
The " combined " or " common-field " system of husbandry
practised by the village community or township (see Village
CoionrNiTizs) may be taken as the starting-point of English
agriculture, in which, till the end of the 18th century, it is a
dominant influence. The territory of the " township " consisted
of arable land, meadow, pasture and waste. The arable land
was divided into two or, more usually, three fields, which were
cut up into strips bounded by balks and allotted to the villagers
in such a way that one holding might include several discon-
nected strips in each field — a measure designed to prevent the
whole of the best land falling to one man. The fields were fenced
in from seed-time to harvest, after which the fences were taken
• Translation by Clement-Mullet (Park. 1864).
39°
AGRICULTURE
(BRITISH
down and the cattle turned in to feed on the stubble. Accord-
ing to early methods of cropping, which were destined to prevail
for centuries, wheat, the chief article of food, was sown in one
autumn, reaped the next August; the following spring, oats or
barley were sown, and the year following the harvest was a
period of fallow. This procedure was followed on each of the
three fields so that in every year one of them was fallow. In
addition to the cereals, beans, peas and vetches were grown to
some extent The meadow-land was also divided into strips
from which the various holders drew their supply of hay. The
pasture-land was common to all, though the number of beasts
which one man might turn into it was sometimes limited.
Rough gracing could also be had on the outlying waste lands.
In the absence of artificial grasses and roots, hay was very
valuable; it constituted almost the only winter food for live
stock, which were consequently in poor condition in spring.
Under the manorial system, the rise of which preceded the
Norman Conquest, communal methods of husbandry remained,
but the position of the cultivator was radically altered.
" Villeins," instead of free-holders, formed the most numerous
class of the population. They were bound to the soil and occu-
pied holdings of scattered strips (amounting usually to a virgate
or 30 acres) in return for a payment partly in labour and partly
in kind. A portion of the manor, generally about a third, con-
stituted the lord's demesne, which, though sometimes separate,
usually consisted of strips intermingled with those of his villeins.
It thus formed part of the common farm and was cultivated by
the villeins and their oxen under the superintendence of a
bailiff. Below the villeins in the social scale came the cottiers
possessing smaller holdings, sometimes only a garden, and no
oxen. Free tenants and, after the Norman Conquest, slaves
formed small proportions of the population. During the middle
ages cattle and sheep were the chief farm animals, but the inter-
mixture of stock consequent on the common-field system was
a barrier to improvement in the breed and conduced to the
propagation of disease. Oxen, usually yoked in teams of eight,
were used for ploughing. Sheep were small and their fleeces
light, nevertheless, owing to the meagreness of the yields of
cereals 1 and the demand for wool for export, sheep-farming
was looked to, as early as the xath century, as the chief source
of profit. Pigs and poultry were universally kept. The treatise
on husbandry of Walter of Henley, dating from the early 13th
century, is very valuable as describing the management of the
demesne under the two- or three-field system. The following
are typical passages:—
" April it a good season for fallowing, if the earth breaks up behind
the plough; for second fallowing after St John's Day when the dust
rises behind the plough; for seed-ploughing when the earth is well
settled and not too cracked; however, the busy man cannot be
always waiting on the seasons." " At sowing do not plough large
furrows, but Bttle and well laid together, that the seed may fall
evenly."
" Know that an acre sown with wheat takes three ploughing!,
except lands that are sown each year, and that each ploughing costs
6d. more or less and the harrowing id. It is well to sow at least two
bushels to the acre."
" Change your seed every year at Michaelmas, for the seed grown
on other land will bring you more than that grown on your own."
" Neither sell your stubble nor move it from the ground unless
yon need it for th a tchin g. Have manure put up in heaps and mixed
with earth."
" Ridge marshy ground so as to let the water run off."
During the 13th century there arose a tendency to commute
labour-rents for money payments. This change led to the
gradual disappearance of tenants in villeinage— die villeins and
cottiers— and the rise on the one hand of the small independent
farmer, on the other of the hired labourer. The plague of 1348
marks an epoch in English agriculture. The diminution of the
population by one-half led to a scarcity of labour and an increase
of wages which deprived the landowner of his narrow margin
of profit To meet this situation, the Statute of Labourers
(1351) enacted that no man should refuse to work at the same
rate of wages as prevailed before the plague. In addition the
'W alter of Henley mentions six bushels per acre as a satisfactory
crop.
landowners attempted to revive the disappearing system of
labour-rents. The bitter feelings engendered between em-
ployer and employed culminated in the peasants' revolt of 13&1.
Meanwhile large numbers of landowners were forced Co adopt
one of two alternatives. In some cases they ceased to farm their
own land and let it out on lease often together with the stock
upon it; or else they abandoned arable culture, laid down their
demesnes to pasture, enclosed the waste lands and devoted them-
selves to sheep-farming. In the latter course they were en-
couraged by the high prices of wool during the 14th century, and
by Edward IIL's policy of fostering both the export of wool and
the home manufacture of woollen goods. The 15th century,
barren of progress in methods of husbandry, was in its early
years moderately prosperous. Later on the increasing abandon-
ment of arable husbandry for sheep-farming brought about a
less demand for labour, and rural depopulation was accelerated
as the peasant was deprived of his graxing-ground by the en-
closure of more and more of the waste land. 1
From the beginning of the reign of Henry VII to the end of
Elizabeth's, a number of statutes were made for the encourage-
ment of tillage, though probably to little purpose, j-*^
"Where in some towns," says the statute 4th tSvmmmw
Henry VII. (1488), " two hundred persons were occu- «*» TMsm
pied and lived of their lawful labours, now there are * ?*
occupied two or three herdsmen, and the residue fall
into idleness"; therefore it is ordained that houses which
within three years have been let for farms, with twenty acres
of land lying in tillage or husbandry, shall be upheld, under
the penalty of half the profits, to be forfeited to the king
or the lord of the fee. Almost half a century afterwards the
practice had become still more alarming; and in 1534 a new
act was tried, apparently with as little success. " Some have
24,000 sheep, some 20,000 sheep, some 10,000, some 6000, some
4000, and some more and some less "; and yet it is alleged the
price of wool had nearly doubled, " sheep being come to a few
persons' hands." A penalty was therefore imposed on all who
kept above 2000 sheep; and no person was to take in arm more
than two tenements of husbandry. By the 39th Elizabeth (z 597)
arable land made pasture since the xst Elizabeth shall be again
converted into tillage, and what is arable shall not be converted
into pasture.
The literature of agriculture, in abeyance since the treatise
of Walter of Henley, makes another beginning in the 16th
century The best of the early works is the Book of Husbandry
(xst ed. 1523), commonly ascribed to Sir Anthony Fitxberbert,
a judge of the Common Pleas in the reign of Henry VIII., but
more probably written by his elder brother John. This was
followed by the Book of Surveying and Improvements (13*3), by the
same author. In the former treatise we have a clear and minute
description of the rural practices of that period, and from the
latter may be learned a good deal of the economy of the feudal
system in its decline.
The Book of Husbandry begins with a description of the plough
and other implements, after which about a third part of it is
occupied with the several operations as they succeed one another
throughout the year. Among other passages in this part of the
work, the following deserve notice: —
' ' Somme (ploughs) wyU toura the sbdd bredith at every lamfatww-
and plo we all one way n ; the same kind of plough that is nowfooad
sp useful on hilly grounds. Of wheel-ploughs he observes, that
they be good on even grounde that lyeth lyghte "; and 00 sock
lands they are stUl most commonly employed. Cart-wheels were
sometimes bound with iron, of which he greatly approves. On the
much agitated question about the employment of horses or oxen
in labour, the most important arguments are distinctly stated.
In some places," he says, « r a horse plough is better," and is
others an oxen plough, to which, upon the whole, he gives the pre-
ference. Beans anoT peas seem to have been common crops. He
mentions the different kinds of wheat, barley and oats: and after
describing the method of harrowing ''all maner of coranea," we
find the roller employed. "They used to role their barley rroamk
•This process of enclosure must be dUtinruubed from chat of
enclosing the arable common fields which, though advocated by
Fttzherbert in a passage quoted below proceeded slowly tfll the
1 8 th century. *
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afterashowrof rayiie, to tnate the grounde even to mowe." Under
the article " To falowe," he observes, " the greater clottet (clods) the
better wheate, for the clones kepe the wheat warme all wynter ; and
at March they will meke and breaks- and fal in manye small peces,
the whiche is a new dongynge and refreshynge of the come." This
is agreeable to the present practice, founded on the very same
reasons. "In May, the shepe folde is to be set out " ; but Fiuherbert
does not much approve of folding, and points out its disadvantages
in a very judicious manner. " In the latter end of May and the
begymrynge of June, is tyme to wede the come "; and then we have
an accurate description of the different weeds, and the instruments
and mode of weeding. Next comes a second ploughing of the fallow
and afterwards, in the latter end of June, the mowing of the meadoi
begins. Of this operation, and of the forks and rakes and the ha;
AGRICULTURE
39»
t latter end of June, the mowing of the meadows
„ . ration, and of the forks and rakes and the hay-
making there is a very good account. The com harvest naturally
follows: rye and wheat were usually shorn, and barley and cats cut
with the scythe. The writer does not approve of the common
practice of cutting wheat high and then mowing the stubbles. " In
S om erse ts hire," he says, " they do there theyr wheat very lowe; and
the wheate strawe that they purpose to make tkaeke of, they do not
threshe it, but cut off the ears, and bvnd it in sheves, and call it rede,
and therewith they thacke theyr houses." He recommends the
practice of setting up corn in shocks, with two sheaves to cover eight,
instead of ten sheaves as at present — probably owing to the straw
being then shorter. The com was commonly housed; but if there
be a want of room, he advises that the ricks be built on a scaffold
and not upon the ground. The fallow received a third ploughing in
September, and was sown about Michaelmas. " Wheat is moost
commonlye sowne under the forowe, that it to ssy, cast it uppon the
falowe, and then plowe it under "; and this branch of his subject
is concluded with directions about threshing, winnowing and other
kinds of barn-work.
Fitxherbert next proceeds to live stock. " An housbande," he
says, " can not well thryue by his come without he have other
cattell, nor by his cattcll without come. And bycause that shepe, in
myne opynvon, is the mooste profytablest cattell that any man can
haue, therefore I pourpose to speake fyrst of shepe." His remarks
on this subject are so accurate that one might imagine they came
from a storemaster of the present day.
In some places at present " they neuerseuertheir lambesfrom their
dammes "; " and the pooreof the peeke (high) countreye, and such
other places, where, as they.vse to mylke theyr ewes, they vse to
wayne theyr hmbes at la weekes olde, and to mylke their ewes fiue
or syxe weekes " ; but that, he observes, " is greate hurte to the ewes,
and wyU cause them that they wyll not take the ramme at the tyme
of the yere for pouertye, but goo barreyne." " In June is tyme to
shere snepe : and ere they be shorne, they must be verye well washen,
the which shall be to the owner greate profyte in the sale of his wool,
and also to the clothe-maker."
His remarks on horses, cattle, ftc, are not less interesting; and
there is a very good account of the diseases of each species, and some
just observations on the advantage of mixing different kinds on the
same pasture. Swine and bees conclude this branch of the work.
The author then points out the great advantages of enclosure;
recommends " quycksettynge, dychynge and bedgeyng "; and gives
particular directions about settee, and the method of training a hedge,
as well as concerning the planting and management of trees. Fitx-
herbert throws some light on the position of women in the agri-
culture of his day. "It ts a wyues occupation," he says, " to wynowe
all maner of comes, to make malte, to washe and wrynge, to make
heye, shere come, and, in time of nede, to helpe her husbande to
f yU the mucke wayne or dounge carte, dryue the ploughe, to loode
heye, come and suche other; and to go or ride to the market to sel
butter, chese, mylke, egges, chekyns, capons, hennes, pygges, gese,
and all maner of comes.
The Book of Surveying adds considerably to our knowledge
of the rural economy of that age. " Four maner of commens "
are described; several kinds of mills for corn and other purposes,
and also " quernes that goo with hand "; different orders of
tenants, down to the " boundmen," who " in some places con-
tynue as yet "; " and many tymes, by colour thereof, there be
many freemen taken as boundmen, and their lands and goods is
taken from them." Lime and marl are mentioned as common
manures, and the former was sometimes spread on the surface to
destroy heath. Both draining and irrigation are noticed, though
the latter but slightly. And the work concludes with an inquiry
" how to make a township that is worth XX. marke a yere,
worth XX. li. a year," advocating the transition from communal
or open field to individual or enclosure farming.
" It is undoubted, that to every townshyppe that standeth in
tyDage in the pbyne countrey, there be enable landes to plowe and
sowe, and leyse to tye or tedder theyr horses end mares upon, snd
common pasture to kepe and pasture their catell, beestes snd shepe
upon; and also they have medowe grounde to get theyr hey upon,
loan to let it be known how many acres of enable Isnde euery man
hath in tyllage, and of the same acres in euery felde to chaunge with
his neighbours, and to leva them toguyther, and to make hvm one
•eueralT close in euery felde for his enable lands; and his leyse in
euery felde to leve them tonrther in one felde* and to makeoneseueral!
close for them all. And alio another it u trail dose for his portion
of his common pasture, ami also his purdon of his medowe in a
eeueraU clowe by itteUe, and aJ kept m at urtall both in wynter and
some*; and euery cottage * Ml ha tie hi* portion assigned hym
acccrdynffe to his rm£ r and than shall nat the ryche r
the poore man with hi* cattell; and euery man may eate his oua
close at hit pleasure. And vndoubtcd. that hay and strawe that win
find one beat in the house wyll bade two beestes in the close, and
better they *ha?l tyke. For those beeatii in the house have short
hear? and thynne, and towards March they wul pylle and be bare;
and there fare they mav nat abyde in the fylde before the beerdmen
In wi titer tyme for coEde, And t how that lye in a dose under a hedge
haue lortce heare and thyek, and they will neuer pylle nor be bare:
and by this reason the husbande maye kepe twyse SO many catell
as he did before.
" This ib the cause of this approwmeAt. Nowe euery husbande
hath sue seueiall closes, whereof Lit. be for come, the fourthe for his
leyse, the tyfte (or his eommen pastures, and the sfacte for his haye;
and in wynter time there Ls but one occupied with come, and than
hath t he husbande other fyue to occupy tyll lente come, and that he
hath his falowe felde, his fey felde. and his pasture felde al sommer.
And when he hath mowen his mcdowe 4 then he hath his medowe
grounde. kjq that if he hath any wcyke catell that wold be amended,
or iJ yvers maner of catell. he may put them in any close he wyll, the
which i-- a great advantage; and if aU shulde lye eommen, than
»of.ic the edyehe of the corne feJdes and the aftermath of all the
n 1 *■■ lowes h< eaten in X* or X i I , dayes. And the rych men that hath
miA'he rat ell wold have the advantage, and the poore man can have
ii>. hi In r,,ir rclefe in wynter when ne hath moste nede: and if an
acre of lande be worthe sue pent, or it be enclosed, it will be worth
VIII. pens, when it is enclosed by reason of the compostying and
dongyng of the catell that shall go and lye upon it both day and
nighte, and if any of his thre closes that he hath for bis corne be
worne or ware bare, than he may breke and plowe up his dose that
he hadde for his layse, or the close that he nadde tor his eommen
pasture, or bothe, and sowe them with corne, and let the other lye
lor a time, and so shall he have always reist grounde, the which will
bear rooche corne with rytel donge; and also he shall have a great
profyte of the wed in the hedges whan it is growen; and not only
these profytes and advantages beforesaid, but he shall save moche
more than al these, for by reason of these closes he shall save meate.
drinke and wages of a snepherde, the wapes of the heerdmen, and
the wsges of the swine herde, the which may fortune to be as charge-
able as all his nolle rente; and also hi* come thai J be better saved
from eatinge or destroyeng with catel. For done ye not but heerde-
men with their catell, shepeherdes with ' h c '» sh rpe H n n d 1 jng of horses
and mares, destroyeth moch corne, the which the hedges wold save.
Paraduenture some men would say that this thuld be against the
common weale, bicause the sbepeherde*. heerdmen and -wyne- heroes
sbukJ than be put out of wages. To that it may be answered,
though these occupations be not uicd, there be as many newe
occupations that were not used before ; as setting of qtiicke settes,
dichfng, hedging and plashing, the which the same men may use
and occupye."
The next author who writes professedly on agriculture is
Thomas Tusser, whose Five Hundred Points of Husbandry,
published in 1562, enjoyed such lasting repute that in 1723 Lord
Moiesworth recommended that it should be taught in schools.
In it the book of husbandry consists of 118 pages, and then
follows the Points of Housewifrie, occupying 43 pages more.
It is written in verse. Amidst much that is valueless there are
some useful notices concerning the state of agriculture at the
time in different parts of England. Hops, which had been intro-
duced in the early part of the x6th century, and on the culture
of which a treatise was published in 1574 by Reginald Scott, are
mentioned as a well-known crop. Buckwheat was sown after
barley. Hemp and flax are mentioned as common crops. En-
closures must have been numerous in some counties; and there
i» a very good comparison between " champion (open fields)
country and several," which Btith afterwards transcribed into
bis Improver Improved. Carrots, cabbages, turnips and rape,
not yet cultivated in the fields, are mentioned among the herbs
and roots for the kitchen. There is nothing to be found in Tusser
about serfs or bondmen, as in Fitxherbert 's works.
In 1577 appeared the Foure Bookes of Husbandry, translated,
with augmentation, from the work of Conrad Heresbach. Much
stress is laid on the value of manure, and mention is made of
clover.
Fitxherbert, in deploring the gradual discontinuance of the
practice of marling land, had alluded to the grievance familiar
39*
AGRICULTURE
(BRITISH
in modern times of tenants " who, If they should marl and make
their holdings much better, fear lest they should be put out,
or make a great fine or else pay more rent." This subject is
treated at length in Sir John Norden's Surveyor's Dialogue (ist
ed. 1607), the next agricultural work demanding notice. The
author, writing from the landowner's point of view, ascribes the
rise in rents and the rise in the price of corn 1 to the " emulation "
of tenants in competing for holdings, a practice implying that
the agriculture of the period was prosperous. Norden's work
contains many judicious observations on the " different natures
of grounds, how they may be employed, how they may be
bettered, reformed and amended." The famous meadows near
Salisbury are mentioned, where, when cattle have fed their fill,
hogs, it is said, " are made fat with the remnant — namely, with
the knots and sappe of the grasse." " Clouer grasse, or the grasse
honey suckle " (white clover), is directed to be sown with other
hay seeds. " Carrot rootes " were then raised in several parts
of England, and sometimes by farmers. London street and
stable dung was carried to a distance by water, and appears from
later writers to have been got for the trouble of removing.
Leases of 21 years are recommended for persons of small capital
as better than employing it in purchasing land. The works of
Gervase Markham, Leonard Mascall, Gabriel Plattes and other
authors of the first half of the 1 7th century may be passed over,
the best part of them being preserved by Blith and Haxtlib, who
are referred to below.
Sir Richard Weston's Discourse on the Husbandry of Brabant
and Flanders was published by Hartlib in 1645, and its title
indicates the source to which England owed much of its sub-
sequent agricultural advancement. Weston was ambassador
from England to the elector palatine in 1619, and had the merit
of being the first who introduced the great clover, as it was then
called, into English agriculture, about 1652, and probably turnips
also. Clover thrives best, he says, when .you sow it on the
barrenest ground, such as the worst heath ground in England.
The ground is to be pared and burnt, and unslacked lime must
be added to the ashes. It is next to be well ploughed and
harrowed; and about 10 lb of clover seed must be sown on
an acre in April or the end of March. If you intend to preserve
seed, then the second crop must be let stand till it come to a full
and dead ripeness, and you shall have at the least five bushels
per acre. Being once sown, it will last five years; the land, when
ploughed, will yield, three or four years together, rich crops of
wheat, and after that a crop of oats, with which clover seed is
to be sown again. It is in itself an excellent manure, Sir Richard
adds; and so it should be, to enable land to bear this treatment.
Before 1655 the culture of clover, exactly according to the present
method, seems to have been well known in England, and it had
also made its way to Ireland.
A great many works on agriculture appeared during the
time of the Commonwealth, of which Walter Blith's Improver
Improved and Samuel Hartlib's Legocie are the most valuable.
The first edition of the former was published in 1649, &&d of the
latter in 1651; and both of them were enlarged in subsequent
editions. In the first edition of the Improver Improved no
mention is made of clover, nor in the second of turnips, but in the
third, clover is treated of at some length, and turnips are recom-
mended as an excellent cattle crop, the culture of which should
be extended from the kitchen garden to the field. Sir Richard
Weston must have cultivated turnips before this; for Blith
says that Sir Richard affirmed to himself that he fed his swine
with them. They were first given boiled, but afterwards the
swine came to eat them raw, and would run after the carts, and
pull them forth as they gathered them— an expression which
conveys an idea of their being cultivated in the fields.
Blith's book Is the first systematic work in which there are
some traces of alternate husbandry or the practice of interposing
clover and turnip between culmiferous crops. He is a great
enemy to commons and common fields, and to retaining land in
1 During the 16th century wheat had risen in price, and between
1606 and 1618 never fell below 30s. a quarter. At the came time
wages remained low.
old pasture, unless it be of the best quality. His description of
the different kinds of ploughs is interesting; and he justly
recommends such as were drawn by two horses (some even by
one horse) in preference to the weighty and clumsy tnacbraes
which required four or more horses or oxen. The following
passage indicates the contemporary theory of manuring: — " In
thy tillage are these special opportunities to improve it, either
by liming, marling, sanding, earthing, mudding, snayl-coddinfc
mucking, chalking, pidgeons-dung, hens-dung, hogs-dung or
by any other means as some by rags, some by coarse wool, by
pitch marks, and tarry stuff, any oyiy stuff, salt and many
things more, yea indeed any thing almost that hath any liquid-
ness, foulness, saltness or good moysture in it, is very natural]
inrichment to almost any sort of land." Blith speaks of an
instrument which ploughed, sowed and harrowed at the same
time; and the setting of corn was then a subject of much dis-
cussion. Blith was a zealous advocate of drainage and bokfa
that drains to be efficient must be laid 3 or 4 ft deep.
The drainage of the Great Level of the Fens was prosecuted
during the 17th century, but lack of engineering skill and the
opposition of the fen-men hindered the reclamation of a now
fertile region.
Hartlib's Legocie contains, among some very judicious direc-
tions, a great deal of rash speculation. Several of the deficiencies
which the writer complains of in English agriculture must be
placed to the account of climate, and never have been or can
be supplied. Some of his recommendations are quite unsuitable
to the state of the country, and display more of general knowledge
and good intention than of either the theory or practice of
agriculture. Among the subjects deserving notice may be
mentioned the practice of steeping and liming seed corn as a
preventive of smut; changing every year the species of grain,
and bringing seed corn from a distance; ploughing down green
crops as manure; and feeding horses with broken oats and chaff.
This writer seems to differ a good deal from Blith about the
advantage of interchanging tillage and pasture. " It were no
losse to this island," be says, " if that we should not plough at
all, if so be that we could certainly have corn at a reasonable
rate, and likewise vent for all our manufactures of wool "; and
one reason for this is, that pasture employs more hands than
tillage, instead of depopulating the country, as was commonly
imagined. The grout, which he mentions as " coming over to us
in Holland ships," about which he desires information, was
probably the same as shelled barley; and mills for manufac-
turing it were introduced into Scotland from Holland towards
the beginning of the 18th century.
Among the other writers previous to the Revolution mention
must be made of John Ray the botanist and of John Evelyn,
both men of great talent and research, whose works are still in
high estimation.
The first half of the 17th century was a period of agricultural
activity, partly due, no doubt, to the increase of enclosed farms.
Marling and liming are again practised, new agricultural imple-
ments and manures introduced, and the new crops more widely
used. But the Civil War and the subsequent political disturb-
ances intervened to prevent the continuance of this progress, and
the agriculture of the end of the century seems to have relapsed
into stagnation.
Of the state of agriculture in Scotland in the 16th and the greater
part of the 17th century very little is known; no professed
treatise on the subject appeared till after the Revolution, c^—^,
The south-eastern counties were the earliest improved, <&+-
and yet in 1660 their condition seems to have been very «■*■"■ •*
wretched. Ray, who made a tour along the eastern JJ^JJ?
coast in that year, says, " We observed little or no
fallow ground in Scotland; some ley ground we saw, which they
manured with sea wreck. The men seemed to be very laxy, and
may be frequently observed to plough in their cloaks. It is the
fashion of them to wear cloaks when they go abroad, but especi-
ally on Sundays. They have neither good bread, cheese nor
drink. They cannot make them, nor will they learn. Their
butter is very indifferent, and one would wonder how they could
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contrive to make it so bad . They use much pottage made of
coal-wort, which they call kail, sometimes broth of decorticated
barley. The ordinary country-houses are pitiful cots, built of
stone and covered with turfs, having in them but one room, many
of them no chimneys, the windows very small holes and not
glazed. The ground in the valleys and plains bear very good
corn, but especially bears barley or bigge, and oats, but rarely
wheat and rye."
It is probable that no great change had taken place in Scotland
from the end of the 15th century, except that tenants gradually
became possessed of a little stock of their own, instead of having
their farm stocked by the landlord. " The minority of James V.,
the reign of Mary Stuart, the infancy of her son, and the civil wars
of her grandson Charles I., were all periods of lasting waste. The
very laws which were made during successive reigns for protecting
the tillers of the soil from spoil are the best proofs of the deplor-
able state of the husbandman.'' 1
In the 1 7th century those laws were made which paved the way
for an improved system of agriculture in Scotland. By a statute
of 1633 landholders were enabled to have their tithes valued,
and to buy them either at nine or six years' purchase, according
to the nature of the property. The statute of 1685, conferring on
landlords a power to entail their estates, was indeed of a very
Afferent tendency in regard to its effects on agriculture. But the
two Acts in 1695, for the division of commons and separation of
intermixed properties, facilitated improvements.
From the Revolution to the accession of George HI. the
progress of agriculture was by no means so considerable as might
n <B be imagined from the great exportation of corn. It
"a/Zfrkm* fe probable that very little improvement had taken
tmntnm place, either in the cultivation of the soil or in the
JJJ* *• management of live stock, from the Restoration down
to the middle of the 1 8th century. Clover and turnips
were confined to a few districts, and at the latter period were
scarcely cultivated at all by common farmers in the northern
part of the island. Of the writers of this period, therefore, it is
necessary to notice only such as describe some improvement, in
the modes of culture, or some extension of the practices that were
formerly little known.
In John Houghton's CoBedions on Husbandry and Trade, a
periodical work begun in i68z, there is one of the earliest notices of
turnips being eaten by sheep. — " Some in Essex have their fallow
after turnips, which feed their sheep in winter, by which means
the turnips arcscooped, and so made capable to hold dews and
rain water, which, by corrupting, imbibes the nitre of the air, and
when the shell breaks it runs about and fertilizes. By feeding the
sheep, the land is dunged as if it had been folded; and those
turnips, though few or none be carried off for human use, are a
very excellent improvement, nay, some reckon it so, though they
•only plough the turnips in without feeding." This was written
in February 1604. Ten years before, John Worlidge, one of his
correspondents, and the author of the Systema Agriculturae (1669),
observes, " Sheep fatten very well on turnips, which prove an
excellent nourishment for them in hard winters when fodder is
scarce; for they will not only eat the greens, but feed on the roots
in the ground, and scoop them hollow even to the very skin. Ten
acres (he adds) sown with clover, turnips, &&, will feed as many
sheep as one hundred acres thereof would before have done."
The next writer of note is John Mortimer, whose Whole. Art
of Husbandry, a regular, systematic work of considerable merit,
was published in 1707.
From the third edition of Hartlib's Legacie we learn that
dover was cut green and given to cattle; and it appears that
this practice of soiling, as it is now called, had become very
common about the beginning of the 18th century, wherever
clover was cultivated. Rye-grass was now sown along with it
Turnips were hand-hoed and extensively employed in feeding
sheep and cattle.
The first considerable improvement in the practice of that
period was introduced by Jethro Tull, a gentleman of Berkshire,
who about the year 1701 invented the drill, and whose Horse*
1 Chalmers' Caledonia, voL it p. 73s.
AGRICULTURE
393
hoeing Husbandry, published in 1731, exhibits the first decided
step in advance upon the principles and practices of his pre-
decessors. Not contented with a careful attention to details,
Tull set himself, with admirable skill and perseverance, to
investigate the growth of plants, and thus to arrive at a know-
ledge of the principles by which the cultivation of field-crops
should be regulated. Having arrived at the conclusion that the
food of plants consists of minute particles of earth taken up by
their rootlets, it followed that the more thoroughly the soil in
which they grew was disintegrated, the- more abundant would
be the " pasture " (as he called it) to which their fibres would
have access. He was thus led to adopt that system of sowing
his crops in rows or drills, so wide apart as to admit of tillage of the
intervals, both by ploughing and hoeing, being continued until
they had well-nigh arrived at maturity. Such reliance did he
place in the pulverization of the soil that he grew as many as
thirteen crops of wheat on the same field without manure.
As the distance between his rows appeared much greater than
was necessary for the range of the roots of the plants, he begins
by showing that these roots extend much farther than is com-
monly believed, and then proceeds to inquire into the nature of
their food. After examining several hypotheses, he decides this
to be fine particles of earth. The chief and almost the only use
of dung, he thinks, is to divide the earth, to dissolve " this
terrestrial matter, which affords nutriment to the mouths of
vegetable roots "; and this can be done more completely by
tillage. It is therefore necessary not only to pulverize the soil
by repeated ploughings before it be seeded, but, as it becomes
gradually more and more compressed afterwards, recourse must
be had to tillage while the plants are growing; and this is hoeing,
which also destroys the weeds that would deprive the plants of
their nourishment.
The leading features of Tull's husbandry are his practice of
laying the land into narrow ridges of 5 or 6 ft., and upon
the middle of these drilling one, two, or three rows, distant
from one another about 7 in. when there were three, and xo in.
when only two. The distance of the plants on one ridge from
those on the contiguous one he called an interval', the distance
between the rows on the same ridge, a space or partition', the
former was stirred repeatedly by the horse-hoe, the latter by
the hand-hoe.
" Hoeing," he says, " may be divided into deep, which is our
horse-hoeing; and shallow, which is the English hand-hoeing;
and also the shallow horse-hoeing used in some places betwixt
rows, where the intervals are very narrow, as 16 or 18 inches.
This is but an imitation of the hand-hoe, or a succenadeum to
it, and can neither supply the use of dung nor fallow, and may
'be properly called scratch-hoeing." But in his mode of forming
ridges his practice seems to have been original; his implements,
especially his drill, display much ingenuity; and his claim to
the title of founder of the present horse-hoeing husbandry of
Great Britain seems indisputable.
Contemporary with Tull was Charles, and Viscount Townshend,
a typical representative of the large landowners to whom the
strides made by agriculture in the 18th century were due. The
class to which he belonged was the only one which could afford
to initiate improvements. The bulk of the land was still farmed
by small tenants on the old common-field system, which made
It impossible for the individual to adopt a new crop rotation and
'hindered innovation of every kind. On the other hand, the small
farmers who occupied separated holdings were deterred from
improving by the fear of a rise in rent. Townshend's belief in
the growing of turnips gained him the nickname of "Turnip
Townshend." In their cultivation he adopted Tull's practice
of drilling and horse-hoeing, and he was also the founder of the
Norfolk or four-course system, the first of those rotations which
dispense with the necessity of a summer-fallow and provide
winter-keep for live-stock (see below, Rotation of Crops). The
spread of these principles in Norfolk made it, according to Arthur
Young (writing in 1770), one of the best cultivated counties in
England. In the latter half of the century another Norfolk
farmer, Thomas Wilham Coke of Holkham, earl of Leicester,
39+
AGRICULTURE
imrnsM
(1752-1843), figures as a pioneer of high-farming. He was one
of the first to use oil-cake and bone-manure, to distinguish the
feeding values of grasses, to appreciate to the full the beneficial
effects of stock on light lands and to realise the value of long
leases as an incentive to good fanning.
Of the progress of the art in Scotland, till towards the end of
the 17th century, we are almost entirely ignorant The first
AgHm work, written by James Donaldson, was printed in
miter* to 1697, under the title of Husbandry Anatomized; or,
Scotland an Inquiry into ike Present Manner of Tilling and
111 ****** Manuring the Ground in Scotland. It appears from
"■ y ' this treatise that the state of the art was not more
advanced at that time in North Britain than it had been
in England in the time of Fitzherbert Farms were divided
into infield and outfield; corn crops followed one another with-
out the intervention of fallow, cultivated herbage or turnips,
though something is said about fallowing the outfield; en-
closures were very rare; the tenantry had not begun to emerge
from a state of great poverty and depression; and the wages of
labour, compared with the price of corn, were much lower than
at present, though that price, at least in ordinary years, must
appear extremely moderate in our times. Leases for a term of
years, however, were not uncommon; but the want of capital
rendered it impossible for the tenantry to attempt any spirited
improvements.
The next work on the husbandry of Scotland is The Country-
man's Rudiments, or an Advice to the Farmers in East Lothian,
how to labour and improve their Grounds, said to have been written
by John Hamilton, and Lord Belhaven about the time of the
Union, and reprinted in 1723. The author bespeaks the favour
of those to whom he addresses himself in the following significant
terms:—" Neither shall I affright you with hedging, ditching,
marling, chalking, paring and burning, draining, watering and
such like, which are all very good improvements indeed, and
very agreeable with the soil and situation of East Lothian, but
I know ye cannot bear as yet a crowd of improvements, this
being only intended to initiate you in the true method and
principles of husbandry." The farm-rooms in East Lothian,
as in other districts, were divided into infield and outfield.
" The infield (where wheat is sown) is generally divided by the
tenant into four divisions or breaks, as they call them, vis, one
of wheat, one of barley, one of pease and one of oats, so that the
wheat is sowd after thepease, the barley after the wheat and the
oats after the barley. The outfield land is ordinarily made use of
promiscuously for feeding of their cows, horse, sheep and oxen; 'tis
also dunged by their sheep who lay in earthen folds; and sometimes,
when they have much of ft, they fauch or fallow a part of it yearly."
Under this management the produce seems to have been
three times the seed; and yet, says the writer, "if in East
Lothian they did not leave a higher stubble than in other places
of the kingdom, their grounds would be in a much worse con-
dition than at present they are, though bad enough." " A good
crop of corn makes a good stubble, and a good stubble is the
equalest mucking that is." Among die advantages of enclosures,
he observes, " you will gain much more labour from your ser-
vants, a great part of whose time was taken up in gathering
thistles and other garbage for their horses to feed upon in their
stables; and thereby the great trampling and pulling up and
other destruction of the corns while they are yet tender will
be prevented." Potatoes and turnips are recommended to be
sown in the yard (kitchen-garden). Clover does not seem to have
been in use. Rents were paid in corn; and for the largest farm,
which he thinks should employ no more than two ploughs, the
rent was about six chalders of victual " when the ground is very
good, and four in that which is not so good. But I am most fully
convinced they should take long leases or tacks, that they may
not be straitened with time in the improvement of their rooms;
and this is profitable both for master and tenant"
Such was the state of the husbandry of Scotland in the early
part of the 18th century. The first attempts at improvement
cannot be traced farther back than 1723, when a number of
landholders formed themselves into a society, under the title
of the Society of Improvers in the Knowledge of Agriculture in
Scotland. John, and earl of Stair, one of their most active
members, is said to have been the first who cultivated turnips in
that country. The Select Transactions of this society were
collected and published in 1743 by Robert Maxwell, who took a
large part in its proceedings. It is evident from this book
that the society had exerted itself with success in intro-
ducing cultivated herbage and turnips, as well as in improving,
the former methods of culture. But there is reason to believe
that the influence of the example of its numerous members did
not extend to the common tenantry, who not unnaturally were
reluctant to adopt the practices of those by whom fanning was
perhaps regarded as primarily a source of pleasure rather than
of profit Though this society, the earliest probably in the
United Kingdom, soon counted upwards of 300 members, it
existed little more than 20 years.
In the introductory paper in Maxwell's collection we axe told
that—
" The practice of draining, enclosing, summer fallowing, sowing
flax, hemp, rape, turnip and grass seeds, planting cabbages after,
and potatoes with, the plough, in fields of areat extent, is introduced;
" "*■ «.-..- — -|j^ more corn grows cow
efore. these twenty years
the kingdom was in ose
to produce at any time before."
In 1757 Maxwell issued another work entitled The Practical
Husbandman; being a collection of Miscellaneous papers on
Husbandry f 6rc. In it the greater part of the Select Transactions
is republished, with a number of new papers, among which an
Essay on the Husbandry of Scotland, with a proposal for the im-
provement of it, is the most valuable. In this he lays it down
as a rule that it is bad husbandry to take two crops of grain
successively, which marks a considerable progress in the know-
ledge of modern husbandry; though he adds that in Scotland
the best husbandmen after a fallow take a crop of wheat; niter
the wheat, peas; then barley, and then oats; and after that
they fallow again. The want of enclosures was still a matter of
complaint The ground continued to be cropped so long as tt
produced two seeds; the best farmers were contented with four
seeds, which was more than the general produce.
The gradual advance in the price of farm produce soon after
the year 1760, occasioned by the increase of popula- nm
tion and of wealth derived from manufactures and jmjl
commerce, gave a powerful stimulus to rural industry,
augmented agricultural capital and called forth a more skilful and
enterprising race of farmers.
A more rational system of cropping now began to take the
place of the thriftless and barbarous practice of sowing succes-
sive crops of corn until the land was utterly exhausted, and then
leaving it foul with weeds to recover its power by an indefinite
period of rest Green crops, such as turnips, clover and rye
grass, began to be alternated with grain crops, whence the name
alternate husbandry.
The writings of Arthur Young- (q.v.), secretary to the Board
of Agriculture, describe the transition from the old to the new
agriculture. In many places turnips and clover were still
unknown or ignored. Large districts still clung to the old
common-field system, to the old habits of ploughing with
teams of four or eight, and to slovenly methods of cultivation.
Young's condemnation of these survivals was as pronounced as
his support of the methods of the large farmers to whom he
ascribed the excellence of the husbandry of Kent, Norfolk and
Essex. He realized that with the enclosure of the waste lands
and the absorption of small into large holdings, the common-
field farmer must migrate to the town or become a hired labourer;
but he also realized that to feed a rapidly growing industrial
population, the land must be improved by draining, marling,
manuring and the use of better implements, in short by the
investment of the capital which the yeoman farmer, content to
feed himself and his own family, did not possess. The enlarge-
ment of farms, and in Scotland the letting of them under leases
for a considerable term of years, continued to be a marked feature
in the agricultural progress of the country until the end of the
century, and is to be regarded both as a cause and a consequence
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of thatprogrea*. Hie paasingof tome 3500 enclosure bills, affect-
ing between 5 and 5J million acres, during the reign of George
HI., before which the whole number was between 200 and 250,
shows how rapidly the break-up of the common-field husbandry
and the cultivation of new land now proceeded. The disastrous
American War for a time interfered with the national prosperity;
but with the return of peace in 1783 the cultivation of the
country made more rapid progress. The quarter of a century
immediately following 1760 is memorable for the introduction
-of various important improvements. It was during this period
that the genius of Robert Bakewell produced an extraordinary
change in the character of our more important breeds of live
stock, more especially by the perfecting of a new race of sheep—
the well-known Ldcestera Bakewell's fame as a breeder was
for a time enhanced by the improvement which he effected on
the Long-horned cattle, then the prevailing breed of the midland
counties of England. These, however, were ere long rivalled
and afterwards superseded by the Shorthorn or Durham breed,
which the. brothers Charles and Robert Colling obtained from
the useful race of cattle that had long existed In the valley of
the Tees, by applying to them the principle of breeding which
Bakewell had already established. To this period also belong
George and Matthew Culley— the former a pupil of Bakewell—
who left their paternal property on the bank of the Tees and
settled on the Northumbrian side of- the Tweed, bringing with
them the valuable breeds of live stock and unproved husbandry
of their native district. The improvements introduced by these
energetic and skilful farmers spread rapidly, and exerted a most
beneficial influence upon the border counties.
From 1784 to 1795 improvements advanced with steady steps.
This period was distinguished for the adoption and working
out of ascertained improvements. Small's swing plough and
Andrew Mdkle's threshing-machine, although invented some
years before this, were now perfected and brought into general
use, to the great furtherance of agriculture. Two important
additions were about this time made to the field crops, via. the
Swedish turnip and potato oat The latter was accidentally
disc o vere d in 1788, and both soon came into general cultivation.
In the same year Merino sheep were introduced by George in.,
who was a zealous farmer. For a time this breed attracted much
attention, and sanguine expectations were entertained that it
would prove of national importance. Its unfitness for the pro-
duction of mutton, and increasing supplies of fine clothing wool
from other countries, soon led to its total rejection.
In Scotland the opening up of the country by the construction
of practicable roads, and the enclosing and subdividing of farms
by hedge and ditch, was now in active progress. The former
admitted of the general use of wheel-carriages, of the ready con-
veyance of produce to markets, and in particular of the extended
use of Kme, the application of which was immediately followed
by a great increase of produce. The latter, besides its more
obvious advantages, speedily freed large tracts of country from
stagnant water and their inhabitants from ague, and prepared
the way for the underground draining which soon after began to
be practised. Dawson of Frogden in Roxburghshire is believed
to have been the first who grew turnips as a field crop to any
extent It is on record that as early as 1764 he had zoo acres of
drilled turnips oh bis farm in one year. An Act passed in 2770,
which relaxed the rigour of strict entails and afforded power to
landlords to grant leases and otherwise improve their estates, had
a beneficial effect on Scottish agriculture.
The husbandry of the country was thus steadily improving,
when suddenly the whole of Europe became involved in the wars
of the French Revolution. In 1 79s, under the joint operation of
a deficient harvest and the diminution in foreign supplies of
grain owing to outbreak of war, the price of wheat, which, for the
twenty preceding years, had been under 50s. a quarter, suddenly
rose to 81s. 6d., and in the following year reached 90s. In 1797
the fear of foreign invasion led to a panic and run upon the banks,
in which emergency the Bank Restriction Aet, suspending cash
payment, was passed, and ushered in a system of unlimited credit
transactions. Under the unnatural stimulus of these extra-
AGRICULTURE
395
ordinary events, every branch of industry extended with un-
exampled rapidity. But in nothing was this so apparent as in
agriculture; the high prices of produce holding out a great
inducement to improve lands then arable, to reclaim others that
had previously lain waste, and to bring much pasture-land under
the plough. Nor did this increased tillage interfere with the
increase of live stock, as the green crops of the alternate hus-
bandry more than compensated for the diminished pasturage.
This extraordinary state of matters lasted from 1795 to 18x4,
the prices of produce even increasing towards the dose of that
period. The average price of wheat for the whole period
was 89s. 7<L per quarter; but for the last five years it was
107a, and in 18x9 it reached 1 26a 6d. The agriculture of Great
Britain, as a whole, advanced with rapid strides during this
period; but nowhere was the change so great as in Scotland.
Indeed, its progress there, during these twenty years, is probably
without parallel in the history of any other country. This is
accounted for by a concurrence of circumstances. Previous to
this period the husbandry of Scotland was still in a backward
state as compared with the best districts of England, where many
practices, only of recent introduction in the north, had been in
general use for generations. This disparity made the subsequent
contrast the more striking. The land in Scotland was now, with
trifling exceptions, let on leases for terms varying from twenty to
thirty years, and in farms of sufficient size to employ at the least
two or three ploughs. The unlimited issues of government paper
and the security afforded by these leases induced the Scottish
banks to afford every facility to landlords and tenants to embark
capital in the improvement of the land. The substantial educa-
tion supplied by the parish schools, of which nearly the whole
population could then avail themselves, had diffused through all
ranks such a measure of intelligence as enabled them promptly
to discern and skilfully and energetically to take advantage of
this spring-tide of prosperity, and to profit by the agricultural
information now plentifully furnished by means of the Bath and
West of England Society, established in 1777; the Highland
Society, instituted in 1784; and the National Board of Agricul-
ture, in 1793.
The restoration of peace to Europe, and the re-enactment of
the Com Laws in 2815, mark the beginning of another era in the
history of agriculture. The sudden return to peace- jgtMf
prices was followed by a time of severe depression, low 157*
wages, diminished rents and bad farming. The faQ
in prices was aggravated, first by the unpropitious weather and
deficient harvest of the years 18 16, 18x7, and still more by the
passing in 18x9 of the bill restoring cash payments, which, coming
into operation in x8ai, caused serious embarrassment to all
persons who had entered into engagements at a depredated
currency, which had now to be met with the lower prices of an
enhanced one. The frequency of select-committees and commis-
sions, which sat in 18x4, x8ax and x8aa, 1833 and 1836, testifies
to the gravity of the crisis. The years 1830-1833 are especially
memorable for a disastrous outbreak of sheep-rot and for agrarian
outrages, caused partly by the dislike of the labourers to the
introduction of agricultural machines.
During this period of depression, which lasted till the 'forties,
want of confidence prevented any general improvement in
agricultural methods. At the same time, certain developments
destined to exercise considerable influence in later times are
to be noted. Before the close of the x8th century, and during
the first quarter of the 19th, a good deal had been done in the
way of draining the land, either by open ditches or by James
Elkington's system of deep covered drains. In 1834 James
Smith of Deanston promulgated his system of thorough draining
and deep ploughing, the adoption of which immeasurably im-
proved the clay lands of the country. The early years of the
reign of Queen Victoria witnessed the strengthening of the union
between agriculture and chemistry. The Board of Agriculture
in 1803 had commissioned Sir Humphry Davy to deliver a
course of lectures on the connexion of chemistry with vegetable
physiology. In 1840 the appearance of Chemistry in Us Appli-
cation to Agriculture and Pkysidoty by Justus von Liebig set
396
AGRICULTURE
on foot a movement in favour of scientific husbandry, the most
notable outcome of which was the establishment by Sir John
Bennet Lawes in 1843 of the experimental station of Rotham-
sted. Since Blith's time bone was the one new fertiliser that
had come into use. Nitrate of soda, Peruvian guano and
superphosphate of lime in the form of bones dissolved by sulphuric
acid were now added to the list of manures, and the practice
of analysing soils became more general. Manual labour in
farming operations began to be superseded by the use of drills,
bay-makers and horse-rakes, chaff-cutters and root-pulpers.
The reaping-machine, invented in 18x2 by John Common,
improved upon by the Rev. Patrick Bell in England and by
Cyrus H. McCormick and others in America, and finally perfected
about 1879 by the addition of an efficient self-binding apparatus,
is the most striking example of the application of mechanics to
agriculture. Improvements in the plough, harrow and roller
were introduced, adapting those implements to different soils
and purposes. The steam-engine first took the place of horses
as a threshing power in 1803, but it was not until after 1850 that
it was applied to the plough and cultivator. The employment
of agricultural machines received considerable impetus from the
Great Exhibition of 1851. The much-debated Corn Laws, after
undergoing various modifications, and proving the fruitful
source of business uncertainty, social discontent and angry
partisanship, were finally abolished in 1846, although the act
was not consummated until three years later. Several other
acts of the legislature passed during this period exerted a bene-
ficial influence on agriculture. Of these, the first in date and
importance is the Tithe Commutation Act of 1836. Improve-
ment was also stimulated by the Public Money Drainage
Acts 1846-1856, under which government was empowered to
advance money on certain conditions for the improvement of
estates. Additional facilities were granted by the act passed
in 1848 for disentailing estates, and for burdening such as are
entailed with the share of the cost of certain specified im-
provements.
Meanwhile much had been done in the organization of agri-
cultural knowledge. Mention has already been made of the
institution of the Highland Society and the National Board of
Agriculture. These institutions were the means of collecting
a vast amount of statistical and general information connected
with agriculture, and by their publications and premiums made
known the practices of the best-farmed districts and encouraged
their adoption elsewhere. These associations were soon aided
in their important labours by numerous local societies which
sprang up in all parts of the kingdom. After a highly useful
career, under the presidency till 1813 of Sir John Sinclair, the
Board of Agriculture was dissolved in 181 9, but left in its statis-
tical account, county surveys and other documents much
interesting and valuable information regarding the agriculture
of the period. In 1 800 the original Farmer? Magazine came
into existence under the editorship of Robert Brown of
Markle, the author of the well-known treatise on Rural A fairs.
The Highland Society having early extended its operations to
the whole of Scotland, by and by made a corresponding addition
to its title, and as the Highland and Agricultural Society of
Scotland gradually extended its operations. In 1828, shortly
after the discontinuance of the Farmers* Magazine, its Prize
Essays and Transactions began to be issued statedly in connexion
with the Quarterly Journal of Agriculture. This society early
began to hold a great show of live stock, implements, &c In
1842 certain Midlothian tenant-farmers had the merit of
originating an Agricultural Chemistry Association (the first of
its kind), by which funds were raised for the purpose of conduct-
ing such investigations as the title of the society implies. After
a successful trial of a few years this association was dissolved,
transferring its functions to the Highland and Agricultural
Society.
In England the Agricultural Society was founded in 1838,
with the motto " Practice with Science," and shortly afterwards
incorporated by royal charter. In 1845 the Royal Agricultural
College at Cirencester was incorporated. This era of revival
fBRITrSB
was not, however, without its calamities. The foot-and-mouth
disease first appeared about 1840, having been introduced, as is
supposed, by foreign cattle. It spread rapidly over the country,
affecting all domesticated animals except horses, and although
seldom attended by fatal results, caused everywhere great alarm
and loss. It was soon followed by the more terrible lung-disease,
or pleuro-pneumonia. In 1865 the rinderpest, or steppe murrain,
originating amongst the vast herds of the Russian steppes, had
spread westward over Europe, until it was brought to London
by foreign cattle. Several weeks elapsed before the true char-
acter of the disease was known, and in this brief space it had
already been carried by animals purchased in Smithfidd market
to all parts of the country. After causing the most frightful
losses, it was at last stamped out by the resolute slaughter of aO
affected animals and of all that had been in contact with them.
Severe as were the losses in flocks and herds from these imported
diseases, they were eclipsed by the ravages of the mysterious
potato blight, which, first appearing in 1845, pervaded the whole
of Europe, and in Ireland especially proved the precursor of
famine and pestilence.
A short period of low prices followed the repeal of the Corn
Laws, wheat averaging only 38s. 6d. a quarter in 1851, but the
years from 1852 to 187s were the most prosperous of the century.
The letters written by Sir James Caird to The Times during
1850, and republished in 1852 under the title English AgricuUurt
in 1850-1851, give a general review of English agriculture .at
the time. The scientific and mechanical improvements of the
first half of the century were widely adopted, while the prices
of the protectionist period showed little decline. Amelioration
in all breeds of domesticated animals was manifested, not so
much in the production of individual specimens of high merit
as in the diffusion of these and other good breeds over the
country, and in the improved quality of live stock as a whole.
The fattening of animals was conducted on more scientific
principles. Increased attention was successfully bestowed on
the improvement of field crops. Improved varieties, obtained
by cross-impregnation either naturally or artificially brought
about, were carefully propagated and generally adopted, and in-
creased attention was bestowed on the cultivation of the natural
grasses. The most important additions to the list of field crops
were Italian rye-grass, winter beans, white Belgian carrot and
alsike clover.
The last quarter of the 19th century proved, however, a fateful
period for British agriculture. The great future that seemed
to await the application of steam power to the tillage _^^
of the soil proved illusory. The clay soils of England, *** **? _.
the latent fertility of which was to be brought into SSl*
play in a fashion that should mightily augment the
home-grown supplies of food, remained intractable, and the
extent of land devoted to the cultivation of corn crops, instead
of expanding, diminished in a marked degree. British farmers
of long experience look back to 1874 as the last of the really
good years, and consider that the palmy days of British agri-
culture began to dwindle at about that time. The shadow of the
approaching depression had already fallen upon the land before
the year 1875 had run its course, and the outlook became ominous
as the decade of the 'seventies neared its close. One memorable
feature was associated with 1877 in that this was the last year
in which the dreaded cattle plague (rinderpest) made its appear-
ance in England. The same year, 2877, was the last also in
which the annual average price of English wheat (then 56s. od.)
exceeded 50s. a quarter. With declining prices for farm produce
came that year of unhappy memory, 1879, when persistent rains
and an almost sunless summer ruined the crops and reduced
many farmers to a state of destitution. Much of the grain was
never harvested, whilst owing mainly to the excessive floods
there commenced an outbreak of liver-rot in sheep, due to the
ravages of the fluke parasite. This continued for several years,
and the mortality was so great that its adverse effects upon the
ovine population of the country were still perceptible ten years
afterwards. A fall in rents was the necessary sequel of the
agricultural distress, to inquire into which a royal commission
AGRICULTURE
397
was appointed in 1879, under the chairmanship of the duke of
Richmond and Gordon. Its report, published in 1882, testified
to " the great extent and intensity of the distress which has
fallen upon the agricultural community. Owners and occupiers
have alike suffered from it. No description of estate or tenure
has been exempted. The owner in fee and life tenant, the
occupier, whether of large or of small holding, whether under
lease, or custom, or agreement, or the provisions of the Agricul-
tural Holdings Act— all without distinction have been involved
in a general calamity." The two most prominent causes assigned
for the depression were bad seasons and foreign competition,
aggravated by the increased cost of production and the heavy
losses of live stock. Abundant evidence was forthcoming as
to the extent to which agriculture had been injuriously affected
" by an unprecedented succession of bad seasons." As regards
the pressure of foreign competition, it was stated to be greatly
in excess of the anticipations of the supporters, and of the
apprehensions of the opponents of the repeal of the Corn Laws.
Whereas formerly the farmer was to some extent compensated
by a higher price for a smaller yield, in recent years he had had
to compete with an unusually large supply at greatly reduced
prices. On the other hand, he had enjoyed the advantage of
an extended supply of feeding-stuffs— such as maize, linseed-
cake and cotton-cake— and of artificial manures imported from
abroad. The low price of agriculturalproduce, beneficial though
it might be to the general community, had lessened the ability
of the land to bear the proportion of taxation which had hereto-
fore been imposed upon it. The legislative outcome of the
findings of this royal commission was the Agricultural Holdings
Act 1883, a measure which continued in force in its entirety
till xooi, when a new act came into operation.
The apparently hopeless outlook for corn-growing compelled
farmers to cast about for some other means of subsistence, and
to rely more than they had hitherto done upon the possibilities
of stock-breeding. It was in particular the misfortunes of the
later 'seventies that gave the needed fillip to that branch of
stock-farming concerned with the production of milk, butter
and cheese, and from this period may be said to date the revival
of the dairying industry, which received a powerful impetus
through the introduction of the centrifugal cream separator,
and was fostered by the British Dairy Farmers' Association
(formed in 1875). The generally wet character of the seasons
in 1879 and the two or three years following was mainly respon-
sible for the high prices of meat, so that the supplies of fresh beef
and mutton from Australia which now began to arrive found a
ready market, and the trade in imported fresh meat which was
thus commenced has practically continued to expand ever since.
The great losses arising from spoilt hay crops served to stimulate
experimental inquiry into the method of preserving green fodder
known as ensilage, with the result that the system eventually
became successfully incorporated in the ordinary routine of
agricultural practice. A contemporaneous effort in the direction
of drying hay by artificial means led to nothing of practical
importance. By 1 88a the cry as to land going out of cultivation
became loud and general, and the migration of the rural popula-
tion into the towns in search of work continued unchecked (see
below, Agricultural Population). In 1883 foot-and-mouth disease
was terribly rampant amongst the herds and flocks of Great
Britain, and was far more prevalent than it has ever been since.
It was about this time that the first experiments were made
(in Germany) with basic slag, a material which had hitherto
been regarded as a worthless by-product of steel manufacture.
A year or two later field trials were begun in England, with the
final result that basic slag has become recognized as a valuable
source of phosphorus for growing crops, and is now in constant
demand for application to the soil as a fertilizer.
In 1883 the veterinary department of the Privy Council —
which had been constituted in 1865 when the country was
ravaged by cattle plague— was abolished by order in council,
and the " Agricultural Department " wis substituted, but no
alteration was effected in the work of the department, so far as
it related to animals. In 1889 the Board of Agriculture (foe
Great Britain) was formed under an act of parliament of that
year (see Agriculture, Board or). The election took place
in the same year (1889) of the first county councils, and the
allotment to them of various sums of money under the Local
Taxation (Customs and Excise) Act 1890 enabled local provision
to be made for the promotion of technical instruction in agri-
culture (see below, Agricultural Education). It was about this
time that the value of a mixture of lime and sulphate of copper
(bouUlic borddoise), sprayed in solution upon the growing plants,
came to be recognized as a check upon the ravages of potato
The general experience of the decade of the 'eighties was
that of disappointing summers, harsh winters, falling prices,
declining rents and the shrinkage of land values. It is true that
one season of the series, that of 1887, was hot and droughty,
but the following summer was exceedingly wet. Nevertheless,
the decade dosed more hopefully than it opened, and found
farmers taking a keener interest in grass land, in live stock and
in dairying. Cattle-breeders did well in z 889, but sheep-breeders
fared better; on the other hand, owing to receding prices, corn-
growers were more disheartened than ever. With the incoming
of the last decade of the century there seemed to be some
justifiable hopes of the dawn of better times, but they were
speedily doomed to disappointment. In 1891 excessively heavy
autumn rains washed the arable soils to such an extent that the
next season's corn crops were below average. Wheat in parti-
cular was a poor crop in 1892, and the low yield was associated
with falling prices due to large imports. The bay crop was very
inferior, and in some cases it was practically ruined. This gave
a stimulus to the trade in imported hay, which rose from 61,237
tons in 1892 to 263,050 tons in 1893, and despite some large
home-grown crops in certain subsequent years (1897 and 1898)
this expansion has never since been wholly lost.
The misfortunes of 1892 proved to be merely a preparation
for the disasters of 1893, in which year occurred the most de-
structive drought within living memory. Its worst effects were
seen upon the light land farms of England, and so deplorable
was the position that a royal commission on agricultural de-
pression was appointed in September of that year under the
c h air m a n s h ip of Mr Shaw Lefevre (afterwards Lord Eversley).
Thus, within the last quarter of the 19th century— and, as a
matter of fact, only fourteen years apart— two royal commissions
on agriculture were appointed, the one in a year of memorable
flood, 1879, and the other in a year of disastrous drought, 1893.
The report of the commission of 1893 was issued in March 1896.
Amongst its chief recommendations were those relating to
amendments in the Agricultural Holdings Acts, and to tithe rent-
charge, railway rates, damage by game, sale of adulterated
products, and sale of imported goods (meat, for example) as
home produce. Two legislative enactments arose out of the
work of this commission. In the majority report it was stated
" that, in order to place agricultural lands in their right position
as compared with other ratable properties, it is essential that
they should be assessed to all local rates in a reduced propor-
tion of their ratable value." The Agricultural Rates Act 1896
gave effect to this recommendation. Its objects were to relieve
agricultural land from half the local rates, and to provide the
means of making good out of imperial funds the deficiency in local
taxation caused thereby. It was provided that the act should
continue in force only till the 31st of March 1902, but a further
act in zooz extended the period by four years, and in 1905 its
operation was extended to the 31st of March 1010. The other
measure arising out of the report of the royal commission of 1893
was the Agricultural Holdings Act z 000. This was an amending
act and not a consolidating act; consequently it had to be read
as if incorporated into the already existing acts. As affecting
agricultural practice there were three noteworthy improvements
in respect of the making of which, without the consent of or
notice to his landlord, a tenant might claim compensation— (1)
the consumption on the holding " by horses, other than those
regularly employed on the holding," of corn, cake or other
feeding-stuff not produced on the holding; (2) the " consumption
398
AGRICULTURE
(BRITISH
on the holding by cattle, sheep, or pigs, or by hones other than
those regularly employed on the holding, of com proved by
satisfactory evidence to have been produced and consumed on
the holding "; (3) " laying down temporary pasture with clover,
grass, lucerne, sainfoin or other seeds sown more than two years
prior to the determination of the tenancy." A further act was
passed in 1906 (the Agricultural Holdings Act 1906) which im-
proved the tenant's position in respect of freedom of cropping,
disposal of produce and compensation for disturbance.
After 1894, in which year the brilliant prospects of a. bountiful
harvest were ultimately extinguished by untimely and heavy
rains, all the remaining seasons of the closing decade of the 19th
century were dominated by drought A fact that was amply
illustrated, moreover, is that the period of incidence of a drought
is not less important than its duration, and the same is true of
abnormal rainfall A spring drought, a summer drought, an
autumn drought, each has its distinctive characteristics in so far
as the effect upon the crops is concerned The hot drought of
1893 extended over the spring and summer months, but there
was an abundant rainfall in the autumn; correspondingly there
was an unprecedentedly bad yield of corn and hay crops, but a
moderately fair yield of the main root crops (turnips and swedes).
In 1899 the drought became most intense in the autumn after
the corn crops had been harvested, but during the chief period,
of growth of the root crops; correspondingly the corn crops of
that year rank very well amongst the crops of the decade, but
the yield of turnips and swedes was the worst on record. It is
quite possible for a hot dry season to be associated with a large
yield of corn, provided the drought is confined to a suitable period,
as was the case in 1896 and still more so in 1898; the English
wheat crops in those years were probably the biggest in yield
per acre that nad been harvested since z868, which is always
looked back upon as a remarkable year for wheat The drought
of 1898 was interrupted by copious rains in June, and these
falling on a warm soil led to a rapid growth of grass and, as
measured by yield per acre, an exceedingly heavy crop of hay.
With the exceptions of 1891 and 1894, every year in the period
1891-1900 was stricken by drought. The two meteorological
events of the decade which will probably live longest in the
recollection were, however, the terrible drought of 1893, result-
ing in a fodder famine in the succeeding winter, and the severe
frost of ten weeks' duration at the beginning of 1895. Between
these two occurrences came the disastrous decline in the value
of grain in the autumn of 1894, when the weekly average price
of English wheat fell to the record minimum of 17s. 6d. per im-
perial quarter. As a consequence, the extent of land devoted
to wheat in the British Isles receded in 1895 to less than 1}
million acres. The year 1903 was memorable for a very heavy
rainfall, comparable though not equal in its disastrous effects to
that of 1879. Successful trials of sulphate of copper solution
as a means of destroying charlock in corn crops took place in
the years 1808-1900. Charlock is a most persistent cruciferous
weed, but if sprayed when young with the solution named it is
killed, the corn plants being uninjured. In 1901 the formation
of the Agricultural Organization Society marked the first sys-
tematic attempt to organize co-operation among the farmers
of Great Britain. In the subsequent years the principle, which
had already made great progress in Inland, began to obtain a
hold in England and Wales, where, in 1906, there were 145 local
co-operative societies with a turn-over of £350,000.
Amongst legislative measures of importance to agriculturists
mention should be made, in addition to those that have been
referred to, of the Tithe Rent-charge Recovery Act 1891, which
transfers the liability for payment of tithe from the occupier to
the owner. In the same year was passed the Markets and Fairs
(Weighing of Cattle) Act The object of the Small Holdings Act
1892 was to facilitate the acquisition of small agricultural hold-
ings. It provided that a county council might acquire any suit-
able land, with the object of allotting from one to fifty acres,
or, if more-than fifty acres, of an annual value not exceeding £50,
to persons who desired to buy, and would themselves cultivate,
the holdings. If, owing to proximity to a town or otherwise, the
prospective value were too high, the council might hire such land
for the purpose of letting it. (See Allotments and Smalx Hold-
ings for this and other acts.) The Fertilizers and Feeding Stuffs
Act 1893 compelled sellers of fertilizers (*.«. manures), manu-
factured or imported, to state the percentage of the nitrogen, of
the soluble and insoluble phosphates, and of the potash in each
article sold, and this statement was to have the effect of a war-
ranty. Similar stringent conditions applied as regards the sale of
feeding-stuffs for live stock. The Fertilizers and Feeding Stuffs
Act 1906, amending and re-enacting the act of 1893, provided
for the compulsory appointment by county councils of official
samplers. It also provides penalties for breaches of duty by the
seller, but grants him protection in cases where he is not morally
responsible. The Finance Act of 1804. with its great changes in
the death duties, overshadowed all other acts of that year both in
its immediate effects and in its far-reaching consequences. The
Copyhold Consolidation Act 1804 supersedes six previous copy-
hold statutes, but does not effect any alteration in the law concern-
ing enfranchisement The Diseases of Animals Act 1896 provided
for the compulsory slaughter of imported live stock at the place
of landing. The light Railways Act and the Locomotives on
Highways Act were added to the statute book in 1896, and
various clauses in the Finance Act effected reforms in respect of
the death duties, the land-tax, farmers' income-tax and the bees-
duty. The Chaff-cutting Machines (Accidents) Act 1897 is a
measure very similar in its intention to the Threshing Machines
Act 1878, and provides for the automatic prevention of accidents
to persons in charge of chaff-cutting machines. The Sale of Food
and Drugs Act 1899 has special reference in its earlier sections
to the trade in dairy produce and margarine. In 1809 was also
passed the act establishing the Department of Agriculture and
Technical Instruction in Ireland.
The year 1900 saw the passing of a Workmen's Compensation
Act, which extended the benefits of the act of 1897 to agricultural
labourers.
Acreage and Yields of British Crops.
The most notable feature in connexion with the cropping of the
land of the United Kingdom between 1875 and 1005 was the
lessened cultivation of the cereal crops associated with an expan-
sion in the area of grass land. At the beginning of the period the
aggregate area under wheat, barley and oats was nearly to}
million acres; at the close it did not amount to 8 million acres.
There was thus a withdrawal during the period of over 2} million
acres from cereal cultivation. From Table I., showing the
acreages at intervals of five years, it will be learnt that the loss
fell chiefly upon the wheat crop, which at the dose of the period
Table 1.— Areas of Cereal Crops in ike United Kingdom
— Acres.
Year.
Wheat.
Barley.
Oats.
Total.
1875
1880
1885
1890
1895
1900
1905
3.5M.088
3.065,895
3.553.092
24»3.595
1456.042
1,901,014
1.836,598
2.751.362
2.695.000
2,447.169
2,300,994
2,346,367
2,172,140
1.872,305
4176,177
4.1JM.716
4,282,594
4.»37.790
4.527,899
4.145.633
4,137406
10441.627
9.952,611
9.282,855
8.922.379
8430408
6,218,767
7.846409
occupied barely more than half the area assigned to it at the
beginning. If the land taken from wheat had been cropped with
one or both of the other cereals, the aggregate area would have
remained about the same. This, however, was not the case, for
a fairly uniform decrease in the barley area was accompanied by
somewhat irregular fluctuations in the acreage of oats. To the
decline in prices of home-grown cereals the decrease in area is
largely attributable. The extent of this decline is seen in Table
II., wherein are given the annual average prices from 1875 to
1905, calculated upon returns from the 190 statutory markets of
England and Wales (Corn Returns Act 1882). These prices are
per imperial quarter,— that is, 480 lb of wheat, 400 lb of barley
and 31a lb of oats, representing 60 lb, 50 lb and 39 lb per busnd
respectively. After 1883 the annual average price of English
wheat was never so high as 40s. per quarter, and only twice afUi
BRITISH]
1 8^ a did it exceed 30*. In one of these exceptional yews, 1808,
the average rose to 34s., but this was due entirely to a couple of
months of inflated prices in the early half of the year, when the
outbreak of war between Spain and the United States of America
coincided with a huge speculative deal in the latter country. The
Table U.—GoMeUe Annual Average Prices per Imperial Quarter
of British Cereals in England and Wales, 1875-1905.
AGRICULTURE
399
Year.
Wheat.
Barley.
Oat*.
a. d.
a. d.
a. d.
\n
tl
38 5
35 I
a8 8
*6 3
%i
56 9
39 «
35 II
46 5
40 a
H 4
:&
43 10
34
ai 9
44 4
33 1
33 I
1881
45 4
31 11
at 9
1 88a
45 I
31 3
ai 10
1883
41 I
35 »
31 10
ai s
1884
30 8
30 3
1885
1886
33 10
31 O
30 1
36 7
30 7
19
16 3
1887
1888
3* 6
35 4
31 10
37 10
16 9
1889
39 9
35 10
38 8
17 9
1890
31 11
18 7
1891
37 ©
38 3
30
1893
30 3
36 3
10 10
18 9
1893
26 4
35 7
1894
33 10
34 6
17 1
1895
1896
III
31 II
33 II
14 6
14 9
16 II
18 5
!S?
30 3
34
*3 6
37 a
1899
36 11
35 7
17
1900
34 11
l l 7
1 901
36 9
35 a
18 5
1903
38 1
a * !
30 a
1903
36 9
33 8
17 a
1904
38 A
39 8
33 4
16 4
1905
»4 4
17 4
^weekly average prices of English wheat in 1808 fluctuated between
48a. id. and 25s. 5<L per quarter, the former being the highest
Freddy average since 1882. The minimum annual average was
92s. iod in 1894, in the autumn of which year the weekly average
sank to 17s. 6d. per quarter, the lowest on record. Wheat was
so great a glut in the market that various methods were devised
for feeding it to stock, a purpose for which it is not specially
suited; in thus utilizing the grain, however, a smaller loss was
often incurred than in sending it to market In 1 894 the monthly
average price for October, the chief month for wheat-sowing in
England, was only 17s. 8d. per quarter, and farmers naturally
shrank from seeding the land freely with a crop which could not
be grown except at a heavy loss. The result was that in the
following year the wheat crop of the United Kingdom was
harvested upon the smallest area on record—less than 1 } million
acres. In only one year, 1878, did the annual average price of
English barley touch 40s. per quarter; it never reached 30s.
after 1885, whilst in 1895 it fell to so low a level as 21s. 1 id. The
same story of declining prices applies to oats. An average of 20s.
per quarter was touched in 1891 and 1003, but with those excep-
tions this useful feeding grain did not reach that figure after 1885.
In 1895 the average price of 480 lb of wheat, at 23s. id., was
identical with that of 31 2 lb of oats in 1880, and it was less in the
preceding year. The declining prices that have operated against
the growers of wheat should be studied in conjunction with
Table III., which shows, at intervals of five years, the imports of
TABLB HI.— Imports into the United Kingdom of Wheal Grain,
and of Wheal Meal and Flour— Lv*,
Year.
Wheat Grain.
Meal and Flour.
Total.
5«.876.5i7
6,136,083
58,012,600
K3&
10,558,313
15.83a.843
65,820,236
77.331.707
1890
60,474,180
1 81368410
76,247.516
100,118.365
90,217,621
1893
81,749.955
68,669,490
1900
21,548.131
11.954.763
1905
97.632.752
109.577.515
wheat grain and of wheat meal and flour into the United King-
dom. The import of the manufactured product from 1875 to 1000
increased at a much greater ratio than that of the raw grain, for
whilst in 1875 the former represented less than one-ninth of the
total, by 1000 the proportion had risen to nearly one-fourth.
The offal, which is quite as valuable as the flour itself, was thus
retained abroad instead of being utilized for stock-feeding
purposes in the United Kingdom. In the five subsequent years
the proportion was fundamentally altered, 10 that with a greatly
increased importation of grain, that of meal and flour was in the
proportion of about one-ninth. The highest and lowest areas of
wheat, barley and oats in the United Kingdom during the period
1875-1005 were the following: —
Wheat . 3.514*088 acres in 1875; 1407,618 acres in 1004.
Barley . 2,931.809 „ „ 1879; 1.872.305 1905-
Oats . 4.5*7*899 » .. 1895: 3.998.300 „ M 1879.
These show differences amounting to 3,106470 acres for
wheat, 1,059,504 acres for barley, and 539,609 acres for oats.
The acreage of wheat, therefore, fluctuated the most, and that
of oats the least. Going back to 1 869, it is found that the extent
of wheat in that year was 3,981,989 acres or very little short of
four million acres. ,
The acreage of rye grown in the United Kingdom as a grain
crop is small, the respective maximum and minimum areas during
the period 1875-1005 having been 102,676 acres in 1804 and
47.937 acres in 1880. Rye is perhaps more largely grown as a
green crop to be fed off by sheep, or cut green for soiling, in the
spring months.
Of corn crops other than cereals, beans and peas are both
less cultivated than formerly. In the period 1875-1005 the area
of beans in the United Kingdom fluctuated between 574414
acres in 1875 and 230429 acres in 1897, and that of peas between
318410 acres in 1875 and 155,668 acres in 1001. The area of
peas (175.624 acres in 1005) shrank by nearly one-half, and that
of beans (256,383 acres in 1005) by more than one-half. Taking
cereals and pulse corn together, the aggregate areas of wheat,
barley, oats, rye, beans and peas in the United Kingdom varied
as follows over the six quinquennial intervals embraced in the
period 1875-1905.*—
Year.
1885
Acres.
11.399.030
10,672,086
10,014,625
Year.
1890
1895
1900
1905
Acres.
6,707,602
8,333.770
Disregarding minor fluctuations, there was thus a loss of corn
land over the 30 years of 3,065,260 acres, or 27%.
The area withdrawn from corn-growing is not to be found
under the head of what are termed " green crops." In 1005 the
total area of these crops in the United Kingdom was 4,144,374
acres, made up thus:—
Crop. Acres.
Potatoes 1,236,768
Turnips and swedes 1.879.384
Mangel 477.540
Cabbage, kohlrabi and rape .... 335,315
Vetches or tares * 139,285
Other green crops 186,08s
The extreme aggregate areas of these crops during the thirty
years were s.oS7.o?g acres in 1875 and 4,109,394 acres in 1904.
At five-year intervals the areas were: —
Year.
its
1885
Acres. Year. Acres.
3.057.039 1890 . . 4.534.145
4.746,393 1895 • • 4.399.949
4.765.195 1900 . . 4.301.774
1905 . . 4.144.374
These crops, therefore, which, except potatoes, are used mainly
for stock-feeding, have like the corn crops been grown on
gradually diminishing areas.
The land that has been lost to the plough is found to be still
further augmented when an inquiry is instituted into the area
devoted to clover, sainfoin and grasses under rotation. The
areas of five-year intervals are given in Table IV. Under the
old Norfolk or four-course rotation (roots, barley, clover, wheat)
land thus seeded with clover or grass seeds was intended to be
400
AGRICULTURE
[BRITISH
ploughed up at the end of a year. Labour difficulties, low
prices of produce, bad seasons and similar causes provided in-
ducements for leaving the land in grass for two years, or over
three years or more, before breaking it up for wheat. In many
cases it would be decided to let such land remain under grass
indefinitely, and thus it would no longer be enumerated in the
Agricultural Returns as temporary grass land, but would pass
into the category of permanent grass land, or what is often
spoken of as " permanent pasture." Whilst much grass land has
been laid down with the intention from the outset that it should
be permanent, at the same time some considerable areas have
through stress of circumstances been allowed to drift from the
temporary or rotation grass area to the permanent list, and have
thus still further diminished the area formerly under the dominion
of the "plough. The column relating to permanent grass in
Table IV. shows clearly enough how the British Isles became
Table IV.— Areas of Grass Land (exeluding Heath and Mountain
Land) tn the United Kingdom— Acres.
Year.
Temporary (ue,
under rotation).
Permanent
(•'.*, not broken up
in rotation).
Total.
its
1885
1890
1895
1900
1905
6.337.953
6.389.333
6,738,306
6,097,310
6,061,139
6,035,035
5J79.3a3
a3.77a.602
24.717.09a
35,616,071
a7."5.4as
afe&^ta
a8.865.373
30.1*0,555
31,106424
3a.354.a77
33.a1a.633
33.893,356
34.a9i.737
34.644,696
more pastoral, while the figures already given demonstrate the
extent to which they became less arable. In the period 1875-
1005 the extreme areas returned as " permanent pasture "—a
term which, it should be clearly understood, does not include
heath or mountain land, of which there are in Great Britain
alone about 13 million acres used for grazing— were 33,773,603
acres in 1875, and 28,865,373 teres in 1005. Comparing 1905
with 1875 the increase in permanent grass land amounted to
over five million acres, or about 21 %.
On account of the greater humidity and mildness of its climate,
Ireland is more essentially a pastoral country than Great Britain.
The distribution between the two islands of such important crops
of arable land as cereals and potatoes is indicated in Table V.
The figures are those for 1905, but, though the absolute acreages
Table V.— Areas of Cereal and Potato Crops in Great Britain
and Ireland in 1905.
Great Britain
Ireland . •
Total . .
Wheat.
Barley.
Acres.
Acres.
1. 7 13.664
154.645
1.834.853
1,868.309
Great Britain
Ireland • •
Total . .
Oats.
Potatoes.
!3tt£
NWU73
616.755
4,118.183
1,335.338
vary somewhat from year to year, there is not much variation
in the proportions. The comparative insignificance of Ireland
in the case of the wheat and barley crops, represented by 2 and
8% respectively, receives some compensation when oats and
potatoes are considered, about one-fourth of the area of the
former and more than half that of the latter being claimed by
Ireland. It is noteworthy, however, that Ireland year by year
places less reliance upon the potato crop. In 1888 the area of
potatoes in Ireland was 804,566 acres, but it continuously con-
tracted each year, until in 1905 it was only 6x6,755 acres, or
187,811 acres less than 17 years previously.
A similar comparison for the several sections of Great Britain,
as set forth in Table VI., shows that to England belong about
95% of the wheat area, over 80% of the barley area, over 60%
of the oats area, and over 70% of the potato area, and these
proportions do not vary much from year to year. The figures
for cereals are important, as they indicate that it is the fanners
of England who are the chief sufferers through the diminishing
prices of corn; and particularly is this true of East Anglia, where
corn-growing is more largely pursued than in any other part of the
Table VI.— A reas of Cereal and Potato Oofs in England, Wales
and Scotland, and in Great Britain, in 1905.
England •
Wales . .
Scotland
Wheat.
Barley.
Acres.
1,704,381
Acres.
1410,387
91 ^43
ai3,i34
Great Britain
1.796,995
i.7«3.664
England • •
Wales . .
Scotland
Oats.
Potatoes.
1,880475
307,939
063,973
434.773
a9.435
144.265
Great Britain
3.051.376
608473
country. Scotland possesses nearly one-third of the area of oats
and nearly one-fourth of that of potatoes. Beans are almost
entirely confined to England, and this is even more the case with
peas. The mangel crop also is mainly English, the summer in
most parts of Scotland being neither long enough nor warm
enough to bring it to maturity.
The Produce of British Crops.
Whilst the returns relating to the acreage of crops and the
number of live stock in Great Britain have been officially collected
in each year since 1866, the annual official estimates of the
produce of the crops in the several sections of the kingdom do
not extend back beyond 1885. The practice is for the Board of
Agriculture to appoint local estimators, who report in the autoraa
as to the total production of the crops in the localities respectively
assigned to them. By dividing the total production, say of wheat,
in each county by the number of acres of wheat as returned by
the occupiers on June 4, the estimated average yield per acre is
obtained. It is important to notice that the figures relating to
total production and yield per acre are only estimates, and it is
not claimed for them that they are anything more. The fact
that much of the wheat to which the figures apply is still in the
stack after the publication of the figures shows that the latter
are essentially estimates. The total produce of any crop in a
given year must depend mainly upon the acreage grown, whilst
the average yield per acre will be determined chiefly by the
character of the season. In Table VII. are shown, in thousands
Table VII.— Estimated Annual Total Produce of Corn Crops in
the United Kingdom, 1 890-1905 — Thousands of Bushels.
Year.
Wheat.
Barley.
Oats.
Beans.
Peas.
1890
75.994
80,704
I7L295
11,860
6313
1891
74.743
79.555
I68ii8i
10,694
5777
5038
1*892
60,775
76.939
7 '2I 4
4.863
7.198
1893
1894
50.913
60.704
65.746
78,601
168.588
190,863
4756
6339
.is
38,285
58.347
75.oa8
77.835
5.636
6,491
6.650
7.267
4732
4979
'Z
74.885
72.613
74.731
163.556
172.578
H 9 !
4858
1899
67,361
m
166,140
7.566
4431
1900
54,3a3
165.137
7.469
4073
1901
58\378
184.184
6,154
4017
1903
74.439
65.310
7.704
5106
1903
48,819
172.941
7.535
4813
1904
37,9*>
60.333
63453
'76.755
166.386
S.901
8.36a
4446
1905
65,004
4446
of bushels, the estimated produce of the corn crops of the United
Kingdom in the years 1800-1005. The largest area of wheat
in the period was that of 1800, and the smallest was that of
1004; the same two years are seen to have been respectively
those of highest and lowest total produce. It is noteworthy
that in 1895 the country produced about half as much wheat
BurnsHi
as in any ono of the yens 1890, 1891 and 1898. The produce
of badey, like that of oats, fr lees irregular than that of wheat, the
extremes for badey being 80,704,000 btnhds ( 1 890) and 62453,000
bushels (1904), and those for oats 190,863,000 bushels (1894)
and 161,175,000 bushels (1901). Similar details for potatoes,
roots and hay, brought together in Table VIIL, show that the
Tabu WU.—Ehimatod Annual Total Produce of Potato*, Roots
and Hay la tka Uwitai Kingdom, 1890-190$— Thousands of
Tans.
AGRICULTURE
+oi
Year. Potatoes. Turnips. Mangels. Hay.
1890
'£'
189a
¥
S
1900
1901
190a
1903
1904
1905
0025
5*37
4577
7043
5930
0330
7186
14466
13,671
11,567
9,083
15.699
13,338
11416
14*43
'M
13.74a
11,358
15.346
am
13*554
production of poutoes varies much from year to year. The
imports of poutoes into the United Kingdom vary, to some
extent Inversely; thus, the low production in 1897 was accom-
panied by an increase of imports from 3,021,205 cwt in 1897 to
6,751.728 cwt in 1808. No very great reliance can be placed
upon the figures relating to turnips (which include swedes), as
these are mostly fed to sheep on the ground, so that the estimates
as to yield are necessarily vague. Mangels are probably more
closely estimated, as these valuable roots are carted and stored
for subsequent use for feeding stock. Under hay are included
the produce of clover, sainfoin and rotation grasses, and also
that of permanent meadow. The extent to which the annual
production of the leading fodder crop may vary is shown in the
table by the two consecutive years 2893 and 1894; from only
nine mflhon tons in the former year the production rose to up-
wards of fifteen million tons in the latter, an increase of over
70%.
Turning to the average yields per acre, as ascertained by
dividing the number of acres into the total produce, the results
of a decade are collected in Table DC The effects of a prolonged
drought, as distinguished from spring and summer drought, are
shown in the very low yield of turnips in 1899. Mangels are
sown earlier and have a longer period of growth than turnips; if
they become well established in the summer they are less sus-
ceptible to autumn drought The hay made from clover, sain-
foin and grasses under rotation generally gives a bigger average
yield than that from permanent grass land. The mean values at
the foot of the table— they are not, strictly speaking, exact
averages— indicate the average yields per acre in the United
Kingdom to be about 31 bushels of wheat, 33 bushels of barley,
40 bushels of oats, 28 bushels of beans, 26 bushels of peas, 4! tons
of potatoes, 13} tons of turnips and swedes, 18J tons of mangels,
3s cwt of hay from temporary grass, and 39 cwt of bay from
permanent grass. Although enormous single crops of mangels
TaiLB X.— Decennial Anraao Yields in Gnat Britain a/ Wkoat,
Barky and Oatt— Bushels par sow.
ic-Year
Periods.
Wheat
Barley.
Oats.
1 887-1896
1888-1897
1 889-1898
1890-1899
1 891-1900
x 892-1001
1893-1903
1 894-1903
1895-1904
1896-1905
2E
39-49
£8
30-15
29-88
30-53
30-95
30-56
31*31
33*03
33*68
33*83
33-97
33*36
33-50
33»3
33*80
33-83
33-16
33-83
33-04
38*31
38*33
38*13
SS
38-81
38*36
3«-64
jrs?
3893
Table DC— Estimated Annual Average Yiafd per Acre of Crops in United Kingdom, 1 895-1904.
Year.
Wheat
Barley.
Oats.
Beans
Peas.
Pou-
toes.
Turnips
and
Swedes.
Mangels.
Hay.
Rota-
tion.
Perman-
ent
1899
1900
1901
1903
1903
1904
Bush.
36*33
33-63
39*07
m
30-93
33*91
3o-«5
36*07
Bush.
33-00
3416
33*91
36*34
34-64
31-67
31-70
$#
31-33
Bush.
3«-67
K
4**7
40-57
39-97
39-35
44-50
40*81
40-80
Bush.
33*98
35*69
38*91
3»-i3
3 2' 1 t
38-18
3439
31-49
31-37
33*33
Bush.
33*63
35-34
a755
37*60
37*33
35-89
35-97
38*51
36*56
35-75
Tone*
5-64
4-93
347
333
4*83
5-81
4*93
4-45
5*34
Tons.
13-11
1379
1300
1374
9-97
1439
13*96
15*35
■3*44
14*83
Tons.
16-44
4*99
18*03
17-71
17-41
19*97
19-37
30-85
1719
18-57
Cwt
39*08
37-95
3353
36*49
3104
38*98
35-39
33-07
3343
Cwt
35-31
3414
30*71
34-37
39-n
30-08
3385
33-57
3137
3"-04
Mean,
10
years
30*63
33*8
40-35
37*68
36-14
4-84
13*31
18*18
33*06
39-33
1905
33-88
34-79
40-38
33-33
35-71
5-86
14*19
19*91
33*34
38*37
spring and summer drought, like that of 1893, are exemplified in
the circumstance that four corn crops and the two hay crops all
registered very low average yields that year, vis. wheat 2608
bushels, barley 30*30 bushels, oats 38*14 bushels, beans 19*61
bushels, rotation hay 83*55 cwt., permanent hay 30*41 cwt
On the other hand, the season of 1898 was exceptionally favour-
able to cereals and to hay . The effects of a prolonged autumn
are sometimes grown, amounting occasionally to 100 tons per
acre, the general average yield of i8| tons is about 5 tons more
than that of turnips and swedes. Again, although from the
richest old permanent meadow-lands very heavy crops of
hay are taken season after season, the general average yield of
permanent grass is about 3 cwt of hay per acre less than that
from clover, sainfoin and grasses under rotation. The general
average yields of the corn crops are not fairly comparable one
with the other, because they are given by measure and not by
weight, whereas the weight per bushel varies considerably. For
purposes of comparison it would be much better if the yields of
corn crops were estimated in cwt per acre. This, indeed, is the
practice in Ireland, and in order to incorporate the Irish figures
with those for Great Britain so as to obtain average values for the
United Kingdom, the Irish yields are calculated into bushels at
the rate of 60 lb to the bushel
of wheat, of beans and of peas,
50 lb to the bushel of barley
and 39 lb to the bushel of oats.
The figure denoting the
general average yield per acre
of any class of crop needs re-
adjustment after every succes-
sive harvest. If a decennial
period be taken, then— for the
purpose of the new calculation
— the earliest year is omitted
and the latest year added, the
number of years continuing at
ten. Adopting this course in
the case of the cereal crops of
Great Britain the decennial
averages recorded in Table X.
are obtained, the period 1885-
1894 being the earliest decade
for which the official figures are available. It thus appears
that the average yield of wheat in Great Britain, as calcu-
lated upon the crops harvested during the ten years (1896-
1905), exceeded 31 bushels to the acre, whereas, for the ten
years ended 1895, it fell below 39 bushels. A large expansion
in the acreage of the wheat crop would probably be at-
tended by a decline in the average yield per acre, for when a
+02
AGRICULTURE
[BRITISH
crop is shrinking in area the tendency is to withdraw from it first
the land least suited to its growth. The general average for the
United Kingdom might then recede to rather less than 28 bushels
of 60 lb per bushel, which was for a long time the accepted
average — unless, of course, improved methods of cultivating and
manuring the soil were to increase its general wheat-yielding
capacity. 1
Crops and Cropping
The greater freedom of cropping and the less close adherence to
the formal system of rotation of crops, which characterize the
early years of the 20th century, rest upon a scientific basis.
Experimental inquiry has done much to enlighten the farmer as
to the requirements of plant-life, and to enable him to see how
best to meet these requirements in the case of field crops. He
cannot afford to ignore the results that have been gradually
accumulated— the truths that have been slowly established— at
the agricultural experiment stations in various parts of the
world. Of these stations the greatest, and the oldest now existing,
is that at Rothamsted, Harpenden, Herts, England, which was
founded in 1843 by Sir John Bennet Lawes (q.v.). The results of
more than half a century of sustained experimental inquiry were
communicated to the world by Lawes and his collaborator, Sir
J. H. Gilbert, in about 130 separate papers or reports, many of
which were published, from 1847 onwards, in the Journal of the
Royal Agricultural Society of England*
In the case of plants the method of procedure was to grow some
of the most important crops of rotation, each separately year
after year, for many years in succession on the same land, (a)
without manure, (b) with farmyard manure and (c) with a great
variety of chemical manures; the same description of manure
being, as a rule, applied year after year on the same plot. Experi-
ments on an actual course of rotation, without manure, and with
different manures, have also been made. Wheat, barley, oats,
beans, clover and other leguminous plants, turnips, sugar beet,
mangels, potatoes and grass crops have thus been experimented
upon. Incidentally there have been extensive sampling and
analysing of soils, investigations into rainfall and the composition
of drainage waters, inquiries into the amount of water transpired
by plants, and experiments on the assimilation of free nitrogen.
Cereals.— Amongst the field experiments there is, perhaps, not
one of more universal interest than that in which wheat was
grown for fifty-seven years in succession, (a) without manure,
(b) with farmyard manure and (c) with various artificial manures.
The results show that, unlike leguminous crops such as beans or
dover, wheat may be successfully grown for many years in suc-
cession on ordinary arable land, provided suitable manures be
applied and the land be kept clean. Even without manure the
average produce over forty-six years, 1852-1807, was nearly
thirteen bushels per acre, or about the average yield per acre of
1 The higher yield of wheat in the later years of the roth century
appears to be largely attributable to better grain-growing seasons.
The yields in the experimental wheat-field at Rothamsted— where
there is no change either of land or of treatment — indicate this.
The following figures show the average yields per acre of the selected
plots 4t Rothamsted over six 8- yearly periods from 1852 to 1809,
and afford evidence that the higher yield of later years is due to the
. , Bushels (of 60 lb)
Average of — per acre.
8 years 1852-1859 28
8 „ 1860-1867 28
8 „ 1868-1875 vj
8 ,, 1876-1883 25
8 „ 1884-1891 29
8 „ 1892-1899 30
48 „ 1852-1899 38}
The average of the first thirty-two years was thus 27! bushels per
acre, of the last sixteen years 30 bushels, and of the whole forty-dent
years 28} bushels.
/J**, J* B > t Uw ^ and AP* .9 ,b «t. ******** Momoirs on
Agricultural Chemistry and Physiology, 7 vols. (1893-1800): A. D.
Hall. Book of the Rothamsted Eiperimenti (1905). ™ •*«•«• •*
the wheat lands of the whole world. Mineral manure* alone gte
very little increase, nitrogenous manures alone considerably more
than mineral manures alone, but the mixture of the two con-
siderably more than either separately. In one case, indeed, the
average, produce by mixed minerals and nitrogenous manure was
more than that by the annual application of farmyard manure,
and in seven out of the ten cases in which such mixtures were
used the average yield per acre was from over two to over eigfe
bushels more than the average yield of the United Ejngooa
(assuming this to be about twenty-eight bushels of 6b v per
bushel) under ordinary rotation. It is estimated that the
reduction in yield of the unmanured plot over the forty yeas.
1852-1891, after the growth of the crops without manure dnriag
the eight preceding years, was, provided it had been uexfosa
throughout, equivalent to a decline of one-sixth of a bushel fsxss
year to year due to exhaustion— that is, irrespectively of fluctaa-
tions due to season. It is related that a visitor from the United
States, talking to Sir John Lawes, said, " Americans have learn!
more from this field than from any other agricultural experfnyat
in the world."
Experiments upon the growth of barley for fifty years k
succession on rather heavy ordinary arable soil resulted in show-
ing that the produce by mineral manures alone is larger than that
without manure; that nitrogenous manures alone g£ve men
produce than mineral manures alone; and that mixtures of
mineral and nitrogenous manure give much more than either
used alone — generally twice, or more than twice, as much as
mineral manures alone. Of mineral constituents, whether used
alone or in mixture with nitrogenous manures, phosphates are
much more effective than mixtures of salts of potash, soda and
magnesia. The average results show that, under all conditions
of manuring— excepting with farmyard manure — the produce
was less over the later than over the earlier periods of the experi-
ments, an effect partly due to the seasons. But the average
produce over forty years of continuous growth of barley was, in
all cases where nitrogenous and mineral manures (containing
phosphates) were used together, much higher than the average
produce of the crop grown in ordinary rotation in the United
Kingdom, and very much higher than the average in most other
countries when so grown. The requirements of barley within the
soil, and its susceptibility to the external influences of season, are
very similar to those of its near ally, wheat Nevertheless there
are distinctions of result dependent on differences in the habits of
the two plants, and in the conditions of their cultivation accord-
ingly. In the B ri tish Isles wheat is, as a rule, sown in the autumn
on a heavier soil, and has four or five months in which to dis-
tribute its roots, and so it gets possession of a wide range of sofl
and subsoil before barley is sown in the spring. Barley, on the
other hand, is sown in a lighter surface soil, and, with its short
period for root-development, relies in a much greater degree on
the stores of plant-food within the surface soil. Accordingly it
is more susceptible to exhaustion of surface soil as to its nitro-
genous, and especially as to its mineral supplies; and in the
common practice of agriculture it is found to be more benefited
by direct mineral manures, especially phosphatic manures, than
is wheat when sown under equal soil conditions. The exhaustion
of the soil induced by both barley and wheat is, however, char-
acteristically that of available nitrogen; and when, under the
ordinary conditions of manuring and cropping, artificial manure
is still required, nitrogenous manures are, as a rule, necessary for
both crops, and, for the spring-sown barley, superphosphate also.
Although barley is appropriately grown on lighter sous than
wheat, good crops, of fair quality, may be grown on the heavier
soils after another grain crop by the aid of artificial manures,
provided that the land is sufficiently clean. Experiments similar
to the foregoing were carried on for many years in succession at
Rothamsted upon oats, and gave results which were in general
accordance with those on the other cereal crops.
Additional significance to the value of the above experiments
on wheat and barley is afforded by the fact that the same series,
with but slight modifications, has also been carried out since
1876 at the Woburn (Bedfordshire) experimental farm of the
BRITISH)
Royal Agricultural Society of England, the toil here being of
light sandy character, and thus very different from the heavy
aoO of Rothamsted. The results for the thirty years, 1877-1006,
are in their general features entirely confirmatory of those
obtained at Rothamsted.
Root-Crofs. — Experiments upon root-crops— chiefly white
turnips, Swedish turnips (swedes) and mangels— have resulted
in the establishment of the following conclusions. Both the
quantity and the quality of the produce, and consequently its
feeding value, must depend greatly upon the selection of the
best description of roots to be grown, and on the character and
the amount of the manures, and especially on the amount of
nitrogenous manure employed. At the same time, no hard-
and-fast rules can be laid down concerning these points. Inde-
pendently of the necessary consideration of the general economy
of the farm, the choice must be influenced partly by the character
of the soil, but very much more by that of the climate. Judgment
founded on knowledge and aided by careful observation, both
in the field and in the feeding-shed, must be relied upon as the
guide of the practical farmer. Over and above the great advan-
tage arising from the opportunity which the growth of root-crops
affords for the cleaning of the land, the benefits of growing the
root-crop in rotation are due (z) to the large amount of manure
applied for its growth, (a) to the large residue of the manure left
in the soil for future crops, (3) to the. large amount of matter
at once returned as manure again in the leaves, (4) to the large
amount of food produced, and (5) to the small proportion of the
most important manurial constituents of the roots which is
retained by store or fattening animals consuming them, the rest
returning as manure again; though, when the roots are consumed
for the production of milk, a much larger proportion of the con-
stituents is lost to the manure.
Leguminous Crops and the Acquisition of Nitrogen. — The fact
that the growth of a leguminous crop, such as red clover, leaves
the soil in a higher condition for the subsequent growth of a grain
crop— that, indeed, the growth of such a leguminous crop is to
a great extent equivalent to the application of a nitrogenous
manure for the cereal crop— was in effect known ages ago.
Nevertheless it was not till near the approach of the closing
decade of the 19th century that the explanation of this long-
established point of agricultural practice was forthcoming. It
was in the year 1886 that Hellriegel and Wllfarth first published
in Germany the results of investigations in which they demon-
strated that, through the agency of micro-organisms dwelling
in nodular outgrowths on the roots of ordinary leguminous
plants, the latter are enabled to assimilate the free nitrogen of
the air. The existence of the root nodules had long been recog-
nised, but hitherto no adequate explanation had been afforded
as to their function.
Since HeDricgeTs striking discovery farm crops have been
conveniently classified as nitrogen-accumulating and nitrogen-
consuming. To the former belong the ordinary leguminous
crops — the clovers, beans, peas, vetches or tares, sainfoin,
lucerne, for example— which obtain their nitrogen from the air,
and are independent of the application of nitrogenous manures,
whilst in their roots they accumulate a store of nitrogen which
will ultimately become available for future crops of other
kinds. It fa, in fact, fully established that these leguminous
crops acquire a considerable amount of nitrogen by the fixation
of the free nitrogen of the atmosphere under the influence of
the symbiotic growth of their root-nodule-microbes and the
higher plant. The cereal crops (wheat, barley, oats, rye, maize);
the cruciferous crops (turnips, cabbage! kale, rape, mustard);
the solanaceous crops (potatoes); the chenopodlaceous crops
(mangels, sugar-beets), and other non-leguminous crops have,
so far as is known, no such power, and are therefore more or
less benefited by the direct application of nitrogenous manures.
The field experiments on leguminous plants at Rothamsted have
shown that land which is, so to speak, exhausted so far as the
growth of one leguminous crop is concerned, may still grow very
luxuriant crops of another plant of the same natural order,
but of different habits of growth, and especially of different
AGRICULTURE
403
character and range of roots. This result is doubtless largely
dependent on the existence, the distribution and the condition
of the appropriate microbes for the due infection of the different
descriptions of plant, for the micro-organism that dwells sym-
biotically with one species is not identical with that which
similarly dwells with another. It seems certain that success in
any system involving a more extended growth of leguminous
crops in rotations must be dependent on a considerable variation
in the description grown. Other essential conditions of success
will commonly include the liberal application of potash and
phosphatic manures, and sometimes chalking or liming for the
leguminous crop. As to how long the leguminous crop should
occupy the land, the extent to which it should be consumed
on the land, or the manure from its consumption be returned,
and under what conditions the whole or part of it should be
ploughed in— these are points which must be decided as they
arise in practice. It seems obvious that the lighter and poorer
soils would benefit more than the heavier or richer soils by the
extended growth of leguminous crops.
Remarkable as Hellriegel's discovery was, it merely furnished
the explanation of a fact which had been empirically established
by the husbandman long before, and had received most intelligent
application when the old four-course (or Norfolk) rotation was
devised. But it gave some impetus to the practice of green
manuring with leguminous crops, which are equally capable
with such a crop as mustard of enriching the soil in humus,
whilst in addition they bring into the soil from the atmosphere
a quantity of nitrogen available for the use of subsequent crops
of any kind. In Canada and the United States this rational
employment of a leguminous crop for ploughing in green is
largely resorted to for the amelioration of worn-out wheat lands
and other soils, the condition of which has been lowered to an
unremunerative level by the repeated growth year after year
of a cereal crop. The well-known paper of Lawes, Gilbert and
Pugh (1861), " On the Sources of the Nitrogen of Vegetation,
with special reference to the Question whether Plants assimilate
free or uncombined Nitrogen," answered the question referred
to in the negative. The attitude taken up later on with regard
to this problem is set forth in the following words, which are
quoted from the Memoranda of the Rothamsted Experiments,
1000 (p. 7)!—
" Experiments were commenced » 1857, and conducted for several
years in succession, to determine whether plants assimilate free or
uncombined nitrogen, and also various collateral points. Plants
of the gramineous, the leguminous and of other families were
operated upon. The late Dr Pugh took a prominent part in this
inquiry. The conclusion arrived at was that ouragricuftural plants *
do not themselves directly assimilate the free nitrogen of the air by
their leaves.
" In recent years, however, the question has assumed quite a new
aspect. It now is— whether the free nitrogen of the atmosphere is
brought into combination under the influence of micro-organisms,
or other low forms, either within the soil or in symbiosis with a
higher plant, thus serving: indirectly as a source.. of nitrogen to
plants of a higher order. Considering that the results of Hellriegel
and Wilfarth on this point were, if confirmed, of great significance
and importance, it was decided to make experiments at Rothamsted
on somewhat similar lines. Accordingly, a preliminary series was
undertaken in 1888; more extended series were conducted in 1889
and in 1890; and the investigation was continued up to the com-
mencement of the year 1895. Further experiments relating to
certain aspects of the subject were begun in 1898. The results
have shown that, when a soil growing leguminous plants is infected
with appropriate organisms, there is a development of the so-called
leguminous nodules on the roots of the plants, and, coincidently,
increased growth and gain of nitrogen."
The conclusions bf Hellriegel and Wilfarth have thus been
confirmed by the later experiences of Rothamsted, and since
that time efforts have been directed energetically to the practical
application of the discovery This has taken the form of in-
oculating the soil with the particular organism required by the
particular kind of leguminous crop. To this end the endeavour
has been made to produce preparations which shall contain in
portable form the organisms required by the several plants,
and though, as yet, it can hardly be claimed that they have
been generally successful, the work done justifies hopes
4-04
AGRICULTURE
that the problem will eventually be solved In a practical
direction.
Grass. — Another field experiment of singular interest is that
relating to the mixed herbage of permanent meadow, for which
seven acres of old grass land were set apart In Rothamsted Park
in 1856. Of the twenty plots into which this land Is divided,
two were left without manure from the outset, two received
ordinary farmyard manure for a series of years, whilst the
remainder each received a different description of artificial or
chemical manure, the same being, except in special cases, applied
year after year on the same plot. During the growing season
the field affords striking evidence of the influence of different
manurial dressings. So much, indeed, does the character of
the herbage vary from plot to plot that the effect may fairly
be described as kaleidoscopic Repeated analyses have shown
how greatly both the botanical constitution and the chemical
composition of the mixed herbage vary according to the descrip-
tion of manure applied. 'They have further shown how dominant
is the influence of season. Such, moreover, is the effect of
different manures that the gross produce of the mixed herbage
is totally different on the respective plots according to the
manure employed, both as to the proportion of the various
species composing it and as to their condition of development
and maturity.
The Rotation of Crops.
The growth, year after year, on the same soil of one kind of
plant unfits it for bearing further crops of the kind which has
exhausted it, and renders them less vigorous and more liable to
disease. The farmer therefore arranges his cropping in such a
way that roots, or leguminous crops, succeed the cereal crops.
It is not only the conditions of growth, but the uses to which
the different crops are put, that have to be considered in the case
of rotation. Thus the cereal crops, when grown in rotation,
yield more produce for sale in the season of growth than when
grown continuously. Moreover, the crops alternated with the
cereals accumulate very much more of mineral constituents
and of nitrogen in their produce than do the cereals themselves.
By far the greater proportion of those constituents remains in
circulation in the manure of the farm, whilst the remainder
yields highly valuable products for sale in the forms of meat
and milk. For this reason these crops are known as " restora-
tive," cereals the produce of which Is sold off the farm being
classed as " exhaustive. 1 ' With a variety of crops, again, the
mechanical operations of the farm, involving horse and hand
labour, are better distributed over the year, and are therefore
more economically performed. The opportunities which rotation
cropping affords for the cleaning of the land from weeds is
another distinct element of advantage. Although many different
rotations of crops are practised, they may for the most part be
considered as little more than local adaptations of the system
of alternating root-crops and leguminous crops with cereal
crops, as exemplified in the old four-course rotation— roots,
barley, clover, wheat.
Under this system the clover Is ploughed up in the autumn,
the nitrogen stored up in its roots being left in the soil for the
nourishment of the cereal crop. The following summer the
wheat crop is harvested, and an opportunity lis afforded for
extirpating weeds which In the three previous years have re-
ceived little check. Or, where the climate is warm and the soil
light, a M catch-crop/' i.e. rye, vetches, winter-oats or some
other rapidly-growing crop may be sown in autumn and fed off
or otherwise disposed of prior to the root-sowing. On heavy
soils, however, the farmer cannot afford to curtail the time
necessary for thorough cultivation of the land. The cleaning
process is carried on through the next summer by means of
successive hoeings of the spring-sown root-crop. As turnips or
swedes may occupy the ground till after Christmas little time
is left for the preparation of a seed-bed for barley, but as the
latter is a shallow-rooted crop only surface-stirring is required.
Clover is sown at the same time or shortly after the cereal and
thus occupies the land for two years.
[BRITISH
The rotations extending to five, dx, seven or more years are,
in most cases, only adaptations of the principle to variations of
soil, altitude, aspect, climate, markets and other local conditions,
They are effected chiefly by some alteration in the description
of the root-crop, and perhaps by the introduction of the potato
crop; by growing a different cereal, or it may be more thin one
cereal consecutively; by the growth of some other legurninous
crop than clover, since " clover-sickness " may result if that
crop is grown at too short intervals, or the intermixture of crass
seeds with the clover, and perhaps by the extension by one or
more years of the period allotted to this member of the rotation.
Whatever the specific rotation, there may in practice be devia-
tions from the plan of retaining on the farm the whole of the
root-crops, the straw of the grain crops and the leguminous
fodder crops (clover, vetches, sainfoin, &c.) for the production
of meat or milk, and, coinddently, for that of manure to be
returned to the land. It Is equally true that, when under the
influence of special local or other demand— proximity to towns,
easy railway or other communication, for example— the products
which would otherwise be retained on the farm are exported
from it, the import of town or other manures is generally an
essential condition of such practice. This system of free sale,
indeed, frequently involves full compensation by purchased
manures of some kind. Such deviations from the practice of
merely selling grain and meat off the farm have much extended
in recent years, and will probably continue to do so under the
altered conditions of British agriculture, determined by very
large Imports of grain, increasing imports of meat and of other
products of stock-feeding, and very large imports of cattle-food
and. other agricultural produce. More attention is than being
devoted to dairy produce, not only on grass farms, bat on those
that are mainly arable.
The benefits that accrue from the practice of rotation are weD
illustrated in the results obtained from the investigation* at
Rothamsted into the simple four-course system, which may
fairly be regarded as a self-supporting system. Reference may
first be made to the important mineral constituents of different
crops of the four-course rotation. Of phosphoric add, the cereal
crops take up as much as, or more than, any other crops of the
rotation, excepting clover; and the greater portion thus taken
up is lost to the farm in the saleable product— the grain. The
remainder, that in the straw, as well as that in the roots and the
leguminous crops, Is supposed to be retained on the farm, except-
ing the small amount exported in meat and mOk. Of pmitirh,
each of the rotation crops takes up very much more than of
phosphoric add. But much less potash than phosphoric acid
Is exported in the cereal grains, much more being retained in the
straw, whilst the other products of the rotation— the root and
leguminous crops— which are also supposed to be retained oa
the farm, contain very much more potash than the cereals,
and comparatively little of it is exported in meat and milk. Tims
the whole of the crops of rotation take up very much more of
potash than of phosphoric add, whilst probably even less of it is
ultimately lost to the land. Of lime, very little is taken up by
the cereal crops, and by the root-crops much less than of potash;
more by the leguminous than by the other crops, and, by the
clover especially, sometimes much more than by all the other
crops of the rotation put together. Very little of the lime of
the crops, however, goes off in the saleable products of the farm
in the case of the self-supporting rotation under considera-
tion. Although, therefore, different, and sometimes very large,
amounts of these typical mineral constituents are taken op by
the various crops of rotation, there is no material export of any
in the saleable products, excepting of phosphoric acid and of potash;
and, so far at least as phosphoric add is concerned, firwrsrncr
has shown that it may be advantageously supplied in purchased
manures.
Of nitrogen, the cereal crops take up and retain much less than
any of the crops alternated with them, notwithstanding the
circumstance that the cereals are very characteristically b en efi t ed
by nitrogenous manures. The root-crops, indeed, may contain
two or more times as much nitrogen as either of the cereal*
BRITISH)
AGRICULTURE
405
and the leguminous crops, espedafly the dovcr, much more
than the root-crops. The greater part of the nitrogen of the
cereals is, however, sold off the farm; but perhaps not more
than 10 or 15% of that of either the root-crop or the clover (or
other forage leguminous crop) is sold off in animal increase or in
milk. Most of the nitrogen in the straw of the cereals, and a very
large proportion of that of the much more highly nitrogen-
yielding crops, returns to the land as manure, for the benefit of
future cereals and other crops. As to the source of the nitrogen
of the root-crops— the so-called " restorative crops "—these are
as dependent as any crop that is grown on available nitrogen
within the soil, which is generally supplied by the direct appli-
cation of nitrogenous manures, natural or artifidaL Under such
conditions of supply, however, the root-crops, gross feeders as
they are, and distributing a very large extent of fibrous feeding
root within the soil, avail themselves of a much larger quantity
of the nitrogen supplied than the cereal crops would do in
similar circumstances. This result is partly due to their period
of accumulation and growth extending even months after the
period of collection by the ripening cereals has terminated, and
at the season when nitrification within- the soil is most active,
and the accumulation of nitrates in it is the greatest When
a full supply of both mineral constituents and nitrogen is at
command, these root-crops assimilate a very large amount of
Table XI.— The Wetthi and Average Composition of Ordinary Crops, intb.per Acre.
Weight of Crop.
Total
Pure
Ash
Nitro-
gen.
Sul-
phur.
Potash.
Soda.
Tlm»
Mag-
nana*
Phos-
phoric
Add.
Chlor-
ine.
Silica.
Crop.
At
Harvest.
Dry
Wheat, grain, 30 bushels
„ straw
Total crop
•
1,800
3,158
"530
3653
30
14*
ft
37
51
93
19-5
c~6
3-0
I-O
8*2
3-6
35
%
0*1
3.4
o-6
96-3
4.95*
4183
172
50
7-8
38*8
36
9-3
7-1
31-1
3-5
96-9
Barky, grain, 40 btuhds
„ straw .
Total crop
• '•
3,080
2447
2080
46
ill
35
14
*-9
3-3
9-8
33-9
1-1
3*9
1*3
8-0
4-0
39
I6-0
47
n
11-8
568
4.5*7
38*7
«57
49
61
35*7
5-0
9-3
6-9
307
41
68*6
Oats, grain, 45 bushels
„ straw
Total crop
•
1,890
M35
1625
3353
51
140
n
4-8
9-1
37-0
0-8
4-6
1-8
9-8
3*6
5-1
T 4
0.5
6*1
19-9
654
4*7*5
3978
191
5*
8-0
46-1
54
1 1-6
87
194
6-6
853
Maize, grain, %o bushels
„ stalks, Ac.
Total crop
• •
1,680
2,208
1500
1877
S3
99
38
15
1-8
6 J
398
0*
©•3
34
10*0
8-0
0*3
0-5
3.888
3377
121
43
..
36-3
..
-
..
18*0
..
..
Meadow hay, ift ton .
.
3.J60
2822
203
49
57
50-9
93
3*1
14*4
133
146
56-9
Red Clover hay. 2 tons
4**>
3763
*58
98
94
834
51
00-1
383
*4-9
9-8
7-0
Beans, grain, 30 bushels
„ straw
Total crop
1.020
2,240
XI
58
99
78
*9
44
49
24 1
4*8
0-6
17
J 9
26-3
4-3
57
33-8
6-3
M
4*3
0-4
6-9
4.160
3461
157
107
93
671
*'3
293
9*9
39*1
34
73
Turnips, root. 17 tons
..leaf .
Total crop
:
38.080
114*4
3126
1531
218
146
61
49
15*
57
108-6
40-2
17-0
75
'M
n
33-4
107
10*9
11-2
3-6
31
49.504
4657
364
no
20-9
1488
*45
740
95
33*1
23-1
77
Swedes, root, 14 tons
„ leaf . .
Total crop
•
31.360
4.704
3349
706
163
75
70
28
146
3*
63 3
164
33-8
9-2
197
227
6-8
24
11
6-8
.8-3
31
3*6
36,064
4055
*38
98
17-8*
797
32-0
4*4
9-3
317
151
67
Mangels, root, 22 tons.
„ leaf . .
Total crop
•
49,280
18,233
5914
1654
4*6
*54
98
51
49
91
232-8
779
694
493
15-9
37 «o
183
343
36-4
165
406
87
93
&7-513
7568
680
149
14-0
3007
1 187
43-9
4*5
53*9
831
17-9
Potatoes, tubers, 6 tons
. •■
I3440
3360
1*7
46
37
76-5
3-8
34
6-3
31.5
4*4
2-6
'Calculated from a single analysts only.
carbon from the atmosphere, and produce, besides nitrogenous
food materials, a very large amount of the carbohydrate sugar,
as respiratory and fat-forming food for the live stock of the farm.
The still more highly nitrogenous leguminous crops, although
not characteristically benefited by nitrogenous manures, never-
theless contribute much more nitrogen to the total produce of the
rotation than any of the other crops comprised in it. It is the
leguminous fodder c r op s e s pecially clover, which has a much
more extended period of growth, and much wider range of
collection within the soil and subsoil, than any of the other
crops of the rotation— that yield in their produce the largest
amount of nitrogen per acre. Much of this is doubtless
taken up as nitrate, yet the direct application of nitrate of
soda has comparatively little beneficial influence on their
growth. The nitric add is most likely taken up chiefly as
nitrate of Erne, but probably as nitrate of potash also, and
it is significant that the high nitrogen-yielding clover takes
up, or at least retains, very little soda. Table XL, from War-
ington's Chemistry of the Form, 19th edition (Vinton and Co.),
wul serve to illustrate the subjects that have been discussed in
this section.
For further information on the routine and details of farming,
reference may be made to the articles under the headings of the
various crops and implements.
British Lite Stock.
The numbers of live stock in the United Kingdom are shown
at five-yearly intervals in Table XII. Under horses are em-
braced only unbroken horses and horses used solely for agri-
culture (induding mares kept for breeding). The highest and
lowest annual totals for the United Kingdom in the period 1875-
1005 were the following:—
406
AGRICULTURE
(BRITISH
Highest
Lowest.
Difference.
Hones
Cattle
Sheep
Pigs. .
2. 1 1 6.800 in 1905
1 1. 674.019 i» 1905
33.642,808 „ 1892
4,362.040 „ 1890
1,819,6871111875
9.731.537 » 1877
27448,220 „ 1882
2.863488 ., 1880
39S."3
1.042482
6.194.588
1498.553
After 1892 cattle, which in that year numbered 11,519417,
and sheep declined continuously for three years to the totals of
1895, the diminution being mainly the result of the memorable
drought of 1893. Sheep, which numbered 32,571,0x8 in 1878,
declined continuously to 27448,220 in 1882 — a loss of over five
million head in five years. This was chiefly attributable to the
ravages of the liver fluke which began in the disastrously wet
season of 1879. Pigs, being prolific breeders, fluctuate more
widely in numbers than cattle or sheep, for the difference of
1498,553 in their case represents one-third of the highest total,
whereas the difference is less than one-seventh for horses, less
than one-sixth for cattle, and leas than one-fifth for sheep. The
Table Xll.— Numbers of Horses, Cattle, Sheep and Ptgs in the
United Kingdom*
Year.
Hones.
Cattle.
Sheep.
Pigs.
:ss
1885
1890
1895
1900
1905
1,819.687
1,929,680
1,909,200
1. 964.91 1
3,113.207
2.000402
2.1 16.800
to.162.787
9.871.153
10,868,760
10,789,858
10.753.314
11454.902
11,674,019
33491,948
30.239,620
30,066,200
31.667.19S
39774.853
31.054.547
39.076.777
41362.040
4,238.870
3.663.669
3.601,659
relative proportions— as distinguished from the actual numbers
—in which stock are distributed over the several sections of the
United Kingdom do not vary greatly from year to year. Table
XIII., in which the totals for the United Kingdom include those
for the Channel Islands and Isle of Man, illustrates the prepon-
derance of the sheep-breeding industry in the drier climate of
Great Britain, and of the cattle-breeding industry in the more
humid atmosphere of Ireland. In Great Britain in 1005, for
every head of cattle there were about four head of sheep, whereas
in Ireland the cattle outnumbered the sheep. Again, whilst
Great Britain possessed only half as many cattle more than
Tablb XII 1.— Numbers of Horses, Cattle, Sheep and Pigs in the
United Kingdom in 1905.
1905.
Hone..
Cattle.
Sheep.
Pig*.
England .
Wale. . .
Scotland .
1,204.124
161,923
206,386
5,020,936
738.789
1,227,295
14,698.018
3.534.967
7.024.211
3,083.336
*H479
130.314
Great Britain .
1.573433
6,987,020
35.357.196
3424.919
Ireland
534.875
4.645.315
3.749453
1,164,316
United I
Kingdom* \ '
2,116,800
11,674.019
39.076.777
3,601,659
Ireland, she possessed six times as many sheep. The cattle
population of England alone slightly exceeded that of Ireland,
but cattle are more at home on the broad plains of England than
amongst the hills and mountains of Wales and Scotland, which
are suitable for sheep. Hence, whilst in England sheep were not
three times as numerous as cattle, in Wales they were nearly,
five times, and In Scotland nearly six times, as many. Great
Britain had twice as many pigs as Ireland, but the swine industry
is mainly English and Irish, and England possessed more than
six times as many pigs as Wales and Scotland together, the
number in the last-named country being particularly small.
One English county alone, Suffolk, maintained more pigs than
the whole of Scotland.
British Imports of Lin Animals and Meat.
m The stock-breeders and graziers, of the United Kingdom have,
equally with the corn-growers, to (ace the brunt of foreign
competition.
* Including Channel Islands and Isle of Man.
Up to 1806 store cattle were admitted into the United King-
dom for the purpose of being fattened, but under the Diseases
of Animals Act of that year animals imported since then have
to be slaughtered at the place of landing. The dimensions of
this trade are shown in Table XIV.
Tablb XI V.— Numbers of Cattle, Sheep and Pigs imparled into the
United Kingdom, 1891-1905.
Year
Cattle.
Sheep.
Pigs.
1891
1893
1893
507407
503.337
340.045
344*504
b2
3836
138
1894
475440
415.565
484.597
8
38
1,065470
331
563.553
618,321
769.593
611.504
4
569.066
663.747
450
1899
1900
503.504
495.645
607.755
383,833
1901
495.635
419.488
383.594
..
1903
393.303
..
1903
1904
1905
533,546
549.533
505.139
354^41
383,240
183.084
ISO
The animals come mainly from the United States of America,
Canada and Argentina, and the traffic in cattle is more uniform
than that in sheep, whilst that in pigs seems practically to have
reached extinction. The quantities of dead meat imported
increased with great rapidity from 1891 to 1905, a circumstance
largely due to the rise of the trade in chilled and frozen meat
Fresh beef in this form is imported chiefly from the United
States and Australasia, fresh mutton from Australasia and
Argentina.
Table XV. shows how rapidly this trade expanded during the
decade of the 'nineties. The column headed bacon and hams
indicates clearly enough that the imports of fresh meat did not
displace those of preserved pig meat, for the latter expanded from
4,7x5,000 cwt to 7,784,000 cwt during the decade. The column
for all dead meat includes not only the items tabulated, but also
Tablb XV.— Quantities of Dead Meat imported into the United
Kingdom, 1891-1905 — Thousands of Oat.
Year.
Fresh.
Fresh
Fresh
Bacon
ah
Beef.
Mutton.
Pork.
ind Hams.
Dead Meat.
1891
1931
1663
128
4715
9.790
1893
2080
1700
!£
5135
4187
I0v5co
1893
1808
1971
9J05
I0.610
1894
2104
3395
180
4819
:g
2191
2660
361 1
3895
288
8E
0009
".977
>3447
1899
3010
3101
3803
4128
4509
3193
334
3440
7784
14.739
ifS
1900
1901
8
«95
7633
as
1903
3707
3660
655
6573
16,971
1903
4160
4017
TOO
s??
17.498
1904
too5
4350
5038
3495
38ft
6IO
506
6696
6817
\m
the following, the quantities stated being those for x 005:— Beef,
salted, 142,806 cwt.; beef, otherwise preserved, 598,030 cwt;
preserved mutton, 30.x xx cwt.; salted pork, 205,065 cwt; dead
rabbits, 656,078 cwt; meat, unenumerated, 875,032 cwt The
quantities of these are relatively small, and, excepting rabbits
from Australia, they show no general tendency to increase. The
extent to which these growing imports were associated with a
decline in value is shown in Table XVI.
The trend of the import trade in meat, live and dead (exclusive
of rabbits), may be gathered from Table XVII., in which are given
the annual average imports from the eight quinquennial periods
embraced between 1866 and 1005. An increase in live cattle
accompanied a decrease in live sheep and pigs, but the imports of
dead meat expanded fifteen-fold over the period.
The rate at which the trade in imported frosen mutton in-
creased as compared with the industry in home-grown muttoo
is illustrated in the figures published annually by Messrs W
BRITISH]
Weddd and Company, from which those for 1885 and 1890 and
for each year from 1895 to 1906 are given in Table XVHI. The
home-grown is the estimated dead weight of sheep and lambs
slaughtered, which is taken at 40 % of the total number of sheep
and lambs returned each year in the United Kingdom. In the
Table XVI— Awto* Values of Fresh Meat, Bacon and Hams
imported into the United Kingdom, 1891-1005— per Cut.
AGRICULTURE
407
Year.
Fresh
Urn*!
Fresh
Mutton.
Fresh
Pork.
Bacon.
Hams.
s. d.
s. d.
s. d.
s. d.
s. d.
'f 01
43 1
39 6
46 XI
37 »
46 4
1892
4> 5
40. 6
40 10
56 5
1893
4> 4
39 3
50
53
1894
40
37 10
4f 5
43 10
49 I
:a
39
35 2
46 1
39
44 11
37 10
3$ 5
38 a
3a 7
45 11
34 6
43 2
;$
30 3
*9 7
44
41 10
a t
42 8
39 6
1899
38 a
31 7
41 11
35 1©
41 S
1900
39 7
*!
43 ©
41 9
46 10
1901
39 J
43 4
47 1
48 8
1902
42 8
37 9
44 *
52 9
5a I
1903
40 3
39
44 I
52 10
55 I
1904
1905
37 I
35 6
$ i
46
tn
49 II
47 4
imported column is given the weight of fresh (frozen) mutton and
lamb imported, plus the estimated dead weight of the sheep
imported on the hoof for slaughter The quantity imported in
1899 was double that in 1890. and quadruple that in 1885 More-
. over, in 1885 the imported product was only about one-seventh
Tablb XVII.— Average Annual Imports of Cattle, Sheep and Pi&,
and of Dead Meat, into (he Untied Kingdom eoer eight ^yearly
Period*.
Period.
Cattle
Sheep.
Pigs-
Dead Meat.
No.
No.
No
Cwt.
I 866-1870
194.947
610,300
64.827
1. 155.867
1871-1875
1876-1880
1 £81-1885
215.990
864.516
938.704
974410
800,599
407360
607,086
74.040
3.£34.i7S
2W.745
387.282
438.098
448.139
549.818
44.613
24-355
5.841.9 1 3
6.012495
1 886-1890
1 891-1895
1696-1900
91
7.681.729
10436.549
15.785.354
17484466
1 901-1905
510468
319*7*
30
as much as the home-grown, whereas in 1890 it was more than
one-fourth, and in 1006 close on two-thirds. This large import
trade in fresh meat, which sprang up entirely within the last
quarter of the 19th century, has placed an abundance of cheap
and wholesome food well within the reach of the great industrial
Table XVIII.— Home Product and Imports of Sheep and Mutton
into Ike United Kingdom— Thousands of Tons.
Year.
Home-
grown.
Imported.
Year.
Home-
grown.
Imported*
1885
322
47
1900
332
179
l &°
339
92
1901
330
191
\n
319
329
!g
1902
1903
318
2 to 1
S?
3*7
333
s
1904
1905
1900
3"
3"
185
195
1899
339
187
313
207
populations of the United Kingdom At the same time it cannot
be gainsaid that it has opened the way to fraud. Butchers have
palmed off upon their customers imported fresh meat as home-
grown, and secured a dishonest profit by charging for.it the prices
of the latter, which are considerably in excess of those of the
imported product.
Sale of Cattle by Lite Weight.
In connexion with the internal live stock trade of Great Britain
attention must be directed to the Markets and Fairs (Weighing
-of Cattle) Act 1891. The object of this measure is to replace the
1 la 1905 two of the principal sources of supply of mutton shipped
in excess of their exportable surplus, for which they suffered severely
in 1904— hence the somewhat irregular movemeats after 1903.
old-fashioned system of guessing at the weight of an animal by
the sounder method of obtaining the exact weight by means of
the weighbridge. The grazier buys and sells cattle much less
frequently than the butcher buys them, so that the latter is
naturally more skilled in estimating the weight of a beast through
the use of the eye and the hand. The resort to the weighbridge
should put both on an equality, and its use tends to increase.
Under the act, as supplemented by an order of the Board of
Agriculture in 1005, there were in that year 26 scheduled places
in England and 10 in Scotland,, or 36 altogether, from which
returns were obtained. The numbers of cattle (both fat and
store) weighed at scheduled places in 1893 and 1005 1 were
respectively 7*59 and 18 % of those entering those markets. The
numbers for Scotland are greater throughout than those for
England, 72 % of the fat cattle entering the scheduled markets in
Scotland in 1005* having been weighed, while in England the
proportion was only so %. Little use is made of the weighbridge
in selling store-cattle, sheep or swine. As the main object of
the act is to obtain records of prices, it follows that only in so
far as statements of the prices realized^ together with the descrip-
tion of the animals involved, are obtained, is the full advan-
tage of the statute secured. In iocs' the average price per cwt.
for fat cattle in Great. Britain was 32s. ixd. as compared with
35s. ad in 1900.
Pood-oalues and E/asiy Maturity.
In the feeding experiments which have been carried on
at Rothamsted it hag been shown that the amount consumed
both for a given live weight of animal within a given time, and
for the production of a given amount of increase, is, as current
food stuffs go, measurable more by the amounts they contain
of digestible and available non-nitrogenous constituents than
by the amounts of the digestible and available nitrogenous
constituents they supply. The non-nitrogenous substance (the
fat) in the increase in live weight of an animal is, at any rate in
great part, if not entirely, derived from the non-nitrogenous
constituents of the food. Of the nitrogenous compounds in food,
on the other hand, only a small proportion of the whole consumed
is finally stored up in the increase of the animal — in other words,
a very large amount of nitrogen passes through the body beyond
that which Is finally retained in the increase, and so remains
for manure. Hence it is that the amount of food consumed to
produce a given amount of increase in live weight, as well as that
required for the sustentation of a given live weight for a given
time, should— provided the food be not abnormally deficient
in nitrogenous substance— be characteristically dependent on
its supplies of digestible and available non-nitrogenous con-
stituents. It has further been shown that, in the exercise of
force by animals, there fa -a greatly increased expenditure of
the non-nitrogenous constituents of food, but little, if any, of
the nitrogenous. Thus, then, alike for maintenance, for increase,
and for the exercise of force, the exigencies of the system are
characterized more by the demand for the digestible non-
nitrogenous or more specially respiratory and fat-forming con*
stituents than by that for the nitrogenous or more specially
flesh-forming ones. Hence, as current fattening food-stuffs
go— assuming, of course, that they are not abnormally low in
the nitrogenous constituents— they are, as foods, more valuable
in proportion to their richness in digestible and available non-
nitrogenous than to that of their nitrogenous constituents. As,
however, the manure of the animals of the farm is valuable
largely in proportion to the nitrogen it contains, there is, so far,
an advantage in giving a food somewhat rich in nitrogen, pro-
vided it is In other respects a good one. and, weight for weight,
not much more costly*
The quantity of digestible nutritive matter in xooo lb of
ordinary feeding-stuffs when supplied to sheep or oxen is shown
in Table XIX. This table is taken from Warington's Chemistry
of the Farm, 19th edition (Vinton and Co.) , to which reference may
be made for a detailed discussion of the feeding of animals.
In the fattening of animals for the butcher the principle of
1 Returns for only ten months were available for this year.
+o8
AGRICULTURE
[BRITISH
eariy maturity has received full recognition. If the sole purpose
for which an animal is reared ia to prepare it for the block— and
this ia the case with steers amongst cattle and with wethers
amongst sheep— the sooner it is ready for slaughter the less
should be the outlay involved. During the whole time the
animal is living the feeder has to pay what has been termed the
" life tax "—that is, so much of the food has to go to the main-
tenance of the animal as a living organism, independently of
that which may be undergoing conversion into what will sub-
sequently be available in the form of beef or mutton. If a bullock
can be rendered fit for the butcher at the age of two or three
years, will the animal repay another year's feeding? It has
been proved at the Christmas fat stock shows that the older a
bullock gets the less will he gain In weight per day as a result
of the feeding. With regard to this point the work of the Smith-
field Club deserves recognition. This body was instituted in
1798 as the Smithfield Cattle and Sheep Society, the title being
Tails XlX.-±LHtfistibU Matter in 1000 lb. of various Foods.
Total
Nitrogenous
Substances.
Soluble
Fat.
Carbo-
hydrates.
Fibre.
Matter.
Albu-
Amides,
minoids.
etc
Cotton cake (decorticated) .•
691
374
16
138
158
13
u^«*S tt ? de T k ? ed) .
&
150
230
13
II
50
103
JS
3a
Peas
Beans
.
747
m
\u
3
13
13
4$
Wheat 1 .
. . •
V,
>3
15
056
10
Oats
. . .
600
7
45
9
36
g* 1 ?** •
• .
7J5
70
t
19
15
Maise
• • .
@
44
651
13
Rice meal
• • •
61*
10
103
411
33
Wheat bran
• • »
585
90
30
»7
436
33
Malt sprouts
■ . .
Si
"4
71
zz
I
106
Brewers* grains . • .
(dried) .
137
5*9
d
3
8
5
SO
63
Pasture grass
Clover (bloom beginning) .
Clover nay (medium) .
Meadow hay (best}
„ (medium) .
„ (poor) •
Maise silage 1 .
Bean straw »
156
"3
19
17
tl
8
S
36
30
440
5 l x
460
124
413
40
«9
I
3
13
13
13
13
10
7
6
3
869
343
73
911
113
151
153
174
34
155
. 4 1 j.
Oat straw •
Barley straw • •
Wheat straw . . . .
436
351
I
4
163
911
150
199
909
193
i
\
Potatoes ....
913
3
%
6
I
195
i
i
Mangels (large) •
89
109
1
\
3
Swedes . ! ! .
8
9
7
1
71
Turnips
1 .
3
. 1
S6
S
changed to that of the Smithfield Club in z8oa. The original
object— the supply of the cattle markets of Smithfield and other
places with the cheapest and best meat— is still kept strictly
in view. The judges, in making their awards at the show held
annually in December, at Islington, North London (since 1862),
are instructed to decide according to quality of flesh, 1'gM-f—
of offal, age and early maturity, with no restrictions as to feeding,
and thus to promote the primary aim of the dub in encouraging
the selection and breeding of the best and most useful animals
for the production of meat, and testing their capabilities in respect
of early maturity. At the first show, held at Smithfield in 1 709,
two classes were provided for cattle and two for sheep, the prises
offered amounting: to £53 : xos. In 1839 the classes comprised
seven for cattle, six for sheep, and one for pigs, with prises to
the amount of £300. By 1862 the classes had risen to 39 for
cattle, 17 for sheep and 4 for pigs, and the prise money to
£2073. At the centenary show in 1898 provision was made for
40 dasses for cattle, 29 for sheep, 18 for pigs, and 7 for animals
to be slaughtered, whilst to mark the importance of the occasion
the prizes offered amounted to dose upon £5000 in value. In
*!n the absence of experiments it is assumed that wheat is
digested like other foods of the same class.
1007 there were 38 dasses for cattle, 29 for sheep, 30 for pigs,
and 12 for carcase competitors, and the value of the prises was
£41 13. The sections provided for cattle are properly restricted
to what may be termed the beef breeds; in the catalogue order
they axe Devon, South Devon, Hereford, Shorthorn, Sussex,
Red Polled, Aberdeen-Angus, Galloway, Welsh, Higrthirtd,
Cross-bred, Kerry and Dexter, and Small Cross-bred.
It win be noticed that such characteristically milking breeds
as the Ayrshire, Jersey and Guernsey have no place here.
Provision is made, however, for all the well-known breeds of sheep
and swine. In the cattle dasses, aged beasts of huge sice and
of considerably over a ton in weight used to be common, but In
recent years the tendency has been to reduce the upper limit of
age, and thus to bring out animals ripe for the butcher in a shorter
time than was formerly the case. An important step in tins
direction was taken in 1896, when the senior dass for steers,
vis. animals three to four years old, was abolished, the masdoMmm
age at which steers were allowed to compete
for prises being reduced to three years. The
cow classes were abolished in 1897, and in the
schedule of the 1905 exhibition the classes lor
each breed of cattle were (1) for steers not
exceeding two years old, (») for steers above
two years and not exceeding three years old,
and (3) for heifers not exceeding three years
old. The single exception is provided by the
slowly-maturing Highland breed of cattle, for
which classes were allotted to (1) steers not
exceeding three years old (9) steers or axes
above three years old (with no masimtmm
limit), and (3) heifers not exceeding four
years old As illustrating heavy weights,
there were in the 1893 show, out of 3x0 entries
of cattle, four beasts which weighed over s
ton. They were all steers of three to four
years old, one being a Hereford weighing so
cwt 3 qr. 4 lb, and the others Shorthorns
weighing respectively 30 cwt. 9 qr,, 90 cwt.
3 qr; si lb, and 93 art 9 qr. x8-lb. In the
1895 show, out of 356 entries of cattle, there
were seven beasts of more than & ton in
weight. They were all three to four yens
old, and comprised four Shorthorns (top
weight ax cwt x qr. 18 lb), one Sussex (99
cwt 3 qr. 7 lb), and two crosa-breds (top
weight 30 cwt 3 qr. 94 m). In the 1809 show,
with 31 x entries of cattle, and the age limited
to three years, no beast reached the weight
of a ton, the heaviest animal being a cross*
bred( Aberdeen- Angus andShorthorn) whkh,at
three years old, turned the scale at 19 cwt 1 qr. 5 lb. Out of
301 entries in 1005 the top Weight was 19 cwt x qr. 95 lb in the
case of a Shorthorn steer. Useful figures for purposes of com-
parison are obtained by dividing the weight of a fat beast by
the number of days in its age; the weight at birth being thrown
in. The average daily gain in live weight is thus arrived at, and
as the animal increases in age this average gradually diminishes,
until the daily gain reaches a stage at which it does not afford
any profitable' return upon the food consumed At the centenary
show of the Smithfield Club in 1898 the highest average daily
gains in weight amongst prize-winning cattle were provided by a
Shorthorn- Aberdeen cross-bred steer (sge, one year seven months;
daily gain 2*47 lb); a Shorthorn steer (age, one year seven
months; daily gain, 3-44 lb); and an Aberdeen-Shorthorn
cross-bred steer (age, one year ten months; daily gain, 9*33 lb).
These beasts, ft will be observed, were all under two years old
Amongst prise steers of two and a half to three years old, on the
same occasion, the three highest daily average gains in live
weight were 9*07 lb for an Aberdeen-Angus, 1*09 lb for a Short-
horn-Aberdeen cross-bred and 1 • 97 lb for a Sussex. In the sheep
section of the Smithfield show the classes for ewes were finally
abolished in 1898, and the classes restricted to wethers sad
BRITISH)
AGRICULTURE
409
wether lambs, whose function is delusively the production of
meat. At the 1 005 show, sheep of each breed, and also cross-breds,
competed as (1) wether lambs under twelve months old, and (2)
wether sheep above twelve and under twenty-four months old.
The only exception was in the case of the slowly-maturing
Cheviot and mountain breeds, for which the second class was for
wether sheep of any age above twelve months. Of prise sheep at
the centenary show the largest average daily gain was 0-77 lb per
head given by Oxford-Hampshire cross-bred wether lambs, aged
nine months two weeks. In the case of wether sheep, twelve to
twenty-four months old, the highest daily increase was 0*56 lb
per head as yielded by Lincolns, aged twenty-one months.
Within the last quarter of the 10th century the stock-feeding
practices of the country were much modified in accordance with
these ideas of early maturity. The three-year-old wethers and
older oxen that used to be common in the fat stock markets
are now rarely seen, excepting perhaps in the case of mountain
breeds of sheep and Highland cattle. It was in 1875 that the
Smithfield Club first provided the competitive classes for lambs,
and in 1883 the champion plate offered for the best pen of sheep
of any age in the show was for the first time won by lambs, a
pen of Hampshire Downs. The young classes for bullocks were
established in 1880. The time-honoured notion that an animal
must have completed its growth before it could be profitably
fattened is no longer held, and the improved breeds which now
exist rival one another as regards the early period at which they
may be made ready for the butcher by appropriate feeding and
In 1805 the Smithfield Club instituted a carcase competition
in association with its annual show of fat stock, and it has been
continued each year since. The cattle and sheep entered for this
competition are shown alive on the first day, at the close of which
they are slaughtered and the carcases hung up for exhibition,
with details of hve and dead weights. The competition thus
constitutes what is termed a " block test," and it is instructive
in affording the opportunity of seeing the quality of the carcases
furnished by the several animals, and in particular the relative
proportion and ^distribution of fat and lean meat. The live
animalsare judged and subsequently the carcases, and, though the
results sometimes agree, more often they do not. Tables are con-
structed showing the fasted live weight, the carcase weight, and
the weight of the various parts that are separated from and not
incl ud ed with the carcase. An abundance of lean meat and a
moderate amount of fat well distributed constitutes a better
carcase, and a more economical one for the consumer, than a
carcase in which gross accumulations of fat are prominent To
add to the educational value of the display, information as to the
methods of feeding would be desirable, as it would then be
possible to correlate the quality of the meat with the mode of its
manufacture. A point of high practical interest is the ratio of
carcase weight to fasted live weight, and in the case of prize-
winning carcases these ratios usually fluctuate within very narrow
limits. At the 1809 show, for example, the highest proportion of
the carcase weight to live weight was 68 % in the case of an
Aberdeen-Angus steer and of a Cheviot wether, whilst the lowest
was 61 %, afforded alike by a Shorthorn-Sussex cross-bred heifer
and a mountain lamb. A familiar practical method of estimating
carcase weight from live weight is to reckon one Smithfield stone
(8 lb) of carcase for each imperial stone (14 lb) of live weight
This gives carcase weight as equal to 57 % of live weight, a
ratio much inferior to the best results obtained at the carcase
competition promoted by the Smithfield Club.
Breed Societies.
A noteworthy feature of the closing decades of the 19th century
was the formation of voluntary associations of stockbreeders,
with the object of promoting the interests of the respective breeds
of hve stock. As a typical example of these organisations the
Shire Horse Society may be mentioned. It was incorporated in
1878 to improve and promote the breeding of the Shire or old
English race of cart-horses, and to effect the distribution of sound
and healthy sires throughout the country. The society holds
annual shows, publishes annually the Skire Horse Stud Book and
offers gold and silver medals for competition amongst Shire
horses at agricultural shows in different parts of the country.
The society has carried on a work of high national importance,
and has effected a marked improvement in the character and
quality of the Shire horse. What has thus voluntarily been done
in England would in most other countries be left to the state, or
would not be attempted at alL It is hardly necessary to say that
the Shire Horse Society has never received a penny of public
money, nor has any other of the voluntary breeders' societies.
The Hackney Horse Society and the Hunters' Improvement
Society are conducted on much the same lines as the Shire Horse
Society, and, like it, they each hold a show in London in the
spring of the year and publish an annual volume. Other horse-
breeders , associations, all doing useful work in the interests of
their respective breeds, are the Suffolk Horse Society, the
Clydesdale Horse Society, the Yorkshire Coach Horse Society,
the Cleveland Bay Horse Society, the Polo Pony Society, the
Shetland Pony Stud Book Society, the Welsh Pony and Cob
Society and the New Forest Pony Association. Thoroughbred
race-horses are registered in the General Stud Book. The Royal
Commission on Horse Breeding, which dates from 1887, is, as its
name implies, not a voluntary organisation. Through the com-
mission the money previously spent upon Queen's Plates is
offered in the form of " King's Premiums " (to the number of
twenty-eight in 1007) of £150 each for thoroughbred stallions, on
condition that each stallion winning a premium shall serve not
less than fifty half-bred mares, if required. The winning stallions
are distributed in districts throughout Great Britain, and the use
of these selected sires has resulted in a decided improvement in
the quality of half-bred horses. The annual show of the Royal
Commission on Horse Breeding is held in London jointly and
concurrently with that of the Hunters' Improvement Society.
Of organisations of cattle-breeders the English Jersey Cattle
Society, established in 1878, may be taken as a type. It offers
prises in butter-test competitions and milking trials at various
agricultural shows, and publishes the English Herd Book and
Register of Pure-bred Jersey Cottle. This volume records the
births in the herds of members of the society, and gives the
pedigrees of cows and bulls, besides furnishing lists of prise-
winners at the principal shows and butter-test awards, and
reports of sales by auction of Jersey cattle. Other cattle
societies, all well caring for the interest of their respective breeds,
are the Shorthorn Society of Great Britain and Ireland, the
Lincolnshire Red Shorthorn Association, the Hereford Herd Book
Society, the Devon Cattle Breeders' Society, the South Devon
Herd Book Society, the Sussex Herd Book Society, the Long-
horned Cattle Society, the Red Polled Society, the English
Guernsey Cattle Society, the English Kerry and Dexter Cattle
Society, the Welsh Black Cattle Society, the Polled Cattle
Society (for the Aberdeen-Angus breed), the English Aberdeen-
Angus Cattle Association, the Galloway Cattle Society, the Ayr-
shire Cattle Herd Book Society, the Highland Cattle Society of
Scotland and the Dairy Shorthorn Association.
In the case of sheep the National Sheep Breeders' Association
looks after the interests of nockmasters in general, whilst most
of the pure breeds are represented also by separate organisations.
The Hampshire Down Sheep Breeders' Association may be taken
as a type of the latter, its principal object being to encourage the
breeding of Hampshire Down sheep at home and abroad, and to
maintain the purity of the breed. It publishes an annual Flock
Book, the first volume of which appeared in x 800. In this book
ate named the recognised and pure-bred sires which have been
used, and ewes which have been bred from, whilst there are also
registered the pedigrees of such sheep as are proved to be eligible
for entry. Prizes are offered by the society at various agri-
cultural shows where Hampshire Down sheep are exhibited.
Other sheep societies include the Leicester Sheep Breeders'
Association, the CoUwold Sheep Society, the Lincoln Longwoo!
Sheep Breeders' Association, the Oxford Down Sheep Breeders'
Association, the Shropshire Sheep Breeders' Association and
nock Book Society, the Southdown Sheep Society, the Suffolk
4io
AGRICULTURE
[BRITISH
Sheep Society, the Border Leicester Slieep Breeders' Society, the
Wensleydale Longwool Sheep Breeders' Association and Flock
Book Society, the Incorporated Wensleydsle Blue-faced Sheep
Breeders' Association and Flock Book Society, the Kent Sheep
Breeders' Association, the Devon Longwool Sheep Breeders'
Society, the Dorset Horn Sheep Breeders' Association, the
Cheviot Sheep Society and the Roscommon Sheep Breeders'
Association.
The interests of pig-breeders are the care of the National Pig
Breeders' Association, in addition to which there exist the
British Berkshire, the Large Black Pig, and the Lincoln Curly-
Coated White Pig Societies, and the Incorporated Tamworth Pig
Breeders' Association.
The addresses of the secretaries of the various live-stock
societies in the United Kingdom are published annually in the
Live Stock Journal Almanac,
The Maintenance of the Health of Live Stock.
It was not till the closing decade of the xoth century that the
stock-breeders of the United Kingdom found themselves in a
position to prosecute their industry free from the fear of the
introduction of contagious disease through the medium of store
animals imported from abroad for fattening on the native pas-
tures. By the Diseases of Animals Act 1806 (59 & 60 Vict c x 5)
it was provided that cattle, sheep- and pigs imported into the
United Kingdom should be slaughtered at the place of landing.
The effect was to reduce to a minimum the risk of the introduction
of disease amongst the herds and flocks of the country, and at the
same time to confine the trade in store stock exclusively to the
breeders of Great Britain and Ireland. This arrangement makes
no difference to the food-supply of the people, for dead meat
continues to arrive at British ports in ever-increasing quantity.
Moreover, live animals are admitted freely from certain coun-
tries, provided such animals are slaughtered at the place of
landing. At Deptford, for example, large numbers of cattle and
sheep which thus arrive— mainly from Argentina, Canada and
the United States— are at once slaughtered, and so furnish a
steady supply of fresh-killed beef and mutton. The animals
which are shipped in this way are necessarily of the best quality,
because the freight on a superior beast is no more costly than on
an inferior one, and the proportion of freight to sale price is there-
fore less. With this superior description of butchers' stock all
classes of home-grown stock— good, bad and indifferent— have,
of course, to compete. The Board of Agriculture has the power
to close the ports of the United Kingdom against live animals
from any country in which contagious disease is known to exist
This accounts for the circumstance that so few countries— none
of them in Europe — enjoy the privilege of sending live animals to
British ports. In 1000 the discovery early in the year of the
existence of foot-and-mouth disease amongst cattle and sheep
shipped from Argentina to the United Kingdom led to the issue
of an order by which all British ports were closed against live
animals from, the country named. This order came into force on
the 30th of April, and the result was a marked decline in the
shipments of live cattle and sheep from the River Plate, but a
decided increase in the quantity of frozen meat sent thence to the
United Kingdom.
The last quarter of the 19th century witnessed an important
change in the attitude of public opinion towards legislative
control over the contagious diseases of animals. When, after
the introduction of cattle plague or rinderpest in 1865, the
proposal was made to resort to the extreme remedy of slaughter
in order to check the ravages of a disease which was pursuing
its course with ruinous results, the idea was received with public-
indignation and denounced as barbarous. Views have undergone
profound modification since then, and the most drastic remedy
has come to be regarded as the most effective, and in the long
run the least costly. The Cattle Diseases Prevention Act 1866
(29 & 30 Vict c a) made compulsory the slaughter of diseased
cattle, and permitted the slaughter of cattle which had been
exposed to infection, compensation being provided out of the
rates. The Act 30 & 31 Vict c 1 as, 1867, is of historical Interest,
in that it contains the first mention of pleuro-pneumonia, and the
exposure in any market of cattle suffering from that disease
was made an offence. The Contagious Diseases (Animals) Act
1869 {12 ft 33 Vict c 70) revoked all former acts, and defined
disease to mean cattle plague, pleuro-pneumonia, foot-and-mouth
disease, sheep-pox, sheep-scab and glanders, together with any
disease which the Privy Council might by order specify. The
principle of this act in regard to foreign animals was that of
free importation, with power for the Privy Council to prohibit
or subject to quarantine and slaughter, as circumstances seemed
to require. The act of 1869 was at that time the most complete
measure that had ever been passed for dealing with diseases
of animals. The re-introduction of cattle plague into England
in 1877 led to the passing of the Act 42 ft 4a Vict c. 74, 1878,
which repealed the act of 1869, and affirmed as a principle the
landing of foreign animals for slaughter only, though free im-
portation or quarantine on the one hand and prohibition on the
other were provided for in exceptional circumstances. By an
order of council which came into operation in December 1878,
swine fever was declared to be a disease for the purposes of the
act of that year. It was not, however, till October 1886 that
anthrax and rabies were officially declared to be contagious
diseases for the purposes of certain sections of the act of 1878.
In 1884 the Act 47 ft 48 Vict c 23 empowered the Privy Council
to prohibit the landing of animals from any country in respect
of which the circumstances were not such as to afford reason-
able security against the introduction of foot-and-mouth disease.
After one or two other measures of minor importance came the
Act 53 & 54 Vict c 14, known as the Pleuro-pneumonia Act
x8oo, which transferred the powers of local authorities to slaughter
and pay compensation in cases of pleuro-pneumonia to the Board
of Agriculture, and provided further for the payment of such
compensation out of money specifically voted by parliament
This measure was regarded at the time as a marked step in
advance, and was only carried after a vigorous campaign in its
favour. In 189a by the Act 55 & 56 Vict. c. 47 power was given
to the Board of Agriculture to use the sums voted on account
of pleuro-pneumonia for paying the costs involved in dealing
with foot-and-mouth disease; under this act the board could
order the slaughter of diseased animals and of animals in contact
with these, and could pay compensation for animals so slaughtered.
Under the provisions of the Contagious Diseases (Animals) Act
1893 (56 ft 57 Vict c 43) swine fever in Great Britain, was, from
the xst of November in that year, dealt with by the Board of
Agriculture in the same way as pleuro-pneumonia, the slaughter
of infected swine being carried out under directions from the
central authority, and compensation allowed from the imperial
exchequer. In 1804 was passed the Diseases of Animals Act
(57 ft 58 Vict c 57), the word " contagious " being omitted
from the title. This was a measure to consolidate the Contagious
Diseases (Animals) Acts 1878- 1893. In it "the expression
'disease ' means cattle plague (that is to say, rinderpest, or the
disease commonly called cattle plague), contagious pleuro-
pneumonia of cattle (in this act called pleuro-pneumonia),
foot-and-mouth disease, sheep-pox, sheep-scab, or swine fever
(that is to say, the disease known as typhoid fever of swine,
soldier purples, red disease, hog cholera or swine plague)." The
Diseases of Animals Act X896 (59 ft 60 Vict c 15) rendered
compulsory the slaughter of imported live stock at the place
of landing, a boon for which British stock-breeders had striven
for many years. The ports in Great Britain at which foreign
animals may be landed are Bristol, Cardiff, Glasgow, Hull, Liver-
pool, London, Manchester and Newcastle-upon-Tyne. Animals
from the Channel Islands may be landed at Southampton.
The Diseases of Animals.
Under the Diseases of Animals Acts 1804 and 1806 weekly
returns are issued by the Board of Agriculture of outbreaks of
anthrax, foot-and-mouth disease, glanders (including farcy),
pleuro-pneumonia, rabies and swine fever in the counties of
Great Britain; also monthly returns of outbreaks of sheep-scab.
CaUle plague, or rinderpest, has not been recorded in Great
BRITISH]
Britain since 1877. In that year there were 47 outbreaks dis-
tributed over five counties and involving 363 head of cattle.
The course of foot-and-mouth disease in Great Britain between
1877 and 1905 inclusive is told in Table XX., from which the
Table XX.— Outbreaks of Foot-end- Mouth Disease in Gnat Britain,
1877-190S
AGRICULTURE
411
Y«v.
Counties.
Out-
breaks.
Animala attacked.
Cattle.
Sheep.
Swine.
Other
Animals.
$i
1881
1883
1883
1884
1885
1886
1893
1893
1894
1900
1901
1903
55
45
3
49
49
75
55
10
1
15
3
3
9
3
I
858
335
1461
4.833
1.970
18.733
949
30
1
95
3
3
31
13
X
5.640
913
361
30,918
59.484
33.973
319.389
12,186
354
10
M48
30
7
314
43
3
15.681
9.573
117.153
11.413
317493
14.174
34
3413
361
50
636
XI8
3,099
345
I.886 5
6430
3,564
30
107
a
a
80
X
33
X
years 1887 to 1801, 1895 to 1809 and 1903 to 1005 inclusive
are omitted, because there was no outbreak during those periods.
The disease is seen to have attained its maximum virulence in
1883.
Skotp-scab is a loathsome skin disease due to an acarian
parasite. Table XXI. shows the number of outbreaks and the
number of counties over which they were distributed from
1877 to X005. The recorded outbreaks were more numerous
in the decade of the 'nineties than in that of the 'eighties, though
possibly this may have been due to greater official activity in
the later period The largest number of sheep attacked was
Table XXL— Outbreaks of Sheep-Scab in Great Britain,
X877-190S.
Year.
Counties.
Outbreaks.
Year.
Counties.
Outbreaks.
1885
77
5
1550
1513
1895
1900
1905
11
78
1506
3093
1939
918
68,7x5 (in 1877). It is compulsory on owners to notify the
authorities as to the existence of scab amongst their sheep. By
the Diseases of Animals Act (1003) powers to prescribe the dipping
of sheep, irrespective of the presence or otherwise of sheep scab,
were conferred upon the Board of Agriculture. An inspector
of the board or of the local authority was by the same act'
authorized to enter premises and examine sheep. Each year
the disorder runs a similar course, the outbreaks dwindling to
a minimum in the summer months, June to August, and attaining
a maximum in the winter months, December to February. It
is chiefly in the " flying " flocks and not in the breeding flocks
that the disease is rife, and it is so easily communicable that a
drove of scab-infested sheep passing along a road may leave
behind them traces sufficient to set up the disorder in a drove
of healthy sheep that may follow. For its size and in relation
to its sheep population Wales harbours the disease to a far
greater extent than the other divisions of Great Britain.
The fatal disease known as anthrax did not form the subject of
official returns previous to the passing of the Anthrax Older of
1886. Isolated outbreaks are of common occurrence, and from
the totals for Great Britain given in Table XXII. it would appear
that there is little prospect of the eradication of this bacterial
disorder.
Glanders (including farcy) was the subject during the twenty-
four years 1877-1000 of outbreaks in Great Britain ranging
between a minimum of 5x8 in. 1877 and a maximum of 1657 in
189a; in the former year 758 horses were attacked, and in the
latter 3001. A recrudescence of the disease marked the closing
years of the 19th century, the outbreaks having been 748 in 1898.
853 in 1809 and 11x9 in 1900. The counties of Great Britain
over which the annual outbreaks have been distributed have
ranged between 34 in x8oo and 53 in 1879. As a matter of fact,
Table XXlh— Outbreaks of Anthrax in Groat Britain,
1895-1905-
Year.
Counties.
Outbreaks.
Animals attacked.
Cattle.
Sheep.
Swine.
Hones.
%
66
$
&
158
34
140
300
S
;&
67
I*
556
£
39
33
384
161
38
39
1899
67
534
&
69
353
30
1900
I 4
S
«°
304
44
1901
63
708
76
153
35
1903
1903
?
S
tt
52
193
365
44
51
1904
g
1049
n 15
47
1905
970
1 001
53
310
53
however, the disease is strongly centred upon the metropolitan
area, more than half of the outbreaks being reported from the
county of London alone.
The Rabies order was passed in 1886, and the number of
counties in Great Britain in which cases of rabies in dogs were
reported in each subsequent year is shown in Table XXIII.
In addition there have been some cases of rabies in animals other
than dogs. The disease was very rife in 1895, but the extensive
application of the muzzling restrictions of the Board of Agri-
culture was accompanied by so steady a diminution in the
Table XXIII.— Cmm of Rabies in Dogs in Great Britain,
I887-I903.
Year.
Counties.
Cases.
Year.
Counties.
Cases.
1887
1888
38
19
160
.Sg
39
41
67 l
438
1889
1800
30
so
3"
139
$E
30
10
151
17
1893
17
13
3
1899
1900
4
a
1
1893
18
4
1 901
1
I
1894
17
1903
4
13
prevalence of the disease, that it was thought the latter had been
extirpated. The entire revocation of the muzzling order, which
accordingly followed, proved, however, to be premature, and
it became necessary to reimpose it in the districts where it had
last been operative, namely, certain parts of South Wales. No
cases were reported in 1003, 1004 or 1005.
Pleuro-pneumonia In Great Britain was dealt with by the
local authorities up to the year 1890. Between 1870 and 1889
the annual outbreaks had ranged between a minimum of 313
in 1884 and a maximum of 326a in 1874, the largest number of
cattle attacked in any one year being 7083 in 1873. The largest
number of counties over which the outbreaks were distributed
was 73 in 1873. On the xst of September 1800 the Board of
Agriculture assumed powers with respect to pleuro-pneumonia
under the Diseases of Animals Act of that year. Their adminis-
tration was attended by success, for from 193 outbreaks in
Great Britain in 1891 the total fell to 35 in 1892 and to 9 in
1893. I & the four subsequent years, 1894-1897, the outbreaks
numbered 3, x, 2, and 7 respectively. In January 1898
an outbreak was discovered in a London cow-shed. This
proved to be the last case in the 19th century of what at one
time had been a veritable scourge to cattle^wners and a source
of heavy financial loss.
Between 1879 and 1892 inclusive, administration with regard
to swine-fever was entrusted to local authorities. The largest
number of outbreaks reported in any one of those years was
7926 in 1 88$, and the smallest 171 7 in 188 1 In 1893 the Board
of Agriculture took over the management, and Table XXIV.
shows the number of counties in which swine-fever existed, tho
number of outbreaks confirmed and the number of swine
slaughtered by order of the board in each year since The trouble
with this disease has been mainly in England, the outbreaks in
4.12
AGRICULTURE
Wdea and Scotland befaj« comparatively few. What are termed
" swine-fever infected areas " are scheduled by the board when
and where circumstances seem to require, and the movement
Tablb XXI \. -Outbreaks of Swine fewer in Great Britain,
1894-1905.
Year.
Counties.
Outbreaks
Swine slaugl htered as
diseased, or asnaving been
exposed to infection.
1894
3
1899
1900
1901
190a
1903
1904
1905
73
73
77
74
72
2
¥
3
5683
l?d
3155
2514
2333
1940
3$
1478
1196
817
4043a
43.756
3°.797
17.933
ts
7.933
of swine within such areas is prohibited, much inconvenience to
trade resulting from restrictions of this kind. Frequently, more-
over, the exhibition of pigs at agricultural shows has to be
abandoned in consequence of these swine-fever regulations.
The compulsory slaughter at the place of landing does not
extend to animals shipped from Ireland into Great Britain, and
this is a matter of the highest importance to Irish stockbreeders,
who find their best market close at hand on the east of St George's
Channel Table XXV. shows the number of cattle, sheep and
pigs shipped from Ireland into Great Britain in each of the
fifteen years 1891-1005, the numbers of horses similarly
shipped being also indicated. On the average rather more than
half the total of cattle is made up of store animals for fattening
or breeding purposes, the fattening of Irish stores being a busi-
ness of considerable magnitude in Norfolk and other counties.
Carves constitute about one-twelfth of the total number of cattle.
Tablb XXV.— Imports of Lite Stock front Inland into Groat
Britain, 1 891-1905.
Year.
Cattle.
Sheep.
Hg*
Horses*
1891
1893
ss
:&
:&
1899
1900
1901
1903
1903
1904
1905
630.803
826,954
746.013
803,363
772.272
«
959.241
897.645
772.363
749.i3»
l|i07,96o
957.101
652,57?
737.306
W
843.325
1.055.803
835.679
739.266
700,636
503.584
500,951
£&
347.220
610,589
688:553
715.203
596.129
637.972
569.920
505,080
363.823
33*396
32481
30490
39.856
oS
3*606
35,607
35.260
27.7«9
37,500
30.723
Most of the pigs sent from Ireland into Great Britain are fat,
the store pigs accounting for less than one-tenth of the total
number. The returns from Ireland under the Diseases of Animals
Arts 1804 and 1806 are less significant than those of Great
Britain. Thus, in the year ending June 1005, they included
4 outbreaks of anthrax, 319 of swine-fever and 343 of sheep-
scab, while there were no cases of rabies. Compared with the
export trade in live stock from Ireland to Great Britain the
reciprocal trade from Great Britain to Ireland is small, and is
largely restricted to animals for breeding purposes. Owing to
the reappearance of foot-and-mouth disease in Great Britain
early in 1000 the importation of cattle, sheep, goats and swine
therefrom into Ireland was temporarily suspended by the
authorities in the latter country.
Exports of Animals from the United Kingdom,
The general export trade of the United Kingdom In living
animals represented an aggregate average annual value over the
[BRITISH
the
five years 1806-1000 of £1,017,000 as against £035,801 <
five years 1001-1905. To these sums the value of 1
contributed about three-fourths, Belgium taking more than half
the number of exported horses. The export trade in cattle,
sheep and pigs is practically restricted to pedigree »t»s— s»
required for breeding purposes, and though its aggregate value
Tablb XXWL— Quantities and Value of Home-bred Urn South
exported from the United Kingdom, 1900-190$.
Year.
Horses.
Cattle.
Sheep.
Pig*
Other
1900
1 901
190a
1903
1904
1905
30,038
27.612
30.033
34.798
32.935
47.708
3,742
1,648
9428
«.736
3.3"
3.938
4.934
2,761
3.596
5*579
8,143
8,378
732
931
S2S
649*1
52.00J5
50373
50JO7
1900
1901
190a
1903
1904
1905
£
SB
734.598
581.339
8>5r647
118.337
61,813
96,153
140,344
146,210
190406
53.306
25.727
B
'JM'J
£
3032
3437
5053
7053
2£
0034
£
5W«
41 4*i
is not large it is of considerable importance to stock-breeders, as
it is a frequent occurrence for buyers for export— to Argentina,
Australasia, Canada, the United States and elsewhere— to bid
freely at the sale rings, and often to pay the highest prices, thus
stimulating the sales and encouraging the breeding of the best
types of native stock. Details for the six years 1900-1905 are
summarised in Table XXVI.
It is the custom of the Royal Agricultural Society of England
to invite competitions at its annual shows in specified classes
of implements, and an enumeration of these will indicate the
character of the appliances which were thus brought into pro-
minence in the latter years of the 19th and the early years of the
20th century. These trials taking place, with few intermissions,
year after year serve to direct the public mind to the develop-
ment, which is continually in progres s , of the mechanical aids
to agriculture. The awards here summarised are quite distinct
from those of silver medals which are given by the society in
the case of articles possessing sufficient merit, which are entered
as " new implements for agricultural or estate purposes."
In 1875, at Taunton, special prises were awarded for one-
horse and two-horse mowing-machines, hay-making machines,
horse-rakes (self-acting and not self-acting), guards to the drums
of threshing-machines, and combined guards and feeders to the
drums of threshing-machines. In 1876, at Birmingham, the
competitions were of self-delivery reapers, one-horse reapers
and combined mowers and reapers without self-delivery. In
1878, at Bristol, the special awards were all for dairy appliances
—milk-can for conveying milk long distances, churn for milk,
churn for cream, butter-worker for large dairies, butter-
worker for small dairies, cheese-tub, curd knife, curd sain,
cheese-turning apparatus, automatic means of preventing
rising of cream, milk-cooler and cooling vat A gold medal
was awarded for a harvester and self-binder (McCbnnick's). In
1879, at Kilburn, the competition was of railway waggons to
convey perishable goods long distances at low temperatures.
In 1880 at Carlisle, and in 1881 at Derby, the special awards
were for broadside steam-diggers and string sheaf-binders re-
spectively. In 1883, at Reading, a gold medal was given for a
cream separator for horse power, whilst a prize of too guineas
offered for the most efficient and most economical method of
drying hay or corn crops artificially, either before or after being
sucked, was not awarded. In 1883, at York, a prise of £50 was
given for a butter dairy suitable for not more than twenty cows.
In 1884, at Shrewsbury, a prise of £100 was awarded for a sheaf-
binding reaper, and one of £50 for a similar machine. In 1885,
at Preston, the competitions were concerned with two-horse,
three-horse and four-horse whipple-trees, and packages for
BRITISH]
AGRICULTURE
+13
conveying fresh batter by rtfl. In 1886, at Norwich, a prize of
£a$ was awarded for a thatch-making machine. In 1887, at
Newcastle-on-Tyne, a prise of £200 went to a compound portable
agricultural engine, one of £100 to a simple portable agricultural
engine, and lesser prises to a weighing-machine for horses and
cattle, a weighing-machine for sheep and pigs, potato-raisers
and one-man-power cream separators. In 1888, at Nottingham,
bay and straw presses for steam-power, horse-power and hand-
power were the subjects of competition. In 1889, at Windsor,
prises were awarded for a fruit and vegetable evaporator, a
paring and coring machine, a dairy thermometer, parcel post
butter-boxes to carry different weights, and a vessel to contain
preserved butter. In 1800, at Plymouth, competitions took
place of light portable engines (a) using solid fuel, (6) using
liquid or gaseous fuel, grist mills for use on alarm, disintegrators,
and cider-making plant for use on a farm. In 1891, at Doncaster,
•pedal prises were given for combined portable threshing and
finishing machines, and cream separators (hand and power).
In 189s, at Warwick, the competitions related to ploughs—
single furrow (a) for light land, (b) for strong land, (c) for
press drill and broad-cast sowing; two-furrow; three-furrow;
digging (a) for light land, (0) for heavy land; and one-way
ploughs. In 1895, at Chester, self-binding harvesters and
sheep-shearing machines (power) were the appliances respec-
tively in competition. In 1894, at Cambridge, the awards
were for fixed and portable oil engines, potattHtpraying and
tree-spraying machines, sheep-dipping apparatus and chums.
In 189s, at Darlington, the competitions were confined to
]iay-making mji*fyf**f> and clover-making machines. In 1896,
at Leicester, prises were awarded after trial to potato-
planting machines, potato-raising machines and butter-drying
machines In 1897, at Manchester, spedal awards were made
for fruit baskets and milk-testers. In 1898, at Birmingham, a
prise of £100 was given for a self-moving vehicle for light loads,
£100 and £50 for self-moving vehicles for heavy loads, and £10
for safety feeder to chaff-cutter, in accordance with the Chaff-
cutting Machines (Accidents) Act 1897. In 1809, at Maidstone,
special prizes were offered for machines for washing hops with
liquid in se ctici des, cream separators (power and hand), machines
for the evaporation of fruit and vegetables,, and packages for
the carriage of (a) soft fruit, (6) hard fruit. In 1900, at York,
the competitions were concerned with horse-power cultivators.
self-moving steam diggers, milking machines and sheep-shearing
machines (power and hand). In ioox, at Cardiff, competition
was invited in portable oil engines, agricultural locomotive oil
engines and small ice-making plant suitable for a dairy. In the
years 1903 and 1004 petrol motors adapted for ploughing and
other agricultural operations formed a prominent feature of the
exhibits.
The progress of steam cultivation has not justified the hopes
that were once entertained in the United Kingdom concerning
this method -of working implements in the field. It was about
the year 1870 that its advantages first came Into prominent
notice; At that time, owing to labour disputes, the supply of
hands was short and horses were dear. The wet seasons that set
in at the end of the 'seventies led to so* much hindrance in the
work on the land that the aid of steam was further called lor, and
It seemed probable that there would be a lessened demand for
horse power. It was found, however, that the steam work was
done with less care than had been bestowed upon the horse
tillage, and the result was that steam came to be regarded as an
auxiliary to horse labour rather than as a substitute for it In
this capacity it b capable of rendering most valuable assistance,
for it can be utilized in moving extensive areas of land in a very
short time. Accordingly, when a few days occur early in the
Mason favourable to the working of the land, much of it can be
got into a forward condition, whilst horses are set free for the
lighter operations. The crops can then be sown in due time,
which in wet years, and with the usual teams of horses kept on
a farm, is not always practicable. Much advantage arises from
the steam working of bastard fallows in summer, and after
harvest a considerable amount of autumn cultivation can be
done by steam power, thus materially lightening the work in the
succeeding spring. On farms of moderate size it is usual to hire
steam tackle as required, the outlay involved in the purchase
of a set being justifiable only in the case of estates or of very
big farms where, when not engaged in ploughing, or in culti-
vating, or in other work upon the land, the steam-engine may
be employed in threshing, chaff-cutting, sawing and many
similar operations which require power. The labour question
again became acute in the early years of the soth century, when,
owing to the scarcity of hands and the high rate of wages, self-
binding harvesters were resorted to in England for the ingather-
ing of the corn crops to a greater extent than ever before. For
the same reason potato-planting and potato-lifting machines
were also in greater requisition.
Agricultural Population and Wages.
The last half of the 19th century witnessed a remarkable
diminution of the British rural population. The decrease has
assumed serious proportions since 1871, as before that date the
supply of rural labour exceeded the demand. A large number of
agricultural labourers were thus only in partial employment, and
their withdrawal from the land was of minor importance as com-
pared with the shrinkage in the number of those permanently
employed. The following tables indicate the extent of rural
depopulation.*—
Number of " Persons engaged in Agriculture " in Ike United
Kingdom, 1851-1901.
1851.
1861.
187 1.
1881.
1 89 1.
1 901.
3453.500
3,080,500
2,744.000
a.573.900
2.394.500
2,262,600
The number of " agricultural labourers and shepherds." which
affords a more precise Index, declined in a still more marked degree.
1 85 1.
1861.
1871.
1881.
1891.
1 901
1,110,311
1,098,261
933.33*
830.45a
756.557
609,105
The decrease in the demand for labour is attributable chiefly to
the reduction of the cultivated area and the laying down to pasture
of land once under the plough, and to the increasing use of agri-
cultural machinery. It may, however, be noticed that the penod
1850-1903 was marked by a steady increase of the cash wages of
the farm labourer, as indicated in the following table from the Report
on the Earnings of Agricultural Labourers issued by the Board of
Trade in 1905.
Average Weekly Cosh Wages of ordinary Agricultural Labourers
employed on certain Farms in England and Wales.
Year.
England and Wales,
69 farms.
Eastern counties,
12 farms.
s. d.
s. d.
1850
9 3}
10 ii|
10 11
8 8
1855
i860
II S
10 8
1865
" 3,
10 5,
1870
11 ioi
11 1}
12 ii|
12 1
:ss
13 7.
13 **
1885
13 1
11 5.
1890
13 of
11 oi
1895
13 af
11
1900
14 5t
13 it
1903
14 7
13 3)
(See also. Allotments and Small Holdings.)
Agricultural Education.
In Great Britain agricultural education as a whole lacks the
scope and co-ordination which it has in some continental
countries. Centres at which higher agricultural education is
given are, however, numerous. The chief are. —
The Royal Agricultural College, Cirencester
Aspatria Agricultural College, Carlisle.
Tamworth Agricultural College. '
•Agricultural and Horticultural College. Uckfield, Sussex.
•Agricultural and Horticultural College, Holme Chapel,
Cheshire.
4H
AGRICULTURE
•Midland Agricultural and Dairy College, Kingston, Derby.
•Harper-Adams Agricultural College, Newport, Salop.
♦Lancashire County School, Harris Institute, Preston.
♦University College of North Wales, Bangor.
♦University of Leeds.
♦Armstrong College, Newcastle-on-Tyne.
♦Cambridge University.
♦University College, Reading.
♦South-Eastern Agricultural College, Wye.
♦University College of Wales, Aberystwyth.
♦Agricultural Institute, Ridgmont (Bedfordshire County
Council).
♦Essex County Technical Laboratories, Chelmsford:
In the year 1004-1005 £10,600 was devoted by the Board of
Agriculture to agricultural instruction and experiments. Of this
sum the greater part was divided amongst the institutions
marked with an asterisk in the above list. The first three named
are private establishments. The county councils also expend
sums varying at their own discretion on instruction in dairy-work,
poultry-keeping, farriery and veterinary science, horticulture,
agricultural experiments, agricultural lectures at. various centres,
scholarships at, and grants to, agricultural colleges and schools;
the whole amount in 1004-1005 reaching 187,47a. 1 The sum
spent by individual counties varies considerably. In 1904-1005
Lancashire (£8510), Kent (£5922) and Cheshire (£43x0) spent
most in this direction. In some instances colleges are supported
entirely by one county, as is the Holmes Chapel College, Cheshire;
in others a college is supported by several affiliated counties, as in
the case of the agricultural department of the University College,
Reading, which acts in connexion with the counties of Berks,
Oxon, Hants and Buckingham. The organization and supply of
county agricultural instruction is oken carried out through the
medium of the institution to which the county is affiliated. In
Scotland higher agricultural instruction is given at: —
Edinburgh and East of Scotland Agricultural College.
Edinburgh University, Agriculture Department
West of Scotland Agricultural College, Glasgow.
Aberdeen and North of Scotland Agricultural College.
University of St Andrews.
A typical course at one of the higher colleges lasts for two years
and includes instruction under the heads of soils and manure,
crops and pasture, live stock, foods and feeding, dairy work,
farm and estate management and farm bookkeeping, surveying,
agricultural buildings and machinery, agricultural chemistry,
agricultural botany, veterinary sdence and agricultural ento-
mology. Experimental farms are attached to the colleges.
The facilities for intermediate are far inferior to those for higher
agnail tural education. Schools for farmers' sons and daughters,
and others, answering to the Icolts pratiques d* agriculture (see
France), are few, the principal being the Dauntscy Agricultural
School, Wiltshire, the Hampshire- Farm School, Basing, and the
Farm School at Newton Rigg, Penrith, Cumberland, maintained
by the county councils of Cumberland and Westmorland. Occa-
sionally grammar schools have agricultural sides, and in evening
continuation schools agricultural classes are sometimes held.
Both elementary day schools and continuation schools are in
many cases provided with gardens in which horticultural teaching
is given.
In Ireland agricultural education is under the supervision of
the Department of Agriculture and Technical Instruction for
Ireland, founded in 1 800. Higher education is given at the Royal
College of Science, Dublin; the Albert Agricultural College,
Glasnevin; and the Munster Institute, Cork, for female students,
where dairying and poultry-keeping are prominent subjects.
Winter classes for boys over sixteen years of age are held at
centres in some counties, and there are winter schools of agri-
culture at Downpatrick, Monaghan and Mount Bcllew (Co.
Gal way); while lectures are given at farmers' meetings by
1 This sum was furnished out of a total of £693,851. forming the
residue grant allocated for the purposes of education to the various
county councils of England and Wales under the Local Taxation
(custom* and Excise) Act 1890.
fAMEKJCAttl
agricakan! 1
itinerant instructors. The Department carries on _
experiment-stations at Athenry (Co. Gal way), Ballyhaise (Co
Cavan) and Clonakilty (Co. Cork), where farm apprentices are
received and instructed.
ACUCULTUBE IN THK UmRSO StATES
Agriculture has been the chief and most characteristic work
of the American people, that in which they have achieved ta*
greatest results in proportion to the resources at comaor:
that in which their economic superiority has been most strike?;,
manifest In ten years from 1700, the mean population of t>
period being 4,500,000, 65,000 sq. m. were for the first tin*
brought within the limits of settlement, crossed with roads art
bridges, covered with dwellings, both public and private, ranch
of it also cleared of primeval forest; and this in addition tc
keeping up and improving the whole extent of previous settle-
ments, and building towns and cities, at a score of favoured
points. In the next decade, the mean number of faK^t^*
being about 6,500,000, population extended itself over 08,000
sq. m. of absolutely new territory, an area eight times as large as
Holland. Between 1810 and 1820, besides increasing the decstt?
of population on almost every league of the older territory,
besides increasing their manufacturing capital twofold* in spite
of a three years' war, the people of the United States advanced
their frontier to occupy 101,000 sq. m., the mean populate
being 8,250,000. Between x8ao and 1830, 124,000 so. tn. were
brought within the frontier and made the seat of habitation
and cultivation; between Z830 and 1840, 175,000 sq. bl;
between 1840 and 1850, a 15,000 sq. m. The Civil War, indeed,
checked the westward flow of population, though it caused no
refluence, but after 2870 great progress was made in the creation
of new farms and the development of old.
That which has allowed this great work to be done bo rapidry
and fortunately has been, first, the popular tenure of the soil,
and, secondly, the character of the agricultural class. At no
time have the cultivators of the soil north of the Potomac and
Ohio constituted a peasantry in the ordinary sense of that term.
They have been the same kind of men, out of precisely the same
homes, generally with the same early training, as those who
filled the learned professions or who were engaged in manu-
facturing or commercial pursuits. Switzerland and Sr^Und
have, in a degree, approached the United States in this particular;
but there is no other considerable country where as much mental
activity and alertness has been applied to the cultivation of the
soil as to trade and manufactures.
But even the causes which have been adduced would have
failed to produce such effects but for the exceptional inventive
ingenuity of the American. The mechanical genius which has
entered into manufacturing in the United States, the engineering
skill which has guided the construction of the greatest works
of the continent, have been far exceeded in the hurried M im-
provements " of the pioneer farm; in the housing of women,
children and live stock and gathered crops against the stores
of the first few winters; in the rough-and-ready rmfflnsissfinm
which determined the " lay of the land V and the c*p*triKKff
of the soil; in the preparation for the thousand exigencies of
primitive agriculture. It is no exaggeration to say that the
chief manufacture of the United States, prior to xooo, was the
manufacture of 5,740,000 farms, comprising 841,200,000 acres.
The people of the United States, finding themselves on a
continent containing an almost limitless extent of land of fair
average fertility, having at the start but tittle accumulated
capital and urgent occasions for the economy of labour, have
elected to regard the land in the earliest stages of occupation
as practically of no value, and to regard labour as of high value
In pursuance of this view they have freely sacrificed the lano,
so far as was necessary, in order to save labour, systematical!)
cropping the fields on the principle of obtaining the largest
results with the least expenditure, limiting improvements t*
what was demanded for immediate uses, and caring little aboal
returning to the soil an equivalent for the properties taken from
it in the harvests of successive years. But, so far as the northers
AMERICAN]
AGRICULTURE
4-15
states are concerned, the enormous profits of this alleged wasteful
cultivation have in the main been applied, not to personal con-
sumption, but to permanent improvements,— not indeed to
improvements of the land, but to what were still more needed
in the situation, namely, improvements upon the land. The
first-fruits of a virgin soil have been expended in forms which
have vastly enhanced the productive power of the country.
The land, doubtless, as one factor of that productive power,
became temporarily less efficient than it would have been under
a conservative European treatment; but the joint product of
the three factors— land, labour and capital— was for the time
enormously increased. Under this regimen the fertility of the
land, of course, in time necessarily declined, sooner or later,
according to the nature of the crops grown and to the degree
of original strength in the soil. Resort was then had to new
fields farther west. The granary of the continent moved first
to western New York, thence into the Ohio valley, and then,
again, to the banks of the Mississippi. The north and south line
dividing the wheat product of the United States into two equal
parts was in 1850 drawn along the 82nd meridian (81* 58' 40').
In i860 that line was drawn along the 86th (86° 1' 38'), in 1870
along the 89th (88° 48' 40'), in 1880 along the ooth (90* 30' 46'),
in 1800 along the 93rd (93° 9' 18'), and in 1900 along the 95th
(94° 59' 33')- Meanwhile one portion of the inhabitants of the
earlier settlements joined in the movement across the face of
the continent As the grain centre passed on to the west they
followed it, too restless by character and habit to find pleasure
in the work of stable communities. A second portion of the
inhabitants became engaged in raising, upon limited areas,
small crops, garden vegetables and orchard fruits, and in pro-
ducing butter, milk, poultry and eggs, for the supply of the
cities and manufacturing towns which had been built up out of
the abundant profits of the primitive agriculture. Still another
portion of the agricultural population gradually became occupied
in the more careful and intense culture of the cereal crops upon
the better lands, the less eligible fields being allowed to spring
up in brush and wood. Deep ploughing and thorough drainage
were resorted to; fertilizers were employed to bring up and to
keep up the soil; and thus began the serious systematic agricul-
ture of the older states. Something continued to be done in
wheat, but not much. New York raised .13 million bushels
in 1850; thirty years later she raised 11J million bushels; and
fifty years later 10} million bushels. Pennsylvania raised 15$
million bushels in 1850; in 1880 she raised 19} million bushels;
and in 1900 20$ million bushels. More is done in Indian corn
(maize), that most prolific cereal, the backbone of American
agriculture; stiU more is done relatively in buckwheat, barley
and rye. Pennsylvania, though the eleventh state in wheat
production in 1005, stood first in rye and second in buckwheat
(ninth in oats). New York was only twenty-first in wheat,
but first in buckwheat (tenth in barley), fourth in rye. We do
not, however, reach the full significance of the situation until
we account for the fourth portion of the former agricultural
population, in noting how naturally and fortunately commercial
and manufacturing cities spring up in the sites which have been
prepared for them by the lavish expenditure of the enormous
profits of a primitive agriculture upon permanently useful im-
provements of a constructive character. These .towns are the
gifts of agriculture.
Besides the extension of cultivated area, very little was
accomplished in the way of agricultural improvement before
185a With some few exceptions the methods of cultivation
were substantially the same as those of colonial days, and were
marked by crudeness, waste and a general adherence to rule-of-
thumb principles. The year 1850 roughly marks the beginning
of a period of improvement and development. The Irish famine
of 1846 and the German political troubles of 1848 were followed
by an unprecedented emigration to America of highly desirable
European labourers, for whom there were cheap and abundant
lands. The period from 1850 to 1870 was marked by a steady
growth, which, in the western states, was highly stimulated by
the Civil War. While this conflict withdrew a certain amount
of productive energy from agricultural pursuits, it tended at the
same time to increase the value of farm labour and of farm
products and to extend the use of machinery in order to offset
the deficient labour supply. Agricultural machinery had been
employed before the war, but only to a very small extent In
1S64, 70,000 reapers and mowers were manufactured, twice as
many as in 1862, and manufacturers were unable to supply the
demand. Moreover, in the years i860, x86i and 1862 the wheat
crops of Great Britain and the European continent were failures,
while those of the United States, far removed from the theatre
of military operations, were unusually large. The wheat exports
to Great Britain in x86i were three times as great as those of
any previous year, and the strong demand from abroad was an
additional stimulus to higher prices. In 1864 agricultural prices
were from 100 to 200% higher than in 1 861, while transportation
charges had only slightly advanced and in some instances had
act ually decreased. In the middle of the war the farmers' profits
were normal; toward the end they had increased enormously.
This marvellous agricultural prosperity of a nation engaged in
one of the world's most formidable wars has no counterpart in
modern history. In the decade from i860 to 1870 there was a
steady increase in cultivated area, in agricultural products and
in population. The value of the farm lands in the northern
states in 1870 exceeded that of i860 by five dollars an acre. On
the other hand, the farm lands of the southern states had declined
in value to an almost equal amount; but after 1870 these states
also made substantial progress, and in 1880 they produced more
cotton than in i860, when the greatest crop under the slave
system was grown.
Since 1870 the most Important factors in this development
have been the employment of more scientific methods of pro-
duction and the more extensive use of machinery. The study
of soils with a view of adapting to them the most suitable crops
and fertilizers; the increased attention given to diversified
farming and crop rotation; the introduction and successful
growth of new plants (e.g. the date palm in Arizona and Cali-
fornia, and tea in South Carolina); tile drainage; the ensilage
of forage; more careful selection in breeding; the use of
inoculation to prevent Texas fever in cattle and cholera in
swine, of tuberculin to discover the presence of tuberculosis in
cows, of organic ferments to hasten the progress of butter-making,
of the " Babcock test " for ascertaining the amount of fat in
milk, of fungicides and insecticides to destroy fruit and vegetable
pests, — such are but a few manifestations of the spread of scien-
tific knowledge among the farming population of the United
States. Nearly every county has some sort of agricultural
society; in 1809 there were about 1500 of these organizations,
some of which, especially those holding annual fairs, received
state aid.
With the improvement in technical processes of production
came the conquest of the arid regions of the western states.
Irrigation was first employed in the west by the Mormons in
1847; but as late as 1870 only about 20,000 acres had been
irrigated. In 1880 the irrigated area was approximately
x, 000,000 acres, and in the decade from 1889 to 1899 it increased
from 3,631,381 to 7,539.545 *«-es» a gain of 107-6 %. By
1902 there had been a still further increase to 9*478,852 acres,
a gain of 25- 7 % in three years. As many of the streams available
for irrigation purposes lie within more than one state, the control
of water supply is a proper matter for federal jurisdiction, and
in June 1902 Congress provided for an extensive system of
irrigation works in thirteen states and three territories. The
cost of the work is defrayed from the proceeds of the sales of
government lands within the states and territories, affected
by the act. The measure is not paternalistic; the settlers on
the lands, which are divided into farms of not less than 40 nor
more than 160 acres, are required to make annual payments
to the government in proportion to the water service they have
received, until the original cost of the works has been met The
first of these works, the so-called Truckee-Carson project, of
Nevada, was completed in June 1905, and at the end of that
year eight projects, in as many different states, were under
416
AGRICULTURE
construction; bids had been received for three more, and the
seven others had received the approval of the secretary of the
interior. With these initial undertakings it was estimated that
i ,000,850 acres could be reclaimed. In addition to supplying the
soils with water, means have been found of ridding them of their
alkali or of rendering it harmless; and this is an element of
reclamation hardly less important than irrigation itself. A third
step in the reclamation of desert lands is arid farming— that is,
the adapting to the soils of crops that require a minimum amount
of moisture, and the utilization, to the fullest possible extent,
of the meagre amount of rainfall in the region. Experiments
conducted in this direction in Utah produced promising results.
The development of farming machinery has kept pace with
the general progress in scientific agriculture. Although numer-
ous patents were issued for such machinery before 1850, its use,
with the exception of the cotton gin, was very restricted before
that date. Even iron ploughs were not in general use until
184a, and a really scientific plough was practically unknown
before 2870. Thirty years later .the large farms of the Pacific
states were ploughed, harrowed and sowed with wheat in a
single operation by fifty-horse-power traction engines drawing
ploughs, harrows and press drills. Since 1850 there has been
a transition from the sickle and the scythe to a machine that in
one operation mows, threshes, cleans and sacks the wheat,
and in five minutes after touching the standing grain has it
ready for the market. Hay-stackers, potato plantersand diggers,
feed choppers and grinders, manure-spreaders, check-row corn
planters and ditch-digging machines are some of the common
labour-saving devices. By the 28th of August 1007 the United
States Patent Office had issued patents for 13,2x2 harvesting
machines, 6352 threshers, 6680 harrows and diggers. 0640
seeders and planters, and 13,171 ploughs. In the manufacture
of agricultural machinery the United States leads the world.
The total value of the implements and machinery used by
farmers of the United States in 1880 was $406,520,055; in 1800
$404,247,467; in xooo $761,261,550, a gain in this last decade
of 54 %. The total value of the implements and machinery
manufactured in 1850 was $6,842,611; in 1880 $68,640486;
in 1890 $81,272,651; in xooo $101,207428. These figures,
however, are a very poor indication of the actual use of
machinery, on account of the rapid decrease in prices following
its manufacture on a more extensive scale and by improved
methods.
The effects of the new agriculture are apparent from the
following figures: By the methods of 1830 it required 64 hours
and 15 minutes of man-labour and cost $3*71 to produce an acre
of wheat; by the methods employed in 1806 it required a hours
and 58 minutes of man-labour and cost 72 cents. To produce
an acre of barley in 1830 required 63 hours of man-labour and
cost $3*59; in x8o6 it required a hours and 43 minutes and cost
60 cents. An acre of oats produced by the methods of 1830
required 66 hours and 15 minutes of man-labour and cost $3*73;
the methods of 2893 required only 7 hours and 6 minutes and
cost $1*07. With the same unit of labour the average quantity
of all leading crops produced by modern methods is about five
times as great as that produced by the methods employed
in 1850, and the cost of production is reduced by one half.
From 1880 to 1900 the average number of acres of leading crops
per male worker increased from 23*3 to 310, or 34%; the
number of horses per worker from 17 to 2*3, or 35 %; and the
value of agricultural product per person employed from $286-82
to $45437, or 584%.
There are numerous other factors that have operated to the
benefit of the agriculturist. Increased transportation facilities
and lower freight charges have widened his market. The pro-
cesses of canning, packing, preserving and refrigerating have
produced a similar effect, and have also provided a means for
the disposal of surplus perishable products that otherwise would
be lost. The utilization of by-products, as, for example, the
conversion of cotton seed into oil, fertilizers and food for live
stock, has become another source of profit.
Great economic and social changes have resulted from this
{AMERICAN
progress. There has been a great division of labour in agri-
culture. Makers of agricultural implements, of butter and
cheese, cotton ginners, grist and wheat millers, are now ctaaacd
in the United States census reports as manufacturers, bat aD.
their work was once done on the farm. The tanner is now mote
of a specialist and more dependent on other industries than
formerly. He has changed from a producer for home coo-
sumption or a local market to a producer for a world market-
Unfortunately, his knowledge of economic laws has
behind his progress in scientific agriculture. The fanning «
at times have experienced periods of great depression, largely
on account of their inability to adjust their crops to chan g in g
conditions- in the world's markets, and in such cases have been
prone to seek a remedy in radical legislation. Periods of agri-
cultural discontent at different times have been marked by the
political activity of the " Grangers " and of the " Farmers'
Alliance," and even by the formation of new political parties
such as the Greenback party in 1874 and the Populist or People's
party in 1892— whose strength lay mainly in the agricultural
states. The hew industrial conditions that produced com-
binations among manufacturers were much slower in their effect
upon the farming element, but gradually led to increasing
co-operation and to the organization of the growers of various
commodities for marketing their crops. The fruit gr ow ers of
California and the tobacco growers of Kentucky have furnished
interesting examples of such organizations. Under the improved
conditions there is less drudgery on the farm; the farmer dees
more work, produces more, and yet has more leisure than
formerly. Better roads, rural free mail delivery, telephone and
electric lines are removing the isolation of country life, and to
some extent are diminishing the attractions of the cities for the
rural population.
Covering as it does the breadth of the North American con-
tinent, with 3,000,000 sq. m. of land surface, not inducting
Alaska and the islands, of which over 800,000,000 acres are in
farms and over 400,000,000 in actual cultivation, representing
every variety of soil and all the climatic life zones of the world,
except the extreme boreal and the hottest tropical, the United
States affords an important subject of study in respect of agri-
culture. Its cotton, wheat and meat are large factors in all
markets,and its many other agricultural products are distributed
throughout the civilized world. To the student the equipment
and methods of agriculture in the United States form as interest-
ing a subject of examination as do its resources and production.
In quantity, distribution and inter-relation of heat and moisture
—the chief factors in agricultural production — the United States
is greatly blessed. We find in this vast territory all the agricul-
tural belts mapped by the biologist, producing all varieties of
cereals, fruits and breeds of live stock, whilst all kinds of sons,
adapted to different crops, are spread out at all altitudes from
8000 ft. down to sea-level
The story of the vast and varied agriculture of the United
States can be outlined by extracts from the figures published by
the Census, the Agricultural and other government departments.
As a result of the great supply of available land the number of
farms in the United States increased between 1850
1900 from 1449.073 to 5.739,657; their total acreage
increased from 293,560,614 to 841,201,546 acres; their
improved acreage increased from 113,032,614 to 414.793.19x 1
and their unimproved 1 acreage from 180,528,000 to 426^408*355
acres. Table XXVII. exhibits the increases of number of farms,
total and improved acreage by decades.
The largest percentage of increase of improved lana was 50-7.
from 1870 to 1880; the lowest was in the decade i860 to 1870. the
period of the Civil War, and was 15-8. The chief cause of this
wonderful development of agriculture is the large area of cheap
public lands which has been available for immigrants and natives
alike. Up to 1906, under the Homestead Act of the 20th of May
1862. the number of entries, both final and pending, covered
185.385,000 acres. Between 1875 .and 1905 the public and Indtao
lands sold for cash and under homestead and timber culture laws, as
well as those allotted by scrip, granted to the colleges of agriculture
1 " Unimproved *' land includes land which has never bees
ploughed, mown or cropped, and also land once cultivated but sow
overgrown with trees or shrubs.
AMERICAN]
AGRICULTURE
417
and mechanic arts and other I n s ti tu ti on *, and fay military bounty
land warrant*, and selected by states and railroad corporations,
covered about 430,000,000 acres. In addition to this, the states
and railroad corporations sold a Urge amount of land to farmers
of which we have no accurate record. This vast territory, greater
TABLI XXVIL— Percentage of Inereau of Number and Acreage of
Forms by Census Decades.
The United States.
Number of
Farms.
Acreage.
Total.
Improved.
1850 to i860 . *
i86o„ 1870 •
1870,, 1880 •
1886,, 1890 •
1890,, 1900 .
411
30-1
50.7
13-9
257
38-7
o*i
315
16-2
35-0
158
507
25-6
16-0
1850 to 1900 .
396-0
186-5
267-I
Statisticians usually out it at 40 %, and this b probably more nearly
correct (Table XXX).
The wages paid farm labourers, as ascertained by the Department
of Agriculture, are rather low compared with the average wages of
labour, but not lower than the wages of other unskilled labour. The
average monthly wage of the agricultural labourer, without board,
was $19*50 in 1870, $16-42 in 1880, £18-33 in 1890, $17*7© in 1895,
Knuasta; tnougn rower tnan wages paid in
ave greater purchasing power. J. R. Dodge.
6 United States " (vol. xL Report of Industrial
lure, &c.t 1901), says: " In addition to wages
in extent than Germany and France combined, was added to
the farms of the country In thirty years. In many cases railroad
building has made the settlement of the public lands possible for
the first time, and the building of branch lines, by providing means
for transporting products to market, has greatly facilitated the
acquisition of other lands. The mileage of railways
increased 310-7 J between 1870 and 1905. The in- ^^^
teresting fact is that this increase corresponds I I
geographically to the increase in farms. v Number ol
The agricultural statistics do not include any farm Iear - Farms,
of leas than three acres unless it produced at least ^__ ^^__^^
$500 worth of products in the preceding year. The AO
census. of 1900 showed that the average sue of farms "J 80 4.008,907
was 146 acres, or nine acres more than in 1890 and l8 9° 4.564.041
57 acres less than in 185a This fact, however, does '9QO 5.737.373
not indicate a general tendency toward the con-
solidation of holdings. The increase in the average sue of farms
in the whole country is due to the extension of grating lands in
the Rocky Mountain region and in Texas, and to the enlarge-
ment of the wheat fields in the Mississippi valley. On the other
hand, in the southern states there has been a steady breaking up of
holdings and decrease In the average slat of forma iiucc the Close
of the Civil War. In the New England state*, where dairying has
become the leading agricultural industry, there was an increase of
3*3 acres in the siie of farm* during the decide 1890-1909, This
increase was more than offset by the decrease in the Atlantic sUtes
from New York to Maryland inclusive (i-S aoei). where there has
been a subdivision of farm* following the increased attention given
to the growing of fruits a rid vegeta bks lot tit in. The umr t c n dency
b noted in the states of Ohio* Indiana and Illinois. As will be seen
from Table XXVIII., the average farm, which tteidily diminished
in sixe from 1850 to i&6o, increased between i&So and 1900.
Tabu XXVlll.— Average Acreage of Farms and Proportion of
Improved Land therein.
and $20*33 in 1899. when the maximum for any state was $45-10
in Nevada, the minimum $10-06 in South Carolina. The wages of
the American farm labourer were at this last date named (1899)
higher than for any other farm labourer save in Canada and the
British colonies of Australasia; though lower than wages paid in
American cities, they have greater r, - - .
In " Farm Labour in the Uni *'
Commission on Agriculture, <_ ... ., ._„, _. ____
the married labourer has a house free of rent, a garden, firewood,
pasturage and other perquisites. The enterprising labourer usually
becomes a tenant and afterwards a farm-owner."
The figures for farm capital and the value of agricultural products
are so vast that it is extremely difficult to put them in an intelligible
form. The farm capital of the United States reported by i^a-a/
the census of 1900 reached £20,514,003.000, a sum more tonm»am4
than four times the capital invested in manufactures, mftmrntu
the main classes being, in round numbers. — Land,
fences and buildings, $16,674,690,000; machines and implements.
Table XXIX.— Number of Farms of Specified Tenure.
Number of farms operated by
Owners. 1
2.984,306
3,269,728
3.712408
Cash
Tenants.
3M.357
454.659
751.665
Share
Tenants.*
702.244
840,254
W3.299
Percentage of farms operated by
Owners.
745
Cash
Tenants.
80
1 0-0
131
Share
Tenants.
T 5
184
Whole Farm.
Proportion of
Improved Land.
1850
i860
1870
1880
1890
1900
202*6
199-a
1533
133-7
136-5
146-6
385
40*1
46-3
53*1
57-4
49-3
The acreage of North Atlantic farms decreased from 1 12*6 in 1850
_ _. . •_ .x-« __j 1 _„j .._ ..„ . ._ _^,j mcn ^ j n t ^
1 1850, and there
8*4, or one-third
t average for the entire country. In the north central
states the averages of 1850 and 1900 were nearly the same (143*3
and 144*5 respectively), with the minimum (121-9 acres) in 1880.
The south central states averaged 291 acres in 1850, 321*3 in i860,
144 in 1890, and 155*4 in 1900. The maximum decade for the
western states was that ending in 1850 (694-9 acres), and the mini-
mum 1880 (312*9); and the average in i960 was 386*1 acres.
Table XXIX. gives the number of farms, together with their
distribution, under different forms of tenure in the years 1880, 1890
and 190a
The steady drift towards farm tenancy of late is believed to be
injurious to production: but it is impossible to prove this, so great
has been the aggregate increase in products.
The number of persons engaged: in agriculture as a business in
Am§m 1900 was 10,381,765, or 36 % of all persons in gainful
cEurmt occupations. It is interesting to note that 977,336 of these
mtBm9m were women. This is an increase of 2,667,890 persons over
atMo, ,Mo * Thus, if the farm family is the same sue as that of
the remainder of the population-— it is probably slightly
larger— the agricultural population would be 36 % of the whole.
$761,262,000; live stock $3,078,050,000. The products of the
farms in the census year 1899 were valued at $4,739,119,000.
Between 1850 and 1900 the aggregate farm capital increased 416 %.
The neatest increase of farm capital was between 1850 and i860,
101%; the next was the decade 1 880-1 890, when the increase was
32%. Between 1890 and 1900 the increase, was 28%.
Table XXX.— Number of Persons of Ten Years of Age and our in
Ike different Agricultural Pursuits in 1900.
Occupation.
Dairymen and women ....
Farmers and farm superintendents • •
Farm labourers
Gardeners, nurserymen and viticulturists
Lumbermen and raftsmen • • •
Stock-raisers, herders, Ac. • • •
Turpentine-farmers and labourers , .
Wood-choppers . . . . . .
Other pursuits • • • • • •
Total
Total Persons.
10,875
5.674.875
72,020
84.988
•M.737
30.075
5.530
10481,76s
The growth of farm area and of capital invested in agriculture was
followed by a proportionate increase in the chief crops (Table XXX I.).
The distinguishing feature of the period 1870-1880 was the rate
of increase of barley, Indian corn, wheat and oats. Since 1870 the
production of nearly all of the farm crops increased more rapidly
"* rotation, the most absolute proof of the substantial
the people. The increase in population for the fifty
than the population, the most absolute proof of the substantial
. ' ; 01 the people. The increase in population for the fifty
years from 1840 to 1890 was 267 %; from 1870 to 1880, 30 %; from
lMof .-- ~ . _ ~ . .1 .
other
Table XXXI.-
- , « . *-. . ' »»»«»*•*» J" /c» ■»■•*•■■
to 1890, 25 %; from 1890 to 1900. 21 %; but the food and
• supplies far exceeded the demands 01 even this great population.
-Production of certain Farm Crops from 1870 to 1905
—Millions of Bushels.
Indian Cord.
Wheat.
Oats.
Barley.
1870
1880
1890
1900
1905
1094
1717
1489
2105
2707
31
399
c
3
953
26
1
136
Table XXX II. gives important facts with regard to the cereal
production of the United States between 1870 and 1905.
The average farm price of wheat declined, as is shown in that
table, from $1*05 per bushel for the decade 1870-1880 to 65*3
cents for the period 1 890-1 899. The farm prices of the other
1 Includes farms operated by owners, part-owners, owners and
tenants, and managers.
* Tenants of farms rented for a share of the products.
418
AGRICULTURE
cereals declined lett during the thirty years. Cora declined from
an average farm price of 42-6 cents per bushel for 1870-1880 to
34*4 cents in 1890-1899. The average production per acre show*
nothing conclusive with regard to the fertility of the toil of the
country. The expansion or the crop area usually causes a lowering
of the average yield per acre by distributing the culture, fertilisers,
ftc, over more surface. Likewise the contraction of crop area will
usually increase the average yield per acre of the entire country.
[AMERICA*
illustration of the cereal production of the United States. The
figures for wheat, oats and Indian corn are presented in Tables
XXXIII.. XXXIV. and XXXV.
The acreage and production of wheat have steadily increased.
The acreage in Indian corn, the great American crop, reached its
highest in 1903, 94.043,613 acres, and its production its I " *
figure in 1905, 3,707.903,940 bushels.
Producing as the United States does so much more than its people
Table XXXII.— Average Yield and Value of Cereal Crops in the United States, by Periods
of Years, 1870-1905.
Period.
Indian Corn.
Wheat.
Oats.
Average
Average
Average
Average
Average
Average
Farm Price
Yield per
Farm Price
Yield per
Farm Price
Yield per
per Bushel.
Acre.
per BusheL
Acre;
per Bushel.
Acre.
Dollars.
Bushels.
Dollars.
Bushels.
Dollars.
Bushels.
1870 to 1880 . .
1880 „ 1889* •
0-436
371
1*05
134
0-353
38-4
36-3
•393
241
•837
13*1
•309
1890 ,,1899. .
•344
241
».
131
,J 77
•318
36-2
1900 „ 1905 . .
•«*° »
. 24-9
136
30-7
Barley
Rye
Buckwheat
1870 „ 1880. .
1880 „ 1889 . .
0*738 1 33-1
•589 21-7
•K
I4-I
H-9
X s
l7 'l
13-8
1890 ,, 1899 . *
•433 *3'3
•533
14*0
9
168
1900 „ 1905 . .
•433 25*9
.570
W7
17*9
The average yield of wheat per acre was 13-4 bushels in the decade
1870-1880, and 13*1 in the period 1890-1899; of Indian corn,
37-1 in 1 870-1 880, and 34*1 in 1880-1899 continuously. Oats
fell off from 38*4 in 1870-1880 to 36*3 bushels per acre in 1890-
1899. The averages for the years 1900-190$ show an increase
over the previous decade both in vields and (with the exception of
theprice of barley) in prices of all the cereals.
The agricultural returns for 1890-1905 may be taken as an
can consume, its exports form a large per-
centage of some of the crops, as Table
XXXVI. shows.
Large portions of some of these crops, fike
Indian corn and oats, are exported in the
form of animals and animal products (meats,
lard, hides, &c). The hay crop is almost
entirely used in this way, and the tendency
is to convert more and more of these crops
into these higher-priced products. Still, the
time is far distant when domestic consump-
tion will come anywhere near overtaking
domestic production, especially of wheat
and the other cereals. The certain extension
of acreage with the growth of demand and
price, the increased use of agricultural im-
plements, and the improvement of methods
will be sure to keep up a large surplus for
export for many years to come. The Depart-
ment of Agriculture has found that for
home use there were required per head 55 bushels of wheat. 28-6
bushels of Indian corn, and 10*7 bushels of oats, the computations
being made from the figures for population, production and exports
for 1888-1893; in 1905, 6*15 bushels of wheat and wheat-flour,
2859 bushels of Indian corn and corn-meal. The following number
of acres in these crops was required, therefore, to supply the home
demand for 1888-1893 :— 0-43 of an acre in wheat, 1-15 acre in com,
and 0*43 acre in oats per head of the population. Taking the year
Tablb XXXIIL— Acreage, Production, Value, Prices and Exports of Wheat in the
United States in 1890-1905.
Year.
Acreage,
Average
Yield pet
Acre.
Production.
Average
Farm Price
per Bushel,
Farm Value,
1st Dec.
Domestic Exports,
including Flour,
Fiscal Years
1st Dec.
beginning 1st July.
Acres.
Bushels.
Bushels.
Cents.
Dollar*.
Bushels.
1890
36,087,154
il-i
399,363.000
611,780,000
838
334.773.678
106,181,316
235,665,813
1891
39.916,897
38,554,430
34.6394*8
153
839
513,473,711
1893
1893
«3-4
114
515,949.000
396.131.735
460,367416
634
53-8
333,111,881
3I3.I7M8I
191.913,635
164,383,139
144,813,718
136443.968
I45.i3a,97a
1894
34.883,436
132
491
335,903,035
a37.938,998
310,603,539
23
34.047.333
34.618,646
13*7
134
467,103,947
437,684.346
§30,149,168
675.148,705
547.303.846
50-9
80-8
z
39465,066
«3-4
438,547,131
217,306,005
44.055.a78
X3-3
58-2
393,770,330
223,694,930
1899
44.59a.5i6
13-3
61*9
3i9.545.a59
186,096.763
1900
43495.385
49.895.514
46,303434
13-3
533,339,505
3a3.5i5.i77
315.990,073
a34.77a,5i6
1901
Z5*o
748460.318
634
467.350,156
1903
«4'5
670,063,008
63-0
433,334,117
303,905.598
130,737,613
1903
49464.W
44.074.875
13-9
637.831,835
695
443,034,836
1904
135
553.399.517
69a.979.489
93|
74-8
510489.874
44.iia.9io
1905
47.854.079
M-5
518473,737
Tablb XXXIV.— Acreage, Production, Value, Prices, Exports and Imports of Oats in the United States
tn 1890-1905.
Year.
1890
1891
1893
1893
1894
!$
Z
1899
1900
1901
1902
1903
1904
1905
Acreage.
Average
Yield pet
Acre.
Acres.
,1«
37.063,835
a7.a73.033
a7.oai,553
37,878406
37.565.985
a5.73<>.375
35,777,110
36.341,380
a7.364.795
38,541476
37.63I
.84^.-,
.046,746
37,843,669
Bushels.
108
38-9
344
33.4
a45
39-6
357
37.3
284
302
29*6
258
S3
321
340
Production.
Bushels.
523,631,000
758,394,000
661,035,000
638,854,850
663,036,928
834.443.537
730,906,643
796.177.713
809,135,989
736,808,734
987.843,713
784,094.199
894.395.553
953.316,197
Average
Farm Price
per Bushel,
1st Dec
Cents.
43*4
31-5
31-7
394
33-4
109
187
21-2
a55
249
258
39*9
30-7
34*1
31-3
29-1
Farm Value,
1st Dec
Dollars.
223,048486
333,312,267
209,253,61 1
187,576,093
314,816,930
163,655,068
133485.033
Domestic Exports,
including Oatmeal,
Fiscal Years
beginning 1st July.
Imports during
Fiscal Years
beginning 1st July.
Bushels.
41.848
47.7M
49.433
.31.759
317
«93.908
33
54.576
3«.978
150,065
183.983
35.699
AMERICAN]
AGRICULTURE
+19
Tabu XXXV.
—Aawg'
r Production, Value, Prices and Experts of Indium Com in lb
United Stolerin 1890-1905.
Year.
Acreage.
Average
Yield per
Acre,
tk rouucoon.
Average
Farm Price
per Bushel,
1st Deo
Farm Value,
1st Dec
Domestic Exports,
including Corn-
Meal. Fiscal Years
beginning 1st July.
1890
1891
'J 93
1893
1894
'.HI
'Z
1899
1900
1 901
1902
1903
1904
1905
Acres.
71.970.763
72!ot64p
62,582,269
82,075,830
81,027,156
86,095,051
p.711.751
82,108,587
83.310,871
91,349.918
94.043.613
88,091,993
92^31,581
94.011^69
Bushels.
20.7
27-0
33-1
23*5
Hi
181
* 3 *2
14-8
25-3
253
l6*7
16-8
33
288
Bushels.
X 459.970^00
2,060,154.000
1.628464,000
1,619496.131
1,212,770,052
2,151,138,580
1^83,875.165
1,902.967.933
1,924,184,660
1,078.143.933
2,105,102,516
1,522,510,891
2,523.648,312
1,244,176,915
2467480,934
1.707.993.540
Cents.
50*6
40-6
365
457
15-3
!T*
26-3
187
30.3
SS
40.3
415
441
411
Dollar*.
754433451
836439.218
642,146,630
591,625,627
554.719.162
544.985,534
491,006,967
501,072,951
552,013418
.629,210,110
731.110.314
9n.555.768
1,087461,440
1,116,696,738
Bushels.
31.041.539
76*02,285
66489I519
18.585405
101,100475
178,817417
aii.0S5.543
Ii7.i55.046
213. 1 234H
'ftSttB
76.639,261
58,122,061
90,293483
Crop.
Annual Average.
190$.
1 878-1 882.
1888-1891.
1 894-1896.
1806-1904.
Wheat . . .
2784
17-68
15-96
V,
799
Indian corn . .
4-82
3*49
5-39
306
Rye . . .
10*30
12-21
19-5
. .
Oats . * .
•37
•80
2-22
37
, .
Barley . . .
1-55
• ,
11-96
11-15
. .
Potatoes . . .
Cotton . . .
7280
6679
73*60
0-31
663 1
61-55
January 1.
Horses.
Mules.
Milch Cows.
Number.
Value.
Number.
Value.
Number.
Value.
1880
1890
190a
1906
11,201.800
14.H3.837
13.537.524
18,718,578
I613.296.611
978.516,562
603.969442
1.510.889,906
1.729,500
2.331.027
2,086,027
3.404.061
I105.948.319
182494.099
111,717,092
334,680,520
*© o>o» M
1279.899420
352,153.133
514.812.106
582,788.592
1 890 as an illustration, this gave a surplus area in wheat of 11,264478 I animals. The fluctuation in prices of mules has been parallel to
acres, of 2,648404 acres in Indian corn, and of 238.162 acres in oats. I that for horses.
Tables XXXVII. and XXXVIII. give the number, total value The returns for milch cows show an increase throughout the
and average price of farm animals in z88o, 1890, 1900 and 1906. I period X880-1899 in every year, with the exception of 1895-1899,
t*« * yvyvi P.M.M. «t r.* a. v«.A~fej i~~.„. t~ v~i~t « ler which there was a steady rise in numbers. For
Table XXXVI.— Percentage oi Crops Exported. Averages Jet Period the ^ ten ^ the numbert increased 316 %, and
1878-1905. from l8oo to Igoo , 2 <fa The toU] ^fo J milch
cows increased each year until 1884, then decreased
until 1 891, with a gradual increase until the end of
the period. The farm price of milch cows rose from
£23-27 in 1880 to $31*37 in 1884, then fell to $21-40
in 1892. after which there was a steady increase to
$31*60 in 1899, and afterwards a slight fall, $29*44
being the average farm value on the 1st of January
1906.
No marked changes in the numbers of sheep have
taken place. During the period 1880-1800 there was
an increase in numbers amounting to about 8*8%.
After 1893 there was a rather steady decrease, with
Table XXXVII.— Number and Value of Farm Animals in Ike United States, 1880-1906. f^to' a^inaileTdi"
pression after 1894.
This industry is very
susceptible to adverse
influences, and felt
keenly a depression in
the price of wool. The
increase began again in
1898, and in 1903 the
figure of 63,964,876
was reached; in 1906
it was 50,631,619.
The numbers and
values of swine con-
stantly fluctuate with
the movement and
value of the Indian
corn crops. The returns
for 1890 (51,602,780)
showed a numerical increase of 51*6% over those of 1880; then
followed a steady decrease in numbers down to 1900 (37.079.356),
since which time there has been considerable increase, so that
in 1906 there were 52,102,847— the maximum excepting 1901,
when there were 56,982,142 swine on farms. The movement
in values was similar to that in numbers. From $4*28 in 1880, the
average farm price of hogs increased steadily to $6-75 in 1883. The
lowest figure, $4*15, was reached in. 1891, and after numerous
fluctuations it became $4*40 in 1899 * na> $778 in 1903; in 1906 it
was $6* 18.
The total value of farm animals showed a steady increase from
1880 to 1890, with slight variations in 1885 and 1886. Following
1890 there was a steady decrease with the exception of slight in-
creases in 1802 and 1893. In 1880 the total value of farm animals
in the United States was $1,576,917,556. In 1890 it had increased
to $2418,766.028, or 53*4 %. In 1896 the value had diminished to
$1,727,926,084— a decrease of 28*6 % from the 1890 values, and an
increase of 90 % over those of 1 880. The value in 1906 showed an
increase of 133 % over that of 1880.
The exports of live stock and its products have increased enor-
mously in recent years, both in quantity and value. This is especially
true of the exportation of beef, cattle and meat products. The
exports ot cattle increased from 182,750 in 1880 to 331,720 in 1895,
or 81) %, and to 567.806 in 1905 or 210 % over 1880. and values
January I.
1880
1890
1900
1906
Other Cattle.-
Number.
21,231,000
36.849,024
27,610,054
47.067.656
Value.
$341,761,154
689486',26o
746.171.709
Sheep.
Number.
40,765.900
44.336,072
41,883,065
50.631.619
Value.
$00,230,537
100,659,76!
122,665,913
179.056.144
Swine.
Number.
34.034.100
51,602,780
37.079.356
52,102,847
Value.
$145,781,515
143418,336
185,472,321
321,802,571
Total Value of
Farm Animals.
$1,576,917,556
2418,766,028
2,228,123,134
3.675.389.441
Table XXXVIII.— Average Value of Farm Animals in tie
United States on 1st January, 1 880-1906.
Year.
Horses.
Mules.
Milch
Cows.
Other
Cattle.
Sheep.
Swine.
1880
1890
1900
1906
'as
44-61
80*72
$61*26
78*2*
53-56
9831
$2327
22*14
31*60
19-44
$16*10
15*11
2407
15-85
$2*21
2*27
1-93
354
$418
472
6* 18
After the Civil War the number of horses increased and prices
gradually declined. I n 1 893 the number of horses reached 1 6,206,802
(an increase of over 5.005,002 or 44*6 % over the number in 1880).
and in 1906. 18,718.578. The average farm ©rice of horses increased
from $54-75 in 1880 to $74-64 in 1884, after which there was a
decrease to $31*51 in 1896, followed by a rise to $80*72 in 1906.
The extension oTstreet-car lines, and the substitution of cable and
electric power for that of horses, the use of bicycles and, later, of
automobiles, and the improvement of farm-machinery, in which
horses are less and less used as power-producers and steam is more
common.. have been factors, in decreasing the demand for these
i For 1899-1900 to 1904-1905
420
AGRICULTURE
(AMERICAS
from $13440,000 in 1880 to $30,600^00 In 1895. an increase of
129 %, and to $40,590,000 in 1905 or 204 %. The average value of
cattle exported increased from $19 in 1870 to $73 in 1880 and $92
in 1895. decreasing; to $71*50 in 1905. Only the best and heaviest
cattle are exported, these, of course, commanding a much higher
price than the average of the country.
The total value 01 farm animals exported from the United States
has fluctuated greatly. On the whole, however, the value increased
from$i6,ooo,ooo in round numbers in 1880 to $46,500,000 in 1905, or
190 %. Table XXXIX. shows the number and value of live animals
exported between 1880 and 1905.
Since 1890 there has been a great development in the production
of fruit and vegetables. Local market gardens are numerous in the
vicinity of all cities, and highly epedalixed " track ganfciiiss,*
that is, the growing of early fruits and vegetables for traaspartabcs
to distant markets where the seasons are later, has nude rapid
progress in the South Atlantic states. The census r eport s of 1900
use the potato acreage in these states as an index of the rate of
development of truck gardening; the southern potato being large!-/
a truck garden crop. In seven counties of Virginia the increase m
acreage from 1889 to 1899 WM 10 ° %•* » eleven counties of Nordr
Carolina. 514%; in five counties of South Carolina, 134 %; is m
ot Georgia, m %; in six counties of Florida. 309 %•
five counties of Alabama, 277 %. Irish and sweet potatoes are the
most important vegetables raised; the North Central states seadsag
in the production of the former and the South Atlantic 1
Tablb XXXIX.— Number and Value ef Farm Animals exported from the Untied Slates, 1880-1905.
Year
ending
40th
June.
Horses.
Mules.
Cattle.
Sheep.
Swine.
Total Valae.
Number.
Value.
Number.
Value.
Number.
Value.
Number.
Value.
Number.
Value.
1880
1885
1890
1894
1895
1900*
1901 1
1902*
1005
1904
1905
3.060
1.947
3.501
5.246
13.984
64.722
82,250
103,020
54.007
42,001
54.822
$675,159
680410
1.108,995
2,209,298
7,612,616
8,873,84$
10,048,046
5.152,159
5.189.100
5.175.259
5.19J
1,028
5.544
2,065
2.515
45.569
ga
IS
$552,562
127,580
447.108
VS&
5.919478
3.210,267
2,692,298
521,725
645464
182,756
133.890
394.836
359.278
551.722
597.*86
459.*i8
59*.88a
402,178
$I5^44.]95
12,906,690
51,261.151
55461.922
50.603.796
£%$
Of .J w *'.Tf*' w
29,002,212
29,848.956
42,256.291
40,598.048
209.157
254.509
67,521
152.570
405.748
"5.77*
297.925
558,720
176.961
301.313
268,365
$892,647
512,568
|45;077
2,630,686
755477
1,955.000
1,940,060
1,067.860
1,954.604
1,687,321
85454
35.025
91.148
1,555
7.130
51.180
22,318
8.368
4.031
6.545
44496
$4*1.089
579.183
909.04?
14.755
72424
394.813
2||465
40,925
55.780
414.692
$15^65432
35*702*56
43.295-557
51322^57
44*670^46
34.6ji.6o3
47^66.746
46.520.784
the production of the latter. The growth of the Irish potato
industry is shown by the following table:—
Year.
Acreage.
Yield (bushels).
1870
1880
J890
1900
1905
1.525.1 19
1,842,510
2,651,579
2,611,054
2,996,757
114.775,000
167,659.570
148,289.696
210.926,897
260,741,294
The production of sweet potatoes, as reported in
was as follows:—
census years,
Year.
Acreage.
Yield (bushels).
1869
%
1899
52^588
537447
21,700,824
55.378,693
43.950.261
42,526,696
orchard fruits was $83,751,840; of grapes, 914.090.937; of small
* $25,030,877 j of sub-tropical fruits. $8,549,863. The develop-
: of fruit-growing during the decade 1889*1899 appears from
fruits, $25,
the following table:—
Crop,
Yield (bushels).
1889.
1899.
Apples ....
Apricots • • • .
Cherries • • •
Peaches . . . .
Pears ....
Plums and Prunes
143,105,689
1,001482
1476,719
36.367.747
3.064,575
2.554.392
175.597.626
2,642,128
2,873499.
I5455i625»
6,625417
8,764,032
m In 1809 California contributed 21. 5 % of the fruit crop; New
York. 121%; Pennsylvania, 7'5%» Ohio, 6*8%; and Michigan
4-5%.
Agricultural Education.
The agricultural schools of the United States owe their origin
to the movement against the old classical school and ia favour
of technical education which began in most civilised nations
about the middle of the 19th century. A rapidly, growing
country with great natural resources needed men educated in
the sciences and arts of life, and this want was first manifested
1 The demand for hones for the British troops in South Africa
affected these years.
* Decrease due to a severe frost in the winter of 1898-1899, which
destroyed the peach crop in most of the states.
in the United States by a popular agitation on behalf of agri-
cultural schools. A number of so-called agricultural schools
were started between 1850 and i860 in the eastern and middle
states, where the movement made itself most felt, but without
trained teachers and suitable methods they accomplished very
little. They were only ordinary schools with farms attached.
The second constitution of the state of Michigan, adopted ia
1850, provided for an agricultural school, and this was the first
one established in the United States. The General Assembly
of the state of Pennsylvania incorporated the Fanners* High
School, now the State College, in 1854. Maryland incorporated
her agricultural college in 1856, and Massachusetts chartered
a school of agriculture in the same year. The agitation, which
finally reached Congress, led to the establishment of the so-called
"land-grant" or agricultural colleges. The establishment of
these colleges was due chiefly to the wisdom and foresight of
Justin S. Morrill, who introduced the first bill for their endow*
ment in the House of Representatives on the 14th of December
1857, saw the latest one approved by the president on the 30th of
August 1890, and is justly known, therefore, as the father of the
American agricultural colleges. The first act for the benefit of
these colleges, passed in 1862, was entitled " An Act donating
public lands to the several states and territories which may
provide colleges for the benefit of agriculture and the m~»—nf
arts," and granted to each state an amount of land equal to
30,000 acres for each senator and representative in Congress to
which the state was entitled at that time. The object of the
grant was stated to be " the endowment, support and main*
tenance of at least one college " (in each state), " where the
leading object shall be, without excluding other scientific and
classical studies, and including military tactics, to teach such
branches of learning as are related to agriculture and the mechanic
arts ... in order to promote the liberal and practical educa-
tion of the industrial classes in- the several pursuits and pro-
fessions in life." The total number of acres of land granted
to the states under this act was 10,320,843, of which by far the
greater part is sold. This grant has produced an endowment
fund amounting to $12,045,629. The land still unsold in 1005
amounted to 844, 1 64 acres, valued at $4,168,746. The invested
land-grant funds yielded these colleges a total annual income
of $855,083 in 1005. Including the United States appropriation
under a supplementary act of 1800, commonly known as the
Second Morrill Act, which now gives each college $25,000 a year,
the interest on the land-grant and all other invested funds, aO
state appropriations and other sources of revenue, these colleges
bad in 1004-1905 a total income of $11,659,955. Sixty-sii
AGRICULTURE, BOARD OF
421
institutions had been organised under this act up to 1005, of
which sixty-three maintain courses in agriculture; twenty-one
are departments of agriculture and engineering in state univer-
sities; twenty-seven are separate colleges of agriculture and
mechanic arts; and the remainder are organized in various
other ways. Separate schools for persons of African descent
had been established under this act in sixteen southern states.
These colleges take students prepared in the common schools
and give them a course of from two to four years in the sciences
pertaining to agriculture. Many of them offer short courses,
varying from four to twelve weeks in length, in agriculture,
horticulture, forestry and dairying, which arc largely attended.
Agricultural experiment stations are connected with all the
colleges, and many of them conduct farmers' institutes, farmers'
reading dubs and correspondence classes.
The agricultural experiment stations of the United States
grew up in connexion with the agricultural colleges. Several
of the colleges early attempted to establish separate departments
for research and practical experiments, on the plan of the German
stations. The act establishing the Agricultural College of Mary-
land required it to conduct " a series of experiments upon the
cultivation of cereals and other plants adapted to the latitude
and climate of the state of Maryland." This was the first sug-
gestion of an experiment station in America, but resulted in
little. The 'first experiment station was established at Middle-
town, Connecticut, in 1875, partly under state aid, partly
through a gift from Orange Judd, partly in connexion with the
Sheffield Scientific School, which from 1863 to 1892 was the
College of Agriculture and Mechanic Arts for the state of Con-
necticut, and partly under control of Wesleyan University,
which contributed the use of its chemical laboratory; in 1877
it was removed to New Haven. The state of Connecticut made
in 1875 an appropriation of $2800 (and in 1877 $5000 per annum)
for this school— the first state appropriation of the kind. The
state of North Carolina established, on the 12th of March 1877,
an agricultural experiment and fertilizer control station in
connexion with its state university. The Cornell University
experiment station was organized by that institution in 1879.
The New Jersey station was organized in 1880 and the station
of the University of Tennessee in 1882. From these beginnings
the experiment stations multiplied until, when Congress passed
the National (or Hatch) Experiment Station Act in 1887. there
were seventeen already in existence. The Hatch Experiment
Station Act, so called from the fact that its leading advocate was
William Henry Hatch (1 833-1 806) of Missouri, appropriated
$15,000 a year to each agricultural college for the purpose of
conducting an agricultural experiment station The object of
the stations was declared to be, " to conduct original researches
or verify experiments on the physiology of plants and animals;
the diseases to which they are severally subject, with the
remedies for the same; the chemical composition of useful
plants at their different stages of growth; the comparative
advantages of rotative cropping as pursued under a varying
series of crops; the capacity of new plants or trees for acclima-
tion; the analysis of sous and water; the chemical composition
of manures, natural or artificial, with experiments designed to
test their comparative effects on crops of different kinds; the
adaptation and value of grasses and forage plants; the com-
position and digestibility of the different kinds of food for
domestic animals; the scientific and economic questions involved
in the production of butter and cheese; and such other re-
searches or experiments bearing directly on the agricultural
industry of the United States as may in each case be deemed
advisable, having due regard to the varying conditions and needs
of the respective states or territories." The stations were
authorized to publish annual reports and also bulletins of pro-
gress for free distribution to farmers. The franking privilege
wu given to these publications. The office of experiment
stations, in the Department of Agriculture, was established in
1888 to be the head office and clearing-house of these stations.
Agricultural experiment stations are now in operation in all the
states and territories, including Alaska, Hawaii, Porto Rico and
the Philippines. Alabama, Hawaii, Connecticut, New Jersey
and New York each maintain separate stations, supported
wholly or in part by state funds; Louisiana has a station for
sugar, and Missouri for fruit experiments; Excluding all branch
stations, the total number of experiment stations in the United
States is sixty, and of these fifty-five receive the national appro-
priation. The total income of the stations during 1004 was
$1,508,820, of which $720,000 was received from the national
government and the remainder was derived from societies,
fees for analyses of fertilizers, sale of products, &c The stations
employed 795 persons in the work of administration and re-
search; the chief classes being— directors, 71; chemists, 163;
agriculturists, 47; agronomists, 42; besides numerous horti-
culturists, botanists, entomologists, physicists, bacteriologists,
dairymen, weather observers and irrigation experts. The
stations publish annual reports and bulletins, besides a large
number of "press" bulletins, which are reproduced. in the
agricultural and county papers. They act as bureaus of informa-
tion on all farm questions, and carry on an extensive corre-
spondence covering all conceivable questions. Their mailing
hate aggregate half a million names. In addition to the experi-
ment stations there b in nearly every state an officer or a special
board whose duty is to look after its agricultural interests.
Eighteen states, one territory, Porto Rico and the Philippine
Islands have a single official, usually called the Commissioner
of Agriculture. Twenty-six states, one territory and Hawaii,
have Boards of Agriculture. Information concerning the
Agricultural Department of the United States will be found
under Aoucultuse, Boaso 07.
See the articles on the various sorts of crops; also Cattle,
Horse, Pio, Sheep, &c; Daisy and Daxey-Fabiomo, Hoiti-
cvltuxe, Fturr and Flowee-Farkxno, Poultry and Poultry-
Farmxno; Soil, Grass and Grassland, Manure, Drainage
or Land, Irrigation, Sowing, Reaping, Hay and Hay-
Mahno, Plough, Harrow, Threshing.
LtT*£Art + *M. — Beside? the contemiiorary world cited In the text,
see the ortfrie " Agriculture " in Smith V Dictionary of Creek and
Rpmart Attfiqaiijts (1690), and the ankle " Agriculture ,r in J. A*
Barrel's Dictivnnaire d* Agriculture. (1885-1891); |L E. Pntfhcro.
Pioneers and Progress oj English Farming (i&88}r sections on agri-
culture by W. I, Corbet t. R. E* Prothcro and W. E. Bear in Tra ill's
the Early and Middle Ages (2 volt, 1905 and 1907) ; D* M 'Donald,
AgriadtuTol Writers from Sir Walter oj Henley ta Arthur Vaunt*
iaao-i3oa (London, 1908); H. Rider Haggmrt?. Rural JFwifrf,
2 vtjliL (iOoj); Encyclopaedia ef Apiculture, ed. by C E- Green
and D. Young [Edinburgh, 1907-1908}; Cychpatdia pf Amtrimn
Atriatltttre, td. by L. HL Bailey (iNew York and London, 1907-1908);
W. 5. Harwood, The New Earth (New York. 1906} ; T. B, Collin*,
The. Nev Agriculture (New York, 1906); Journals of the Royal
Agricultural Society of England and ether agricultural societies.
Amongst general works on practical agriculture the following may
" vol*,, revised by
be mentioned: — Stephen*'* Back of tftc Farm,\ vol*,, rcvis
J. Macdonald (Edinburgh, 1908); William Fream, Elements at
Agriculture (London, 1905) ; Rural Science Series, ed by L, H.
BniW (New York and London, 1895, &c) , Mortens Handbook t of
the Farm (London): R, Wallace, Perm Livestock of Great Britain
BniW (New York and London, 1805, &c) , Mortens Handbook t of
the Farm (London): R. Wallace, Farm Livestock of Great Britain
i Edinburgh, 1907V; Youatl's Compute Grazier, rewritten by W.
Team (London. 1900); E, V, Wilcox, Farm Animals (New Yoric,
1007), <W. Fn.;R.Ta.)
AGRICULTURE, BOARD OF. The Board of Agriculture and
Fisheries, in England, owes its foundation to the establishment
of a veterinary department of the privy council in 1865, when the
country was ravaged by cattle plague. An order in council
abolished the name " veterinary department " in 1883 and sub-
stituted that of " agricultural department," but no alteration was
effected in the work of the department, so far as it related to
animals. In 1889 the Board of Agriculture (for Great Britain)
was formed under an act of parliament of that year, and the
immediate control of the agricultural department was transferred
from the clerk of the privy council to the secretary of the Board
of Agriculture, where it remains.
A minister of agriculture had for years been asked for in the
interests of the agricultural community, and the functions of this
office are discharged by the president of the Board of Agriculture
422
AGRICULTURE, BOARD OF
and Fisheries, whose appointment is a political one, and may or
may not carry with it a seat in the cabinet The board consists
of the lord president of the council, the five principal secretaries
of state, the first lord of the treasury, the chancellor of the ex-
chequer, the chancellor of the duchy of Lancaster and the
secretary for Scotland. The establishment consists of a pre-
sident, secretary, assistant secretaries, &c The salary of the
president is £2000 a year, and that of the secretary £1500 a year.
The Board of Agriculture on its establishment took over from
the privy council the responsibilities of the Contagious Diseases
(Animals) Acts, besides the comprehensive duties of the Land
Commission. The board, through its intelligence division, col-
lects and prepares statistics relating to agriculture and forestry,
and in 1004 appointed a number of honorary agricultural corre-
spondents throughout the country for the purpose of bringing
to the notice of the board any special circumstances affecting the
practice of agriculture, horticulture and forestry, or the transport
of farm, garden and forest produce in their districts. The land
division of the board prepares the annual agricultural and produce
returns, and the three divisions, the •nitwi« i intelligence and
land, take proceedings under the following acts:— the Diseases of
Animals Acts, the Markets and Fairs (Weighing of Cattle) Acts,
the Sale of Food and Drugs Acts 1875 to 1899, the Merchandise
Marks Acts 1887 to 1005, the Fertilizers and Feeding Stuffs Act
1803, the Tithe Acts 1836 to 1891, the Copyhold Act 1804, the
Indosure Acts 1845 to 1809, the Agricultural Holdings Acta
1883 to 1000, the Drainage and Improvement of Land Acts, the
Universities and College Estates Acts 1858 to x8q8, the Glebe
Lands Act x 888, &c The board also has charge of the inspection
of schools (not being public elementary schools) in which technical
instruction is given in agriculture or forestry, and institutes such
experimental investigations as may be deemed conducive to the
progress of agriculture and forestry.
The Ordnance Survey of the United Kingdom is under the
control of the board, as well as the arrangements for the advert-
isement and sale of the publications of the Geological Survey.
In X003 the powers and duties formerly vested in the commis-
sioners of the Office of Works, relating to the Royal Botanic
Gardens, Kew, were transferred to the board. The various
departments of the board are (1) chief clerk's branch and indoor
branch of animals division; (2) outdoor branch of the animals
division; (3) veterinary department; (4) fisheries branch; (5)
intelligence department; (6) educational branch; (7) accounts
branch; (8) indosure and common branch; (9) copyhold and
tithe branch; (xo) statistical branch; (xx) law branch; (12)
survey, land improvement and land drainage branch.
In X003, in pursuance of the Board of Agriculture and Fisheries
Act 1003, the powers and duties of the Board of Trade under the
Salmon and Freshwater Fisheries Acts, the Sea Fisheries Regula-
tion Acta and other acts relating to the industry of fishing, were
transferred from that department to the Board of Agriculture,
and its name was changed to its present form. The Department
of Agriculture and Technical Instruction for Ireland covers much
the same ground. The Annual Report of the Proceedings of ike
Board of Agriculture under the Tithe and other Ads for igca
contains a full account of its powers and duties.
In the British colonies the interests of agriculture are looked
after— in New South Wales; by an under-secretary for mines
and agriculture; in Victoria, by a member of the executive
council who holds the portfolio of lands and agriculture; in
Queensland, by an under-secretary for agriculture; in New
Zealand, by a minister for lands and agriculture; in Canada (see,
for more detail, the article Canada, Canadian Apiculture), by
a minister for agriculture (the various provinces have also depart-
ments of agriculture). The government of India has a secretary
of revenue and agriculture. Cape Colony has a secretary for
agriculture, a member of the cabinet; in the Transvaal Colony
the director of agriculture is a departmental secretary; in Natal,
the minister for agriculture is a member of the executive council,
and the establishment consists, in addition, of a secretary, a
director of agriculture, an entomologist, a dairy expert and a
conservator of forests. Cyprus has a director of agriculture.
Untied Slates.— The Department of Agriculture dates its rank
as an executive department from 1880. It was first established
aa a department in 1862, ranking as a bureau, with a commis-
sioner in charge. In addition to the commissioner there wen
appointed a statistician, chemist, entomologist and superintend-
ent of a preparatory and experimental farm. Its scope was thea
somewhat limited, but its work was gradually enlarged by the
appointment of a botanist in x868, a microscopist in 187 1, ife*
creation of a forestry department in 1877, a bureau of animal
industry in 1884 and the establishment of agricultural experiment
stations throughout the country in 1887. In 1889 the department
became an executive department, the principal official beia£
designated Secretary of Agriculture, with a seat in the president's
cabinet His salary is 88000 a year. The secretary is now
charged with the supervision of all business relating to the agri-
cultural and productive industries. The fisheries have a separate
bureau, and the public lands and mining interests are cared for
in the Department of the Interior; but with these exceptions,
all the productive interests are looked after by the Department of
Agriculture. The department now comprises (1) the weather
bureau, which has charge of the forecasting of weather; the issue
of storm warnings; the display of weather and flood signals for
the benefit of agriculture, commerce and navigation; the gauging
and reporting of rivers; the reporting of temperature and rain-
fall conditions for the cotton, rice, sugar and other interests; the
display of frost and cold waves signals; and the distribution of
meteorological information in the interest of agriculture and
commerce; (2) the bureau of animal industry, which makes
investigations as to the existence of contagious pfoiro-pneuinonta
and other dangerous and communicable diseases of live stock,
superintends the measures for their extirpation, makes original
investigations as to the nature and prevention of such diseases,
and reports on the conditions and means of improving the animal
industries of the country; (3) the bureau of plant industry,
which studies plant life in all its relations to agriculture. Its
work Is classified under the general subjects of pathological
investigations, physiological investigations, taxonomic investiga-
tions, agronomic investigations, horticultural investigations and
seed and plant introduction investigations; (4) the forest service,
which is occupied with experiments, investigations and reports
dealing with the subject of forestry, and with the dissemination of
information upon forestry matters; (5) the bureau of chemistry,
which investigates methods proposed for the analysts of plants,
fertilisers and agricultural products, and makes such analyses as
pertain in general to the interests of agriculture; (6) the bureau of
soils, which is entrusted with the investigation, survey and map-
ping of soils; the investigation of the cause and prevention of the
rise of alkali in the soil and the drainage of soils; and the investi-
gation of the methods of growing, curing and fermentation- of
tobacco in the different tolgacco districts; (7) the bureau of
entomology, which obtains and disseminates information regard-
ing insects injurious to vegetation; (8) the bureau of biological
survey, which studies the geographic distribution of animals and
plants, and maps the natural life zones of the country; it also
investigates the economic relations of birds and mammals, and
recommends measures for the preservation of beneficial, and the
destruction of injurious, species; (9) the division of accounts and
disbursements; (xo) the division of publications; (x 1) the bureau
of statistics, which collects information as to the condition,
prospects and harvests of the principal crops, and of the number
and status of farm animals. It records, tabulates and co-
ordinates statistics of agricultural production, distribution and
consumption, and issues monthly and annual crop reports for the
information of producers and consumers. The section of foreiga
markets makes investigations and disseminates informatkn
concerning the feasibility of extending the drmanda of foreiga
markets for the agricultural products of the United States; the
bureau also makes investigations of land tenures, coat of pro-
ducing farm products, country life education, transportation and
other lines of rural economies; (12) the library; (13) the office
of experiment stations which represents the department in its
relations to the experiment stations which are now in operation
AGRIGENTUM
In all the states; it collects and disseminates general information
regarding agricultural schools, colleges, stations, and publishes
accounts of agricultural investigations at home and abroad; it
also indicates lines of inquiry for the stations, aids in the conduct
of co-operative experiments, reports upon their expenditures and
work, and in general furnishes them with such advice and assist-
ance as will best promote the purposes for which they were
established; it conducts investigations relative to irrigation
and drainage; (14) the office of public roads, which collects
information concerning systems of road management, conducts
investigations regarding the best method of read-making, and
prepares publications on this subject.
In the following countries there are itate departments of agri-
culture: — Argentina, Belgium, Brazil, (industry, agriculture and
public works), Bulgaria (commerce and agriculture). Denmark,
France. Norway (agriculture and public accounts), Italy. Japan
(agriculture ana commerce), Prussia (agriculture, woods and forests),
Russia (agriculture and crown domains), Sweden.
AGRIGENTUM (Gr. 'Axp&yas, mod. Cirgcnli (?.».)), an
ancient city on the south coast of Sicily, ajm. from the sea.
It was founded (perhaps on the site of an early Sicanian settle-
ment) by colonists from Gela about 582 b.c, and, though the
lastest dty of importance founded by the Greeks in Sicily, soon
acquired a position second, to that of Syracuse alone, owing
to its favourable situation for trade With Carthage and to the
fertility of its territory. Pindar (Pyth. xiL 2) calls it JcaXXim.
pporta* voXia*. The buildings for which it is famous all belong
to the first two centuries of its existence. Phalaris, who is said
to have roasted his enemies to death in a brazen bull (Pindar,
Pyik. L 184)1 ruled as tyrant from 570 to 554. What form of
government was established after his fall is uncertain; we know
only that, after a long interval, Theron became tyrant (488-473);
but his son Thrasydaeus was expelled after an unsuccessful war
with Hiero in 472 and a democracy established. In the struggle
between Syracuse and Athens (415-413) the dty remained
absolutely neutral Its prosperity continued to increase (its
population » given at over 200,000) until in 405 B.C., despite
the help of the Siccliot tities, it was captured and plundered
by the Carthaginians, a blow from which it never entirely re-
covered. It was colonized by Timoleon in 338 B.C. with settlers
from Velia in Lucania, and in the time of the tyrant Phintias
(280-279) it had regained some of its power. In the First Punic
War, however, it was sacked by the Romans (261) and the
Carthaginians (255), and finally in the Second Punic War by the
Romans (210). But it still retained its importance as a trading
and agricultural centre, even in the Roman period, exporting
not only agricultural products but textile fabrics and sulphur.
In the local museum are tiles used for stamping cakes of sulphur,
which show that the mines, at any rate from the 3rd century,
were imperial property leased to contractors.
The site b one of great natural strength and remarkable
beauty, though quite unlike that of other Greek cities in Sicily.
The northern portion of it consists of a lofty ridge with two
summits, the westernmost of which is occupied by the modern
town (085 ft ) while the easternmost, which is slightly higher,
bears the name of Rock of Athena, owing to its identification
in modern days with the acropolis of Acragas as described by
Polybius. who places upon it the temple of Zeus Atabyrius (the
erection of which was attributed to the half mythical Phalaris)
and that of Athena. 1 It must be confessed that the available
space (about 70X20 yds.) on the eastern summit (where there
are some remains of ancient buildings) is so small that there
would be only room for a single temple, which must have been
occupied by the two deities jointly, if the new theory is correct
(see Notitu digit scavi, 1002, 387 and reff .). In the modern town,
on the other hand, the remains of one temple are to be seen in
the church of S. Maria dei Greci, while the other is generally
supposed to have occupied the site of the cathedral, though no
1 E. A. Freeman, History of Sicily (Oxford, 1891). i. 433, accepts
the name " Rock of Athena and yet puts the acropolis on the site
of the»modern town, arguing further that the cathedral hill was an
acropolis within an acropolis (II and XVII.).
IB dl^ntl.
L £l»fuJhm'«rf,itacJ
I QatH&al
Contours at Intmmti of
TO M*trtw - 32 BftaL
w^»^.
traces of it are visible. But whichever of these two summits
was the acropolis proper, 1 it is certain that both were included
in the circuit of the city walls. On the north both summits are
defended by dins; on the south the ground slopes away somewhat
abruptly from the eastern summit towards the plateau on
which the town stood, while the western summit is separated
from this plateau by a valley traversed by a branch of the Hypsas
[mod. Drago), the deep ravine of which forms the western
boundary and defence of the dty. On the east of the dty is
the valley of the Acragas [Fiume S. Biagio), from which the city
took its name and which, though shallower than that of the
Hypsas, still affords a sufficient obstacle to attack, and the two
unite a little way to the south of the town; at the mouth was
the ancient harbour, small and now abandoned.
The most famous remains of the antient dty are the temples,
the most important of which form a row along the low cliffs at
the south end of the dty. All are built in the Doric style, of
the local porous stone, which is of a warm red brown colour, full
of fossil shells and easily corroded when exposed to the air. It
should be noted that their traditional names, with the exception
of that of Zeus and that of Asclepius. have no foundation in
fact, while the attribution of the temple in antis, into the cclia
of which the church of S. Biagio has been built, is uncertain.'
They are described in R. Koldewey and O. Puchstein, Die
grieckiscken Tempd in Unteritaiien und SicMen (Berlin, 1809).
138-184. Of all these temples the oldest is probably that of
Heracles, while the best preserved are those of Hera and Con-
cordia, which are very similar in dimensions; the latter indeed.
'Some writers place Kamikos. the dty of the mythical Sican
Kokalos, on the site of Acragas or its acropolis; but it appears to
have lain to the north-west, possibly at Caltabellotta, 10m. north-east
of Sciacca. We hear of it even in the Punic Wars as a fortified post of
Acragas (E. A. Freeman. Hist, of Sic I 495)-
• The attribution to Demeter is supported by the discovery of
votive terra -cot tas, representing Demeter and Kore in the neigh*
bourhood. while the conjecture that it was dedicated to the river-
god Acragas rests on its position above the river, in the valley of which,
indeed, a statue which may represent the ddty has been discovered.
4*4
AGRIMONY— AGRIPPA
lacks nothing but its roof, owing its preservation to itt conversion
into the cathedral in 597 by Gregory &, bishop of GirgentL
Both temples belong to the best period of the Doric style and
are among the finest in existence. In front of the former, as
in front of those of Heracles and Zeus, stood a huge altar for
burnt offering*, as long as the facade of the temple Itself. The
cdla of the temple of Heracles underwent considerable modifica-
tions in Roman times, and the discovery in it of a statue of
Asdepius seems to show that the cult of this deity superseded
the original one.
In the colossal temple of Zeus the huge Atlantes (figures of
Atlas), 25 ft m height, are noticeable, They seem to have stood
in the intercolumniations half-way up the outside wall and to
have supported the epistyle. The collapse both of this temple
and of that of Heracles must be attributed to an earthquake;
many fallen blocks of the former were removed in 1756 for the
construction of the harbour of Porto Empedede. The four I
columns erected on the site of the temple of Castor aad Posks |
are a modern (and incorrect) restoration in which p u titkms <rf
two bufldingt have been used. Of that of Hephaestus only two
columns remain, while of that of Asclepras, a mile to the sontk
of the town, an anta and two pillars are preserved. It wm a
the latter temple that the statue of the god by Myron stood,
it had probably been carried off to Carthage, was given to the
temple by P. Sdpio Afiricanus from the spoils of that eHy and
aroused the cupidity of Verrca.
The other remains within the dty walk are of svrpcisisgrjr
small importance; near the picturesque church of S. Kkafo a
the so-called Oratory of Phalaris, a shrine of the and century b~c,
27ft ft long (including the porch) by 23ft ft wide; and not fax off
on the east is a large private house with white trssrhtrri pave-
ments, probably pre-Roman in origin but slightly altered is
Unnamed
Demeter
(Acragas?).
Hera
Ladaia.
Con-
cordiai
»« ■--
nemcs9B>
Zeus.
Castor
and
Pollux.
Castor
and
Pollux.
Hephae-
stus.
Asdepiua.
Athena.
Length excluding
steps 1
Breadth
40ft
55ft
'St
aao
SOI
173ft
••
67ft
51ft
30ft
45
Length of oclla .
94.
90*
533
91
Breadth of cella .
3»|
3ift
45!
I44ft
55
..
..
Height of columns
with capitals .
ai
as
55
6aft?
I9ft
..
..
..
Diameter of
columns at
bottom
4ft
4ft
6ft
14
4
5
Sft
4l
Original number of
columns .
Class . . .
In antis.
Pfertp.
Perip-
renpccRM
Pseudo
Fcripteros
••
Peripteroa
Prostylos
p*rip-
teroa
teroa
hexastyios.
penpteros
hexastyloa.
hexastyloa.
teeos>
hexa-
hexa-
bepta-
penpteros.
*
styloa.
styloa,
styloa,
Apftffwcimate date
450 B.C
480-440
440-4*0
900B.C.
45OB.C.
558-910
..
after 558
before 210
4»ng7»
B.C.
B.C.
B.C.
B.C.
B.C.
sx.
the Roman period (R. P. Jones and E. A. Gardner in Journal
of Hellenic Studies, xxvi., 1006, 307). Foundations of other
buildings are to be seen in other parts of the site, but of little
interest The huge fishpond, spoken of by Diodorus as being
7 stadia in circumference (xi 25), is to be seen at the south-west
corner of the dty; it Is an enormous excavation in the rock
with drains in its sides, at the bottom of which there is now a
flourishing orange garden.
The line of the dty walls can be distinctly traced for most of
the circuit, but the actual remains of them are inconsiderable.
On the east and west the ravines already mentioned afforded,
In the main, a sufficient protection, so that a massive wall was
unnecessary, while near the south-eastern angle a breastwork
was formed by the excavation of the natural rock* which in
later times was honeycombed with tombs. E. A. Freeman
attributes the southern portion of the walls to Theron (Hist,
of Sic. ii. 2 2 a), but the question depends upon the date of the
temple of Herades; and if Koldewey and Puchstein are right
in dating it so early as 500 B.C., it is probable that the wall was
in existence by that time. Gose to this temple on the west is
the site of the gate known in later times as the Porta Aureo,
through which the modern road passes, so that no traces now
remain.
Tombs of the Greek period have mainly been found on the
west of the town, outside the probable line of the walls, between
the Hypsas and a small tributary, the latter having been spanned
by a bridge, now called Ponle dei Morti, of which one massive
pier, 45 it. in width, still exists. Just outside the south wall
is a Roman necropolis, with massive tombs in masonry, and a
Christian catacomb, and a little farther south a tomb in two
stories, a mixture of Doric and Ionic architecture, belonging
probably to the and century B.C., though groundlessly called
1 Dimensions in English feet
1 Polvbius tx. 27 wfrai r* r«
Polvbius ix. 27 ««r«i t6 twxoi iwt wtrpm import/iov ■•! >«pip pfi >o i .
the Tomb of Theron. A village of the Byzantine period has
been explored at Balatisso, immediately to the south of the
modern town (Notnie degU Scan, 1000, 5x1-520). Tbe wafis
of the dwelling* are entirely cut out of the natural rock.
See J. Schubring, Historische Topograph* ten Aerugo* (Leipafe
1870); R. Koldewey and O. Puchstein, op.cu\;C Holsen in Pauly*
Wissowa, Encycicpadis, L 1187. (T. As.)
AGRIMONY (from the Lat agrimonia, a transformation of
Ojrytfiumi, a word of unknown etymology), a slender perennial
herb (botanical name, Agrimonia Eupotorio, natural order
Rosaceae), 1 J to 3 ft high, growing in hedge-banks, copses and
borders of fields. The leafy stem ends in spikes of small yellow
flowers. The flower-stalk becomes recurved in the fruiting
stage, and the fruit bears a number of hooks which enable it to
cling to rough objects, such as the coat of an animal, thus ensur-
ing distribution of the seed. The plant is common in Britain
and widely spread through the north temperate region. Tbe
underground woody stem is astringent and yields a yellow dye.
The name has been unsystematically given to several other
plants; for instance: bastard, Dutch, hemp or water agrimony
(Eupatorium cannabinum)-, noble or three-leaved agrimony
(Anemone hepatica); water agrimony (Bidens); and wild
agrimony (Petentillo anserina).
AGR10N1A, an andent Greek festival, which was celebrated
annually at Orchomenus in Boeotia and elsewhere, in honour of
Dionysus Agrionius, by women and priests at night The women,
after playfully pretending for some time to search for the god,
desisted, saying that he had hidden himself among the Muses.
The tradition is that the daughters of Minyas, king of Orcho-
menus, having despised the rites of the god, were seised with
frenzy and ate the flesh of one of their children. At this festival
it was originally the custom fdr the priest of the god to porsoe
a woman of the Minyan family with a drawn sword and kill her.
(Plutarch, Quaest. Rom. 102, Quaes!. Craecae 38.)
AGRIPPA. a sceptical philosopher, whose date cannot bt
AGRIPPA
425
accurately determined. He most have lived later than
Aenesidemus, who is generally said lo have been a contemporary
of Cicero. To him are ascribed the five tropes (Wire rpfaoi)
which, according to Sextus Empiricus, summarize the attitude
of the later ancient sceptics. The first trope emphasizes the
disagreement of philosophers on all fundamental points; know-
ledge comes either from the senses or from reason. Some
thinkers hold that nothing is known but the things of sense;
others that the things of reason alone are known; and so on.
It follows that the only wise course is to be content with an
Attitude of indifference, neither to affirm nor to deny. The
second trope deals with the validity of proof; the proof of one
so-called fact depends on another fact which itself needs demon-
stration, and so on ad infinitum. The third points out that the
data of sense are relative to the sentient being, those of reason
to the intelligent mind; that in different conditions things
themselves are seen or thought to be different Where, then, is
the absolute criterion? Fourthly, if we examine things fairly,
we see that in point of fact all knowledge depends on certain
hypotheses, or facts taken for granted. Such knowledge is
fundamentally hypothetical, and might well be accepted as
such without the labour of a demonstration which is logically
invalid. The fifth trope points out the impossibility of proving
the sensible by the intelligible inasmuch as it remains to estab-
lish the intelligible in its turn by the sensible. Such a process
is a vicious circle and has no logical validity. A comparison of
these tropes with the ten tropes enumerated in the article
Aenzsxdemus shows that scepticism has made an advance into
the more abtruse questions of metaphysics. The first and the
third include all the ideas expressed in the ten tropes, and the
other three systematize the more profound difficulties which
new thinkers had developed. Aenesidemus was content to
attack the validity of sense-given knowledge; Agrippa goes
further and impugns the possibility of all truth whatever. His
reasons are those of modern scepticism, the reasons which by
their very nature are not susceptible of disproof.
See Diogenes Laertius x. 88. and Zeller's Gretk Philosophy. Also
the ankles Scepticism; Aenesidemus.
AGRIPPA, HEROD, L (c. zo b.c-aj>. 44), king of Judea, the
son of Aristobulus and Berenice, and grandson of Herod the
Great, was born about 10 b.c His original name was Marcus
Julius Agrippa. Josephus informs us that, after the murder
of his father, Herod the Great sent him to Rome to the court of
Tiberius, who conceived a great affection for him, and placed
him near his son Drusus, whose favour he very soon won. On
the death of Drusus, Agrippa, who had been recklessly extrava-
gant, was obliged to leave Rome, overwhelmed with debt
After a brief seclusion, Herod the Tetrarch, his uncle, who had
married Herodias, his sister, made him Agoranomos (Overseer
of Markets) of Tiberias, and presented him with a large sum of
money; but his uncle being unwilling to continue his support,
Agrippa left Judea for Antioch and soon after returned to Rome,
where he was welcomed by Tiberius and became the constant
campanion of the emperor Gains (Caligula), then a popular
favourite. Agrippa being one day overheard by Eutyches, a
slave whom he had made free, to express a wish for Tiberius'
death and the advancement of Gaius, was betrayed to the
emperor and cast into prison. In a.d. 37 Caligula, having
ascended the throne, heaped wealth and favours upon Agrippa,
set a royal diadem upon his head and gave him the tetrarchy
of Batanaea and Trachonitis, which Philip, the son of Herod
the Great, had formerly possessed. To this he added that held
by Lysanias; and Agrippa returned very soon into Judea to
take possession of his new kingdom. In A.O. 39 he returned
to Rome and brought about the banishment of Herod Antipas,
to whose tetrarchy he succeeded. On the assassination of Cali-
gula (ju>. 41) Agrippa contributed much by his advice to main-
tain Claudius in possession of the imperial dignity, while he
made a showed being in the interest of the senate. The emperor,
in acknowledgment, gave him the government of Judea, while the
kingdom of Chalds in Lebanon was at his request given to his
brother Herod. Thus Agrippa became one of the greatest princes
of the east, the territory he possessed equalling in extent that
held by Herod the Great. He returned to Judea and governed
it to the great satisfaction of the Jews. His zeal, private and
public, for Judaism is celebrated by Josephus and the rabbis;
and the narrative of Acts xii. gives a typical example of it.
About the feast of the Passover a.d. 44, James the elder, the
son of Zebedee and brother of John the evangelist, was seized
by his order and put to death. He proceeded also to lay hands
on Peter and imprisoned him. After the Passover he went to
Caesarea, where he had games performed in honour of Claudius,
and the inhabitants of Tyre and Sidon waited on him to sue
for peace. According to the story in Acts xii., Agrippa, gor-
geously arrayed, received them in the theatre, and addressed
them from, a throne, while the audience cried out that his was
the voice of a god. But " the angel of the Lord smote him,"
and shortly afterwards he died " eaten of worms." The story
in Acts differs slightly from that in Josephus, who describes
how in the midst of his elation he saw an owl perched over his
head. During his confinement by Tiberius a like omen had been
interpreted as portending his speedy release with the warning
that should he behold the same sight again he would die within
five days. He was immediately smitten with violent pains,
and after a few days died. Josephus says nothing of his being
"eaten of worms," but the discrepancies between the two
stories are of slight moment. A third account omits all the
apocryphal elements in the story and says that Agrippa was
assassinated by the Romans, who objected to his growing power.
See articles in Ency. Bibl. (W. T. Woodhouse), Jewish Ency. (M.
Brann), with further references; N. S. Libowitz, Herod and Agrippa
(New York, and ed., 1898); Grits, Gesthichte d. Juden, HI 318-361.
AGRIPPA, HEROD, II. (27-100), son of the preceding, and like
him originally Marcus Julius Agrippa, was born about a.d. 27,
and received the tetrarchy of Chalds and the oversight of the
Temple on the death of his uncle Herod, aj>. 48. In aj>. 53 he
was deprived of that kingdom by Claudius, who gave him other
provinces instead of it In the war which Vespasian carried on
against the Jews Herod sent him 2000 men, by which it appears
that, though a Jew in religion, he was yet entirely devoted to the
Romans, whose assistance indeed he required to secure the peace
of his own kingdom. He died at Rome in the third year of
Trajan, aj>. xoo. He was the seventh and last king of the family
of Herod the Great It was before him and his sister Berenice
(?.«., B.a) that St Paul pleaded his cause at Caesarea (Acts xxvi.).
He supplied Josephus with Information for his history.
AGRIPPA, MARCUS VIPSANIUS (63-12 b.c), Roman states-
man and genera], son-in-law and minister of the emperor Augus-
tus, was of humble origin. He was of the same age as Octavian
(as the emperor was then called), and *as studying with him at
Apollonia when news of Julius Caesar's assassination (44)
arrived. By his advice Octavian at once set out for Rome.
Agrippa played a conspicuous part in the war against Lucius,
brother of Mark Antony, which ended in the capture of Perusia
(40). Two years later he put down a rising of the Aquitanians
in Gaul, and crossed the Rhine to punish the aggressions of the
Germans. On his return he refused a triumph but accepted the
consulship (37). At this time Sextus Pbmpeius, with whom war
was imminent, had command of the sea on the coasts of Italy.
Agrippa's first care was to provide a safe harbour for his ships,
which he accomplished by cutting through the strips of land
which separated the Lacus Lucrinus from the sea, thus forming
an outer harbour; an inner one was also made by joining the
lake A vermis to the Lucrinus (Dio Cassius xlviii. 49 ; Pliny, Nat.
Hist, xxxvi. 24). About this time Agrippa married Pomponia,
daughter of Cicero's friend Pomponius Atticus. Having been
appointed naval commander-in-chief he put his crews through a
course of training, until he felt in a position to meet the fleet of
Pompeius. In 36 he was victorious at Mylae and Naulochus, and
received the honour of a naval crown for his services. In 33 he
was chosen aedile and signalized his tenure of office by effecting
great improvements in the dty of Rome, restoring and building
aqueducts, enlarging and cleansing the sewers, and constructing
baths and porticos, and laying out gardens. He also first gave
426
AGRIPPA VON NETTESHEIM
a stimulus to the public exhibition of works of art. The em-
peror's boast that he had found the city of brick but left it of
marble (" marmoream se relinquere, quam latericiam accepisset,"
Suet. Aug. 29) might with greater propriety have been uttered
by Agrippa. He was again called away to take command of the
fleet when the war with Antony broke out. The victory at
Actium (31), which gave the mastery of Rome and the empire of
the world to Octavian, was mainly due to Agrippa. As a token
of signal regard Octavian bestowed upon him the hand of his
niece Marcclla (28). We must suppose that his wife Pomponia
was cither dead or divorced. In 27 Agrippa was consul for the
third time, and in the following year the senate bestowed upon
Octavian the emperial title of Augustus. Probably in com-
memoration of the battle of Actium, Agrippa built and dedicated
the Pantheum still in existence as La Rotonda. The inscription
on the portico states that it was erected by him during his third
consulship. His friendship with Augustus seems to have been
clouded by the jealousy of his father-in-law Marccllus, which was
probably fomented by the intrigues of Livia, the second wife of
Augustus, who feared his influence with her husband. The result
was that Agrippa left Rome, ostensibly to take over the governor-
ship of Syria— a sort of honourable exile; but as a matter of fact
he only sent his legate to the East, while he himself remained at
Lesbos. On the death of Marcellus, which took place within a
year, he was recalled to Rome by Augustus, who found he could
not dispense with his services. It is said that by the advice of
Maecenas he resolved to attach Agrippa still more closely to him
by making him his son-in-law. He accordingly induced him to
divorce Marcellaand marry his daughter Julia (21), the widow of
Marcellus, equally celebrated for her beauty and abilities and her
shameless profligacy. In 19 Agrippa was employed in putting
down a rising of the Cantabrians in Spain. He was appointed
governor of Syria a second time (17), where his just and prudent
administration won him the respect and good-will of the pro-
vincials, especially the Hebrew population. His last public
service was the bloodless suppression of an insurrection in
Pannonia (13). He died at Campania in March of the year
following his fifty-first year. Augustus honoured his memory
by a magnificent funeral.
Agrippa was also known as a writer, especially on geography.
Under his supervision Julius Caesar's design of having a complete
survey of the empire made was carried out. From the materials
at hand he constructed a circular chart, which was engraved on
marble by Augustus and afterwards placed in the colonnade
built by his sister Polla. Amongst his writings an autobiography,
now lost, is referred to. Agrippa left several children; by
Pomponia, a daughter Vipsania, who became the wife of the
emperor Tiberius; by Julia three sons, Gaius and Lucius Caesar
and Agrippa Postumus, and two daughters, Agrippina the elder,
afterwards the wife of Germanicus, and Julia, who married
Lucius Aemilius Paullus.
See Dio Cassius xlix.-liv.; Suetonius, Augustus; Velletui Pater-
cuius ii.; Josephus. Antiq. Jud. xv. 10, xvi. 2; Turnbull, Three
Dissertations, one 01 the characters of Horace, Augustus and Agrippa
(1740); Frandsen, Marcus Vifisanius Agrippa (1836); Motte, Elude
sur Marcus Agrippa (1872); Nispi-Landi, Marcus Agrippa e i suoi
tempi (1901); D. Detlefscn, Ursprung. Einricktung und Btdeutung
der Erdkarte Agrippas (1906); V. Gardthausen, Augustus und seine
Zeit, vol. i. 762 foil., ii. 432 foil.
AGRIPPA VON NETTESHEIM, HENRY CORNELIUS (1486-
xS35)t German writer, soldier, physician, and by common
reputation a magician, belonged to a family many members of
which had been in the service of the house of Habsburg, and was
born at Cologne on the 14th of September 1486. The details of
his early life are somewhat obscure, but he appears to have
obtained a knowledge of eight languages, to have studied at the
university of Cologne* and to have passed some time in France.
When quite young he entered the service of the German king,
Maximilian I., and in 1508 was engaged in an adventurous enter-
prise in Catalonia. He probably served Maximilian both as
soldier and as secretary, but his wonderful and varied genius was
not satisfied with these occupations, and he soon began to take
a lively interest in theosophy and magic In z 509 he went to the
university of Dole, where he lectured on John Reuchkn's A
Verbo mirifico, but his teaching soon caused charges of heresy tc
be brought against him, and he was denounced by a monk rasas'
John Catilinet in,lectures delivered at Ghent. As a result Agripp
was compelled to leave Dole; proceeding to the Netherlands ht
took service again with Maximilian. In 1510 the king seat h-*
on a diplomatic mission to England, where he was the guest u
Colet, dean of St Paul's, and where he replied to the accusauoo
brought against him by Catilinet. Returning to Cologne fer
followed Maximilian to Italy in 1 51 i,and as a theologian attend*:
the council of Pisa, which was called by some cardinals in oppos.-
tion to a council called by Pope Julius II. He remained in ItaN
for seven years, partly in the service of William VI., marquis -
Monferrato, and partly in that of Charles III., duke of Save;
probably occupied in teaching theology and practising mediae
In 151 5 he lectured at the university of Pa via on the Pimtcmdcr
of Hermes Trismegistus, but these lectures were abruptly ter-
minated owing to the victories of Francis I., king of Franct
In 1 51 8 the efforts of one or other of his patrons secured for
Agrippa the position of town advocate and orator, or syndic
at Meu. Here, as at Dole, his opinions soon brought him int*
collision with the monks, and his defence of a woman accused
of witchcraft involved him in a dispute with the inquisitor.
Nicholas Savin. The consequence of this was that in i$»
he resigned his office and returned to Cologne, where he stayed
about two years. He then practised for a short time as •
physician at Geneva and Freiburg, but in 1524 went to Lyons
on being appointed physician to Louise of Savoy, mother of
Francis I. In x 528 he gave up this position, and about this time
was invited to take part in the dispute over the legality of the
divorce of Catherine of Aragon by Henry VUL, but he pre-
ferred an offer made by Margaret, duchess of Savoy and regent
of the Netherlands, and became archivist and historiographer
to the emperor Charles V. Margaret's death in 1530 weakened
his position, and the publication of some of his writings about
the same time aroused anew the hatred of his enemies; but
after suffering a short imprisonment for debt at Brussels he lived
at Cologne and Bonn, under the protection of Hermann of W.ed
archbishop of Cologne. By publishing his works he brought hna-
self into antagonism with the Inquisition, which sought to stop
the printing of De occulta philosophic. He then went to France,
where he was arrested by order of Francis I. for some disparaging
words about the queen-mother; but he was soon released, and
on the 1 8th of February x 535 died at Grenoble. He was married
three times and had a large family. Agrippa was a man of great
ability and undoubted courage, but he lacked perseverance
and was himself responsible for many of his misfortunes. la
spite of his inquiring nature and his delight in novelty, he re-
mained a Catholic, and had scant sympathy with the t^r^ir^
of the reformers. His memory was nevertheless long defamed
in the writings of the monks, who placed a malignant inscrip-
tion over his grave. Agrippa's work, De occulta pkilosopkux, was
written about 1510, partly under the influence of the author's
friend, John Trithemius, abbot of Wursburg, but its publication
was delayed until 1531, when it appeared at Antwerp. It is
a defence of magic, by means of which men may come to a
knowledge of nature and of God, and contains Agrippa's idea
of the universe with its three worlds or spheres. His other
principal work, De Incertitudine el Vanitate Scieniiarum et Artiam
atqut ExcelUntia Verbs Dei Declamatio, was written about 1517
and published at Antwerp in 1531. This is a sarcastic attack
on the existing sciences and on the pretensions of learned men.
In it Agrippa denounces the accretions which had grown up
around the simple doctrines of Christianity, and wishes for a
return to the primitive belief of the early Christian church. He
also wrote De NobUitate el PraeceUentia Peminei Sexmt, dedicated
to Margaret of Burgundy, De matrimonii Sacramento and other
smaller works. An edition of his works was published at Leaden
in 1550 and they have been republished several times.
See H. Morley, Life of H. C. Agrippa (London. 1896): A. Pro*.
Les Sciences et les arts occuUes au X VI. siide: Comeille A gnpp+* *• •*
et set marts (Paris, 1881 ); A. Daguet, Cornelius Agrippa (Pant, 183*) .
AGRIPPINA— AGUESSEAU
427
AGRIPPINA, the ° elder," daughter of Marcus Vipsanius
Agrippa by his third wife Julia, was the grand-daughter of
Augustus and the wife of Germanicus. She accompanied her
husband to Germany, when the legions on the Rhine revolted
after the death of Augustus (a.d. 14). Three years later she
was in the East with Germanicus (f .».), who died at Antioch in 29,
poisoned, it was said, by order of Cn. Calpurnius Piso, governor
of Syria. Eager to avenge his death, she returned to Rome and
boldly accused Piso of the murder of Germanicus. To avoid
public infamy Piso committed suicide. Tiberius and his favourite
Sejanus feared that her ambition might lead her to attempt
to secure the throne for her children, and she was banished to
the island of Pandataria off the coast of Campania, where she
died on the 18th of October 33, starved to death by herself, or,
according to some, by order of Tiberius. Two of her sons, Nero
and Drusus, had already fallen victims to the machinations of
Sejanus. Agripptna had a large family by Germanicus, several
of whom died young, while only two are of importance —
Agripptna the " younger " and Gaius Caesar, who succeeded
Tiberius under the name of Caligula. It is remarkable that,
although Tiberius had ordered the execution of his elder
brothers, by his will he left Caligula one of the heirs of the
Empire. Agrippina was a woman of the highest character
and exemplary morality. There is a portrait of her in the
Capitoline Museum at Rome, and a bronze medal in the British
Museum representing the bringing back of her ashes to Rome
by order of Caligula.
See Tac Ann. i.-vi.; Suetonius, Tiberius, 53; Dio Cassius Ivii.
6, lviii. 22, lix. 3; Elizabeth Hamilton, Memoirs of the Life of
Agrippina (1804); Burkhard, Agrippina, des Agnppa Tochter
U&46) ; Stahr, Rontische Kaiserfrauen (1880).
AGRIPPINA, the "younger" (a.d. 16-59), daughter of
Germanicus and Agrippina the elder, sister of Caligula and
mother of Nero, was born at Oppidum Ubiorum on the
Rhine, afterwards named in her honour Colonia Agrippinae
(mod. Cologne). Her life was notorious for intrigue and perfidy.
By her first husband, Gnaeus Domitius Ahenobarbus, she was
the mother of the emperor Nero; her second husband was
Passienus Crispus, whom she was accused of poisoning. 'Assisted
by the influential frcedman Pallas, she induced her uncle the
emperor Claudius to marry her after the death of Messalina, and
adopt the future Nero as heir to the throne in place of Britan-
nicus. Soon afterwards she poisoned Claudius and secured
the throne for her son, with the intention of practically ruling
on his behalf. Being alarmed at the influence of the freed woman
Acte over Nero, she threatened to support the claims of the
rightful heir Britannicus. Nero thereupon murdered the young
prince and decided to get rid of his mother. Pretending a re-
conciliation, he invited her to Baiae, where an attempt was
made to drown her on a vessel especially constructed to founder.
As this proved a failure, he had her put to death at her country
bouse. Agrippina wrote memoirs of her times, referred to by
Tacitus (Ann. iv. 53). Her character is set forth in Racine's
Britannicus.
See Tac. Ann. xii., xiii., xiv.; Dio Caasius lix.-lxi.; Suetonius,
Nero. 34; Stahr, Agrippina, die Mutter Neros (1880); Raffay, Die
Memoiren der K at serin Agrippina (1884); B. W. Henderson. The
Life and Principal of the Emperor Nero (1903); also article Nero.
AGROTERAS THUSIA, an annual festival held at Agrae near
Athens, in honour of Artemis Agrotcra, in fulfilment of a vow
made by the city, before the battle of Marathon, to offer in
sacrifice a number of goats equal to that of the Persians slain in
the conflict. The number being so great, it was decided to offer
500 goats yearly.
See Plutarch, De Maiignitale Herodoti, 26; Xenophon, Anab.
iii. 2. 12; Aelian, Var. Hist. ii. 25; SchoL on Aristophanes, Equites,
660.
AGUADILLA, a town and port near the northern extremity
of the W. coast of Porto Rico. Pop. (1899) 6425- It has a
fairly good and safe anchorage, and is the commercial outlet for
a very fertile agricultural district The town is attractively
situated and well built, and is connected by railway with Maya-
gues, 20 m. distant, and also with Ponce and San Juan. The
neighbouring district produces sugar-cane, tobacco, cattle,
cocoanuts, oranges and lemons. The bay is supposed to have
been first visited by Columbus (November 1493), though the
town was not founded until 1775.
AGUADO, ALEXANDRE MARIE, marquis, de Las Marismas
del Guadalquivir, viscount de Monte Ricco (1 784-1842),
Spanish banker, was born of Jewish parentage at Seville, on
the 29th of June 1784. He began life as a soldier, fighting with
distinction in the Spanish war of independence on the side of
Joseph Bonaparte. After the battle of Baylen ( 1 808) he entered
the French army, in which he rose to be colonel and aide-de-camp
to Marshal Soult He was exiled in 28x5, and immediately
started business as a commission-agent in Paris, where, chiefly
through his family connexions in Havana and Mexico, he
acquired in a few years enough wealth to enable him to undertake
banking. The Spanish government gave him full powers to
negotiate the loans of 1823, 1828, 1830 and 1831; and Ferdinand
VII. rewarded him with the title of marquis, the decorations
of several orders and valuable mining concessions in Spain.
Aguado also negotiated the Greek loan of 1834. In 1828, having
become possessed of large estates in France, including the chateau
Margaux, famous for its wine, he was naturalized as a French
citizen. He died at Gijon in Spain on the 14th of April 1842,
leaving a fortune computed at 60,000,000 francs, and a splendid
collection of pictures which at his death was bought by the
French government.
AGUASCALIENTES, an inland state of Mexico, bounded
N., E. and W. by the state of Zacatecas, and S. by Jalisco.
Pop. (est 1900) 102,416, a gradual decrease since the census
years of 1895 and 1879; area, 2970 sq. m. The state occupies
an elevated plateau, extending from two spurs of the Sierra
Madre, called the Sierra Fria and Sierra de laurel, eastward to
the rolling fertile plains of its eastern and south-eastern districts.
It is well watered by numerous small streams and one larger
river, the Aguascalientes or Rio Grande, and has a mild healthy
climate with a moderate rainfall. The fertile valleys of the
north and west are devoted to agriculture and the plains to stock-
raising. Indian corn, flour, cattle, horses, mules and hides are
exported to the neighbouring states. Mining industries are
still undeveloped, but considerable progress has been made in
manufactures, especially of textile fabrics. The state has good
railway communications and a prosperous trade. The capital,
Aguascalientes, named from the medicinal hot springs near it,
is a flourishing commercial and manufacturing city. Pop. (est
1000) 35,052 It has cotton factories, smelting works, potteries,
tanneries, distilleries, and wagon and tobacco factories. It is a
station on the Mexican Central railway, 364 m. by rail north-
west of the city of Mexico, and is connected by rail with Tampico
on the Gulf of Mexico. The city is well built, has many fine
churches and good public buildings, street cars and electric
lights. The surrounding district is well cultivated and produces
an abundance of fruit and vegetables. Other prominent towns
of the state are Rinc6n de Romos (or Victoria de Calpulalpam),
Asientos de Ibarra and Calvillo, the first having more and the
others less than 5000 inhabitants
AGUE (from Lat. acuta, sharp; sc febris, fever), the common
name given to a form or stage of malarial disease; the ague fit
is the cold, shivering stage, and hence the word is also loosely
used for any such paroxysm. Simple ague is of much the same
type whether in temperate or tropical climates, and may take
various forms (quotidian, tertian, quartan), passing into " re-
mittent fever" The symptoms are discussed, together with
causation, &c, in the article Malaria. For " brow-ague "
see Neuralgia.
AGUESSEAU, HENRI FRANCOIS D» (1668-1751). chancellor
of France, illustrious for his virtues, learning and talents, was
born at Limoges, of a family of the magistraturc. His father,
Henri d' Aguesseau, a hereditary councillor of the parlement
of Metz, was a man of singular ability and breadth of view who,
after holding successively the posts of intendant of Limousin,
Guyenne and Languedoc, was in 1685 called to Paris as coun-
cillor of state, appointed director-general of commerce and
428
AGUILAR— AHAB
manufactures in 1695, president of the council of commerce in
x 700 and a member of the council of the regency for finance. By
him Francois d'Aguesseau was early initiated into affairs and
brought up in religious principles deeply tinged with Jansenism.
He studied law under Jean Domat, whose influence is apparent
in both the legal writings and legislative work of the chancellor.
When little more than twenty-one years of age he was, through
his father's influence with the king, appointed one of the three
advocates-general to the parlement of Paris; and the eloquence
and learning which he displayed in his first speech gained him
a very high reputation. D'Aguesseau was in fact the first great
master of forensic eloquence in France.
In 1700 he was appointed procurator-general; and In this
office, which he filled for seventeen years, he gained the greatest
popularity by his defence of the rights of the Galilean Church
in the Quietist troubles and in those connected with the bull
Unigenitus (see Jansenism). In February 17x7 he was made
chancellor by the regent Orleans; but was deprived of the seals
in January of the following year and exiled to his estate of
Fresnes in Brie, on account of his steady opposition to the
projects of the famous John Law, which had been adopted by
the regent and his ministers. In. June 1720 he was recalled to
satisfy public opinion; and he contributed not a little by the
firmness and sagacity of his counsels to calm the public dis-
turbance and repair the mischief which had been done. Law
himself had acted as the messenger of his recall; and it is said
that d'Aguesseau's consent to accept the seals from his hand
greatly diminished his popularity. The parlement continuing its
opposition to the registering of the bull Unigenitus, d'Aguesseau,
fearing a schism and a religious war in France, assisted Guillaume
Dubois, the favourite of the regent, in his endeavour to force
the parlement to register the bull, acquiesced in the exile of the
magistrates and allowed the Great Council to assume the power
of registration, which legally belonged to the parlement alone.
The people unjustly attributed his conduct to a base compliance
with the favourite. He certainly opposed Dubois in other
matters; and when Dubois became chief minister d'Aguesseau
was deprived of his office (March x, 1722).
He retired to his estate, where he passed five years of which he
always spoke with delight The Scriptures, which he read and
compared in various languages, and the jurisprudence of his
own and other countries, formed the subjects of his more serious
studies; the rest of his time was devoted to philosophy, literature
and gardening. From these occupations he was recalled to
court by the advice of Cardinal Fleury in 1727, and on the
15th of August was named chancellor for the third time, but
the seals were not restored to him till ten years later. During
these years he endeavoured to mediate In the disputes between
the court and the parlement When he was at last reinstated
in office, he completely withdrew from all political affairs, and
devoted himself entirely to his duties as chancellor and to the
achievement of those reforms which had long occupied his
thoughts. He aimed, as others had tried before him, to draw
up in a single code all the laws of France, but was unable to
accomplish his task. Besides some important enactments
regarding donations, testaments and successions, he introduced
various regulations for improving the forms of procedure, for
ascertaining the limits of jurisdictions and for effecting a greater
uniformity in the execution of the laws throughout the several
provinces. These reforms constitute an epoch in the history of
French jurisprudence, and have placed the name of d'Aguesseau
in the same rank with those of L'Hopital and Lamolgnon. As
a magistrate also he was so conscientious that the due de Saint-
Simon in his Memoirs complained that he spent too much time
over the cases that came before him.
In 1 750, when upwards of eighty-two years of age, d'Aguesseau
retired from the duties without giving up the rank Of chancellor.
He died on the 9th of February of the following year.
His grandson, Henri Cardin Jean Baptists, Marquis
d'Aguesseau (1746-1826), was advocate-general in the parle-
ment of Paris and deputy in the Estates- General. Under the
Consulate he became president of the court of appeal and later
He was elected to the French Academy
minister at Copenhagen,
in 1787.
u's works the most complete edition ia that of the
notice, by E. Falconnet in a vols. (Paris, 1865). The tar cxeater
part of his works relate to matters connected with bis prcicsnoa.
but they alto contain an elaborate treatise on money ;^evrral
and all positive law, there is that in the constitution of the human
mind which renders man a law to himself.
See Boullee, Histoire de la vie et des ouvragss dm
-Aguesseau (Paris, l8*0: Fr. Monnier
(Paris, i860; and ed.,
d'Aguesseau (Paris, 1835); Fr. Monnier, Le Ckanceticr fAgetesseaM
(Paris, x86o; and ed., tV'^ «---■-- ■— ■— ■* * »-•«- -**»-■
d'Aguesseau, Ac 08.v>).
Charles Butler, Mem. of Life 0/ H. F.
AGUILAR, ORACH (1816-1847), English writer, the daughter
of a Jewish merchant in London, was born in June 18x6. Her
works consist chiefly of religious fiction, such as The V*le cf
Cedars (1850) and Home Influence (1847), She also wrote, in
defence of her faith and its professors, The Spirit of Judaism
(1842) and other works. Her services were acknowledged
gratefully by the " women of Israel "in a testimonial which they
presented shortly before her death, which took place at Frank-
fort-on-the-Main on the x6th of September 1847.
AGUILAR, or Aguilar de la Froktera, a town of southern
Spain, in the province of Cordova; near the small river Cabra,
and on the Cordova-Malaga railway. Pop. (xooo) 13,236.
Aguilar " of the Frontier " was so named in the middle ages
from its position on the border of the Moorish territories, which
were defended by the castle of Anxur, now a ruin; but the
spacious squares and modern houses of the existing town retain
few vestiges of Moorish dominion. The olives and white wine
of Aguilar are celebrated in Spain, although the wine, which
somewhat resembles sherry, is known as Montilla, from the
adjacent town of that name. Salt springs exist in the neigh-
bourhood, and to the south there are two small lakes, Zonar
and Rincon, which abound in fish.
AOUILAS, a seaport of south-eastern Spain, In the province
of Murcia, on the Mediterranean Sea, at the terminus of a
railway from Hutrcal-Overa. Pop (1000) 15,868. Aguilas is
built on the landward side of a small peninsula, between two
bays— the Puerto Ponente, a good harbour, on the south-west,
and the Puerto Levanto, which is somewhat dangerous to
shipping in rough weather, on the north-east. It is the chief
outlet for the Spanish trade in esparto grass, and for the iron
ore and other mineral products of the neighbourhood. It has
also some trade in fruit and grain. The imports consist chiefly
of coal In X904, 206 vessels, of 238,274 tons, cleared at this
port.
AGUILERA, VENTURA RUIZ (1820-1881), Spanish poet,
was born in 1820 at Salamanca, where he graduated in medicine.
He removed to Madrid in 1844, engaged in journalism and won
considerable popularity with a collection of poems entitled
Ecos nacionales (1849). His Elcglas y Armontas (1863) was no
less successful, but hhSdiiras (1874) Rod Estacionesdeiam* (1879)
showed that his powers were declining. He wrote under the
obvious influence of Lamartine, preaching the gospel of liberal-
ism and Christianity in verses which, though deficient in force,
leave the impression of a sincere devotion and a charming
personality He became director of the national archaeological
museum at Madrid, where he died on the xst of July x88x.
AGUILLOH (Acuilonius), FRANCOIS V (1566-1617).
Flemish mathematician. Having entered the Society of Jesus
in 1586, he was successively professor of philosophy at Douti
and rector of the Jesuit College at Antwerp. He wrote a treatise
on optics in six books (Antwerp, 161 3), notable for containing
the principles of stereographic projection.
AHAB (in Heb. 'afi'ib, " father's brother "), king of Israel,
the son and successor of Omri, ascended the throne about
875 b.c. (1 Kings xvi. 20-34)- He married Jesebel, the daughtrt
of the king of Sidon. and the alliance was doubtless the means
of procuring him great riches, which brought pomp and luxury
'AHAI— AHASUERUS
429
fh their train. We read of hit building an ivory palace and
f bunding new cities, the effect perhaps of a share in the flourish-
ing commerce of Phoenicia. 1 The material, prosperity of his
reign, which is comparable with that of Solomon a century
before, was overshadowed by the religious changes which his
marriage involved. Although he was a worshipper of Yahweh,
as the names of his children prove (cp. also xxii. 5 seq.), his wife
was firmly attached to the worship of the Tynan Baal, Mdkart,
and led by her he gave a great impulse to this cult by building
a temple in honour of Baal in Samaria. This roused the in-
dignation of those prophets whose aim it was to purify the
worship of Yahweh (see Elijah). During Ahab's reign Moab,
which had been conquered by his father, remained tributary;
Judah, with whose king, Jehoshaphat, he was allied by marriage,
was probably his vassal; only with Damascus is he said to have
had strained relations. The one event mentioned by external
sources b the battle at Karfcar (perhaps Apamea), where Shal-
maneser IL of Assyria fought a great confederation of princes
from Cilida, N. Syria, Israel, Ammon and the tribes of the Syrian
desert (854 b.c). Here Akabbu Sir>hi (Ahab the Israelite) with
Baasha, son of Ruhub (Rehob) of Ammon and nine others are
allied with Bir-'idri (Ben-hadad), Ahab's contribution being
reckoned at 2000 chariots and 10,000 men. The numbers are
comparatively large and possibly include forces from Tyre,
Judah, Edom and Moab. The Assyrian king claimed a victory,
but his immediate return and subsequent expeditions in 849
and 846 against a similar but unspecified coalition seem to
show that he met with no lasting success. According to the
OW Testament narratives, however, Ahab with 7000 troops had
previously overthrown Ben-hadad and his thirty-two kings,
who had come to lay siege td Samaria, and in the following year
obtained a remarkabie victory over him at Aphek, probably
in the plain of Sharon (1 Kings xx.). A treaty was made whereby
Ben-hadad restored the cities which his father had taken from
Ahab's father (U. Omri, but see xv. 20, a Kings znL 25), and
trading facilities between Damascus and Samaria were granted.
A late popular story (xx. 35-42, akin in tone to xii. 33-xiii. 34)
condemned Ahab for his leniency and foretold the destruction
of the king and his land. Three years later, war broke out on
the east of Jordan, and Ahab with Jehoshaphat of Judah went
to recover Ramoth-Guead and was mortally wounded (xxii.).
He was succeeded by his sons (Ahaxiah and Jehoram).
It is very difficult to obtain any dear idea of the order of these
events (LXX. places 1 Kings xxL immediately after six.). How
the hostile kings of Israel and Syria came to fight a common
enemy, and how to correlate the Assyrian and Biblical records,
are questions which have perplexed all recent writers. The reality
of the difficulties will be apparent from the fact that it has been
suggested that the Assyrian scribe wrote " Ahab " for his son
" Jehoram " (Kamphausen, Ckrond. <L hdr. Kfin., Battel), and
that the very identification of the name with Ahab of Israel has
been questioned (Horner, Proc. Soc. Bibl. Arch., 1808, p. 244).*
Whilst the above passages in 1 Kings view Ahab not unfavour-
ably, there are others which give a less friendly picture. The
tragic murder of Naboth (see Jezebel), an act of royal encroach-
ment, stirred up popular resentment just as the new cult aroused
the opposition of certain of the prophets. The latter found
their champion in Elijah, whose history reflects the prophetic
teaching of more than one age. (See Kings.) His denunciation
of the royal dynasty, and Ins emphatic insistence on the worship
of Yahweh and Yahweh alone, form the keynote to a period
which culminated in the accession of Jehu, an event in which
Elijah's chosen disciple Elisha was the leading figure.
The allusions to the statutes and works of Omri and Ahab in
Mic vL 16 may point to legislative measures of these kings, and
the reference to the inddents at the building of Jericho (x Kings
xvi. 34) may be taken to show that foundation sacrifices, familiar
1 Ahab's ivory palace found its Imitators (1 Kings xxii. 39; Am.
iii. is). The ivory was probably brought by the Phoenician* from
Cyprus or from one of the works on the coast of Asia Minor.
1 See the diKttssJons by Cheyne, Emcy. Bib. col. 91 seq., and by
Whitcbottte, Diet. Bib. L 53.
in nearly all parts of the world, were not unknown in Israel at
this period. 9 This has in fact been confirmed by excavation In
Palestine.
Another Ahab is known only as an impious prophet in the
time of the Babylonian exile Qer. xxix. 21). (S. A. C.)
'AHAI, of Sabha, an 8th-century Tslmudist of high renown.
He was author of QuaeUumes (SkciltoiA), a collection of homilies
(at once learned and popular) on Jewish law and ethics. This is
recorded to have been the first work written by a Jewish scholar
after the completion of the Talmud,
AHA8UBRU8 (the Latinized form of the Hebrew s*Bfa;
in LXX. 'Afffoftapof, once in Tobit 'A*&fpot), a royal Persian
or Median name occurring in three of the books of the Old
Testament and in one of the books of the Apocrypha. In every
case the identificati o n of the person named is a matter of
controversy.
In Dan. jx. 1 Ahasuerus is the father of Darius the Mede, who
" was made king over the realm of the Chaldeans " after the
conquest of Babylon and death of Belshazzar. Who this Darius
was is one of the most difficult questions in andent history.
Nabonidos (Nabunaid, Nabu-nahid) was immediately succeeded
by Cyrus, who ruled the whole Persian empire. Darius may
possibly have acted under Cyrus as governor of Babylon, but
this view Is not favoured by Dan. vi x, vi 25, for Darius (v. 31) is
said to have been sixty-two years old at the time (638 b.c). This
would make him contemporary with Nebuchadrezzar, which
agrees with Tob. xiv. 15, where we read " of the destruction of
Nineveh, which Nebuchadnezzar, and Ahasuerus took captive.''
As a matter of fact, however, Cyaxares and Nabopolassar were
the conquerors of Nineveh, and the latter was the father of
Nebuchadrezzar. Cyrus did, on ascending the throne of Babylon,
appoint a governor of the province, but his name was Gobryas,
the son of Mardonius. The truth is, no doubt, as Prof. Sayce
points out, that the book of Daniel was not meant to be strictly
historical As Prof. Driver says, " tradition, it can hardly be
doubted, has here confused persons and events in reality dis-
tinct " (LiUrahtre cftkeOUTaL (6) p. 500).
In Ezra iv. 6 Ahasuerus is mentioned as a king of Persia, to
whom the enemies of the Jews sent representations opposing the
rebuilding of the temple at Jerusalem. Here the sequence of
the reigns in the Biblical writer and in the profane historians—
in the one, Cyrus, Ahasuerus, Artaxerxes, Darius; in the other,
Cyrus, Cambyses, Smerdis, Darius— fed in the past (Ewald, &<0
to the identification of Ahasuerus with Cambyses (520-522 B.C.),
son of Cyrus. The name Kkshoydrsha, however, has been found
in Persian inscriptions, and has been thought to be equivalent to
the Xerxes (485-465 b.c) of the Greeks. On Babylonian tablets
both the forms KMskiarsku and ^kkashiartki occur .amongst
others. Modern scholars, therefore, identify the Ahasuerus of
Ezra with Xerxes.
In the book of feather the king of Persia is called
Ahasuerus (rendered in LXX. " Artaxerxes " throughout). The
identification of Ahasuerus with Artaxerxes L Longimanus, the
son and successor of Xerxes, though countenanced by Josephus,
deserves little consideration. Most students are agreed that he
must be a monarch of the Achaemenian dynasty, earlier than
Artaxerxes L; and opinion is divided between Darius Hystaspes
and Xerxes. In support of the former view it is alleged, among
other things, that Darius was the first Persian king of whom it
could be said, as in Esther Lx, that he "reigned from India even
unto Ethiopia, over an hundred and seven' and twenty pro-
vinces "; and that it was also the distinction of Darius that
(Esther x. 1) he laid " a tribute upon the land and upon the isles
of the sea " (cf. Herod, iii. 89). In support of the identification
with Xerxes it is alleged (1) that the Hebrew 'Afeashverosh is
the natural equivalent of the old Persian Kkskayarsko, the true
name of Xerxes; (2) that there b a striking similarity of
character between the Xerxes of Herodotus and the Ahasuerus
of Esther; (3) that certain coincidences in dates and events
•See Trumbull, ThrttkeU Cmnant, pp. 46 aqq.: Haddon, Study
&f Man, pp. 347 aqq.; P. Sartori, ZsilKSr. fir Ethnolotv. 1898,
pp. I seq.-
430
AHAZ— AHMAD IBN HANBAL
corroborate this identity, as, e.g., the feast in the king's third
year (cf. Esther i. 3 with Herod. viL 8), the return of Xerxes
to Susa in the seventh year of his reign and the marriage of
Ahasuems at Shushan in the same year of his. To this it may
be added that the interval of four years between the divorce of
Vashti and the marriage of Esther is well accounted for by the
intervention of an important series of events fully occupying
the monarch's thoughts, such as the invasion of Greece.
See articles " Ahasuerus " in the Encyclopaedia Biblica. Hastings*
Dictionary, the Jewish Encyclopaedia ; S. R. Driver, Introd. to the Lit,
of Ike Old Test. ; Friedrich Delitzsch in the Calwer BibeUexikon (1893).
AHAZ (Heb. for "[Yahweh] holds "), son of Jotham, grand-
son of Uzzian or Azariah and king of Judah, After the death
of Mcnahcm, Pekah, king of Israel, and Rezin (rather Rasun),
Icing of Syria, allied against Assyria, invaded Judah, and laid
siege to Jerusalem in the hope of setting up one of their puppets
upon the throne. At the same time the Edomites recovered
Elath on the Gulf of Akabah (so read in 2 Kings xvi. 6; cp. also
2 Chron. xxviiL 16 sqq.) and Judah was isolated. Notwith-
standing the counsel of Isaiah (Is. vii. x-17), Ahaz lost heart and
used the temple funds to call in the aid of Tiglath-pileser IV., who
after attacking the Philistines destroyed the power of Syria,
taking care to exact heavy tribute from Judah, which led to
further despoliation of the temple. It was as a vassal that Ahaz
presented himself to the Assyrian king at Damascus, and he
brought back religious innovations (2 Kings xvi xo sqq.; for
the priest Urijah see Is. viii. 2) and new ideas to which he pro-
ceeded to give effect. His buildings are referred to in 2 Kings
xx. xx, xxiii. 12; cf. perhaps Jer. xxiL 15*. " art thou a true king
because thou viest with Ahaz" (see the LXX.). Ahaz was
succeeded by his son Hezekian.
On the ritual changes which he introduced see W. R. Smith,
RiHg. of Semites (2), pp. 485 sqq. ; and on his reign, idem, Prophets 01
Israel (2), pp. 415 «qq- On 2 Kings xvi. 3 (r - ~»— - —
see Moloch. See further Isaiah and Jews.
lings xvi. 3 (cf. 2 Chron. xxviiL 3)
AHAZIAH f he whom Yahweh sustains "), the name of two
kings in the Bible, one of Israel, the other of Judah. (x) Ahaziah,
8th king of Israel, was the son and successor of Ahab, and reigned
for less than two years. On his accession the Moabites refused
any longer to pay tribute. Ahaziah lost his life through a fall from
the lattice of an upper room in his palace, and it is stated that
in his illness he sent to consult the oracle of Baal-zcbub at Ekron;
his messengers, however, were met by Elijah, who bade them
return and tell the king he must die (a Kings L 2-17; cf. Luke ix.
54-56). (2) Ahaziah, 6th king of Judah, was the son of Jehoram
and Ahab's 'daughter Athaliah, and reigned one year. He is
described as ai wicked and idolatrous king, and was slain by Jehu,
son of NimshL He is variously called Jehoahaz and Azariah.
AHENOBARBUS (" brazen-bearded "), the name of a plebeian
Roman family of the gens Domitia. The name was derived from
the red beard and hair by which many of the family were dis-
tinguished. Amongst its members the following may be
mentioned: —
Gnaeus Domxttds Ahenobarbus, tribune of the people
104 b.c, brought forward a law (lex Domitia de Sacerdoliis) by
which the priests of the superior colleges were to be elected by
the people in the comilia tribute (seventeen of the tribes voting)
instead of by co-optation; the law was repealed by Sulla, re-
vived by Julius Caesar and (perhaps) again repealed by Marcus
Antonius, the triumvir (Cicero, De Lege Agraria, ii. 7; Suetonius,
Nero, 2). Ahenobarbus was elected pontifex maximus in 103,
consul In 06 and censor in 92 with Lucius Lidnius Crassus the
orator, with whom he was frequently at variance. They took
joint action, however, in suppressing the recently established
Latin rhetorical schools, which they regarded as injurious to
public morality (Aulus Gellius xv. xx).
Lucius Doxmus Ahenobarbus, son of the above, husband
of Porda the sister of Cato Uticensis, friend of Cicero and enemy
of Caesar, and a strong supporter of the aristocratkal party.
At first strongly opposed to Pompey, he afterwards sided with
him against Caesar. He was consul in 54 B.C., and in 49 he was
appointed by the senate to succeed Caesar as governor of GauL
After the outbreak of the civil war he commanded the Fompetan
troops at Corfinium, but was obliged to surrender. Although
treated with great generosity by Caesar, he stirred up Massiha
(Marseilles) to an unsuccessful resistance against him. After
its surrender, he joined Pompey in Greece and was slain in the
flight after the battle of Pharsalus, in which he commanded the
right wing against Antony (Caesar, Bcllum Civile, t., iL, iii.;
Dio Cassius xxxix., xli.; Appian, B.C. ii. 82).
Gnaeus Domitius Ahenobarbus, son of the above, accom-
panied his father at Corfinium and Pharsalus, and, having been
pardoned by Caesar, returned to Rome in 46. After Caesar's
assassination he attached himself to Brutus and Cassius, and in
43 was condemned by the lex Pedia as having been implicated
in the plot. He obtained considerable naval successes in the
Ionian Sea against the triumvirate, but finally, through the
mediation of Asinius Pollio, became reconciled to Antony, who
made him governor of Bithynia. He took part in Antony's
Parthian campaigns, and was consul in 32. When war broke
out between Antony and Octavian, he at first supported Antony,
but, disgusted with his intrigue with Cleopatra, went over to
Octavian shortly before the battle of Actium (31). He died
soon afterwards(Dio Cassius xlviii.-l; Appian, Bell. Cro. iv.,v.).
His son was married to Antonia, daughter of Antony, and became
the grandfather of the emperor Nero.
See Drumann, CeschichU Rom., 2nd ed. by Groebe.vol. iii. pp.14 fl.
AHITHOPHEL (Heb. for " brother of foolishness, " U.
foolishl), a man of Judah whose son was a member of David's
bodyguard. He was possibly the grandfather of Bathsheba
(see 2 Sam. xL 3, xxiii. 34), a view which has been thought to
have some bearing on his policy. He was one of David's most
trusted advisers, and his counsel was " as though one inquired
of the word of God." He took a leading part in Absalom's
revolt, and bis defection was a severe blow to the king, who
prayed that God would bring his counsel to " foolishness."
The subsequent events are rather obscure. At Ahithopbel's
advice Absalom first took the precaution of asserting his claim
to the throne by seizing his father's concubines (cf . Abner).
The immediate pursuit of David was then suggested; the
advice was accepted, and the sequence of events shows that the
king, being warned of this, fled across the Jordan (2 Sam. xvi
30-23, xvii. 1-4, 22). Inconsistent with this is the account of
the intervention of Hushai, whose oounsel of delay (in order to
gather all Israel " from Dan to Beersheba "), in spite of popular
approbation, was not adopted, and with this episode is con-
nected the tradition that the sagacious counsellor returned to
his home and, having disposed of his estate, banged himself..
Instances of suicide are rare in the Old Testament (cf. Saul),
and it is noteworthy that in this case, at least, a burial was not
refused. (See further Absalom; David; Samuel, Books or.)
AgXAD IBN 9ANBAL (780-855), the founder, involuntarily
and after his death, of the rjanbalite school of canon law, was
born at Bagdad in a.h. 164 (a.d. 780) of parents from Merv bnt
of Arab stock. He studied the Koran and its traditions (ko&U,
swtna) there and on a student journey through Mesopotamia,
Arabia and Syria. After his return to Bagdad he studied under
ash-Shifil between 195 and xo8, and became, for bis life, a
devoted Shifi-'ite. But his position in both theology and law
was more narrowly traditional than that of ash-Shifil; be
rejected all reasoning, whether orthodox or heretical in its
conclusions, and stood for acceptance on tradition (naqf) only
from the Fathers. (See further on this, Mahommedan Religion
and Mahokmedan Law.) In consequence, when al-Ma'mOn
and, after him, al-Mo'tasim and al-W&thiq tried to force upon
the people the rationalistic Mo'tazQite doctrine that the Koran
was created, Ibn Hanbal, the most prominent and popular
theologian who stood for the old view, suffered with others
grievous imprisonment and scourging. In 234, under al-Mota-
wakkil, the Koran was finally decreed uncreated, and Ibn
Hanbal, who had come through this trial better than any of
the other theologians, enjoyed an '"""ip popularity with the
mass of the people as a saint, confessor and ascetic He died
at Bagdad in 341 (ad. 855) and was buried there. There was
AHMAD SHAH— AHMEDABAD
43 »
much popular excitement at his funeral, and his tomb was known
and visited until at least the 14th century aj>.
On his great work, the Musnad, a collection of some thirty thou-
sand selected traditions, see Goldriber in ZDMG, I. 465 A*. For his
life and works generally tee W. M. Patten, Ahmed tbn Hanbal and
fa* Mikna; C. Brockelmann, Gcschichte dtr Arab. LU, I 1 81 ft*.;
F. Wustenfcld, Schafi'tUn. 55 ff.; M'G. deSlane's transL of Ibn
KhaUikan, i. 44 ff.; Macdonald, Da*hpme*t of Muslim Theology,
1 10, 157. index. (D. R Ma.)
AHMAD SHAH (1724-1773), founder of the Durani dynasty
in Afghanistan, was the son of Sammaun-Khan, hereditary
chief of the Abdali tribe. WhOe still a boy Ahmad fell into the
hands of the hostile tribe of Ghflzais, by whom he was kept
prisoner at Kandahar. In March x 738 he was rescued by Nadir
Shah, who soon afterwards gave him the command of a body of
cavalry composed chiefly of Abdalis. On the assassination of
Nadir in 2747, Ahmad, having failed in an attempt to seize the
Persian treasures, retreated to Afghanistan, where he easily
persuaded the native tribes to assert their independence and
accept him as their sovereign. He was crowned at Kandahar
in October 1747* and about the same time he changed the name
of his tribe to Durani. Two things may be said to have con-
tributed greatly to the consolidation of his power. He inter-
fered as little as possible with the independence of the different
tribes, demanding from each only its due proportion of tribute
and military service; and he kept his army constantly engaged
in brilliant schemes of foreign conquest Being possessed of the
Koh-i-noor diamond, and being fortunate enough to intercept a
consignment of treasure on its way to the shah of Persia, he had
all the advantages which great wealth can give. He first crossed
the Indus in 2748, when he took Lahore; and in 1751, after a
feeble resistance on the part of the Mahommedan viceroy, he
became master of the entire Punjab. In 1 750 he took Nishapur,
and in 175a subdued Kashmir. His great expedition to Delhi
was undertaken in 1756 in order to avenge himself on the Great
Mogul for the recapture of Lahore. Ahmad entered Delhi with
his army in triumph, and for more than a month the dty was
given over to pillage. The shah himself added to his wives a
princess of the imperial family, and bestowed another upon his
son Timur Shah, whom he made governor of the Punjab and
Sirhind. As his viceroy in Delhi he left a Rohilla chief in whom
be had all confidence, but scarcely had he crossed the Indus
when the Mahommedan wazir drove the chief from the city,
killed the Great Mogul and set another prince of the family, a
tool of his own, upon the throne. The Mahratta chiefs availed
themselves of these circumstances to endeavour to possess them-
selves of the whole country, and Ahmad was compelled more
than once to cross the Indus in order to protect his territory
from them and the Sikhs, who were constantly attacking his
garrisons. In 1758 the Mahrattas obtained possession of the
Punjab, but on the 6th of January 1761 they were totally routed
by Ahmad in the great battle of Panipat In a later expedition
be inflicted a severe defeat upon the Sikhs, but had to hasten
westwards immediately afterwards in order to quell an insur-
rection In Afghanistan. Meanwhile the Sikhs again rose, and
Ahmad was now forced to abandon all hope of retaining the
command of the Punjab. After lengthened suffering from a
terrible disease, said to have been cancer in the face, be
died in 1773, leaving to his son Timur the kingdom he had
founded.
AHMED L (1580-161 7), sultan of Turkey, was the son of
Mahommed III., whom he succeeded in 1603, being the first
Ottoman sultan who reached the throne before attaining his
majority. He was of kindly and humane disposition, as he
showed by refusing to put to death his brother Mustafa, who
eventually succeeded him. In the earlier part of his reign he
gave proofs of decision and vigour, which were belied by his
subsequent conduct. The wars which attended his accession
both in Hungary and in Persia terminated unfavourably for
Turkey, and her prestige received its first check in the peace
of SitvatOrdk, signed in 1606, whereby the annual tribute paid
by Austria was abolished. Ahmed gave himself up to pleasure
during the remainder of his reign, which ended in 1617, and
demoralization and corruption became as general throughout
the public service as indiscipline in the ranks of the army. The
use of tobacco is said to have been introduced into Turkey during
Ahmed Us reign.
AHMED II. (1643-169 5), sultan of Turkey, son of Sultan
Ibrahim, succeeded his brother Suleiman n. in 1691. His chief
merit was to confirm Mustafa Kuprfli as grand vizier. But
a few weeks after his accession Turkey sustained a crushing
defeat at Slankamen from the Austrians under Prince Louis
of Baden and was driven from Hungary; during the four years
of his reign disaster followed on disaster, and in 1695 Ahmed
died, worn out by disease and sorrow.
AHMED HI. (2637-2736), sultan of Turkey, ton of Mahommed
IV., succeeded to the throne in 1703 on the abdication of his
brother Mustafa n. He cultivated good relations with England,
in view doubtless of Russia's menacing attitude. He afforded
a refuge in Turkey to Charles XII. of Sweden, after his defeat
at Poltava ( 1 709). Forced against his will into war with Russia,
he came nearer than any Turkish sovereign before or since to
breaking the power of his northern rival, whom his Grand Vizier
Baltaji Mahommed Pasha succeeded in completely surrounding
near the Pruth (1711). In the treaty which Russia was compelled
to sign Turkey obtained the restitution of Azov, the destruction
of the forts built by Russia and the undertaking that the tsar
should abstain from future interference in the affairs of the
Poles or the Cossacks. Discontent at the leniency of these terms
was so strong at Constantinople that it nearly brought on a
renewal of the war. In 1715 the Morea was taken from the
Venetians. This led to hostilities with Austria, in which Turkey
was unsuccessful, and Belgrade fell into the hands of Austria
(1717). Through the mediation of England and Holland the
peace of Passarowitz was concluded (1718)* by which Turkey
retained her conquests from the Venetians, but lost Hungary.
A war with Persia terminated in disaster,. leading to a revolt
of the janissaries, who deposed Ahmed in September 173a
He died in captivity some years later.
AHMEDABAD, or Ahhadabad, a dty and district of British
India in the northern division of Bombay. The dty was once
the handsomest and most flourishing in western India, and it
still ranks next to. Agra and Delhi for the beauty and extent
of its architectural remains. It was founded by Ahmad Shah
in a.d. 14x1 on the site of several Hindu towns, which had pre-
ceded it, and was embellished by him with fine buildings of
marble, brought from a distance. The Portuguese traveller
Barbosa, who visited Gujarat in aj>. 25x1 and 15141 described
Ahmedabad as "very rich and well embellished with good
streets and squares supplied with bouses of stone and cement."
In Sir Thomas Roe's time, a.d. 16x5, " it was a goodly dty as
large as London." During the course of its history it has passed
through two periods of greatness, two of decay and one of revival
From 1411 to 1511 it grew in size and wealth; from 1 sir to 257a
it declined with the decay of the dynasty of Gujarat; from
257a to 2709 it renewed its greatness under the Mogul emperors;
from 2709 to 2809 it dwindled with their decline; and from
2818 onwards it has again increased under British rule.
The consequence of all these changes of dynasty was that
Ahmedabad became the meeting-place of Hindu, Mahommedan
and Jain architecture. Ahmad Shah pulled down Hindu temples
in order to build his mosques with the material. The Jama
Masjid itself, which he built in a.d. 1424, with its three hundred
pillars fantastically carved, is a Hindu temple converted into
a mosque (see Indian Aechitectoke, Plate III., fig. 1 5). One of
the finest buildings is the modern Jain temple of Hathi Singh out-
side the Delhi gate, which was built only in 2848, and is a stand-
ing monument to the endurance of Jain architectural art The
external porch, between two circular towers, is of great magnifi-
cence, most elaborately ornamented, and leads to an outer court,
with sixteen cells on either side. In the centre of this court is
a domed porch of the usual form with twenty pillars. The
court leads to an inner porch of twenty-two pillars, two stories
in height. This inner porch conducts to a triple sanctuary.
James Fergusson wrote of this temple that " each part increases
432
AHMEDNAGAR— AHMED VEFIK
in dignity to the sanctuary; and whether looked at from its
oourta or from outside, it possesses variety without confusion,
and an appropriateness of every part to the purpose for which
it was intended." But perhaps the most unique sight in
Ahmedabad is the two windows in Sidi Said's mosque of filigree
marble work. The design is an imitation of twining and inter-
laced branches, a marvel of delicacy and grace, and finer than
anything of the kind to be found in Agra or Delhi.
The modern dty of Ahmedabad is situated on the left bank
of the river Sabarmati, and is still surrounded by wans en-
closing an area of about a sq. m. Its population in loot
was 185,889. It has a station on the Bombay and Baroda
railway, 309 m. from Bombay, whence branch lines diverge
into Kathiawar and Mahi Kantha, and is a great centre for both
trade and manufacture. Its native bankers, shopkeepers and
workers are all strongly organised in gilds. It has cotton mills
for spinning and weaving, besides many handlooms, and factories
for ginning and pressing cotton. Other industries include the
manufacture of gold and silver thread, silk brocades, pottery,
paper and shoes. The prosperity of Ahmedabad, says a native
proverb, hangs on three threads— silk, gold and cotton; and
though its manufactures are on a smaller scale than formerly,
they are still moderately nourishing. The military cantonment,
3 m. north of the native town, is the headquarters of the
northern division of the Bombay command, with an arsenal
The district or Akmidabad lies at the head of the Gulf of
Cambay, between Baroda and Kathiawar. Area 3816 sq. m.
The river Sabarmati and its tributaries, flowing from north-east
to south-west into the Gulf of Cambay, are the principal streams
that water the district The north-eastern portion b slightly
elevated, and dotted with low hills, which gradually sink into
a vast plain, subject to inundation on its western extremity.
With the exception of this latter portion, the soil is very
fertile, and some parts of the district are beautifully wooded.
The population in xoox was 795,067, showing a decrease of 14 %
in the decade, due to the effects of famine. The principal
crops are millets, cotton, wheat and pulse. The district is
traversed by the Bombay and Baroda railway, and has two
seaports, Dholera and Gogo, the former of which has given its
name to a mark of raw cotton in the Liverpool market. It
suffered severely in the famine *>f 1899-1900.
AHMBDNAQAR, or Ahmadm agar, a dty and district of
British India in the Central division of Bombay on the left bank
of the river Sina. The town is of considerable antiquity, having
been founded in 1404 by Ahmad Nizam Shah, on the site of a
more ancient dty, Bhingar. This Ahmad established a new
monarchy, which lasted till its overthrow by Shah Jahan in 1636.
In 1759 the Peshwa obtained possession of the place by bribing
the Mahommedan commander, and in 1797 it was ceded by the
Peshwa to the Mahratta chief Daulat Rao Sindhia. During the
war with the Mahrattas in 1803 Ahmednagar was invested by a
British force under General Wellesley and captured. It was
afterwards restored to the Mahrattas, but again came into the
possession of the British in 1817, according to the terms of the
treaty of Poona. The town has rapidly advanced in prosperity
under British rule. Several mosques and tombs have been con-
verted to the use of British administration. The old industries
of carpet-weaving and paper-making have died out; but there
is a large trade in cotton and silk goods, and in copper and brass
pots, and there are factories for ginning and pressing cotton.
Ahmednagar is a station on the loop line of the Great Indian
Peninsula railway, 318 m. from Bombay, and a military
cantonment, being the headquarters of a brigade in the 6th
division of the western army corps. The population in loot
was 43W-
The district of Ahmednagar is a comparatively barren tract
with a small rainfall. The area is 6586 sq. m. The popula-
tion in 1001 was 837,695, showing a decrease of 6 % in the
decade, due to the results of famine. The bulk of the population
consists of Mahrattas and Kunbis, the latter being the agricul-
turists. On the north the district is watered by the Godavari
and its tributaries the Prawara and the Mula; on the north-east
by the Dor, another tributary of the Godavari; on the east by
the Sephani, which flows through the valley below the Babgfeat
range; and in the extreme south by the Bhima and its tributary
the Gor. The Sina river, another tributary of the Bhima, flows
through the Nagar and Karjat talukas. The principal crops sit
millet, pulse, oil-seeds and wheat The district suffered frost
drought in 1806- 1897, and again in 1899-1900.
AHMED TEWFIK, Pasha (1845- ), Turkish diplomatist,
was the son of Ismail Hakki Pasha. He was at first in the amy,
but left the service in x86a; four years later he entered the
diplomatic service, being employed at various European capitals.
He became minister at Athens in 1883 and ambassador in Berfin
in 1884. He was appointed minister for foreign affairs (i C a si \ jk
Nasiri) in 1806.
AHMED VBFIK, Pasha (1810-1891), Turkish statesman aid
man of letters, was born in Stambul in 18x9. He was the son of
Rouheddin Effendi, at one time charge" d'affaires in Paris, as
accomplished French scholar, who was, therefore, attached, in the
capacity of secretary-interpreter, to Reshid Pasha's diplomatic
mission to Paris in 1834. Reshid took Ahmed with him and
placed him at school, where he remained about five years and
completed his studies. He then returned to Constantinople, and
was appointed to a post in the bureau de traduction of the ministry
for foreign affairs. While thus employed he devoted his leisure
to the translation of Moliere's plays into Turkish and to tat
compilation of educational books— dictionaries, historical and
geographical manuals, &c— for use in Turkish schools, with the
object of promoting cultivation of the French language among
the rising generation. In 1847 he brought out the first edition
of. the Salnamek, the official annual of the Ottoman empire.
Two years later he was appointed imperial commissioner in the
Danubian principalities, and held that office till early in 1851
when he was sent to Persia as ambassador— a post which suited
his temperament, and in which he rendered good service to his
goverment for more than four years. Recalled in 1855, he was
sent on a mission to inspect the eastern frontiers* and on his
return was appointed member of the Grand Council of Justice,
and was entrusted with the revision of the penal code and the
code of procedure. This work occupied him until the begin-
ning of i860, when he was sent as ambassador to Paris, for the
special purpose of averting the much-dreaded intervention of
France in the affairs of Syria. But Ahmed Vefik's abrupt frank-
ness, irasdbility and abhorrence of compromise unfitted him for
European diplomacy. He offended the French government; his
mission failed, and he was recalled in January, 1861. None the
less his integrity of purpose was fully understood and appreciated
in Paris. On his return he was appointed minister of the JEafte/,
but he only retained his seat in the cabinet for a few months. He
was then for a brief period president of the Board of Audit, and
subsequently inspector of the Anatolian provinces, where he was
engaged for more than three years. His next appointment was
that of director-general of customs, whence he was removed to
the office of nuuteshar of the grand viaerate,and in the following
year entered the cabinet of Midhat Pasha as minister of pubhc
instruction, but very soon retired to his seat in the Council of
State and remained out of office until 1875, when he represented
Turkey at the International Telegraphic Conference in St Peters-
burg. He was president of the short-lived Turkish parliament
during its first session— March 19 to June 28, 1877— and at
its close was appointed vali of Adrianople, where be rendered
invaluable aid to the Red Cross Sodety. On his recall, at the
beginning of 1878, he accepted the ministry of public instntctiea
in the cabinet of Ahmed Hamdi Pasha, and on the abolition of
the grand virierate (February 5, 1878) he became prime minister
and held office till about the middle of April, when he resigned.
Early in the following year he was appointed vali of Brass, where
he remained nearly four years, and rendered admirable services
to the province. The drainage of the pestilent marshes, the
water-supply from the mountains, the numerous roads, the
suppression of brigandage, the multiplication of schools, the vast
development of the silk industry through the substitution of
mulberry plantations for rice-fields, the opening out of the mineral
AHOM— AHRENS
433
springs of Chitli, the introduction of row-trees and the produc-
tion of otto of roses— all these were Ahmed Vefik's work; and he
became so popular that when in 1882 he was recalled, it was
thought advisable that he should be taken away secretly by
night from the konak in Brusa and brought to his private
residence on the Bosporus. A few days after his return he was
again appointed prime minister (December x, 1882), but Ahmed
Vefik demanded, as the condition of his acceptance of office, that
he should choose the other members of the cabinet, and that a
number of persons in the sultan's entourage should be dismissed.
Upon this, the sultan, on the 3rd of December, revoked the irade"
of the 1st of December, and appointed Said Pasha prime minister.
For the rest of his life Ahmed Vefik, by the sultan's orders, was
practically a prisoner in his own house; and eventually he died,
on the xst of April 1801, of a renal complaint from which he had
long been a sufferer. Ahmed Vefik was a great linguist. He spoke
and wrote French perfectly, and thoroughly understood English,
German, Italian, Greek, Arabic and Persian. From all these
languages he translated many books into Turkish, but wrote no
original work. His splendid library of x 5,000 volumes contained
priceless manuscripts in many languages. In his lifetime he
appreciably aided the progress of education; but, as he had no
following, the effects of his labour and influence in a great measure
faded away after his death. In all his social and family relations
Ahmed Vefik was most exemplary. His charity knew no bounds.
He was devoted to his aged mother and to his one wife and
children. To his friends and acquaintances he was hospitable,
courteous and obliging; his conversation was intellectual and
refined, and in every act of his private life he manifested the
spirit of a true gentleman. At home his habits, attire and mode
of life were quite Turkish, but he was perfectly at his ease in
European* society; he had strong English proclivities, and
numbered many English men and women amongst his intimate
friends. In public life his gifts were almost sterilized by pecu-
. Karities of temperament and incompatibility with official sur-
roundings; and his mission as ambassador to Persia and his
administration of Brusa were his only thorough successes. But
his intellectual powers, literary erudition and noble character
made him for the last forty years of his life a conspicuous figure
In eastern Europe. (E. W.*)
AHOM, or Aham, a tribe of Shan descent inhabiting the Assam
▼alley, and, prior to the invasion of the Burmese at the com-
mencement of the 19th century, the dominant race in that
country. The Ahoms, together with the Shans of Burma and
Eastern China and the Siamese, were members of the Tai race.
The name is believed to be a corruption of the word " A-sam,"
the latter part of which is identical with " Shan " (properly
"Shim") and with " Siam." Under their king. Su-ka-pha
they invaded Assam (9.9.) from the East in the year a.d. 1228,
giving their name to the country. For a century and a half from
1228 the successors of Su-ka-pha appear to have ruled un-
disturbed over a small territory in Lakkimpur and Sibsagar
districts. The extension of their power westward down the
valley of the Brahmaputra was very gradual, and its success
was by no means uniform. In the 'time of Aurangzeb the Atom
kings held sway over the entire Brahmaputra valley from Sadiya
to near Goalpara, and from the skirts of the southern hills to
the Bhutia frontier on the north. The dynasty attained the
height of its power under Rudra Singh, who is said to have
ascended the throne in 1695. Ib &* following century the power
of the Ahoms began to decay, alike from internal dissensions
and the pressure of outside invaders. The Burmese were called
* in to the assistance of one of the contending factions in 18x0.
Having once obtained a foothold in the country, they established
their power over the entire valley and ruled with merciless bar-
barity, until they were expelled by the British in 1824-1825.
In the census of loot the total Ahom population in Assam was
returned at 178,049.
The Ahoms retained the form of government in Assam peculiar
to the Shan tribes, which may be briefly described as an organ-
ised system of personal service in lieu of taxation. Their
religion was pagan, bang quite distinct from Buddhism; but
L 8*
in Assam they gradually became Hinduixed, and their kings
finally adopted Hindu names and titles. They believed that
there were in the beginning no heavenly bodies, air or earth,
only water everywhere, over which at first hovered a formless
Supreme Being called Pha. He took corporeal shape as a huge
crab that lay floating, face upwards, upon the waters. In turn
other animals took shape, the last being two golden spiders from
whose excrement the earth gradually rose above the surrounding
ocean. Pha then formed a female counterpart of himself, who
laid four eggs, from which were hatched four sons. One of these
was appointed to rule the earth, but died and became a spirit
His son also died and became the national household deity of
the Ahoms. The origin of mankind is connected with a flood-
legend. The only survivors of the flood, and of the conflagra-
tion that followed it, were an old man and a pumpkin-seed.
From the latter there grew a gigantic gourd. This was split
open by a thunderbolt, the old man sacrificing himself to save
the lives of those who were inside, and from it there issued the
progenitors of the present races of men, beasts, birds, fishes
and plants. The kings claimed independent divine origin.
The religion and language have both died out, being only
preserved by a few priests of the old cult; but even among
them the tradition of the pronunciation of the language has
been lost. The Ahoms had a considerable literature, much of
which is still In existence. Their historic sense was very fully
developed, and many priests and nobles maintained bu-ran-jls
(s.«. " stores of instruction for the ignorant "), or chronicles,
which were carefully written up from time to time. A few of
these have been translated, but as yet no European scholar
possesses knowledge sufficient to enable him to study these
valuable documents at first hand.
The Ahom language is the oldest member of the Tai branch
of the Siamese-Chinese linguistic family of which we have any
record. It bears much the same relationship to Siamese and
Shan that Latin does to Italian. It is more nearly related to
modern Siamese than to modern Shan, but possesses many
groups of consonants which have become simplified in both.
It is a language of the isolating class, in which every word is a
monosyllable, and may be employed either as a noun or as a
verb according to its context and its position in a sentence.
In the order of words, the genitive follows the noun it governs,
and, as usual in such cases, the relations of time and place are
indicated by prefixes, not by suffixes. The meanings of the
monosyllables were differentiated, as in ther other Tai languages
and in Chinese, by a system of tones, but these were rarely
indicated in writing, and the tradition regarding them is lost.
The language had an alphabet of its own, which was clearly
related to that of Burmese.
See E. A. Gait. A History of Assam (Calcutta, 1906). For the
language see The Linguistic Survey of India, vol. ii. (Calcutta, 1906)
(contains grammar and vocabulary) ; G. A. Grierson, " Notes on
Ahom," in the Zeitschrift der deutscken morgenlandischen Cesell-
schaft, vol. lvi., 1902, pp. I ff. (contains grammar and vocabulary,
with specimens), and An Ahom Cosmogony, with a translation
and a vocabulary of the Ahom language," in the Journal of the
Royal Asiatic Society for 1904, pp. i8r ff. (G. A. Ga.)
AHR, a river of Germany. It is a left-bank tributary of the
Rhine, into which it falls at Sinzig, rising in the Eifel mountains,
and having a total length of 55 m. It flows at first through
rather monotonous country, but the latter portion of its course,
from the village of Aitenahr, over which tower the ruins of the
castle of Ahr, or Are (xoth century), is full of romantic beauty.
It is well stocked with trout, and the steep declivities of the
lower valley furnish red wines of excellent quality.
AHRENS, FRANZ HEINRICH LUDOLF (1800-1881), German
philologist, was born at Helmstedt on the 6th of June 1809.
After studying at GCttingen (1826-1829) under K. O. M Oiler
and Ludolf Dissen, and holding several educational appoint-
ments, in 1849 he succeeded G. F. Grotefend as director of the
Lyceum at Hanover, a post which he filled with great success
for thirty years. He died on the 25th of September 1881. His
most important work is De Craecae Linguae Dialectis (1830-18431
new ed. by Meister, 1882-1889), which, although unfortunately
434
AHRIMAN— AICKIN
incomplete, dealing only with Aeolic and Doric, and in some
respects superseded by modern research, will always remain a
standard treatise on the subject. He also published Bucolicorum
Graecorum Reliquiae (1855-1859); studies on the dialects of
Homer and the Greek lyrists, on Aeschylus; and some excellent
school-books. A volume of his minor works (ed. Haberlin) was
published in 1891, which also contains a complete list of his
writings.
AHRIMAN (Gr. 'Apa/iAwes in Aristotle, or 'Apap&np in
Agathias; in the Avcsta, AAgrd Mainyush)-—" the Destructive
Spirit "), the name of the principle of evil in the dualistic doctrine
of Zoroaster. The name does not occur in the Old Persian
inscriptions. In the Avcsta he is called the twin-brother of the
Holy Spirits, and contrasted either with the Holy Spirit of
Ormazd or with Ormazd himself. He is the all-destroying Satan,
the source of all evil in the world and, like Ormazd, exists since
the beginning of the world. Eventually, in the great world
catastrophe, he will be defeated by Ormazd and disappear. The
later sect of the Zervanites held that both were visible manifesta-
tions of the primeval principle Zruvan akarana (Infinite Time),
(SeeZoaOASTU.)
AHRWEILBR, a town of Germany, in the Prussian Rhine
province, on the river Ahr and the Remagen-Adenau line of
railway. Pop. 5000. It is a town of medieval aspect and is
surrounded by ancient walls, with battlements and four gates
in good repair. There is a Gothic church (dating from 1245).
A convent school of the Ursuline nuns is a prominent feature
on a hill to the south. The trade is almost exclusively confined
to the manufacture and export of the wines of the district.
AHT, a confederacy of twenty-two tribes of North American
Indians of the Wakashan stock. They are settled on the west
coast of Vancouver, British Columbia. The chief tribes included
are the Nitinaht, Tlaasaht or Makah, Tlaokiwaht or Clahoquaht,
Ahansaht and Ehatishaht, The confederacy numbers some
3SOO.
AHTENA (" ice people "), the name of an Athapascan tribe
of North American Indians, in the basin of Copper River,
Alaska.
See Handbook 4 America* Indians, ed.F W. Hodge (Washington,
1907).
AHVAZ* a town of Persia, in the province of Arabistan, on
the left bank of the river Karun, 48 m. S. of Shushter, in 31° 18'
N., 49° E. It has been identified with the Aginis of Nearchus,
500 stadia from Susa, and occupies the site of what was once
an extensive and important dty. Of this ancient dty vast
remains are left, extending several miles along the bank of the
river. Among the most remarkable are the ruins of a bridge
and a citadel, or palace, besides vestiges of canals and water-
mills, which tell of former commercial activity. There are also
the ruins of a band, or stone dam of great strength, which was
thrown across the river for the purposes of irrigation. The band
was 1 X50 yds. in length and had a diameter of 34 ft. at its base.
Remains of massive structure are still visible, and many single
blocks in it measure from 8 to 10 ft. in thickness. Ahvaz reached
the height of its prosperity in the x 2th and 13th centuries and
is now a collection of wretched hovels, with a small rectangular
fort in a state of ruin, and an Arab population of about 400.
Since the opening of the Karun to foreign commerce In October
1888, another settlement called Benderi Nissiri, in compliment
to the Shah Nassir ed din (d. 1806), has been established on a
slight elevation overlooking the river at the point below the
rapids where steamers come to anchor, about one mile below
Ahvaz. It has post and telegraph offices; and agencies of some
mercantile firms, a British vice-consul (since 1904) and a
Russian consular agent (since 1902) are established there. The
new caravan road to Isfahan, opened f or traffic in 1000, promised,
if successful, to give Ahvaz greater commercial importance.
AI [Sept. 'Arroi. 'Aryot and Tat; Vulg. Hoi\, a small
royal dty of the Canaanites, E. of Bethel The meaning of
the name may be " the stone heap "; but it is not necessarily
a Hebrew word. Abraham pitched his tent between Ai and
Bethel (Gen. xii. 8, xdii. 3); but it is chiefly noted for its capture
and destruction by Joshua (vii. 1-5, viii. 1-29), who made it
" a heap for ever, even a desolation." It is mentioned by Isaki
(1. 28), and also after the captivity (Ezra ii. 28; Neh. vn. 32),
but then probably was not more than a village. In the latex
Hebrew writings the name sometimes has a feminine form,
Aiath (Is. x. 28), Aija (Neh. xi. 31). The definite article a
usually prefixed to the name in Hebrew. The site was knowa,
and some scanty ruins still existed, in the time of Eusebius aad
Jerome (Onomasl., s.v. 'Aryai). Dr E. Robinson was unable
to discover any certain traces of either name or rains. He
remarks, however (Bib. Researches, ed. 1856, L p. 443), that it
must have been dose to Bethel on account of Biblical narratm
(Josh. viii. x 7). A little to the south of a village called Deir Diwia,
and one hour's journey south-east from Bethel, is the site of as
andent place called Khirbd HaiySn, indicated by reservoirs hen
in the rock, excavated tombs and foundations of hewn stone.
This may possibly be the site of Ai; it agrees with all the in-
timations as to its position. It has also been identified with
a mound now called et- TeU(" the heap "), but though the name
of a neighbouring village, Turmus Aya, is suggestive, it is in
the wrong direction from Bethel. In this view recent authorities,
such as G. A. Smith, generally coindde.
See Palestine Exploration Fund Quarterly Statement, 1869, p. 123;
1874, p. 62; 1878, pp. xo, 132, 194; 1881, p. 254. (R. A. & Mj
AIBONITO, an inland town of the electoral district of Guayama,
Porto Rico, on the highway between San Juan said Ponce,
25 m. E.N.E. of the latter. It is the capital of a municfal
district of the same name. Pop. (1809) of the town, 2085; of
the district, 8596. The town is about 2200 ft. above sea level
and owing to its cool climate and freedom from malaria it has
been chosen as an acclimatizing station and sanatorium for
foreigners. It is surrounded by coffee plantations, and tobacco
of excellent quality is raised in the vicinity. The town was
considerably damaged by the great hurricane of the 8th of
August 1809.
AICARD, JEAN FRANCOIS VICTOR (184s- ), Freaci
poet and dramatist, was born at Toulon on the 4th of February
1848. His father, Jean Aicard, waa a journalist of some dis-
tinction, and the son early began his career in 1867 with La
Jeunes Croyances, followed in 1870 by a one-act play produced at
the Marseilles theatre. His poems indude: Let Rtbettions et Us
apaisements (1871); Palmes de Provence (1874), and La Ckansea
de V enfant (1876), both of which were crowned by the Academy;
MieUe et Nori (x88o), a Provencal idyll; Le Lure d hemes ie
V amour (1887); Jisus (1806), &c Of his plays the most suc-
cessful was Le Pert Lebonnard (x8oo), which was originally
produced at the Theatre Libre. Among his other works are the
novth, LeRoideCamariue(iBqo) t L'Amed f unenfani (x8o8) and
Tolas (1901), Benjamine (1006) and La Venus de Mile (1874).
an account of the discovery of the statue from unpubliahed
documents.
AICHINGER, OREGOR (c. 1565-1628), one of the greatest
German composers of the Golden Age. He was organist to the
Fugger family of Augsburg in 1584. In 1509 he went for a two
years 1 visit to Rome. This was for musical and not for ccdest-
astical reasons, though he had taken orders before his appointment
under Fugger. Proske, in the preface to voL it of his Music*
Divina, calls him a priest of Regensburg, and is inclined to give
him the palm for the devout and ingenuous mastery of his style.
Certainly this impression is fully borne out by the beautiful aad
somewhat quaint works included in that great anthology.
AICKIN, FRANCIS (d. 1805), Irish actor, first appeared is
London in X765 as Dick Aralet in Vanbrugh's The Confederacy at
Drury Lane. He acted there, and at Covent Garden, until x 793.
His repertory consisted of over eighty characters, and among his
best parts were the Ghost in Hamlet and Jaques in As You Lib
It. His success in impassioned declamatory roles obtained far
him the nickname of " Tyrant."
His younger brother James AicxiN(d. 1803) was playing lead-
ing parts in both comedy and tragedy at the Edinburgh theatre,
when he gave offence to his public by his protest against the
discharge of a fellow-actor. He therefore went to London, asd
AIDAN— AIDS
43 S
from 1767 to 1800 was a member of the Drory Lane Company
and for tome yeanr a deputy manager. He quarrelled with John
Philip Kembk, with whom, in 1 792, he fought a bloodless duel
AIDAN (d. 606), king of the Scottish kingdom of Dalriada, was
the son of Gabran, king of Dalriada, and became king after the
death of his kinsman King Conall, when he was crowned at Iona
by St Columba. He refused to allow his kingdom to remain in
dependence on the Irish Dalriada, but coming into collision with
his southern neighbours he led a large force against iEthelfrith,
king of the Northumbrians, and was defeated at a place called
Daegsanstane, probably in Liddesdale.
See Bede, Historic Ecclesiastical gentis Anglorum t edited by
C Plummer (Oxford, 1896); Adamnan, Vita 5. Columba*, edited
by J. T. Fowler (Oxford, 1894).
AIDAV, or ASdan , first bishop of Lindisfarne, a monk of Hii
(Iona), was sent by the abbot Senegi to Northumbria, at the
request of King Oswald, a.d. 654-635. He restored Christianity,
and in accordance with the traditions of Irish episcopacy chose
the island of Lindisfarne, dose to the royal city of Bamborough,
as his see. Although he retained the Irish Easter, his character
and energy in missionary work won him the respect of Honorius
and Fehz. He survived Oswald, and died shortly after the
murder of his friend Oswine of Deira, on the 31st of August 651,
in the 17th year of his episcopate.
See Bede, Hist. EccL (ed. Plummer), ui. 3, 3, 17, 25.
AIDE-DE-CAMP (Fr. for camp-assistant or; perhaps, field-
assistant), an officer of the personal staff of a general, who acts
as his confidential secretary in routine matters. In Great
Britain the office of aide-de-camp to the king is given as a reward
or an honorary distinction. In many foreign armies the word
adjutant is used for an aide-de-camp, and adjutant general for a
royal aide-de-camp. The common abbreviation for aide-de-camp
in the British service is " aj>.c," and in the United States " aid."
Civil governors, such as the lord lieutenant of Ireland, have also,
as a rule, officers on their staffs with the title and functions of
aides-de-camp.
AIDIN. (f ) A vilayet in the S.W. of Asia Minor including the
ancient Lydia, Ionia, Caria and western Lyda. It derives its
name from the Seljuk emir who took Tralles, and is the richest
and most productive province of Asiatic Turkey. The seat of
government is Smyrna. (2) The principal town of the valley of
the Menderes or Maeander, about 70 m. E.S.E. of Smyrna. It is
called also Guxel Hissar from the beauty of its situation on the
lower slopes of Mons Messogis and along the course of the ancient
Eudon It is the capital of a sanjak. It was taken by the
Seljuks, Aidin and Mentesh. late in the 13th century, and about
1390. when ruled by Isa Bey. a descendant of the first-named,
acknowledged Ottoman suzerainty In the Seljuk period it was
a secondary dty under the provincial capital. Tireh (?.».). In
the 17th century it came under the power of the Karasmans of
Manisa and remained so til] about 1820. Aidin is on the Smyrna-
Dineir railway, has large tanneries and sweetmeat manufac-
tories, and exports figs, cotton and raisins. It was greatly
damaged by an earthquake in 2899. On a neighbouring height
are to be seen the ruins of the ancient Tralles (q.v.), the site to
which the name Guzel Hissar was particularly given by the
Seljuks. Aidin Is the seat of a British consular agent As there
are considerable numbers of Greeks, Armenians and Jews among
the inhabitants, there are a Greek cathedral, several churches and
synagogues in addition to the fine Turkish mosques. (D. G. H.)
A1D0NE, a town of Sicily, in the province of Caltanisetta. From
the town of Caltanisetta it is as m. E.S.E. direct (18 m. S.S.W. of
the railway station of Raddusa, which is 41 m. W. of Catania).
Pop (1001) 8548. There are some interesting churches of the
14th century (see E. Mauceri in L'Arte, 1006, 17) On the Serra
Orlando, a mountain not far off, are the extensive remains of an
unknown dty, the finest in eastern Sicily, but rapidly suffering
destruction from the spread of cultivation and unauthorized
excavations.
See P. Orsi in AM del Qmgresso di Seienu Storicke, voL v. 178
(Rome. 1004).
AIDS, a term of medieval finance, were part of the service due
to a lord from his men, and appear to have been based upon the
prindple that they ought to assist him in special emergency
or need. The occasions for demanding them and the amount
to be demanded would thus be matters of dispute, while the
loose use of the term to denote many different payments in-
creases the difficulty of the subject
Both in Normandy and in England, in the 12 th century, the
two recognized occasions on which, by custom, the lord could
demand " aid," were (1) the knighting of his ddest son, (2) the
marriage of his ddest daughter; but while in England the third
occasion was, according to Glanvill, as in Normandy, his pay-
ment of " relief " on his succession, it was, according to the
Great Charter (1215), the lord's ransom from captivity. By
its provisions, the king covenanted to exact an " aid " from his
barons on these three occasions alone— and then only a " reason-
able " one— except by " the common counsd " of his realm.
Enormous importance has been attached to this provision, as
establishing the prindple of taxation by consent, but its scope
was limited to the barons (and the dty of London), and the word
" aids " was omitted from subsequent issues of the charter. The
barons, on their part, covenanted to claim from their feudal
tenants only the above three customary aids. The last levy by
the crown was that of James I. on the knighting of his ddest
son (1609) and the marriage of his daughter (i6r3).
From at least the days of Henry I. the term " aid " was also
applied (1) to the special contributions of boroughs to the king's
revenue, (2) to a payment in lieu of the military service due from
the crown's knights. Both these occur on the pipe roll of 1130,
the latter as auxilium militum (and possibly as auxilium comi-
tat us). The borough "aids" were alternatively known as
" gifts " (dona), resembling in this the " benevolences " of later
days. When first met with, under Henry I., they are fixed
round sums, but under Henry II. (as the Dialogue on the Exchequer
explains) they were either assessed on a population basis by
crown officers or were sums ottered by the towns and accepted
by them as sufficient In the latter case the townsfolk were
collectively responsible for the amount. The Great Charter, as
stated above, extended specially to London the limitation on
baronial " aids," but left untouched its liability to tallage, a
lower and more arbitrary form of taxation, which the towns
shared with the crown's demesne manors, and which London
resisted in vain. The two exactions, although distinct, have
to be studied together, and when in 1296-1297 Edward I. was
forced to his great surrender, he was formerly supposed by
historians to have pledged himself, under De taUagio nan conce-
dendo, to levy no tallage or aid except by common consent of
his people. It is now hdd, however; that he limited this con-
cession to " aides, mists," and " prises" retaining the right to
tallage. Eventually, by a statute of 1340, it was provided that
the nation should not be called upon to make any common
aid or sustain charge " except by consent of parliament. The
aids spoken of at this period are of yet another character,
namdy, the grant of a certain proportion of all " movables "
(i.e. personal property), a form of taxation introduced about
xi88 and now rapidly increasing in importance. These sub-
sidies were conveniently dassed under the vague term " aids,"
as were also the grants made by the clergy in convocation, the
term covering both feudal and non-feudal levies from the
higher dergy and proportions not only of " movables " but of
ecclesiastical revenues as well.
The "knight's aid" of 1130 spoken of above is probably
identical with auxilium exercitus spoken of in the oldest cus-
tumals of Normandy, where the phrase appears to represent what
was known in England as " scutage." Even in England the
phrase " quando Rex occipit auxilium de militibus " occurs in
1x66 and appears to be loosely used for scutage.
The same loose use enabled the early barons to demand
"aid" from their tenants on various grounds,. such as their
indebtedness to the Jews, as is wdl seen in the Norfolk fragments
of returns to the Inquest of Sheriffs (1170).
Sheriff's aid was a local payment of a fixed nature paid in
early days to the sheriff for his service It was the subject of
a hot dispute between Henry II. and Becket in 1x63.
+38
AILLY
at the celebrated college of Navarre. He became a licentiate of
arts in 1367, procurator of the French " nation " in 1372, bachelor
of theology in 1372, and licentiate and doctor in that faculty
in 1381.
Since 1378 Western Christendom, in consequence of the election
of the two popes Urban VI. and Clement VII., had been divided
into two obediences. In the spring of 1379 Pierre d'Ailly, in
anticipation even of the decision of the university of Paris, bad
carried to the pope of Avignon the " role " of the French nation,
but notwithstanding this prompt adhesion he was firm in his
desire to put an end to the schism, and when, on the 20th of May
1381, the university decreed that the best means to this end was
to try to gather together a general council, Pierre d'Ailly sup-
ported this motion before the king's council in the presence of the
duke of Anjou. The dissatisfaction displayed shortly after by
the government obliged the university to give up this scheme,
and was probably the cause of Pierre d'Ailly's temporary retire-*
ment to Noyon, where he held a canonry. There he continued
the struggle for his side in a humorous work, in which the parti-
sans of the council are amusingly taken to task by the demon
Leviathan.
After his return to Paris, where from 1384 onwards he filled
the position of master of the college of Navarre, and took part in
a violent campaign against the chancellor of Notrc-Damc, he was
twice entrusted with a mission to Clement VII. in 1388 to defend
the doctrines of the university, and especially those concerning
the Immaculate Conception of the Virgin, against the preaching
friar Jean de Montson, and in 1389 to petition in the name of the
king for the canonization of the young cardinal Peter of Luxem-
burg. The success which attended his efforts on these two
occasions, and the eloquence which he displayed, perhaps con-
tributed to his choice as the king's almoner and confessor. At the
same time, by means of an exchange, he obtained to the highest
dignity in the university, becoming chancellor of Notre-Dame de
Paris.
When in 1394 Benedict XIIL succeeded Clement VII. at
Avignon, Pierre d'Ailly was entrusted by the king with a mission
of congratulation to the new pontiff. His obsequious language
on this occasion, and the favours with which it was rewarded,
formed a too violent contrast to the determined attitude of the
university of Paris, which, tired of the schism, was even then
demanding the resignation of the two pontiffs. Pierre d'Ailly
himself had not long before taken pari in the drawing up of a
letter to the king in which the advantages of this double abdica-
tion were set forth, but since then his zeal had seemed to cool a
little. None the less, on his return from Avignon, he again in
the presence of the king enlarged upon the advantages offered by
the way which the university commended. But the suspicions
aroused by his conduct found further confirmation when he
caused himself — or allowed himself — to be nominated bishop of
Le Puy by Benedict XIIL (April 2, 1395 )• The great number
of benefices which he held left room for some doubt as to his dis-
interestedness. Henceforward he was under suspicion at the
university, and was excluded from the assemblies where the union
was discussed.
Some time afterwards Pierre d'Ailly became bishop of Cambrai
(March 19, 1397) by the favour of the pope, who had yielded no
whit, and, by virtue of this position, became also a prince of the
empire. In order to take possession of his new see, he had to
brave the wrath of the duke of Burgundy, override the resistance
of the clergy and bourgeoisie, and even withstand an armed
attack on the part of several lords; but his protector, the duke
of Orleans, had his investiture performed by Wenceslaus, king of
the Romans. The latter, though a partisan of the pope of Rome,
took the opportunity of enjoining on Pierre d'Ailly to go in his
name and argue with the pope of Avignon, a move which had as
its object to persuade Benedict XIIL to an abdication, the
necessity of which was becoming more and more evident. How-
ever, the language of the bishop of Cambrai seems on this occasion
to have been lacking in decision; however that may be, it led to
no felicitous result.
France next tried to bring violent pressure to bear to conquer
the obstinacy of Benedict XIIL by threatening a formal with-
drawal from his obedience. Pierre d'Ailly, who, in spite of his
attachment to the pope, had been carried away by the example of
the kingdom, was among the first who, in 1403, after experience
of what had happened, counselled and celebrated the restoration
of obedience. He was sent by Charles VI. on an embassy to
Benedict XIII. and seized this opportunity of lavishing on the
pontiff friendly congratulations mingled with useful advice. Two
years later, before the same pontiff, he preached in the city cl
Genoa a sermon which led to the general institution, in the
countries of the obedience of Avignon, of the festival of the
Holy Trinity.
At the ecclesiastical council which took place at Paris in 1406
Pierre d'Ailly made every effort to avert a new withdrawal from
the obedience and, by order of the king, took the part of defender
of Benedict XIIL, a course which yet again exposed him to attacks
from the university party. The following year he and his distipk
Gerson formed part of the great embassy sent by the princes to
the two pontiffs, and while in Italy he was occupied in praise-
worthy but vain efforts to induce the pope of Rome to remove
himself to a town on the Italian coast, in the neighbourhood of his
rival, where it was hoped that the double abdication would take
place. Discouraged by his failure to effect tip's, he returned to
his diocese of Cambrai at the beginning of 1408. At this time he
was still faithful to Benedict XIIL, and the disinclination he felt
to joining the members of the French clergy who were on the
point of ratifying the royal declaration of neutrality excited the
anger of Charles VI. 's government, and a mandate, which was
however not executed, ordered the arrest of the bishop of
Cambrai.
It was not till after the cardinals of the two colleges had led to
the convocation of the general council of Pisa that Pierre d'Ailly
renounced the support of Benedict XIIL, and, for want of a better
policy, again allied himself with the cause which he had cham-
pioned in bis youth. In the council lay now, to judge from his
words, the only chance of salvation; and, in view of the require-
ments of the case, he began to argue that, in case of schism, a
council could be convoked by any one of the faithful, and would
have the right to judge and even to depose the rival pontiffs.
This was, in fact, the procedure of the council of Pisa, in which
Pierre d'Ailly took part. After the declaration of the deposition
of Gregory XII. and Benedict XIIL it went on to the election of
Alexander V. (June 26th, 1409). This pope reigned only ten
months; his successor, John XXIII., raised Pierre d'Ailly to the
rank of cardinal (June 6, 14x1), and further, to indemnify him
for the loss of the bishopric of Cambrai, conferred upon him the
administration of that of Limoges (November 3, 1412), which
was shortly after exchanged for the bishopric of Orange. He also
nominated Pierre d'Ailly as his legate in Germany (March 18,
1413).
Forgetting these benefits, the cardinal of Cambrai was one of
the most formidable adversaries of John XXIII. at the council of
Constance. Convinced as he was of the necessity for union and
reform, he contributed more than any one to the adoption of the
principle that, since the schism had survived the council of Pisa,
it was necessary again to take up the work for a fundamental
union, without considering the rights of John XXIII. any more
than they had those of Gregory XII. and Benedict XIII. From
this point of view Pierre d'Ailly, together with his compatriot
Cardinal Fillastre, took the preponderating part during the first
few months. Afterwards, seeing the trend of events, he showed
some uneasiness and hesitation. He refused, however, to under-
take the defence of John XXIII., and only appeared in the trial of
this pope to make depositions against him, which were sometimes
of an overwhelming character.
Among the important matters which claimed bis attention at
Constance may be mentioned also the condemnation of theerron
of Wydiffe and the trial of John Huss. The reading in public
of his two treatises De PoUttaU ecclesiastic* and De Reformatio!*
Ecciesiae revealed, besides ideas very peculiar to himself oa the
reform and constitution of the church, his design of reducing the
power of the English in the council by denying them the right of
AILSA CRAIG— AIN
439
forming a separate nation (October i-November i, 1416). By
this campaign, which exposed him to the worst retaliation of the
English, he inaugurated his role of " procurator and defender of
the king of France."
When at last the question arose of giving the Christian world a
new pope, this time sole and uncontested, Pierre d'Ailly defended
the right of the cardinals, if not to keep the election entirely in
their own hands, at any rate to share in the election, and he
brought forward an ingenious system for rcconciling^the preten-
sions of the council with the rights of the Sacred College. In this
way was elected Pope Martin V. (November zz, 1417), and the
task of Pierre d'Ailly was at last finished.
The predominance of the Anglo-Burgundians in France having
made it impossible for him to stay there, he went to Avignon to
end his days in melancholy calculations arising from the calami-
ties of which he had been the witness, and the astrological
reckonings, in which he found pleasure, of the chances for and
against the world coming to an end in the near future. He died
on the 9th of August 1420.
Pierre d'Ailly's written works are numerous. A great part of
them was published with the works of Gerson (by Ellies du Pin,
Antwerp, Z706); another part appeared in the 15th century,
probably at Brussels, and there are many treatises and sermons
still unpublished. In philosophy he was a nominalist. Many
questions in science and astrology, such as the reform of the
calendar, attracted his attention. His other works consisted of
theological essays, ascetic or exegctic, questions of ecclesiastical
discipline and reform, and of various polemical writings called
forth for the most part by the schism.
Whatever reservations may be made as to a certain interested
or ambitious side of his character, Pierre d'Ailly, whose devotion
to the cause of union and reform is incontestable, remains one
of the leading spirits of the end of the 14th and beginning of
the 15th centuries.
Bibliography.— P. Tschackert, Peter von AiUi (Gotha, 1877);
L. Salembicr, Petrus de AUiaco (Lille, 1886); H. Deniflc et Em.
Chatelain, Ckartularium Universalis Parisiensis, t. iii. (Paris,
1S94); N. Valois, La France et le grand sckisme d' Occident (Paris,
4 vols., 1896-1902) ; and Biblioiheque de FicoU des chartes, vol. Ixv.,
1904, pp. 557-574- (N. V.)
AILSA CRAIG, an island rock at the mouth of the Firth
of Clyde, 10 m. W. of Girvan, Ayrshire, Scotland. It is of
conoidal form, with an irregular elliptic base, and rises abruptly
to a height of 1 1 14 ft. The only side from which the rock can
be ascended is the cast; the other sides being for the most part
perpendicular, and generally presenting lofty columnar forms,
though not so regular as those of Staffa. This island is composed
of micro-granite with riebeckite, of great interest on account of
the rare occurrence of this type in Britain. It is comparatively
fine-grained and of a greyish colour. Its essential constituents
are felspar, quartz and riebeckite — a soda amphibolc. The
last of these minerals occurs in small irregular patches between
the idiomorphic felspars which Dr J. J. H. Teall has found to
be a soda orthoclase. The rock is allied to paisanite described
by C. A. Osann and has been termed ailsitc by Professor M. F.
Hcddle. It forms part of an intrusive mass which, on the south
and west cliffs of the island, has a columnar arrangement and
is traversed by dykes of dolcrite, most of which run in a north-
west direction. The age of this mass is uncertain, as its relations
to other Tocks are not visible in the island. As riebeckitc-
granophyre has been found in Skye it may be of Tertiary age.
The rock is a favourite material for curling-stones, about three-
fourths (according to estimate) of those in use in the countries
where the game obtains being made of it. On this account
curling-stones are popularly known as " Ailsas " or " Ailsa
Craigs." A columnar cave exists towards the northern side of
the island, and on the eastern are the remains of a tower, with
several vaulted rooms. Two springs occur and some scanty
grass affords subsistence to rabbits, and, on the higher levels,
to goats. The precipitous parts are frequented by large flocks
of solan geese and other sea birds. The lighthouse on the
southern side shows a flashing light visible for 13 m. In 183 1
the twelfth earl of Cassillis became first marquis of Ailsa, taking
the title from the Craig, which was his property. When John
Keats was in -Girvan during his Scottish tour in 1818 he apostro-
phized the rock in a fine sonnet.
AIMAK, or Eimak (Mongolian for " clan," or section of a
tribe), the name given to certain nomadic or semi-nomadic
tribes of Mongolian stock inhabiting the north and north-west
Afghan highlands immediately to the north of Herat. They were
originally known as "chahar (the four) Eimaks," because there
were four principal tribes: the Taimani (the predominating
element in the population of Ghur), the Ferozkhoi, the Jamshidi
and, according to some authorities, the Hazara. The Aimak
peoples number upwards of a quarter of a million, and speak
a dialect said to be closely related to the Kalmuck. They arc
Sunnite Mahommedans in distinction from the Hazara who are
Shiites. They are predominantly of Iranian or quasi-Iranian
blood, while the Hazara are Turanian. They are a bold, wild
people and renowned fighters.
AIMARD, GUSTAVE, the pen-name of Olivier Gloux (18x8-
1883), French novelist, who was born in Paris on the 13th of
September 181 8. He made use of the materials collected in a
roving and adventurous youth and early manhood in numerous
romances in the style of J. Fenimore Cooper. Among the best
of them are: Les Trappeurs de V Arkansas (1858); La Grande
fiibuste (i860); Nuits mexicaines (1863); La Forlt vierge (1870).
He died in Paris on the 20th of June 1883. Many of his novels
have been translated into English.
AIMOIN (c. 060-c. zoio), French chronicler, was bom at
Villefranche de Longchapt about 960, and in early life entered
the monastery of Fleury, where he became a monk and passed
the greater part of his life. His chief work is a Historic Fran-
corum, or Libri V. de gestis Froncorum, which deals with the
history of the Franks from the earliest times to 653, and was
continued by other writers until the middle of the 12 th century.
It was much in vogue during the middle ages, but its historical
value is now regarded as slight. It has been edited by G. Waitz
and published in the Monumenta Gtmaniae historica : Scriptores,
Band xxvi. (Hanover and Berlin, 1826-1802). He also wrote a
Vita Abbonis, abbatis Fioriacensis, the last of a series of lives
of the abbots of Fleury, all of which, except the life of Abbo, have
been lost. This has been published by J. Mabillon in the Acta
sanctorum ordinis sancti Bcnedicti (Paris, 1668-1701). Aimoin's
third work was the composition of books ii. and iii. of the Miracula
Sancti Bcnedicti, the first book of which was written by another
monk of Fleury named Adrevald. This also appears in the
Acta sanctorum ordinis sancti Bcnedicti.
Aimoin, who died about 1010, must be distinguished from
Aimoin, a monk of St Germain-des-Pres, who wrote De miraculis
sancti Germani, and a fragment De Nor manor urn gestis circa
Parisiacam urbem et de divina in eos ultione tempore Carol i colvi.
Both of these are published in the Historiae Froncorum Scriptores,
Tome ii. (Paris, 1630-1649).
See Histtnre lUUraire de la France, tome vii. (Paris, 1 865-1 869).
AIN, a department on the eastern frontier of France, formed
in 1790 from Bresse, the Pays de Gex, Bugcy, Dombes and
Valromey, districts of Burgundy. It is bounded N. by the
departments of Jura and Sa6ne-et-Loire, W. by Sadne-et-Loire
and Rh6ne, S. by Isdre, and E. by the departments of Savoie
and Haute-Savoic and the Swiss cantons Geneva and Vaud.
Pop. (1906) 345,856. Area 2*48 sq. m. The department takes
its name from the river Ain, which traverses its centre in a
southerly direction and separates it roughly into two well-
marked physical divisions — a region of mountains to the east,
and of plains to the west The mountainous region is occupied
by the southern portion of the Jura, which is divided into parallel
chains running north and south and decreasing in height from
east to west. The most easterly of these chains, that forming
the Pays de Gex in the extreme north-east of the department,
contains the Crtt de la Neige (6653 ft.) and other of the highest
summits in the whole range. The district of Bugey occupies
the triangle formed by the Rhone in the south-east of the depart-
ment West of the Ain, with the exception of the district covered
by the Revermont, the westernmost chain of the Jura, the country
44-0
AINGER— AINSWORTH
is flat, consisting in the north of the south portion of the Bresse,
in the south of the marshy Dombes. The chief rivers of the
eastern region arc the Valserine and the Seran, right-hand
tributaries of the Rhone, which forms the eastern and southern
boundary of the department; and the Albarine and Oignin,
left-hand affluents of the Ain. The Bresse is watered by the
Veyle and the Reyssouze, both flowing into the Sadne, which
washes the western limit of the department. The climate is
cold in the eastern and central districts of Ain, but it is on the
whole healthy, except in the Dombes. The -average rainfall
is about 38 in. The soil in the valleys and plains of the depart-
ment, especially in the Bresse, is fertile, producing large quantities
of wheat, as well as oats, buckwheat and maize. East of the
Ain, forests of fir and oak abound on the mountains, the lower
slopes of which give excellent pasture for sheep and cattle, and
much cheese is produced. Horse-raising is carried on in the
Dombes. The pigs and fowls of the Bresse and the geese and
turkeys of the Dombes are largely exported. The vineyards
of Bugcy and Revermont yield good wines. The chief mineral
product is the asphalt of the mines of Seyssel on the eastern
frontier, besides which potter's clay, building stone, hydraulic
lime and cement are produced in the department. There are
many corn and saw mills and the wood-working industry is
important. Silk fabrics, coarse woollen cloth, paper and clocks
are manufactured. Live-stock and agricultural products are
exported; the chief imports are wood and raw silk. The depart-
ment is within the judicial circumscription of the appeal court
of Lyons and the educational circumscription (academie) of
Lyons. It forms part of the archiepiscopal province of Bcsancon.
The Rhone and the Saone are navigable for considerable distances
in the department; the chief railway is that of the Paris-Lyon-
Mediterranee Company, whose line from Macon to Culoz traverses
the departments Ain is divided into five arrondissements —
those of Bourg and Trtvoux in the west, and those of Gex,
Nantua and Bellcy in the cast; containing in all 36 cantons
and 455 communes. Bourg is the capital and Belley is the seat
of a bishop. Jujurieux, in the arrondisscment of Nantua, has
the most important silk factory in the department, occupying
over 1000 workpeople. Bcllcgardc on the eastern frontier is
an industrial centre; it has a manufactory of wood-pulp, and
saw and flour mills, power for which is obtained from the waters
of the Rhone. Oyonnax and its environs, north of Nantua,
are noted for the production of articles in wood and horn,
especially combs. St Rambert, in the arrondisscment of Belley,
besides being of industrial importance for its manufactures of
silk and paper, possesses the remains of a Benedictine abbey,
powerful in the nth, iath and 13th centuries. The Gothic
church of Ambronay in the arrondisscment of Belley, the church
of St Paul dc Varax (about 9 m. S.W. of Bourg), a building in
the Romanesque style of Burgundy, and that of Nantua (12th
century), are of architectural interest. Ferney, 4 m. S.W. of
Gex, is famous as the residence of Voltaire from 1758-1778.
AINGER, ALFRED (1837-1004), English divine and man of
letters, was born in London on the 9th of February 1837, the
son of an architect. He was educated at King's College, London,
and at Trinity College, Cambridge, and was ordained in i860
to a curacy at Alrewas, near Rugeley. There he remained until
1864, when he became an assistant master at the Sheffield
Collegiate School. His connexion with the Temple church, in
London, began in 1806, when he was appointed reader; and in
1894 he succeeded Dr Vaughan as master. In 1887 he was
presented to a canonry in Bristol cathedral, and he was chaplain-
in-ordinary to Queen Victoria and King Edward VII. He died
on the 8th of February 1004. Canon Ainger's gentle wit and
humour, his generosity and lovable disposition, endeared him
to a wide circle In literature his name is chiefly associated
with his sympathetic appreciation of Charles Lamb and Thomas
Hood. His works include: Charles Lamb (1882) and Crabbe
(1003) in the "English Men of Letters" series; editions of
Lamb's Essays of Elia (1883) and of his Letters (1888; 2nd ed.,
1004), of the Poems (1897) of Thomas Hood, with a biographical
introduction; The Life and Works of Charles Lamb (13 vols.,
1899-1900); articles on Tennyson and Du Marnier in the
Dictionary of National Biography, The Gospd amd Hums*
Life (1004), sermons; Lectures and Essays (a vols., 1905), edited
by the Rev. H. C. Beeching.
See also Edith Sichel, The Life and Letters of Canon A inter (1906).
AINMULLER. MAXIMILIAN EMMANUEL (1807-1870),
German artist and glass-painter, was born at Munich on the nth
of February 1807. By the advice of Gartner, director of the
royal porcelain manufactory, he devoted himself to the study
of glass-painting, both as a mechanical process and as an an.
and in 1828 he was appointed director of the newly-founded
royal painted-glass manufactory at Munich. The method
which he gradually perfected there was a development of the
enamel process adopted in the Renaissance, and consisted is
actually painting the design upon the glass, which was sub-
jected, as each colour was laid on, to carefully-adjusted beating
The earliest specimens of Ainmuller's work are to be found is
the cathedral of Regensburg. With a few exceptions, all the
windows in Glasgow cathedral are from his hand. Specuness
may also be seen in St Paul's cathedral, and Peterhouse, Cam-
bridge, and Cologne cathedral contains some of his finest
productions. Ainmullcr had considerable skill as an oil-painter,
especially in interiors, his pictures of the Chapel Royal at
Windsor and of Westminster Abbey being much admired. He
died on the 9th of December 1870.
AINSWORTH, HENRY (1571-1622), English Nonconformist
divine and scholar, was born of yeoman stock in 1 570/1 at
Swanton Morley, Norfolk. He was for four years from December
1587 a scholar of Caius College, Cambridge, and, after associat-
ing with the Puritan party in the Church, eventually joined the
Separatists. Driven abroad about the year 1593, he found a
home in " a blind lane at Amsterdam." He acted as " porter "
to a scholarly bookseller in that dty, who, on discovering his
skill in the Hebrew language, made him known to his country-
men. When part of the London church, of which Francis
Johnson (then in prison) was pastor, reassembled in Amsterdam.
Ainsworth was chosen as their doctor or teacher. In r 506 he
took the lead in drawing up a confession of their faith, which
he reissued in Latin in 2508 and dedicated to the various univer-
sities of Europe (including St Andrews, Scotland). Johnson
joined his flock in 1597, and in 1604 he and Ainsworth composed
An Apology or Defence of such true Christians as are cemtmeedy
but unjustly called Broumists. The task of organizing the church
was not easy and dissension was rife. Of Ainsworth it may be
said that, though often embroiled in controversy, he never put
himself forward; yet he was the most steadfast and cultured
champion of the principles represented by the early Coogre-
gationalists. Amid all the strife of controversy, he steadily
pursued his rabbinical studies. The combination was so unique
that many, like the encyclopaedists L. Moreri and J. H. Zedler,
have made two Henry Ainsworths— -one Dr Henry Ainsworth!
a learned biblical commentator; the other H. Ainsworth, aa
arch-heretic and " the ringleader of the Separatists at Amster-
dam." Some confusion has also been occasioned through ms
not unfriendly controversy with one John Ainsworth, who
abjured the Anglican for the Roman church. In 1608 Ainsworth
answered Richard Bernard's The Separatist Schisme. But he
ablest and most arduous minor work in controversy wms Mi
reply to John Smyth (commonly called "the Se-Baptist ").
entitled a Defence of Holy Scripture, Worship and Ministry used
in the Christian Churches separated from Antichrist, against <fc
Challenges, Cavils and Contradictions of Mr Smyth (1609). la
1610 he was forced reluctantly to withdraw, with a large part of
their church, from F. Johnson and those who adhered to him.
For some time a difference of principle, as to the church's right
to revise its officers' decisions, had been growing between them,
Ainsworth taking the more Congregational view. (See Cos&ar-
cationalisk.) But in spirit he remained a man of peace. His
memory abides through his rabbinical learning. The ripe fruit
of many years' labour appeared in his Annotations—on Genesis
(1616); Exodus (1617); Leviticus (1618); Numbers (1619),
Deuteronomy (1619); Psalms (including a metrical version, 161 1);
AINSWORTH— AINU
44'
Crossley, L 263-266; works of John Robinson (1831) l H. M.
Congregationalism of Ike Last Three Hundred Years (1880) ; \v. c» su
Axon,. H. Ainsworth, the Puritan Commentator (1889) ; F. J. Powicke,
-Song of Solomon (1623). These were collected in folio in 1627, and
again in 1639, and later in various forma. From the outset the
Annotations took a commanding place, especially among con-
tinental scholars, and he established for English nonconformity a
tradition of culture and scholarship. There is no probability
about the narrative given by Ncal in his History of the Puritans
(2. 47) that he was poisoned by certain Jews. He died in 1622,
or early in 1633, for in that year was published Us Seasonable
Discourse, or a Censure upon a Dialogue of the Anabaptists, in
which the editor speaks of him as a departed worthy.
Literature.— John Worthington's Diary (Chetham Society), by
Jrossley. La©t-a66; works of, ~ " S " ~
Congregationalism of Ike Last i
Axon„-H. Ainsworth, Ike Purile
Henry Barrow and Ike Exiled Chunk of Amsterdam (1900); J. H.
Shakespeare, Baptist and Congregational Pioneers (1906).
AHSWORTH, ROBERT (1660-1743), English schoolmaster
and author, was born at Eccles, near Manchester, in September
1660. After teaching for some time at Lever's Grammar School
in Bolton, he removed to London, where he conducted a boarding-
school, first at Bethnal Green and then at Hackney. He soon
made a moderate fortune which gave him leisure to pursue his
classical studies. Ainsworth *s name is associated with his Latin-
English Dictionary, begun in 1714, and published in 1736 as
Thesaurus linguae Lattnae compendiarius. It was long ex-
tensively used in schools, and often reprinted, the later editions
being revised and enlarged by other hands, but it is now super-
seded. Ainsworth was also the author of some useful works on
classical antiquities, and a sensible treatise on education, en-
titled The most Natural and Easy Way of Institution (1608), in
which he advocates the teaching of Latin by conversational
methods and deprecates punishment of any sort He died in
London on the 4th of April 1743.
AmWORTH. WILLIAM HARRI90W (1805-1883), English
novelist, son of Thomas Ainsworth, solicitor, was born at Man-
chester on the 4th of February 1805. He was educated at
Manchester Grammar School and articled to the firm of which
his father was a member, proceeding to London in 1624 to
complete his legal training at the Inner Temple. At the age of
twenty-one be married a daughter of John Ebers the publisher,
and started in his father-in-law's line of business. This, however,
toon proved unprofitable and he decided to attempt literary
work. A novel called Sir John Chmerton, in which he appears
to have had a share, had attracted the praise of Sir Walter Scott,
and this encouragement decided him to take up fiction as a
career. In 1834 he published Roohwood, which had an immedia te
success, and thenceforth he was always occupied with the com-
pilation of " historical " novels. He published about forty such
stories, of which the best-known are Jack Sheppard (1839), The
Tower of London{x%Ao), Guy Fawkes{i^i),OidSt PauTs (184O
and Windsor Castle (1843). He edited Bonlley's Miscellany, in
which Jack Sheppard was published as a serial, and in 1842 he
became proprietor of Ainsworth* s Magazine. In 1853 it ceased
to appear, and Ainsworth bought the New Monthly Magazine.
He continued his literary activity until his death, but his later
stories were less striking than the earlier ones. He died at
Reigate on the 3rd of January 1882 and was buried at Kensal
Green. Ainsworth had a lively talent for plot,, and his books
have many attractive qualities. The glorification of Dick Turpin
in Roohwood, and of Jack Sheppard in the novel that bears his
name, caused considerable outcry among straitlaced elders. In
his later novels Ainsworth confined himself to heroes less open
to criticism. His style was not without archaic affectation and
awkwardness, but when his energies were aroused by a striking
situation he could be brisk, vigorous and impressive. He did
a great deal to interest the less educated classes in the historical
r om a nces of their country, and his tales were invariably in-
structive, dean and manly.
aJJrTAB (anc DoUdkf), a town in the vilayet of Aleppo and
ancient QyrrhestJca district of N. Syria. Pop. 45,000, two-thirds
Moslem. The site of Doliche, famous for its worship of Baal
(Zeus DoKcberras), adopted by the Seleudds and eventually
spread aD over the Roman empire, lies at Puluk, two hours N.W.,
but nothing it to be seen there except a mound. The place was
probably of Hittite origin and does not appear to have been
settled by Greeks. The bazaars of Aintab are a great centre for
" Hittite " antiquities, found at various sites from Sakchegfttu
on the west to Jerablus on the east The modern town lies in
the open treeless valley of the Sajur, a tributary of the Euphrates,
and on the right bank, 65 m. north-east of Aleppo, with which it it
con ne cted by a chaussie, passing through Killis. This road pro-
ceeds east to the great crossing of Euphrates at Birejik, and thus
Aintab bet on the highway between N. Syria and Urfa-Mosul and
has much transit trade and numerous khans. In the middle ages
its strong castle (Hamtab) was an important strategic point,
taken by Saladin about jld. 1183; and it supplied the last base
from which Ibrahim Pasha marched in 1839 to win his decisive
victory over the Turks at Neaib, about 25 m. distant north-east
Lying high (3500 ft) and swept by purifying winds, Aintab is
a comparatively clean and healthy spot, though not free from
ophthalmia and the " Aleppo button," and it has been selected
by the American Mission Board as its centre for N. Syria.
44 Central Turkey College," educational and medical, lies on high
ground west It was burnt down in 1891, but rebuilt; it has a
dependency for girls within the town. Thanks to its presence the
Armenian protestantt are a large and rich community, which
suffered less m the massacre of 1895 than the Gregorians. There
is a small Episcopalian body, which has a large unfinished
church, and a schismatic " catholicos," who has vainly tried to
gain-acceptance into the Anglican communion. There is also a
flourishing Franciscan mission. Striped cloths and pekmes, a
sweet paste made from grapes, are the principal manufactures;
and tobacco and cereals the principal cultures. The town is
unusually well and solidly built, good stone being obtained
near at hand. The Moslem inhabitants are mainly of Turko-
man origin, and used to owe fealty to chieftains of the
family of Chapan Oglu, whose headquarters were at Yuagat in
Cappadoda. (D. G. H.)
AINU (" man "), a race inhabiting the northernmost islands of
Japan. little definite is known about their earliest history, but
it is improbable that they are, as has been urged, the aborigines
of Japan. The most accurate researches go to prove that they
were immigrants, who reached Yezo from the Kuriles, and sub-
sequently crossing Tsugaru strait, colonized a great part of the
main island of Japan, exterminating a race of pit-dwellers to
whom they gave the name of koro-pok-guru (men with sunken
places). These koro-pok-gurx were of such small stature as to be
considered dwarfs. They wore skins of »«i»™l« for clothing, and
that they understood the potter's art and used flint arrow-heads
is dearly proved by excavations at the sites of their pits. The
Ainu, on the contrary, never had any knowledge of pottery.
Ultimately the Ainu, coming into contact with the Japanese, who
had immigrated from the south and west, were driven northward
into the island of Yezo, where, as well as in the Kuriles and in the
southern part of Sakhalin, they are still found in some numbers.
When, at the dose of the 18th and the beginning of the 19th
century, Russian enterprises drew the attention of the Japanese
government to the northern districts of the empire, the Tokugawa
shoguns adopted towards the Ainu a policy of liberality and
leniency consistent with the best prindples of modern coloniza-
tion. But the doom of unfitness appears to have begun to
overtake the race long ago. History indicates that in andent
times they were fierce fighters, able to offer a stout resistance to
the incomparably better armed and more dvuized Japanese.
To-day they are drunken, dirty, spiritless folk, whom it is
difficult to suppose capable of the warlike rdle they once played.
Their number, between 16,000 and 1 7,000, is virtually stationary.
The Ainu are somewhat taller than the Japanese, stoutly built
well proportioned, with dark-brown eyes, high cheek-bones,
short broad noses and faces lacking length. The hairinrts of the
Ainu has been much exaggerated. They are not more hairy than
many Europeans. Never shaving after a certain age, the men
have full beards and moustaches, but the stories of Ainu covered
with hair like a bear are quite unjustified by facta. Men and
women alike cut their hair level with the shoulders at the sides of
442
AIR
the head, bat trim it lemidrcaUriy behind. The women Uttoo
their mouths, arms, and sometimes their foreheads, using for
colour the smut deposited on a pot hung over a fire of birch bark.
Their original dress is a robe spun from the bark of the elm tree.
It has long sleeves, reaches nearly to the feet, is folded round the
body and tied with a girdle of the same material. Females wear
also an undergarment of Japanese cloth. In winter the skins of
animals are worn, with leggings of deerskin and boots made from
the skin of dogs or salmon. Both sexes are fond of ear-rings,
which are said to have been made of grape-vine in former times,
but are now purchased from the Japanese, as also are bead neck-
laces, which the women prize highly. Their food is meat, when-
ever they can procure it— the flesh of the bear, the fox, the wolf,
the badger, the ox or the horse— fish, fowl, millet, vegetables,
herbs and roots. They never eat raw fish or flesh, but always
either boil or roast it Their habitations are reed-thatched huts,
the largest so ft square, without partitions and having a fireplace
in the centre. There is no chimney, but only a hole at the angle
of the roof; there is one window on the eastern side and there are
two doors. Public buildings do not exist, whether in the shape
of inn, meeting-place or temple. The furniture of their dwellings
is exceedingly scanty. They have no chairs, stools or tables, but
sit on the floor, which is covered with two layers of mats, one of
rush, the other of flag; and for beds they spread planks, hanging
mats around them on poles, and employing skins for coverlets.
The men use chop-sticks and moustache-lifters when eating; the
women have wooden spoons. Undeanliness is characteristic of
the Ainu, and all their intercourse with the Japanese has not
improved them in that respect The Rev. John Batchelor, in his
Notts on the Ainu, says that he lived in one Ainu habitation for
six weeks on one occasion, and for two months on another, and
that he never once saw personal ablutions performed, or cooking
or eating utensils washed.
Not having been at any period acquainted with the art of
writing, they have no literature and are profoundly ignorant
But at schools established for them by the Japanese in recent
times, they have shown that their intellectual capacity is not
deficient No distinct conception of a universe enters into their
cosmology. They picture to themselves many floating worlds,
yet they deduce the idea of rotundity from the course of the sun,
and they imagine that the "Ainu world " rests on the back of a
fish whose movements cause earthquakes. It is scarcely possible
to doubt that this fancy is derived from the Japanese, who used
to hold an identical theory. The Ainu believe in a supreme
Creator, but also in a sun-god, a moon-god, a water-god and a
mountain-god, deities whose river is the Milky Way, whose
voices are heard in the thunder and whose glory is reflected in the
lightning. Their chief object of actual worship appears to be the
bear. Miss Isabella Bird (Mrs Bishop) writes: " The peculiarity
which distinguishes their rude mythology is the worship of the
bear, the Yezo bear being one of the finest of his species. But
it is impossible to understand the feelings by which this cult is
prompted, for although they worship the animal after their
fashion and set up its head in their villages, yet they trap it, kill
it, eat it and sell its skin. There is no doubt that this wild beast
inspires more of the feeling which prompts worship than the
inanimate forces of nature, and the Ainos may be distinguished
as bear-worshippers, and their greatest religious festival or
saturnalia as the Festival of the Bear. . . . Some of their rude
chants are in praise of the bear, and their highest eulogy on a man
is to compare him to a bear." They have no priests by profession.
The village chief performs whatever religious ceremonies are
necessary; ceremonies confined to making libations of wine,
uttering short prayers and offering willow sticks with wooden
shavings attached to them, much as the Japanese set up the well-
known gokei (sacred offerings) at certain spots. The Ainu gives
thanks to the gods before eating, and prays to the deity of fire in
time of sickness. He thinks that his spirit is immortal, and that
it will be rewarded hereafter in heaven or punished in hell, both
of which places are beneath the earth, hell being the land of
volcanoes; but he has no theory as to a resurrection of the body
or metempsychosis. He preserves a tradition about a flood which
teems to be the counterpart of the fciblical dehxge, t&d about am
earthquake which lasted a hundred days, produced the three
volcanoes of Yezo and created the island by bridging the waters
that had previously separated it into two parts.
The Ainu are now governed by Japanese laws and judged by
Japanese tribunals, but in former times their affairs were ad-
ministered by hereditary chiefs, three in each village, and for ad-
ministrative purposes the country was divided into three districts,
Sara, Usu and Ishikari, which were under the ultimate control of
Sana, though the relations between their respective inhabitants
were not close and intermarriages were avoided. The functiocs
of judge were not entrusted to these chiefs; an indefinite number
of a community's members sat in judgment upon its criminals.
Capital punishment did not exist, nor was imprisonment resorted
to, beating being considered a sufficient and final penalty, except
in the case of murder, when the nose and ears of the assassin were
cut off or the tendons of his feet severed. Little as the Japanese
and the Ainu have in common, intermarriages are not infrequent,
and at Sambutsu especially, on the eastern coast, many children
of such marriages may be seen. Doenitz, Hilgendorf and Dr B.
Scheube, arguing from a minute investigation of the physical
traits of the Ainu, have concluded that they are Mongolians;
according to Professor A. H. Keane the Ainu " arc quite distinct
from the surrounding Mongolic peoples, and present several
remarkable physical characters which seem to point to a remote
connexion with the Caucasic races. Such are a very full beard,
shaggy or wavy black or dark-brown hair, sometimes covering
the back and chest; a somewhat fair or even white complexion,
large nose, straight eyes and regular features, often quite hand-
some and of European type. They seem to be a last remnant of
the Neolithic peoples, who ranged in prehistoric times across the
northern hemisphere from the British Isles to Manchuria and
Japan. They are bear-worshippers, and have other customs m
common with the Manchurian aborigines, but the language is
entirely different, and they have traditions of a time when they
were the dominant people in the surrounding lands." It should
be noted finally that the Ainu are altogether free from ferocity or
exclusiveness, and that they treat strangers with gentle kindness.
See Rev. John Batchelor, The Ainu and their Folk-hre(Lon6on, 1901 ) ;
Romyn Hitchcock, The Ainos of Japan (Washington, 1892)1 H- von
Siebold, Oher die Aino (Berlin. 1881); Isabella Bird (Mrs Bishop),
Korea and her Neighbours (1898) ; Basil Hall Chamberlain, Languor
Mythology and Geographical Nomenclature of Japan viewed s» the
Light of Aino Studies and Aino Fairy-tales (1895).
AIR, or Asben, a country of West Africa, lying between if
and io° N. and 6° and io° E. It is within the Sahara, of which
it forms one of the most fertile regions. The northern portion
of the country is mountainous, some of the peaks rising to s
height of 5000 ft Richly wooded hollows and extensive plains
are interspersed between the hills. The mimosa, the dam palm
and the date are abundant Some of the plains afford good
pasturage for camels, asses, goats and cattle; others are desert
tablelands. In the less frequented districts wild animals abound,
notably the lion and the gazelle. The country generally is of
sandstone or granite formation, with occasional trachyte and
basaltic ranges. There are no permanent rivers; but during
the rainy season, Jrom August to October, heavy floods convert
the water-courses in the hollows of the mountains into broad
and rapid streams. Numerous wells supply the wants of the
people and their cattle. To the south of this variegated region
lies a desert plateau, 3000 ft above sea-levd, destitute of water,
and tenanted only by the wild ox, the ostrich and the giraffe.
Still farther south is the fairly fertile district of Damerghu, of
which Zinder is the chief town; Little of the soil is tinder culti-
vation except in the neighbourhood of the villages. MOkt,
dates, indigo and senna are the. principal productions. The
great bulk of the food supplies is brought from Damerghu, and
the materials for clothing are also imported. A great caravan
annually passes through Air, consisting of several thwrand
camels, carrying salt from Bilma to the Hausa states.
Air was called Asben by the native tribes until they were
conquered by the Berbers. The present inhabitants are for the
most part of a mixed race, combining the finer traits el the
AIR— AIR-ENGINE
4+3
Berbeit with negro characteristics. The sultan of Air is to a
great extent dependent on the chiefs of the Tuareg tribes in-
habiting a vast tract of the Sahara to the north-west A large
part of his revenue is derived from tribute exacted from the
salt caravans. Since 1890 Air has been included in the French
sphere of influence in West Africa.
Agades, the capital of the country, which has a drcoit of
3§ m., is built on the edge of a plateau 3500 ft. high, and is
supposed to have been founded by the Berbers to serve as a
secure magazine for their extensive trade with the Songhoi
empire. The language of the people is a dialect of Songhoi.
In former times Agades was a place of great traffic, and had a
population of about 50,000. Since the beginning of the x6th
century the prosperity of the town has, however, gradually de-
clined. F. Foureau, who visited Agades in 1809, stated that
more than half the total area was deserted and ruinous. The
houses, which are built of clay, are low and flat-roofed; and the
only buildings of importance are the chief mosque, which is
surmounted by a tower 95 ft high, and the sultan's residence,
a massive two-storied structure pierced with small windows.
The chief trade is grain. The great salt caravans pass through
it, as well as pilgrims on their way to Mecca.
AIR (from an Indo-European root meaning "breathe,"
" blow "), the atmosphere that surrounds the earth; Gr.
A^p, the lower thick air, being distinguished from al&fjp, the
upper pure air. With the development of analytical and especi-
ally of pneumatic chemistry, the air was recognized not to be
one homogeneous substance, as was long supposed, and different
" airs," or gases, came to be distinguished. Thus oxygen gas,
at the end of the 18th century, was known as dephlogisticated air,
nitrogen or azote as pMlogisticated air, hydrogen as inflammable
air, carbonic add gas as fixed air. The name is now ordinarily
restricted to what is more accurately called atmospheric air—
the air we breathe — the invisible elastic fluid which surrounds
the earth (see Atmosphere). Probably the sense of atmosphere
or environment led (though this is disputed by etymologists)
to the further use of the word M air " to mean " manner " or
" appearance "; and so to its employment (cf. Lat modus)
in music for " melody." (See Asia.)
A1RAY, HENRY (15607-1616), English Puritan divine, was
born at Kentmere, Westmorland, but no record remains of the
date of either birth or baptism. He was the son of William
Airay, the favourite servant of Bernard Gilpin, " the apostle
of the North," whose bounty showed itself in sending Henry
and his brother Evan (or Ewan) to his own endowed school,
where they were educated " in grammatical learning," and were
in attendance at Oxford when Gilpin died. From Wood's
Alkcnae we glean the details of Airay's college attendance.
" He was sent to St Edmund's hall in 1579, aged nineteen or
thereabouts. Soon after he was translated to Queen's College,
where he became pauper puer semens; that is, a poor serving
child that waits on the fellows in the common hall at meals,
and in their chambers, and does other servile work about the
college." His transference to Queen's is perhaps explained by
its having been Gilpin's college, and by his Westmorland origin
giving him a claim on Eaglesfield's foundation. He graduated
B.A. on the 19th of June 1583, MA. on the 15th of June 1586,
B.D. in 1594 and D.D. on the 17th of June 1600— all in
Queen's College. " About the time he was master " (1 586) " he
entered holy orders, and became a frequent and zealous preacher
in the university." His Commentary on ike Epistle to the
Philippians (16x8, reprinted 1864) is a specimen of his preach-
ing before his college, and of his fiery denunciation of popery
and his fearless enunciation of that Calvinism which Oxford
in common with all England then prized. In 1598 he was
chosen provost of his college, and in 1606 was vice-chancellor
of the university. In the discharge of his vice-chancellor's
duties he came into conflict with Laud, who even thus early
was manifesting his antagonism to the prevailing Puritanism.
He was also rector of Otmore (or Otmoor), near Oxford, a
living which involved him in a trying but successful litigation,
whereof later incumbents reaped the benefit He died on the
6th of October 1616. His character as a man, preacher, divine,
and as an important ruler in the university, will be found por-
trayed in the Epistle by John Potter, prefixed to the Commentary.
He must have been a fine specimen of the more cultured Puritans
p ossessed of a robust common-flense in admirable contrast
with some of his contemporaries.
AIRD, THOMAS (1802-1876), Scottish poet, was born at
Bowden, Roxburghshire, on the 28th of August x8oa. He was
educated at Edinburgh University, where he made the acquaint-
ance of Carlyle and James Hogg, and he decided to devote
himself to literary work. He published Martsoufle, a Tragedy,
with other Poems (1826), a volume of essays, and a long narrative
poem in several cantos, The Captive of Pes (1830). For a year
he edited the Edinburgh Weekly Journal, and for twenty-eight
years the Dumfriesshire and Galloway Herald. In 1848 he
published a collected edition of his poems, which met with much
favour. Carlyle said that he found in them " a healthy breath
as of mountain breezes." Among Aird's other friends were De
Quincey, Lockhart, Stanley (afterwards dean of Westminster)
and MothcrwelL He died at Dumfries on the 35th of April 1876.
AIRDRIE, a municipal and police burgh of Lanarkshire,
Scotland. Pop. (1001) 22,228. It is situated xi m. E. of
Glasgow by the North British railway, and also communicates
with Glasgow by the Monkland Canal (which passes within x m.
of the town), as well as by the Caledonian railway via Coatbridge
and WhiffleL The canal was constructed between 1761 and
1790, and connects with the Forth and Gyde Canal near Mary-
hill Airdrie was a market town in 1695, but owes its prosperity
to the great coal and iron beds in its vicinity. Other industries
include iron and brass foundries, engineering, manufactures
of woollens and calicoes, silk-weaving, paper-making, oil and
fireclay. The public buildings comprise the town hall, county
buildings, mechanics' institute, academy, two fever hospitals
and free library, the burgh having been the first town in Scotland
to adopt the Free Library Act Airdrie unites with Falkirk,
Hamilton, Lanark and Linlithgow in sending one member to
parliament The parish of New Monkland, in which Airdrie
lies, was formed (with Old Monkland)in 1640 out of the ancient
barony of Monkland, so named from the fact that it was part of
the lands granted by Malcolm IV. to the monks of Newbattle.
AIRE, a town of south-western France, in the department
of Landes, on the left bank of the Adour, 22 m. S.E. of Mont-de-
Marsan on the Southern railway between Morcenx and Tarbes.
Pop. (1906) 2283. It is the seat of a bishopric, and has a
cathedral of the 12th century and an episcopal palace of the
nth, 17th and 18th centuries. Both have undergone frequent
restoration. They are surpassed in interest by the church of
St Quitterie in Mas d'Aire, the suburb south-west of the town.
The latter is a brick building of the 13th and 14th centuries, wjth
a choir in the Romanesque style, and a fine western portal which
has been much disfigured. The crypt contains several Galle-
Roman tombs and the sarcophagus (5th century) of St Quitterie.
Aire has two ecclesiastical seminaries.
Aire (Atura, VicusJulii) was the residence of the kings of
the Visigoths, one of whom, Alaric IL (q.v.) t there drew up his
famous code. The bishopric dates from the 5th century.
AIRE, a town of northern France, on the river Lys, in- the
department of Pas-de-Calais, 12 m. S.S.E. of St Omer by raiL
Pop. (1906) 4258. The town lies in a low and marshy situation
at the junction of three canals. The chief buildings are the
church of St Pierre (15th and x6th centuries), which has an
imposing tower and rich interior decoration; a hotel de ville
of the 1 8th century; and the Baflliage (16th century), a small
building in the Renaissance style. Aire has flour-mills, leather
and oil works, and nail manufactories, and trade in agricultural
produce.
In the middle ages Aire belonged to the counts of Flanders,
from whom in 1188 It received a charter, which is still extant
It was given to France by the peace of Utrecht 1713.
AIR-ENGINE, the name given to heat-engines which use air
for their working substance, that is to say for the substance
which is caused alternately to expand and contract by application
J
444
AIR-ENGINE
and removal of heat, thli process enabling a portion of the
applied heat to be transformed into mechanical work. Just as
the working substance which alternately takes in and gives
out heat in the steam-engine is water (converted during a part
of the action into steam), so in the air-engine it is air. The
practical drawbacks to employing air as the working substance
of a heat-engine are so great that its use has been very limited.
Such attempts as have been made to design air-engines on a
large scale have been practical failures, and are now interesting
only as steps in the historical development of applied thermo-
dynamics. In the form of motors for producing very small
amounts of power air-engines have been found convenient,
and within a restricted field they are still met with. But even
in this field the competition of the oil-engine and the gas-engine
is too formidable to leave to the air-engine more than a very
narrow chance of employment
One of the chief practical objections to air-engines is the great
bulk of the working substance in relation to the amount of heat
that is utilized in the working of the engine. To some extent this
objection may be reduced by using the air in a state of com-
pression, and therefore of greater density, throughout its opera-
tion. Even then, however, the amount of operative heat is
very small in comparison with that which passes through the
steam-engine, per cubic foot swept through by the piston, for
the change of state which water undergoes in its transformation
into steam involves the taking in of much more heat than can
be communicated to air in changing its temperature within such
a range as is practicable. Another and not less serious objection
Is the practical difficulty of getting heat into the working air
through the walls of the containing vessel The air receives heat
from an external furnace just as water does in the boiler of a
steam-engine, by contact with a heated metallic surface, but it
takes up heat from such a surface with much less readiness
than does water. The waste of heat in the chimney gases is
accordingly greater; and further, the metallic shell is liable
to be quickly burned away as a result of its contact at a high
temperature with free oxygen. The temperature of the shell
is much higher than that of a steam boiler, for in order to secure
that the working air will take up a fair amount of heat, the upper
limit to which its temperature is raised greatly exceeds that of
even high-pressure steam. This objection to the air-engine
arises from the fact that the heat comes to it from external
combustion; it disappears when inUmd combustion is resorted
to; that is to say, when the heat is generated within the envelope
containing the working air, by the combustion there of gaseous
or other fuel Gas-engines and oil-engines and other types of
engine employing internal combustion may be regarded as
closely related to the air-engine. They differ from it, however,
in the fact that their working substance is not air, but a mixture
of gases— a necessary consequence of internal combustion. It
is to internal combustion that they owe their success, for it
enables them to get all the heat of combustidn into the working
substance, to use a relatively very high temperature at the top
of the range, and at the same time to escape entirely the draw-
backs that arise in the air-engine proper through the need of
conveying heat to the air through a metallic shell.
A form of air-engine which was invented in 1S16 by the Rev.
R. Stirling is of special interest as embodying the earliest applica-
tion of what is known as the " regenerative " principle, the
principle namely that heat may be deposited by a substance
at one stage of its action and taken up again at another stage
with but little loss, and with a great resulting change in the
substance's temperature at each of the two stages in theoperation.
The principle has since found wide application in metallurgical
and other operations. In any heat-engine it is essential that
the working substance should be at a high temperature while
it is taking in heat, and at a relatively low temperature when
it is rejecting heat. The highest thermodynamic efficiency will
be reached when the working substance is at the top of its
temperature range while any heat is being received and at the
bottom while any heat is being rejected— as is the case in the
cycle of operations of the theoretically imagined engine of Carnot.
(See TBeimoovm amics and Steak-Engine.) In Canoe's cydr
the substance takes in heat at its highest temperature, then
passes by adiabatic expansion from the top to the bottom oi
its temperature zange, then reiects heat at the bottom of the
range, and is finally brought back by adiabatic oomprcsska
to the highest temperature at which it again takes in heat, aad
so on. An air-engine working on this cycle would be-mtolembr/
bulky and mechanically inefficient Stirling substituted for
the two stages of adiabatic expansion and oompresstoa the
passage of the air to ana fro through a H regenerator," in wfcka
the air was alternately cooled by storing its heat in the matrmt
of the regenerator and reheated by picking the stored beat qj
again on the return journey. The essential parts of one Uxn
of Stirling's engine are shown in fig. z. There A is the exteraaBy-
fired heating vessel, the lower part of which contains hot air
which is taking in heat from the furnace beneath. A pipe Iron
the top of A leads to the working Cylinder (B). At the top of A is
a cooler (Q consisting of pipes through which cold water is made
to circulate. In A there is a displacer (D) which is connect**
(by parts not shown) with the piston in such a manner that it
moves down when the piston has moved, up. The air-pressiae
is practically the same above and below D, for these spaces ait
in free communication with
one another through the
regenerator (E), which is an
annular space stacked loosely
with wire-gauze. When D
moves down, the hot air is
driven up through the re-
generator to the upper part
of the containing vessel. It
deposits its heat in the wire-
gauze, becoming lowered in
temperature and conse-
quently reduced in pressure.
The piston (B) descends, and
the air, now in contact with
the cooling pipes (C), gives up
heat to them. Then the dis-
placer (D) is raised. The air
passes down through its
regenerator, picking up the F ,._stirling's Air-Earist.
heat deposited there, and "*«««™«"««^»
thereby having its temperature restored and its presswe
raised. It then takes in heat from the furnace, expandins
in volume and forcing the piston (B) to rise, which completes
the cycle. The engine was double-acting, another heating
vessel like A being connected with the upper end of the workiDf
cylinder at F. The stages at which heat is taken from the fer-
nace and rejected to the cooler (Q are approximately isothermal
at the upper and lower limits of temperature respectively, and
the cycle accordingly is approximately " perfect " in the thermo-
dynamic sense. The theoretical indicator diagram is made up
of two isothermal lines for the taking in and rejection of hat
and two lines of constant volume for the two pstwigrt throo**
the regenerator. This engine was the subject of two patents
(by R. and S. Stirling) in 1827 *&d 1840. A double-acting
Stirling engine of 50 horse-power, using air which wasmaintaiftcd
by a pump at a fairly high pressure throughout the operation*,
was used for some years in the Dundee Foundry, where it s
credited with having consumed only 1*7 lb of coal per boar
per indicated horse-power. The coal consumption per brake-
horse-power was no doubt much greater. It was finally abandoned
on account of the failure of the heating vessels.
The type survives in some small domestic motors, an example
of which, manufactured under the patent of H. Robinson, is
shown in fig. *. In this there is no compressing pump, sad uu
main pressure of the working air is simply that of the atm>
sphere. The whole range of pressure is so slight that no paddif
is required. Here A is the vessel in which the air is heated sad
within which the displacer works. It is heated by a small cob*
fire or by a gas flame in C. It communicates through a pasnfi
AIREY— AIRY
445
Fig. a.— Robinson's form of Stirling's
Engine.
(D) with the working cylinder (B). The displace? (E),which takes
its motion through a' rod (I) from a rocking lever (F) connected by
a short link to the crank-pin, is itself the regenerator, its con*
struction being such that the air passes up and down through
it as in one of the original Stirling forms. The cooler is a water
vessel (G) through which water circulates. from a tank (H).
Messrs. Hayward and Tyler's " Rider " engine may be mentioned
as another small hot-air motor which follows nearly the Stirling
cycle of operations.
An attempt to develop a powerful air-engine was made in
America about 1833 by John Ericsson, who applied it to marine
propulsion in the ship "Caloric," but without permanent
success. like Stirling, Ericsson used a regenerator, but with
this difference that the pressure instead of the volume of the
air remained constant while
it passed in each direction
through the regenerator.
Cold air was compressed by
a pump into a receiver,
where it was kept cool
during compression and
from which it passed through
a regenerator into the work-
ing cylinder. In so passing
it took up heat and ex-
panded. It was then allowed
to expand further, taking
in heat from a furnace
under the cylinder and
falling in pressure. This
expansion was continued
till the pressure of the
working air fell nearly to
that of the atmosphere. It
was then discharged through
the regenerator, depositing heat for the next charge of air in
turn to take up. The indicator diagram approximated to a
form made up of two isothermal lines and two lines of constant
pressure.
In the transmission of feower by compressed air (see Powex
Transmission) the air-driven motors are for the most part
machines resembling steam-engines in the general features of
their pistons, cylinders, valves and so forth. Such machines
are not properly described as air-engines since their function
is not the conversion of heat into work. Incidentally, however,
they do in some cases partially discharge that function, namely,
when what is called a " preheater " is used to warm up the
compressed air before it enters in the motor cylinder. The
object of this device is not, primarily, to produce work from
heat, but to escape the inconveniences that would otherwise
arise through extreme cooling of the air during its expansion.
Without preheating the expanding air becomes so cold as to be
liable to deposit snow from the moisture held in suspension,
and thereby to clog the valves. With preheating this is avoided,
and the amount of work done by a given quantity of air is
increased by the conversion into work of a part of the sup-
plementary energy which the preheater supplies in the form of
heat. (J. A. E.)
AIREY. RICHARD AIREY, Bason (1803-1881), British
general, was the son of Lieutenant-General Sir George Airey
(1761-1833) and was bora in 1803. He entered the army in
1821, became captain in 1825, and served on the staff of Sir
Frederick Adam in the Ionian Islands (1827-1830) and on that
of Lord Ayimer in North America (1830-1832). In 1838 Airey,
then a lieutenant-colonel, went to the Horse Guards, where in
1852 he became military secretary to the commander-in-chief,
Lord Hardinge. In 1854 he was given a brigade command in
the army sent out to the East; from which, however, he was
immediately transferred to the onerous and difficult post of
quartermaster-general to Lord Raglan, in which capacity he
served through the campaign in the Crimea. He was made a
major-general in December 1854, and it was universally recog-
nised in the army that he was the best soldier on Lord Raglan's
staff. He was made a K.C.B., and was reported upon most
favourably by his superiors, Lord Raglan and Sir J. Simpson.
Airey was a quartermaster-general in the older sense of the
word, %.€, a chief of the general staff, but a different view of
the duties of the office was then becoming recognized. Public
opinion held him and his department responsible for the failures
and mismanagement of the commissariat Airey demanded an
inquiry on his return to England and cleared himself completely,
but he never recovered from the effects of the unjust persecution
of which he had been made the victim, though the popular view
was not shared by his military superiors. He gave up his post
at the front to become quartermaster-general to the forces at
home. In 1862 he was promoted lieutenant-general, and from
1865 to 1870 he was governor of Gibraltar, receiving the G.C.B.
in 1867. In 1870 he became adjutant-general at headquarters,
and in 187 1 attained the full rank of general In 2876, on
his retirement, he was created a peer, and in 1870-1880 he
presided over the celebrated Airey commission on army reform.
He died at the house of Lord Wolseley, at Leatherhead, on. the
14th of September 1881.
AIR-GUN, a gun in which the force employed to propel the
bullet is the elasticity of compressed atmospheric air. It has
attached to it, or constructed in it, a reservoir of compressed
air, a portion of which, liberated into the space behind the bullet
when the trigger is pulled, propels' the bullet from the barrel by
its expansion. The common forms of air-gun, which are merely
toys, are charged by compressing a spiral spring, one end of
which forms a piston working in a cylinder; when released by
a pull on the trigger, this spring expands, and the air forced out
in front of it propels the bullet. Air-guns of this kind are some-
times made to resemble walking-sticks and are then known as
air-canes.
AIRY, SIR GEORGE BIDDEU (1801-1802), British Astro-
nomer Royal, was born at Alnwick on the 27 th of July 1801. He
came of a long line of Airys who traced their descent back to a
family of the same name residing at Kentmere, in Westmorland,
in the 14th century; but the branch to which he belonged,
having suffered in the civil wars, removed to Lincolnshire, where
for several generations they lived as farmers. George Airy was
educated first at elementary schools in Hereford, and afterwards
at Colchester Grammar School. In 18x9 he entered Trinity
College, Cambridge, as a sizar. Here he bad a brilliant career,
and seems to have been almost immediately recognized as the
leading man of his year. In 1822 he was elected scholar of
Trinity, and in the following year he graduated as senior wrangler
and obtained first Smith's prize. On the zst of October 1824 he
was elected fellow of Trinity, and in December 1826 was ap-
pointed Lucasian professor of mathematics in succession to
Thomas Turton. This chair he held for little more than a year,
being elected in February 1828 Plumian professor of astronomy
and director -of the new Cambridge observatory. Some idea of
his activity as a writer on mathematical and physical subjects
during these early years may be gathered from the fact that
previous to this appointment he had contributed no less than
three important memoirs to the Philosophical Transactions of the
Royal Socidy, and eight to the Cambridge Philosophical Society.
At the Cambridge observatory Airy soon gave evidence of his
remarkable power of organization. The only telescope erected
in the establishment when he took it in charge was the transit
instrument, and to this he vigorously devoted himself. By the
adoption of a regular system of work, and a careful plan of reduc-
tion, he was able to keep his observations reduced practically up
to date, and published them annually with a degree of punctu-
ality which astonished his contemporaries. Before long a mural
circle was installed, and regular observations were instituted with
it in 1833. In the same year the duke of Northumberland pre-
sented the Cambridge observatory with a fine object-glass of
12 in. aperture, which was mounted according to Airy's designs
and under his superintendence, although the erection was not
completed until after bis removal to Greenwich in 1835. Airy's
writings during this time are divided between mathematical
4+6
AIRY
physics and astronomy. The former are for the most part
concerned with questions relating to the theory of light, arising
out of his professorial lectures, among which may be specially
mentioned his paper " On the Diffraction of an Object-Glass with
Circular Aperture." In 183 1 the Copley medal of the Royal
Society was awarded to him for these researches. Of his astro-
nomical writings during this period the most important are his
investigation of the mass of Jupiter, his report to the British
Association on the progress of astronomy during the 19th century,
and his memoir On an Inequality of Long Period in the Motions of
ike Earth and Venus.
One of the sections of his able and instructive report was
devoted to " A Comparison of the Progress of Astronomy in
England with that in other Countries," very much to the dis-
advantage of England. This reproach was subsequently to a
great extent removed by his own labours.
Airy's discovery of a new inequality in the motions of Venus
and the earth is in some respects his most remarkable achieve-
ment In correcting the elements of Delambre's solar tables he
had been led to suspect an inequality overlooked by their con-
structor. The cause of this he did not long seek in vain. Eight
times the mean motion of Venus is so nearly equal to thirteen
times that of the earth that the difference amounts to only the
-rJ-jth of the earth's mean motion, and from the fact that the
term depending on this difference, although very small in itself,
receives in the integration of the differential equations a multi-
plier of about 2,200,000, Airy was led to infer the existence of a
sensible inequality extending over 240 years (Phil. Trans, exxii.
67). The investigation that brought about this result was
probably the most laborious that had been made up to Airy's
time in planetary theory, and represented the first specific
improvement in the solar tables effected in England since the
establishment of the theory of gravitation. In recognition of this
work the medal Of the Royal Astronomical Society was awarded
to him in 1833.
In June 1835 Airy was appointed Astronomer Royal in succes-
sion to John Pond, and thus commenced that long career of
wisely directed and vigorously sustained industry at the national
observatory which, even more perhaps than his investigations in
abstract science or theoretical astronomy, constitutes his chief
title to fame. The condition of the observatory at the time of his
appointment was such that Lord Auckland, the first lord of the
Admiralty, considered that " it ought to be cleared out," while
Airy admitted that " it was in a queer state." With his usual
energy he set to work at once to reorganize the whole manage-
ment. He remodelled the volumes of observations, put the
library on a proper footing, mounted the new (Sheepshanks)
equatorial and organized a new magnetic observatory. In 1847
an altazimuth was erected, designed by Airy to enable observa-
tions of the moon to be made not only on the meridian, but
whenever she might be visible. In 1848 Airy invented the reflex
zenith tube to replace the zenith sector previously employed.
At the end of 1850 the great transit circle of 8 in. aperture and
11 ft. 6 in. focal length was erected, and is still the principal
instrument of its class at the observatory. The mounting in 1859
of an equatorial of 13 in. aperture evoked the comment in his
journal for that year, " There is not now a single person employed
or instrument used in the observatory which was there in Mr
Pond's time "; and the transformation was completed by the
inauguration of spectroscopic work in 1868 and of the photo-
graphic registration of sun-spots in 1873.
The formidable undertaking of reducing the accumulated
planetary observations made at Greenwich from 1750 to 1830
was already in progress under Airy's supervision when he became
Astronomer Royal. Shortly afterwards he undertook the further
laborious task of reducing the enormous mass of observations
of the moon made at Greenwich during the same period under
the direction, successively, of J. Bradley, N. Bliss, N. Maskelyne
and John Pond, to defray the expense of which a large sum of
money was allotted by the Treasury. As the result, no less than
8000 lunar observations were rescued from oblivion, and were,
in 1846, placed at the disposal of astronomers in such a form that
they could be used directly for comparison with the theory tad
for the improvement of the tables of the moon's morion. For
this work Airy received in 1848 a testimonial from the Royal
Astronomical Society, and it at once led to the discovery by
P. A. Hansen of two new inequalities in the moon's motion.
After completing these reductions, Airy made inquiries, before
engaging in any theoretical investigation in connexion with
them, whether any other mathematician was pursuing the
subject, and learning that Hansen had taken it in band under
the patronage of the king of Denmark, but that, owing to the
death of the king and the consequent lack of funds, there wis
danger of his being compelled to abandon it, he applied to
the admiralty on Hansen's behalf for the necessary sum. Ha
request was immediately granted, and thus it came about that
Hansen's famous Tables de la Lune were dedicated to La Haute
A mirautt de sa Majesti la Reine de la Grande Bretagne el d*IrUmde.
One of the most remarkable of Airy's researches was his
determination of the mean density of the earth. In 1826 the
idea occurred to him of attacking this problem by means of
pendulum experiments at the top and bottom of a deep mine.
His first attempt, made in the same year, at the Dotcoath mine
in Cornwall, failed in consequence of an accident to one of the
pendulums; a second attempt in 1828 was defeated by a flooding
of the mine, and many years elapsed before another opportunity
presented itself. The experiments eventually took place at the
Harton pit near South Shields in 1854. Their immediate result
was to show that gravity at the bottom of the mine exceeded
that at the top by rHrnTth- of its amount, the depth being
1256 ft. From this he was led to the final value of 6*566 for
the mean density of the earth as compared with that of water
(Phil. Trans, cxlvi. 342). This value, although considerably
in excess of that previously found by different methods, was
held by Airy, from the care and completeness with which the
observations were carried out and discussed, to be " entitled to
compete with the others on, at least, equal terms."
In 1872 Airy conceived the idea of treating the lunar theory
in a new way, and at the age of seventy-one he embarked on the
prodigious toil which this scheme entailed. A general description
of his method will be found in the Monthly Notices of the Royal
Astronomical Sociely t vol. xxxiv. No. 3. It consisted essentially
in the adoption of Delauny's final numerical expressions for
longitude, latitude and parallax, with a symbolic term attached
to each number, the value of which was to be determined by
substitution in the equations of motion. In this mode of treat-
ing the question the order of the terms is numerical, and though
the amount of labour is such as might well have deterred a
younger man, yet the details were easy, and a great part of ft
might be entrusted to a mere computer. The work was published
in 1886, when its author was eighty-five years of age. For some
little time previously he had been harassed by a suspicion that
certain errors had crept into the computations, and accordingly
he addressed himself to the task of revision. But his powro
were no longer what they had been, and he was never able to
examine sufficiently into the matter. In 1800 he tells us how a
grievous error had been committed in one of the first steps,
and pathetically adds, "My spirit in the work was broken,
and I have never heartily proceeded with it since." In 1881
Sir George Airy resigned the office of Astronomer Royal and
resided at the White House, Greenwich, not far from the
Royal Observatory, until his death, which took place on the
2nd of January 1892.
A complete list of Airy's printed papers, numbering no lest
than 518, will be found in his Autobiography, edited in 1806 by
his son, Wilfrid Airy, B. A., M. Inst.CE. Amongst the most
important of his works not already mentioned may be named the
following:— Mathematical Tracts (1826) on the Lunar Theory,
Figure of the Earth, Precession and Nutation, and Calculus of
Variations, to which, in the second edition of 1828, were added
tracts on the Planetary Theory and the Undulatory Theory of
Light; Experiments on Iron-built Ships, instituted for the purpose
of discovering a correction for the deviation of the Compass produced
by the Iron of the Ships (1839) ; On the Theoretical Explanation 4
AISLABIE— AISSE
447
am apparent new Polarity to IA*M (1840); Tides and Warn
He was elected a fellow of the Royal Sodety in 1836, its pre-
sident in 1871, and received both the Copley and Royal medals.
He was five times president of the Royal Astronomical Society,
was correspondent of the French Academy and belonged to many
other foreign and American societies. He was D.CX. of Oxford
and LL.D. of Cambridge and Edinburgh. In 187a he was made
K.C.B. In the same year he was nominated a Grand Cross in
the Imperial Order of the Rose of Brazil; he also held the
Prussian Order " Pour le Merite," and belonged to the Legion of
Honour of France and to the Order of the North Star of Sweden
and Norway.
See abo Proc. Roy. Society, li. 1 (E. J. Routh); Month. Notices
Roy. Astr. Society, UL 212; Observatory, xv. 74 (E. Dunkin);
Nature, 31st of Oct. 1878 (A. Winnecke), 7th of Jan. 1892; The
Times, sth of Jan. 189s; R. Grant's Hut. of Pkys. Astronomy;
R. P. Graves's Life of Sir W. Rowan Hamilton. (A. A. R.*)
AISLABIE, JOHN (1670-1743), English politician, was born
at Goodramgate, York, on the 7th of December 167a He was
the fourth son of George Aislabie, principal registrar of the
archiepiscopal court of York. In 1695 he was elected member
of parliament for Ripon. In 171 2 he was appointed one of the
commissioners for executing the office of lord high admiral,
and in 1 714 became treasurer of the navy, being sworn in two
years later as a member of the privy council. In March 1718
he became chancellor of the exchequer. The proposal of the
South Sea Company to pay off the national debt was strenuously
supported by Aislabie, and finally accepted in an amended
form by the House of Commons. After the collapse of that
company a secret committee of inquiry was appointed by the
Commons, and Aislabie, who had in the meantime resigned the
seals of his office, was declared guilty of having encouraged and
promoted the South Sea scheme with a view to his own ex-
orbitant profit, and was expelled the House. Though committed
to the Tower he was soon released, and was allowed to retain
the property he possessed before 1718, including his country
estate, to which he retired to pass the rest of his days. He died
in 1742.
AI5LB (from Lat ofo, a wing), a term which In its primary
sense means the wing of a house, but is generally applied in
architecture to the lateral divisions of a church or large building.
The earliest example is that found in the basilica of Trajan,
which had double aisles on either side of the central area; the
same number existed in the original church of St Peter's at
Rome, in the basilica at Bethlehem, and according to Eusebius
in the church of the Holy Sepulchre at Jerusalem. The aisles
are divided from the nave or central area by colonnades or
arcades, and may flank also the transept or choir, being dis-
tinguished as nave-aisles, transept-aisles or choir-aisles. If
the choir is semi-circular, and the aisles, carried round, give
access to a series of chapels, the whole arrangement is known
as the chevet. As a rule in Great Britain there is only one aisle
on each side of the nave, the only exceptions being Chichester
and Elgin cathedrals, where there are two. Many European
cathedrals have two aisles on each side, as those of Paris, Bourges,
Amiens, Troyes, St Sernin, Toulouse, Cologne, Milan, Seville,
Toledo; and in those of Paris, Chartres, Amiens and Bourges,
Seville and Toledo, double aisles flank the choir on each side.
The cathedral at Antwerp has three aisles on each side.
In some of the churches in Germany the aisles are of the same
height as the nave. These churches are known as Hallenkircken,
the principal examples being St Stephen's, Vienna, the Weisse-
kiiche at Soest, St Martin's, Landshut, Munich cathedral, and
the Marienkirche at Danzig. (R. P. S.)
AISJfB, a frontier department in the north-east of France,
formed in 1790 from portions of the old provinces of Ile-de-
France and Picardy. Area 2866 sq. m. Pop. (1906) 534,495.
It is bounded N. by the department of Nord and the kingdom
of Belgium, E. by the department of Ardennes,. S.E. by that
of Marne, S. by that of Seine-et-Marne, and W. by those of Oise
and Somme. The surface of the department consists of un-
dulating and well-wooded plains, intersected by numerous
valleys, and diversified in the north-east by hilly ground which
forms a part of the mountain system of the Ardennes. Its
general slope is from north-east, where the culminating point
(930 ft) is found, to south-west, though altitudes exceeding
750 ft. are also found in the south. The chief rivers are the
Somme, the Escaut and the Sambre, which have their sources
in the north of the department; the Oise, traversing the north-
west, with its tributaries the Serre and the Aisne, the latter of
which joins it beyond the limits of the department; and the
Mame and the Ourcq in the south. The climate is in general
cold and humid, especially in the north-east. Agriculture is
highly developed; cereals, principally wheat and oats, and
beetroot are the chief crops; potatoes, flax, hemp, rape and
hops are also grown. Pasturage is good, particularly in the
north-east, where dairy-farming flourishes. Wine of medium
quality is grown on the banks of the Marne and the Aisne.
Bee-farming Is of some importance. Large tracts of the depart-
ment are under wood; the chief forests are those of Nouvion
and St Michel in the north, Coucy and St Gobain in the centre,
and Villers-Cotterets in the south. The osiers grown in the
vicinity of St Quentin supply an active basket-making industry.
Though destitute of metals Aisne furnishes abundance of
freestone, gypsum and clay There are numerous tile and brick
works in the department. Its most important industrial estab-
lishments are the mirror manufactory of St Gobain and the
chemical works at Chauny, and the workshops and foundries
of Guise the property of an association of workpeople organized
on socialistic lines and producing iron goods of various kinds.
The manufacture of sugar is very important; brewing, distilling,
flour-milling, iron-founding, the weaving and spinning of cotton,
wool and silk, and the manufacture of iron goods, especially
agricultural implements, are actively carried on. Aisne imports
coal, iron, cotton and other raw material and machinery; it
exports cereals, live-stock and agricultural products generally,
and manufactured goods. The department is served chiefly
by the lines of the Northern railway; in addition, the main line
of the Eastern railway to Strassburg traverses the extreme
south. The Oise, Aisne and Mame are navigable, and canals
furnish 170 m. of waterway. Aisne is divided into five
arrondissements— St Quentin and Vervins in the north, Laon
In the centre, and Soissons and Chateau-Thierry In the south —
and contains 3 7 cantons and 841 communes. It forms part of the
educational division (academic) of Douai and of the region of
the second army corps, its military centre being at Amiens, where
also is its court of appeal. Laon is the capital, and Soissons
the seat of a bishopric of the province of Reims. Other important
places are Chateau-Thierry, St Quentin and Coucy-le-Chateau
La Fert6-Milon has remains of an imposing chateau of the 14th
and 15th centuries with interesting fortifications. The ruined
church at Longpont (13 th century) is the relic of an import-
ant Cistercian abbey; Urcel and Mont-No tre-Dame have fine
churches, the first entirely in the Romanesque style, the second
dating from the 12 th and 13 th centuries, to which period the
church at Braisne also belongs. At Premontie the buildings
of the abbey, which was the cradle of the Premonstratensian
order, are occupied by a lunatic asylum.
AlSSft [a corruption of Haidee], Mademoiselle (c. 1694-
1733)» French letter-writer, was the daughter of a Circassian
chief, and was born about 1694. Her father's palace was
pillaged by the Turks, and as a child of four years old she was
sold to the comte de Ferriol, the French ambassador at Constanti-
nople. She was brought up in Paris by Ferriol's sister-in-law
with her own sons, MM. d'Argental and Pont de Veylc. Her
great beauty and romantic history made her the fashion, and
she attracted the notice of the regent, Philip, duke of Orleans,
whose offers she had the strength of mind to refuse. She formed
a deep and lasting attachment to the Chevalier d'Aydic, by
whom she had a daughter. She died in Paris on the 13th of
March 1733. Her letters to her friend Madame Calandrini
contain much interesting information with regard to con-
temporary celebrities, especially on Mme. du Deffand and Mme.
de Tencin, but they are above all of interest in the picture they
+48
AITON— AIX-LA-CHAPELLE
afford of the writer's own tenderness and fidelity. Her LeUres
were edited by Voltaire (1787), by J. Ravenel, with a notice
by Sainte-Beuve (1846) and by Eugene Asse (1873). Mile. Alss6
has been the subject of three plays: by A. de Lavergne and
P. Woucher (1854), by Louis Bouilhet (167a) and by Dejoux
(1898).
See also Courteault, Une IdyUe au XVIII' stick, MUe. Alsti et
le Chevalier d'Aydie (Macon. 1900); and notices prefixed to the
editions of 1846 and 1 873. There is an interesting essay by E. Gosse
in his French Profiles (1905).
AITON, WILLIAM (1 731-1703). Scottish botanist, was born
near Hamilton in 1731. Having been regularly trained to the
profession of a gardener, he travelled to London in 1754, and
became assistant to Philip Miller, then superintendent of the
Physic Garden at Chelsea. In 1759 he was appointed director
of the newly established botanical garden at Kew, where he
remained until his death on the 2nd of February 1793. He
effected many improvements at the gardens, and in 1789 he
published Hortus Kewensis, a catalogue of the plants there
cultivated. A second and enlarged edition of the Hortus was
brought out in 18x0-1813 by his eldest son, William Townsend
Aiton (1766-1849), who succeeded him at Kew and was com-
missioned by George IV. to lay out the gardens at the Pavilion,
Brighton.
AITZEMA, LIBUWB (Leo) VAN (1600- 1660), Dutch historian
and statesman, was born at Doccum, in Friesland, on the 19th of
November 1600. In 1617 he published a volume of Latin poems
under the title of Pctmata Juvenilia, of which a copy is preserved
in the British Museum. He made a special study of politics and
political science and was for thirty years resident for the towns
of the Hanseatic League at the Hague, where he died on the 23rd
of February 1669. His most important work was the Saken van
Staet in Oorlogk in ende omtrent de Vereenigte Nederlanden (14 vols,
4to, 1655-1671), embracing the period from 1621 to 1668. It
contains a large number of state documents, and is an invaluable
authority on one of the most eventful periods of Dutch history.
Four continuations of the history, by the poet and historian
Lambert van den Bos, were published successively at Amsterdam
in 1685, 1688, 1698 and 1699. The Derde Vervolg Zijnde het vierde
Stuck van het Vcrvolth op de Historic, fire, brings the history down
to 1697.
AIVAU (Gr. Kydonia), a prosperous town on the W. coast of
Asia Minor, opposite the island of Mitylene. Pop. 31,000. It
stands near the site of the Aeolian Heraclea, on rising ground at
the end of a bay which is separated from the Gulf of Adramyt-
tium, and protected from the prevailing winds by the Moschonisi
Islands (Hecalonnesoi). In 1821 it was burned to the ground
during a fight between the Turks and the Greeks, and a large
number of its Greek population killed or enslaved. It is one of
the most thriving towns in the Levant, with a purely Greek
population distinguished for its commercial, industrial and
maritime enterprise. The exports are olive oil, grain and wood,
and a fleet of fishing-boats supplies Constantinople and Smyrna
with fish; the exports in 190a were valued at £987,070, and the
imports at £336.693.
AI WAN, the reception-hall or throne-room of a Parthian or
Sassanian palace.
AIX, a city of south-eastern France, capital of an arrondisse-
ment in the department of Bouches-du-Rh6ne, 18 m. N. of
Marseilles by rail. Pop. (1006) 19,433* It is situated in a plain
overlooking the Arc, about a mile from the right bank of the
river. The Cours Mirabeau, a wide thoroughfare, planted with
double rows of plane-trees, bordered by fine houses and decorated
by three fountains, divides the town into two portions. The
new town extends to the south, the old town with its wide but
irregular streets and its old mansions dating from the 16th,
17 th and 1 8th centuries lies to the north. Aix is an important
educational centre, being the seat of the faculties of law and
letters of the University of Aix-Marseille, and the north and east
quarter of the town, where the schools and university buildings
are situated, is comparable to the Latin Quarter of Paris, The
cathedral of St Sauveur, which dates from the 1 1 th, 1 2th and 13th
centuries, is situated in this portion of Aix. It is preceded by a
rich portal in the Gothic style with elaborately carved doors, and
is flanked on the north by an uncompleted tower. The interior
contains tapestry of the 16th century and other works of art.
The archbishop's palace and a Romanesque cloister adjoin the
cathedral on its south side. The church of St Jean de Malte,
dating from the 43th century, contains some valuable pictures.
The hotel de ville, a building in the classical style of the middle
of the 1 7U1 century, looks on to a picturesque square. It contains
some fine wood-work and a large library which includes many
valuable MSS. At its side rises a handsome dock-tower erected
in 1505. Aix possesses many beautiful fountains, one of which
in the Cours Mirabeau is surmounted by a statue of Rene, count
of Provence, who held a brilliant court at Aix in the 15th century
Aix has thermal springs, remarkable for their heat and containing
lime and carbonic acid. The bathing establishment was built in
1705 near the site of the ancient baths of Sextius, of which
vestiges still remain. The town, which is the seat of an arch-
bishop and court of appeal, and the centre of an academic (educa-
tional circumscription), numbers among its public institutions a
court of assizes, tribunals of first instance and of commerce, and
a chamber of arts and manufactures. It also has training-colleges,
a lycee, a school of art and technics, museums of antiquities,
natural history and painting, and several learned societies. The
industries include flour-milling, the manufacture of confectionery,
iron-ware and hats, and the distillation of olive-oil. Trade is in
olive-oil, almonds and stone from the neighbouring quarries.
Aix (Aquae Sextiae) was founded in 123 B.C. by the Roman
consul Sextius Calvinus, who gave his name to its springs. In
xoa b.c. its neighbourhood was the scene of the defeat inflicted
on the Cimbri and Teutones by Marius. In the 4th century it
became the metropolis of Narbonensis Secunda. It was occupied
by the Visigoths in 477, in the succeeding century was repeatedly
plundered by the Franks and Lombards, and was occupied by the
Saracens in 731. Aix, which during the middle ages was the
capital of the county of Provence, did not reach its zenith until
after the 12th century, when, under the houses of Aragon and
Anjou, it became an artistic centre and seat of learning. With
the rest of Provence, it passed to the crown of France in 1487, and
in 1 501 Louis XII. established there the parlcment of Provence
which existed till 1 789. In the 1 7th and 18th centuries the town
was the seat of the intendanct of Provence.
AIX-LA-CHAPBLLB (Ger. Aachen, Dutch A ken), a city and
spa of Germany, in the kingdom of Prussia, situated in a pleasant
valley, 44 m. W. of Cologne and contiguous to the Belgian and
Dutch frontiers, to which its municipal boundaries extend. Pop.
(1885) 95»725; (1905) including Burtscheid, 143,006. Its posi-
tion, at the centre of direct railway communications with Cologne
and Dilsseldorf respectively on the E. and Liege-Brussels and
Maestricht-Antwerp on the W., has favoured its rise to one of
the most prosperous commerical towns of Germany. The city
consists of the old inner town, the former ramparts of which have
been converted into promenades, and the newer outer town and
suburbs. Of the ancient gates but two remain, the Ponttor on
the N.W. and the Marschiertor on the S. Its general appearance
is that rather of a spadoua modern, than of a medieval dty full of
historical associations.
Of the cluster of buildings in the centre, which are conspicuous
from afar, the town hall (Rathaus) and the cathedral are specially
noteworthy. The former, standing on the south side of the market
square, is a Gothic structure, erected in 1 353-1 370 on the ruins of
Charlemagne's palace. It contains the magnificent coronation
hall of the emperors (143 ft by 61 ft), in which thirty-five
German kings and eleven queens have banqueted alter the
coronation ceremony in the cathedral. The two ancient towers,
the Granusturm to the W. and the Glockenturm to the E., both
of which to a large extent had formed part of the Caroiinxiso
palace, were all but destroyed in the fire by which the Rathaus was
seriously damaged in 1883. Their restoration was completed in
1902. Behind the Rathaus is the Grashaus, in which Richard of
Cornwall, king of the Romans, is said to have held his court. It
was restored in 1 889 to accommodate the municipal archives. Thr
cathedral is of great historic and architectural interest. Apart
AIX-LA-CHAPELLE
449
from the spire, which was rebuilt in 1884, It consists of two parts
of different styles and date. The older portion, the capetta in
paiatitt an octagonal building surmounted by a dome, was
designed on the model of San Vitale at Ravenna by Udo of MeU,
was begun under Charlemagne's auspices in 706 and consecrated
by Pope Leo III. in 805. After being almost entirely wrecked by
Norman raiders it was rebuilt, on the original lines, in 083, by the
emperor Otto III. It is surrounded on the first story by a sixteen-
sided gallery (the Hochmtinster) adorned by antique marble and
granite columns, of various sues, brought by Charlemagne's
orders from Rome, Ravenna and Trier. These were removed by
Napoleon to Paris, but restored to their original positions after
the peace of 181 5. The mosaic representing Christ surrounded by
"the four-and-twenty elders," which originally lined the cupola,
had almost entirely perished by the 19th century, but was re-
stored in 1 882 from a copy made in the 1 7th century. Interesting
too are the magnificent west doors, cast in bronze by native
workmen in 804. Underneath the dome, according to tradition,
was the tomb of Charlemagne, which, on being opened by Otto
III. in xooo, disclosed the body of the emperor, vested in white
coronation robes and seated on a marble chair. This chair, now
placed in the gallery referred to, was used for centuries in the
imperial coronation ceremonies. The site of the tomb is marked
by a stone slab, with the inscription Carlo Hagno, and above it
hangs the famous bronze chandelier presented by the emperor
Frederick I. (Barbarossa) in n 68. Charlemagne's bones are
preserved in an ornate shrine in the Hungarian Chapel, lying to
the north of the octagon. The casket was opened in 1006, at the
instance of the emperor William IL, and the draperies enclosing
the body were temporarily removed to Berlin, with a view to the
reproduction of similar doth. The Gothic choir, forming the
more modern portion of the cathedral, was added during the
latter half of the 14th and the beginning of the 15th century, and
contains the tomb of the emperor Otto III. The cathedral
possesses many relics, the more sacred of which are exhibited
only once every seven years, when they attract large crowds of
worshippers.
Of the other thirty-three churches in the dty those of
St Foillan (founded in the 12th century, but twice rebuilt, in
the 15th and 17th centuries, and restored in 1883) and St Paul,
with its beautiful stained-glass windows, are remarkable. In
addition to those already mentioned, Aix-la-Chapelle possesses
several fine secular buildings: the Suermondt museum, con-
taining besides other miscellaneous exhibits the fine collection
of pictures by early German, Dutch and Flemish masters,
presented to the town by Bartholomlus Suermondt (d. 1887);
the public library; the theatre; the post-office; and the fine
new central railway station. Among the schools may be men-
tioned the magnificently equipped Rhenish- Westphalian Poly-
technic School Ouilt 1865-1870) and the school of mining and
electricity, founded in 1897.
There are many fine streets and squares and some handsome
public monuments, notably among the last the fountain on the
market square surmounted by a statue of Charlemagne, the
bronze equestrian statue of the emperor William I. fadng the
theatre, the Kriegerdenkmal (a memorial to those who fell in
the war of 1870) and the Kongress-Denkmal, a marble hall in
antique style erected in 1844 on the Adalberts-Stdnweg to
commemorate the famous congress of 1818 (see bdow). Of the
squares, the prindpal is the Friedrich-WilhelmpUtx, on which
lies the Elisenbrunnen with its colonnade and garden, the chid
resort of visitors taking the baths and waters.
The hot sulphur springs of Aix-la-Chapelle were known to the
Romans and have been celebrated for centuries as specific in*
the eve of rheumatism, gout and scrofulous disorders. There
are six in all, of which the Kaiserquelle, with a temperature of
136° F., is the chief. In the ndghbouring Burtscheid (in-
corporated in 1897 with Aix-la-Chapelle) are also springs of
far higher temperature, and this suburb, which has also a
Kurgarten, is largdy frequented during the season.
In respect of trade and industry Aix-la-Chapelle occupies a
high place. Its doth and silk manufactures are important, and
owing to the opening up of extensive coalfields in the district
almost every branch of iron industry is carried on. It has some
large breweries and manufactories of chemicals, and docs a
considerable trade in cereals, leather, timber and wine. It is
also an important banking centre and has several insurance
societies of reputation.
The country immediately surrounding Aix-la-Chapelle presents
many attractive features. From the Lousberg and the Salva tor-
berg to the north, the latter crowned by a chapel, magnificent
views of the dty are obtained; while covering the hills 2 m.
west stretches the Stadtwald, a forest with charming walks and
drives.
History.— Aix-la-Chapelle is the Aquisgranum of the Romans,
named after Apollo Granus, who was worshipped in connexion
with hot springs. As early as a.d. 765 King Pippin had a
"palace" here, in which it is probable that Charlemagne was
born. The greatness of Aix was due to the latter, who between
777 and 786 built a magnificent palace on the site of that of his
father, raised the place to the rank of the second dty of the
empire, and made it for a while the centre of Western culture
and learning. From the coronation of Louis the Pious in 813
until that of Ferdinand I. in 1 &i the sacring of the German kings
took place at Aix, and as many as thirty-two emperors and kings
were here crowned. In 851, and again in 88a, the place was
ravaged by the Northmen in thdr raids up the Rhine. It was
not, however, till late in the 12th century (1x72-1x76) that
the dty was surrounded with walls by order of the emperor
Frederick I., to whom (in 1 166) and to his grandson Frederick II.
(in 1215) it owed its first important dvic rights. These were
still further extended in 1250 by the anti-Caesar William of
Holland, who had made himself master of the place and of the
imperial regalia, after a long siege, in X248. The liberties of the
burghers were, however, still restrained by the presence of a
royal advocatus (Vogf) and bailiff. In 1300 the outer ring of
walls was completed, the earlier drcumvallation being marked
by the limit of the Altstadt (old dty). In the x 4th century Aix,
now a free dty of the Holy Roman Empire, played a conspicuous
part, especially in the league which, between 1351 and 1387, kept
the peace between the Meuse and the Rhine. In 1450 an in-
surrection led to the admission of the gilds to a share in the
munidpal government In the 16th century Aix began to
decline in importance and prosperity. It lay too near the
French frontier to be safe, and too remote from the centre of
Germany to be convenient, as a capital; and in 1562 the election
and coronation of Maximilian II. took place at Frankfort-on-
Main, a precedent followed till the extinction of the Empire.
The Reformation, too, brought its troubles. In 1580 Pro-
testantism got the upper hand; the ban of the empire followed
and was executed by Ernest of Bavaria, archbishop-elector of
Cologne in 1508. A relapse of the dty led to a new ban of the
emperor Matthias in 16x3, and in the following year Spinola's
Spanish troops brought back the recalcitrant dty to the Catholic
fold. In 1656 a great fire completed the ruin wrought by the
religious* wars. By the treaty of Luneville (1801) Aix was in*
corporated with France as chief town of the department of the
Roer. By the congress of Vienna it was given to Prussia.
The contrast between the new regime and the andent tradition
of the dty was curiously illustrated in 18 18 by a scene described
in Metternich's Memoirs, when, before the opening of the
congress, Frauds I., emperor of Austria, regarded by all Ger-
many as the successor of the Holy Roman emperors, knelt at
the tomb of Charlemagne amid a worshipping crowd; while the
Protestant Frederick William III. of Prussia, the new sovereign
of the place, stood in the midst, "looking very uncomfortable."
See Quix, GtsckickU dor Sladt Aachen (1841); Pick, Aus Aachen*
Vergangenheit (Aachen, 189$); Bock, Karls des grossen PjaUhapeUt
(Cologne, 1867); and Beissel, Aachen als Kurort (1889).
AIX-LA-CHAPELLE, CONGRESSES OP. Three congresses
have been hdd at Aix-la-Chapelle: the first in 1068, the
second in 1748, the third in 18x8.
x. The treaty of the 2nd of May 1668, which put an end to
the War of Devolution, was, the outcome of that of St Germain
45°
AIX-LES-BAINS— AIYAR
signed on the 15th of April by France and the representatives
of the powers of the Triple Alliance. The treaty of Aix-la-
Chapelle left to France all the conquests made in Flanders
during the campaign of 1667, with all their " appartenances,
dipendances tt annexes." a vague provision of which, after the
peace of Nijmwegcn (1680), Louis XIV. took advantage to
occupy a number of villages and towns adjudged to him by his
Chambres de reunion as dependencies of the cities and territories
acquired in 1668. On the other hand, France restored to Spain
the cities of CambraJ, Aire and Saint-Omer, as well as the pro-
vince of Franche Comtt. The treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle was
placed under the guarantee of Great Britain, Sweden and
Holland, by a convention signed at the Hague on the 7th of
May 1669, to which Spain acceded.
See Jean du Mont, baron de Carlscroon, Corps unmrsd diplo-
matique (Amst., 1 726-1731).
a. On the 34th of April 1748 a congress assembled at Aix-la-
Chapelle for the purpose of bringing to a conclusion the struggle
known as the War of Austrian Succession. Between the 30th of
April and the aist of May the preliminaries were agreed to
between Great Britain, France and Holland, and to these Maria
The'resa, queen of Bohemia and Hungary, the kings of Sardinia
and Spain, the duke of Modena, and the republic of Genoa
successively gave their adhesion. The definitive treaty was
signed on the x 8th of October, Sardinia alone refusing to accede,
because the treaty of Worms was not guaranteed. Of the
provisions of the treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle the most important
were those stipulating for (1) a general restitution of conquests,
including Cape Breton to France, Madras to England and the
barrier towns to the Dutch; (2) the assignment to Don Philip
of the duchies of Parma, Piacenza and Guastalla; (3) the
restoration of the duke of Modena and the republic of Genoa to
their former positions; (4) the renewal in favour of Great
Britain of the Asiento contract of the 16th of March 2713, and
of the right to send an annual vessel to the Spanish colonies;
(5) the renewal of the article of the treaty of 1718 recognising
the Protestant succession In the English throne; (6) the recog-
nition of the emperor Francis and the confirmation of the
pragmatic sanction, i.e. of the right of Maria Theresa to the
Habsburg succession; (7) the guarantee to Prussia of the duchy
of Silesia and the county of Glatz.
Spain having raised objections to the Asiento clauses, the
treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle was supplemented by that of Madrid
(5th of October 1750), by which Great Britain surrendered her
claims under those clauses in return for a sum of £100,000.
See A. J. H. de CIcrcq, Recueti des traitis de la France: F. A.
Wcnk, Corpus juris gentium recentissim\ 173S-1772, vol. ii. {
1786), p. 337: Comte G. dc Garden, Hist, des traitis de potx, 1040-
1887, in. p. 373-
3. The congress or conference of Aix-Ia-ChapeHe, held In the
autumn of 1818, was, primarily a meeting of the four allied
powers— Great Britain, Austria, Prussia and Russia— to decide
the question of the withdrawal of the army of occupation from
France and the nature of the modifications to be introduced
in consequence into the relations of the four powers towards
each other, and collectively towards France. The congress, of
which the first session was held on the 1st of October, was
attended by the emperor Alexander L of Russia, the emperor
Francis L of Austria, and Frederick William III. of Prussia, in
person. Great Britain was represented by Lord Castlereagh and
the duke of Wellington, Austria by Prince Metternich, Russia by
Counts Capo d'Istria and Neaselrode, Prussia by Prince Harden-
berg and Count Bernstorff. The due de Richelieu, by favour of
the allies, was present on behalf of France. The evacuation
of France was agreed to in principle at the first session, the
consequent treaty being signed on the 9th of October. The
immediate object of the conference being thus readily disposed
of, the time of the congress was mainly occupied in discussing
the form to be taken by the European alliance, and the " military
measures," if any, to be adopted as a precaution against a fresh
outburst on the part of France. The proposal of the emperor
Alexander I. to establish a " universal union of guarantee " on
the broad basis of the Holy Alliance, after much debate, broke
down on the uncompromising opposition of Great Britain; and
the main outcome of the congress was the signature, on the
15th of November, of two instruments: (z) a secret protocol
confirming and renewing the quadruple alliance established by
the treaties of Chaumont and Paris (of the soth of November
1815) against France; (a) a public "declaration" of the in-
tention of the powers to maintain their intimate union,
" strengthened by the tics of Christian brotherhood," of which
the object was the preservation of peace on the basis of respect
for treaties. The secret protocol was communicated in confi-
dence to Richelieu; to the declaration .France was invited
publicly to adhere.
Besides these questions of general policy, the congress con-
cerned itself with a number of subjects left unsettled in the
hurried winding up of the congress of Vienna, or which had
arisen since. Of these the most important were the questions
as to the methods to be adopted for the auppression-of the slave-
trade and the Barbary pirates. In neither case was any decision
arrived at, owing (z) to the refusal of the other powers to agree
with the British proposal for a reciprocal right of search on
the high seas; (a) to the objection of Great Britain to inter-
national action which would have involved the presence of a
Russian squadron in the Mediterranean. In matters of less
importance the congress was more unanimous. Thus, on the
urgent appeal of the king of Denmark, the king of Sweden
(Bernadottc) received a peremptory summons to carry out the
terms of the treaty of Kiel; the petition of the elector of Hesse'
to be recognised as king was unanimously rejected; and
measures were taken to redress the grievances of the German
mediatised princes. The more important outstanding questions
in Germany, e.g. the Baden succession, were after consideration
reserved for a further conference to be called at Frankfort. In
addition to these a great variety of questions were considered,
from that of the treatment of Napoleon at St Helena, to the
grievances of the people of Monaco against their prince and the
position of the Jews in Austria and Prussia. An attempt made
to introduce the subject of the Spanish colonies was defeated
by the opposition of Great Britain. Lastly, certain vexatious
questions of diplomatic etiquette were settled once for all (see
Diplomacy). The congress, which broke up at the end of
November, is of historical importance mainly as marking the
highest point reached in the attempt to govern Europe by an
international committee of the powers. The detailed study of
its proceedings is highly instructive in revealing the almost
insurmountable obstacles to any really effective international
system.
Authorities.— F.O. Records (the volumes marked Continent,
AixJa-Chopelle, To and from Viscount Costiereagk); Slate Papers;
G. F. de Martens, Notmau recueit de traitis, &c. (Gottineen,
___ . w — --..-- -—, . CastlereagB,
Correspondence, 6fc. (W. A. P.)
AIX-LES-BAINS, a town of France, far* the department of
Savoie, near the Lac du Bourget, and 9 m. by rail N. of Chamber/.
Pop. (1001) 474 1. It is 846 ft above the level of the sea. It
was a celebrated bathing-place, under the name of Aquas
Graticnae, in the time of the Romans, and possesses numerou
ancient remains. The hot springs, which Are of sulphureous
quality, and have a temperature of from ioq° to 113° F., are
still much> frequented, attracting annually many thousands of
visitors. They are used for drinking as well as for bathisg
purposes.
AIYAR, SIR 8HBSHADRI (1845-1901), native statesman of
Mysore, India, was the son of a Brahman of Palghat in tse
district of Malabar. He was educated at the provincial school
at Calicut and the presidency college in Madras, and entered the
government service as a translator. In 1868 he was transferred
to Mysore under Runga Charlu, and for thirteen years filled
various offices in that state; but when Mysore was restored to
native rule In 1 88 1 , he became personal assistant to Runga Charh,
whom hesucceededasdiwanin 1885. Forthenextseventeenyeaa
AIYAR— AJANTA
be laboured assiduously to promote die economic tad Industrial
development of the state, and proved an able assistant to the
Maharaja Chamarajendra. By means of railway, irrigation and
mining works, he added greatly to the wealth of the state, and
pot It on a sound financial footing. He retired in 1900, was
made K.C.SJ. in 1893 and died on the 13th of September xooi.
AIYAR, SIR TERUVARUR MUTUSWAMY (1832-1895),
native Indian judge of the high court of Madras, was born of
poor parents in the village of Vuchuwadi, near Tanjore, on the
18th of January 1839. His widowed mother was forced by
poverty to remove with Mutuswamy and his brother to Tiruvarar,
where the former learnt Tamil, and soon set to work under the
village accountant at a monthly salary of one rupee. About
this- time he lost his mother, whose memory he cherished with
reverence and affection to the last His duty took him to the
court-house of the tehsildar, Mr Naiken, who soon remarked
his extraordinary intelligence and industry. There was an
English school at Tiruvarar, where Mutuswamy managed to
pick up an elementary knowledge of the English language.
Mr Naiken then sent him to Sir Henry Montgomery's school
at Madras, as -a companion to his nephew, and there he won
prises and scholarships year after year. In 1854 he won a prize
of 500 rupees offered, to the students of the Madras presidency
by the council of education for the best English essay. This
success brought him to the notice of Sir Alexander Arbuthnot
and Mr Justice Holloway. He was offered help to proceed to
England and compete for the civil service, but being a Brahman
and married, he declined to cross the ocean. Instead he entered
the subordinate government service, and was employed in such
various posts as school-teacher, record-keeper in Tanjore, and
in 1856 deputy-inspector of schools. At this- time the Madras
authorities instituted the examination for the office of pleaders,
and Mutuswamy came out first in the first examination, even
beating Sir T. Madhavarao, his senior by many years. Mutu-
swamy was then appointed in succession district inunsiff at
Traaquebar, deputy-collector in Tanjore in 1859, sub-judge of
south Kanara in 1865, and a magistrate of police at Madras
in 1868. While serving in the last post he passed the examination
for the degree of bachelor of laws of the local university. He
was next employed as a judge of the Madras small causes court,
until in 1878 he was raised to the bench of the high court, which
Office he occupied with ability and distinction for over fifteen
yean, sometimes acting as the chief justice. He attended by
invitation of the viceroy the imperial assemblage at Delhi in
1877. In 1878 he received the honour of CLE. and in 1893 the
3LCI.E. was conferred on him. But he did not live long to
enjoy this dignity, dying suddenly in 1895. Mutuswamy was
too devoted to his officii work to give much time to other
pursuits. Still he took his full share in the affairs of the Madras
university, of which he was nominated a fellow in 167a and a
syndic in 1877, and was well acquainted with English law,
literature and philosophy. He was through life a staunch
Brahman, devout and •amiable in character, with a taste for
the andent music of India and the study of the Vedas and other
departments of Sanskrit literature.
AJACCIO, the capital of Corsica, on the west coast of the
island, szo m. S.E. of Marseilles. Pop. (1906) 29,021. Ajaccio
occupies a sheltered position at the foot of wooded hills on the
northern shore of the Gulf of Ajaccio. The harbour, lying to
the east of the town, is protected on the south by a peninsula
which carries the citadel and terminates in the Citadel jetty;
to the south-west of this peninsula lies the Place Bonaparte,
a quarter frequented chiefly by winter visitors attracted by the
mild climate of the town. Apart from one or two fine thorough-
fares converging to the Place Bonaparte, the streets are mean
and narrow and the town has a deserted appearance. The
house in which Napoleon I, was born in 1769 is preserved, and
his associations with the town arc everywhere emphasized by
Street-names and statues. The other buildings, including the
cathedral of the 16th century, are of little interest The town
Is the seat of a bishopric dating at least from the 7th century
ttdjof a prefect It has tribunals of first instance and of com-
45 1
merce, training colleges, a communal college, a museum* and a
library; the three latter are established in the Palais Fesch,
founded by Cardinal Fesch, who was born at Ajaccio in 1763.
Ajaccio has small manufactures of cigars and macaroni and
similar products, and carries on shipbuilding, sardine-fishing
and coral-fishing. Its exports include timber, citrons, skins,
chestnuts and gallic add. The port is accessible by the largest
ships, but Its accommodation is indifferent In 1904 there entered
603 vessels with a tonnage of 202,080, and deared 608 vessels
with a tonnage of 202,502. The present town of Ajacdo lies
about two miles to the south of its original site, from which it
was transferred by the Genoese in 149a. Occupied from 1553
to 1559 by the French, it again fell to the Genoese after the treaty
of Cateau Cambresis in the latter year. The town finally passed
to the French in 1768. Since 1810 it has been capital of the
department of Corsica.
AJAIOARH, or Adjyotoh, a native state of India, in Bun-
delkhand, under the Central .India agency. It has an area of
771 sq. m., and a population in 1901 of 78,236. The chief,
who is a Bundela Rajput, bears the title of sawai maharaja.
He has an estimated revenue of about £15,000, and pays a tribute
of £460. He resides at the town of Naushahr, at the foot of
the hill-fortress of Ajaigarh, from which the state takes its name.
This fort is situated on a very steep hill, more than 800 ft above
the town of the same name; and contains the ruins of temples
adorned with elaborately carved sculptures. It was captured
by the British in 1809. The town is subject to malaria. The
state suffered severely from famine in 1868-1869, and again
in 1896-1897.
AJANTA (more properly AjCnthA), a village In the dominions
of the Nizam of Hyderabad in India (N. lat 20° 32* by E. long.
75° 480, celebrated for its cave hermitages and halls. The caves
are in a wooded and rugged ravine about 3} m. from the village.
Along the bottom of the ravine runs the river Wigura, a moun-
tain stream, which forces its way into the valley over a bluff
on the east, and forms in its descent a beautiful waterfall,
or rather series of waterfalls, 200 ft high, the sound of which
must have been constantly audible to the dwellers in the
caves. These are about thirty In number, excavated in the
south side of the precipitous bank of the ravine, and vary from
35 to 1 10 ft in elevation above the bed of the torrent The caves
are of two kinds— dwelling-halls and meeting-halls. The former,
as one enters from the pathway along the sides of the cliff, have
a broad verandah, its roof supported by pillars, and giving
towards the interior on to a hall averaging in size about 35 ft
by 20 ft To left and right, and at the back, dormitories are
excavated opening on to this hall, and in the centre of the back,
fadng the entrance, an image of the Buddha usually stands
in a niche. The number of dormitories varies according to the
size of the hall, and in the larger ones pillars support the roof
on all three sides, forming a sort of doister running round the
hall. The meeting-halls go back into the rock about twice as
far as the dwelling-halls; the largest of them being 94} ft from
the verandah to the back, and 41} ft across, including the
cloister. They were used as chapter-houses for the meetings of
the Buddhist Order. The caves are in three groups, the oldest
group being of various dates from 200 B.C. to A.D.200, the second
group belonging, approximately, to the 6th, and the third group
to the 7th century aj>. Most of the interior walls of the caves
were covered with fresco paintings, of a considerable degree of
merit, and somewhat in the style of the early Italian painters.
When first discovered, in 1817, these frescoes were in a fair
state of preservation, but they have since been allowed to go
hopelessly to ruin. Fortunately, the school of art in Bombay,
especially under the supervision of J. Griffiths, had copied in
colours a number of them before the last vestiges had disappeared,
and other copies of certain of the paintings have also been made.
These copies are invaluable as being the only evidence we now
have of pictorial art in India before the rise of Hinduism. The
expression " Cave Temples " used by Anglo-Indians of such
halls is inaccurate. Ajanta was a kind of college monastery.
HsOan Tsang informs us that Dinniga, the celebrated Buddhist
452
philosopher and controversialist, author of well-known books
on logic, redded there. In its prime the settlement must have
afforded accommodation for several hundreds, teachers and
pupils combined. Very few of the frescoes have been identifi ed ,
but two are illustrations of stories in Arya Sara's J&taka Mold,
as appears from verses In Buddhist Sanskrit painted beneath
AJAX— AJMERE
See J. Burgess and Bhajrwanlal Indraft Inscriptions from As Case
TempUs of Western India (Bombay. 1881); J. Perfusion and
J. burgess. Cave TempUs of India (London, 1880); T. Griffiths,
Paintings in the Buddhist Com TempUs of Ajanta (London. » vols.,
1896-1897). CT.W.fcD.)
AJAX (Gr. AIm), a Greek hero, son of Ofleus, king of Locris,
called the " lesser " or Locrian Ajax, to distinguish him from
Ajax, son of Telamon. In spite of his small stature, he held his
own amongst the other heroes before Troy; he was brave, next
to Achilles in swiftness of foot and famous for throwing the spear.
But he was boastful, arrogant and quarrelsome; like the Tda-
monian Ajax, he was the enemy of Odysseus, and in the end the
victim of the vengeance of Athene, who wrecked his ship on his
homeward voyage (Odyssey, iv. 409). A later story gives a more
definite account of the offence of which he was guilty. It Is said
that, after the fall of Troy, he dragged Cassandra away by force
from the statue of the goddess at which she had taken refuge as
a suppliant, and even violated her (Lycophron, 360, Quintus
Smyrnaeus xiii. 43a). For this, his ship was wrecked in a storm
on the coast of Euboea, and he himself was struck by lightning
(Virgil, Aen. L 40). He was said to have lived after his death in
the island of Leuke. He was worshipped as a national hero by
the Opuntian Locrians (on whose coins he appears), who always
left a vacant place for him in the ranks of their army when
drawn up in battle array. He was the subject of a lost tragedy
by Sophocles. The rape of Cassandra by Ajax was frequently
represented In Greek works of art, for instance on the chest of
Cypselus described by Pausanias (v. 17) and in extant works.
AJAX, son of Telamon, king of Cyprus, a legendary hero of
ancient Greece. To distinguish him from Ajax, son of Ofleus, he
was called the " great " or Telamonian Ajax. In Homer's Iliad
he is described as of great stature and colossal frame, second only
to Achilles in strength and bravery, and the " bulwark of the
Achaeans." He engaged Hector in single combat and, with the
aid of Athene, rescued the body of Achilles from the hands of the
Trojans. In the competition between him and Odysseus for
the armour of Achilles, Agamemnon, at the instigation of Athene,
awarded the prize to Odysseus. This so enraged Ajax that it
caused his death (Odyssey, xi. 541). According to a later and
more definite story, his disappointment drove him mad; he
rushed out of his tent and fell upon the flocks of sheep in the camp
under the impression that they were the enemy; on coming to
his senses, he slew himself with the sword which he had received
as a present from Hector. This is the account of his death given
in the Ajax of Sophocles (Pindar, Nemea, 7; Ovid, Met. xiii. x).
From his blood sprang a red flower, as at the death of Hyacinthus,
which bore on its leaves the Initial letters of his name AI, also
expressive of lament (Pausanias L 35. 4). His ashes were de-
posited in a golden urn on the Rhoetean promontory at the
entrance of the Hellespont Like Achilles, he is represented as
living after his death in the island of Leukt at the mouth of the
Danube (Pausanias iii 19. xi). Ajax, who in the post-Homeric
legend is described as the grandson of Aeacus and the great-
grandson of Zeus, was the tutelary hero of the island of Salamis,
where he had a temple and an image, and where a festival called
Aianleia was celebrated in his honour (Pausanias L 35). At this
festival a couch was set up, on which the panoply of the hero was
placed, a practice which recalls the Roman lulisUmium, The
identification of Ajax with the family of Aeacus was chiefly a
matter which concerned the Athenians, after Salamis had comein to
their possession, on which occasion Solon is said to have inserted
a line in the Iliad (ff. 557 or $58), for the purpose of supporting
the Athenian claim to the island. Ajax then became an Attic
hero; he was worshipped at Athens, where he had a statue in the
market-place, and the tribe Aiantis was called after his name.
Many illustrious Athenians— Ornon, Mfltfades, AldWadev the
historian Thucydides— traced their descent from Ajax.
See D. *u*,LaLeaeniad4A4at* Tetamomo (1890); P. Gcnud.
" Ajax, filsdeT0amon7' 1905. in Rene des Hndes petqwes, tome 18:
J. Vurtbeim, Ve Ajads Origin*, Cull*, Falria (Leiden, 1907). accord-
ing to whom he and Ajax Queue, as depicted in epos, were originally
one, a Locrian daemon somewhat resembling the giants, when tan
spirit put on human form and became known at the Saronic Galf, he
developed into the " greater " Ajax, while among the Lacrimal he
remained the " lesser." In the article Greek Axt, fig. 13 (from a
black-figured Corinthian vase) represent* the suicide of Ajax.
AJMBRB, or Ajmek, a city of British India m lUjpotana,
which gives its name to a district and also to a petty province
called Ajmere-Meirwara. It is situated in so* a/ N. lat and
74° 44' E. long., on the lower slopes of Taragarh hill, in the
Aravalli mountains. To the north of the city is a large artificial
lake called the Anasagar, whence the water suppry c* the place
is derived.
The chief object of interest is the aorta, or tomb of a famous
Mahornmedan saint named Mayud-uddin. It is situated at the
foot of the Taragarh mountain, and consists of a block of white
marble buildings without much pretension to architectural
beauty. To this place the emperor Akbar, with his empress,
performed a pilgrimage on foot from Agra in accordance with
the terms of a vow he had made when praying for a son. The
large pillars erected at intervals of two miles the whole way, to
mark the daily halting-place of the imperial pilgrim, are still
extant. An ancient Jain temple, now converted into a Mahom-
medan mosque, is situated on the lower slope of the Taragarh hOL
With the exception of that part used as a mosque, nearly the
whole of the ancient temple has fallen into ruins, but the relics are
not excelled in beauty of architecture and sculpture by any
remains of Hindu art Forty columns support the roof, but no
two are alike, and great fertility of invention is manifested in the
execution of the ornaments. The summit of Taragarh hffl, over-
hanging Ajmere, Is crowned by a fort, the lofty thick ba tt l emen ts
of which run along its brow and enclose the table-land. The walls
are 2 m. in circumference, and the fort can only be approached
by steep and very roughly paved planes, commanded by the fort
and the outworks, and by the hill to the west On coming into
the hands of the English, the fort was dismantled by order if
Lord William Bentinck, and is now converted into a sanatoriam
for the troops at Nasirabad. Ajmere was founded about the
year 145 jld. by Aji, a Chauhan, who established the dynasty
which continued to rule the country (with many vicissitudes of
fortune) while the repeated waves of Mahornmedan invasion
swept over India, until it eventually became an appanage of the
crown of Delhi in x 193. Its internal government, however, was
handed over to its ancient rulers upon the payment of a heavy
tribute to the conquerors. It then remained feudatory to Ddhi
till 1365, when it was captured by the ruler of Mewar. la 1 509
the place became a source of contention between the chiefs of
Mewar and Marwar, and was ultimately conquered in 153? by the
latter prince, who in his turn in 1559 had to give way before the
emperor Akbar. It continued in the hands of the Moguls, with
occasional revolts, till 1770, when it was ceded to the Mahrattas,
from which time up to 1818 the unhappy-district was the scene of
a continual struggle, being seised at different times by the Mewat
and Marwar rajas, from whom it was as often retaken by the
Mahrattas. In 18x8 the Utter ceded it to the British in return for
a payment of 50,000 rupees. Since then the country has enjoyed
unbroken peace and a stable government
The modem city is an important station on the ftajputana
railway, 6x5 m. from Bombay and 975 m. from Delhi, with
a branch running due south to the Great Indian Peninsula main
line. The city is well laid out with wide streets and handsome
houses. The city trade chiefly consists of salt and opium, The
former is imported in large quantities from the Sambar lake and
Ramsur. Oil-making is also a profitable branch of trade. Cotton
cloths are manufactured to some extent, for the dyeing of whkh
the city has attained a high reputation. The educational institu-
tions include the Mayo Rajkumar college, opened in x8;s, for
training the sons of the nobles of Rajputana, on the lines of as
AJMERE-MERWARA— AKABA
i public school Population (1901) 731839, showing an
j of 10 % in the decade.
The msnxcT or Ajnsks, -which forma the largest part of the
province of Ajmere-Merwara, has an area of 2069 so> m. The
eastern portion of the district is generally flat, broken only by
gentle undulations, but the western parts, from north-west to
south-west, are intersected by the great Aravalli range. Many of
the valleys in this region are mere sandy deserts, with an occa-
sional oasis of cultivation, but there are also some very fertile
tracts; among these is the plain on which lies the town of Ajmere.
This valley, however, is not only fortunate in pomming a noble
artificial lake, but is protected by the massive walls of the Nag-
pathar range or Serpent rock, which forms a barrier against the
sand. The only hills in the district are the Aravalli range and its
offshoots. Ajmere is almost totally devoid of rivers, the Banas
being the only stream which can be dignified with that name,
and it only touches the south-eastern boundary of the district
so as to irrigate the pargana of Samur. Four small streams
— the Sagarmati, Saraswati, Khari and Dai— also intersect the
district In the dry weather they are little more than brooks.
The population in xooi was 7453, showing a decrease of
13 % in the decade. Besides the dty of Ajmere, the district
contains the military station of Nasirabad, with a population
of 22*404. '
AJMBRB-MERWARA, a division or petty province of British
India, in -Rajputana, consisting of the two districts of Ajmere
and Merwara, separated from each other and isolated amid
native states. The administration is in the hands of a commis-
-sioner, subordinate to the governor-general's agent for Rajputana.
The capital is Ajmere dty. The area is 37x0 sq. m. The
plateau, on whose centre stands the town of Ajmere, may be
considered as the highest point in the plains of Hindustan;
from the circle of hills which hem it in, the country slopes away
on every side— towards river valleys on the east, south, west and
towards the desert region on the north. The Aravalli range is
the distinguishing feature of the district. The range of hills
which runs between Ajmere and Nasirabad marks the watershed
of the continent of India. The rain which falls on one side
drains into the Chambal, and so into the Bay of Bengal; that
which falls on the other side into the Luni, which discharges
itself into the Runn of Cutch. The province is on the border of
what may be called the arid " rone " ; it is the debatable land
between the north-eastern and south-western monsoons, and
beyond the influence of either. The south-west monsoon sweeps
op the Nerbudda valley from Bombay and crossing the table-
land at Neemuch gives copious supplies to Malwa, Jhalawar and
Kotah and the countries which lie in the course of the Chambal
liver. The clouds which strike Kathiawar and Cutch are de-
prived of a great deal of their moisture by the hills in those
countries, and the greater pari of the remainder is deposited
on Mount Abu and the higher slopes of the Aravalli mountains,
leaving but little for Merwara, where the hills are lower, and
•till less for Ajmere. It is only when the monsoon is in con-
siderable force that Merwara gets a plentiful supply from it
The north-eastern monsoon sweeps up the valley of the Ganges
from the Bay of Bengal and waters the northern part of Raj-
putana, but hardly penetrates farther west than the longitude
of Ajmere. On the varying strength of these two monsoons the
rainfall of the district depends. The agriculturist in Ajmere-
Merwara can never rely upon two good harvests in succession.
A province subject to such conditions can hardly be free from
famine or scardty for any length of time; accordingly it was
visited by two famines, one of unprecedented severity, and one
scarcity, in the decade 1891-1901. In June 1000 the number of
persons in receipt of relief was 143,000, being more than one-
fourth of the total population.
In 1001 the population was 476,91a, showing a decrease of
19% in the decade, due to the results of famine. Among
Hindus, the Rajputs are land-holders, and the Jats and Gujars are
cultivators. The Jains are traders and money-lenders. The
aboriginal tribe of Men are divided between Hindus and Mahom-
medans. The chief crops are millet, wheat, cotton and oil-
453
seeds. There are several factories for ginning and pressing
cotton, the chief trading centres being Beawar and Kckri.
AJODHYA, an ancient dty of India, the prehistoric capital
of Oudh, in the Fyzabad district of the United Provinces. It is
situated on the right bank of the Gogra. In the present day the
old dty has almost entirely disappeared, and its site is marked
only by a heap of ruins; but in remote antiquity Ajodhya was
one of the largest and most magnificent of Indian dties. It is
said to have covered an area of 96 m., and was the capital of
the kingdom of Kosala, the court of the great king Dasaratha,
the fifty-sixth monarch of the Solar line in descent from Raja
Manu. The opening chapters of the Romayana recount the
magnificence of the dty, the glories of the monarch and the
virtues, wealth and loyalty of his people. Dasaratha was the
father of Rama Chandra, the hero of the epic. A period of
Buddhist supremacy followed the death of the last king of the
Solar dynasty. On the revival of Brahmanism Ajodhya was
restored by King Vikramaditya (c. 57 B.C.). Kosala is also
famous as the early home of Buddhism, and of the kindred
religion of Jainism, and claims to be the birthplace of the
founders of both these faiths. The Chinese traveller, Hsdan
Tsang, in the 7th century, found so Buddhist temples with
3000 monks at Ajodhya among a large Brahmanical popu-
lation. The modern town of Ajodhya contains 06 Hindu temples
and 36 Mussulman mosques. Little local trade is carried on,
•but the great fair of Ramnami hdd every year is attended by
about 500,000 people.
AKABA, Guur or, the Sinus Aelaniticus of antiquity, the
eastern of the two divisions into which the Red Sea bifurcates
near its northern extremity. It penetrates into Arabia Petraea
in a N.N.E. direction, from 28° to 29 32' N., a distance of
100 m., and its breadth varies from 12 to 17 m. The entrance
is contracted by Tlran and other islands, so that the passage
is rendered somewhat difficult; and its navigation is dangerous
on account of the numerous coral reefs, and the sudden squalls
which sweep down from the adjacent mountains, many of which
rise perpendicularly to a height of 2000 ft The gulf is a con-
tinuation southward of the Jordan-' Araba depression. Raised
beaches on the coast show that there has been a considerable
elevation of the sea-bed. The only well-sheltered harbour
is that of Dahab (the Golden Port) on its western shore,
about 33 m. from the entrance and 29 m. E. of Mount
Sinai. Near the head of the gulf is Jeriret Faraun (medieval
Graye), a rocky islet with the ruins of a castle built by Baldwin
I. (c. xxis).
About 2} m. from the head of the gulf and on its eastern side
is the town or Akaba, with a picturesque medieval castle, built
for the protection of pilgrims on their way from Egypt to Mecca.
In the neighbourhood are extensive groves of date palms, and
there b an ample supply of good water. Akaba is of considerable
historical interest and of great antiquity, being the Elath or
Eloth of the Bible, and one of the ports whence Solomon's fleet
sailed to Ophir. By the Romans, who made it a military post,
it was called Aelana. It continued to be the seat of great
commercial activity under the early Moslem caliphs, who
corrupted the name to Haila or Ailat In the xoth century an
Arab geographer described it as the great port of Palestine and
the emporium of the Hejaz. In the 12th century the town
suffered at the hands of Salafin and thereafter fell into decay.
In 1841 the town was recognized by Turkey, together with the
Sinai peninsula, as part of Egypt. At that time Egyptian
pilgrims frequented Akaba in large numbers. In 1892, on the
accession of the khedive Abbas II., Turkey resumed possession
of Akaba, the Egyptian pilgrims having deserted the land route
to Mecca in favour of a sea passage. In xooo the construction
was begun of a branch line joining Akaba to the Mecca railway
and thus giving through communication with Beirut Early
in the same year the Turks occupied Taba, a village at the
mouth of a small stream 8 m. by land W. by S. of Akaba, near
which is the site, not identified, of the Eaion-Geber of Scripture,
another of the ports whence the argosies of the Israelites sailed.
Taba being on the Egyptian side of the frontier, Great Britain
+5+
AKA HILLS— AKENSIDE
intervened on behalf of Egypt, and in May 1906 secured the
withdrawal of the Turks.
AKA HILLS, a tract of country on the north-east frontier of
India, occupied by an independent tribe called the Akas. It
lies north of the Darrang district of Eastern Bengal and Assam,
and is bounded on the east by the Daphla Hills and on the west
by independent Bhutia tribes. Hie Aka country is very difficult
of access, the direct road from the plains leading along the
precipitous channel of the Bhareli river, which divides the Aka
from the Daphla country. The Akas are a brave people, and
the men are strong and well-made. Their reputation as raiders
is sufficiently shown in the division of the tribe into two clans,
the Hazari-khoas or " eaters of a thousand hearths," and the
Kapah-chors or "thieves that lurk in the cotton fields." In
the early years of British occupation, about 1829, they gave
much trouble; and in 1883 .they broke out once more into their
old habits. They raided into the British district of Darrang
and carried off several native forest officers as hostages. An
expedition was sent against them under General Sale Hill with
860 troops, which was completely successful. All its objects
were satisfactorily accomplished, namely, the recovery of the
captives, the surrender of all firearms, the payment of the fine
inflicted by government, the complete submission of the tribe
and the survey of the country.
AKALKOT, a native state of India, in the Deccan division of
Bombay, ranking as one of the Satara Jagirs, situated between
the British district of Sholapur and the nizam's dominions.
It forms part of the Deccan table-land, and has a cool and agree-
able climate. Area 408 sq. m.; pop. (xooi) 82,047, showing
an increase of 8 % in the decade. Estimated revenue, £26,586;
the tribute is £1000. The chief, who is a Mahratta of the
Bhonsla family, resides at Poona on a pension, while the state is
under British management
The town of Akalkot is situated near the Great Indian Penin-
sula railway, which traverses the state. Pop. 6348.
AKBAR. Axhbak or Axbek, JELLALADIN MAHOMMKD
(x 542-1605), one of the greatest and wisest of the Mogul emperors.
He was born at Umarkot in Sind on the 14th of October 1542, his
father, Humayun, having been driven from the throne a short
time before by the usurper Sher Khan. After more than twelve
years' exile, Humayun regained his sovereignty, which, however,
he had held only for a few months when he died. Akbar suc-
ceeded his father in 1556 under the regency of Bairara Khan, a
Turkoman noble, whose energy in repelling pretenders to the
throne, and severity in maintaining the discipline of the army,
tended greatly to the consolidation of the newly recovered
empire. Bairam, however, was naturally despotic and cruel;
and when order was somewhat restored, Akbar found it necessary
to take the reins of government into his own hands, which he did
by a proclamation issued in March 1560. The discarded regent
lived for some time in rebellion, endeavouring to establish an
independent principality in Malwa, but at last he was forced to
cast himself on Akbar's mercy. The emperor not only freely
pardoned him, but magnanimously offered him the choice of a
high place in the army or a suitable escort for a pilgrimage to
Mecca, and Bairam preferred the latter alternative. When Akbar
ascended the throne, only a small portion of what had formerly
been comprised within the Mogflempire owned his authority, and
be devoted himself with great determination and success to the
recovery of the revolted provinces. Over each of these, as it was
restored, he placed a governor, whom he superintended with
vigilance and wisdom. He tried by every means to develop and
encourage commerce; he had the land accurately measured for
the purpose of rightly adjusting taxation; he gave the strictest
instructions to prevent extortion on the part of the taxgathercrs,
and in many other respects displayed an enlightened and equit-
able policy. Thus it happened that, in the fortieth year of
Akbar's reign, the empire had more than regained all that it had
lost, the recovered provinces being reduced, not to subjection
only as before, but to a great degree of peace, order and content-
ment. Akbar's method of dealing with what must always be the
chief difficulty of one who has to rule widely diverse races, affords
perhaps the crowning evidence of his wisdom and moderation.
In religion he was at first a Mussulman, but the intolerant exdn-
siveness of that creed was quite foreign to his character. Scepti-
cism as to the divine origin of the Koran led him to seek the true
religion in an eclectic system. He accordingly set himself to
obtain information about other religions, sent to Goa, requesting
that the Portuguese missionaries there should visit him, and
listened to them with intelligent attention when they came. As
the result of these inquiries, he adopted the creed of pure deism and
a ritual based upon the system of Zoroaster. The religion thus
founded, however, having no vital force, never spread beyond the
limits of the court, and died with Akbar himself. But though his
eclectic system failed, the spirit of toleration which originated it
produced in other ways many important results, and, indeed,
may be said to have done more to establish Akbar's power on a
secure basis than all his economic and social reforms. He con-
ciliated the Hindus by giving them freedom of worship; whue at
the same time he strictly prohibited certain barbarous Brah-
manlcal practices, such as trial by ordeal and the burning ef
widows against their will. He also abolished all taxes upon
pilgrims as an interference with the liberty of worship, and the
capitation tax upon Hindus, probably upon similar grounds.
Measures like these gained for him during his lifetime the title of
" Guardian of Mankind," and caused him to be held up as a model
to Indian princes of later times, who in the matter of religious
toleration have only too seldom followed his example.
Akbar was a munificent patron of literature. He established
schools throughout his empire for the education of both Hindus
and Moslems, and he gathered round him many men of literary
talent, among whom may be mentioned the brothers Feud and
Abul Fazl. The former was commissioned by Akbar to translate
a number of Sanskrit scientific works into Persian; and the
latter (see Abul Fazl) has left, in the Akbar-Namek, an enduring
record of the emperor's reign. It is also said that Akbar em-
ployed Jerome Xavier, a Jesuit missionary, to translate the four
Gospels into Persian.
The closing years of Akbar's reign were rendered very unhappy
by the misconduct of his sons. Two of them died in youth, the
victims of intemperance; and the third, Salim, afterwards the
emperor Jahangir, was frequently in rebellion against his father.
These calamities were keenly felt by Akbar, and may even
have tended to hasten his death, which occurred at Agra on the
X5th of October 1605. His body was deposited in a magnificent
mausoleum at Sikandra. near Agra.
See G. B. Malleson, Akbar (" Rulers of India" series). 1890.
AKCHA, a town and khanate of Afghan Turkestan. The town
lies 42 m. westward of Balkh on the road to AndkhttL It is
protected by a mud wall and. a citadel. Estimated population
8000, chiefly Uzbegs. The khanate is small, but well watered and
populous. The rivers rising in the southern mountains, which no
longer reach the Oxus, terminate in vast swamps near Akcha, and
into these the debris of such vegetation as yearly springs up on
the slopes of the southern hills is washed down in time of flood.
AKEN, a town of Germany, in the kingdom of Prussia, on the
Elbe, 25 m. E. S. E. of Magdeburg, with a branch line to COthen
(8 m.). Pop. (xooo) 7358. It has manufactures of doth,
leather, chemicals and optical instruments; large quantities of
beetroot sugar are produced in the neighbourhood; and there is
a considerable transit trade on the Elbe.
AKENSIDE, MARK (1721-1770), English poet and physician,
was bora at Newcastle-on-Tyne on the 9th of November 1721.
He was the son of a butcher, and was slightly lame all his life
from a wound he received as a child from his father's cleaver.
All his relations were dissenters, and, after attending the free
school of Newcastle, and a dissenting academy in the town,
he was sent (1739) to Edinburgh to -study theology with a view
to becoming a minister, his expenses being paid from a special
fund set aside by the dissenting community for the education
of their pastors. He had already contributed " The Virtuoso,
in imitation of Spenser's style and stanza " (1737) to the Gent!*-
man's Magasine, and in 1738 " A British Philippic, occasioned
by the Insults of the Spaniards, and the present Preparations
AKERMAN— AKHALTSIKH
455
for War" (also published separately). After be had spent
one winter as a student of theology, he entered his name as a
student of medicine. He repaid the money that had been
advanced for his theological studies, and with this change of
mind he seems to have drifted to a mild deism. His politics,
says Dr Johnson, were characterized by an " impetuous eager-
ness to subvert and confound, with very little care what shall
be established," and he is caricatured in the republican doctor
of Smollett's Peregrin* Pickle. He was elected a member of
the Medical Society of Edinburgh in 1740. His ambitions
already lay outside his profession, and his gifts as a speaker
made him hope one day to enter parliament. In 1 740 he printed
his " Ode on the Winter Solstice " in a small volume of poems.
In 1741 he left Edinburgh for Newcastle and began to call
himself surgeon, though it is doubtful whether he practised,
and from the next year dates his life-long friendship with Jere-
miah Dyson (1733-1776). During a visit to Morpeth in 1738
he had conceived the idea of his didactic poem, " The Pleasures
of the Imagination." He had already acquired a considerable
literary reputation when he came to London about the end of
x 743, and offered the work to Dodsley for £1 20. Dodsley thought
the price exorbitant, and only accepted the terms after submitting
the MS. to Pope, who assured hint that this was " no everyday
writer." The three books of this poem appeared in January
X744- His aim, Akenside tells us in the preface, was " not so
much to give formal precepts, or enter into the way of direct
argumentation, as, by exhibiting the most engaging prospects
of nature, to enlarge and harmonize the imagination, and by
that means insensibly dispose the minds of men to a similar
taste and habit of thinking in religion, morals and civil life."
Akenside's powers fell short of this lofty design; his imagination
was not brilliant enough to surmount the difficulties inherent
in a poem dealing so largely with abstractions; but the work
was well received by the general public. His success was not
unchallenged. Gray wrote to Thomas Wharton that it was
" above the middling," but " often obscure and unintelligible
and too much infected with the Hutchinson 1 jargon."
Into a note added by Akenside to the passage in the third
book dealing with ridicule, William Warburton chose to read
a reflexion on himself. Accordingly he attacked the author
of the Pleasures of the Imagination— which was published
anonymously— in a scathing preface to his Remarks on Several
Occasional Reflections, in answer to Dr Middleton . . . (i744)«
This was answered, nominally by Dyson, in An Epistle to the
Reo. Mr Warburton, in which Akenside no doubt had a hand.
It was in the press when he left England in 1744 to secure a
medical degree at Leiden. In little more than a month he had
completed the necessary dissertation, De ortu et incremento
foetus humani, and received his diploma. Returning to England
he attempted without success to establish a practice in North-
ampton. In 1744 he published his Epistle to Curio, attacking
William Pulteney (afterwards earl of Bath) for having abandoned
his liberal principles to become a supporter of the government,
and in the next year he produced a small volume of Odes on
Several Subjects, in the preface to which he lays claim to correct-
ness and a careful study of the best models. His friend Dyson
had meanwhile left the bar, and had become, by purchase,
clerk to the House of Commons. Akenside bad come to London
and was trying to make a practice at Hampstead. Dyson took
a house there, and did all he could to further his friend's interest
in the neighbourhood. But Akenside's arrogance and pedantry
frustrated these efforts, and Dyson then took a house for him
in Bloomsbury Square, making him independent of his profession
by an allowance stated to have been £300 a year, but probably
greater, for it is asserted that this income enabled him to " keep
a chariot," and to live " incomparably well." In 1746 he wrote
his much-praised " Hymn to the Naiads," and he also became
a contributor to Dodsley's Museum, or Literary and Historical
Register. He was now twenty-five years old, and began to devote
1 The reference is to Francis Hutcheaon (1694-1746), author of
an Inquiry into the Original oj our Ideas of beauty and Virtue
(1733).
himself almost exclusively to his profession. He was an acute
and learned physician. He was admitted M.D. at Cambridge
in 1753, fellow of the Royal College of Physicians in 1754, and
fourth censor in 1755. In June 1755 he read the Gulstonian
lectures before the College, in September 1756 the Croonian
lectures, and in 1759 the Harveian oration. In January 2759
he was appointed assistant physician, and two months later
principal physician to Christ's Hospital, but he was charged
with harsh treatment of the poorer patients, and his unsym-
pathetic character prevented the success to jwhich his undeniable
learning and ability entitled him. At the accession of George III.
both Dyson and Akenside changed their political opinions,
and Akenside's conversion to Tory principles was rewarded by
the appointment of physician to the queen. Dyson became
secretary to the treasury, lord of the treasury, and in 1774
privy councillor and cofferer to the household.
Akenside died on the 33rd of June 1770. at his house in
Burlington Street, where the last ten years of his life had been
spent His friendship with Dyson puts his character in the most
amiable light Writing to his friend so early as 1744, Akenside
said that the intimacy had " the force of an additional conscience,
of a new principle of religion," and there seems to have been no
break in their affection. He left all his effects and his literary
remains to Dyson, who issued an edition of his poems in 1773.
This included the revised version of the Pleasures of Imagination,
on which the author was engaged at his death. The first book
of this work defines the powers of imagination and discusses
the various kinds of pleasure to be derived from the perception
of beauty; the second distinguishes works of imagination from
philosophy; the third describes the pleasure to be found in
the study of man, the sources of ridicule, the operations of the
mind, in producing works of imagination, and the influence of
imagination on morals. The ideas were largely borrowed from
Addison's essays on the imagination and from Lord Shaftesbury.
Professor Dowden complains that " his tone is too high-pitched;
his ideas are too much in the air; they do not nourish them-
selves in the common heart, the common life of man." Dr
Johnson praised the blank verse of the poems, but found fault
with the long and complicated periods. Akenside's verse was
better when it was subjected to severer metrical rules. His
odes are very few of them lyrical in the strict sense, but they are
dignified and often musical, while the few " inscriptions " he
has left are felicitous in the extreme.
The best edition of Akenside's Poetical Works is that prepared
(1834) by Alexander Dyce for the A Idme Edition of the British Poets,
and reprinted with small additions in subsequent issues of the series.
Sec Dyce's Life of Akenside prefixed to his edition, also Johnson's
Lives of the Poets, and the Life, Writings and Genius of Akenside
(1833) by Charles Bucke.
AKERMAN, JOHN YONGE (1 806-1 873), English antiquarian,
distinguished chiefly in the department of numismatics, was
bora in Wiltshire. He became early known in connexion with
his favourite study, having initiated the Numismatic Journal in
1836. In the following year he became the secretary of the
newly established Numismatic Society. In 1848 he was elected
secretary to the Society of Antiquaries, an office which he was
compelled to resign in i860 on account of failing health. Akerman
published a considerable number of works on his special subject,
the more important being a Catalogue of Roman Coins (1839);
a Numismatic Manual (1840); Roman Coins relating to Britain
(1844); Ancient Coins— Hispania, Gallia, Britannia (1846);
and Numismatic Illustrations of the New Testament (1846). He
wrote also a Glossary of Words used in Wiltshire (1849) ; Wiltshire
Tales, illustrative of the Dialect (1853); and Remains of Pagan
Saxondom (1855).
AKHALTSIKH (Georgian Akhaltsikke, "new fortress"), a
fortified town of Russian Transcaucasia, government of Tiths,
68 m. E. of Batum, in 41° 40' N. lat, 43 1 E. long., on a tribu-
tary of the Kura, at an altitude of 3375 ft. The new town is on
the right bank of the river, while the old town and the fortress
are on the opposite bank. There is trade in silk, honey and wax,
and brown coal is found in the neighbourhood. The silver
filigree work is famous. Pop. (1897) 15,387, of whom many
456
AK-HISSAR— AKKA
were Armenians, as against 15,977 in 1867. From 1570 to x8a8
Akhaltsikh was the capital of Turkish Armenia. In the last-
mentioned year it was captured by the Russians. The Turks
invested it in 2853.
AK-HISSAR (anc Tkyateira, the " town of Thya "), a town
situated in a fertile plain on the GOrdOk Chai (Lycus), in the
Aidin vilayet, 58 m. N.E. of Smyrna. Pop. about 20,000,
Mussulmans forming two-thirds. Thyateira was an ancient
town re-peopled with Macedonians by Seleucus about 990 B.C.
It became an important station on the Roman road from Per-
gamum to Laodicea, and one of the "Seven Churches" of Asia
(Rev. ii. 18), but was never a metropolis or honoured with a
neocorate, though made the centre of a convent** by C a r acal l a.
The modern town is connected with Smyrna by railway, and
exports cotton, wool, opium, cocoons and cereals. The in-
habitants are Greeks, Armenians and Turks. The Greeks are
of an especially fine type, physical and moral, and noted all
through Anatolia for energy and stability. W. M. Ramsay
believes them to be direct descendants of the ancient Christian
population; but there is reason to think they are partly sprung
from more recent immigrants who moved in the x 8th century
from western Greece into the domain of the Karasmans of Manisa
and Bergama, as recorded by W. M. Leake. Cotton of excellent
quality is grown in the neighbourhood, and the place is cele-
brated for its scarlet dyes.
See W. M. Ramsay, Letters to ike Seven Churches (1904) ; M. Gere,
De rebus Tkyatirenorum (1893).
AKHMIM, or Ekhmm, a town of Upper Egypt, on the right
bank of the Nile, 67 m. by river S. of Assiut, and 4 m. above
Suhag, on the opposite side of the river, whence there is railway
communication with Cairo and Assuan. It is the largest town
on the east side of the Nile in Upper Egypt, having a population
in 1007 of 33,795, of whom about a third were Copts. Akhmim
has several mosques and two Coptic churches, maintains a
weekly market, and manufactures cotton goods, notably the
blue shirts and check shawls with silk fringes worn by the poorer
classes of Egypt. Outside the walls are the scanty ruins of two
ancient temples. In Abulfeda's days (13th century a.d.) a very
imposing temple still stood here. Akhmim was the Egyptian
Apu or Khen-min, in Coptic Shmin, known to the Greeks as
Chemmis or Panopolis, capital of the 9th or Chemmite nome of
Upper Egypt. The ithyphallic Min (Pan) was here worshipped
as " the strong Horus." Herodotus mentions the temple
dedicated to " Perseus " and asserts that Chemmis was remark-
able for the celebration of games in honour of that hero, after
the manner of the Greeks, at which prizes were given; as a
matter of fact some representations are known of Nubians and
people of Puoni (Somalic coast) clambering up poles before the
god Min. Min was especially a god of the desert routes on the
east of Egypt, and the trading tribes are likely to have gathered
to his festivals for business and pleasure, at Coptos (which was
really near to Neapolis, Kena) even more than at Akhmim.
Herodotus perhaps confused Coptos with Chemmis. Strabo
mentions linen-weaving as an ancient industry of Panopolis,
and it is not altogether a coincidence that ths cemetery of
Akhmim is one of the chief sources of the beautiful textiles of
Roman and Coptic age that are brought from Egypt. Monas-
teries abounded in this neighbourhood from a very early date;
Shenout (Sinuthius), the fiery apostle and prophet of the Coptic
national church, was a monk of A tripe (now Suhag), and led the
populace to the destruction of the pagan edifices. He died in
451; some years earlier Nestorius, the ex-patriarch, had suc-
cumbed perhaps to his persecution and to old age, in the neigh-
bourhood of Akhmim. Nonnus, the Greek poet, was born at
Panopolis at the end of the 4th century. (F. Ll. G.)
AKHTAL [GhiyAth dn Habtth] (c. 640-7x0), one of the most
famous Arabian poets of the Omayyad period, belonged to the
tribe of Taghlib in Mesopotamia, and was, like his fellow-tribes-
men, a Christian, enjoying the freedom of his religion, while
not taking its duties very seriously. Of his private life few
details are known, save that he was married and divorced,
and that he spent part of his time in Damascus, part with his
tribe in Mesopotamia. In the wars of the TaghliUtes with the
Qaisites he took part in the field, and by his satires- In the
literary strife between his contemporaries Jarlr and Ferasdaq
he was induced to support the latter poet. Akhtal, Jarir and
Ferazdaq form a trio celebrated among the Arabs, bat as to
relative superiority there is dispute. In the 'Abbasid period
there is no doubt that Akhtal's Christianity told against his
reputation, but Abu 'Ubaida placed him highest of the three oa
the ground that amongst his poems there were ten flawless
gasidas (elegies), and ten more nearly so, and that this could
not be said of the other two. The chief material of his poems
consists of panegyric of patrons and satire of rivals, the
latter being, however, more restrained than was usual at the
time.
The Poetry of oUAkktal has been published at the Jesuit press m
Beirut, 1 891. A full account of the poet and hit times b given in
H. Lammens' Le ckantre des Omiades (Paris, 1895) (a reprint from
the Journal Astatioue lor 1894)* (<*W. T.)
AKHTYRKA, a town of Russia, in the government of Kharkov,
near the Vorskla river, connected by a branch (11 m.) with the
railway from Kiev to Kharkov. It has a beautiful cathedral,
built after a plan by Rastrelli in 1753, to which pilgrims resort
to venerate an ikon of the Virgjn. There are manufactures of
light woollen stuffs and a trade in corn, cattle and the produce
of domestic industries. The environs are fertile, the orchards
producing excellent fruit. A fair is held on the 9th of May. The
place was founded by the Poles in 164s. Pop. (1867) 17,411;
(1000) S5.90S.
AKKA (Trm-Trjucx), a race of African pygmies first seen by
the traveller G. A. Schweinfurth in 1870, when be was In the
Mangbettu country, N.W. of Albert Nyanza. The home of the
Akka is the dense forest zone of the Aruwimi district of the Congo
State. They form a branch of the primitive pygmy negroid race*
and appear to be divided into groups, each with its own chief. Of
all African " dwarfs " the Akka are believed the best representa-
tives of the "little people "mentioned by Herodotus. Giovanni
Miani, the Italian explorer who followed Schweinfurth, obtained
two young Akka in exchange for a dog and a calf. These, sent to
Italy in 1873, were respectively 4 ft. 4 in and 4 ft 8 in. high,
while the tallest seen by Schweinfurth did not reach 5 ft. None
of the four Akka brought to Europe in 1874 and 1876 mrerird
3 ft. 4 in. The average height of the race would seem to be some-
what under 4 ft, but sufficient measurements have not been
taken to allow of a conclusive statement Schweinfurth says the
Akka have very large and almost spherical skulls (this last detail
proves to be an ex ag g eration). They are of the colour of coffee
slightly roasted, with hair almost the same colour, woolly and
tufted; they have very projecting jaws, flat noses and protrud-
ing lips, which give them an "ape-like " appearance. Marked
physical features are an abdominal protuberance which makes aD
Akka look like pot-bellied children, and a remarkable hollowing
of the spine into a curve like an 8. Investigation has shown that
these are not true racial characteristics, but tend to disappear,
the abdominal enlargement subsiding after some weeks of regular
and wholesome diet. The upper limbs are long, and the hands,
according to Schweinfurth, are singularly delicate. The lower
limbs are short, relatively to the trunk, and curve in somewhat
the feet being bent in too, which gives the Akka a topheavy,
tottering gait. There is a tendency to stcatopygia among the
women. The Akka are nomads, living in the forests, where they
hunt game with poisoned arrows, with pitfalls and springs set
everywhere, and with traps built like huts, the roofs of which,
hung by tendrils only, fall in on the animal. They collect ivory
and honey, manufacture poison, and bring these to market to
exchange for cereals, tobacco and iron weapons. They are
courageous hunters, and do not hesitate to attack even elephants,
both sexes joining in the chase. They are very agile, and are
said by the neighbouring negroes to leap about in the high grass
like grasshoppers. They are timid as children before strangers,
but are declared to be malevolent and treacherous fighters. In
dress, weapons and utensils they, are as the surrounding negroes.
They build round huts of branches and leaves in the forest
AKKAD— AKOLA
+57
clearings. They seem in no way a degenerate race, but rather a
people arrested in development by the forest environment.
Bibliography. — A. de Quatrefages, The Pygmies (1895) ;_G. A.
Schweinfurth. Heart of Africa (London, . _. .
CkapUres supplementaires du Livre des Moris, traduction el commen-
1873); Dr W. Plcyte,
s, traduction el commen-
Sir H. H. Johnston, Uganda Protectorate
taire (Leiden. 1 883)
(London, 1902).
AKKAD (Gr. versions dpxaft and dxa6), a Hebrew name,
mentioned only once in the Old Testament (Gen. x. 10), for one
of the four chief cities, Akkad, Babel, Erech and Calneh, which
constituted the nucleus of the kingdom of Nimrod in the land
of Shinar or Babylonia. This Biblical city, Akkad, was most
probably identical with the northern Babylonian city known to us
as Agade (not Agane, as formerly read), which was the principal
seat of the early Babylonian king Sargon I. (SarganiSar&li),
whose date is given by Nabonidus, the last Semitic king of
Babylonia (555-537 B.C.), as 3800 B.C., which is perhaps too
old by 700 or 1000 years. 1 The probably non-Semitic name
Agade occurs in a number of inscriptions* and is now well
attested as having been the name of an important andent
capital. The later Assyro-Babylonian Semitic form A kkadd ("of
or belonging to Akkad ") is, in all likelihood, a Semitic loan form
from the non-Semitic name Agade, and seems to be an additional
demonstration of the identity of Agade and Akkad. The usual
signs denoting Akkad a in the Semitic narrative inscriptions were
read in the non-Semitic idiom urUki or ur-ki, " land of the city,"
which simply meant that Akkad* was the land of the city par
excellence, i.e. of the city of Agade of Sargon I., which remained
for a long period the leading city of Babylonia. 1
It is quite probable that the non-Semitic name Agade may
mean "crown (aga) of fire (de)"* in allusion to IStar, "the
brilliant goddess," the tutelar deity of the morning and evening
star and the goddess of war and love, whose cult was observed in
very early times in Agade. This fact is again attested by
Nabonidus, whose record • mentions that the IStar worship of
Agade was later superseded by that of the goddess Anunit, another
personification of the IStar idea, whose shrine was at Sippar. It
is significant in this connexion that there were two cities named
Sippar, one under the protection of Shamash, the sun-god, and
one under this Anunit, a fact which points strongly to the probable
proximity of Sippar and Agade. In fact, it has been thought that
Agade-Akkad was situated opposite Sippar on the left bank of
the Euphrates, and was probably the oldest part of the city of
Sippar.
In the Assyro-Babylonian literature the name AkkadU appears
as part of the royal title in connexion with Sumcr; vu. non-
Semitic: lugal Kingi (hi) Uru (ki)-!ar mdl Sumcr i u Akkadl,
" king of Sumer and Akkad," which appears to have meant
simply " king of Babylonia." It is not likely, as many scholars
have thought, that Akkad was ever used geographically as a
distinctive appellation for northern Babylonia, or that the name
Sumcr (q.v.) denoted the southern part of the land, because kings
who ruled only over Southern Babylonia used the double title
"king of Sumer and Akkad," which was also employed by
northern rulers who never established their sway farther south
than Nippur, notably the great Assyrian conqueror Tiglath-
pileser III. (745-727 B.C.). Professor McCurdy has very reason-
ably suggested" that the title "king of Sumcr and Akkad"
indicated merely a claim to the ancient territory and city of
Akkad together with certain additional territory, but not neces-
sarily all Babylonia, as was formerly believed.
A discussion of the interesting question relating to the non-
Semitic so-called Sumero-Akkadian language and race will be
found in the article Sumer.
1 Prince, Nabonidus, p. v.
1 In the Sargon inscriptions; Bab. Exped. of the Unto, of Penn.
i. pi. 1, nr. 1, line 6; pi. 2, nr. 2. line 5; pi. 3, nr. 3, fine 3b;
also xi. pi. 49, nr. no and in Nebuchadnezzar, col. ii. line 50
(Hilprecht. Freibrief Neb.); Cun. Texts from Bab. Tablets, pi. 1,
nr. 91 146, line 3.
1 Rogers, History of Babylonia and Assyria, I pp. 365, 373-574.
4 Prince. " Materials for a Sumcrian Lexicon, pp. 23, 73, Journal
of Biblical Literature, 1906.
* I. Rawl. 69. col. ii. 48 and iii. 28.
• History, Prophecy and the Monuments, I { no.
Ijtf.uatleif.— Schrjckr. Zur Fr<t&e *. d- Ursprmng d, atinab-
Kultttr (iHBj 1 ); KttfinirhriJtfH uvd Cfztkkhtihisckung, pp< 533 !.;
Fried Deliusch, Wo lag d&s 'Parodies r (1S81), p, 198: Paul
Hnupt, Akkadistkt und Sumeriick* KctiichtifiUxie ( ititj 1 ), pp. 1 33 If. ;
Die Sumthsche Akkadiitke Sproche t Vrrk, ^tcn Orient. Cfl&ff. u.
Sp. 3 4 ij -2*7; Die sumer iicktn Familiengrirtze (1^79); Zitnmrrn*
chyionisthe Baiipiahnen (t&tis), pp. 71 L.; Homme^ Gtitk. Bob.
A up, llBlaf, PC^ H® &t Tfefc oatt. Astir. Cesch. U&R8). p. 68;
W. H. Ward, 1 Iconic* (iHflfi), pp. 79-8G; McCurdy. P rest, and Ref.
Revine, Jan. $£91, pp, 58-81 ; J/utorv, Praphecy and the Monuments
(1894). H 79-^. <M'iio; HuftO WincklvrT Unternichuxtem rur
alkirieniatiithen Grsiktehit { 1886). pp. 65 ff . In Rabbinical IjuriUtire,
Louis uijulxTg. In Monatahrift, ad in. 486; and Jeurish Encyclopaedia^
i. p. 149- (J- D. Pa.)
AKKERMAN (in old Slav. Byelgorod, "white town"), a town,
formerly a fortress, of south-west Russia, in the government of
Bessarabia, situated on the right bank of the estuary (litnan) of
the Dniester, 12 m. from the Black Sea. The town stands on the
site of the ancient Milesian colony of Tyras. Centuries later it
was rebuilt by the Genoese, who called it Mauro Castro. The
Turks first acquired possession of it in 1 484. It was taken by the
Russians in 1770, 1774 and 1806, but each time returned to the
Turks, and not definitely annexed to Russia until x88x. A treaty
concluded here in 1826 between Russia and the Porte secured
considerable advantages to the former. It was the non-observ-
ance of this treaty that led to the war of 1828. The harbour is too
shallow to admit vessels of large size, but the proximity of the
town to Odessa secures for it a thriving business in wine, salt, fish
wool and tallow. The salt is obtained from the saline lakes
(limans) in the neighbourhood. The town, with its suburbs,
contains beautiful gardens and vineyards. It is surrounded by
ramparts, and commanded by a citadel. Pop. (1000) 32,470.
AKMOLINSK, one of the governments belonging to the
governor-generalship of the Steppes in Asiatic Russia, formerly
known as the Kirghiz Steppe; bounded by the government of
Turgai on the W., by that of Tobolsk on the N., of Semi-pala :
tinsk on the E., and of Syr-darya on the S. Area 229,544 sq. m.,
of which 453 5 arc lakes. In the north the government is low
and dotted with salt likes, and is sandy on the banks of the
Irtysh in the north-east. An undulating plateau stretches
through the middle, watered by the Ishim and its tributary the
Nura. The plains gradually rise southwards, where a broad
spur of the Tarbagatai mountains stretches north-westwards,
containing gold, copper and coal. Many lakes, of which the
largest is Tcniz, are scattered along the northern slope of these
hills. Farther south, towards Lake Balkash, on the south-
eastern frontier, is a wide waterless desert, Bck-pak-dala, or
Famine Steppe. This section of the government is drained by
the Sary-su and Chu, the latter on the southern boundary-
line. The climate is continental and dry, the average tempera-
tures at the town of Akmolinsk being for the year 35 , January
x '5°. July 7o°; rainfall, only 9 in. The population, which was
686,863 in 1897 (324,587 women), consists chiefly of Russians
in the northern and middle portions, and of Kirghiz (about
350,000), who breed cattle, horses and sheep. The urban
population was only 74,069. Agriculture is successfully carried
on in the north, the Siberian railway running between Petro-
pavlovsk and Omsk through a very fertile, well-populated
region. Steamers ply on the Irtysh. The government is divided
into five districts, the chief towns of which are: Omsk (pop.
53,050 in 1000), formerly capital of West Siberia, now capital
of this government and also of the governor-generalship of the
Steppes; Akmolinsk, or Ak molly (9560 in 1897), on the Ishim,
260 m. S.S.W. of Omsk, and chief centre for the caravans coming
from Tashkent and Bokhara; Atbasar (3030); Kokchetav
(5000); and Petropavlovsk (21,769 in 1001).
AKOLA, a town and district of India, in Bcrar, otherwise
known as the Hyderabad Assigned Districts. The town is on
the Mum a tributary of the Puma river, 930 ft. above the sea,
Akola proper being on the west bank, and Tajnapeth, containing
the government buildings and European residences, on the east
bank. It is a station on the Nagpur branch of the Great Indian
Peninsula railway and is 383 mTc.N.E. of Bombay. It had a
population (1001) of 29,289. It is walled, and has a citadel
built in the early years of the 19th century. Akola is one of
45«
AKRON— ALA
the chief centres of the cotton trade in Berar, and has numerous
ginning factories and cotton presses. Among the educational
establishments are a government high school, and an industrial
school supported by a Protestant mission.
The district op Akola as reconstituted in 1005 has an area
of 4111 sq. m., the population of this area in 1901 being 754.804.
(Before the alteration of the boundaries the area of the district
was 2678 sq. m., and the population 582,54a) The surface of
the country is generally flat, the greater part being situated in
the central valley of Berar. On the north it is bounded by the
Mclghat hills. "By the addition of Basim and Mangrul taluks in
zoos, the district includes the eastern part of the Ajanta hills,
with -peaks rising to 2000 ft., and the tableland of Basim (o.v.).
North of the Ajanta hills the country is drained eastward by
the Puma affluent of the Tapti and its tributaries. None of
the rivers is navigable. The climate resembles that of Berar
generally, but the heat during April to mid-June, when the rains
begin, is very great, the average temperature at the town of
Akola in May for the twenty-five years ending ioox being 94-4° F.
But even during the hot season the nights are cool. The annual
rainfall averages 34. in. In the Puma valley the soil is every-
where a rich black loam, and nearly the whole of the land is
cultivated. Very little land is under irrigation. The principal
crop is cotton, and the staple grain millet Wheat and pulses
are also grown. The history of Akola is not distinguished from
that of the other portions of Berar. In 13x7-1318 it was added
to the Delhi empire, became independent under the Bahmani
dynasty in 1348, and in 1506 again fell under the sway of the
Moguls. In 1724 it came, with the rest of Berar, under the
dominion of the nizam, being assigned to the British in 1853.
AKRON, a dty and the county-seat of Summit county, Ohio,
U.S.A., on the Little Cuyahoga river, about 35 m. S. by £. of
Cleveland. Pop. (1800) 27,601; (1000) 42,728, of whom 7x27
were foreign-born (3227 being German, 1x04 English, and
641 Irish); (19 10) 60,067. It is served by the Baltimore
& Ohio, the Erie, the Northern Ohio, and the Cleveland,
Akron & Columbus railways, by inter-urban electric lines and
by the Ohio CanaL The city is situated in a region abound-
ing in lakes, springs and hills; it is about xooo ft. above sea-level,
whence its name (from Gr. txpov, height); and attracts many
summer visitors. It is the seat of Buchtel College (co-educa-
tional; non-sectarian), which was founded by the Ohio Univer-
salist Convention in 1870, was opened in 1872, and was named
in honour of its most liberal benefactor, John R. Buchtel (1822-
1802), a successful business- man who did much to promote the
industrial development of Akron. Buchtel College provides
three courses leading to the degrees of A.B., Ph.B. and S3.;
it has a school of music, a school of art and an academy; in
1 008 there were 267 students. Coal is mined in the neigh-
bourhood. The river furnishes considerable water-power; and
among the city's most important manufactures are rubber and
elastic goods (value, 1005, $13,306,074; 83-9% of the total of
this industry in the state and 21-3% of the total for the United
States, Akron ranking first among the cities of the country in
this industry), printing and publishing product (value, 1005,
$2,834,639), foundry and machine-shop product (value, 1005,
$3*367,764), and pottery, terra-cotta and fire-day (value, 1905,
$1,7x8,033; nearly twice the value of the output in xooo,
Akron ranking fourth among the dties of the United States in
this industry in 1005). Other important manufactures are food
preparations (especially of oats) and flour and grist mill products.
The value of the total manufactured products (under the
41 factory " system) in 1005 was $34,004,243, an increase in five
years of 54*5%. Akron was settled about 1825, was incorporated
as a village in 1836, was made the county-seat in 2842, and in
1865 was chartered as a dty.
See S. A. Lane, Fifty Years and over of Akron and Summit County
(Akron, 1892).
AK-SHEHR (anc. Pkibtnelion), a town in Asia Minor, In the
Konia vilayet, situated at the edge of a fertile plain, on the north
side of the Sultan Dagh. Philomelion was probably a Perga-
tncnian foundation 00 the great Graeco-Roman highway from
Epbesus to the east, and to its townsmen the Smymiotes 1
the letter that describes the martyrdom of Polycarp. Cicero,
on his way to CUicia, dated some of his extant correspondence
there; and the place played a considerable part in the frontier
wars between the Byzantine emperors and the sultanate ef
Rum. It became an important Scljuk town, and late in the 14th
century passed into Ottoman hands. There Bayezid Yildenm
is said by Ali of Yezd to have died after his defeat at Angora.
The place still enjoys much repute among Turks, as the burial-
place of Nur-ed-din Khoja. The town has a station on the
Anatolian railway, about 60 m. from Anum-Kara-Hissar and
100 m. from Konia.
AKSU (White Water), a town of the Chinese empire, Eastern
Turkestan, in 41° 7' N. and 79° 7' E. of Uch-Turfan and 270 m.
N.E. of Yarkand, near the left bank of the Aksu river, which
takes its origin in the T'ien-shan (Tian-shan) mountains and
joins the Tarim. It belongs to the series of oases (Uch-Turfan,
Bai, Koucha, &c.) situated at the southern foot of the eastern
T'ien-shan mountains. The town, which is supposed to have
about 6000 houses, is enclosed by a wall. It is an important
centre for caravan routes and has a considerable trade. There
are some cotton manufactures; and the place is celebrated for
its richly ornamented saddlery made from deerskin. A Chinese
garrison is stationed here, and copper and iron are wrought in
the neighbourhood by exiled Chinese criminals. Extensive
cattle-breeding is carried on by the inhabitants.
AKYAB, a dty and district in the Arakan division of Burma.
The dty is situated at the confluence of the three large rivers
Myu, KcJadaing and Lemyu, and is the most flourishing dty
in the Arakan division. Originally it was a mere fishing village,
but when the British government in 1826 removed the restric-
tions on trade imposed by the Burmese, Akyab quickly grew
into an important seat of maritime commerce. After the cession
of Arakan by the treaty of Yandaboo in that year the old capital
of Myohaung was abandoned as the seat of government, and
Akyab on the sea-coast selected instead. During the first forty
years of British rule it increased from a village to a town of
15,536 inhabitants, and now it is the third port of Burma, with
a population in xoox of 31,687. It contains the usual public
buildings and several large rice mills. The chief exports are
rice and oil.
The district lies along the north-eastern shores of the Bay of
Bengal, with an area of 5x36 sq. m. and a population in
xoox of 481,666. It forms the northernmost district of Lower
Burma, and consists of the level tract lying between the sea
and the Arakan Yoma mountains, and of the broken country
formed by a portion of their western spurs and valleys. The
forests form a most important feature of Akyab district and
contain a valuable supply of timber of many kinds. The central
part of the district consists of three fertile valleys, watered by
the Myu, Koladaing and Lemyu These rivers approach each
other at their mouths, and form a vast network of tidal channels,
creeks and islands. Their alluvial valleys yield inexhaustible
supplies of rice, which the abundant water carriage brings down
to the port of Akyab at a very cheap rate. The four chief towns
are Khumgchu in the extreme north-east of the district; Kola-
daing in the centre; Arakan, farther down the rivers; and
Akyab on the coast, where their mouths converge. This dis-
trict passed into the hands of the British, together with the
rest of Arakan division, at the. close of the first Burmese war
of 1825-1826.
Akyab was the metropolitan province of the native kingdom
of Arakan, and the history of that country centres in it. In
1 87 1 the frontier or hill tracts of the district were placed under
a spedal administration, with a view to the better government
of the wild tribes which inhabit them. 0- G.Sc.)
ALA (from Lat. ala, a wing), a word used technically by
analogy with its meaning of " wing." In physiology, it means
any wing-like process, such as one of the lateral cartilages of the
nose. In botany, one of the side petals of a papilionaceous
corolla, &c. In architecture, a side apartment or recess of a
Roman house (the origin of " aisle ").
ALABAMA
459
ALABAMA, a southern state of the American Union, situated
between 84° 51' and 88° 31' W. long, and about 30 13' and 35°
N. lat., bounded N. by Tennessee, E. by Georgia, S. by Florida
and the Gulf of Mexico, and W. by Mississippi. Its total area Is
51,908 sq. m., of which 719 are water surface.
Physical Features.— -The surface of Alabama in the N. and
N.E., embracing about two-fifths of its area, is diversified and
picturesque; the remaining portion is occupied by a gently
undulating plain having a general incline south-westward toward
the Mississippi and the Gulf. Extending entirely across the
state of Alabama for about 20 m. S. of its N. boundary, and in
the middle stretching 60 m. farther S., is the Cumberland Plateau,
or Tennessee Valley region, broken into broad table-lands by
the dissection of rivers. In the N. part of this plateau, W. of
Jackson county, there are about 1000 sq. m. of level highlands
from 700 to 800 ft. above the sea. South of these highlands,
occupying a narrow strip on each side of the Tennessee river,
is a delightful country of gentle rolling lowlands varying in
elevation from 500 to 800 ft. To the N.E. of these highlands
and lowlands is a rugged section with steep mountain-sides, deep
narrow coves and valleys, and flat mountain-tops. Its elevations
range from 400 to 1800 ft In the remainder of this region,
the S. portion, the most prominent feature is Little Mountain,
extending about 80 m. from E. to W. between two valleys, and
rising precipitously on the N. side 500 ft. above them or 1000 ft.
above the sea. Adjoining the Cumberland Plateau region on the
S.E. is the Appalachian Valley (locally known as Coosa Valley)
region, which is the S. extremity of the great Appalachian
Mountain system, and occupies an area within the state of about
8000 sq. m. This is a limestone belt with parallel hard rock
ridges left standing by erosion to form mountains. Although
the general direction of the mountains, ridges and valleys is
N.E. and S.W., irregularity is one of the most prominent
characteristics. In the N.E. are several flat-topped mountains,
of which Raccoon and Lookout are the most prominent, having
a maximum elevation near the Georgia line of little more than
1800 ft. and gradually decreasing in height toward the S.W.,
where Sand Mountain is a continuation of Raccoon. South of
these the mountains are marked by steep tf.W. sides, sharp
crests . and gently sloping S.E. sides. South-east of the Appa-
lachian Valley region, the Piedmont Plateau also crosses the
Alabama border from the N.E. and occupies a small triangular-
shaped section of which Randolph and Clay counties, together
with the N. part of Tallapoosa and Chambers, form the principal
portion. Its surface is gently undulating and has an elevation
of about 1000 ft. above the sea. The Piedmont Plateau is a
lowland worn down by erosion on hard crystalline rocks, then
uplifted to form a plateau. The remainder of the state is occupied
by the coastal plain. This is crossed by foot-hills and rolling
prairies in the central part of the state, where it has a mean
elevation of about 600 ft., becomes lower and more level toward
the S.W.,and in the extreme S. is flat and but slightly elevated
above the sea. The Cumberland Plateau region is drained to
the W.N.W. by the Tennessee river and its tributaries; all
other parts of the state are drained to the S.W. In the Appa-
lachian Valley region the Coosa is the principal river; and in
the Piedmont Plateau, the Tallapoosa. In the Coastal Plain
are the Tombigbee in the W., the Alabama (formed by the Coosa
and Tallapoosa) in the W. central, and in the E. the Chatta-
hoochee, which forms almost half of the Georgia boundary.
The Tombigbee and Alabama unite near the S.W. corner of the
state, their waters discharging into Mobile Bay by the Mobile
and Tensas rivers. The Black Warrior is a considerable stream
which joins the Tombigbee from the E. The valleys in the N
and N.E. are usually deep and narrow, but in the Coastal Plain
they are broad and in most cases rise in three successive terraces
above the stream. The harbour of Mobile was formed by the
drowning of the lower part of the valley of the Alabama and
Tombigbee rivers as a result of the sinking of the land here, such
sinking having occurred on other parts of the Gulf coast.
The fauna and flora of Alabama are similar to those of the
Gulf states in general and have no distinctive characteristics.
Climate and Soil,— The climate of Alabama is temperate and
fairly uniform. The heat of summer is tempered in the S. by
the winds from the Gulf of Mexico, and in the N. by the elevation
above the sea. The average annual temperature is highest in
the S.W. along the coast, and lowest in the N.E. among the
highlands. Thus at Mobile the annual mean is 67 F., the mean
for the summer 8x°, and for the winter 5a ; and at Valley Head,
in De Kalb county, the annual mean is 59 , the mean for the
summer 75°, and for the winter 41°. At Montgomery, in the
central region, the average annual temperature is 66°, with a
winter average of 49°, and a summer average of 8x°. The average
winter minimum for the entire state is 35°, and there is an average
of 35 days in each year in which the thermometer falls below the
freezing-point. At extremely rare intervals the thermometer
has fallen below zero, as was the case in the remarkable cold
wave of the 12 th- 13th of February 1890, when an absolute
minimum of 17° was registered at Valley Head. The highest
temperature ever recorded was 109° in Talladega county in
1902. The amount of precipitation is greatest along the coast
(62 in.) and evenly distributed through the rest of the state
(about 52 in.). During each winter there is usually one fall of
snow in the S. and two in the N.; but the snow quickly dis-
appears, and sometimes, during an entire winter, the ground is
not covered with snow. Hail-storms occur in the spring and
summer, but arc seldom destructive. Heavy fogs are rare, and
are confined chiefly to the coast Thunderstorms occur through-
out the year, but are most common in the summer. The prevail-
ing winds are from the S. As regards its soil, Alabama may be
divided into four regions. Extending from the Gulf northward
for one hundred and fifty miles is the outer belt of the Coastal
Plain, also called the " Timber Belt/' whose soil is sandy and
poor, but responds well to fertilization. North of this is the
inner lowland of the Coastal Plain, or the " Black Prairie,"
which includes some 13,000 sq. m. and seventeen counties. It
receives its name from its soil (weathered from the weak under-
lying limestone), which is black in colour, almost destitute of
sand and loam, and rich in limestone and marl formations,
especially adapted to the production of cotton; hence the region
is also called the " Cotton Belt." Between the " Cotton Belt "
and the Tennessee Valley is the mineral region, the " Old Land "
area—" a region of resistant rocks " — whose soils, also derived
from weathering in situ, are of varied fertility, the best coming
from the granites, sandstones and limestones, the poorest from
the gneisses, schists and slates. North of the mineral region
is the " Cereal Belt," embracing the Tennessee Valley and the
counties beyond, whose richest soils are the red clays and dark
loams of the river valley; north of which are less fertile soils,
produced by siliceous and sandstone formations.
Apiculture. — Agriculture is the principal occupation in
Alabama, gi\ ing employment to 64 • 5% of the population. The
farm acreage in 1900 was 20,685,427 acres (62% of the entire
surface of the state), of which 8,654,091 acres (41-8%) were
improved. Under the system of slave labour which existed
before 1 860, the average size of the plantations tended to increase,
but since i860 the reverse has been true, the average plantation
in i860 being 346 acres, and in 1900 92-7 acres. The average
value per acre of farm land was $1 1*86 in i860 and $8*67 in 1900.
As to method of cultivation, 36*3 percent of the farms were in 1000
managed by the owners, 33-3% by cash renters, 244% by share
tenants, and the remaining 6% by other methods. The chief
product is cotton, cultivated extensively in the " Black Belt "
and less extensively in the other portions of the state. Cotton
has always been the principal source of wealth, the amount of
its exports at Mobile increasing from 7000 bales in 1818 to
25,000 bales in 1821, and the total product of the state in 1840
being double that of 1830. This was accompanied by an ex-
tensive employment of slave labour, and from 1820 until i860
the rate of increase of the blacks was greater than that of the
whites. The success of the economic system was such that in
i860 the cotton crop of Alabama was nearly 1,000,000 bales
(989,955 bales), being 18-4% of the entire cotton product of the
United States. The disorganization of labour resulting from the
4-6o
ALABAMA
Civil War and the emancipation of slaves, was the cause of
a temporary decline in the cotton crop. In 1889 the crop again
approximated to 1,000,000 bales (915,210 bales, being 12* 2% of
the entire crop of the United States), and in 1899 it exceeded
that amount! Alabama being fourth among the states of the
entire country. The total value of the farm products of Alabama
in 1899 was $91,387,409; in 1889, $66,240,190; and in 1879,
$56,87 2,994. The average yield per acre has also increased under
the system of free labour. In recent years there has been a
tendency to diversify crops, Indian corn, wheat and oats being
raised extensively in the " Cereal Belt." In 1906, according to
the Year-Book of the Department of Agriculture, the following
were the acreages, yields and values of Alabama's more import-
ant crops (excepting cotton): — Indian corn, 2,990,387 acres,
47.849.392 bushels, $30,623,611; wheat, 98,639 acres, 1,085,029
bushels, $1,019,927; oats, 184,179 acres, 3,167,879 bushels,
$1,615,618; bay, 56,3 50 acres, 109,882 tons, $1,461 ,431.
Minerals. — The chief feature of Alabama's industrial life since
1880 has been the exploitation of her iron and coal resources.
The iron ore (found chiefly in the region of which Birmingham is
the centre) is primarily red haematite and (much less important)
brown haematite; though as regards the latter Alabama ranked
first among the states of the Union in 1905 (with 781,561 tons).
The total production of all classes of iron ores was 3,782,831 tons
in 1905, Alabama ranking third in the Union in this respect.
The production of bituminous coal has also increased very
rapidly. Coal was first discovered in the state in 1834, and in
1840 the total production was 946 tons; in 1870 it was 13,200
short tons. The real development of the mines began in 1881
and 1882, and the product increased from 420,000 tons in i88x
to 1 ,568,000 in 1883. By 1890 it had increased to 4,090,409 tons,
by 1900 to 8,394,275 tons, and by 1905 to x 1,866,069 tons,
valued at $14,387,721, making Alabama sixth of the coal-
producing states. Nearly 85 % of the coal is produced in three
counties (Jefferson, Walker and Bibb), though the coal-bearing
formations cover about 40% of the northern half of the state.
Gold, silver, lead, copper, tin and bauxite have also been
discovered, but the greater richness of the iron and coal deposits
has prevented their development.
Manufactures. — The growth of- manufactures m Alabama has
been as remarkable as the revelation of mineral wealth. In 1 880
the capital invested in manufactures was $9,668,008, little more
than that ($9,098,181) in i860; by 1890 it had increased to
$46,122,571, or377*i %; and in x 900 it amounted to $70,3 70,08 1,
or 52-6 % more than in 1890. 1 On account of the proximity of
coal, iron and limestone, the manufactures of iron and steel are
the most extensive. In 1895 it was demonstrated that Alabama
pig-iron could be sent to Liverpool and sold cheaper than the
English product, and Birmingham (Alabama) came consequently
to rank next to Middlesborough and Glasgow among the world
centres of the pig-iron trade. The pig-iron produced in the state
in i860 was valued at $64,590, in 1870 at $210,258, in 1880 at
$1.4*5.356. in 1900 at $13,487,769, »nd in X905 at $16,614,577.
In the production of foundry pig-iron Alabama held first rank
both in 1900 and in 1905. The manufacture of steel, though in
its infancy, gave promise of equalling that of iron, and the coke
industry is also of growing importance, the product of Alabama
during the five years from 1896 to ioox showing a greater increase,
rela ti vely , than that of the other sta tcs. In 1 900 the state ranked
sixth and in 1905 fifth among the states of the United States in
the manufactures of iron and steel. In 1905 the value of the
product was 2-7 % of the value of the total iron and steel product
of the country, and 22-6 % of the value of all the state's factory
products. In 1900 and in 1905 Alabama ranked second among
1 The special census of manufactures taken in 1905 was confined
to manufacturing establishments conducted under the so-called
" factory system. ' According to this census the capital invested
was $105,382,859, and the value of products was $109,169,922.
The corresponding figures for 1900, if the same standard be taken
for purposes of comparison, would be $60,165,904 and $72,109,920.
During the five years, therefore, the capital invested in establish-
ments under the factory system increased 75-2 %, and the value of
products 51-4 %.
the states of the Union in the production of coke, its product
being more than one-tenth of that for the whole country, and
more than one-twentieth (5-2 % in 1900; 5*7 % in 1905) of all the
factory products of the state. The demand for coke is due to the
rapidly growing iron and steel industry. Great possibiii ties were
also shown for the production of lumber and naval stores. Ap-
proximately three-fourths of the total area of the state is wood-
land. In the " Timber Belt " the forests of long leaf pine have as
estimated stand of 21,192 million ft; and in 1905 the product of
sawed lumber was valued at $13,563,8x5. Of this, yellow pine
represented $11,320,909, oak $886,746, and poplar $627,636.
In the decade 1890-1000 the number of turpentine factories
increased from 7 to 152, and their product in 1900 and in 1005
ranked Alabama third among the states in that industry. The
value of the turpentine and rosin products in 1905 was $3,434*36$.
The manufacture of cotton goods has also developed rapidly.
As late as 1890 there were only 13 cotton mills in Alabama, one
more than the number in 1850; in 1900 there were 31, represent-
ing a capital of $11,638,757 and an annual product valued at
$8,153,136, an increase of 272-2 % over the product ($2,190,77*)
of 1800; in 1905 there were 46 establishments, representing a
capital of $24,758,049 (an increase of x 12-7 % over that of 1900),
and having a product (for the year) of $16,760,332, an increase
of 105*6 % over that for 1900. To encourage the establishment
of cotton mills the legislature of 1 896- 1 897 exempted from taxa-
tion during the succeeding ten years all capital that should be
invested in the manufacture of cotton, provided that $50,000 or
more be invested in buildings and machinery. Other industries
of less importance are flour, fertilizers and tanned leather.
Communications. — The navigable mileage of the Alabama
rivers is 2000 m., but obstructions often prevent the formation
of a continuous route, notably the " Muscle Shoals " of the Ten-
nessee, extending from a point xo m. below Decatur to Florence,
a distance of 38m. To remove or circumvent these impediments,
.and to improve the Mobile harbour, the United States govern*
ment spent, between 1870 and 1904, approximately $12,000,000.
As the streams in the mineral region are not navigable, the rail-
ways are the carriers of its products. 9 Here all the large systems
of the southern states find an entrance, the Mobile & Ohio, the
Southern (Queen & Crescent Route), the Louisville & Nashville,
and the 'Frisco system affording communication with the Missis-
sippi and the west, and the Southern, Seaboard Air Line, At-
lantic Coast Line, and the Central of Georgia forming connexions
with northern and Atlantic states. Mobile, the only seaport of
the state, has a channel 30 ft. deep, on which the national govern-
ment spends large sums of money; yet an increasing amount
of Alabama cotton is sent to New Orleans for shipment, and
Pcnsacola, Florida, receives much of the lumber.
Population.— -In 1880 the inhabitants of Alabama numbered
1,262,505; in 1890, 1,513.017, &n increase of 17%; in 1000,
1,828,697, a further increase of 20 %. This population is notable
for its large proportion of negroes (45* 23 %).»*» insignificant
foreign clement (-08%), and the small percentage of urban in-
habitants (10 %). As regards church membership, the Baptists
are much the most numerous, followed by the Methodists, the
Roman Catholics and the Presbyterians. In 1900 there were
20X incorporated cities, towns and villages in the state, but of
these only nine had a population in excess of 5000, and only threes
population in excess of 25,000. These three were Mobile (38,469),
Birmingham (38,415). and Montgomery (30,346), the capital of
the state. Other important cities, with their populations, were
Sclma (8713), Anniston (9695), Huntsvtlle (8068), Bessemer
(6358), Tuscaloosa (5O04)i Talladega (5056), Eufaula (4532) and
Tuskegee (21 70). In 1910 the population was 2,138,093.
Government. — Alabama has been governed under five con-
stitutions, the original constitution of 1819, the revision of 1865,
the constitutions of 1868 and 1875, and the present constitution,
which was framed in xooi. The last has a number of notable
provisions. It lengthened the term of service of executive and
legislative officials from two to four years, made that of the
* The railway mileage of the state on the 31st of December 1906
was 4805-58 m.
ALABAMA
4.61
Judiciary six years, provided for quadrennial sessions of the
legislature, and introduced the office of lieutenant-governor.
The passage of local or special bills by the legislature was pro-
hibited. A provision intended to prevent lobbying is that no
one except legislators and the representatives of the press may
be admitted to the floor of the House except by unanimous
vote. No executive official can succeed himself in office, and
the governor cannot be elected or appointed to the United States
Senate, or to any state office during his term as governor, or
within one year thereafter. Sheriffs whose prisoners suffer mob
violence may be impeached. The constitution eliminated the
negro from politics by a suffrage clause which went into effect
in 1903. This limits the right to vote to those who can read and
write any article of the constitution of the United States, and
have worked or been regularly engaged in some lawful employ-
ment, business or occupation, trade or calling for the greater
part of the twelve months next preceding the time they offer to
register, unless prevented from labour or ability to read and
write by physical disability, or who own property assessed at
$300 upon which the taxes have been paid; but those who have
served in the army or navy of the United States or of the Con-
federate States in time of war, their lawful descendants in every
degree, and persons of good character " who understand the
duties and obligations of citizenship under a republican form
of government," are relieved from the operation of this law
provided they registered prior to the 20th of December 1002.
The second of these exceptions is known as the " Grandfather
Clause." No man may vote in any election who has not by the
xst of February next preceding that election paid all poll taxes
due from him to the state. In 1902 nine- tenths of the negroes
in the state were disqualified from voting. 1 The constitution of
1 00 1 Qike that of 1867) and special statutes require separate
schools for white and negro children. A " Jim Crow " law was
enacted in 189 1 . Buying, selling or offering to buy or sell a vote
has for penalty disfranchisement, and since 1891 the Australian
ballot system has been used. The governor, auditor and
attorney-general are required to prepare and present to each
legislature a general revenue bill, and the secretary of state, with
the last two officers, constitute a board of pardons who make
recommendations to the governor, who, however, is not bound
to follow their advice in the exercise of his pardoning power.
State officials are forbidden to accept railway passes from rail-
way companies, and individuals are forbidden to receive freight
rebates. The constitution of 1001 exempted a homestead of
80 acres of farm land, or of a house and lot not exceeding $2000
in value, from liability for any debt contracted since the 30th of
July 1868 except for a mortage on it to which the wife con-
sented; personal property to the value of $1000 is exempted.
Under the civil code of 1897 the earnings of a wife are her
separate property, and it is provided that " no woman, nor any
boy under age of twelve years, shall be employed to work or
labour in or about any mine in this state." By acts of 1003
child labour under 12 years is forbidden in any factory unless
for support of " a widowed mother or aged or disabled father,"
or unless the child is an indigent orphan; " no child under the age
of ten years shall be so employed under any circumstances."
Certificates of children's ages are necessary before a child is
employed; false certification is forbidden under penalty of a
fine of from $5 to $100 or hard labour not exceeding three
months. No child under 13 may do night work at all. No child
1 In Giles v. Harris, 189 U.S. 474, a negro asked that the defendant
board of registry be required to enrol his name and the names of
other negroes on the registration lists, and that certain sections of
the constitution of Alabama be declared void as being contrary to
the fourteenth and fifteenth amendments to the federal constitution.
The Supreme Court dismissed the bill on the grounds that equity
has no jurisdiction over political matters; that, assuming the
fraudulent character of the objectionable constitutional provisions,
the court was in effect asked to assist in administering a fraud;
and that relief [' must be riven by them {the people of the state] or
V t . h J e .'*B?^ atlve and political departments of the government of
the United States." The case attracted much attention; and it is
often erroneously said that the court upheld the disfranchising
clauses of the Alabama constitution.
under 16 may do more than 48 hours a week of night work. No
child of less than 12 is allowed to work more than 66 hours in
any one week. An able-bodied parent who does not work when
he has the opportunity, unless " idle under strike orders, or
lock-outs," and who hires out his minor children, is declared a
vagrant and may be fined $500 and imprisoned or sentenced
to hard labour for not more than six months.
All amendments to the constitution must be approved by a
three-fifths vote of each house of the legislature and then ratified
by the people. The legislature of 1900-1 001 established a
department of archives and history whose aim is to preserve
documents and historical records.
Education. — Public education for Mobile was authorized by
the legislature of 1826, but it was not provided until 1852. Two
years later (1854) a school system for the entire state was in-
augurated. Its support was derived from public land given by
the United States to the state of Alabama for educational pur-
poses in 1819, and special taxes or tuition fixed by each township.
The Civil War demoralized the nascent system. An important
step in its revival seemed to be made in the constitution of 1868,
which forbade any private recompense for instruction in the
public schools and appropriated one-fifth of the state's revenue
to common schools. But the attempt to teach whites and blacks
in the same schools, and the corruption in the administration of
funds, made the results unsatisfactory. The constitution of
1875 abolished the one-fifth revenue provision, made the support
of the schools, except that derived from the land grant of 1819,
and poll taxes, depend upon the appropriation of the legislature,
and established separate schools for whites and blacks. Progress
has been slow but steady. According to the constitution of
1001 the legislature is required to levy, in addition to the poll
tax, an annual tax for education at the rate of 30 to 65 cents
on the hundred dollars' worth of property, and practically
every county in the state had made in 1906 an appropriation
for its schools of a one mill tax on $100. The school fund in 1 000
amounted to Sx ,000,000, an increase of 37 % over the average
annual fund of the preceding decade; for the year ending the
30th of September 1907 the amount certified for apportionment
by the state was $1,150,261-40, and the total annual expendi-
ture was about $1,600,000; in 2906 the school census showed
697,465 children of school age. The legislature of 1007 voted
an increase of $300,000 in the appropriation for the common
school fund, and granted state-aid for rural school-houses; but
its most important work probably was the establishment of
county high schools. The rural schools have an annual term
of five to seven months only. The percentage of illiterates
declined from 50-97 % in 1880 to 41 % in x8oo, and 34 % in 1900,
when Alabama ranked third among the states in illiteracy.
There are also a number of institutions for higher education
in Alabama. The most important of these are the university
of Alabama (co-educational— opened in 1831), at Tuscaloosa,
the institution being part of the public school system main-
tained by the state; the Alabama Polytechnic Institute at
Auburn, a " state college for the benefit of agriculture and the
mechanic arts," organized in 1872 according to the United
States land grant act for the promotion of industrial education;
the Southern University (incorporated 1856— Methodist Epis-
copal, South), at Greensboro; Howard College (Baptist), at
East Lake (Birmingham); Spring Hill College (1830— Roman
Catholic), near Mobile; Talladega College (for negroes), at
Talladega; the Tuskegee Normal and Industrial Institute
(for negroes), at Tuskegee; and state normal schools at Florence,
Jacksonville, Troy and Livingston, and, for negroes, at Mont-
gomery, Tuskegee and Normal.
Public Institutions.— Alabama, supports various philanthropic
and penal institutions: a home for Confederate veterans, at
Mountain Creek; an institution for the deaf, an academy for the
blind, and a school for the negro deaf, dumb and bund, all at
Talladega; a hospital for the insane, opened in 1860, at Tusca-
loosa; a penitentiary, established in 1839, at Wetumpka; and
a state industrial school for white boys, at East Lake (Birming-
ham), and a state industrial school for white girls at Montevallo.
462
ALABAMA
These institutions are managed by trustees who are appointed
by the governor. In addition to the usual method of employing
convicts in the penitentiary or on state farms, Alabama, like
other southern states, also hires its convicts to labour for private
individuals. Reports of abuses under this system caused the
legislature in 100 1 to order a special investigation, the results of
which led in 1903 to a new system of leasing to contractors,
whereby the prisoners are kept under the direct supervision of
state officials. In this same year a system of peonage that had
grown up in the state attracted wide attention, and a Federal
grand jury at a single term of court indicted a number of men
for holding persons as " peons." Many similar cases were found
later in other southern states, but those in Alabama being the
first discovered attracted the most attention. The system came
into existence in isolated communities through the connivance
of justices of the peace with white farmers. TKe justices have
jurisdiction over petty offences, of which negroes are usually
the guilty parties, and the fines imposed would sometimes be
paid by a white farmer, who would thus save the accused from
imprisonment, but at the same time would require him to sign
a contract to repay by his labour the sum advanced. By various
devices the labourer would then be kept constantly in debt to
his employer and be held in involuntary servitude for an in-
definite time. The " peons " as a rule were negroes, but a few
white ones were found; and in several instances negroes were
found holding members of their own race in peonage. A law
forbidding under severe penalties a labourer from hiring himself
to a second employer without giving notice of a prior contract,
and an employer from hiring a labourer known by him to be
bound by such a contract, had aided in the development of the
system, though it had been enacted for a different purpose.
The Federal authorities, as soon as the existence of peonage
became known, took active measures to stamp it out, and were
supported by the press and by the leading citizens of the state.
Up to 1007 the state licensed the sale of liquor, and liquor licence
fees were partly turned over to the public school fund; there was
a dispensary system in some counties; and in 1007 one-third
of the counties of the state (22 out of 67) were " dry." Besides,
saloons had been forbidden within 5 m. of certain churches and
school-houses, so that liquor was sold scarcely at all except an
incorporated towns, where in many cases local dispensaries were
established. In the 1007 state legislature a county local option
bill was passed in February, and immediately afterward the
Sherrod anti-shipping bill was enacted forbidding the acceptance
of liquors for shipment, transportation or delivery to prohibition
districts, and penalising the soliciting of orders for liquor in
" dry " districts with a punishment of $500 fine and six months'
imprisonment with hard labour. In a special session of the
legislature in November 1007 a law was passed forbidding the
sale of liquor within the state, this prohibition to come into effect
on the xst of January 1009.
Finance. — One-half of the income of the state is derived from
general taxes, the other sources of revenue being licences, a special
school tax, poll tax and the lease of the convicts. The state
debt, for which legislative corruption in the years 1868-1873
was largely responsible, amounted on the xst of October 1006
to $9,057,000. Measures for its refunding, but not for its extinc-
tion, have been taken. The constitution of xooi prohibits the
increase of the debt for any other purposes than the suppression
of insurrection or resistance to invasion, and the assumption of
corporate debts by d ties and towns is also restricted. All banks,
except national banks, are subject to examination by a public
official, and their charters expire within twenty years of their
History.— The first Europeans to enter the limits of the present
state of Alabama were Spaniards, who claimed this region as a
part of Florida. It is possible that a member of Panfilo de
Narvaez's expedition of 1528 entered what is now southern
Alabama, but the first fully authenticated visit was that of
Hernando de Soto, who made an arduous but fruitless journey
along the Coosa, Alabama and Tombigbee rivers in 1539. The
English, too, claimed the region north of the Gulf of Mexico, and
the territory of modern Alabama was included in the province
of Carolina, granted by Charles II. to certain of his favourites
by the charters of 1663 and 1665. English traders of Carolina
were frequenting the valley of the Alabama river as early as
1687. Disregarding these claims, however, the French in 1701
settled on the Mobile river and there erected Fort Louis, *hich
for the next nine years was the seat of government of *^*"*j»n?
In 1 71 1 Fort Louis was abandoned to the floods of the river,
and on higher ground was built Fort Condi, the germ of the
present city of Mobile, and the first permanent white settlement
in Alabama. Later, on account of the intrigues of the E**gi»«*
traders with the Indians., the French as a means of defence
established the military posts of Fort Toulouse, near the junction
of the Coosa and Tallapoosa rivers, and Fort Tombecbc on the
Tombigbee river. The grant of Georgia to Oglethorpe and his
associates in 1732 included a portion of what i% now northern
Alabama, and in 1739 Oglethorpe himself visited the Creek
Indians west of the Chattahoochee river and made a treaty with
them. The peace of Paris, in 1763, terminated the French
occupation, and England came into undisputed possession of
the region between the Chattahoochee and the Mississippi. The
portion of Alabama below the 31st parallel then became a part
of West Florida, and the portion north of this line a part of the
" Illinois country," set apart, by royal proclamation, for the
use of the Indians. In 1767 the province of West Florida w/as
extended northward to 32 28' N. lat, and a few years Later,
during the War for Independence, this region fell into the hands
of Spain. By the treaty of Versailles, on the 3rd of September
1783, England ceded West Florida to Spain; but by the treaty of
Paris, signed the same day, she ceded to the United States all
of this province north of 31 , and thus laid the foundation for a
long controversy. By the treaty of Madrid , in 1 795, Spain ceded
to the United States her claims to the lands east of the Mississippi
between 31° and 32° 28' ; and three years later (1798) this dis-
trict was organized by Congress as the Mississippi Territory. A
strip of land 12 or 14 m. wide near the present northern boond-
ary of Alabama and Mississippi was claimed by South Carolina;
but in 1787 that state ceded this claim to the general government.
Georgia likewise claimed all the lands between the 31st and 35th
parallels from its present western boundary to the Mississippi
river, and did not surrender its claim until 1802; two years
later the boundaries of the Mississippi Territory were extended
so as to include all of the Georgia cession. In 181 2 Congress
annexed to the Mississippi Territory the Mobile District of
West Florida, claiming that it was induded in the Louisiana
Purchase; and in the following year General James Wilkinson
occupied this district with a military force, the Spanish com-
mandant offering no resistance. The whole area of the present
state of Alabama then for the first time became subject to the
jurisdiction of the United States. In 2817 the Mississippi
Territory was divided; the western portion became the state of
Mississippi, and the eastern the territory of Alabama, with St
Stephens, on the Tombigbee river, as the temporary seat of
government In 1829 Alabama waa regularly admitted to the
Union as a state.
One of the first problems of the new commonwealth was that
of finance. Since the amount of money in drculation was not
sufficient to meet the demands of the increasing population,
a system of state banks was instituted. State bonds were issued
and public lands were sold to secure capital, and the notes of
the banks, loaned on security, became a medium of exchange.
Prospects of an income from the banks led the legislature of 1836
to abolish all taxation for state purposes. This was hardly done,
however, before the panic of 1837 wiped out a large portion of
the banks' assets; next came revelations of grossly careless
and even of corrupt management, and in 1843 the banks were
placed in liquidation. After disposing of all their available
assets, the state assumed the remaining liabilities, for which
it had pledged its faith and credit, and these form a part
($3,445t00o) of its present indebtedness.
The Indian problem was important With the encroachment
of the white settlers upon their hunting-grounds the Creek
ALABAMA
463
Indiana began to grow restless, and the great Shawnee chief
Tecumseh, who' visited them in 181 1, fomented their discontent
When the outbreak of the second war with Great Britain in 1812
gave the Creeks assurance of British aid they rose in arms,
massacred several hundred settlers who had taken refuge in
Fort Mims, near the junction of the Alabama and Tombigbee
rivers, and in a short time no white family in the Creek country
was safe outside a palisade. The Chickasaw, and Choctaw
Indians, however, remained the faithful allies of the whites, and
volunteers from Georgia, South' Carolina and Tennessee, and
later United States troops, marched to the rescue of the
threatened settlements. In the campaign that followed the
most distinguished services were rendered by General Andrew
Jackson, whose vigorous measures broke for ever the power of
the Creek Confederacy. By the treaty of Fort Jackson (9th
of August 18x4) the Creeks ceded their claims to about one-half
of the present state; and cessions by the Cherokecs, Chickasaws
and Choctaws in 1816 left only about one-fourth of Alabama
tc the Indians. In 1832 the national government provided for
the removal of the Creeks ; but before the terms of the contract
were effected, the state legislature formed the Indian lands into
counties, and settlers flocked in. This caused a disagreement
between Alabama and the United States authorities; although
it was amicably settled, it engendered a feeling that the policy
of the national government might not be in harmony with the
interests of the state—a feeling which, intensified by the slavery
agitation, did much to cause secession in 1861.
The political history of Alabama may be divided into three
periods, that prior to i860, the years from i860 to 1876, and the
period from 1876 onwards.
The first of these is the only period of altogether healthy
political life. Until 1833 there was only one party in the state,
the Democratic, but the question of nullification caused a division
that year into the (Jackson) Democratic party and the State's
Rights (Calhoun Democratic) party; about the same time,
also, there arose, chiefly in those counties where the proportion
of slaves to freemen was greater and the freemen were most
aristocratic, the Whig party. For some time the Whigs were
nearly as numerous as the Democrats, but they never secured
control' of the state government. The State's Rights men were
in a minority; nevertheless under their active and persistent
leader, William L. Yancey (1814-1863), they prevailed upon the
Democrats in 1848 to adopt their most radical views. During
the agitation over the introduction of slavery Into the territory
acquired from Mexico, Yancey induced the Democratic State
Convention of 1848 to adopt what is known as the " Alabama
Platform," which declared in substance that neither Congress
nor the government of a territory had the right to interfere with
slavery in a territory, that those who held opposite views were
not Democrats, and that the Democrats of Alabama would not
support a candidate for the presidency if he did not agree
with them on these questions. This platform was endorsed
by conventions in Florida and Virginia and by the legislatures
of Georgia and Alabama. Old party lines were broken by the
Compromise of 1850. The State's Rights party, joined by many
Democrats, founded the Southern Rights party, which demanded
the repeal of the Compromise, advocated resistance to future
encroachments and prepared for secession, while the Whigs,
joined by the remaining Democrats, formed the party known
as the" Unionists," which unwillingly accepted the Compromise
and denied the "constitutional" right of secession. The
" Unionists " were successful in the elections of 1851 and 1852,
but the feeling of uncertainty engendered in the south by the
passage of the Kansas-Nebraska Bill and the course of the slavery
agitation after 1852 led the State Democratic convention of 1856
to revive the " Alabama Platform '*; and when the " Alabama
Platform " failed to secure the formal approval of the Democratic
National convention at Charleston, South Carolina, in 1860,
the Alabama delegates, followed by those of the other cotton
" states," withdrew. Upon the election of Abraham Lincoln,
Governor Andrew B. Moore, according to previous instructions
of the legislature, called a state convention on the 7th of January
1861. After long debate this convention adopted on the 1 ith of
January an ordinance of secession, and Alabama became one
of the Confederate states of America, whose government was
organized at Montgomery on the 4th of February 1861. Yet
secession was opposed by many prominent men, and in North
Alabama an attempt was made to organize a neutral state to be
called Nickajack; but with President Lincoln's call to arms
all opposition to secession ended.
In the early part of the Civil War Alabama was not the scene
of military operations, yet the state contributed about 120,000
men to the Confederate service, practically all her white popula-
tion capable of bearing arms, and thirty-nine of these attained
the rank of general. In x 863 the Federal forces secured a foothold
in northern Alabama in spite of the opposition of General Nathan
B. Forrest, one of the ablest Confederate cavalry leaders. In
1864 the defences of Mobile were taken by a Federal fleet, but
the city held out until April 1865; in the same month Selma
alsofelL
According to the presidential plan of reorganization, a provi-
sional governor for Alabama was appointed in June 1865; a
state convention met in September of the same year, and declared
the ordinance of secession null and void and slavery abolished;
a legislature and a governor were elected in November, the
legislature was at once recognized by the National government,
and the inauguration of the governor-elect was permitted after
the legislature had, in December, ratified the thirteenth amend-
ment But the passage, by the legislature, of vagrancy and
apprenticeship laws designed to control the negroes who were
flocking from the plantations to the cities, and its rejection of
the fourteenth amendment, so intensified the congressional
hostility to the presidential plan that the Alabama senators and
representatives were denied their seats in Congress. In 1867
the congressional plan of reconstruction was completed and
Alabama was placed under military government. The negroes
were now enrolled as voters and large numbers of white citizens
were disfranchised. 1 A Black Man's Party, composed of negroes,
and political adventurers known as "carpet-baggers," was formed,
which co-operated with the Republican party. A constitutional
convention, controlled by this clement, met in November 1867,
and framed a constitution which conferred suffrage on negroes
and disfranchised a large class of whites. The Reconstruction
Acts of Congress required every new constitution to be ratified
by a majority of the legal voters of the state. The whites of
Alabama therefore stayed away from the polls, and, after five
days of voting, the constitution wanted 13,550 to secure a
majority. Congress then enacted that a majority of the
votes cast should be sufficient, and thus the constitution went
into effect, the state was admitted to the Union in June x868,
and a new governor and legislature were elected.
The next two years are notable for legislative extravagance
and corruption. The state endorsed railway bonds at the rate
of $12,000 and $16,000 a mile until the state debt had increased
from eight millions to seventeen millions of dollars, and similar
corruption characterized local government. The native white
people united, formed a Conservative party and elected a
governor and a majority of the lower house of the legislature
in 1870; but, as the new administration was largely a failure,
in 1872 there was a reaction in favour of the Radicals, a local
term applied to the Republican party, and affairs went from
bad to worse. In 1874, however, the power of the Radicals
was finally broken, the Conservative Democrats electing all
state officials. A commission appointed to examine the state
debt found it to be $25,503,000; by compromise it was reduced
to $15,000,000. A new constitution was adopted in 1875, which
omitted the guaranty of the previous constitution that no one
should be denied suffrage on account of race, colour or previous
condition of servitude, and forbade the state to engage in internal
improvements or to give its credit to any private enterprise.
Since 1874 the Democratic party has had constant control
of the state administration, the Republicans failing to make
nominations for office in 1878 and 1880 and endorsing the ticket
1 The enrolment was 104,518 blacks and 61,395 whites.
464
"ALABAMA" ARBITRATION
of the Greenback party in 1882. The development of mining
and manufacturing was accompanied by economic distress
among the fanning classes, which found expression in the
Jeffcrsonian Democratic party, organized in 1892. The regular
Democratic ticket was elected and the new party was then
merged into the Populist party. In 1894 the Republicans
united with the Populists, elected three congressional repre-
sentatives, secured control of many of the counties, but failed
to carry the state, and continued their opposition with less
success in the next campaigns. Partisanship became intense,
and charges of corruption of the ignorant negro electorate were
made. Consequently after division on the subject among the
Democrats themselves, as well as opposition of Republicans and
Populists, a new constitution with restrictions on suffrage was
adopted in 1001.
The following fa a list of the territorial and state governors of
Alabama:—
Governor of the Territory.
William Wyatt Bibb . . .1 1817-1819 I
Governor t of the State.
William Wyatt Bibb . . 1819-1820 Democrat.
Tboma* Bibb 1
Israel Picktn* . .
John Murphy
Gabriel Moore . .
Salmi?! R. Moore
iohn Gayle • •
1<?mcnt C Gay ,
HughMVay' . .
Arthur P* BaRby .
Benjamin FitrpitridcJ
Imhu4 L Martin,
Reuben Chapman
Henry W, Collier
John A, Winston
Andrew B. Moore
John Gill Shorter
Thomas H, Walt*
Lewis £- ]*ai*Lin> •
Robert M. Patton
Wager Swayne
William H. Smith
Robert B. Lindsay
David P. Lewis*
George S. Houston
Kufus W.Cobb . .
Edward A. O'Neal .
Thomas Scay
Thomas G. Jones
William C. Gate* .
Joseph F. Johnston
William 1. Samford .
William D. Jclks . .
B. B. Comer
Bibliography. — For an elaborate bibliography of Alabama (by
Thomas M. Owen) see the Annual Report of the American Historical
Association for 1897 (Washington, 1898).
Information regarding the resources, climate, population and
industries of Alabama may be found in the reports of the United
States Census, and in the publications of the United States Depart-
ment of Agriculture, the United States Geological Survey, the
Bulletins of the Alabama Agricultural Experiment Station (published
at Auburn, from 1888), the Bulletins and Reports of the Alabama
Geological Survey (published at Tuscaloosa and Montgomery), and
in the following works: — B. F. Riley's Alabama As It Is (Mont-
icry, 1893), and SafTold Bcrncy's Handbook of Alabama (and ed.
. ningham, 1892).
Information concerning the history of the state may be obtained
....... ~ ^ . •„. s .. . (Nw
------- *tof.
ence, Ala , 1892); Willis Brewer's Alabama: Her History, Resources,
1819-1820
1820-1821
1821-1825
1825-1829
I 820-1831
183 1
1831-1835
1835-1837
a l83 Z
I837-184I
1841-1845
I845- J 847
I847-I849
IS49-I853
1853-1857
1857-1861
1861-1863
I 863-I 865
I865
I865-I867
1867-1868
1868-1870
I87O-I872
I872-I874
I 874- I 878
I878-I882
1882-1886
I886-I89O
1890-I894
I894-I896
1896-1900
I9OO-I9OI
I9OI-I9O7
1907
Governor.
Republican.
Military
Governor.
Republican.
Democrat.
Republican.
Democrat.
Geological Survey (published at Tuscaloosa and Montgomery), and
" t following works:— B. F. Riley's Alabama Asltls'*"
gomcry, 1893), and r - * * -
Birmingham, 1892).
Information concerning the history of the state may 1
in William G. Brown's History of Alabama (New York, 1900);
Newton W. Bates's History ana Civil Government of Alabama (Flor-
ence, Ala , 1892); Willis Brewer's Alabama: Her History, Resources,
War Record and Public Men (Montgomery, 1872); A. Davis Smith's
and T. A. Deland's Northern Alabama, Historical and Biographical
1 William Wyatt Bibb died in 1820, and Thomas Bibb, then
president of the state senate, rilled the unexpired term of one year
(1820).
•In 1837 Governor Clay was elected United States Senator, and
Hugh M'Vay, the president of the state senate, filled the unexpired
term.
' Until 1845 the term of state officials was one year; from then
until 1901 it was two years: since 1901 it has been lour years.
(Birmingham, 1888); Albert J. Pickett's History of Alabama (srt
ed., j vol*.* Birtmitghtfifl, Ala., 1900), which contains a valuer
compilation ft! the fT AnnaU of Alabama from 1819 to 1900.° tj
Thomat M. Owen; and Waller L. Fleming's Civil War and foe*
stnution in Alabama (New York, 1905).
In addition, W. G* Clark's History of Education in AUkn
(Washington, J8B9); W. E. Martin's Internal Improvements a
Alc.t-.ima (Baltimore, WW; Johns Hopkins University StstSev
sent;; 20, No. 4); and W, L. Martin's Code of Alabama (2 vo&,
Atlanta, Ga-, r . insulted.
Inlurroation concerning rhe aboriginal remains in the state my
be found in twopaperB by Clarence 0. Moore, " Certain Abcrigtui
Remain* of the Tombigbec Niver"and " Certain Aboriginal Rcna^f
of the Alabama River, 11 published in the Journal of tie Academy t(
NaiuTid StMJteeS* lerfei 2, voE. ii. (Philadelphia, 1900).
"ALABAMA" ARBITRATION.— This is one of those ti-
trations on pecuniary claims, made by dne state, on behalf d
its subjects, against another state, which are referred to in the
article Arbitration, International. The case is imporust,
both from a historical and a juridical point of view, and affords
a conspicuous example of the value of arbitration as a means cf
averting war. The facts are as follows: —
In 1861 the Southern States of North America seceded fres
the rest on the slavery question and set up a separate governsxe:
under President Jefferson Davis. Hostilities began with Uk
capture of Fort Sumter by the Confederates on the 13th of Ape!
1861. On the 19th of April President Abraham Lincoln dedaitf
a blockade of the southern ports. On the 14th of May the Briua
government issued a proclamation of neutrality, by which tk
Confederates were recognized as belligerents. This example *ts
followed shortly afterwards by France and other nations. Tk
blockade of the southern ports was not at first effective, acd
blockade-running soon became an active industry. The Con-
federates established agencies in England for the purchase of
arms, which they despatched in ordinary merchant vessels to the
Bahamas, whence they were transhipped into fast steaom
especially constructed for the purpose.
In June 1862 the vessel, the " Alabama," originally known as
" No. 290," was being built by Messrs. Laird at Birkenhead.
She was then nearly completed and was obviously intended for
a man-of-war. On the 23rd of June Mr C. F. Adams forwarded
to Earl Russell a letter from the United States consul at Liverpool
giving certain particulars as to her character. This letter was
laid before the law officers, who advised that, if these particulars
were correct, the vessel ought to be detained. On the 21st of
July sworn evidence, which was supplemented on the 23rd d
July, was obtained and laid before the commissioners of customs
(who were the proper authorities to enforce the provisions of ibe
Foreign Enlistment Act of 1819), but they declined to move.
On the 23rd of July the same evidence was laid before the U*
officers, who advised that there was sufficient ground for deten-
tion. By some accident, which has never been satisfactorily
explained, but was probably connected with the severe illness oJ
Sir John Harding, the queen's advocate, the papers were cot
returned till the 29th of July. Instructions were then issued to
seize the vessel, but she had already sailed on the evening of the
28th. Although she remained for two days off the coast of
Anglesey, there was no serious attempt at pursuit She after-
wards made her way to the Azores, where she received her
armament, which was brought from Liverpool in two British
ships. Captain Semmes there took command of her under a
commission from the Confederate government. After a rro6t
destructive career she was sunk off Cherbourg by the " Rear-
sarge " on the 19th of June 1864.
On these facts the United States government alleged against
Great Britain two grievances, or sets of grievances. The first was
the recognition of the Southern States as belligerents and a
general manifestation of unfriendliness in other ways. The
second was in respect of breaches of neutrality in allowing the
" Alabama," the " Florida " (originally the " Oreto "), the •' Shen-
andoah " and other Confederate vessels to be built and equipped
on British territory. Correspondence ensued extending over
several years. At length in February 187 1 a commission «as
appointed to sit at Washington in order, if possible, to arrive
at some common understanding as to the mode in which tnc
ALABAMA RIVER
465
questions at issue might be settled. With respect to the "Alabama"
claims the British commissioners suggested that they should be
submitted to arbitration. (The American commissioners refused
" unless the principles which should govern the arbitrators in the
consideration of the facts could be first agreed upon." After
some discussion the British commissioners consented that the
three following rules should apply. A neutral government is
bound— (1) to use due diligence to prevent the fitting out, arming
or equipping within its jurisdiction of any vessel, which it has
reasonable ground to believe is intended to cruise or to carry
on war against a power with which it is at peace, and also to use
like diligence to prevent the departure from its jurisdiction of
any vessel intended to cruise or carry on war as above, such
vessel having been specially adapted, in whole or in part, within
such jurisdiction, to warlike use; (2) not to permit or suffer
either belligerent to make use of its ports or waters as the base
of naval operations against the other, or for the purpose of the
renewal or augmentation of military supplies or arms or the
recruitment of men; (3) to exercise due diligence in its own ports
and waters, and as to all persons within its jurisdiction to prevent
any violation of the foregoing obligation and duties. The ar-
rangements made by the commission were embodied in the treaty
of Washington, which was signed on the 8th of May 1871, and
approved by the Senate on the 24th of May. Article 1, after
expressing the regret felt by Her Majesty's government for the
escape, in whatever circumstances, of the "Alabama" and other
vessels from British ports, and for the depredations committed by
these vessels, provided that " the claims growing out of the acts
of the said vessels, and gcncrically known as the ' Alabama '
claims " should be referred to a tribunal composed of five arbi-
trators, one to be named by each of the contracting parties and
the remaining three by the king of Italy, the president of the
S wiss Confederation and the emperor of B razil respectively. By
Article 2 all questions submitted were to be decided by a majority
of the arbitrators, and each of the contracting parties was to name
one person to attend as agent. Article 6 provided that the
arbitrators should be governed by the three rides quoted above,
and by such principles of international law not inconsistent
therewith as the arbitrators should determine to be applicable to
the case. By the same article the parties agreed to observe these
rules as between themselves in future, and to bring them to the
knowledge of other maritime powers. Article 7 provided that
the decision should be made within three months from the close
of the argument, and gave power to the arbitrators to award a
sum in gross in the event of Great Britain being adjudged to be
in the wrong.
The treaty was, on the whole, welcomed in England. The
United States appointed Mr C. F. Adams as arbitrator and Mr
J. C. Bancroft Davis as agent. The British government appointed
Sir Alexander Cockburn as arbitrator and Lord Tenterden as
agent. The arbitrators appointed by the three neutral powers
were Count Sclopis (Italy), M. Staempfli (Switzerland), Baron
d'ltajuba (Brazil). The first meeting of the tribunal took place
on the 1 5th of December 1871 in the H6tel de Ville, Geneva. As
soon as the cases had been formally presented, the tribunal
adjourned till the following June. There followed immediately
a controversy which threatened the collapse of the arbitration.
It was found that in the American case damages were claimed not
only for the property destroyed by the Confederate cruisers, but
in respect of certain other matters known as " indirect losses,"
viz. the transference of the American marine to the British flag,
the enhanced payments of insurance, the expenses of pursuit and
the prolongation of the war. But this was not all. The American
case revived the charges of " insincere neutrality " and " veiled
hostility " which had figured in the diplomatic correspondence,
and had been repudiated by Great Britain. It dwelt at length
upon such topics as the premature recognition of belligerency, the
unfriendly utterances of British politicians and the materia]
assistance afforded to the Confederates by British traders. The
inclusion of the indirect losses and the other matters just referred
to caused great excitement in England. That they were within
the treaty was disputed, and it was argued that, if they were, the
1 9
treaty should be amended or denounced. In October 1872 Lord
Granville notified to General Schenck, the United States minister,
that the British government did not consider that the indirect
losses were within the submission, and in April the British
counter-case was filed without prejudice to this contention. On
the 15th of June the tribunal reassembled and the American
argument was filed. The British agent then applied for an
adjournment of eight months, ostensibly in order that the two
governments might conclude a supplemental convention, it
having been meanwhile privately arranged between the arbi-
trators that an extra-judicial declaration should be obtained from
the arbitrators on the subject of the direct claims. On the 19th
of June Count Sclopis intimated on behalf of all his colleagues
that, without intending to express any opinion upon the inter-
pretation of the treaty, they had arrived at the conclusion that
" the indirect claims did not constitute upon the principles of
international law applicable to such cases a good foundation for
an award or computation of damages between nations." In
consequence of this intimation Mr Bancroft Davis informed the
tribunal on the 25th of June that be was instructed not to press
those claims; and accordingly on the 27th of June Lord Tenter-
den withdrew his application for an adjournment, and the
arbitration was allowed to proceed. The discussion turned
mainly on the question of the measure of " due diligence." The
United States contended that it must be a diligence commen-
surate with the emergency or with the magnitude of the results
of negligence. The British government maintained that while
the measure of care which a government is bound to use in such
cases must be dependent more or less upon circumstances, it
would be unreasonable to require that it should exceed that
which the governments of civilized states were accustomed to
employ in matters concerning their own security or that of their
citizens.
The tribunal adopted the view suggested by the United States.
It found that Great Britain was legally responsible for all the
depredations of the " Alabama " and " Florida " and for those
committed by the " Shenandoah " after she left Melbourne. In
the case of the " Alabama " the court was unanimous; in the
case of the " Florida " Sir A. Cockburn alone, in that of the
41 Shenandoah " he and Baron d'ltajuba, dissented from the
majority In the cases of the other vessels the judgment was
in favour of Creat Britain. The tribunal decided to award a
sum in gross, and (Sir A. Cockburn again dissenting) fixed the
damages at $15,500,000 in gold. On the 14th of September
the award was formally published, and signed by all the arbi-
trators except Sir A. Cockburn, who filed a lengthy statement of
his reasons.
The stipulation that the three rules should be jointly sub-
mitted by the two powers to foreign nations has never been
carried out. For this the British government has been blamed
by some. But the general view of continental publicists is,
that the language of the rules was not sufficiently precise to
admit of their being generally accepted as a canon of neutral
obligations. (M. H. C.)
ALABAMA RIVER, a river of Alabama, U.S.A., formed by
the Tallapoosa and Coosa rivers, which unite about 6 m. above
Montgomery. It flows W. as far as Selma, then S.W. until,
about 45 m. from Mobile, it unites with the Tombigbee to form
the Mobile and Tensas rivers, which discharge into Mobile Bay.
The course of the Alabama is tortuous; its width varies from
200 to 300 yds., its depth from 3 to 7 ft.; its length by the
United States Survey is 3x2 m., by steamboat measurement,
420. m. The river crosses the richest agricultural and timber
districts of the state, and railways connect it with the mineral
regions of north central Alabama. The principal tributary of
the Alabama is the Cahaba (about 200 m. long), which enters it
about 10 m. below Selma. Of the rivers which form the Ala-
bama, the Coosa crosses the mineral region of Alabama, and is
navigable for light-draft boats from Rome, Georgia (where it is
formed by the junction of the Oostenaula and Etowah rivers), to
about 117m. above Wetumpka (about 102 m. below Rome and
26 m. below Greensport), and from Wetumpka to its junction
la
4 66
ALABASTER
with the Tallapoosa; the channel of the river has been consider-
ably improved by the Federal government. The navigation of
the Tallapoosa river (which has its source in Paulding county,
Georgia, and is about a$o m. long) is prevented by shoals and a
6o-ft. fall at Tallassee, a few miles N. of Its junction with the
Coosa. The Alabama is navigable throughout the year. In
1878 the Federal government undertook to make a channel the
length of the Alabama 200 ft. wide and 4 ft. deep; an amend-
ment in x8ox provided for a 6-ft. channel at low water, and in
June 1007 this work was reported as " xo% completed" at an
expenditure of $303,659.. The Mobile river is navigable for
vessels of about 14 ft. draft. The Alabama is an important
carrier of cotton, cotton seed, fertilizer, cereals, lumber, naval
stores, &c; and in the fiscal year 1 906-1007 the freight tonnage
was 417,041 tons.
ALABASTER, or Axblastxek, WILLIAM (x 567-1640),
English Latin poet and scholar, was born at Hadleigh, Suffolk,
In 1567. He was, so Fuller states, a nephew by marriage of
Dr John Still, bishop of Bath and Wells. His surname, some-
times written Arblastier, is one of the many variants of arbalester,
a cross-bowman. Alabaster was educated at Westminster
school, and entered Trinity College, Cambridge, in X583. He
became a fellow, and in 1592 was incorporated of the university
of Oxford. About 159a he produced at Trinity College his Latin
tragedy of Roxana} It is modelled on the tragedies of Seneca,
and is a stiff and spiritless work. Fuller and Anthony a Wood
bestowed exaggerated praise on it, while Samuel Johnson regarded
it as the only Latin verse worthy of notice produced in England
before Milton's elegies. Roxana is founded on the La Dalida
(Venice, 1567) of Luigi Groto, known as Cieco di Hadria, and
Hallam asserts that it is a plagiarism {Literature of Europe, Hi.
54). A surreptitious edition in 163 2 was followed by an auth6r-
ized version a plagiarii unguibus vindicate, aucta et agnita ab
A uthore, Gulidmo A labastro. One book of an epic poem in Latin
hexameters, in honour of Queen Elizabeth, is preserved in MS.
in the library of Emmanuel College, Cambridge. This poem,
Elisaeis, Apotheosis poctica, Spenser highly esteemed. " Who
lives that can match that heroick song?" he says in Colin
Clout's come home againe, and begs " Cynthia " to withdraw the
poet from his obscurity. In June 1596 Alabaster sailed with
Robert Devereux, earl of Essex, on the expedition to Cadiz in
the capacity of chaplain, and, while he was in Spain, he became
a Roman Catholic. An account of his change of faith is given
in an obscurely worded sonnet contained in a MS. copy of
Ditine Meditations, by Mr Alabaster (see J. P. Collier, Hist, of
Eng. Dram. Poetry, ii. 341). He defended his conversion in
a pamphlet, Seven Motives, of which no copy is extant. The
proof of its publication only remains in two tracts, A Booke of the
Seuen Planets, or Seuen wandring motives of William AlaUaster's
(sic)' wit . . . , by John Racster (1508), and An Answer to
William Alabaster, his Motives, by Roger Fenton (1599). From
these it appears that Alabaster was imprisoned for his change
of faith in the Tower of London during 1 508 and x 599. In 1607
he published at Antwerp Apparatus in Revelationem Jesu Christi,
in which his study of the Kabbalah was turned to account in a
mystical interpretation of scripture which drew down the censure
alike of Protestants and Catholics. The book was placed on the
Index librorum prohibitorum at Rome early in 1610. Alabaster
says in the preface to his Ecu sponsus venit (1633), a treatise on
the time of the second advent of Christ, that he went to Rome
and was there imprisoned by the Inquisition, but succeeded in
escaping to England and again embraced the Protestant faith.
He received a prebend in St Paul's cathedral, London, and the
living of Thcrfield, Hertfordshire. He died in 1640. Alabaster's
other cabalistic writings are CommentarUu de Bestia Apoca-
lyptica (x6ai) *nd Spiraculum lubarum . . . . (1633), a mystical
interpretation of the Pentateuch. It was by these theological
writings that he won the praise of Robert Herrick, who calls him
" the triumph of the day " and the 'V>ne only glory of a million"
1 For an analysis of the play see an article on the Latin university
plays in the Jahrbuch der Deutschen Shakespeare CeseUschafl (Weimar,
1898).
("To Doctor Alabaster" in Hesperida, 1648). He^Uso published
(1637) Lexicon Pentaglotton, Hebraicum, Ch ald a i cum , Sywiacmm,
Tatmudico-Rabbinicon et Arabicum.
See T. Fuller, Worthies of England (ii. 343); I. P. Collier, BAL
and CriL Account of the Rarest Boohs in the English Lannage (voL i.
1865) ; Pierre Bayfe, Dictionary, Historical and Critical fed. Xosdoo.
1734) ; also the Athenaeum (December 26, loot), where Mr Bertram
Dobell describes a MS. in his possessioncontaimng forty-three
by Alabaster.
ALABASTER, a name applied to two distinct mineral sab-
stances, the one a hydrous sulphate of lime and the other a
carbonate of lime. The former is the alabaster of the present
day, the latter is generally the alabaster of the andents. The
two kinds are readily distinguished from each oilier by their
relative hardness. The modern alabaster is so soft as to be
readily scratched even by the finger-nail (hardness* 1*5 to 2),
whilst the stone called alabaster by the ancients is too bard to
be scratched in this way (hardness* 3), though it yields readily
to a knife. Moreover, the ancient alabaster, being a carbonate,
effervesces on being touched with hydrochloric add, whereas the
modern alabaster when so treated remains practically unaffected.
Ancient Alabaster.— This substance, the " alabaster " of scrip-
ture, is often termed Oriental alabaster, since the early examples
came from the East. The Greek name AXa/fcurrptnif is said to
be derived from the town of Alabastron, in Egypt, where the
stone was quarried, but the locality probably owed its name
to the mineral; the origin of the mineral-name is obscure, and
it has been suggested that it may have had an Arabic origin.
The Oriental alabaster was highly esteemed for making small
perfume-bottles or ointment vases called alabastra; and this
has been conjectured to be a possible source of the name. Ala-
baster was also employed in Egypt for Canopic jars and various
other sacred and sepulchral objects. A splendid sarcophagus,
sculptured in a single block of translucent Oriental alabaster
from Alabastron, is in the Soane Museum, London. This was
discovered by Giovanni Belxoni, in 18x7, in the tomb of Seti I.,
near Thebes, and was purchased by Sir John Soane, having
previously been offered to the British Museum for £2000.
Oriental alabaster is either a stalagmitic deposit, from the
floor and walls of limestone-caverns, or a kind of travertine,
deposited from springs of calcareous water. Its deposition in
successive layers gives rise to the banded appearance which the
marble often shows on cross-section, whence it is known as
onyx-marble or alabaster-onyx, or sometimes simply as onyx —
a term which should, however, be restricted to a siliceous mineraL
The Egyptian alabaster has been extensively worked near Suef
and near Assiut; there are many ancient quarries in the hills
overlooking the plain of Tell cl Amarna. The Algerian onyx-
marble has been largely quarried in the province of Oran. In
Mexico there are famous deposits of a delicate green variety at
La Pedrara, in the district of Tecali, near Puebla. Onyx-marble
occurs also in the district of Tehuacan and at several localities
in California, Arizona, Utah, Colorado and Virginia.
Modern Alabaster.— When the term "alabaster" is used
without any qualification it invariably means, at the present
day, a finely granular variety of gypsum (9.0.). This mineral,
or alabaster proper, occurs in England in the Keuper maris of
the Midlands, especially at Chellaston in Derbyshire, at Fauld
in Staffordshire and near Newark in Nottinghamshire. At all
these localities it has been extensively worked. It is also found,
though in subordinate quantity, at Watchet in Somersetshire,
near Penarth in Glamorganshire, and elsewhere. In Cumberland
and Westmorland it occurs largely in the New Red rocks, bat
at a lower geological horizon. The alabaster of Nottingham-
shire and Derbyshire is found in thick nodular beds or " floors,"
in spheroidal masses known as " balls " or " bowls," and in
smaller lenticular masses termed "cakes." At Chellaston,
where the alabaster is known as " Patrick," it has been worked
into ornaments under the name of " Derbyshire spar "—a term
applied also to fluor-spar. The finer kinds of alabaster are
largely employed as an ornamental stone, especially for ecclesi-
astical decoration, and for the walls of staircases and ***P^
Its softness enables it to be readily carved into elaborate forms,
ALACOQUE— ALAIN DE LILLE
467
bat its solubility in water renders it inapplicable to outdoor
work. The purest alabaster is a snow-white material of fine
uniform grain, but it is often associated with oxide of iron, which
produces brown clouding and veining in the stone. The coarser
varieties of alabaster are converted by calcination into plaster
of Paris, whence they are sometimes known is " plaster stone."
On the continent of Europe the centre of the alabaster trade
is Florence. The Tuscan alabaster occurs in nodular masses,
embedded in limestone, interstratified with marls of Miocene
and Pliocene age. The mineral is largely worked, by means of
underground galleries, in the district of Volterra. Several
varieties are recognised— veined, spotted, clouded, agatiform,
&c. The finest kind, obtained principally from Castellina, is
sent to Florence for figure-sculpture, whilst the common kinds'
are carved locally, at a very cheap rate, into vases, clock-cases
and various ornamental objects, in which a large trade is carried
on, especially in Florence, Pisa and Leghorn. In order to
diminish the translucency of the alabaster and to produce an
opacity suggestive of true marble, the statues are immersed in
a bath of water and gradually heated nearly to the boiling-
point— an operation requiring great care, for if the temperature
be not carefully regulated, the stone acquires a dead-white
chalky appearance. The effect of heating appears to be a partial
dehydration of the gypsum. If properly treated, it very closely
resembles true marble, and is known as marmo di CasleUina.
It should be noted that sulphate of lime (gypsum) was used also
by the ancients, and was employed, for instance, in Assyrian
sculpture, so that some of the ancient alabaster is identical with
the modern stone.
Alabaster may be stained by digesting it, after being heated,
in various pigmentary solutions; and in this way a good imita-
tion of coral has been produced (alabaster coral).
See M. Carmfehael. Report on the Volterra Alabaster Industry,
Foreign Office, Miscellaneous Series, No. 332 (London, 1895); A. T.
Metcalfe, " The Gypsum. Deposits of Nottingham and Derbyshire,"
short devotional writing, La Devotion au Sacri-Cceur de JSsus,
was published by J. Croiset in 1698, and is now very popular
among Roman Catholics.
See Bishop Languet. Viedela uSnhable Martuerite-Marie (Paris,
. 1888), p.^ _ .
' The Onyx Marbles," Report of the U. S. National Museum for 1893,
p. 539. (F. W. R.»)
ALACOQUB, or Ax. CoQ, MARGUERITE MARIS (1647-1600),
French nun and mystic, was born at Lauthccourt, a village in the
diocese of Autun, on the 22nd of July 2647* She would seem to
have been from the first of a morbid and unhealthy temperament,
and before the age of thirteen was the subject of a paralytic
seizure. Having been cured of this, as she believed, by the
intercession of the Holy Virgin, she changed her name to Marie
and vowed to devote her life to her service. In May 167 1 she
entered the Visitation convent at Paray-le-Monial, in the diocese
of Autun. and took the final vows in November 1673. Though
her reading was confined to the lives of the saints, she taught in
the school kept by the nuns for the girls of the neighbourhood,
to whom she endeared herself by her kindly disposition. The
appalling austerities, however, to which she was allowed to
subject herself quickly affected her mental and bodily health.
Hallucinations, to which she had been always subject, became
more and more frequent She conceived herself to be specially
favoured by Christ, who appeared to her in the most extravagant
forms. At last, by dint of fasting and lacerating her flesh, she
succeeded in reducing herself to such a state of ecstatic suffer-
ing that she believed herself to be undergoing in her own person
the Passion of the Lord. Her reward was the supreme vision in
which Christ revealed to her IBs heart burning with divine love,
and even, so she affirmed, exchanged it with hers, at the same
time bidding her establish, on the Friday following, the feast of
Corpus Christ!, a festival in honour of His Sacred Heart. It was
not till ten yean later, in 1685, that the festival was first cele*
brated at Paray, and not till after the death of Marguerite, on the
17th of October 1600, that the cult of the Sacred Heart, fostered
by the Jesuits and the subject of violent controversies within
the church, spread throughout France and Christendom. (See
Sacibd Hiabt.)
Marguerite Alacoqut was beatified by Pius IX. in 1864. Her
account of Ike devotion to the Sacred Heart (London. 1869) ; J. B. H. R.
Capefigue, Marie Marguerite Al-Coq (Paris, 1866).
ALAGOAS, a maritime state of Brazil, bounded N. and W. by
the state of Pemambuco, S. and W. by the state of Sergipe, and
E. by the Atlantic. It has an area of 32,584 sq. m. A dry, semi-
barren plateau, fit for grazing only, extends across the W. part
of the state, breaking down into long fertile valleys and wooded
ridges towards the coast, giving the country a mountainous
character. The coastal plain is filled with lakes (lagoas) , in some
cases formed by the blocking up of river outlets by beach sands.
The valleys and slopes are highly fertile and produce sugar,
cotton, tobacco, Indian corn, rice, mandioca and fruits. Hides
and skins, mangabeira rubber, cabinet woods, castor beans and
rum are also exported. Cattle-raising was formerly a prominent
industry, but it has greatly declined. Manufactures have been
developed to a limited extent only, though protective tariff laws
have been adopted for their encouragement. The climate is hot
and humid, and. fevers are prevalent in the hot season. The
capital, Maceio, is the chief commercial dty of the state, and its
port (Jaragua) has a large foreign and coastwise trade. The
principal towns are Alagoas, formerly the capital, picturesquely
situated on Lake Manguaba, 15 m. S.W. of Maceio, and Penedo,
a small port on the lower Sfio Francisco, 26 m. above the river's
mouth. Before 1817 Alagoas formed part of the capitania of
Pemambuco, but in that year the district was rewarded with a
separate government for refusing to join a revolution, and in
1823 became a province of the empire. The advent of the
republic in 1889 changed the province into a state.
ALAIN DB LILLE [Alanus de Insults] (c. 1128-1202), French
theologian and poet, was born, probably at Lille, some years
before xx 28. Little is known of his life. He seems to have taught
in the schools of Paris, and he attended the Lateran Council in
1 1 70. He afterwards inhabited Montpellier (he is sometimes
called Alanus de Montepessulano) t lived for a time outside the
walls of any cloister, and finally retired to Clteaux, where he died
in 1 202. He had a very widespread reputation during his lifetime
and his knowledge, more varied than profound, caused him to be
called Doctor universalis. Among his very numerous works two
poems entitle him to a distinguished place in the Latin literature
of the middle ages; one of these, the De pianctu naturae, is an
ingenious satire on the vices of humanity; the other, the Antu
claudionus, a treatise on morals, the form of which recalls the
pamphlet of Claudian against Rufinus, is agreeably versified and
relatively pure in its latinity. As a theologian Alain de Lille
shared in the mystic reaction of the second half of the 12 th
century against the scholastic philosophy. His mysticism, how-
ever, is far from being as absolute as that of the Victorines. In
the Antidaudianus he sums up as follows: Reason, guided by
prudence, can unaided discover most of the truths of the physical
order; for the apprehension of religious truths it must trust to
faith. This rule is completed in his treatise, Ars catholicae fidei,
as follows: Theology itself may be demonstrated by reason.
Alain even ventures an immediate application of this principle,
and tries to prove geometrically the dogmas defined in the Creed.
This bold attempt is entirely factitious and verbal, and it is only
his employment of various terms not generally used in such a
connexion (axiom, theorem, corollary, etc.) that gives his treatise
its apparent originality. Alain de Lille has often been con-
founded with other persons named Alain, in particular with
Alain, archbishop of Auxerre, Alan, abbot of Tewkesbury, Alain
de Podio, etc. Certain facts of their lives have been attributed
to him, as well as some of their works: thus the Life of St Bernard
should be ascribed to Alain of Auxerre and the Commentary upon
Merlin to Alan of Tewkesbury. Neither is the philosopher of
Lille the author of a Memoriale rerum difficilium, published under
bis name; and it is exceedingly doubtful whether the Dicta
468
ALMS— ALAMEDA
Atom it lafide pkilosopkice really issued from his pen. On the
other hand, it now seems practically demonstrated that Alain de
Lille was the author of the Art cathoUcae fidei and the treatise
Contra kaereticos.
The works of Alain de Lille have been published by Migne, Patro-
logia latina. voL ccx. A critical edition of the Anticlaudianus and
of the De pianctu naturae is given by Th. Wright in vol. ii. of the
Anglo-Latin Satirical Poets and Epigrammatists oj the Twelfth Century
itandon, 1872). See Haureau. Mimoire surlavuet quelques auvres
"Alain de Lille (Paris, 1885); M Baumgartner, Dut Pkilosopkie
des A lam us de Insults (Munster, 1896). (P. A.)
ALAIS, a town of southern France, capital of an arrondisse-
ment in the department of Card, 25 m N.N.W of Nlmes on the
Paris- Lyon railway, on which it is an important junction. Pop.
( 1 906) 1 8.987 . The town is situated at the foot of the Cevcnnes,
on the left bank of the Gardon, which half surrounds it The
streets arc wide and its promenades and fine plane-trees make the
town attractive; but the public buildings, the chief of which are
the church of St Jean, a heavy building of the 18th century, and
the citadel, which serves as barracks and prison, arc of small
interest. Pasteur prosecuted his investigations into the silk-
worm disease at Alais, and the town has dedicated a bust to his
memory. There is also a statue of the chemist J. B Dumas.
Alais has tribunals of first instance and of commerce, a board of
trade-arbitrators, a lycee and a school of mines. The town is one
of the most important markets for raw silk and cocoons in the
south of France, and the Gardon supplies power to numerous silk-
mills. It is also the centre of a mineral field, which yields large
quantities of coal, iron, zinc and lead; its blast-furnaces,
foundries, glass-works and engineering works afford employment
to many workmen.
In the 16th century Alais was an important Huguenot centre
In 1629 the town was taken by Louis XIII., and by the peace
of Alais the Huguenots gave up their right to places de sHreU
(garrison towns) and other privileges. A bishopric was estab-
lished there in 1604 but suppressed in 1700.
ALAJUELA, the capital of the province of Alajuela, in Costa
Rica, Central America, on the transcontinental railway, 15 m.
W. of San Jose 1 . Pop. (1904) 4860. Alajuela is built at the
southern base of the volcano of Poas (8895 ft) and overlooks
the fertile plateau of San Jose". Its central square, adorned with
a handsome bronze fountain, contains the municipal buildings,
and a large but unattractive cathedral. The town covers a
considerable area; the detached white houses of its suburbs
are surrounded by trees and flowering shrubs. Alajuela is the
centre of the Costa Rican sugar trade, and an important market
for coffee. Its products are exported from Puntarcnas, on the
Pacific Ocean, 32 m. W. The province of Alajuela includes the
territory of the Guatusos Indians, along the northern frontier;
the towns of Atenas, Grecia, Naranjo and San Ramon (all with
less than 5000 inhabitants), and the gold-mines of Aguacate,
a little north of Atenas.
ALAMANNI, or Allemanni, a German tribe, first mentioned
by Dio Cassius, under the year 213. They apparently dwelt
in the basin of the Maine, to the south of the Chatti. According
to Asinius Quadratus their name indicates that they were a
conglomeration of various tribes. There can be little doubt,
however, that the ancient Hermunduri formed the preponder-
ating element in the nation. Among the other elements may be
mentioned the Juthungi, Budnobantes, Lcntienses, and perhaps
the Armalausi. From the 4th century onwards we hear also
of the Suebi or Suabi. The Hermunduri had apparently be-
longed to the Suebi, but it is likely enough that reinforcements
from new Suebic tribes had now moved westward. In later
times the names Alamanni and Suebi seem to be synonymous.
The tribe was continually engaged in conflicts with the Romans,
the most famous encounter being that at Strassburg, in which
they were defeated by Julian, afterwards emperor, in the year
357. when their king Chonodomarius was taken prisoner. Early
in the 5th century the Alamanni appear to have crossed the
Rhine and conquered and settled Alsace and a large part of
Switzerland. Their kingdom lasted until the year 495, when
they were conquered by* Clovis, from which time they formed
part of the Frankish dominions. The Alamannk and Swansea
dialects are now spoken in. German Switzerland, the southern
parts of Baden and Alsace, WQrttemberg and a small portion
of Bavaria.
See Dio Cassius bevii. ft*.; Ammianus MarceUinus, passim ;
Gregorv of Tours, Historia Fronconm, book ii.; C. Zeus*. Die
Deutscken und die Nachbarstdmme (Munich, 1837), pp. 303 B..
O. Bremer in H. Paul, Crundriss der germasnsckeu Pktlaiotte {2nd
ed., Strassburg, 1900), vol iii. pp. 930 H. (F. G. M. B.)
ALAMANNI, or Alzmanni, LUIGI (1495^x556), Italian states-
man and poet, was born at Florence. His father was a devoted
adherent of the Medici party, but Luigi, smarting under a sup-
posed injustice, joined with others in an unsuccessful conspiracy
against Giulio de 1 Medici, afterwards Pope Clement VII. He
was obliged in consequence to take refuge in Venice, and, 00
the accession of Clement, to flee to France. When Florence
shook off the papal yoke in 1527, Alamanni returned, and took
a prominent part in the management of the affairs of the republic
On the restoration of the Medici in 1530 he had again to take
refuge in France, where he composed the greater part of his
works. He was a favourite with Francis I., who sent him as
ambassador to Charles V. after the peace of Crepy in 2544. As
an instance of his tact in this capacity, it is related that, when
Charles interrupted a complimentary address by quoting frost
a satirical poem of Alamanni's the words—
" I' aquila grifagna,
Che per piu devorar, duoi rostri porta "
(Two crooked bills the ravenous eagle bears.
The better to devour),
the latter at once replied that he spoke them as a poet, who was
permitted to use fictions, but that he spoke now as an ambassador,
who was obliged to tell the truth. The ready reply pleased
Charles, who added some complimentary words. After the death
of Francis, Alamanni enjoyed the confidence of his successor
Henry II., and in 1551 was sent by him as his ambassador to
Genoa. He died at Amboise on the 18th of April 1556. He
wrote a large number of poems, distinguished by the purity
and excellence of their style. The best is a didactic poem,
La Coltivatione (Paris, 1546), written in imitation of Virgil's
Georgia. His Opere Toscane (Lyons, 1532) consists of satirical
pieces written in blank verse. An unfinished poem, Avarchide,
in imitation of the Iliad, was the work of his old age and has
little merit. It has been said by some that Alamanni was the
first to use blank verse in Italian poetry, but the distinction
belongs rather to his contemporary Giangiorgio Trissino. He
also wrote a poetical romance, drone il Cortese (Paris, 1548).
a tragedy, Antigone; a comedy, Flora; and other poems. His
works were published, with a biography by P. RaflaelU, as
Vers* e prose di Luigi Alamanni (Florence, 1859).
See G. Naro, Luigi Alamanni e la coltmmoue (Syracuse. 1897).
and C. Corso, Un decennio di patriottismo di Luigi A lamannt (Palermo.
1898).
ALAMBAGH, or Alumbach, the name of a large park or
walled enclosure, containing a palace, a mosque and other
buildings, as well as a beautiful garden, situated about 4 m
from Lucknow, near the Cawnpore road, in the United Provinces
of India. It was converted into a fort by the mutineers in 1657,
and after its capture by the British was of importance in con-
nexion with the military operations around Lucknow. (See
Indian Mutiny and Outram, Sir James.)
ALAMEDA, a residential dty of Alameda county, California.
U.S.A., on an artificial island about 5 m. long and 1 m. wide,
on the E. side of San Francisco bay, opposite to and about 6 m
from San Francisco, and directly S. of Oakland, from which it
is separated by a drainage canal, spanned by bridges. Included
within the limits of the dty is Bay Farm island, with an area
of about 3 sq. m. Pop. (1870) 1557, (1880) 5708; (1890)
11,165; (1000) 16,464, of whom 4175 were foreign-born; (iqio,
census) 33,383. Alameda is served by the Southern Pacific
railway, and is connected by an electric line with Oakland and
Berkeley. Its site is low and level and its plan fairly regular.
Among the dty's manufactures are terra-cotta tiles, pottery, rugs.
ALAMOS DE BARRIENTOS— ALARCON
469
refrigerators and salt. The dty owns and operates the electric-
lighting plant; the water-works system is privately owned,
and the water supply is obtained from deep wells at San
Leandro. A settlement existed here before the end of the
Mexican period. In 1854 it was incorporated as a town and
in 1885 was chartered as a city. In 1006 the dty adopted a
freehold charter, centralizing power in the mayor and providing
for a referendum. The county was organized in 1853.
ALAMOS DB BARRIENTOS. BALTASAR (i55$-x64o),
Spanish scholar, was born at Medina del Campo in 1555. His
friendship with Antonio Peres caused him to be arrested in
1500 and imprisoned for nearly thirteen years. His Tdcito
tspaAol Uustrado can aforismas (Madrid, 16x4) is the only work
which bears his name, but he is probably the author of the
Discurso dd gobiemo ascribed to Perez. Through the influence
of Lerma (to whom the Tdcito is dedicated) and of Olivares, he
subsequently attained high official position.
See UAH de gpuverner, ed. J. M. Guardia (Paris. 1867): I?. J.
Pidal, Historic de las atteraciems deAragon en d rtinado de Felipe II.
(Madrid, 1862), voL iii. pp. 29-30; A. Peres, Relatione* (Geneva,
1634). PP. 86-88.
1LAMD ISLANDS, an archipelago at the entrance to the Gulf
of Bothnia, about 25 m. from the coast of Sweden, and 15 from
Chat of Finland, The group, which forms part of the Finnish
province of Abo-Bjdrneborg, consists of nearly three hundred
islands, of which about eighty are inhabited, the remainder
being desolate rocks. These islands form a continuation of a
dangerous granite reef extending along the south coast of
Finland, They formerly belonged to Sweden, and in the neigh-
bourhood the first victory of the Russian fleet over the Swedes
was gained by Peter the Great in 17x4. They were ceded to
Russia in 1809. They occupy a total area of 1436 sq. km., and
their present population is estimated at about 19,000. The
majority of these occupy the island of Aland, upon which is
situated the town of Mariehamn with a population of 1171.
The inhabitants are mostly of Swedish descent, and are hardy
seamen and fishermen. The surface of the islands is generally
sandy, the soil thin and the climate keen; yet Scotch fir, spruce
and birch are grown; and rye, barley, flax and vegetables are
produced in' sufficient quantity for the wants of the people.
Great numbers of cattle are reared; and cheese, butter and
hides, as well as salted meat and fish, are exported, -There are
several excellent harbours (notably that of Yttcmas), which
were at one time of great importance to Russia from the fact
that they are frozen up for a much briefer period than those on
the coast of Finland,
The Aland Islands occupy a position of the greatest strategic
importance, commanding as they do both the entrance to the
port of Stockholm and the approaches to the Gulf of Bothnia,
through which the greater part of the trade of Sweden is carried
on. When, by the 4th article of the treaty of Fredrikshavn
(Friedrichshamn), 5/17 September 1809, the islands were ceded
to Russia, together with the territories forming the grand-duchy
of Finland on the mainland, the Swedes were unable to secure
a provision that the islands should not be fortified. The question
was, however, a vital one not only for Sweden but for Great
Britain, whose trade in the Baltic was threatened. In 1854,
accordingly, during the Crimean War, an Anglo-French force
attacked and destroyed the fortress of Bomersund, against the
erection of which Palmerston had protested without effect some
twenty years previously. By the " Aland Convention," con-
cluded between Great Britain, France and Russia on the 30th
of March 1856, it was stipulated that " the Aland Islands shall
not be fortified, and that no military or naval establishments
shall be maintained or created on them." By the 33rd article
of the treaty of Paris (1856) this convention, annexed to the
finahact, was given " the same force and validity as if it formed
part thereof," Palmerston declaring in the House of Commons
(May 6) that it had " placed a barrier between Russia and the
north of Europe." Some attention was attracted to this arrange-
ment when in xoco it was asserted that Russia, under pretext
of stopping the smuggling of arms into Finland, wi
considerable naval and military forces at the islands. The
question of the Aland Islands created some discussion in 1907
and 1008 in connexion with the new North Sea agreements, and
undoubtedly Russia considered the convention of 1856 as rather
humiliating. But it was plainly shown by other powers that
they did not propose to regard it as modified or open to question,
and the point was not definitely and officially raised.
See the article by Dr Verner Soderbetg in the National Review,
No. 39a, for April 1908.
ALAJII (Gr. 'AXavof, 'AXovroI ; Chinese 'Ofes-n*; since the
9th century aj>. they have been called As, Russ. Jasy, Georgian
Ossi), the easternmost division of the Sarmatians (see Scythia),
Iranian nomads with some Altaic admixture. First met with
north of the Caspian, and later (c. xst century a.d.) spreading
into the steppes of Russia, the Alans made incursions into both
the Danubian and the Caucasian provinces of the Roman empire.
By the Huns they were cut into two portions, of which the western
joined the Germanic nations in their invasion of southern Europe,
and, following the fortunes of the Vandals, disappeared in North
Africa. Those of the eastern division, though dispersed about the
steppes until late medieval times, were by fresh invading hordes
forced into the Caucasus, where they remain as the Ossetes.
At one time partially Christianized by Byzantine missionaries,
they had almost relapsed into heathenism, but are now under
Russian influence returning to Christianity. (E. U. M.)
ALARCON, HERNANDO DB, Spanish navigator of the x6th
century, is known only in connexion with the expedition to the
coast of California, of which he was leader. He set sail on the
9th of May 1540 with orders from the Spanish court to await
at a certain point on the coast the arrival of an expedition by
land under the command of Vasques de Coronado. The junction
was not effected, though Alarcon reached the appointed place
and left letters, which were afterwards found by Diaz, another
explorer. Alarcon was the first to determine with certainty
that California was a peninsula and not an island, as had been
supposed. He made a careful survey of the coast, ascended the
Rio del TTzon or Rio de Buena Guia (Colorado) for 85 Spanish
m., and was thus able on his return to New Spain in 154 1 to
construct an excellent map of California.
See Henera, Decade VI. book ix. ch. 15 ; vol vi. fol. 212 of Madrid
edition of 173a
ALARC6N, JUAN RUIZ DB (1518 M639), Spanish dramatist,
was bom about 1581 at Tlacho (Mexico), where his father was
superintendent of mines. He came to Europe in 1600, studied
law at Salamanca, and in x6o8 went back to Mexico to compete
for a professorial chair. Returning to Spain in 161 x, he entered
the household of the marquis de Salinas, became a successful
dramatist, and was nominated a member of the council of the
Indies in 1623. He died at Madrid on the 4th of August 1639.
His plays were published in X628 and 1634; the most famous
of these is La Verdad sospeckosa, which was adapted by Corneille
as the iienteur. Alarcon had the misfortune to be a hunchback,
to be embittered by his deformity, and to be constantly engaged
in personal quarrels with his rivals; but his attitude in these
polemics is always dignified, and his crushing retort to Lope
de Vega in Los peckas primlegiadas is an unsurpassable example
of cold, scornful invective. More than any other Spanish
dramatist, Alarcon is preoccupied with ethical aims, and his
gift of dramatic presentation is as brilliant as his dialogue is
natural and vivacious. It has been alleged that his foreign
origin is noticeable in his plays, and there is some foundation
for the criticism; but his workmanship is exceptionally con-
scientious, and in El Tejedet de Segovia he had produced a
masterpiece of national art, national sentiment and national
expression. (J. F.-K.)
ALARC6n v PEDRO ANTONIO DB (1833-1891), Spanish
writer, was born on the 10th of March 1833 at Guadix. He
graduated at the university of Granada, studied law and theology
privately, and made his first appearance as a dramatist before
he was of age. Deciding to follow literature as a profession, he
joined with Torcuato Tarrago y Mateos in editing a Cadiz news-
paper entitled El Eco de Occident*. In 1833 &e travelled to
47©
ALARD— ALARIC
Madrid in the hope of finding a publisher for his continuation
of Espronceda's celebrated poem, El Diablo Mundo. Dis-
appointed hi his object, and finding no opening at the capital,
he settled at Granada, became a radical journalist in that dty,
and showed so much ability that in 1854 he was appointed
editor of a republican journal, EL Ldtigo, published at Madrid.
The extreme violence of his polemics led to a duel between him
and the Byronic poet, Jose* Heriberto Garda Quevedo. The
earliest of his novels, El Final de Norma, was published in 1855,
and though its construction is feeble it brought the writer into
notice as a master of elegant prose. A small anthology, called
Mananas do AbrU y Mayo (1856), proves that Marco" n was re-
cognized as a leader by young men of promise, for among the
contributors were Castelar, Manuel del Palado and Lopez de
Ayala. A dramatic piece, El Hijo prodigo, was hissed off the
stage in 1857, and the failure so stung Alarcon that he enlisted
under O'DonnelTs command as a volunteer for the war in
Morocco. His Diario de un lestigo de la guerra do Africa (1859)
is a brilliant account of the expedition. The first edition,
amounting to fifty thousand copies, was sold within a fortnight,
and Alarcon's name became famous throughout the peninsula.
The book is not in any sense a formal history; it is a series of
picturesque impressions rendered with remarkable force. On
his return from Africa Alarcon did the Liberal party much good
service as editor of La Politico, but after his marriage in x866 to
a devout lady, Paulina Contrera y Reyes, he modified his political
views considerably. On the overthrow of the monarchy in
1868, Alarc6n advocated the claims of the due de Montpensier,
was neutral during the period of the republic, and declared
himself a Conservative upon the restoration of the dynasty in
December 1874. These political variations alienated Alarcon's
old allies and failed to conciliate the royalists. But though his
political influence was ruined, his success as a writer was greater
than ever. The publication in the Reoista Eurofta (1874) of a
short story, El Sombrero de Ires picos, a most ingenious resetting
of an old popular tale, made him almost as well known out of
Spain as in it. This remarkable triumph in the picturesque vein
encouraged him to produce other works of the same kind; yet
though his Cuentos amatorios (1881), his Historietas nacionales
(1881) and his Narraciones inverosimiles (1882) are pleasing,
they have not the delightful gaiety and charm of their pre-
decessor. In a longer novel, El Escdndalo (1875), Alarcon had
appeared as a partisan of the neo-Catholic reaction, and this
change of opinion brought upon him many atiacks, mostly
unjust. His usual bad- fortune followed him, for while the
Radicals denounced him as an apostate, the neo-Catholics
alleged that El Escdndalo was tainted with Jansenism. Of his
later volumes, written in failing health and spirits, it is only
necessary to mention El Caption Veneno and the Historia de
mis libros, both issued in x88x. Alarc6n was elected a member
of the Spanish Academy in 1875. He died at Madrid on the
30th of July 1801. His later novels and tales are disfigured by
their didactic tendency, by feeble drawing of character, and
even by certain gallicisms of style. But, at his best, Alarcon
may be read with great pleasure. The Diario de un lestigo is
still unsurpassed as a picture of campaigning life, while EI
Sombrero de Ires picos is a very perfect example of malicious wit
and minute observation. (J. F.-K.)
ALARD, JEAN DELPHI* (1815-1888), French violinist and
teacher, was born at Bayonne on the 8th of May 181 5. From
1827 he was a pupil of F. A. Habeneck at the Paris Conservatoire,
where he succeeded P. de Sales Bafllot as professor in 1843,
retaining the post UH 1875. His playing was full of fire and
point, and his compositions had a great success in France, while
his violin school had a wider vogue and considerably greater
value. Mention should also be made of his edition in 40 parts of
a selection of violin compositions by the most eminent masters
of the x8th century, Us Matlres dassiques du tiolon (Schott).
Alard died in Paris on the 32nd of February x888.
\ ALARIC {Ala+eiks, "All-ruler"), (c 370-410), Gothic con-
queror, the first Teutonic leader who stood as a conqueror in
the dty of Rome, was probably bom about 370 in an island
named Peuet (the Fir) at the mouth of the Danube. He was of
noble descent, his father being a scion of the family of the Baltk)
or Bold-men, next in dignity among Gothic warriors to the Amak
He wasa Goth and belonged to the western branch of that nation
—sometimes called the Visigoths— who at the time of his hut*
were quartered in the region now known as Bulgaria, haviat
taken refuge on the southern shore of the Danube from the
pursuit of their enemies the Huns.
In the year 304 he served as a general of foederoH (Gothk
irregulars) under the emperor Theodosius in the *^"*r*»g» ia
which he crushed the usurper Eugenlus. As the battle which
terminated this campaign, the battle of the Frigidus, was fought
near the passes of the Julian Alps, Alaric probably learnt at this
time the weakness of the natural defences of Italy on her north-
eastern frontier. The employment of barbarians as foederoH,
which became a common practice with the emperors in the 4th
century, was both a symptom of disease in the body politic of the
empire and a hastener of its impending ruin. The provincial
population, crushed under a load of unjust taxation, could no
longer furnish soldiers in the numbers required for the defence of
the empire; and on the other hand, the emperors, ever fearful
that a brilliantly successful general of Roman extraction ought
be proclaimed Augustus by his followers, preferred that high
military command should be in the hands of a man to whom such
an accession of dignity was as yet impossible. But there wis
obviously a danger that one day a barbarian leader of baxbarjaa
troops in the service of the empire might turn his armed force
and the skill in war, which he had acquired in that service,
against his trembling masters, and without caring to assume the
title of Augustus might ravage and ruin the countries which he
had undertaken to defend. This danger became a reality whea
in the year 395 the able and valiant Theodosius died, leaving the
empire to be divided between his imbecile sons Arcadius and
Honorius, the former taking the eastern and the latter the
western portion, and each under the control of a minister who
bitterly hated the minister of the other.
In the shifting of offices which took place at the beginning of
the new reigns, Alaric apparently hoped that he would receive
one of the great war ministries of the empire, and thus instead of
being a mere commander of irregulars would have under his
orders a large part of the imperial legions. This, however, was
denied him, and he found that he was doomed to remain an officer
otfoederati. His disappointed ambition prompted him to take
the step for which his countrymen were longing, for they too were
grumbling at the withdrawal of the " presents," in other words
the veiled ransom-money, which for many years they had been
accustomed to receive. They raised him on a shield and ac-
claimed him as a king; leader and followers both resolving (says
Jordanes the Gothic historian) " rather to seek new kingdoms by
their own labour, than to slumber in peaceful subjection to the
rule of others."
Alaric struck first at the eastern empire. He marched to the
neighbourhood of Constantinople, but finding himself unable to
undertake the siege of that superbly strong city, he retraced his
steps westward and then marched southward through Thessary
and the unguarded pass of Thermopylae into Greece. The
details of his campaign are not very clearly stated, and the story
is further complicated by the plots and counterplots of Rufiaus,
chief minister of the eastern, and Stilicho, the virtual regent of
the western empire, and the murder of the former by his re-
bellious soldiers. With these we have no present concern; it a
sufficient to say that Alaric's invasion of Greece lasted two years
(395-396), that be ravaged Attica but spared Athens, which at
once capitulated to the conqueror, that he penetrated into
Peloponnesus and captured its most famous dries, Corinth, Argos
and Sparta, selling many of their inhabitants into slavery. Here,
however, his victorious career ended. Stilicho, who had come
a second time to the assistance of Arcadius and who was un-
doubtedly a skilful general, succeeded in shutting up the Goths
in the mountains of Pholoe on the borders of Ehs and Arcadia.
From thence Alaric escaped with difficulty, and not without toot
suspicion of connivance on the part of Stilicho. He crosad the
ALARIC
+7*
Corinthian Gulf and marched with the plunder of Greece north-
ward* to Epirus. Next came an astounding transformation.
For some mysterious reason, probably connected with the
increasing estrangement between the two sections of the empire,
the ministers of Arcadius conferred upon Alaric the government
of some part— it can hardly have been the whole—of the im-
portant prefecture of Hryricum. Here, ruling the Danubian
provinces, he was on the confines of the two empires, and, in the
words of the poet Claudian, he " sold his alternate oaths to either
throne," and made the imperial arsenals prepare the weapons
with which to arm his Gothic followers for the next campaign.
It was probably in the year 400 (but the dates of these events are
father uncertain) that Alaric made his first invasion of Italy,
co-operating with another Gothic chieftain named Radagaisus.
Supernatural influences were not wanting to urge him to this
great enterprise. Some lines of the Roman poet inform us that
he heard a voice proceeding from a sacred grove, " Break off all
delays, Alaric. This very year thou shalt force the Alpine barrier
of Italy; thou shalt penetrate to the city." The prophecy was
not at this time fulfilled. After spreading desolation through
North Italy and striking terror into the citizens of Rome, Alaric
was met by Stilicho at PoOentia (a Roman municipality in what
fo now Piedmont), and the battle which then followed on the 6th
of April 40a (Easter-day) was a victory, though a costly one for
Rome, and effectually barred the further progress of the bar-
barians. Alaric was an Arian Christian who trusted to the
sanctity of Easter for immunity from attack, and the enemies of
StaHcho reproached him for having gained his victory by taking
an unfair advantage of the great Christian festival. The wife of
Alaric is said to have been taken prisoner after this battle; and
there is some reason to suppose that he was hampered in his
movements by the presence with his forces of large numbers of
women and children, having given to his invasion of Italy the
character of a national migration. After another defeat before
Verona, Alaric quitted Italy, probably in 403. He had not
indeed " penetrated to the dty," but his invasion of Italy had
produced important results; it had caused the imperial residence
to be transferred from Milan to Ravenna, it had necessitated the
withdrawal of the Twentieth Legion from Britain, and it had
probably facilitated the great invasion of Vandals, Suevi and
Alnm* into Gaul, by which that province and Spain were lost to
the empire. We next hear of Alaric as the friend and ally of his
late opponent Stilicho. The estrangement between the eastern
and western courts had in 407 become so bitter as to threaten
dvil war, and Stilicho was actually proposing to use the arms of
Alaric in order to enforce the claims of Honorius to the prefecture
of Hyricum, The death of Arcadius in May 408 caused milder
counsels to prevail in the western cabinet, but Alaric, who had
actually entered Epirus, demanded in a somewhat threatening
manner that if he were thus suddenly bidden to desist from war,
he should be paid handsomely for what in modern language
would be called the expenses of mobilization. The sum which he
named was a large one, 4000 pounds of gold (about £160,000
sterling), but under strong pressure from Stilicho the Roman
senate consented to promise its payment
Three months later Stilicho himself and the chief ministers of
his party were treacherously slain in pursuance of an order
extracted from the timid and jealous Honorius; and in the
disturbances which followed the wives and children of the
barbarian foederati throughout Italy were slain. The natural
consequence was that these men to the number of 30,000 flocked
to the camp of Alaric, clamouring to be led against their cowardly
enemies. He accordingly crossed the Julian Alps, and in
September 408 stood before the walls of Rome (now with no
capable general like Stilicho to defend her) and began a strict
blockade.
No blood was shed this time; hunger was the weapon on which
Alaric relied. When the ambassadors of the senate in treating
for peace tried to terrify him with their hints of what the despair-
ing dtisens might accomplish, he gave with a laugh his celebrated
answer, " The thicker the hay, the easier mowed I " After much
bargaining, the famine-stricken dtisens agreed to pay a ransom
of more than a quarter of a million sterling, besides precious
garments of silk and leather and three thousand pounds of
pepper. Thus ended Alaric's first siege of Rome.
At this time, and indeed throughout his career, the one
dominant idea of Alaric was not to pull down the fabric of the
empire but to secure for himself, by negotiation with its rulers,
a regular and recognized position within its borders. His
demands were certainly large — the concession of a block of
territory 200 m. long by 150 wide between the Danube and
the Gulf of Venice (to be held probably on some terms of nominal
dependence on the empire), and the title of commander-in-chief
of the imperial army. Yet large as the terms were, the emperor
would probably have been well advised to grant them; but
Honorius was one of those timid and feeble folk who are equally
unable to make war or peace, and refused to look beyond the
question of his own personal safety, guaranteed as it was by the
dikes and marshes of Ravenna. As all attempts to conduct a
satisfactory negotiation with this emperor failed before his
impenetrable stupidity, Alaric, after instituting a second siege
and blockade of Rome in 409, came to terms with the senate,
and with thdr consent set up a rival emperor and invested the
prefect of the dty, a Greek named Attalus, with the diadem and
the purple robe. He, however, proved quite unfit for his high
position; he rejected the advice of Alaric and lost in consequence
the province of Africa, the granary of Rome, which was defended
by the partisans of Honorius. The weapon of famine, formerly in
the hand of Alaric, was thus turned against him, and loud in con-,
sequence were the murmurs of the Roman populace. Honorius
was also greatly strengthened by the arrival of six legions sent
from Constantinople to his assistance by his nephew Theodosius
II. Alaric therefore cashiered his puppet emperor Attalus after
eleven months of ineffectual rule, and once more tried to reopen
negotiations with Honorius. These negotiations would probably
have succeeded but for the malign influence of another Goth,
Sams, the hereditary -enemy of Alaric and his house. When
Alaric found himself once more outwitted by the machinations
of such a foe, he marched southward and began in deadly earnest
his third, his ever-memorable siege of Rome. No defence
apparently was possible; there are hints, not well substantiated,
of treachery; there is greater probability of surprise. However
this may be — for our information at this point of the story is
miserably meagre — on the 24th of August 410 Alaric and his
Goths burst in by the Salarian gate on the north-east of the city,
and she who was of late the mistress of the world lay at the feet
of the barbarians. The Goths showed themselves not absolutely
ruthless conquerors. The contemporary ecclesiastics recorded
with wonder many instances of thdr clemency: the Christian
churches saved from ravage; protection granted to vast
multitudes both of pagans and Christians who took refuge
therein; vessels of gold and silver which were found in a private
dwelling, spared because they "belonged to St. Peter"; at
least one case in which a beautiful Roman matron appealed,
not in vain, to the better feelings of the Gothic soldier who
attempted her dishonour; but even these exceptional instances
show that Rome was not entirely spared those scenes of horror
which usually accompany the storming of a besieged dty. We
do not, however, hear of any damage wrought by fire, save in
the case of Sallust's palace, which was situated dose to the gate
by which the Goths had made their entrance; nor is there any
reason to attribute any extensive destruction of the buildings
of the dty to Alaric and his followers.
His work being done, his fated task, and Alaric having pene-
trated to the dty, nothing remained for him but to die. He
marched southwards into Calabria. He desired to invade Africa,
which on account of its corn crops was now the key of the posi-
tion; but his ships were dashed to pieces by a storm in which
many of his soldiers perished. He died soon after, probably
of fever, and his body was buried under the river-bed of the
Busento, the stream being temporarily turned aside from its
course while the grave was dug wherein the Gothic chief and
some of his most predous spoils were interred. When the work
was finished the river was turned back into its usual channel, and
472
ALARIC II.— ALASKA
the captives by whose hands the labour had been accomplished
were put to death that none might learn their secret. He was
succeeded in the command of the Gothic army by his brother-
in-law, Ataulphus.
Our chief authorities for the career of Alaric are the historian
Orosius and the poet Claudian, both strictly contemporary ; Zosfcnos,
a somewhat prejudiced heathen historian, who lived probably about
half a century after the death of Alaric; and Jordanes, a Goth who
wrote the history of his nation in the year 551, basing his work on
the earlier history of Cassiodorus (now lost), which was written
about 520. (T. H.)
AURIC H. (d 507), eighth king of the Goths in Spain,
succeeded his father Eurk or Evaric in 485. His dominions
not only included the whole of Spain except its north-western
corner, but also Aquitaine and the greater part of Provence.
In religion Alaric was an Arian, but he greatly mitigated the
persecuting policy of his father Euric towards the Catholics
and authorized them to hold in 506 the council of Agde. He
displayed similar wisdom and liberality in political affairs by
appointing a commission to prepare an abstract of the Roman
laws and imperial decrees, which should form the authoritative .
code for his Roman subjects. This is generally known as the
Breviarium Alaricianum, or Breviary of Alaric (q.v.). Alaric
was of a peaceful disposition, and endeavoured strictly to main-
tain the treaty which his father had concluded with the Franks,
whose king Clovis, however, desiring to obtain the Gothic
province in Gaul, found a pretext for war in the Arianism of
Alaric. The intervention of Theodoric, king of the Ostrogoths
and father-in-law of Alaric, proved unavailing. The two armies
met in 507 at the Campus Vogladensis, near Poitiers, where the
Goths were defeated, and their king, who took to flight, was
overtak en and slain, it is said, by Clovis himself.
ALA-SHSHR (anc. Philadelphia), a town of Asia Minor,
in the Aidin vilayet, situated in the valley of the Kusu Chai
(Cogamus), at the foot of the Box Dagh (ML Tmolus) 83 m.
£. of Smyrna (105 by railway). Pop. 92,000 (Moslems, 17,000;
Christians, 5000). Philadelphia, was founded by Attalus II.
of Pergamum about 150 B.C., became one of the "Seven
Churches " of Asia, and was called " Little Athens " on account
of its festivals and temples. It was subject to frequent earth-
quakes. Philadelphia was an independent neutral dty, under
the influence of the Latin Knights of Rhodes, when taken in
1300 by Sultan Bayezid I. and an auxiliary Christian force
under the emperor Manuel II. after a prolonged resistance,
when all the other cities of Asia Minor had surrendered. Twelve
years later it was captured by Timur, who built a wall with the
corpses of bis prisoners. A fragment of the ghastly structure
is in the library of Lincoln cathedral The town is connected
by railway with Afium-Kara-Hissar and Smyrna. It is dirty
and ill-built; but, standing on elevated ground and commanding
the extensive and fertile plain of the Hermus, presents at a
distance an imposing appearance. It is the seat of an archbishop
and has several mosques and Christian churches. There are
small industries and a fair trade. From one of the mineral
springs comes a heavily charged water known in commerce
as " Eau de Vals," and in great request in Smyrna.
See W. M. Ramsay, Letters to ike Seven Churches (1904).
ALASKA, formerly called Russian America, a district of
the United States of America, occupying the extreme north-
western part of North America and the adjacent islands. The
name is a corruption of a native word possibly meaning " main-
land " or " peninsula." The district of Alaska comprises, fitst,
all that part of the continent W. of the 141st meridian of W.
longitude from Greenwich ;secondly, the eastern Diomede island in
'Bering Strait, and all islands in Bering Sea and the Aleutian chain
lying E. of a line drawn from the Diomedes to pass midway
between Copper Island, off Kamchatka, and Attu Island of the
Aleutians; thirdly, a narrow strip of coast and adjacent islands
N. of a line drawn from Cape Muzon, in lat. 54° 40' N., E. and N.
up Portland Canal to its head, and thence, as defined in the
treaty of cession to the United States, quoting a boundary treaty
of 182s between Great Britain and Russia, following "the
summit of the mountains situated parallel to the coast " to the
141st meridian, provided that when such line runs more thai
ten marine leagues from the ocean the limit " shall be formed
by a hne parallel to the windings of the coast and which shaft 1
never exceed the distance of ten marine leagues therefrom."
The international disputes connected with this description are
referred to below.
Physical Features.— Alaska n bounded on the N. by the Arctic
Ocean, on the W. by the Arctic Ocean and Bering Strait, on the
S. and S.W. by the Gulf of Alaska and the Pacific Ocean, and oa
the E. by Yukon Territory and British Columbia. It consists
of a compact central mass and two straggling appendages
running from its S.W. and S.E. corners, and sweeping in a
vast arc over 16 degrees of latitude and 58 degrees of longitude.
These three parts will be referred to hereafter respectively, as
Continental Alaska, Aleutian Alaska and the " Panhandle."
The range of latitude from Point Barrow in the Arctic Ocean
to Cape Muzon is almost 17 d egrees as great as from New
Orleans to Duluth; the range of longitude from Attu Island to
the head of Portland Canal is 58 d eg rees co n siderably greater
than from New York to San Francisco. The total area is shoot
586400 sq. m. The general ocean-coast line is about 4750 m-,
and, including the islands, bays, inlets and rivers to the head of
tide water, is about 36,000 m. in length (U.S. Coast Survey
1889). The entire southern coast is very irregular in outline;
it is precipitous, with only very slight stretches of beach or
plain. Its elevation gradually decreases as one travels W.
toward the Aleutians. A great submarine platform extendi
throughout a large part of Bering Sea. , The western and northers
coasts are regular in outline with long straight beaches; aad
shallows are common in the seas that wash them. On the Arctic
there is a broad coastal plain. Of the islands of Alaska the more
important are: at the S.E. extremity and lying dose inland,
the Alexander Archipelago, whose principal islands from N.W,
to S.E. are Chlcagof, Baranof, Admiralty, Kupreanof, Kuiu,
Prince of Wales (the largest of the archipelago and of all the
islands about Alaska, measuring about 140 m. in length and
40 m. in width), Etolin and Revillagigedo; S.W. of the mainland,
two groups— (1) Kodiak, whose largest island, of the same name,
Is 40 m. by zoo m., and may be considered a continuation of
the Kenai Peninsula, and whose W. continuation, S. of Aksks
Peninsula, consists of the Semidi, Shumagin and Sannak
clusters; (a) the Aleutian Islands {q.v.) sweeping law a
W.S.W. from the end of Alaska Peninsula, W. of the mainland,
in Bering Sea, the Pribilof Islands, about 500 m. S. of Cape
Prince of Wales, the small Hall and St Matthew Islands, about
170 m. S.W. of the same cape, St Lawrence Island (100 m. and
xo to 30 m. wide), which is about half way between the last men-
tioned pair of islets and Cape Prince of Wales and Nunivsk
Island, near the mainland and due E. of St Matthew; and io
the middle of Bering Strait the Diomede Islands, which belong
in part to Russia.
Very little was known about Alaska previous to 1896, when
the gold discoveries in the Klondike stimulated public interest
regarding it. Since 1895, however, the explorations of the
United States Geological Survey and the Department of War,
and other departments of the government, have fully ntfahfahrri
the main features of its physiography. It has mountains,
plateaus and lowlands on a grand scale. " In a broad way, the
larger features of topography correspond with those of the
western states. There is a Pacific Mountain system, a Central
Plateau region, a Rocky Mountain system, and a Great Plains
region. These four divisions are well marked, and show the
dose geographic relation of this area to the southern part of the
continent." The orographic features of the Pacific Mountaio
system trend parallel to the coast-line of the Gulf of Alaska,
changing with this at the great bend beyond the N., and of the
Panhandle from S.E. and N.W. to N.E. and S.W. and running
through the Alaska Peninsula. The Pacific Mountain system
indudes four ranges. The Coast Range of the Panhandle
attains a width of too m., but has no well-defined crest Roe.
The range is characterized by the uniformity of summit levels
between 5000 and 6000 ft Continuing- the Coast Range, wits
J
ALASKA
473
which it is closely associated— the Chilkat river lies between
them— is the St Elias Range (a term now used to include not
only the mountains between Cross Sound and Mt. St Elias, but
the Chugach, Kenai, Skolai and Nutzotin mountains); among its
peaks are: Mt Crfllon (i 5,000 ft), Mt Fairweather (15,390 ft),
Mt Vancouver (15,666 ft), Mt Wrangell (17,500 ft, an active
volcano) in the Nutzotin Mountains, Mt St Elias (18,024 ft.)
and, in Canadian territory, Mt Logan (19,539 ft). The Aleutian
Range, of whose crest the Aleutian Islands are remnants, fills out
the system near the coast The Alaskan Range, connecting with
the Nutzotin and Skolai branches of the St Elias Range, lies
a little farther inland; it is splendidly marked by many snowy
peaks, including Mt Foraker (17,000 ft) and Mt McKinley.
The latter, which on the W. rises abruptly out of a marshy
country, offers the obstacles of magnificent, inaccessible granite
cliffs and large glaciers to the mountaineer; it Is the loftiest
peak in North America (ca. 20,300 ft.). In the Alaskan Range
and the Aleutian Range there are more than a dozen live vol-
canoes, several of them remarkable, the latter range is composed
largely of volcanic material. Evidences of very recent volcanic
activity are abundant about Cook Inlet The Rocky Mountain
system extends from Canada (the Yukon territory) into N.E.
Alaska, which it crosses near the Arctic coast in a broad belt
composed of several ranges about 6000 ft in altitude. There is
no well-defined crest line; the axis of the system is roughly
parallel to the Pacific Mountain system, but runs more nearly
E. and W. in Alaska. Between the Pacific Mountain and the
Rocky Mountain systems lies the vast Central Plateau region,
or Yukon plateau. Finally, between the Rocky Mountains and
the Arctic Ocean is the Arctic Slope region, a sloping plain
corresponding to the interior plains of the United States.
First Physiographic Re&on.— The Panhandle is remarkably
picturesque. The maze of islands, hundreds in number, of the
Alexander Archipelago (area about 13,000 sq. m.) are remnants
of a submerged mountain system; the islands rise 3000 to 5000
ft above the sea, with luxuriantly wooded tops and bald, sheer
sides scarred with marks of glacial action; the beachless coast
b only a narrow ledge between the mountains and the sea, and
unlike the coast of Norway, to which in outline it is not dissimilar,
is bold, steep and craggy. Through the inner channels, shel-
tered from the Pacific by the island rampart, runs the " inland
passage," the tourist route northward from Seattle, Washington.
The Later-insular straits are carried up into the shore as fjords
heading in rivers and glaciers. Thus the Stikine river continues
Sumner Strait and the Taku continues Cross Sound. The
Stikine, Taku and Alsek rivers all cross the mountains in deep-
cut canyons. Everywhere the evidences of glacial action
abound. Most remarkable are the inlets known as Portland
Canal and Lynn Canal (continuing Chatham Strait). The first
is very deep, with precipitous shores and bordering mountains
5000 to 6000 ft high; the second is a noble fjord 100 m. long
and on an average 6 m. wide, with magnificent Alpine scenery.
It is subject in winter to storms of extraordinary violence, but
is never closed by ice. Both Portland Canal and Lynn Canal
are of historical importance, as the question of the true location
of the first and the commercial importance to Canada or to the
United States of the possession of the second, were the crucial
contentions in the disputes over the Alaska-Canadian boundary.
At the head of Lynn Canal, the only place on the whole extent
of the south-eastern Alaskan coast where a clear-cut water-
parting is exhibited between the sea-board and interior drainage,
the summits of the highest peaks in the Coast Range are 8000
to 9000 ft above the sea. White Pass (2888 ft) and Chilkoot
Pass (3500 ft), at the head of the Lynn Canal, are the gateway
to the mining country of the Klondike and Upper Yukon. They
axe the highest points that one meets in travelling from Skagway
along the course of the Yukon to Bering Sea.
Prior to the opening (in August 1000) of the railway between
Skagway and White Horse, Canada (no m.), by way of the
White Pass, all transportation to the interior was effected by
men and pack-animals (and for a time by a system of telpherage)
over these paases and the Chilkat or Dalton trail; the building
of the railway reduced carriage rates to less than a tenth of their
former value, and the Chilkat and Chilkoot Passes were no longer
used. The coast region above the Panhandle shows on a smaller
and diminishing scale the same characteristic features, gradually
running into those of the Aleutians. Out of the Alaska and
Nutzotin mountains two great rivers flow southward; the
Copper, practically unnavigable except for small boats, because
of its turbulence and the discharge of glaciers into its waters;
and the Susitna, also practically unnavigable. Both of these
rivers have their sources in lofty mountain masses, and are swift
and powerful streams carrying with them much silt; their
passes over the water-parting N. of the Kenai Peninsula are
through gorges from 4000 to 10,000 ft. in depth. The Copper,
the Susitna and its tributary, the Yentna, as well as the
Skwentna, a tributary of the Yentna from the west, all run
through picturesque canyons, and their upper courses are
characterized by glacial and torrential feeders. Their valleys
are well timbered.
The glaciers of the Panhandle and throughout the rest of the
Pacific region are most remarkable — extraordinary alike for their
number and their size. They lie mainly between 56 and 6i° N.
lat, in a belt 1000 m. long, of which the central part, some 350
or 500 m. long and 80 m. to 100 m. wide, has been described as
one great confluent neve* field. Thousands of Alpine glaciers
from one to fifteen miles long fill the upper valleys and canyons
of- the mountains. More than a hundred almost reach the sea,
from which they are separated by detrital lowland or terminal
moraines. Other glaciers are of the Piedmont type. Greatest
of these and of Alaskan glaciers is the Malaspina, a vast elevated
plateau of wasting ice, 1500 sq. m. in area (nearly a tenth the
area of all Switzerland), touching the sea at only one point,
though fronting it for 50 m. behind a fringing foreland of glacial
debris. It is fed by Alpine glaciers, among them one of the
grandest in Alaska, the Seward, which descends from Mt. Logan.
It is more than 50 m. long, and more than 3 m. broad at its
narrowest point, and several times in its course flows over
cascades, falling hundreds of feet. Of tide-water glaciers the
most remarkable is probably the Muir. It has an area of 350
sq. m.; the main trunk, which is 30 to 40 m. broad, is fed by
26 tributaries, 20 of which are each greater than the Mer dc Glace,
and pushes its bergs into the sea from ice cliffs almost 2 m. wide,
standing 100 to 200 ft. above the water, and extending probably
700 to 1000 ft. beneath its surface. It has been calculated that
the average daily discharge of the Muir in summer is 30,000,000
cubic ft Its course, which is only about 13 m., has a slope of
100 ft. per mile, and the main current moves 7 ft. daily. The
character of the Muir was greatly altered by an earthquake in
1809. There are some 30 tide-water glaciers— a considerable
number of them very noteworthy. The Valdcz is 30 m. long
and 5000 ft in altitude. Most of the Alaskan glaciers are re-
ceding, but not all of tbem; and at times there is a general
advance. The Muir receded 16 m. from 1870-1800, the Childs
about 600 yards in 17 years; others over 4, 7 or xo m. in
20 years.
The Aleutian Islands (?.«.), like the Alexander Archipelago,
are remnants of a submerged mountain system. Their only
remarkable features are the volcanoes on the easterly islands,
already mentioned.
Continental Alaska.— Continental Alaska in the interior is
essentially a vast plateau. " The traveller between the main
drainage areas of the interior is struck by the uniform elevation
of the interfluminal areas. Rounded hills, level meads and
persistent flat-topped ridges, composed of rocks of varying
structure, rise to about the same level and give the impression
that they are the remnants of a former continuous surface.
Occasional limited areas of rugged mountains rise above this
level, and innumerable stream valleys have been incised below it;
but from the northern base of the St Elias and Alaskan ranges
to the southern foothills of the Rocky Mountain system, and
throughout their length, the remnants of this ancient level are to
be seen. In height it varies from about 5000 ft. close to the bases
of the mountain systems to less than 3000 ft. in the vicinity of the
47+
ALASKA
main lines of drainage, and slopes. gradually towards the north."
The Seward Peninsula is particularly rugged. This great plateau
drains westward through broad, gently flowing streams, the net-
work of whose tributary waters penetrates every corner of the
interior and offers easy means of communication. Both the main
streams and the smaller tributaries often flow through deep
canyons. The Yukon is one of the great drainage systems of the
world. The Yukon itself has a length of more than 2000 m. and
bisects the country from E. to W. Behind the bluffs that form
in large part its immediate border its basin is a rolling country, at
times sinking into great dead levels like the Yukon flats between
Circle City and the Lower Ramparts, some 30,000 sq. m. in area.
Of the two great affluents of the Yukon, the Tanana is for the
most part unnavigable, while the Koyukuk is navigable for more
than 4 $o m. by river steamers, and for more than 500 m. above
its mouth shows no appreciable diminution in volume. A low
water-parting divides the Yukon valley from the Kuskokwim,
the second river of Alaska in size, navigable by steamers for
600 rh. Torrential near its source, i t is already a broad , sluggish
stream at its confluence with the East Kuskokwim. The tides
rise so ft. near its mouth and the tide-head is 100 m. above the
mouth.
Rocky Mountains.— Tbt Rocky Mountain system in Alaska is
higher and more complex than in Canada. About 100 m. wide
at the international boundary, where the peaks of the British
Mountains on the N. and of the Davidson Mountains on the S. are
7000 to 8000 ft. high, the system runs W.S.W. as the Endicott
Mountains, two contiguous ranges of about 5000 to 6000 ft., and
as these ranges separate, the northern becomes the De Long, the
southern the Baird Mountains, whose elevation rapidly decreases
toward the coast-line. The system is sharply defined on the
north and less so on the south.
Arctic Slope Region.— The Arctic Slope region is divided into
the Anuktuvuk Plateau about 80 m. wide, with a maximum
altitude to the S. of 2500 ft., and between the plateau and the
Arctic Ocean the Coastal Plain. Very little is known of cither
part of the region.
Climate.— From the foregoing description of the country it is
evident that the range of climate must be considerable. That of
the coast and that of the Yukon plateau are quite distinct. The
Panhandle, along with the lisibe (foreland), westward to Cook
Inlet might be called temperate Alaska, its climate being similar
to that of the N.W. coast of the United States; while to the
westward and northward the winters become longer and more
severe. The cause of the mild climate of the Panhandle, formerly
supposed to be the Japanese current, or Kuro Shiwo, is now held
to be the general eastward drift of the waters of the North
Pacific in the direction of the prevalent winds. To the warmth
and moisture brought by this means the coastal region owes its
high equable temperature, its heavy rainfall (80-110 in.) and its
superb vegetation. The mean annual temperature is from 54° to
6o° F. Winter sets in about the 1st of December and the snow is
gone save in the mountains by the 1st of May. The thermometer
rarely registers below aero F. or above 7s F.; the difference
between the midwinter and midsummer averages is seldom more
than 2 5 . The summer is relatively dry, the autumn and winter
wet. The vapour-laden sea air blowing landward against the
girdle of snow and glaciers on the mountain barriers a few miles
inland drains its moisture in excessive rain and snow upon the
lisiere, shrouding it in well-nigh unbroken fog and cloud-bank.
Only some 60 to 100 days in the year are clear. In passing
from the Sitkan district westward toward Kodiak and the
Aleutians (q.v.) the climate becomes even more equable, the
temperature a little lower and the rainfall somewhat less; 1 '
the fogs at first less dense, especially near Cook Inlet, where the
climate is extremely local, but more and more persistent along
the Aleutians. The clear days of a year at Unalaska can be
counted on the fingers; five days in seven it actually rains or
snows. Bering Sea is covered with almost eternal fog. Along
1 At Kodiak, the monthly means range from 28* to 55* with a
total range from -io* to 82* F., as against -3* to 87° F. at Sitka;
the average temperature U 40-6* F., rainfall 59 in.
the coast N. of Alaska Peninsula the rainfall diminishes to xo in.
or less within the Arctic circle; the summer temperature h
quite endurable but the winters are exceedingly rigorous. 1
East of the mountains in south-eastern Alaska the atmosphere is
dry and bracing, the temperature ranging from -14* to 92° F.
In the farther interior, in the valleys of the Yukon, the Tanana,
the Copper and the Sushitna the summers are much the same
in character, the winters much more severe. On the Yukoa
at the international boundary the mean of the warmest month
is higher than that of the warmest month at Sitka, 500 m.
southward. At some points in the Upper Yukon valley the
range of extreme temperatures is as great as from -75 to oo° F. 1
The mean heat of summer in the upper valley is about 60 s
to 70° F., and at some points in the middle and lower valley
even higher/ By the middle of September snow flurries have
announced the imminence of winter, the smaller streams congeal,
the earth freezes, the miner perforce abandons his diggings, and
navigation ceases even on the Yukon in October. All winter
snows fall heavily. The air is dry and quiet, and the cold
relatively uniform. In midwinter in the upper valley the sun
rises only a few degrees above the horizon for from four to six
hours a day, though very often quite obscured. In December,
January, February and March the thermometer often registers
lower than -50° F., and the mean temperature is -20*. In May
the rivers open, the cleared land thaws out, and by June the
miner is again at work. Summer is quickly in full ascendancy.
In May and June the sun shines from eighteen to twenty hoars
and diffused twilight fills the rest of the day. The rainfall is
light, from 10 to 25 in. according to the year or the locality.
Dull weather is unknown. AU nature responds in rich and rapid
growth to the garish light and intense heat of the long, splendid
days. But the Alaska summer is the uncertain season; at
times the nights are cold into July, at times snow falls and there
are frosts in mid-August; sometimes rain is heavy, or again
there is a veritable drought. In the great river valleys S. of
the Yukon basin climatic conditions are much less uniform.
Fauna and Flora.— The fauna of Alaska is very rich and sur-
prisingly varied. The lists of insects, birds and mammals are
especially noteworthy.* Of these three classes, and of other than
purely zoological interest, are mosquitoes, which swarm in
summer in the interior in vast numbers; sea fowl, which are
remarkably abundant near the Aleutians; moose, and especially
caribou, which in the past were very numerous in the interior and
of extreme economic importance to the natives. The destruction
of the wild caribou has threatened to expose the Indians to
wholesale starvation, hence the effort which the United States
government has made to stock the country with domestic reindeer
from Siberia. This effort made under the direction of the Bureau
of Education has been eminently successful, and in the future the
reindeer seems certain to contribute very greatly to the food,
clothing, means of shelter and miscellaneous industries of the
natives; and not less to the solution of the problems of com-
munication and transportation throughout the interior. It iv
however, the fish and the fur-bearing animals of its rivers and
surrounding seas that are economically most distinctive of and
important to Alaska. The fishing grounds extend along the
coast from the extreme south-east past the Aleutians into Bristol
Bay. Herring are abundant, and cod especially so. There are
probably more than 100,000 sq. m. of cod-banks from as to 90
' At St Michael the mean annual temperature it about 26*. the
monthly means run from about -2° to 54*. and the e ati e m e recorded
temperatures from about -55* to 77* ¥.; at Port Clarence the
annual mean is 22 s , monthly means -7* to 31 • F.; e ati e m e range of
temperature. -38* to 77* F.; at Point Barrow the annual mean ■>
means -18-6° to 38*1 *F., extreme range of tempera-
Hiperature. -38*
7*T., monthly m<
ire -55° to 65* F.
7
ture
• The mean annual temperature on the Yukon at the interoatiooal
line U about 21* F., the monthly means run from -17* to 60° F„
the range of extreme temperatures from -80* to 90° F.
4 At Fort Yukon five years' records showed mean atasonsl tem p era -
tures of 14°, 6o°, 17°, and -23*8* F. for spring, summer, auttuw
and winter respectively: at Holy Cross Mission 20 # , 59*, 36* and
0, ?& at Nu,at0 *°°» » 1 J 6 * «* -»4*
1 The Harriman expedition collected in two months 1000 sptoo
of insects, of which 344 species (and 6 genera) were new to sdeoc*>
ALASKA
475
fathoms deep in Bering Sea and E. of the Alaska Peninsula.
Salmon are to be found in almost incredible number*. Of marine
mammals, whales are hunted far to the N. in Bering Sea and the
Arctic Ocean, but are much less common than formerly, as are
also the walrus, the sea otter and the fur seal. All these are
disappearing before commercial greed. The walrus is now found
mainly far N.; the sea otter, once fairly common throughout the
Aleutian district, is now rarely found even on the remoter islands;
the fur seal, whose habitat is the Pribilof Islands in Bering Sea,
has been considerably reduced in numbers by pelagic hunting.
There are half-a-dozen species of hair seals and sea-lions. The
number of fur-bearing land animals is equally large. Sables,
ermine, wolverines, minks, land otters, beavers and musk-rats
have always been important items in the fur trade. There are
black, grizzly and polar bears, and also two exclusively Alaskan
spedes, the Kodiak and the glacier bear. The grey wolf is
common, it is the basal stock of the Alaskan sledge-dog. The
red fox is widely distributed, and the white or Arctic fox is very
common along the eastern coast of Bering Sea; a blue fox, once
wild, is now domesticated on Kodiak and the Aleutians, and
on the southern continental coast, and a black fox, very rare,
occurs in south-eastern Alaska; the silver fox is very rare.
The Alaskan flora is less varied than the fauna. The forests
of the coastal region eastward from Cook Inlet, and particularly
in south-eastern Alaska, are of fair variety, and of great richness
and value. The balsam fir and in the south the red cedar
occur in scant quantities; more widely distributed, but growing
only under marked local conditions, is the yellow or Alaska cedar,
a very hard and durable wood of fine grain and pleasant odour.
The Oregon alder is fairly common. Far the most abundant are
coast and Alpine hemlocks and the tide-land or Sitka spruce.
The last is not confined to this part of Alaska, but is the char-
acteristic and universal tree. It is of primary economic im-
portance to the natives, who use it for the most various purposes.
On the islands of the Alexander Archipelago and on Prince
William Sound it grows to gigantic size; even on the Koyukuk
and the middle Yukon it attains in places a diameter of a ft.
In 1002 a forest reservation comprising the largest part of the
Alexander Archipelago was created by the United States govern-
ment. The separation of the coast and interior floras is almost
complete; only along the mountain passes and river valleys,
and rarely there, is there an exchange of spedes. Timber, how-
ever, is fairly abundant along the entire course of the Yukon
above Anvik (about 400 m. from the mouth), along the great
tributaries of the Yukon, and, so far as explorations have re-
vealed, along every stream in central Alaska; and the woods
of the interior consist almost entirely of spruce. On the Yukon
flats it grows in a vast forest impenetrably dense. 1 The timber
line, which in the Panhandle and along the southern coast of
the continental mass runs from 1800 to 2400 ft., frequently
rises in the interior plateau even to 4000 ft. Next in importance
after spruce, in the interior, is birch, and then balsam poplar.
Thickets of alders and willows in wet places and new-made land,
aspens and large cottonwoods west of the characteristic spruce
area (as on Seward Peninsula), are also common. Toward the
Arctic tirde, the timber becomes, of course, sparse, low, gnarled
and distorted. The willows in the Arctic drainage basin shrink
to shrubs scarcely knee-high. Bushes are common in western
Alaska, but undergrowth is very scanty in the forests. Grasses
grow luxuriantly in the river bottoms and wherever the tundra
moss is destroyed to give them footing. Most distinctive is the
ubiquitous carpeting of mosses, varying in colours from the pure
white and cream of the reindeer moss to the deep green and brown
of the peat moss, all conspicuously spangled in the brief summer
with bright flowers of the higher orders, heavy blossoms on
stunted stalks. The thick peat moss or tundra of the undrained
lowlands covers probably at least a quarter of Alaska; the
1 The trees here grow as large as 10 in. in diameter and 40 or 50 ft.
high; the branches do not spread, even where there is room, so
that the tallest tree has a top only four or five feet broad; the roots.
which cannot penetrate the shaded and frozen soil, spread over the
ice or shaUowfy into the tundra carpeting, and often only by their
matted network prevent the fall of the trees.
reindeer moss grows both on the lowlands and the hills* Sedges
available for forage grow in the tundra. In August berries are
fairly abundant over the interior; one of them, the salmon or
cloud berry, preserved in seal oil for the winter, is an important
food of the natives. The grasses are killed by the frosts in
September. The western timber limit is on Kodiak Island.
The Aleutian Islands (q.v.) are almost destitute of trees, but are
covered with a luxuriant growth of herbage. Climatic differ-
ences cannot account for the treeless condition of the country
W. of this point, and the true explanation lies probably in the
fact that in winter, when the seeds of the coastal forests ripen
and are released, the prevalent winds W. of Kodiak are damp
and blow from the S. and S.W., while the spread of the seeds
requires dry winds blowing from the N. and N.W. Such favour-
able conditions occur only rarely.
The Soil of Alaska seems to be in itself rich, and quite capable
of agricultural development; the great impediment to this is in
the briefness of the summer. Contrary, however, to the once
universal belief, the experiments of the department of agri-
culture of the United States have definitely proved that hardy
vegetables in great variety can readily be produced in the coastal
region and at various stations in the Yukon valley; and pre-
sumably, therefore, all over the interior S. of the Arctic drde, save
along Bering Sea; also that there is little doubt of the prac-
ticability of successfully cultivating buckwheat, barley and oats,
and possibly also rye and wheat; that grasses for grazing grow
generally and often in abundance; and in general that the
possibilities of interior Alaska as a live-stock country are very
considerable. It is calculated that a twentieth of south-eastern
Alaska is available for agriculture, and that of the entire country
100,000 sq. m. are pasturable or tillable.
Industry. — The fur and fish resources of Alaska have until
recently held first place in her industries. Herrings furnish
oil and guano, and the young fish are packed as " sardines " at
Juneau. Cod can be taken with comparatively little danger
or hardship. During the Russian occupation a small amount
was shipped to California and the Sandwich Islands. The take
since 1879 has been practically constant. The take of halibut
is increasing steadily. The salmon industry dates from 1878.
The total output (in 1901, 100,000,000 lb; in 1906, about
72,000,0001b), which since 1900 has been more than half the
total salmon product of the United States, is more than ten
times the product of all other fish.* On the Karluk river,
Kodiak Island, is the greatest salmon fishery in the world.
More than 3,000,000 salmon have been canned here in one
season. The second salmon stream is the Nushagak, flowing into
Bristol Bay; this bay is the richest fishing field of Alaska,
furnishing in 1901, 3s % of the total production. The recklessly
wasteful manner in which these fisheries are conducted, and the
inadequate measures taken by the United States government
for their protection, threaten the entire industry with destruc-
tion. From 1867 to 1902 the value of the total fishery product
was estimated at $60,000,000. The fur-seal industry has been
better protected but still unavailingly. (See Seal Fisheries
and Bering Sea Arbitration.) The value of the fur seals taken
from 1868 to 1902 was estimated at $35,000,000 and that of
other furs at $17,000,000. The walrus, hunted for its ivory
tusks, and the sea otter, rarest and most valuable of Alaskan
fur animals, are near extermination; the blue fox is now bred
for its pelt on the Aleutians and the southern continental coast;
the skins of the black and silver fox are extremely rare, and in
general the whole fur industry is discouragingly decadent. The
whale fishery also has greatly fallen off; there is no profit on the
oil and the whales are sought for the baleen alone; they are
much less numerous too than they once were, and have to be
sought farther and farther north.
Minerals.— Tht timber resources of Alaska are untouched
* 280 species of mosses proper, of which 46 were new to science,
and 16 varieties of peat moss (Spkatnum) were listed by the
Harriman expedition; and 74 species or varieties of ferns.
* The value of the totalproduct, of Alaska's fish canneries was in
1005 $7,735,782. or 29 3% of the total for the United States; in
1900 it was 1 7 »4 % of the country's total.
476
ALASKA
and the serious exploitation of her minerals is very recent As
early as 1861 gold discoveries were made on the Stikine river;
repeated discoveries, culminating in the Cassiar district "boom,"
were made in British Columbia from 1857 to 1874; colourings
along the Yukon were reported in 1866-1867 and systematic
prospecting of the upper river began about 1873. Juneau was
founded in 1880; the same year the opposition of the Indians
was withdrawn that had prevented the crossing of the mountain
passes to the interior, and after 1880 repeated and scattered
discoveries were made on the Lewes, Pelly, Stewart and other
streams of the Upper Yukon country in Canada. As early as
1 883-1885 there was a considerable mining excitement due to
these discoveries, and a much greater one in 1887 after the dis-
covery of coarse gold on Forty Mile Creek in American terri-
tory; but these were as nothing to the picturesque and feverish
rush that followed the location of the first Klondike claim in
Canadian territory in August z8o6. (See Klondike.) The mines
in American territory were temporarily deserted for the new
diggings. Other gold districts are scattered over the whole
interior of Alaska. Nome (q.v.) was the scene of a great gold
mining stampede in xooo. The quartz mines near Juneau are
among the greatest stamp mills of the world (See Juneau).
The product of gold and silver (of the latter some 1.3 % of the
total) from 1895 to ioox was more than $32,000,000 from
Alaska proper (not including that from the Canadian Yukon
fields) as against a production of $5,000,000 in 1880-1896. The
gold product of the Canadian Yukon territory from 1806-1903
was about $06,000,000, as estimated by the Canadian Geological
Survey. In 1905 the product of gold from Alaska was valued
At $15,630,000 (mines report); and from 1880 to 1906 the
production of gold, according to the estimate of A. H. Brooks,
was more than $100,000,000. The gravest problem of mining
in the interior country, even graver than that presented by
the climate, is transportation; in 1000 the Tanana fields, for
example, were provisioned from Circle City, about 125 m.
distant, at the rate of a cent per* lb mile (i.e. $2000 for moving
a ton 100 m.). Even higher rates prevailed in the copper country
in 1002. Various other minerals in addition to gold have been
discovered, and several of them, notably copper and silver (the
latter appearing with the gold deposits), may probably be
profitably exploited. In 1005 the product of copper was valued
at $759,634, that of silver at $80,165 (mines report). Coal, and
in much larger quantities lignite, have been found in many
parts of Alaska. Most important, because of their location,
are deposits along the Alaska Peninsula and between Circle
City and Dawson. The latter furnishes fuel to the river steam-
boats, and it is hoped may eventually supply the surrounding
mining region. There are valuable deposits of gypsum on
Chicagof Island, and marble quarries arc being developed on
Prince of Wales Island.
As against $7,200,000 paid for Alaska in 1867, the revenues
returned to the United States in the years 1867- 1903 totalled
$9.S5S.9<>9 (namely, rental, for the Fox and Pribilof Islands,
$999,200; special revenue tax on seal-skins, $7.597.35 1;
Alaskan customs, $528,558; public lands, $28,928; other
sources $401,872). It has been estimated that in the same
period the United States drew from Alaska fish, furs and gold
to the value of about $150,000,000, that up to 1003 the imports
from the states aggregated $100,000,000; and that $25,000,000
of United States capital was invested in Alaska.
Since 1806 communication with the outer world has been
greatly increased. Alaskan mails leave the states daily, many
post-offices are maintained, mail is regularly delivered beyond
the Arctic circle, all the more important towns have telegraphic
communication with the states, 1 there is one railway in the
interior through Canadian territory from Skagway, and other
railways are planned. The total mileage in 1906 was 136 m.
In that year the Alaskan Central Railroad (from Seward to
Fairbanks, 463 m.) was chartered; 45 m. of this road were hi
1 Seattle, Sitka and Valdes are connected by cable; telegraph
lines run from the Panhandle inland to the Yukon and down its
valley to Fort St Michael
operation in 1905. Oiie long nuulary road as an "An Amelia* *"
route from Valdez has long been built.
Population.— The population in 1867 at the time of the cession
from Russia is estimated at 30,000, of which two-thirds were
Eskimo and other Indians. Population returned in 188a,
33426; in 1890, 32,052; in 1000, 63,592, of whom approximately
48 % were whites, 46 % natives and 6 % Japanese and Chine**;
(19x0 census) 64,356. The Asiatics arc employed in the salsnosi
canneries. The natives of Alaska fall under four ethnologic
races: the Eskimo or Innuit— of these the Aleuts are an off-
shoot; the Haidas or Kaigani, found principally on Prince* of
Wales Island and thereabouts; the Thlinkits, rather widely
distributed in the " Panhandle "; and the Tinnehs or Atha-
pascans, the stock race of the great interior country. In 1890
the pure-blooded natives numbered 23,531, of whom 6000 were
Haidas, Thlinkits or other natives of the coastal region, 1000
Aleuts, 3400 Athapascans and 13,100 Eskimo. The natives have
adopted many customs of white civilization, and on the Aleutians,
and in coastal Alaska, and in scattered regions in the interior
acknowledge Christianity under the forms of the Orthodox
Greek or other churches. The rapid exhaustion in late years
of the caribou, seals and other animals, once the food or stock-
in-trade of the Aleuts and other races, threatens more and more
the swift depletion of the natives. They have also felt the fatal
influence of the liquor traffic. From 1893 to 1895 &« United States
expended $55,000 to support the natives of the Fur Seal Islands.
This policy threatens to become a continued necessity throughout
much of Alaska. There is a small government Indian reservation
on Afognak Island, near Kodiak. The white population is
extremely mobile, and few towns have an assured or definite
future. The prosperity of the mining towns of the interior is
dependent on the fickle fortune of the gold-fields, tor which they
are the distributing points. Sitka, Juneau (the capital) and
Douglas, both centres of a rich mining district, Skagway, shipping
point for freight for the Klondike country (see these titles),
and St Michael, the ocean port for freighting up the Yukon,
are the only towns apparently assured of a prosperous future.
Wrangell (formerly Fort St Dionysius, Fort Stikine and Fort
Wrangell), founded in 1833, is a dilapidated and torpid tittle
village, of some interest in Alaskan history, and of temporary
importance from 1874 to 1877 as the gateway to the Cassiar mines
in British Columbia. Its inhabitants are chiefly Thlinkit Indians.
Government. — Alaska, by an act of Congress approved the 7th
of May 1006, received the power to elect a delegate to Congress.
Before this act and the elections of August 1906 Alaska
was a governmental district of the United States without
a delegate in Congress. Its administration rests in the hands of
the various executive departments, and is partly exerdsed by a
governor and other resident officials appointed by the president.
It is a military district, a customs district (since 1868), is organ-
ized into a land district, and constitutes three judicial divisions.
In 1867-1877 the government was in the hands of the depart-
ment of war, although the customs were from the beginning
collected by the department of the treasury, with which the
effective control rested from 1877 until the passage of the so-
called Organic Act of 17th May 1884. This act extended over
Alaska the laws of the state of Oregon so far as they should be
applicable, created the judicial district and a land district, put in
force the mining laws of the United States, and in general gave
the administrative system the organisation it retained up to the
reforms of 1899-1000. The history of government and political
agitation has centred since then in the demand for general land
legislation and for an adequate civil and criminal law, in protests
against the enforcement of a liquor prohibition law, and in
agitation for an efficiently centralized administration. As the
general land laws of the United States were not extended to
Alaska in 1884, there was no means, generally speaking, of gaining
title to any land other than a mining claim, and so far as any
method did exist its cost was absolutely prohibitive. After
partial and inadequate legislation in 1891 and 1898, the regular
system of land surveys was made applicable to Alaska in 1800,
and a generous homestead law was provided in 1003. An
ALASKA
477
adequate code of dvfl and criminal law and provisions for civil
government under improved conditions were provided by Con-
gress in 1809 and 1900. The agitation over prohibition dates
from 1868; the act of that year organizing a customs district
forbade the importation and sale of firearms, ammunition and
distilled spirits; the Organic Act of 1S84 extended this prohibi-
tion to all intoxicating liquors. The coast of Alaska offers
exceptional facilities for smuggling, and liquor has always been
very plentiful; juries have steadily refused to convict offenders,
and treasury officials have regularly collected revenue from
saloons existing in defiance of law. The prohibition law is still
upon the statute-books. The chief weaknesses in the colonial
administration of the territory, particularly prior to 1000— but
only to a slightly less extent since — have been decentralization
and a lax civil service. The concomitants of these have been
irresponsibility and inefficiency. The governor has represented
the president without possessing much power; the department
of war has had Si-defined duties; the department of justice has,
in theory, had charge of the general law; the department of the
interior has administered the land law; the agents of the bureau
of education have superintended the stocking of Alaska with
reindeer; the United States Fish Commission has investigated
the condition of marine life without having powers to protect it
The treasury department has charted the coasts, sought to
enforce the prohibition law, controlled and protected the fur seals
and fisheries, and incidentally collected the customs. Since the
creation of the department of commerce and labour (1903), it has
taken over from other departments some of these scattered
functions. All in all, the government has proved itself without
power to protect the most valuable industries of the district, and
for many years there has been talk of a regular territorial govern-
ment The paucity of permanent residents and the poverty of
the local treasury seem to make such a solution an impossible one.
History. — The region now known as Alaska was first explored
by the Russian officers Captain Vitus Bering and Chirikov in 1 741.
They visited parts of the coast between Dixon Entrance and Cape
St Elias, and returned along the line of the Aleutians. Their
expedition was followed by many private vessels manned by
traders and trappers. Kodiak was discovered in 1763 and a
settlement effected in 1784. Spanish expeditions in 1774 and
1775 visited the south-eastern coast and bid a foundation for
subsequent territorial claims, one incident of which were the
Nootka Sound seizures of 1780. Captain James Cook in 1778
made surveys from which the first approximately accurate chart
of the coast was published; but it was reserved for Vancouver
in 1 793-1704 to make the first charts in the modern sense of the
intricate south-eastern coast, which only in recent years have
been superseded by new surveys. Owing to excesses committed
by private traders and companies, who robbed, massacred and
hideously abused the native Indians, the trade and regulation of
the Russian possessions were in 1799 confided to a semi-official
corporation called the Russian-American Company for a term of
twenty years, afterwards twice renewed for similar periods. A
monopoly of the American trade had previously been granted
in 1788 to another private company, the Sholikof. Alexander
Baranov (1747-1819); chief resident director of the American
companies (1790-1819), one of the early administrators of the
new company, became famous through the successes he achieved
as governor. He founded Sitka (q.v.) in 1804 after the massacre
by the natives of the inhabitants of an earlier settlement (1799)
at an adjacent point The headquarters of the company
were at Kodiak until 1805, and thereafter at Sitka. In 182 1
Russia attempted by ukase to exclude navigators from Bering
Sea and the Pacific coast of her possessions, which led to
immediate protest from the United States and Great Britain.
This led to a treaty with the United States in 18*4 and one
with Great Britain in 1825, by which the excessive demands
of Russia were relinquished and the boundaries of the
Russian possessions were permanently fixed. The last charter of
the Russian- American Company expired on the 31st of December
1861, and Prince Maksutov, an imperial governor, was appointed
to administer the affairs of the territory. In 1864 authority was
granted to an American company to make explorations for a
proposed Russo-American company's telegraph line overland
from the Amur river in Siberia to Bering Strait, and through
Alaska to British Columbia. Work was begun on this scheme in
1865 and continued for nearly three years, when the success of the
Atlantic cable rendered the construction of the line unnecessary
and it was given up, but not until important explorations had
been made. In 1854 a Californian company began importing ice
from Alaska. Very soon thereafter the first official overtures by
the United States for the purchase of Russian America were
made during the presidency of James Buchanan. In 1867, by a
treaty signed on the 30th of March, the purchase was consum-
mated for the sum of $7,200,000, and on the 18th of October 1867
the formal transfer of the territory was made at Sitka.
Since its acquisition by the United States the history of Alaska
has been mainly that of the evolution of its administrative
system described above, and the varying fortunes of its fisheries
and sealing industries. Since the gold discoveries a wonderful
advance has been made in the exploration of the country. A
military reservation has been created with Fort Michael as a centre.
The two events of greatest general interest have been the Fur
Seal Arbitration of 1893 (sec Bering Sea Arbitration), and the
Alaska-Canadian boundary dispute, settled by an international
tribunal of British and American jurists in London in 1003.
The boundary dispute involved the interpretation of the words,
quoted above, In the treaties of 1825 and 1867 defining the
boundary of the Russian (later American) possessions, and also
the determining of the location of Portland Canal, and the
question whether the coastal girdle should cross or pass around
the heads of the fjords of the coast The tribunal was an ad-
judication board and not an actual court of arbitration, since its
function was not to decide the boundary but to settle the meaning
of the Anglo-Russian treaty, which provided for an ideal (and not
a physical) boundary. This boundary did not fit in with geo-
graphical facts; hence the adjudication was based upon the
motive of the treaty and not upon the literal interpretation of
such clastic terms as " ocean," " shore " and " coast-line." The
award of the tribunal made in October 1903 was arrived at by
the favourable vote of the three commissioners of the United
States and of Lord Alvcrstone, whose action was bitterly resented
by the two Canadian commissioners; it sustained in the main the
claims of the United States.
Authorities.— W. H. Dall and M. Baker. " List of Charts, Maps,
and Publications relating to Alaska," in United States Pacific Coast
Pilot, 1879; Monthly Catalogue United Stales Public Documents,
No. 37 (1898), and Bulletin 22?, United States Geological Survey
General. — Untied States Monthly Summary of Commerce and
Finance, July 1903, "Commercial Alaska, 1867-1903. Area, Popula-
tion, Productions, Commerce . . . "; W. H. Dall, Alaska and its
Resources {.Boston, 1870): C. Sumner, Speech on "Cession of Russian-
America to the United States," in Works, vol. xi. (Boston, 1875);
C. H. Mcrriam, editor, Hamman Alaska Expedition (New York,
1 901-1904, 3 vols.).
Physiography and Climate.— United States Department of
War, Explorations in Alaska, 1860-1900 (Washington, 1901):
United Stales Geological Survey, Annual Reports since 1897— ,r The
Geography and Geology of Alaska : A Summary of Existing Know-
ledge," by Alfred H. Brooks (Washington, 1906; Professional Paper,
No. 45), with various maps (see National Geographic Mag., May
1904, for a map embodying all knowledge then known); " Altitudes
in Alaska " (Bulletin 169, by H. Gannett) ; " Geographic Dictionary
of Alaksa " (Bulletin 200, Washington, 1906), by M. Baker;
United States Post Office, " Map of Alaska " (1901); United States
Coast and Geodetic Survey, Bulletins and maps; Bulletin American
Geographical Society, February 1902, F. S. Schradcr, " Work of the
United States Geological Survey in Alaska " ; Journal oj Franklin
Institute.Octobcr and November 1904, W. R. AbcrcromDie— " The
Copper River Country of Alaska "; 1. C. Russell, Glaciers oj North
America.
Industries.— United States Census, 1880, Ivan Petroff, Report
on the Population, Industries and Resources of Alaska; United
States Census, 1600 and 1900; on reindeer. Fifteenth. Annual Report
on Introduction of Domestic Reindeer into Alaska, by Sheldon Jackson
(Washington, 1906); on agriculture. United States Department of
Agriculture, Experiment Stations, Bulletin Not. 48, 62, 8a . . .
( 1 898-1900); Seal and Salman Fisheries and General Industries of
478
ALASSIO— ALAVA
of the Fur Seal Investigation, 1896-1891/ (Washington, 1898), 4
vols.; also many special reports on the seals published by the
United States Treasury; for Report of British seal experts. Great
Britain, Foreign Office Correspondence, United States, No. 3 (1897),
No. 1 (1898).
History and Government.— H. H. Bancroft, Alaska, 1730-188$
(San Francisco, 1886); W. H. Dal!, "Alaska as it was and i*
1865-1895," in Bulletin of the Philadelphia Society of Washington,
xiti.; Governor of Alaska, Annual Report to the Secretary of the
Interior', Fur Seal Arbitration, Proceedings (Washington, 1895,
16 vols.): also Great Britain, Foreign Office Correspondence, United
States, Nos. 6, 7, 8 (1803), No. 1 (1895) ; Alaskan Boundary Tribunal,
Cases, Counter-cases, Arguments, Atlases of United States and Great
Britain (Washington, 1903 seq.); and a rich periodical literature. -
Population. Natives.— United States National Museum, Ann,
rvywwtnvn. jvimivu. — unucu >?uuca i>«ionai museum, Ann,
Report (1896); W. Hough, " Lamp of the Eskimo" Gong, and of
general interest): F. Knapp and R. L. Childe, The ThllnkeeU of
South-Easlem Alaska (Chicago, 1896).
ALASSIO, a town of Liguria, Italy, on the N.W. coast of the
Gulf of Genoa, in the province of Genoa, 57 m. S.W. of the town
of the same name by rail. Pop. (1001) 5630. It is mainly
noticeable as a health resort in winter and a bathing-place in
summer, and has many hotels. The anchorage is safe, and the
bay full of fish; the harbour has a certain amount of trade.
The old town contains one or two interesting churches, and
commands a fine view.
ALASTOR, in Greek mythology, the spirit of revenge, which
prompts the members of a family to commit fresh crimes to
obtain satisfaction. These crimes necessitate further acts of
vengeance, and the curse is .thus transmitted from generation
to generation. The word is also used for a man's evil genius,
which drives htm to sin without any provocation; a man so
drivenfis sometimes called Alastor. The epithet is applied to
Zeus ami the Erinyes as the deities of revenge and punishment
ALA-TAU {"Variegated Mountains "), the name of six mountain
ranges in Asiatic Russia. Three of these are in the government
of Semiryechensk in Central Asia, all belonging to the Tian-
shan system.— (x) the Terskei Ala-tau, south of and parallel
to the lake of Issyk-kul; (2) the Kunghei Ala-tau, and (3) the
Trans-Di Ala-tau, both N. of and parallel to the same lake;
and (4) the Dzungarian Ala-tau, lying N. of the 111 depression.
The first three link together the Tlan-shan and the Alexander
Range. Their mean elevation is 6000-7 00 ft. ; their culminating
point, Talgar, on a transverse ridge between (2) and (3), reaches
15,000 ft.; the limits of perpetual snow run at x 1,000-11,700 ft,
The Dzungarian Ala-tau reach a maximum altitude of x 1,000 ft
and have a mean altitude of 6250 ft From the middle of the
Alexander Range another range (5) called Ala-tau, or Talastau,
strikes west by south. The name Ala-tau also enters into the
designation of (6), a range between the upper Yenisei and the
upper Ob, in the government of Tomsk, namely, the Kuznetsk
Ala-tau, forming an outlier of the Altai Mountains, and reaching
6000-7000 ft in altitude.
ALAUNA, ALAUNUS, the Celtic names of two rivers, &c, in
Roman Britain. Hence the modern Allan Water, river Alyn, &c.
ALAVA, DON MIGUEL RICARDO DE (1770-1843), Spanish
general and statesman, was born at Vittoria in x 770. He served
first in the navy, and had risen to be captain of a frigate when
he exchanged into the army, receiving corresponding rank. He
was present as a marine at the battle of Trafalgar on board the
flagship of his uncle Admiral Alava. In politics he followed
a very devious course. At the assembly of Bayonne in 1 808
be was one of the most prominent of those who accepted the
new constitution from Joseph Bonaparte as king of Spain.
After the national rising against French aggression, and the
defeat of General Dupont at Bailen in x8o8, Alava joined the
national independent party, who were fighting in alliance with
the English. The Spanish Cortes appointed him commissary at
the English headquarters, and the duke of Wellington, who
regarded him with great favour, made him one of his aides-de-
camp. Before the close of the campaign he had risen to the rank
of brigadier-general. On the restoration of Ferdinand, Alava
.was cast into prison, but the influence of his uncle Ethenard,
the inquisitor, and of Wellington secured his speedy release,
He soon contrived to gain the favour of the king, who appointed
him in 18x5 ambassador to the Hague. It was therefore his
remarkable fortune to be present at the battle of Waterloo with
Wellington's staff. He is supposed to have been the only mao
who was present at both Waterloo and Trafalgar. Four yean
later he was recalled owing, it is said, to the marked kindness
he had shown to his banished fellow-countrymen. On the
breaking out of the revolution of 1820 he was chosen by the
province of Alava to represent it in the Cortes, where be became
conspicuous in the party of the Exaltados, and in 182a was made
president. In the latter year he fought with the militia under
Francisco Ballesteros and Pablo Murillo to maintain the authority
of the Cortes against the rebels. When the French invested
Cadiz, Alava was commissioned by the Cortes to treat with the
due d'Angouleme, and the negotiations resulted in the restoratioa
of Ferdinand, who pledged himself to a liberal policy. No sooner
had he regained power, however, than he ceased to hold himself
bound by his promises, and Alava found it necessary to retire
first to Gibraltar and then to England. On the death of Ferdi-
nand be returned to Spain, and espousing the cause of Maria
Christina against Don Carlos was appointed ambassador to
London in 1834 and to Paris in 1835. After the insurrection
of La Granja he refused to sign the constitution of x 8x2, declar-
ing himself tired of taking new oaths, and was consequently
obliged to retire to France, where he died at Bareges in 1843.
Frequent and honourable mention of Alava is made in Napier's
History of the Peninsular War, and his name is often met both in
lives of the duke of Wellington and in his correspondence.
ALAVA, one of the Basque Provinces of northern Spain;
bounded on the N. by Biscay and Guipuzcoa, E. by Navarre,
S. by Logrofio, and W. by Burgos. Pop. (1900) 06,385 ;-area
xx7S sq. m. The countship of Trevino (190 sq. m.) in the
centre of Alava belongs to the province of Burgos. The surface
of Alava is very mountainous, especially on the north, where a
part of the Pyrenees forms its natural boundary. It Is separated
from Logrofio by the river Ebro, and its other rivers are the
Zadorra and the Ayuda. The climate is mild in summer, fitful
in autumn and spring, and very cold in winter, as even the plains
are high and shut in on three sides by mountains snow-dad
during several months. The soil in the valleys is fertile, yielding
wheat, barley, maize, flax, hemp and fruits. Oil and a poor
kind of wine called chacoli are also produced. Many of the
mountains are clothed with forests of oak, chestnuts, beeches
and other trees, and contain iron, copper, lead and marble.
Salt is also found in large quantities; but mining and quarrying
are not practised on a large scale; only lead, lignite and asphalt
being worked. There are mineral waters in many places.
Other local industries of some importance include smelting,
and manufactures of beds, furniture, railway carriages, matches,
paper, sweets and woollen and cotton goods. Bread-stuns,
colonial products and machinery are largely imported. Few
provinces in Spain are inhabited by so Laborious, active and
well-to-do a population. The primary schools are numerously
attended, and there are very good normal schools for teachers
of both sexes, and a model agricultural farm. The public roads
and other works of the province are excellent, and, like those of
the rest of the Basque provinces, entirely kept up by local
initiative and taxes. Railways from Madrid to the French
frontier, and from Saragossa to Bilbao, cross the province.
The capital is Vitoria (pop. xooo, 30,701), which is the only town
with more than 3500 inhabitants.
For a fuller account of the history, people and customs of Alava,
see Basques and Basque Provinces, with the works there cited.
A very elaborate bibliography is given in the Cdtalogp de las obras
referentes d las provincuu do Alava y Navarra, by A. A. Salaxar
(Madrid, 1887.) The following books by I.J. Landaauri y Romarate
contain much material for a provincial history: — Historia eedtsi-
astica, 6>c. (Pamplona, 1797); Historia civil, fife. (Vitoria, 1798);
Compendios historicos de la ciudad y villas de . . . Alava, fire.
(Pamplona, 1798); Suplemento d lot cuatro UJbros de la historic do
. . . Alava (Vitoria, 1799); and Los varones Ulustrts A l m emnt
(Vitoria. 1798). See also M. Risco in vol. 33 of Hispanic SagradC
by H. Floret, &c. (Madrid. 1 754-1*79)-
ALB— ALBACETE
479
ALB (tat alba, from albus, white), a liturgical vestment of the
Catholic Church. It it a tack-like tunic of white linen, with
narrow sleeves and a hole for the head to pass through, and when
gathered up round the waist by the girdle (cingulum) just dears
the ground. Albs were originally quite plain, but about the
10th century the custom arose of ornamenting the borders and
the cuffs of the sleeves with strips of embroidery, and this be-
came common in the lath century. These at first encircled the
whole border; but soon it became customary to substitute for
them square patches of embroidery or precious fabrics. These
" parures " " apparels " or " orphreys " (Lat panto*, trammata,
aurifrisia, &c), were usually four in number, one being sewn on
the back and another on the front of the vestment just above
the lower hem, and one on each cuff. When, as occasionally
happened, a fifth was added, this was placed on the breast just
below the neck opening. These "apparelled albs" (albae
faratae) continued in general use in the Western Church till the
1 6th century, when a tendency to dispense with the parures
began, Rome itself setting the example.
The growth of the lace industry in the 17th century hastened
the process by leading to the substitution of broad bands of lace
as decoration; occasionally, as in a magnificent specimen pre-
served at South Kensington, nearly half the vestment is thus
Apparelled Alb in the Sooth Kensington Museum.
From Brtuo'i IMwgudu Gtwmitmg,
composed of lace. At the present time, so far as the Roman
Catholic Church is concerned, apparelled albs are only in regular
use at Milan (Ambrosian Rite), and, partially, in certain churches
in Spain. The decree of the Congregation of Rites (May 18, 1819)
says nothing about apparels, but only lays down that the alb
must be of white linen or hemp cloth. There is no definite rule
as to the material or character of the ornamentation, and attempts
have been made, especially in England, to revive the use of the
apparelled alb.
In the Roman Church the alb is now reckoned as one of the
vestments proper to the sacrifice of the Mass. It is worn by
bishops, priests, deacons and subdeacons under the other
eucharittic vestments, either at Mass or at functions connected
with iL It is sometimes also worn by clerics in minor orders,
whose proper vestment is, however, the surplice— itself a modi-
fication of the alb (see Subplice). The alb is supposed to be
symbolical of purity, and the priest, when putting it on, prays:
" Make me white and purify my heart, O Lord," fee. In the
middle ages the parures, which originally had no mystic intention
whatever, were taken to symbolize the wounds of Christ; whence
probably is derived the custom surviving at the cathedral of
Toledo, of the singers of the Passion on Good Friday being vested
in apparelled albs.
In England at the Reformation the alb went out of use with
the other " Mass vestments," and remained out of use in the
Church of England until the ritual revival of the 19th century.
It is now worn in a considerable number of churches not only
by the dergy but by acolytes and servers at the Communion.
Where the ritual, as in most cases, is a revival of pre-Ref ormation
uses and not modelled on that of modern Rome, these albs are
frequently apparelled. For the question of its legality ice
Vestments.
Both the alb and Its name are derived ultimately horn the
tunica alba, the white tunic, which formed part of the ordinary
dress of Roman dtizens under the Empire. As such it was worn
both in and out of church, the few notices remaining which
suggest a special tunic for ministers at the Eucharist merely
implying that it was not fitting to use for so sacred a function
a garment soiled by everyday wear. The date of its definite
adoption as a liturgical vestment is uncertain; at Rome — where
until the 13th century it was known as the Hnea or camisia (d.
the modern Italian cornice for alb)— it seems to have been thus
used as early as the 5th century. But as late as the 9th and xoth
centuries the alba h still an everyday as well as a liturgical
garment, and we find bishops and synods forbidding priests to
sing mass in the alba worn by them in ordinary life (see Braun,
p. 6a). Throughout the middle ages, moreover, the word alba
was somewhat loosely used. In the medieval inventories are
•sometimes found albae, described as red, blue or black; which
has led to the belief that albs were sometimes not only made of
stuffs other than linen, but were coloured. It is dear, however,
from the descriptions of these vestments that in some cases they
were actually tunides, the confusion of terms arising from the
similarity of shape (see Dalmatic); in other cases the colour
applied to the parures, not to the albs as a whole. Silk albs
appear in the inventories, but only very exceptionally.
The equivalent of the alb in the andent Churches of the East
Is the sticharion OmxApur) of the Orthodox-Church (Armenian
skapik, Syrian Kvtina, Coptic stoicharion or luniak). It is worn
girdled by bishops and priests in all rites, by subdeacons in the
Greek and Coptic rites. By deacons and lectors it is worn un-
girdled in all the rites. The colour of the vestment is usually
white for bishops and priests (this Is the rule in the Coptic
Church); for the other orders there is no rule, and all colours,
except black, may be used. Its material may be linen, wool,
cotton or silk; but silk only is the rule for deacons. In the
Armenian and Coptic rites the vestment is often elaborately
embroidered; in the other rites the only ornament is a cross
high in the middle of the back, save in the case of bishops of the
Orthodox Church, whose sticharia are ornamented with two
vertical red stripes (sorcutol, " rivers ")• In the East as in
the West the vestment is specially associated with the ritual of
the Eucharist.
The whole subject is exhaustively treated by Father Joseph Braun
tn Die liturgische Gewandune (Freiburg in* Brengau, 1907). See also
bibliography to the article Vestments.
ALBA, a town and episcopal see of Piedmont, Italy, on the
river Tanaro, in the province of Cuneo. From the town of -the
same name it is 33 m. N.E. direct; it is 4a m. S.S.E. of Turin
by rail. Pop. (100O 13,900. It contains a fine cathedral, with
a Gothic facade, reconstructed in 1486, and is an important
commercial centre. It occupies the site of the andent Alba
Pompeia, probably founded by Pompeius Strabo (consul 89 B.C.)
when he constructed the road from Aquae Staticllae (Acqui)
to Augusta Taurinorum (Turin). Probably this was the road
taken by Decimus Brutus when he succeeded, after the raising
of the siege of Mutina in 43 B.C.,- in occupying PoIIentia just
before Mark Antony's cavalry came in sight. Alba was the
birthplace of the emperor Pcrtinax. It became an episcopal
see dependent on Milan in the 4th century. A small museum
of local antiquities was established in 1897.
See F. Eusebio in AUi del Congresso Internationale di Scienxe
Storiche (Rome, 1904), vol. v. p. 485.
ALBACETE, an inland province of south-eastern Spain,
formed in 1833 out of the northern half of Murda, and bounded
on the N. by Cuenca, E. by Valenda and Alicante, S. by Murda,
and W. by Granada and Jaen. Pop. (1000) 237,877; area
5737 xi- m - The northern part of Albacete belongs to the high
plains of New Castile, the southern it generally mountainous,
480
ALBACETE— ALBA LONGA
traversed by low ranges or Isolated groups of hills, which cul-
minate in the Sierra de Alcaraz on the borders of Granada, where
several summits reach 5000 ft Besides many smaller streams,
two large rivers water the province, the Segura in the south-
west, and the Jucar in the north-east; both rising beyond the
borders of Albacete, and ultimately flowing into the Mediter-
ranean. The fertile glens of the Alcaraz district are richly
wooded, and often, from their multitude of fruit trees, resemble
the hucrtas or gardens of Alicante; but broad tracts of land are
destitute of trees, and suitable only for pasture. These barren
regions are thinly peopled; and for the whole of Albacete the
density of population (41 '3 per sq. m. in xooo) is lower than in
any other Spanish province, except Soria.
The climate is generally mild and healthy, although, among
the higher mountains, the snow lies for several months. Wheat
and other cereals are cultivated, with fruits of many kinds,
olives, and vines which yield a wine of fair quality; while saffron
is largely produced, and some attention is given to the keeping
of bees and silkworms. Stock-farming, for which the wide
plains afford excellent opportunities, employs many of the
peasantry; the bulls of Albacete arc in demand for bull-fighting,
and the horses for mounting the Spanish cavalry. There is also
a good breed of mules. Sulphurous and other mineral springs,
both hot and cold, exist in several districts, and deposits of silver,
iron, copper, sulphur, coal and other minerals have been dis-
covered; but the exploitation of these is retarded by lack of
communications, and, apart from building materials, sulphur
and salt, the actual output is insignificant Manufactures are
almost confined to the spinning of hemp, and the making of
coarse cloth, porcelain, earthenware and cutlery. Brandy
distilleries are numerous, and there is some trade in wood;
but no local industry can rival agriculture and stock-breeding,
which furnish the bulk of the exports. Albacete (pop. xooo,
91,512), the capital, and the other important towns of Almansa
(11,180) and Hellfn (12,558), are described under separate
headings. Alcaraz, which gives its name to the mountain range
already mentioned, is a picturesque old town with the ruins of
a Moorish castle, and a fine Roman aqueduct; pop. (1900)
4501. Caudctc (59x3), Chinchilla, or Chinchilla de Monte-Aragon
(6680), La Roda (7066), Tobarra (7787), Villarrobledo (10,125)
and Yeste (6591) are important markets for the sale of agri-
cultural produce. The railway from Madrid to Albacete passes
south-westward to Chinchilla, where it bifurcates, one line
going to Murda, and the other to Alicante, A large part of the
province is only accessible by road, and even the main highways
maintained by the state are ill kept. Education is very back-
ward even in the towns; many of the inhabitants carry arms;
and crim es of violence are not infrequent
ALBACETE, the capital of the above province, on the Madrid-
Alicante railway, and at the confluence of the river Balazote with
the canal of Maria Christina, which flows into the river Jucar,
16 m. N. Pop. (1900) 21,512. Albacete comprises the pictur-
esque old upper town and the new or lower town, with law-
courts, schools, barracks, hospitals, a council-hall, a bull-ring
and other modern buildings, mostly erected after the dty became
a provincial capital in 1833. It is surrounded by a fertile plain,
and has considerable trade in saffron and agricultural produce.
A great market, chiefly for the sale of cattle, is held annually
in September, and extends over several days. The manufacture
of matches is aided by the existence of sulphur workings in
the vicinity; and Albacete formerly had an extensive trade in
cutlery, from which it was named the Sheffield of Spain. De-
spite the importation of cutlery from England and Germany,
Albacete is still famous for its daggers, which are held in high
repute by Spaniards. They are formidable weapons, of coarse
manufacture, but with richly ornamented handles; and they
frequently bear proverbial inscriptions suitable to their murder-
ous appearance.
ALBA FUCENS (mod. Albe) t an ancient Italian town occupy-
ing a lofty situation (3347 ft) at the foot of the Monte Velino,
4 m. N. of Avezzano. It was originally a town of the Aequi,
though on the frontier of the Marsi, but was occupied by a
Roman colony (304 B.C.) owing to its strategic importance. It
lay on a hill just to the north of the Via Valeria, which was
probably prolonged beyond Tibur at this very period. In the
Second Punic war Alba at first remained faithful, but after
wards refused to send contingents and was punished. After
this it became a regular place of detention for important state
prisoners, such as Syphax of Numidia, Perseus of Macedonia,
Bituitus, king of the Arverni. It was attacked by the allies in
the Social War, but remained faithful to Rome; and its strong
position rendered it a place of some importance in the civil wars.
Its prosperity, in the imperial period, can only be inferred from
the number of inscriptions found there. It is chiefly remarkable
for its finely preserved fortifications. The external walls, which
have a circuit of about 2 m., are constructed of polygonal
masonry; the blocks are carefully jointed, and the faces
smoothed. With our present knowledge of such constructions,
their date cannot certainly be determined. They are not pre-
served to any very considerable height; but the arrangement
of the gates is clearly traceable ; as a rule they come at the
end of a long, straight stretch of wall, and are placed so as to
leave the right side of any attacking force exposed. On the
north there is, for a length of about 150 yds. a triple line of
defences of later date (possibly added by the Roman colonists),
inasmuch as both the city wall proper and the double wall thrown
out in front of it are partly constructed of concrete, and faced
with finer polygonal masonry (in which horizontal joints seem
to be purposely avoided). A mile to the north of the city a huge
mound with a ditch on each side of it (but at a considerable
distance from it) may be traced for a couple of miles. Within
the walls there arc hardly any buildings of a later date. Ex-
cavations have only been made casually, though remains of
buildings and of roads can be traced, and also an extensive
system of underground passages perhaps connected with the
defences of the place. The hill at the western extremity was
occupied by a temple of the Tuscan order, into which was built
the church of S. Pietro; this contains ancient columns, and
some remarkably fine specimens of Cosmatesque work. It is
the only monastic church in the -Abruzzi in which the nave is
separated from the aisles by ancient columns. The collegiate
church of S. Nicola in the village contains a remarkable stavro-
tkeca of the xxth (?) century, and a wooden triptych in imitation
of the Byzantine style with enamels of the 13th century.
A very good description of the site, with plans, is given by C
Promis, L'Anlkhila d% Alba Fucens* (Rome, 1836). (T. As.)
ALBA LONGA, an ancient city of Latium, situated on the
western edge of the Albanus Lacus, about ism. S.E. of Rome.
It was, according to tradition, founded by Ascanius, and was the
oldest of all Latin cities— the mother indeed of Rome, by which,
however, it was destroyed, it is said under Tullus Hostilius. By
this act Rome succeeded to the hegemony of the Latin league.
It has by many topographers been placed between the Albanus
Mons and the Albanus Lacus, according to the indication given
by Dionysius (i. 66), at the monastery of Palaazolo; but the
position is quite unsuitable for an ancient city, and does not at all
answer to LJvy's description, ab situ porrectae in dor so urbis Alba
longa appellate; and it is much more probable that its site is to
be sought on the western side of the lake, where the modern
Castel Gandolfo stands, immediately to the north of which the
most important part of the archaic necropolis was situated.
Confirmation of this may be found in Cicero's description (Pro
Miione, 85) of the destruction of the shrines and sacred groves of
Alba by the construction of Clodius's villa, in the local applica-
tion of the adjective Albanus, and in the position of Castel
Gandolfo itself, which exactly suits Livy's description. No
traces of the ancient city, except of its necropolis, the tombs of
which are overlaid with a stratum of peperino 3 ft. thick, are
preserved. The view that the modern Albano occupies the site
of Alba Longa was commonly held in the 1 5th and x6th centuries,
but was disproved by P. Cluver (1624). But it is certain that no
city took the place of Alba Longa until comparatively late times.
The name Albanum, from about 150 B.C. till the time of Con-
stantinc, meant a villa in the Alban territory. The emperors
ALBAN— ALBANIA
+8 1
formed a single estate out of a considerable part of this district,
including apparently the whole of the lake, and Domitian was
especially fond of residing here. The imperial villa occupied the
site of the present Villa Barberini at Castel Gandolfo, and con-
siderable remains of it still exist. To the south was a camp for
the imperial bodyguard, with baths, an amphitheatre, a large
water reservoir, &c. The first legion known to have been
quartered there is the //. Parikka, founded by Septimius
Severus; but it was probably constructed earlier. In some of
the tombs of these legionaries coins of Mazentius have been
found, while the Libtr PontiJUalis records that Constantino gave
to the church of Albano " omnia scheneca desert* vel domos intra
tirbem Albanensem," which has generally been taken to refer to
the abandoned camp. It was at this period, then, that the
civilas Albancnsis arose. The lapis Albanus is a green grey
volcanic stone with black and white grains in it (hence the
modern name, peperino), much used for building material
See T. Aahby in Journal of Philology, xxvii., 1901 , 37. (T. As.)
ALBAN, SAINT, usually styled the protomartyr of Britain, is
said to have been born at Verulamium (the modern St Albans in
Hertfordshire) towards the close of the 3rd century, and to have
served for seven years in Rome in the army of the emperor
Diocletian. On his return to Britain he settled at his native place
and was put to death as a Christian during the persecution of
Diocletian (c. 286-303). According to tradition, when peace was
restored, great honours were paid to his tomb. A church was
built on the spot, c 793, by King Offa of Merda. A monastery
was subsequently added, and around it the present town of St
Albans gradually grew up. Pope Adrian IV., who was born in
the neighbourhood, conferred on the abbot of St Alban's the right
of precedence over his fellow abbots, a right hitherto attached to
the abbey of Glastonbury. St Alban is commemorated in the
Roman martyrology on the sand of June; but it is impossible to
determine with certainty whether he ever existed, as no mention
of him occurs till the middle of the 6th century.
See U. Chevalier, Rtbertoire des sources historiques (1905), i. 95;
D. Hardy, Descriptive Catalogue (1862), I. i. 3-34, ii. 688.
ALBANY or Albano, FRANCESCO (1578-1660), Italian
painter, was born at Bologna. His father was a silk merchant,
and intended to bring up his son to the same occupation; but
Albani was already, at the age of twelve, filled with so strong an
inclination for painting, that on the death of his father he devoted
himself entirely to art His first master was Denis Calvert, with
whom Guido Rent was at the same time a pupil. He was soon
left by Calvert entirely to the care of Guido, and contracted with
him a close friendship. He followed Guido to the -school of the
Caracd; but after this, owing to mutual rivalry, their friendship
began gradually to cool. They kept up for a long time a keen
competition, and their mutual emulation called forth some of
their best productions. Notwithstanding this rivalry, they still
spoke of each other with the highest esteem. Albani after having
greatly improved himself in the school of the Caracd, went to
Rome, where he opened an academy and resided for many years.
Here he painted, after the designs of Annibal Caracd, the whole
of the frescoes in the chapel of San Diego in the church of San
Giacomo degli Spagnuoli. His best frescoes are those on mytho-
logical subjects, of which there is a large number in the Verospi,
now Torlonia Palace. On the death of his wife he returned to
Bologna, where he married a second time and resided till his
death. His wife and children were very beautiful and served him
for models. The learning displayed in the composition of his
pictures, and their minute elaboration and exquisite finish, gave
them great celebrity and entitle them to a distinctive place
among the products of the Bolognese school. A number of his
works are at Bologna, and others at Florence, the Louvre,
Dresden and St Petersburg. Among the best of his sacred
subjects are a " St Sebastian " and an " Assumption of the
Virgin," both in the church of St Sebastian at Rome. He was
among the first of the Italian painters to devote himself to the
painting of cabinet pictures.- A rare etching, the " Death of
Dido," is attributed to him.
ALBANI, the atage name of Maue Louse Emma Cecils
Lajeunesse (1847- ), Canadian singer, who was born at
Chambly, in the province of Quebec, on the 27th of September
1847. She made her first public appearance in Montreal, at the
age of seven, and afterwards studied in the United States, Paris
and Italy. In 1870 she made her first appearance at Messina, and
after two successful seasons appeared in London in 1872 with the
Royal Italian Opera. Later she abandoned opera for oratorio,
and sang at all the prindpal festivals. She has made several
tours of Canada and of the United States, and In 1886 sang at
the opening of the Colonial and Indian Exhibition in London the
ode written by Tennyson for the occasion. She frequently sang
before Queen Victoria, the German emperor and others of the
crowned heads of Europe, and received numerous marks of their
esteem. In x 897 she was awarded the gold Beethoven medal by
the London Philharmonic Sodety, " as a mark of appreciation
of her exceptional genius and musical attainments, and of her
generous and artistic nature." She married in 1878 Ernest Gye,
the theatrical manager. Her stage name of Madame Albani was
taken from that of an extinct Italian family.
See Morgan, Comedian Men and Women of the Time (1898).
ALBANIA* the andent name of a district in the eastern
Caucasus, consisting, according to Strabo (xL 4. x-8), of the valley
of the Cyrus (Kur) and the land lying between it and the Caucasus
range from Iberia to the Caspian Sea, u e. the modern Shirvan.
In reality the Albani inhabited also the mountain valleys and the
land to the north towards Sarmatia, the modern Daghestan
(Pliny vi. 39). Dionysius of Halicarnassus quotes a tradition
that the name arose from the alleged fact that the people were
the descendants of emigrants from Alba in Italy, but it would
seem that the race was of Lesghian (not Georgian) descent Strabo
describes them as tall, well made, and in character simple and
honest; he says that payment was in kind and that the people
could not count beyond a hundred. They worshipped the sun,
and more particularly the moon, the latter being perhaps identical
with the great Nature Goddess of Asia Minor (see Great Mother
op the Gods), and believed in soothsaying and the virtue of
human sacrifice. Old age was held in high honour, but it was
sacrilege to speak, or even to think, of the dead. The race was
nomadic, and lived on the abundant natural fruits of the land.
In Strata's time they appear to have been ruled by a single king,
though previously there were twenty-six, each one ruling over
a community distinct only in point of language. The Albani
became known to the Romans during Pompey's pursuit of
Mithradates the Great (65 B.C.), against which they are said to
have opposed a force of 60,000 foot and 20,000 cavalry. Pompey
exacted from them a nominal submission, but their independence
was not seriously affected by the Romans. In the reign of
Hadrian their territory wasinvaded~by the Alani (Th. Mommsen,
Provinces of the Roman Empire, Eng. trans., 1886), and later they
fell under the Sassanid rule. They were driven finally into
Armenia by the Khazars, and ceased to exist as a separate
people. The district subsequently suffered under the successive
invasions of Huns, Varangians (who captured the chief town
Barda in the xoth century) and Mongols. (See Caucasia,
History, Armenia.)
ALBANIA, a portion of the Turkish empire extending along
the western littoral of the Balkan Peninsula from the southern
frontier of Montenegro to the northern confines of Greece.
Albania is perhaps the least-known region in Europe; and
though more than a hundred years have passed since Gibbon
described it as " a country within sight of Italy, which is less
known than the interior of America," but little progress has
yet been made towards a scientific knowledge of this interesting
land and its inhabitants. The wild and inaccessible character
of the country, the fierce and lawless disposition of the people,
the difficulties presented by their language and their complex
social institutions, and the inability of the Turkish authorities
to afford a safe conduct in the remoter districts, combine to
render Albania almost unknown to the foreign traveller, and
many of its geographical problems still remain unsolved. A
portion of the Mirdite region, the Mat district, the neighbourhood
of Dibra, Jakova and Ipek and other localities have never been
482
ALBANIA
thoroughly explored. The northern boundary of Albania under-
went some alteration in consequence of the enlargement of
Montenegro, sanctioned by the Berlin Treaty (July 13, 1878);
owing to subsequent arrangements providing for the cession
of Duldgno to Montenegro (November 35, 1880) in exchange
for the districts of Plava and Gusinye, restored to Turkey, the
frontier-line (finally settled December 1884) now ascends the
Boyana from its mouth to Lake Sass (Shas), thence passes north-
ward, and crossing Lake Scutari separates the district of Kutch
Kralna on the N. from the territories of the Gruda, Hot and
Element tribes on the S.; leaving Gusinye and Plava to the
S.E., it turns to the N.W. on reaching the Mokra Planina, and
then follows the course of the Tara river. On the S., Albanian
territory was curtailed owing to the acquisition of the Arta
district by Greece (May 1881), the river Arta now forming the
frontier. On the E. the chains of Shar, Grammos and Pindus
constitute a kind of natural boundary, which does not, however,
coincide with ethnical limits nor with the Turkish administrative
divisions. North-eastern Albania forms part of the Turkish
vilayet of Kossovo; the northern highlands are included in the
vilayet of Shkodra (Scutari), the eastern portion of central
Albania belongs to the vilayet of Monastir, and the southern
districts are comprised in the vilayet of Iannina. The boundaries
of the three last-named vilayets meet near Elbassan. The name
Albania (in the Tbsk dialect Arberia, in the Gheg Arbenia), like
Albania in the Caucasus, Armenia, Albany in Britain, and
Auvergne (Arvenia) in France, is probably connected with the
root alb, alp, and signifies " the white or snowy uplands."
Physical Features, — The mountain system is extremely com-
plex, especially that of the northern region. On the E. the great
Shar range, extending in a south-westerly direction from the
neighbourhood of Prishtina to that of Dibra, is continued towards
the S. by the ranges of Grammos and Pindus; the entire chain,
a prolongation of the Alpine systems of Bosnia and Dalmatia,
may be described as the backbone of the peninsula; it forms
the watershed between the Aegean and the Adriatic, and cul-
minates in the lofty peak of Liubotra, near Kalkandele, one
of the highest summits in south-eastern Europe (8858 ft). The
country to the west of this natural barrier may be divided
geographically into three districts— northern, central and
southern Albania. The river Shkumb separates the northern
from the central district, the Viossa the central from the southern.
The highland region of northern Albania is divided into two
portions by the lower course of the Drin; the mountains of
the northern portion, the Bieska Makiis, extend in a confused
and broken series of ridges from Scutari to the valleys of the
Ibar and White Drin; they comprise the rocky group of the
Prokletia, or Accursed Mountains, with their numerous ramifica-
tions, including Mount Velechik, inhabited by the Kastrat and
Shkrel tribes, Bukovik by the Hot, Golesh by the Element,
Skulsen (7533 ft.), Baba Vrkh (about 7306 ft), Maranay near
Scutari, and the Bastrik range to the east South of the Drin
is another complex mountain system, including the highlands
inhabited by the Mirdites and the Mat tribe; among the principal
summits are Deia Mazzuklit, Mal-i Vels, Kraba, Toli and Mnela.
Central Albania differs from the northern and southern regions
in the more undulating and less rugged character of its surface;
it contains considerable lowland tracts, such as the wide and
fertile plain of Musseki, traversed by the river Simen. The
principal summit is Tomor (79x6 ft), overhanging the town of
Berat Southern Albania, again, is almost wholly mountainous,
with the exception of the plains of Iannina and Arta; the most
noteworthy feature is the rugged range of the Tchika, or Ehimara
mountains, which skirt the sea-coast from south-west to north-
east, terminating in the lofty promontory of Glossa (ancient
Acroceraunia). Farther inland the Mishkeli range to the north-
east of Lake Iannina and the Nemertzika mountains run in a
parallel direction. In the extreme south, beyond the basin of
the Kalamas, the mountains of Suli and Olyxika form a separate
group. The rivers, as a rule, flow from east to west* owing to
the rapidity of their descent none are navigable except the
Boyana and Arta in their lower courses. The principal rivers
are the Boyana, issuing from Lake Scutari, and conseq u ently
regarded as a continuation of the Montenegrin Moratcba, the
Drin, formed by the confluence of the White and Black Drin,
which, flowing respectively to the south and north through a keg
valley at the foot of the Shar range, take a westerly directka
after their junction, the Matia, the Arxen, the Shkumb (andeat
Cenusos), the Simen (Apses), formed by the junction of the Devol
and Ergene, the Viossa (Adus), which owing to the trend of the
Khimara range takes a north-westerly direction, the Kalanis
(Thyamis) and the Arta (Aracktkos), flowing south into the
Ambradan Gulf. A portion of the stream of the Drin has fouad
its way into the Boyana channel; the result has been a rise is
the level of Lake Scutari and the inundation of the adjacent
lowlands. A proposal to confine the Drin to its former course
by means of a dyke, and to ease the downflow of the Boyam
by a canal opening navigation to Lake Scutari, has long bees
considered by the Turkish authorities. The great lakes of
Scutari (135 sq. m.) and Ochrida (107 sq. m.) are among tfet
most beautiful in Europe; the waters of Ochrida, which find
an outlet in the Black Drin, are of marvellous clearness. Lake
Malik, south by east of Ochrida, is drained by the DevoL The
waters of the picturesque Lake Iannina (24 sq. m.) find an issae
by katabolhra, or underground channels, into the Ambractu
Gulf. The lake of Butrinto (Buthrotum) is near the sea-coast
opposite Corfu.
Climate.— The climate is healthy in the uplands, though sub-
ject to violent changes; in the valleys fever is very prevalent,
especially in the basins of the Boyana, the lower Drin and the
Simen. The winter is short, but exceedingly cold; snow
remains on the Prokletia and other mountains till August, and
sometimes throughout the year. The summer temperature ia
the plains is that of southern Italy; in the mountain districts
it is high during the day, but falls almost to freezing-point at
night The sea-coast is exposed to the fierce bora, or north wind,
during the spring.
Natural Products. — The mountains of Albania are said to be
rich in minerals, but this source of wealth remains practically
unexplored. Iron and coal are probably abundant, and silver-
lead, copper and antimony are believed to exist Gold minei
were worked in antiquity in the Drin valley, and silver mines m
the Mirdite region were known to the Venetians in the middle
ages. At Selinitza, near Avlona, there is a remarkable deposit
of mineral pitch which was extensively worked in Roman times;
mining operations are still carried on here, but in a somewhat
primitive fashion. The splendid forests, of which there are
70,000 acres in the vilayet of Scutari alone, are undergoing a
rapid process of destruction, as in other lands under Turkish
rule. The principal trees are the oak, the valonia oak, the beech,
ash, elm, plane, celtis, poplar and walnut, which give way ia
the higher regions to the pine and fir. The oak forests near
Dibra, where charcoal-making is a considerable industry, and
the beech-woods of the Prishtina district, are especially remark-
able. The sumach is largely grown in the Mirdite district; its
leaves are exported to Trieste for use In tanneries and dyeworks.
In x8o8 the export of valonia was estimated at £11,100, of
sumach at £2400. Of fruit-trees the white mulberry* cherry
and wild pear are plentiful; the chestnut and walnut are some-
times met with, and the olive is grown in the lowland and
maritime districts. The exportation of olive oil in 1898 was
valued at £24,000. The greater part o£ the country is admirably
suited, to viticulture, and wine of tolerable quality is produced.
Tobacco is grown extensively in southern Albania, especially
near Berat and in the upper valley of the Viossa, but the quantity
exported is small The means of subsistence are mainly provided
by the cultivation of grain and cattle-rearing. Notwithstanding
the primitive condition of agriculture, the deficiency of com-
munications and the damage caused by frequent inundations,
Albania furnishes almost the entire corn supply of the Dalmatiaa
coast and islands. Maize is the favourite grain for home cos-
sumption, but considerable quantities of this cereal, as well as
barley, rye and oats are exported. The total export of cereab
in 1898 was valued at £70,800. Sheep and goats form almost
ALBANIA
+83
the only wealth of the mountaineer* of northern Albania;
large cattle are found only on the plaint. The slopes of Pindus
afford excellent pasture for the flocks of the Ylach shepherds.
The export of raw hides and wool is considerable; in 1808 these
commodities were valued respectively at £00400 and £34,000.
The lakes and rivers of Albania abound in fish. The teorame
(Alb. strata), a kind of sardine, is taken in great quantities in
Lake Scutari; it is salted and smoked for home consump-
tion and exportation. Sea-fishing is almost wholly neglected.
There are salines at Avlona and other places on the coast
Comment and Industries.— The exports in 1808 were estimated
at £480,000, the imports at £1400,000, the former comprising
agricultural produce, live stock, hides, wool, cheese, eggs,
poultry) olive oil, valonia, sumach leaves, timber, skins of wild
animals, silk, tobacco and salted fish, the latter manufactured
articles, doth, hardware, furniture, firearms, gunpowder, sugar,
coffee, &c The monopoly of Albanian commerce formerly
possessed by Venice has descended to Austria-Hungary; the
trade with other countries, except Italy, is inconsiderable.
Owing to the poverty of the people, cheap Austrian goods find
a readier sale than the more expensive and solid British manu-
factures. The maritime traffic is largely conducted toy the
■teamen of the subsidized Austrian-Lloyd company, Trieste
being the principal commercial centre; the coasting trade is
carried on by small Greek and Turkish sailing vessels. The
trade of the northern and western districts has to some extent
been diverted to Sakmica since the opening of the railways from
that town to Mitrovitza and Monastir. The development of
commerce is retarded by lack of communications; the country
poetesses no railways and few roads. Several railway lines have
been projected, but there is no great probability of their con-
struction under existing political conditions. The Via Egnatia,
the great Roman highway to the east, is still used; it runs from
Duraxzo (Dynkacktum) to Elbassan and Ochrida. Iannina is
connected by carriage-roads with Monastir, Agii SaranU and
Prevexa. As a rule, however, bridle-paths supply the only means
of communication. The native industries are inconsiderable,
and many of them are in a languishing condition. The manu-
facture of highly ornate firearms, yataghans and other weapons
at Scutari, Jakova and Prizren has declined, owing to the im-
portation of modern rifles and revolvers. Gold and silk em-
broidery, filigree work, morocco and richly-braided jackets
are produced for home use and for sale in Bosnia, Macedonia
and Montenegro.
Population.— The population of Albania may be estimated
at between 1,600,000 and 1,500,000, of whom 1,200,000 or
1,100,000 are Albanians. Of the other races the Slavs (Serbs
and Bulgers) are the most numerous, possibly numbering 250,000.
Servian settlements exist in various parts of northern Albania;
there is a strong Bulgarian colony in the neighbourhood of Dibra
and Ochrida; farther south, Mount Zygos and the Pindus
range— the " Great Walachia " of the middle ages— are in-
habited by Vlachs or Tsintzars, who possibly number 70,000.
Some Turkish colonies are also found in the south-eastern
districts. There is a considerable Greek-speaking population
In Epiros (including many Mahommedan Albanians), which
must, however, be distinguished from the genuine Greeks of
Tannins, Prevexa and the extreme south; these may be esti-
mated at iocsooa The population of the vilayet of Scutari
is given as 3374000, that of the vilayet of Iannina. as 552,000.
The principal towns are Scutari (Albanian Shkodtr, with the
definite article Skkodr-a), the capital of the vilayet of that name,
pop. 32,000; Prizren, 30,000; Iannina (often incorrectly
written loatmina), capital of the southern vilayet, 22,000;
Jakova, 12,000; Dibra, 15,000; Prishtina, x 1,000; Ipek
(Slav. Pekk), 15,000; Berat, 15,000; Ochrida, 11,000; Tirana,
12,000; Argyrokastro, 11,000; Kortcha (Slav. Goritta), 10,000;
Elbassan (perhaps ancient Albanopdis), 8000; Metzovo, 7500;
Prevexa, 6500; Avlona, 6000; Durazzo, 5000; Parga, 5000;
Butrinto, 2000; and Krola, the ancient fortress of Scanderbeg,
5000. All these, except Elbassan, Metzovo and Krola, are
described in separate articles.
The Albanians are apparently the most ancient race in south-
eastern Europe. History and legend afford no record of their
arrival in the Balkan Peninsula. They are probably the descend-
ants of the earliest Aryan. Immigrants, who were represented in
historical times by the kindred Htyrians, Macedonians and
Epirots; the Macedonians and Epirots are believed by Hahn
to have formed the core of the pre-HeDenic Tyrrheno-PeUsgian
population which inhabited the southern portion of the penin-
sula and extended its limits to Thrace and Italy. The Illyrians
were also " Pelasgian," but in a wider sense. Of these cognate
races, which are described by the Greek writers as barbarous
or non-Hellenic, the Illyrians and Epirots, he thinks, were re-
spectively the progenitors of the Gkegt, or northern, and the
Tosh, or southern, Albanians. The Via Egnatia, which Strabo
(vU. fragment 3) describes as forming the boundary between the
Illyrians and Epirots, practically corresponds with the course
of the Shkumb, which now separates the Ghegs and the Tosks.
The same geographer (v. a. aai) states that the Epirots were also
called Pelasgians; the Pelasgian Zeus was worshipped at Dodona
(Homer, //. xvL 934), and the neighbourhood of the sanctuary
was called Pelasgia (Herodotus tt. 56). The meaning of the
term " Pelasgian " is, however, too obscure to furnish, a basis
for ethnographical speculation; in the time of Herodotus it
may have already come to denote a period rather than a race.
The name Task is possibly identical with Tuscus, Etruscus,
while the form Tyrrkenus perhaps survives in Tirana. The large
number of Slavonic local names in Albania, even in districts
where no trace of a Slavonic population exists, bears witness
to the extensive Servian and Bulgarian immigrations in the
early middle ages, but the original inhabitants gradually ousted
or assimilated the invaders. The determination with which
this remarkable race has maintained its mountain stronghold
through a long series of ages has hitherto met with scant ap-
preciation in the outside world. While the heroism of the
Montenegrins has been lauded by writers of all countries, the
Albanians— if we except Byron's eulogy of the Suloits— still
remain unsung. Not less noticeable is the tenacity with which
isolated fragments of the iiatfonhavepreservedthdrpeculiaxchar-
acteristics, language, customs and traditions. The Albanians
in Greece and Italy, though separated for six centuries from the
parent stock, have not yet been absorbed by the surrounding
populations.
The Albanians, both Ghegs and Tosks, call themselves Skku-
petar, and their land SkkUpenia or Skkuperia, the former being
the Gheg, the latter the Tosk form of the word. SkkupetarhM*
been variously interpreted. According to Hahn it is a parti-
cipial from skkyifsnj, "I understand," signifying "he who
knows" the native language; others interpret it with less
probability as " the rock-dweller," from skbefi, skkip, N. Alb.
skkamp, "rock." The designations Arber (Gr. 'Ap/forfffif,
Turk. Arnaout), denoting the people, and Arbenia or Arbtria,
the land, are also, though less frequently, used by the Albanians.
A district near Krola is locally known as Arbenia; the Tosk
form Arberia strictly applies only to the mountain region near
Avlona. The region inhabited by a more or less homogeneous
Albanian population may be roughly marked out by a line
drawn from the Montenegrin frontier at Berane to Mitrovitxa
and the Servian frontier near Vranya; thence to Uskflb, Prilep,
Monastir, Fiorina, Kastoria, Iannina and Parga. These limits,
however, are far from including all the members of a widely
scattered race. The Albanians in Greece, whose settlements
extend over Attica, Boeotia, the district of Corinth and the
Argolid peninsula, as well as southern Euboea and the islands
of Hydra, Spetzae, Poros and Salamis, descend from Tosk
immigrants in the 14th century. They played a brilliant part
in the War of Independence (1821-1829), and to-day supply the
Greek army with its best soldiers. They were estimated by
Leake at 200,000. A large number still speak the Albanian
language; many of the older men, and a considerable proportion
of the women, even in the neighbourhood of Athens, are ignorant
of Greek, The Albanian settlements in southern Italy and
Sicily were founded in 1444* 1464 and 1468; minor immigrations
48+
ALBANIA
followed in the three succeeding centuries. In southern Italy
there are 7a Albanian communes, with 1 54,674 inhabitants; in
Sicily 7 communes, with 52,141 inhabitants. The Italian and
Sicilian Albanians are of Took descent, and many of them still
speak a variation of the Tosk dialect. There are also several
Albanian settlements in European Turkey and Asia Minor, some
founded by military colonists who received grants of land from
successive sultans, others owing their origin to enforced migra-
tions after insurrections in Albania. The only genuine division
of the Albanian race is that of Ghegs and Tosks; the Liaps,
who inhabit the district between the Viossa and the sea, and
the Tsh&ms or Ch&ms, who occupy the coast-land south of the
Kalamas, are subdivisions of the Tosk family. The name Gheg
(dgi-a) is not adopted by the Ghegs themselves, being regarded
as a nickname; the designation Tosk (Toski-a) is restricted by
the Tosks to the inhabitants of a small region north of the lower
Viossa (Toskerfa).
National Characteristics. — While the other primitive popu-
lations of the peninsula were either hellenized or latinized,
or subsequently absorbed by the Slavonic immigration, the
Albanians to a great extent remained unaffected by foreign
influences. Retaining their original language and preserving
the customs and institutions of remote antiquity, they present
a' distinct type, and differ in many essential particulars from the
other nations of the peninsula. The Ghegs especially, not-
withstanding their fierce and lawless character, their super-
stition, ignorance and predatory propensities, possess some
noteworthy qualities rarely found in eastern Europe simple,
brave, faithful, and sometimes capable of devoted attachment,
these wild mountaineers make excellent soldiers and trustworthy
retainers; they have long furnished a bodyguard to the sultan
and, like the Tosks, are much employed as kavasses and attend-
ants at foreign embassies and consulates in the East The native
disposition of the Tosks has been modified by intercourse with
the Greeks and Vlachs; while the Gheg devotes his attention
exclusively to fighting, robbery and pastoral pursuits, the Tosk
occasionally occupies himself with commercial, industrial or
agricultural employments; the Gheg is stern, morose and
haughty, the Tosk lively, talkative and affable. The natural
antipathy between the two sections of the race, though less
evident than in former times, is far from extinct In all parts
of Albania the vendetta (gy&k,j&k) or blood-feud, the primitive
lex talionis, is an established usage; the duty of revenge is a
sacred tradition handed down to successive generations in the
family, the village and the tribe. A single case of homicide
often leads to a series of similar crimes or to protracted warfare
between neighbouring families and communities; the murderer,
as a rule, takes refuge in the mountains from the avenger of blood,
or remains for years shut up in his house. It is estimated that
in consequence of these feuds scarcely 75% of the population
in certain mountainous districts die a natural death. A truce
(bessa, literally " faith," " pledge ")» either temporary or per-
manent, is sometimes arranged by mediation, or among the
Ghegs, by the intervention of the clergy; a general bessa has
occasionally been proclaimed by special irade* of the sultan, the
restoration of peace being celebrated with elaborate ceremonies.
So stringent are the obligations of hospitality that a household
is bound to exact reparation for any injury done to a guest as
though he were a member of the family. No traveller can
venture into the mountain districts without the bessa of one
of the inhabitants; once this has been obtained he will be
hospitably welcomed. In some districts there is a fixed price of
blood; at Argyrokastro, for instance, the compensation paid
by the homicide to the relatives of his victim is x 200 piastres
(about £10), at Khimara 2000 piastres; once the debt has been
acquitted amicable relations are restored. Notwithstanding
their complete subjection, women are treated with a certain
respect, and are often employed as intermediaries in the settle-
ment of feuds; a woman may traverse a hostile district without
fear of injury, and her bessa will protect the traveller or the
stranger. Women accompany their male relatives to the battle-
field for the purpose of tending the wounded and carrying away
the dead. The bride brings no dowry to her husband; she a
purchased at a stipulated price, and earnest-money is paid at
the betrothal, which usually takes place while the contracting
parties are still children. It is customary for young men whs
are attached to each other to swear eternal brotherhood (com-
pare the Slavonic pobratimstvo); the contract is regarded as
sacred, and no instance has been known of its violation. The
costume of the Tosks differs from that of the Ghegs; its dis-
tinctive feature is the white plaited linen fustanella or petticoat,
which has been adopted by the Greeks; the Ghegs wear trewt
of white or crimson native cloth adorned with black braid, and
a short, close-fitting jacket, which in the case of wealthy persons
is embellished with gold lace. The fez is worn by both races,
and in the northern highlands yataghans and firearms axesJmest
invariably carried. The costume of the Mirdite and Mat tribes
is peculiar. It consists of a white felt cap, a long white tunic
bound with a red girdle, white linen trousers and opinki, or
sandals.
Tribal System.— The tribal organization in northern Albania
is an interesting survival of the earliest form of sodai combina-
tion; it may be compared in many respects with that which
existed in the Scottish highlands in the time of the Stuart kings.
The practical autonomy which the Gheg mountaineers enjoy has
been won by a prolonged and successful resistance to Turkish
domination; as a rule they pay no taxes, they are exempt from
the conscription, they know nothing of the Ottoman law, and the
few Turkish officials established amongst them possess no real
authority. Their only obligation to the Turkish government is to
furnish a contingent in time of war; the only law they recognise
is either traditional custom(a<te) or the unwritten Kornm-i Ltks
Dukajinit, a civil and criminal code, so called from its author,
Leka Dukajini, who is supposed to have lived in the 23th or 14th
century. The tribe or mal (" mountain ") is often composed of
several clans (phis-i, phArea)or baryaks (literally " standards *)
each under a chief or baryaktar (standard-bearer), who is, strictly
speaking, a military leader; there are in each dan a certain
number of elders or volvodes (Albanian knt-ye, pi. krent-te) who
form a council and, like the baryaktar, hold their office by
hereditary right; they preside over the assemblies of the tribes-
men, which exercise the supreme legislative power. The dan is
generally subdivided into smaller communities (maJuU), each
administered by a local notable oxjobar. The jobars superintend
the execution of the laws, collect fines and administer capital
punishment; they are in contact with the buluh-bashi, or resident
representative of the tribe at Scutari, who forms the only link
between the mountaineers and the Turkish government He
communicates to the tribesmen the orders of the vali, which must
be framed in accordance with their customs and institutions.
The tribes of northern Albania, or Ghegerf a, may be classified in
seven groups as follows:— (1) The Mirdites, who inhabit the
alpine region around Orosh to the south-east of Scutari — the most
important of all in respect of numbers (about 1 7,000) and politic*]
independence. A Roman Catholic tribe, occupying an inaccess-
ible district, they have hitherto defeated every effort of the
Turks to encroach on their autonomy. Their hereditary chiefs,
or capidans, belong to the family known as Dcra e Jon MarbU
(the house of John Marco), which has ruled for 200 years and is
supposed to be descended from Scanderbeg. In 1868 the reign*
ing chief, Bib Doda, died, and his son and successor Prenk was
detained as a hostage by the Turks. The Mirdites consequently
refused to contribute their customary contingent to the Turkish
army, and eventually Prenk was restored. His ambiguous coo-
duct, however, led to the despatch of two expeditions against
the Mirdites and the devastation of their territory. In xSSo
Prenk was kidnapped by the Turkish authorities and exiled to
Anatolia; another member of the ruling family was appointed
kaimakam, but the Mirdites refused to obey him, and their
district has ever since been in a state of anarchy. No Moslem a
allowed to remain in Mirdite territory. (3) The Mi-shkodns
(Upper Scutari) group or confederation, also known as the
Malsia-Madhe (Great Highlands), Is composed of the Klement,
Grud-a, Hot, Kastrat and Shkrel tribes, which occupy the
ALBANIA
+85
mountainous district north-east of Scutari. Owing to the proxi-
mity of the capital this group is comparatively subject to the
Turkish power, and pays a small annual tribute; the chiefs, who
assess and collect the tribute, form a kind of administrative
council; the confederation has also an official representative
council at Scutari, called the Jibol, under the presidency of a
Serkardi or Moslem official. (3) The Dukajin, whose territory
lies between that of the last-named group and the district of
Jakova, include the Pulati, Shalla, Shoshi and other tribes; they
are more independent and more savage than the Mi-shkodrak,
and have never paid tribute from time immemorial. (4) The
Puka group, known as " the Seven Baryaks of Puka," dwell on
the south side of the river Drin; they are nominally administered
by a Turkish kaimakam, who is a mere spectator of their pro-
ceedings. (5) The Malsia Jakovs, a group of two Catholic and
three Moslem tribes, extend in the direction of Jakova, where they
maintain an official representative; they are entirely exempt
from taxation. (6,7) The Malsia-Lezhs, who occupy the Alessio
highlands, and the Malsia Krues, who inhabit the region north of
Krola, live in a state of extreme poverty and pay no tribute; the
Malsia Krues are much addicted to brigandage. To these seven
groups, which are included under the general appellation of
Malissori, or " Highlanders," may be added the Mabia of Dibra,
who extend to the west and north of that town, and form a large
separate group; they are notorious for their fierce lawless
character, and maintain themselves byplundering the Bulgarian
peasants in their neighbourhood. • In general the attitude of the
Albanians in the north-eastern districts towards the Slavonic
peasantry may be compared with that of the Kurds towards the
Armenians. In the region east of Krola the Mat tribe, which
occupies the upper valley of the Matia> presents an entirely
different organization; their district is governed by four wealthy
fa milies, possessing hereditary rank and influence. Towards the
south the tribal organization becomes looser and is gradually
supplanted by a kind of feudal system; among the powerful'
aristocratic houses may be mentioned the Vliores at Avlona, who
are stated to own over 150 sq. m. of land, and the Toptans at
Tirana. The principal landowners, who reside in fortified houses,
are all Moslems; their estates are cultivated on the miiayer
system. Since the time of Ali Pasha, who broke the power of the
local chieftains, southern Albania has been subject to* the central
Turkish power; before that period the mountaineers of Suli and
Khimara enjoyed an independence similar to that of the Gheg
tribes.
Religions.-" The great majority of the Albanians, probably
more than three-fifths, are Moslems. The conversion of the
Christian population to Islam appears to have taken place during
the 16th and 17th centuries. Like the Cretan Moslems and the
Bulgarian Pomaks, the Albanian Mahommedans retain many
Christian traditions and customs; it is said that many thousands
of them secretly adhere to their original faith. In the vilayet of
Scutari they form about 55% of the population; central Albania
is almost entirely Moslem; in southern Albania, however, there
is a considerable Christian population, whose limits practically
coincide with those of the Greek-speaking districts. Of the
Christian population (about 600,000), some 110,000 are Roman
Catholic Ghegs, some 00,000 are Orthodox Tosks, and some
400,000 are Orthodox Slavs, Greeks and Vlachs. The Roman
Catholic Ghegs appear to have abandoned the Eastern for the
Western Church in the middle of the 13th century. Their bishops
and priests, who wear the moustache in deference to popular
prejudice, are typical specimens of the church militant. Some of
the Gheg tribes, such as the Puka, Malsia Jakovs and Malsia
Krues, are partly Roman Catholic, partly Moslem ; among fellow-
tribesmen the difference of religion counts for little. The Mirdites
are exclusively Roman Catholic, the Mat-i exclusively Moslem.
At the head of the Roman Catholic hierarchy are the archbishops
of Scutari (with three suffragans), Prizren and Durazzo; the
mitred abbot of St Alexander is the spiritual chief of the Mirdites.
The Orthodox Church has metropolitans at Prizren, Durazzo,
Berat, Iannina and Kortcha; the Bulgarian exarchate maintains
a bishop at Dibra. Of the Albanians in Sicily the great majority
(44,79 ») remain faithful to the Greek Church; in Italy 116,48a
follow the Latin ritual, and 38, 192 the Greek. All the Albanians
in Greece belong to the Orthodox Church.
Education. — Education is almost non-existent, and the vast
majority of the population, both Christian and Moslem, are
totally illiterate. Instruction in the Albanian language is pro-
hibited by the Turkish government for political reasons; a
single exception has been made in the case of an American school
for girls at Kortcha. There are Turkish primary and secondary
schools in some of the towns; in the village mosques instruction
in the Koran is given by the imdms, but neither reading nor
writing is taught. The aristocratic Moslem families send their
sons to be educated in Constantinople or Vienna. At Scutari
a college and a seminary are maintained by the Jesuits, with
the aid of the Austrian government; the Franciscans have
several primary schools, and three lay schools are supported
by the Italian government; in all these institutions Italian
is the language of instruction. There are two Servian seminaries
at Prizren. In southern Albania there are Greek schools in the
towns and a large Greek gymnasium at Iannina. The priests
of the Greek Church, on whom the rural population depend
for instruction, are often deplorably Ignorant. The merchant
families of Iannina are well educated; the dialect spoken in that
town is the purest specimen of colloquial Greek.
Language. — Albanian is peculiarly interesting as the only
surviving representative of the so-called Thraco-Illyrian group
of languages which formed the primitive speech of the peninsula.
It has afforded an attractive study to philologists, amongst
whom may be mentioned Malte-Brun, Leake, Xylander, Hahn,
Miklosich and G. Meyer. . The analysis of the language presents
great difficulties, as, owing to the absence of literary monuments,
no certainty can be arrived at with regard to its earlier forms
and later development. The groundwork, so far as it can be
ascertained, and the grammar are Indo-European, but a large
number of words have been borrowed from the Latin or Italian
and Greek, and it is not always easy to decide whether the
mutilated and curtailed forms now in use represent adopted
words or belong to the original vocabulary. There is also a
considerable admixture of Turkish and Slavonic words. Not-
withstanding certain points of resemblance in structure and
phonetics, Albanian is entirely distinct from the neighbouring
languages; in its relation to early Latin and Greek it may be
regarded as a co-ordinate member of the Aryan stock. It
possesses seven vowels; among the consonants are the aspirated
d and /, as in Greek, and many other sounds, such as 6, </, sh, xh
(French/), and hard g, which are wanting in Greek, but exist in
the Slavonic languages. There are three declensions, each with
a definite and indefinite form; the genitive, dative and ablative
are usually represented by a single termination; the vocative
is formed by a final 0, as memmo from memme, " mother."
The neuter gender is absent. There are two conjugations; the
passive formation, nowwanting in most Indo-European languages,
has been retained, as in Greek; thus kerko-iy, " I seek," forms
kerko-n-tm, "I am sought." The infinitive is not found; as
in Greek, Rumanian and Bulgarian, it is replaced by the sub-
junctive with a particle. The two auxiliary verbs are Mm,
" I have," and ydm f " I am." An interesting and characteristic
feature of the language is the definite article, which is attached
to the end of the word: e.g. mik (" friend," amicus), mik-u
("the friend"); kien ("dog"), kicn-i; Shkumb, Shkumb-i.
The suffix-article likewise appears in Rumanian and Bulgarian,
but in no other Latin or Slavonic language; it is in each case
a form of the demonstrative pronoun. Another remarkable
analogy between the Albanian and the neighbouring languages
is found in the formation of the future; the Albanian do (3rd
pen. sing, of dova, "I will"), like the Greek 0d, is prefixed
without change to all persons of the verb: a similar usage in
Servian and Bulgarian, as well as in Rumanian (especially the
Macedonian dialect), is peculiar to these languages in the Slavonic
and Latin groups. These and other points of similarity, possibly
only accidental, have led to the conjecture that the primitive
Illyrian language may have exerted some kind of influence on.
4-86
ALBANIA
the other idioms of the peninsula. In the absence of literary
culture the Albanian dialect*, as might be expected, are widely
divergent; the limits of the two principal dialects correspond
with the racial boundaries of the Ghegs and Tosks, who under-
stand each other with difficulty; the Albanians in Greece and
Italy have also separate dialects. In writing Albanian the Latin
character is employed by the Ghegs, the Greek by the Tosks;
neither alphabet suffices to represent the manifold sounds of the
language, and various supplementary letters or distinguishing
signs are necessary. In the use of these no uniform system has
yet been adopted. An alphabet of fifty-two letters, some pre-
senting ancient Phoenician and Cretan forms, was found by
Hahn in partial use at Elbassan and Tirana; its antiquity,
however, has not been established. The Tosks generally use the
Greek language for written communications. The native folk-
lore and poetry of the Albanians can hardly compare with that
of the neighbouring nations in originality and beauty. The
earliest printed works in Albanian are those of the Catholic
missionaries; the first book containing specimens of the language
was the Dklionarium Latino- Epiroticum of Bianchi, printed in
1635. The literature of the last two centuries consists mainly
of translations and religious works written by ecclesiastics,
some of whom were natives of the Albanian colonies in Italy.
The most noteworthy Albanian writer was Girolamo di Rada
(b. 181 5), a poet, philologist and collector of national folklore.
Among his successors may be mentioned Vincenzo Dorsa and
Demetrio Camarda.
Antiquities.— Albania abounds in ancient remains, which as
yet have been little explored. Fragments of "Cyclopean"
structures were discovered by Hahn at Krctzunista, Arinista,
and other sites in the district of Argyrokastro; the walls, partly
<* Cyclopean," of an ancient city (perhaps Bullis) are visible
at Gradisti on the Viossa. Masonry of this type, however,
occurring in IUyria and Dalmctia (e.g. at Spalato and on the
island of Lesina) has been shown by modern archaeologists
tp belong to the Roman period. In general, the remains of the
classical epoch attest the influence of Roman rather than of
Greek civilization. At Pollina, the ancient Apollonia, are the
remnants of a Doric temple, of which a single column is still
standing. A little north of Preveza are the considerable ruins
of Nikopolis, founded by Octavian to commemorate the victory
of Actium. At Khimara (anc Ckimaera) the remains of an
old Greek city may still be seen; at Santi Quaranta (anc.
Onckesmos) the walls and towers of a later town are in good
preservation. Few traces remain of the once celebrated Dyr-
rhachium. The ruins of Pandosia, Ephyra, Elatea, Phoenikt,
Buthrotum, Akrolissos and other towns may be identified.
The most important and interesting remains, however, are those
of Dodona (q.v.). Of the medieval ruins those of Kroia, the
stronghold of Scanderbeg, are the most interesting.
Medieval History.— After the division of the Ronton empire,
the lands inhabited by the Albanian race became provinces of the
Byzantine empire; northern Albania from Scutari to Berat
formed the theme or province of Dyrrachium (Durauo, Albanian
Dourts), southern Albania and Epirus the theme of Nikopolis.
The country was overrun by the Goths in the 4th and 5U1 cen-
turies, but reconquered by Justinian in 535. In 640 northern
Albania was invaded by the Serbo-Croats; it. continued with
interruptions under Servian rule till 1360. In 861 the Bulgarians
conquered the southern portion of the country and Epirus as far
as Khimara; under their powerful tsar Simeon (803-027), who
defeated the Servians, they established their rule on the Adriatic
littoral, except at Durazzo, which remained Byzantine, and
colonized these regions in great numbers. A new Bulgarian
dynasty, that of Shishman, was founded at Ochrida after
the death of Simeon. Shishman's son Samuel (976-1014) cap-
tured Durazzo; he extended his sway over a great part of the
Balkan Peninsula, but was eventually defeated in 10x4 by the
emperor Basil II., who put out the eyes of 15,000 Bulgarian
prisoners. Southern Albania and Epirus fell once more under
Byzantine rule, which, however, was shaken by numerous
revolts. In 1081 the Normans under Robert Guiscard poss es s e d
themselves of Durazzo; Guiscard's son Bohemund defeated the
Greeks in several battles and again (1 107) laid siege to Durazzo,
which had been surrendered to them by treachery; failing to
take the city, he retired to Italy in x 100. Southern Albania and
Epirus 'remained under Byzantine domination till 1204, when,
after the capture of Constantinople by the crusaders, Michael
Comnenus, a member of the imperial family, withdrew to Epirus
and founded an independent sovereignty known as the Despots*
of Epirus at Iannina; his realm included the whole of southern
Albania, Acarnania and Aetolia. The despotale of Epirus was
held by the Comnenus family till 1318, and by princes of the
house of Orsini till 1358. Meanwhile Durazzo, with Berat and
Central Albania, had passed into the hands of the Sicilian kings
of the house of Anjou, who ruled these regions, which they styled
the " Kingdom of Albania," from 1271 to 1368, maintaining a
constant warfare with the Byzantine emperors. The Servians
again installed themselves in Upper Albania about 1180, and
the provinces of Scutari and Prizrcn were ruled by kings of the
house of Nemanya till X360; Stefan Dushan (133X-135S),
the greatest of these monarchs, included all Albania in his
extensive but short-lived empire, and took the title of imperii*
Romaniae Slavoniae et Albaniae (emperor of the Greeks, Slavs
and Albanians).
Period of Native Rule.—Mlet the death of Dushan and the
break-up of the Servian empire, a new epoch began when Albania
fell under the rule of chieftains more or less of native origin. A
portion of Upper Albania was ruled by the Balsha dynasty (1366-
1421), which, though apparently Servian by descent, assimilated
itself with its Albanian subjects and embraced the faith of Ron*.
Alessio and a tract of the interior in the direction of Ipck was
governed by the Dukajin. The northern portion of the " king-
dom of Albania," including Durazzo and Krola, was ruled by the
family of Thopia (1350-1392) and afterwards by that of Kas-
triota, to which Scanderbeg belonged; the southern portion with
Berat, by the Musaki (1368-1476). In the middle of the 14th
century a great migration of Albanians from the mountainous
districts of the north took place, under the chiefs Jin Bua Spata
and Peter Liosha; they advanced southwards as far as Acarnania
and Aetolia (1358), occupied the greater portion of the despotate
of Epirus, and took Iannina and Arta. In the latter half of the
century large colonies of Tosks were planted in the Mom by
the despots of Mistra, and in Attica and Boeotia by Duke Nerio
of Athens. As the power of the Balshas declined, the Venetians
towards the dose of the 14th century established themselves at
Scutari, Budua, Antivari and elsewhere in northern Albania.
Period of Turkish Rule.— The advance of the Turks into
Albania began with the capture of Iannina in 1431. For once in
the history of the country the Albanian chiefs combined against
the invader under a single leader, the celebrated George Kastriota
(see Scandesbec), who fought thirteen campaigns in the period
1444-1466. In 1478 Krola, which the Venetians bad occupied
after Scanderbeg's death, surrendered to Mahommed II., and ia
1479 Scutari, after a memorable defence by the Venetians and
their Montenegrin allies, was reduced by blockade. Many of
its native Christian defenders emigrated to Dalmatia and Italy;
others took refuge in the mountains with the Roman Catholic
Ghegs. In 1502 the Turks captured Durazzo, and in 1571
Antivari and Duldgno, the last Venetian possessions in Albania.
Notwithstanding the abandonment of Christianity by a large
section of the population after the Turkish conquest, the
authority of the sultans was never effectively established, and
succeeding centuries present a record of interminable conflicts
between the tribesmen and the Turks, between the Christians
and the converts to Islam, or between all combined and the
traditional Montenegrin enemy. The decline of the Ottoirsn
power, which began towards the end of the 17th century.
was marked by increasing anarchy and lawlessness in the
outlying portions of the empire. About 1760 a Moslem
chieftain, Mehemet of Bushat, after obtaining the pashalik of
Scutari from the Porte, succeeded in establishing an almost
independent sovereignty in Upper Albania, which remained
hereditary in his family for some generations. In aoutbtn)
ALBANUS LACUS— ALBANY
487
Albania Ali Pasha of Tcpden (b. about 1750), an able, cruel and
unscrupulous man, subdued the neighbouring pashas and chiefs,
crushed the Suliotes and Khimarrhotes, and exercised a practi-
cally independent sovereignty from the Adriatic to the Aegean.
He introduced comparative civilization at Iannina, his capital,
and maintained direct relations with foreign powers. Eventually
he renounced his allegiance to the sultan, but was overthrown by
a Turkish army in 1822. Shortly afterwards the dynasty of
Scutari came to an end with tbe surrender of Mustafa Pasha, the
last of the house of Bushat, to the grand visier Reshid Pasha, in
183 1.
The opposition of the Albanians, Christian as well as Moslem,
to the reforms introduced by the sultan Mahmud II. led to the
devastation of the country and the expatriation of thousands of
its inhabitants. During the next half-century several local
revolts occurred, but no movement of a strictly political character
took place till after the Berlin Treaty Quly 13, 1878), when some
of the Moslems and Catholics combined to resist the stipulated
transference of Albanian territory to Austria-Hungary, Servia
and Montenegro, and the Albanian League was formed by an
assemblage of chiefs at Prizren. The movement, which was
instigated by the Porte with the object of evading the provisions
of the treaty, was so far successful that the restoration of Plava
and Gusinye to Albania was sanctioned by the powers, Monte-
negro receiving in exchange the town and district of Dulcigno.
Tbe Albanian leaders, however, soon displayed a spirit of inde-
pendence, which proved embarrassing to Turkish diplomacy and
caused alarm at Constantinople; their forces came into con-
flict with a Turkish army under Dervish Pasha near Dulcigno
(November 1880), and eventually the league was suppressed. A
similar agitation on a smaller scale was organised in southern
Albania to resist the territorial concessions awarded by the
powers to Greece. In the spring of 1003 serious disturbances
took place in north-western Albania, but the Turks succeeded in
pacifying the revolted tribesmen, partly by force and partly by
concessions. These movements were far from displaying a
genuinely national character. In recent years attempts have
been made by Albanians resident abroad to propagate the
national idea among their compatriots at home; committees
have been formed at Brussels, Bucharest, Athens and elsewhere,
and books, pamphlets and newspapers are surreptitiously sent
into the country. Unity of aim and effort, however, seems
foreign to the Albanians, except in defence of local or tribal
privileges. The growth of a wider patriotic sentiment must
depend on the spread of popular education; certainly up to
1908 no appreciable progress had been made in this direction.
Authorities.— F. C. H. Pouqucvillc, Voyage de la Crtce (Paris,
1820); W. M. Leake, Travels in Northern Crete* (London, 1835);
1. G. von Hahn, Albantsiscke Studien (Jena, 1854), Rene dure* die
Gebicte dee Drin und Vardar (Vienna, 1867); P. Bopp. Ober das
Albantsiscke (Berlin, 1854); J. P. Fallmerayer, Das albantsiscke
Element in Crieckenland (Munich, 1864); N. Camarda, Saggu* *i
rrammatotogia comfarata sulla lingua albanese (Leghorn, 1865);
Viscountess Strangford, The Eastern Shores of the Adriatic (London,
1865) : H. F. Tozer, Researches in the Highlands of Turkey (London,
1869); F. Miklotich, Albanes. Forschungen (Vienna, 1870); C. Hopf,
Chroniqwes greco-romaines inUites on pen connues (Berlin, 1873);
H. Hccquard, Hisloire et description de la Haute Albanie on Cuigarie
(Paris, undated) ; S. Gopchevich. Oberalbanien und seine Lie a(Leipxiff,
"" * * " ((Salerno, 1886); G. Celchieh,
1881); F. Tajani. Le JstoriaAlbanesi (
La Zedda e la dinastia dei Balski (Spalato, 1899); S. Lambros,
*H feo»aroXo7(a rft 'Arridft eel h di rk* x*pa» Jwfcjfif rShf 'AX0a#a».
in the 'Ewtnipli rov napracexti (Athens, 1 896); Theodore Ippen,
'* Beitrige tur inneren Geschichte der Turkei tm 19. Jahrhundert
specie!! Albaniens." in the Osterreickisch-Ungarische Revue, vol.
nviii. ; A. Philtppson, Thessalia und Epirus (Berlin, 1897). See also
Murray's Greece, ed. 1900, pp. 720-731 and 760-814, and Blue-book
Turkey. No. 15, Part if., 1886. (J. D. B.)
ALBANUS LACUS (mod. Logo di A I bono), a lake about 12 m.
S.E. of Rome. It is generally considered to have been formed
by a volcanic explosion at the margin of the great crater of the
Albanus Mons; it has the shape of a crater, the banks of which
are over 400 ft. in height from the water-level, while the water is
as much as sob ft. deep in the S. portion. It is fed by subter-
ranean springs. According to the legend, theemissarium (outlet)
which still drains it was made in 308-397 b.c, the Delphic oracle
having declared that Veil could only be taken when the waters
of the lake reached the sea. It is over a mile in length, hewn in*
the rock, and about 6 ft high and 4 ft. broad; it has vertical shafts
at intervals, and a sluice chamber at its egress from the lake. In
the time of Domitian the whole lake belonged to the imperial
domain. (See Alba Longa.)
ALBANUS MONS (mod. Monte Cava, from an early dty of the
name of Cabum? >), the highest point of the volcanic Alban
hills, about 13 m. S.E. of Rome, 3115 ft. above sea-level. It is
upon the line of the rim of the inner crater of the great volcano,
while Tusculum and Algidus Mons mark the edge of the earlier
outer crater, which was about 7 m. wide. The lakes of Albano
and Nemi were probably formed by volcanic explosions at the
margin of the great crater; though a view has also been expressed
that the basins are the result of subsidence; The name Albanus
Mons is also used generally of the Alban group of hills in which
there seem to have been some remains of volcanic activity in
early Roman times, which covered the early necropolis of Alba
Longa, and occasionally produced showers of stones, e.g. in the
time of Tullus Hostilius (Liv. L 31), and perhaps much later.
In 193 B.C. it is recorded (ib. xxxv. 9) that such a shower occurred
at Arida, Lanuvium and on the Aventine. Upon the Mons
Albanus stood the temple of Jupiter Latiaris, where the annual
festival of the Latin League was held. The foundations and
some of the architectural fragments of the temple were still in
existence until 1777, when they were used to build the Passionist
monastery by Cardinal York. The road which ascended to the
temple from the rim of the lake is still well preserved.
ALBANY, DUKES OF. The territorial designation of Albany
was formerly given to those parts of Scotland to the north of
the firths of Clyde and Forth. The title of duke of Albany
was first bestowed in 1398 by King Robert III. on his brother,
Robert Stewart, earl of Fife (see I. below); but in 1425 it
became extinct. The dukedom was re-created, c. 1458, In favour
of Alexander Stewart, " lord of Annandale and earl of March "
(see II. below), whose son and successor (see III. below) left no
legitimate heir. The title of duke of Albany was next bestowed
upon Henry Stuart, commonly known as Lord Darnley, by
Mary, queen of Scots, in 1565. From him the title passed to
his son, James VI. of Scotland and I. of England. The title
was by him given, at his birth, to Charles, his second son, after-
wards King Charles L By Charles II. it was again bestowed,
in 1660, on James, duke of York, afterwards King James II.
On the 5th of July 17 16 Ernest Augustus, bishop of Osnaburgh
[Osnabruck] (1715-1728), youngest brother of King George I.,
was created duke of York and Albany, the title becoming extinct
on his death without heirs in 1728. On the 1st of April 1760
Prince Edward Augustus, younger brother of King George III.,
was created duke of York and Albany; he died without heirs on
the 17 th of September 1767. On the 39th of November 1784
the title of duke of York and Albany was again created in favout
of Frederick, second son of George III., who died without heirs
on the 5th of January 1817. The title of duke of Albany was
bestowed on the 24th of May 1881 on Prince Leopold, youngest
son of Queen Victoria (see IV. below).
I. Robert Stewart, duke of Albany (c. 1345-1420), regent
of Scotland, was a son of King Robert II. by his mistress,
Elizabeth Mure, and was legitimatized when his parents were
married about 1349. In 1361 he married Margaret, countess of
Mentcith, and after his widowed sister-in-law, Isabel, countess of
Fife, had recognized him as her heir, he was known as the- earl
of Fife and Menteith. Taking an active part in the government
of the kingdom, the earl was made high chamberlain of Scotland
in 1382, and gained military reputation by leading several
plundering expeditions into England. In 1389 after his elder
brother John, earl of Carrick, had been incapacitated by an
accident, and when his father the king was old and infirm, he
was chosen governor of Scotland by the estates; and he retained
the control of affairs after his brother John became king as Robert
Til. in 1300. In April 1308 he was created duke of Albany;
1 See Th. Mommscn in Bulletino deW Istituto (1861). 206; Corpus
luscrip. LaL (Berlin. 1887). xiv. 2228.
488
ALBANY, DUKES OF
but in the following year his nephew David, duke of Rothesay,
the heir to the crown, succeeded him as governor, although the
duke himself was a prominent member of the advising council
Uncle and nephew soon differed, and in March 140a the latter
died in prison at Falkland. It is not certain that Albany was
responsible for the imprisonment and death of Rothesay, whom
the parliament declared to have died from natural causes; but
the scanty evidence points in the direction of his guilt Restored
to the office of governor, the duke was chosen regent of the
kingdom after the death of Robert III. in 1406, as the new king,
James I., was a prisoner in London; and he took vigorous steps
to prosecute the war with England, which had been renewed a
few years before. He was unable, or as some say unwilling, to
effect the release of his royal nephew, and was soon faced by a
formidable revolt led by Donald Macdonald, second lord of the
Isles, who claimed the .earldom of Ross and was in alliance with
Henry IV. of England; but the defeat of Donald at Harlaw
near Aberdeen in July 1411 freed him from this danger. Con-
tinuing alternately to fight and to negotiate with England, the
duke died at Stirling Castle in September 1420, and was buried
in Dunfermline Abbey. Albany, who was the ablest prince
of his house, left by his first wife one son, Murdac (or Murdoch)
Stewart, who succeeded him as duke of Albany and regent, but
at whose execution in 2425 the dukedom became extinct
See Andrew of Wyntoun, The Orygynale Cronykil of Scotland,
edited by D. Laing (Edinburgh. 1872-1879); John of Fordun,
Scotithronicon, continued by Walter Bower, edited by T. Hearne
(Oxford, 1722); and P. F. Tytlef, History of Scotland (Edinburgh,
1850). See also Sir W. Scott's Fair Maid of Perth.
II. Alexander Stewart, duke of Albany (c. 1454- 1485),
was the second son of James II., king of Scotland, by his wife,
Mary, daughter of Arnold, duke of Geldcrland. Created duke
of Albany before 1458, he also received the lordship of the Isle
of Man, and was afterwards captured by an English ship when
journeying to Gelderland in 1468. He was soon released, and
as he grew to manhood began to take part in the government
and defence of Scotland, being appointed in quick succession
high admiral, warden of the marches, governor of Berwick and
lieutenant of the kingdom. Soon, however, he quarrelled with
his brother, King James III. Some of his actions on the marches
aroused suspicion, and in 1479 ne w *» seized and imprisoned in
Edinburgh Castle; but he soon made his escape, and reaching
Paris in September X479 was welcomed by King Louis XI.
Louis, however, would not assist him to attack his brother
the king, and crossing to England he made a treaty with King
Edward' IV. at Fothcringhay in June 1482. Like Edward
Baliol, he promised to hold Scotland under English suzerainty
in return for Edward's assistance, and with Richard, duke of
Gloucester, afterwards King Richard III., he marched at the
head of the English forces to Edinburgh. Meanwhile his sup-
porters in Scotland had seized James, and professed their
readiness to recognize Albany, declaring at the same time their
distrust of Gloucester. A compromise, however, was arranged,
and the restoration of his lands and offices was promised to
Albany, who in turn agreed to be faithful to James; but about
the same time the duke with remarkable duplicity had sworn
he would keep the treaty with Edward. Again he was appointed
lieutenant of the kingdom, a truce was made with the English,
and James, released from custody, restored his brother and
created him earl of Mar and Garioch. The fraternal peace was
soon disturbed. Failing to obtain possession of the king's person,
Albany renewed negotiations with Edward, and in February
1483 made a new treaty at Westminster on the lines of that
of Fothcringhay. A fresh reconciliation followed between the
brothers, but in July 1483, during Albany's absence in England,
he was sentenced to death for treason. After making a raid on
Lochmaben he went to France, where in 1485 he was accidentally
killed. Albany's first wife was Catherine, daughter of William,
third earl of Orkney and first earl of Caithness, who bore him
three sons and a daughter. This marriage was dissolved in
1478, and as its issue was regarded as illegitimate the title of
duke of Albany descended to John (see below), his only son by
his second wife, Anne 'de la Tour d'Auvergne, daughter el
Bertrand II., count of Auvergnc and of Bouillon, whom be
married in 1480.
III. Jobn Stewart, duke of Albany (c. 1481-1536), regent
of Scotland, was born about 1481. He was brought op 01
France, where he owned large estates, and held the office of
admiral of France. In 1515, at the request of the Scottish
parliament, and in spite of Henry VTJI/s efforts to prevent turn.
Albany came to Scotland, was inaugurated regent in Jury, and
proceeded to organize resistance to the influence of Rngtanri
and of Margaret Tudor, the queen dowager, sister of Henry VUL
In August he seized the latter and her children at Stirling, «sd
subsequently was occupied in suppressing the rebellion of the
Homes, Angus (the second husband of Margaret), and James
Hamilton, earl of Arran; Alexander, third Lord Home, being
beheaded in October 1516. Albany was declared on tbe 12th
of November heir to the throne, and on the 6th of June 1517
he returned to France. In August he concluded the treaty of
Rouen, by which the alliance between France and Scotland
was renewed and a daughter of Francis I. was to marry James V,
and next year he obtained the relaxation of certain does oa
Scottish imports into France. Meanwhile Margaret had returned
immediately on Albany's departure, and disorders had broke*
out owing to the rivalry between Angus and Arran. Francis L
had secretly engaged himself to Henry VIII. not to allow
Albany's departure from France, but he returned at the dose
of 152 1 and immediately became the object of Henry VXTL's
and Wolsey's attacks. He reconciled himself temporarily with
Margaret, supported her divorce from Angus, and was now
accused by the English government, in all probability unjustly,
of having seduced her and of harbouring schemes of marrying
her himself, together with designs against the life of the yoaag
king. These accusations were repudiated by the Scots, and
Henry's demand for the regent's dismissal refused. War broke
out in 1522, and in September Albany advanced to within four
miles of Carlisle with a large army. The Scots, however, showed
unwillingness to fight outside their own frontiers, and Albany
agreed to a truce and disbanded his troops. On the 25th of
October he departed hastily to France, leaving the borders
exposed to the enemy. On the 25th of September 1523 he once
more landed in Scotland, bringing with him supplies from France
and a considerable body of troops, and on the 3rd of November,
after an unsuccessful attack on Wark, retreated hastily, and
quitted Scotland finally on the 20th of May 1524. On the
30th of July his regency was terminated by the declaration of
James V. as king. He accompanied Francis I. in his disastrous
Italian campaign of 1525, being detached to make a diversion in
Naples against the Spanish. Between 1 530 and x 53 5 he acted as
French ambassador in Rome, conducted Catherine de' Medici, his
wife's niece, to Paris on her marriage to Henry (afterwards
Henry II.) in 1534, and negotiated the marriage of James V.
The regent Albany was a singularly unfortunate commander
in the field, but a successful ruler and administrator, and the
Scottish court of session owed to him its institution. But he
regarded himself more the subject of the king of France than of
the king of Scotland, subordinated the interests of the latter
state to the former, and disliked his official duties in Scotland,
where the benefits of his administration were largely diminished
by his want of perseverance and frequent absence. He appears
to have been a man of honourable and straightforward conduct,
whose character must be cleared from the aspersions of WoIsct
and the English authorities. He married his cousin Anne de
la Tour d'Auvergne, but left no legal issue, and all his honours
became extinct at his death.
IV. Leopold George Duncan Albert, duke of Albany,
eighth child and youngest son of Queen Victoria, was born on the
7th of April 1853. The delicacy of his health seemed to nark
him out for a life of retirement, and as he grew older he evinced
much of the love of knowledge, the capacity for study and tbe
interest in philanthropic and ecclesiastical movements which
had characterized his father, the prince consort. He matricu-
lated at Christ Church, Oxford, in November 1872, living wok
ALBANY
489
his tutor tt Wykeham House, St Giles's! and diligently pursued
his favourite studies of science, art and the modern languages.
In 1876 he left the university with the honorary degree of D.C.L.,
and resided at Boyton House, Wiltshire, and afterwards at
ClaremonL On coming of age in 1874, he had been made
a privy councillor and granted an annuity of £15,000. He
travelled on the continent, and in 1880 visited the United States
and Canada. He was a trustee of the B ritish M useum, a bencher
of Lincoln's Inn, and continued to take an active part in the
promotion of education and knowledge generally. Like his
lather and other members of his family he was an excellent
public speaker. On the 24th of Msy 1881 be was created duke
of Albany, earl of Clarence and Baron Arklow. On the 27th of
April 1882 he married H61ene Frederica Augusta, princess of
Waldeck-Pyrmont, and his income was raised by parliament to
£25,000. Having gone to the south of France for his health in
the spring of 1884, he was attacked by a fit, the cause or the
consequence of a fall in a club-house at Cannes, on the 27th of
March, and died very unexpectedly on the following morning.
His death was universally regretted, from the gentleness and
graciousness of his character, and the desire and ability he had
shown to promote intellectual interests of every kind. He left
a daughter, born in February 1883, and a posthumous son,
Arthur Charles Edward, born on the 19th of July 1884, who
succeeded to the dukedom of Albany, and who on the 30th of
July 1000 became duke of Saxe-Coburg on the death of his
uncle.
ALBANY. LOUISB MAXIMILIENNB CAROLINE. Countess
or ( 1 752-1824), eldest daughter of Prince Gustavus Adolphus
of Stolberg-Gedern, was born at Mons on the 20th of September
x 7 52. In her youth she was a canoness of Ste. Wandru at Mons,
but in her twentieth year she was affianced, at the instigation
of the duke of Berwick and with the secret connivance of the
French Court, to Prince Charles Edward Stuart, " the Young
Pretender," self-styled count of Albany. She was wedded to
the prince at Macerata, near Ancona, on Good Friday 1774,
and the married pair for over two years resided in the old
Stuart palace at Rome. Pretty, intelligent, charming and wit ty,
Louise fascinated Roman society, wherein she gained the nick-
name of " Queen of Hearts." The union, however, which was
obviously intended to give an heir to the Stuart prince, proved
childless, snd Louise's married life became far from happy In
1 774 the pair moved to Florence, where in December 1 780 Louise,
terrified at her husband's violence and fearing for the safety of
ber life, fled to a neighbouring convent and threw herself on the
protection of her brother-in-law, Henry Stuart, Cardinal York,
who invited her to Rome. Louise had already in Florence
formed the acquaintance of the great Italian tragic poet, Vittorio
Alfieri, who had been captivated by her engaging manners, her
youthful beauty and her literary powers. The poet now
followed her to Rome, but the friendship between Alfieri and his
sister-in-law does not seem to have aroused any suspicion in
the mind of Cardinal York until 1783, when, after a visit to his
brother in Florence, he suddenly requested Pope Pius VI. to
banish Alfieri from papal territory. In 1784, however, a legal
separation between the count and countess of Albany was
arranged, and by Charles's death in 1788 Louise found herself
freed from matrimonial bonds. In company with Alfieri (to
whom rumour said she had been secretly married) she now
visited Paris and London, and was cordially received at the
English court, George III. granting her an annual pension of
£1600 from the privy purse. Returning to Italy, Alfieri and
the countess settled at Florence, where the poet died on the
9th of October 1803, and was buried in the church of Santa
Croce beneath Canova's vast monument erected at Louise's
expense. The countess continued to reside in the house on the
Lung* Amo at Florence, patronising men of science and letters
and holding nightly receptions, at which all visitors were expected
to treat their hostess with the etiquette due to reigning royalty.
She died on the 29th of January 1824 and was buried in Santa
Croce, where in the south transept a marble monument by
GiovannosJ and Santarelli commemorates her. By her will
the countess bequeathed all her property, including many historic
objects of art and documents, to the companion of her old age,
the French painter, Francois Xavier Fabre, who ultimately gave
the greater part of his legacy to the museum of his native town
of Montpellier. Two excellent portraits of the countess of
Albany and of Alfieri, painted by this artist, now hang in the
Uffisi Gallery at Florence.
See Vernon Lee, The Cotmtm of Albany (1884). Marchess
Vitelletchi, A Court in Exile. (H. M. V.)
ALBANY, a river of Canada, forming part of the boundary
between the province of Ontario and the district of Kecwalin.
It rises in Lake St Joseph in 91° 25' W. and 50 55' N., and
flows E.N.E. into James Bay, its total length being over 400 m.
It is navigable for nearly half its length, to Martin's Falls.
There are four Hudson's Bay Company's posts on its banks,
including Fort Albany at its mouth. The Qgoki and Kcnogami
rivers are the principal tributaries.
ALBANY, a city and the county-seat of Dougherty county,
Georgia, U.S.A., at the mouth of the Kinchafoona Creek, and at
the head of navigation on the Flint river, about 100 m. S.S.W. of
Macon, about 200 m. S.W. of Savannah and about 203 m. N.E.
of Pensacola. Pop. (1890) 4008; (1900) 4606 (2903 of negro
descent); (1910) 8190. It is served by the Central of Georgia,
the Georgia Northern, the Seaboard Air Line, the Albany &
Northern and the Atlantic Coast Line railways, and by steam-
boats connecting it with Apalachicola at the mouth of the
Apalachicola river. Its importance is largely due to these
transportation facilities and to the resources of the surround-
ing country, which produces timber, lime, cotton, Indian corn,
sugar-cane, wheat, oats, fruit, melons, hay and vegetables.
Albany ships much cotton, and has a cotton compress, a cotton
mill, cotton-seed oil and guano factories, brick yards, lumber
mills and ice factories. It is a summer and winter resort and
is the home of the Georgia Chautauqua. The city owns and
operates the electric-lighting plant and artesian water-works.
It was settled in 1836, was incorporated in 1838 and received
its present city charter in 1007.
ALBANY, a city and the county-seat of Albany county. New
York, U.S.A., and the capital of the state. It is situated on the
W bank of the Hudson river, just below the mouth of the
Mohawk, 145 m. N. of New York City and 165 m. W of Boston.
Pop (1880) 00,758, (1890) 94,923; (icoo) 04,1 5 N of whom
17,718 were foreign-born (66x2 being Irish, 5903 German, 1361
English and 740 Russian) and 1x78 were negroes; (19 10)
100,253. Albany is a terminus of the New York Central
& Hudson River, the Delaware & Hudson and the West
Shore railways, and is also served by the Boston &
Maine railway, by the Erie and Champlain canals (being a
terminus of each), by steamboat lines on the Hudson river
and by several intcr-urban electric railways connecting with
neighbouring cities.
Albany is attractively situated on a series of hills rising sharply
from the river. The older portions of the city are reminiscent
of Dutch colonial days, and some fine specimens of the Dutch
and later colonial architecture are still standing. Perhaps the
most famo'ts of these is the Schuyler mansion (now St Francis
de Sales Orphan Asylum), built in 1760-1 761. The Van
Rensselaer manor-house, built in 1765, was pulled down in
1893 and was reconstructed on the campus of Williams College,
Williamstown, Massachusetts, where it is used as a fraternity
club-house. Among the public buildings, the finest is the
new State Capitol, one of the largest and most imposing in
America. It occupies a commanding position in Capitol Square
(7*84 acres), one of the highest points in the city. It is built of
white Maine granite, and cost about $35,000,000. Its dimensions
are 300 X 400 ft The corner-stone was laid in x 87 1 , and the build-
ing was completed, with the exception of the central tower and
dome, in 1904. The legislature first met in it in 1879. The
original designs were by Thomas Fuller, who also designed the
parliamentary buildings at Ottawa; but the plans underwent
many changes, Isaac Gale Perry, Leopold Eidlitx and H. H.
Richardson being associated with the work before its completion.
J
49°
ALBANY
The beautiful " western staircase " of red sandstone (from plans
by Perry) and the senate chamber (designed by Richardson)
are perhaps the most notable parts of the structure. The build-
ing houses the various executive departments, the legislature
and the court of appeals. A large and handsome building of
white granite was begun in 1908 directly opposite the Capitol
to accommodate the department of education and the magni-
ficent state library (about 450,000 volumes). Other important
buildings are the old state hall, a handsome white marble
building erected in 1842; the city hall, a beautiful French
Gothic building of pink granite trimmed with red sandstone,
designed by H. H. Richardson; the Federal Building; the
State Museum of Natural History; the galleries of the Albany
Institute and Historical and Art Society, in State Street, opposite
the Capitol; Harmanus Bleecker Hall, a theatre since 1898;
and the Ten Eyck and Kenmore hotels. Among the finest
office buildings are the structures of the Albany City Savings
Institution, National Commerical Bank, Union Trust Company,
Albany Trust Company, the National Savings Bank, First
National Bank, the New York State National Bank (1803,
probably the oldest building in the United States used con-
tinuously for banking purposes) and the Albany Savings Bank.
The Fort Orange Club, the Catholic Union, the Albany Club,
the University Club, the City Club of Albany, the Country
Club, the German Hall Association and the Adelphi Club are
the chief social organizations. The principal church buildings
are the Cathedral of the Immaculate Conception (Roman
Catholic), a fine specimen of Gothic architecture, built of brown-
stone, with spires 2x0 ft high; the cathedral of All Saints
(Protestant Episcopal), an English Gothic structure of pink
sandstone designed by R. W. Gibson and begun in 1883; St
Peter's Episcopal Church (French Gothic), of Hudson River
bluestone; Emmanuel Baptist Church, of white granite; the
Madison Avenue Reformed Church; and St Joseph's (Roman
Catholic), of bluestone and Caen stone with marble trimmings.
Among the educational institutions are the Albany Medical
College (1839) and the Albany Law School (1851), both incor-
porated since 1873 with the Union University, the Collegiate
Department of which is at Schenectady; the Albany College
of Pharmacy (1881), also part of Union University; the Albany
Academy (18x3), in which Joseph Henry, while a member of
the faculty, perfected in 1826-1832 the electro-magnet and
began his work on the electric telegraph; the Albany Academy
for Girls, founded in 18x4 as the Albany Female Academy (name
changed in 1006); and a State Normal College (1800), with a
Model School. The hospitals and charitable institutions include
St Vincent's Orphan Asylum, the Lathrop Memorial (for children
of working mothers), Albany City Hospital, the Homeopathic
Hospital, St Peter's Hospital, the Albany City Orphan Asylum
and the House of the Good Shepherd There are a county
penitentiary and a State armoury. The city has 95 acres of
boulevards and avenues under park supervision and several
fine parks (17, with .307 acres in X007), notably Washington
(containing Calverley's bronze statue of Robert Burns, and
Rhind's "Moses at the Rock of Horeb"), Beaver and Dudley,
in which is the old Dudley Observatory— the present Observatory
building is in Lake Avenue, south-west of Washington Park, where
is also the Albany Hospital In the beautiful rural cemetery,
north of the city, are the tombs of President Chester A. Arthur
and General Philip Schuyler. The city owns a fine water-supply
and a filtration plant covering 20 acres, with a capacity of
30,000,000 gallons daily and storage reservoirs with a capacity
of 227,000,000 gallons.
The first newspaper in Albany was the Gaxette, founded in
1771. The Argus, founded in 18x3 by Jesse Buel (1 778-1839)
and edited from 1824 to 1854 by Edwin Croswell (x 797-1871),
was long the organ of the coterie of New York politicians known
as the " Albany Regency," and was one of the most influential
Democratic papers in the United States. Previously to their
holding office, Daniel Manning (183 1-1887), secretary of the
treasury in President Cleveland's cabinet, was president of the
Argus company, and Daniel Scott Laxnont (1851-1005), secretary
of war during President Cleveland's second ■riminhtrirMW,
was managing editor of the newspaper. The Evening /mvmI,
founded in 1830 as an anti-Masonic organ, and for thirty-sHc
years edited by Thurlow Weed, was equally influential as a=
organ of the Whig and later of the Republican party.
Albany is an important railway and commerdal centre
particularly as a distributing point for New England markets.
as a lumber market and— though to a much less extent xkzz
formerly— as a depot for transhipment to the south and west
Among the city's manufactories are breweries, iron and brass
foundries, stove factories, knitting mills, cotton mills, clothing
factories, slaughtering and meat-packing establishments, agar
and cigarette factories, and manufactories of adhesive pastes.
court plaster, spring beds, ribbed underwear, aniline dyes.
chemicals, gas meters, fire-brick, and glazed paper and card-
board. The value of the total factory product in 1005 was
$20,208,7x5, which was 17 % greater than that for 100a
History. — Albany was probably the second place to be per-
manently settled within the borders of the original Thirteen
Colonies. It seems likely that French traders ascended the
river as far as the site of the present city in the first half c£ the
sixteenth century, and according to some writers •^temporary
trading post was established here about x 540. Albany's authentic
history, however, may be dated from 16x4, when Dutch trader*
built on Castle Island, opposite the dty, a post which they named
Fort Nassau. Three years later the fort was removed to the
mainland, and near here in 1618 the Dutch made their first
treaty with the Iroquois. In 1624 arrived eighteen families
of Dutch Walloons, the first actual permanent settlers, as dis-
tinguished from traders. In that year, on a hill near the site
of the present Capitol, Fort Orange was built, and around it
as a centre, the new town grew. At first it was known by the
Dutch simply as the " fuyck " (hoop), from the curve in the
river at this point, whence was soon derived the name Bever-
fuyck or Beverwyck. In 1629 the Dutch government granted
to Killiaen van Rensselaer, an Amsterdam diamond merchant
a tract of land (24 sq. m.) centring at Fort Orange. Over this
tract, the first patroonship granted in the colony, he had the
usual powers and rights of a patroon. The grant was named
Rensselaerwyck in his honour, became a " manor " in 1685.
and remained in the family until 1853. The colonists whoa
he settled upon his grant (1630) were industrious, and " Bever-
wyck" became increasingly prosperous. From this time the
town, on account of its favourable commercial and strategic
position at the gateway of the Iroquois country and at the head
of navigation on the Hudson river, was for a century and a half
one of the most important places in the colonies. In 1644, with
the transfer of New Netherlands to English control, the name
" Beverwyck " was changed to " Albany "—one of the titles
of the duke of York (afterward James II.). In 1673 the town
was again for a short time under Dutch control. In 16S6
Governor Dongan granted to Albany a dty charter, which pro-
vided for an elected council. The first mayor appointed by the
governor was Peter Schuyler (1657-1724). In 1689 was held
here the first inter-colonial convention in America, when delegates
from Massachusetts Bay, Plymouth, Connecticut and New
York met to treat with representatives of the Five Nations
and to plan a system of colonial defence. During the 18th
century there was a great influx of English colonists, and in 17x4
the first English church was erected. During the French and
Indian wars Albany was a starting-point for expeditions against
Canada and the Lake Champlain country. In June 1754. »
pursuance of a recommendation of the Lords of Trade, a con-
vention of representatives of Massachusetts, Rhode Island,
New Hampshire, Connecticut, New York, Pennsylvania sad
Maryland met here for the purpose of confirming and establishing
a doser league of friendship with the Iroquois and of arranging
for a permanent union of the colonies. The Indian affairs having
been satisfactorily adjusted, the convention, after considerable
debate, in which Benjamin Franklin, Stephen Hopkins sad
Thomas Hutchinson took a leading part, adopted (July xt) a
plan for a union of the colonies, which was in great part similar
ALBANY— ALBAY
491
to one submitted to the convention by Franklin. This plan
provided for a representative governing body to be known as
the Grand Council, to which each colony should elect delegates
(not more than seven or less than two) for a term of three years.
This body was to have control of Indian affairs, impose taxes,
nominate all civil officers, authorize the opening of new lands
to settlement, and in general have charge of colonial defence,
and of the enlistment, equipment and maintenance of an army.
An executive or viceroy, to be known as the president-general,
was to have the veto power over the acts of the Grand Council
and the right of appointment of military officers. Finally, it
was provided that the acts of the Grand Council should be valid
unless vetoed by the crown within a period of three years.
Neither the British government nor the growing party in the
colonies which was clamouring for colonial rights received
the plan with favour— the former holding that it gave the
colonies too much independence, and the latter that it gave them
too little. The strategic importance of Albany was fully recog-
nized during the War of Independence, and it was against Albany
that Burgoyne's expedition was directed. Albany became the
permanent state capital in 1797. In 1830 it became the centre
of the " Anti-Rent War," which was precipitated by the death
of Stephen van Rensselaer (1 764-1839), the last of the patroons;
the attempt of his heirs to collect overdue rents resulting in
disturbances which necessitated the calling out of the militia,
spread into several counties where there were large landed
estates, and were not entirely settled until 1847
See William Barnes. The Settlement and Early History of Albany
(Albany. 1864) . J. Munsell. The Annals of Albany (10 volt.. Albany,
1 850-1859; 2nd ed., 4 vols., 1 869-1871); E. B. O'Callaghan,
Documentary History of the State of New York, vol. iii. (Albany,
1850): A. J. Weise, The History of the City of Albany (Albany,
1884) : G. R. Howell and J. Tenney, Bi-Centennial History of Albany
(New York. 1886); Amasa J. Parker. Landmarks of Albany County
(Syracuse, 1897); and Cuyler Reynolds, Albany Chronicles, or
Albany Mayors and Contemporaneous Chronology (Albany, 1907).
ALBANY, a municipal town in the county of Plantagenet, West
Australia, on Princess Royal Harbour, a branch of Ring George
Sound, 352 m. by rail and 254 m. directly S.S.E. of Perth. Pop.
(1901) 3650. It is the chief health resort of the state, and its
climate is one of the finest in Australia; it has a mean annual
temperature of 58*6° F., and the summer heat is never excessive.
One of the features of the town is the Marine Drive, some 5) m.
in circuit around the hills overlooking the harbour. Albany has
several flourishing industries, of which the chief are brewing,
coach-building, printing and tanning. In addition it has the
finest harbour in West Australia. A pier extends for 1 700 ft into
the sea, giving safe accommodation to the large steamers which
call at the port. The Great Southern railway has a line to the
seaward end of the pier, and affords direct communication with
the interior of the colony. The harbour is protected by forts and
there is a garrison in the town. King George Sound, of which
Albany is the township, was first occupied in 1826 and a penal
settlement was established. No attempt was made to colonize
the locality until after this settlement was given up in 1831.
Albany became a municipality -in 1871.
ALBATBGNIU8 (c. 850-929), an Arab prince and astronomer,
correctly designated Mahommed ben Gebir al Batani, his surname
being derived from his native town, Batan in Mesopotamia.
From his observations at Aracte and Damascus, where he died, he
was able to correct some of Ptolemy's results, previously taken on
trust He compiled new tables of the sun and moon, long
accepted as authoritative, discovered the movement of the sun's
apogee, and assigned to annual precession the improved value
of 55'. Perhaps independently of Aryabhatta (born at Patali-
putra on the Ganges 476 A.D.), he introduced the use of sines
in calculation, and partially that of tangents. His principal
work, De Motu Slellarum, was published at Nuremberg in
1537 by Melanchthon, in a blundering Latin translation by
Plato Tiburtinus (fl. 11 16), annotated by Regiomontanus.
A reprint appeared at Bologna in 1645. The original MS.
is preserved at the Vatican; and the Escorial library, possesses
in MS. a treatise of some value by him on astronomical
chronology. Albategnius takes the highest rank among Arab
astronomers.
See Houxeau, Bibliotraphie astronomume, L 467; M. Marie,
Histoire des sciences, ii. 113; R. Wolf, CeockkhU dor Astronomie,
p. 67 ; Delambre, Hist, de Fastr. au moyen dge t ch. ii. ; Pkil. Trans.,
1693 (9<3)» where E. Halley supplies corrections to some of the
observations recorded in De Motu steUaruuu
ALBATROSS (from the Port. AkatraM, a pelican), the name
of a genus of aquatic birds (Dionudea), closely allied to the
petrels, and belonging, like them, to the order Tubinares. In
the name Diomedea, assigned to them by Linnaeus, there is a
reference to the mythical metamorphosis of the companions of
the Greek warrior Diomedes into birds. The beak is large, strong
and sharp-edged, the upper mandible terminating in a large hook,
the wings are narrow and very long; the feet have no hind toe,
and the three anterior toes are completely webbed. The best
known is the common or wandering albatross (D. exulans), which
occurs in all parts of the Southern Ocean. It is the largest and
strongest of all sea-birds. The length of the body is stated at
4 ft, and the weight at from x 5 to 25 lb. It sometimes measures
as much as 17 ft between
the tips of the extended
wings, averaging probably
from 10 to is ft Its
strength of wing is very
great It often accom-
panies a ship for days —
not merely following it, but
wheeling in wide circles
round it— without ever
being observed to alight on
the water, and continues its
flight, apparently untired, in
tempestuous as well as in
moderate weather. It has
even been said to sleep on
the wing, and Moore alludes
to this fanciful "cloud-
rocked slumbering in his
Fire Worshippers. It feeds on small fish and on the animal
refuse that floats on the sea, eating to such excess at times
that it is unable to fly and rests helplessly on- the water.
The colour of the bird is white, the back being streaked trans-
versely with black or brown bands, and the wings dark. Sailors
capture the bird for its long wing-bones, which they manu-
facture into tobacco-pipe stems. The albatross lays one egg;
it is white, with a few spots, and is about 4 in. long. In
breeding-time the bird resorts to solitary island groups, like
the Crozet Islands and the elevated Tristan da Cunha, where
it has its nest— a natural hollow or a circle of earth roughly
scraped together— on the open ground. The early explorers of
the great Southern Sea cheered themselves with the companion-
ship of the albatross in its dreary solitudes; and the evil hap of
him who shot with his cross-bow the bird of good omen is familiar
to readers of Coleridge's Rime of the Ancient Mariner. Several
species of albatross are known; for the smaller forms see
Mallemuck.
ALBAY, a dty and the capital of the province of Albay, Luzon,
Philippine Islands, near an inlet on the W. shore of the Gulf of
Albay, 2x5 m. by wagon-road S.E. of Manila. Pop. (1903)
14,049; in October 1907 the towns of Daraga (pop. 1903, 18,695)
and Legaspi (pop. 1903, 9206) were merged with Albay, making
its total population, on the basis of the 1903 census, 41,950*
Albay is one of the most important cities of the Philippine
Islands. It is built on level ground near the S. base of Mount
May6n, a beautiful volcanic peak, 7916 ft high, from which it is
sheltered by the Linguin hills. The surrounding country is one
of the most important hemp-producing districts in the Philip-
pines; sinamay is woven here, and large quantities of hemp are
shipped from here to Manila. Cocoa, copra, sugar and sweet
potatoes are other important products of the district The
language is Bicol. The old town, called Cagsaua, which stood a
short distance E.N.E. of the new, was completely destroyed by
492
ALBEDO— ALBEMARLE
an eruption of the volcano in 18x4 (about 1200 people being
killed), and the new town was almost entirely destroyed by the
insurgents in February iooo, an ancient stone church of much
beauty (in what was formerly Daraga) being left standing on an
elevated site commanding a view of the surrounding country.
The town was rebuilt on a larger scale by Americans.
ALBEDO (from Lat. albus, white), " whiteness*" a word used
principally in astronomy for the degree of reflected light; the
light of the sun which is reflected from the moon is called the
albedo of the moon.
ALBEMARLE, EARLS AMD DUKES OP. The name Albe-
marle, which now forms the title of the earldom held by the
English family of Keppel. is an early variant of the French
Aumale (Lat Alba Maria), other forms being Aubemarle and
Aumerle, and is described in the patent of nobility granted in
1696-1697 by William III. to Arnold Joost van Keppel as
" a town and territory in the dukedom of Normandy."
The fief of Aumale (q. v.) was granted by the archbishop of
Rouen to Odo of Champagne, brother-in-law of William the
Conqueror, who erected it into a countship. On Odo's death
his son Stephen succeeded not only to the countship of Aumale,
but to the lordships of Holderness, of Bytham in Lincolnshire,
&c, which were subsequently known as the " Fee and Honor
of Albemarle." Stephen, who as a crusader had fought valiantly
at Antioch, died about 1127, leaving by his wife Hawise, daughter
of Ralph de Mortimer, a son— William of Blois, known as " le
Gbos." William, who distinguished himself at the battle of the
Standard (1x38), and shared with King Stephen in the defeat
of Lincoln (1141), married Cicely, daughter of William Fife-
Duncan, grandson of Malcolm, king of Scotland, who as " lady
of Harewood " brought him vast estates. He founded abbeys
at Meaux in Holderness and at Thornton, and died in 11 79.
His elder daughter and heiress Hawise married (1) William de
Mandeville, 3rd carl of Essex (d. 1x89), (a) William de Fortibus
(de Fors, de Forts or des Forts 1 ), (3) Baldwin de Betun or
Bcthunc, all of whom bore the title of earls of Albemarle.
Soon after the death of Baldwin (October 13, 12x3), William
de Fortibus, Ha wise's son by her second husband, was established
by King John in the territories of the countship of Albemarle*,
and in 1215 the whole of his mother's estates were formally
confirmed to him. He is described by Bishop Stubbs as " a
feudal adventurer of the worst type," and for some time was
actively engaged in the struggles of the Norman barons against
John and Henry III. He was one of the twenty-five executors
of the Great Charter; but in the war that followed sided with
John, subsequently changing sides as often as it suited his policy.
His object was to revive the independent power of the feudal
barons, and he co-operated to this end with Falkes de Breaute
(q.v.) and other foreign adventurers established in the country
by John. This brought him into conflict with the great justiciar,
Hubert de Burgh, and in 12x9 he was declared a rebel and ex-
communicated for attending a forbidden tournament In x a 20
matters were brought to a crisis by his refusal to surrender
the two royal castles of Rockingham and Sauvey of which he
•had been made constable in x a 16. Henry III. marched against
them in person, the garrisons fled, and they fell without a blow.
In the following year, however, Albemarle, in face of further
efforts to reduce his power, rose in revolt. He was now again
excommunicated by the legate Pandulph at a solemn council
held in St Paul's, and the whole force of the kingdom was set
in motion against him, a special scutage — the " scutagium de
Bihan " — being voted for this purpose by the Great Council.
The capture of his castle of Bytham broke his power; he sought
sanctuary and, at Pandulph's intercession, was pardoned on
condition of going for six years to the Holy Land. He remained
in England, however, and in 1323 was once more in revolt with
Falkes de Breaute," the earl of Chester and other turbulent spirits.
A reconciliation was once more patched up; but it was not
1 The name was derived from Fors, a commune in the canton of
Prahcca in Poitou. It is spelt Fors in a deed of 1233, and the best
vernacular form is, according to Thomas Stapleton (Preface to the
Liber de AntiquitaU, Camden Soc, 1846, p. xxxiv. note), de Forts.
until the fall of Falkes de Breaute that Albemarle finally settled
down* as an English noble. In 1225 he witnessed Henry** third
re-issue of the Great Charter; in 1227 he went as ambassador
to Antwerp; and in 1230 he accompanied Henry on his expedi-
tion to Brittany. In 1241 he set out for the Holy Land, bet
died at sea, on his way there, on the 26th of March 114*. By
his wife Avelina of Montfichet, William left a son, also named
William, who married (x) Christina (d. 1246), daughter sad
co-heiress of Alanj lord of Galloway, (2) in 1248 Isabella de
Redvers (1237-1292-3), daughter of Baldwin de Redvers, eari of
Devon and lord of the Isle of Wight He played a conspicooas
part in the reign of Henry III., notably in the Mad Parfiamest
of 1258, and died at Amiens in 1260. His widow, Isabella, oa
the death of her brother Baldwin, 8th earl of Devon, in 1*61.
called herself countess of Devon. She had two children, Thomas,
who died in 1269 unmarried, and Avelina, who married (1269)
Edmund Plantagenet, earl of Lancaster, and died without issue
in 1274. The " Honor of Albemarle " was claimed, in 127ft, by
John de Eston, or Aston, as heir of Amida, younger daughter of
William le Gros; but he released his right to the earldom of
Albemarle to the crown in exchange for certain lands in Thornton.
The title of Albemarle, thus extinguished, was several times
revived before it became attached to the family of its present
holders. In 1385 Thomas of Woodstock, duke of Gloucester,
was summoned to parliament as " duke of Albemarle," but he
seems never subsequently to have used the title. In any case
this creation became extinct with the death of his son Humphrey,
duke of Gloucester, in 1399. In 14 11 Thomas Plantagenet,
second son of Henry IV., was created earl of Albemarle and duke
of Clarence, but at his death at the battle of Beauge (March
22, 1421) these honours became extinct. That of Albemarle
was, however, soon revived (c. 1423) in favour of Richard de
Beauchamp, earl of Warwick, whose title of eari of Aumcrk,
however, died with him.
In 1660 Charles II. bestowed the title of duke of Albemarle
on General Monk (q.v.). Monk's hereditary claim to this semi-
royal peerage was a very shadowy one, being based— as was also
his subordinate style of Baron Beauchamp— on bis descent
from the youngest of the three co-heiresses of Richard, eari of
Warwick, and, with yet more remote applicability, oa that
from Arthur Plantagenet, a natural son of Edward IV. The
title became extinct in x688, on the death of Christopher, and
duke of Albemarle.
Finally, as mentioned above, the title of eari of Albemarle
was bestowed by William III., without any shadow of hereditary
claim, on his Dutch favourite Arnold Joost van Keppel (see
below), by whose descendants it is still held. The motive for
choosing this title was probably that, apart from its dignified
traditions, it avoided the difficulty created by the fact that the
Keppels had as yet no territorial possessions in the British
Islands.
Arnold Joost van Keppel, xst earl of Albemarle, and lord
of Voorst in Gelderland (c. 1670-17x8), son of Oswald van
Keppel and his wife Anna Geertruid van Lintello, was born ia
Holland about 1670. He became page to William III., accom-
panied him to England in 1688, and was made groom of the bed-
chamber and master of the robes in 1*95. On the xoth oi
February 1696/7 he was created earl of Albemarle, Viscount
Bury and Baron Ashford. In 1700 William gave him lands of
enormous extent in Ireland, but parliament obliged the king to
cancel this grant, and William then bestowed on him £50,000.
The same year he was made a knight of the Garter. Meanwhile
he had served both with the English and Dutch troops, was
major-general in 1697, colonel of several regiments and governor
of Bois-Ie-Duc. Of handsome person and engaging disposition,
he rivalled Portland, whose jealousy he aroused in the royal
favour, possessed William's full confidence and accompanied
him everywhere. In February 1702 he was sent by William,
then prostrated with his last illness, to Holland to arrange the
coming campaign, and only returned in time to receive William's
last commissions on his deathbed. After the death of the latter,
who bequeathed to him 200,000 guilders and some lands, he
ALBENGA— ALBERT
493
returned to Holland, took his teat as a noble in the states-general,
and was made a general of horse in the Dutch army. He Joined
the forces of the allies in 1703, was present at Ramillies in 1706
and at Oudenarde in 1708, and distinguished himself at the
siege of Lille. He commanded at the siege of Aire in 1710, led
Marlborough's second line in 1711, and was general of the Dutch
forces in 1712, being defeated at Denain after the withdrawal of
Ormonde and the English forces and taken prisoner. He died
on the 30th of May 1718, aged 48. He married Geertruid,
daughter of Adam van der Denijn, by whom, besides a daughter,
he had a son, William Anne, who succeeded him as snd earl of
Albemarle.
Of the later earls mention need only be made of the sixth,
George Thomas Keppzl (1799-1891), British general, second
son of the fourth earl, born on the 13th of June 1709. Educated
at Westminster School he entered the army as ensign, 14th Foot,
in 181 5. He joined his regiment in Belgium and took part in the
Waterloo campaign and the march to Paris, joined the second
battalion in Corfu, and was transferred to the sand Foot, with
-which he served in Mauritius and at the Cape, returning home in
18x9, when he was appointed equerry to the duke of Sussex.
Promoted to a lieutenancy in the 34th Foot, he was transferred
to the 20th Foot, and went to India, where he was aide-de-camp
to the marquess of Hastings until his resignation in 1823, when
Keppel returned to England, travelling overland through Persia,
Moscow and St Petersburg. He published in 1825 an account of
his travels, entitled Journey from India to England. He was
aide-de-camp to the Marquess Wellesley, lord-lieutenant of
Ireland, for two years, was promoted captain in the 62nd Foot,
studied in the senior department of the Royal Military College at
Sandhurst, and in 1827 obtained a half-pay unattached majority.
He did not again serve on full pay, but rose to be a general. In
X829 he visited the seat of the Russo-Turkish war and was with
the British fleet in Turkish waters. In 1832 he was returned in
the Whig interest to the first reformed parliament as member for
East Norfolk and sat until 1835. He was private secretary to
the premier, Lord John Russell, in 1846, and M.P. for Lymington
from 1847 to 1849- He succeeded to the title on the death of his
brother in 1851. He died in 1891 and was buried at Quidenham,
Norfolk. He wrote an account of a Journey across the Balkans,
Memoirs of Ike Marquis of Rockingham, and an autobigraphy
entitled Fifty Years of My Lift.
See G. E. C(ockayne), Compute Peerage, 8 vols. (London, 1887).
For the two Williams de Fortibus, tee j.p. Prof. T. F. Tout's articles
in the Did. of Nat. Biog.
ALBBNOA, a town and episcopal see of Liguria, Italy, on the
N. W. coast of the Gulf of Genoa, in the province of Genoa, 52) m.
S.W. of Genoa by rail. Pop. (1901) 6248. Albenga is the ancient
Album Ingaunum or Albingaunum, the chief town of the In-
gauni, one of the most important of the Ligurian tribes, whose
territory reached as far as Genoa. Under the empire it was a
munUpium; an inscription records the restoration of the walls,
forum, harbour, &c, by Constantius a.d. 354. A little way out-
side the town to the E. is a well-preserved Roman bridge nearly
500 ft. long and n} ft. wide, with xo arches, each with a span of
37 ft It belonged to the coast road and is now known as Ponte
Lungo. To the S. of the town is a conspicuous monument, 27 ft
high, in the form of a rectangular pillar, resembling a tomb; but
as there is no trace of a dodr to a sepulchral chamber it may be a
shrine. In the town itself there are no Roman remains; but
there is a good Gothic cathedral in brick, and an interesting
octagonal baptistery, attributed to the 8th or 9th century, the
arches being supported by ancient columns, and the vaulting
decorated with mosaics. Some of the medieval palaces of
Albenga have lofty brick towers.
See A. d'Andrade in Relatione deW Uffieio Regional* per la Con-
servation* dei monumenti dd Piemonte * deUa Liguria (Turin, 1899),
Il4ieq.
ALBERONI, OITJLIO (1664-1752), Spanish-Italian cardinal
and statesman, was born near Piacenza, probably at the village
of Fiorenzuola, on the 31st of May 1664. His father was a
gardener, and he himself became first connected with the church
in the humble position of verger in the cathedral of Piaccnza.
Having gained the favour of Bishop Barnl he took priest's orders,
and afterwards accompanied the son of his patron to Rome.
During the war of the Spanish succession Albcroni laid the
foundation of his political success by the services he rendered to
the duke of Vendome, commander of the French forces in Italy;
and when these forces were recalled in 1706 he accompanied the
duke to Paris, where he was favourably received by Louis XIV.
In 171 1 he followed Vendome into Spain as his secretary. Two
years later, the duke having died in the interval, Alberoni was
appointed consular agent for Parma at the court of Philip V. of
Spain, being raised at the same time to the dignity of count. On
his arrival at Madrid he .found the princesse des Ursins all but
omnipotent with the king, and for a time he judged it expedient
to use her influence in carrying out his plans. In concert with
her he arranged the king's marriage with Elizabeth Farnese of
Parma. The influence of the new queen being actively exerted on
Alberoni's behalf, he speedily rose to high position. He was
made a member of the king's council, bishop of Malaga, and in
1 715 prime minister, and was raised to the dignity of cardinal in
1717. His internal policy was exceedingly vigorous. The main
purpose he put before himself was to produce an economic revival
in Spain by abolishing internal custom-houses, throwing open the
trade of the Indies and reorganizing the finances. With the
resources thus gained he undertook to enable King Philip V. to
carry out an ambitious policy both in Italy and in France. The
impatience of the king and his wife gave the minister no time to
mature his plans. By provoking England, France, Holland and
the Empire at once it brought a flood of disaster on Spain for
which Alberoni was held responsible. On the 5th of December
1719 he was ordered to leave Spain, Elizabeth herself having
taken an active part in procuring the decree of banishment. He
went to Italy, and there had to take refuge among the Apennines,
Pope Clement XI., who was his bitter enemy, having given strict
orders for his arrest. On the death of Clement, Alberoni boldly
appeared at the Conclave, and took part in the election of
Innocent XIII. (1721), after which he was for a short time im-
prisoned by the pontiff on the demand of Spain. At the next
election (1724) he was himself proposed for the papal chair, and
secured ten votes at the Conclave which elected Benedict XIII.
Benedict's successor, Clement XII. (elected 1730), named him
legate of Ravenna, in which capacity he incurred the pope's
displeasure by the strong and unwarrantable measures he adopted
to reduce the little republic of San Marino to subjection to Rome.
He was consequently replaced by another legate in 1740, and
soon after he retired to Piacenza. Clement XII. appointed him
administrator of the hospital of San Lazzaro at Piacenza in 1730.
The hospital was a medieval foundation for the benefit of lepers.
The disease having disappeared from Italy, Alberoni obtained
the consent of the pope to the suppression of the hospital, which
had fallen into great disorder, and replaced it by a college for the
education of seventy poor boys for the priesthood, under the
name of the Collegio Alberoni, which it still bears. He died on
the 1 6th of June 1752, leaving a sum of 600,000 ducats to endow
the seminary he had founded, and the residue of the immense
wealth he had acquired in Spain to his nephew. Alberoni left
a large quantity of manuscripts; but the genuineness of the
Political Testament, published in his name at Lausanne in 1753,
has been questioned.
An Histoire du Cardinal Alberoni up to 1719 was published by
Jean Rousset de Missy at the Hague in 1719. A laudatory life,
Storia del Cardinal* Giulio Alberoni, was published by Stefano
Bersani, a priest educated at his college, at Piacenza. in 1861. Giulio
Alberoni t il sua secolo, by Giovanni Bianchi (1901), is briefer and
more critical. See also Lettres intimes de J. Alberoni, edited by
M. E. Bourgeois (1892).
ALBERT (1522-1557), prince of Bayreuth, surnamed the
Warlike, and also Alcibiadcs, was a son oj Casimtr, prince
of Bayreuth, and a member of the Franconian branch of the
Hohenzollern family. Born at Ansbach on Xhe 28th of March
1522, he lost his father in 1527 and came under the guardianship
of his uncle George, prince of Ansbach, a strong adherent of the
reformed doctrines. In 1541 he received Bayreuth as his share
of the family lands, and as the chief town of his principality
494-
ALBERT
was Kulmbach he is sometimes referred to as the margrave of
Bnndenburg-Kulmbach. His restless and turbulent nature
marked him out for a military career; and having collected a
small band of soldiers, he assisted the emperor Charles V. in
his war with France in 1543. The peace of Crepy in September
1544 deprived him of this employment, but he had won a con-
siderable reputation, and when Charles was preparing to attack
the league of Schmalkalden, he took pains to win Albert's
assistance. Sharing in the attack on the Saxon electorate,
Albert was taken prisoner at Rochlitz in March 1547 by John
Frederick, elector of Saxony, but was released as a result of the
emperor's victory at Miihlberg in the succeeding April. He
then followed the fortunes of his friend Maurice, the new elector
of Saxony, deserted Charles, and joined the league which pro-
posed to overthrow the emperor by an alliance with Henry II.
of France. He took part in the subsequent campaign, but when
the treaty of Passau was signed in August 155a he separated
himself from his allies and began a crusade of plunder in Fran-
conia. Having extorted a large sum of money from the burghers
of Nuremberg, he quarrelled with his supporter, the French
king, and offered his services to the emperor. Charles, anxious
to secure such a famous fighter, gladly assented to Albert's
demands and gave the imperial sanction to his possession of
the lands taken from the bishops of Wurzburg and Bamberg;
and his conspicuous bravery was of great value to the emperor
on the retreat from Metz in January 1553. When Charles left
Germany a few weeks later, Albert renewed his depredations in
Franconia. These soon became so serious that a league was
formed to crush him, and Maurice of Saxony led an army against
his former comrade. The rival forces met at Sievershausen on
the 9th of July 1553, and after a combat of unusual ferocity
Albert was put to flight. Henry II., duke of Brunswick, then
took command of the troops of the league,. and after Albert
had been placed under the imperial ban in December 1553 he
was defeated by Duke Henry, and compelled to fly to France.
He there entered the service of Henry II., and had undertaken
a campaign to regain his lands when he died at Pforzheim on
the 8th of January 1557.
See J. Voigt, Markrraf Atbrecht Alcibiada von Brandenburg-
Kulmbach (Berlin, 185a).
ALBERT I. (c. 1100-1170), margrave of Brandenburg, sur-
named the Beak, was the only son of Otto the Rich, count of
Ballenstedt, and Eilika, daughter of Magnus Billung, duke of
Saxony. He inherited the valuable Saxon estates of his father
in 1123, and on his mother's death, in 1142, succeeded to one-
half of the lands of the Billungs. About 1123 he received from
Lothair, duke of Saxony, the margraviate of Lusatia, and, after
Lothair became German king, accompanied him on the disastrous
expedition to Bohemia in 1 z 26, when he suffered a short imprison-
ment In 1x28 his brother-in-law, Henry II., margrave of the
Saxon north mark, died, and Albert, disappointed at not receiving
this fief, attacked Udo, the succeeding margrave, and was con-
sequently deprived of Lusatia by Lothair. In spite of this, he
went to Italy in 1132 in the train of the king, and his services
there were rewarded, in 1134, by the investiture of the north
mark, which was again without a ruler. For three years he was
occupied in campaigns against the Wends, and by an arrange-
ment made with Pribislaus, duke of Brandenburg, Albert secured
this district when the duke died in 11 50. Taking the title
margrave of Brandenburg, he pressed the warfare against the
Wends, extended the area of his mark, did much for the spread
of Christianity and civilization therein, and so became the founder
of the margraviate of Brandenburg. In 1137 his cousin, Henry
the Proud, had been deprived by King Conrad III. of his Saxon
duchy, which was given to Albert, After meeting with some
success in his efforts to take possession, he was driven from
Saxony, and also from his mark by Henry, and compelled to
take refuge in South Germany, and when peace was made in
1 142 he renounced the Saxon dukedom and received the counties
of Weimar and Oriamilnde. It was possibly at this time that
Albert was made arch-chamberlain of the Empire, an office
which afterwards gave the margraves of Brandenburg the
rights of an elector. A feud with Henry the lion, duke of Saxony,
was followed, in 1x58, by a pilgrimage to the Holy Land, and
in 1x62 Albert accompanied the emperor Frederick I. to Italy,
and distinguished himself at the storming of Milan. In x 164 be
joined a league of princes formed against Henry the Lion, and
peace being made in 1x69, Albert divided his territories among
his six sons, and died on the 13th of November 1x70, and was
buried at Ballenstfldt. His personal qualities won for him the
surname of " the Bear, 1 ' and he is also called by later writers
" the Handsome."
See L. von Hemem^nn^ Albrecht der Bar (Darmstadt, 1864).
ALBERT III. (1414-1486), elector of Brandenburg, surnamed
Achilles because of his knightly qualities, was the third sob of
Frederick I. of HohenzoUern, elector of Brandenburg, and was
born at Tangermttnde on the 9th of November 1414. After
passing some time at the court of the emperor Sigi&mund, he
took part in the war against the Hussites, and afterwards dis-
tinguished himself whilst assisting the German king, Albert H„
against the Poles. On the division of territory which followed
his father's death in 1440, Albert received the principality of
Ansbach; and although his resources were very meagre he sooa
took a leading place among the German princes, and was especially
prominent in resisting the attempts of the towns to obtain self-
government. In 1443 he formed a league directed mainly against
Nuremberg, over which town members of his family had formerly
exercised the rights of burgrave. It was not until 1448, however,
that he found a pretext for attack, and the war which lasted
until 1453 ended in a victory for the Nurembergers, and the
recognition of their independence. He supported the emperor
Frederick III. in his struggle with the princes who desired re-
forms in Germany, and in return for this loyalty received many
marks of favour from Frederick, including extensive judical
rights which aroused considerable irritation among neighbouring
rulers. In 1457 he arranged a marriage between bis eldest sob
John, and Margaret, daughter of William III., landgrave of
Thuringia, who inherited the claims upon Hungary and Bohemia
of her mother, a granddaughter of the emperor Sigjsmimd
The attempt to secure these thrones for the Hohensolleraf
through this marriage failed, and a similar fate befell Albert's
efforts to revive in his own favour the disused title of duke of
Franconia. The sharp dissensions which existed among the
princes over the question of reform culminated in open warfare
in 1-460, when Albert was confronted with a league under the
leadership of the elector palatine, Frederick I., and Louis DC
(the Rich) , duke of Bavaria-LandshuL Worsted in this struggle,
which was concluded in 1462, Albert made an alliance with his
former enemy, George PodSbrad, king of Bohemia, a step which
caused Pope Paul II. to place him under the ban.
In 1470 Albert, who had inherited Bayreuth on the death of
his brother John in 1464, became elector of Brandenburg owing to
the abdication of his remaining brother, the elector Frederick IL
He was soon actively engaged in its administration, and by the
treaty of Prenzlau in X472 he brought Pomerania also under
his supremacy. Having established his right to levy a tonnage
on wines in the mark, he issued in February 1473 the important
disposilh Achillea, which decreed that the mark of Brandenburg
should descend in its entirety to the eldest son, while the younger
sons should receive the Franconian possessions of the family.
After treating in vain for a marriage between one of his sons
and Mary, daughter and heiress of Charles the Bold, duke of
Burgundy, Albert handed over the government of Brandenburg
to his eldest son John, and returned to his Franconian possessions.
In 1474 he married his daughter Barbara to Henry XI., duke of
Gjogau, who left his possessions on his death in 1476 to his widow
with reversion to her family, an arrangement which was resisted
by Henry's kinsman, John II., duke of Sagan. Aided by Matthias
Corvinus, king of Hungary, John invaded Brandenburg, and
the Pomeranians seized the opportunity to revolt Under these
circumstances Albert returned to Brandenburg in 1478, com-
pelled the Pomeranians to own his supremacy, and after a
stubborn struggle secured a part of Duke Henry's lands for an
daughter in 1482. His main attention was afterwards claimed
ALBERT
+95
by the business of the Empire, and soon alter taking part in the
election of Maximilian as king of the Romans he died at Frankfort
on the nth of March 1486. He left a considerable amount of
treasure. His first wife was Margaret of Baden, by whom he
had six children; and his second was Anne of Saxony, by whom
be had thirteen.
Albert was a man of relentless energy and boundless ambition,
who by reason of his physical and intellectual qualities was one
of the most prominent princes of the 15th century.
See Das kaiserttche Buch d/s Mwhir&fm AJbrttkl AtkUlts,
Vorkurfirstliche Period*, 1440-1479, edited by C H&fler (Baymith,
T850); KurfUrstiiche Period*. ediu*d by 1. von Minutoli (Berlin,
1850); Qmeutnsammlung tut Gntkkht* det Hauses Hahewaotkm,
Band I., edited by C. A. H.
Aibrecht Achilla und die M
J^oiitUche Korrespondens det
2486, edited by F. Priebatscl
Gcschicht* der preussischen Pt
rdt fjena. ]857>: O. Franklin,
t. 1449-14$ j (Berlin. 1&66);
ilcn Albmhi Athittei, 147th'
\. 1894-1898); J, C. Drayien,
ALBERT (FRANCIS CHARLES AUGUSTUS ALBERT EM-
MANUEL) (1810-1861), prince-consort of England, was born at
Rosenau on the 26th of August 1819. He was the second son
of the hereditary duke of Saxe-Coburg-Gotha (belonging to the
Ernestine or elder branch of the royal family of Saxony) by his
first wife, the princess Louise of Saxe-Gotha-Altenburg (a*. 1831),
from whom the duke was separated in 1S24. His father's sister
married the duke of Kent, and her daughter, afterwards Queen
Victoria of England, Prince Albert's wife, was thus his first
cousin. They were born in the same year. Albert and his elder
brother, Ernest, were close companions in youth, and were
educated under the care of Consistorialrath Florschatz, sub-
sequently proceeding to the university of Bonn. There Prince
Albert devoted himself especially to natural science, political
economy and philosophy, having for teachers such men as Fichtc,
Schlegel and Perthes; he diligently cultivated music and paint-
ing, and excelled in gymnastic exercises, especially in fencing.
The idea of a marriage between him and his cousin Victoria had
always been cherished by their uncle, King Leopold L of Belgium,
and in May 1836 the duke of Saxe-Coburg-Gotha and his two sons
paid a visit to Kensington Palace, where Princess Victoria, as she
then was, lived, for the purpose of making acquaintance for the
first time. The visit was by no means to the taste of King
William IV., who disapproved of the match and favoured Prince
Alexander of Orange. But Leopold's plan was known to Princess
Victoria, and William's objections were fruitless. Princess
Victoria, writing to her uncle Leopold (May 23, 1836), said that
Albert was " extremely handsome "; and (June 7) thanked him
for the " prospect of great happiness you have contributed to
give me in the person of dear Albert He possesses every quality
that could be desired to render me perfectly happy." No formal
engagement was entered into, but the situation was privately
understood as one which in time would naturally develop. After
the queen came to the throne, her letters show her interest in
Albert's being educated for the part he would have to play. In
the winter of 1838-1839 the prince travelled in Italy, accompanied
by Baron Stockmar, formerly Leopold's doctor and private
secretary, and now the queen's confidential adviser. On the 10th
of October 1839 he and Ernest went again to England to visit the
queen, with the object of finally settling the marriage. Mutual
inclination and affection at once brought about the desired
result They became definitely engaged on the 1 5th of October,
and on the 10th of February 1840 the marriage was celebrated at
the chapel-royal, St James's.
The position in which the prince was placed by his marriage,
while it was one of distinguished honour, was also one of consider-
able difficulty; and during his lifetime the tactful way in which
he filled it was ytry inadequately appreciated. The public life of
the prince-consort cannot be separated from that of the queen,
and it is unnecessary here to repeat such details as are given in
the article on her (see Victoria, Queen). The prejudice against
him, on account of what was regarded as undue influence in
politics, was never fully dissipated tfll after his death. His
co-operation with the queen in dealing with the political responsi-
bilities which devolved upon the sovereign represented an amount
of conscientious and self-sacrificing labour which cannot easily
be exaggerated; and his wisdom in council could only be
realized, outside a very small circle, when in later years the
materials for the history of that time became accessible. He was
indeed a man of cultured and liberal ideas, well qualified to take
the lead in many reforms which the England of that day sorely
needed. He was specially interested in endeavours to secure the
more perfect application of science and art to manufacturing
industry. The Great Exhibition of 1851 originated in a sugges-
tion he made at a meeting of the Society of Arts, and owed the
greater part of its success to his intelligent and unwearied efforts.
He had to work for its realization against an extraordinary out-
burst of angry expostulations. Every stage in his project was
combated. In the House of Peers, Lord Brougham denied the
right of the crown to hold the exhibition in Hyde Park; in the
Commons, Colonel Sibthorp prophesied that England would be
overrun with foreign rogues and revolutionists, who would sub-
vert the morab of the people, filch their trade secrets from them,
and destroy their faith and loyalty towards their religion and
their sovereign. Prince Albert was president of the exhibition
commission, and every post brought him abusive letters, accusing
him, as a foreigner, of being intent upon the corruption of
England. He was not the man to be balked by talk of this kind,
but quietly persevered, looking always to the probability that the
manufacturing power of Great Britain would be quickened by
bringing the best manufactured products of foreign countries
under the eyes of the mechanics and artisans. A sense of the
artistic was at this time almost wholly wanting among the
English people. One day the prince had a conversation with a
great manufacturer of crockery, and sought to convert him to the
idea of issuing something better than the eternal willow-pattern
in white with gold, red or blue, which formed the staple of middle
and lower class domestic china. The manufacturer held out that
new shapes and designs would not be saleable; but he was
induced to try, and he did so with such a rapid success that a
revolution in the china cupboards of England was accomplished
from that time. The exhibition was opened by the queen on the
xst of May 1851, and was a colossal success; and the realized
surplus of £150,000 went to establish and endow the South
Kensington Museum (afterwards renamed "Victoria and Albert")
and to purchase land in that neighbourhood. Similar institu-
tions, on a smaller scale but with a kindred aim, always found in
him warm advocacy and substantial support It was chiefly at
meetings in connexion with these that he found occasion for the
delivery of addresses characterized by profound thought and
comprehensiveness of view, a collection of which was published
in 1857. One of the most favourable specimens of his powers as
a speaker is the inaugural address which he delivered as president
of the British Association for the Advancement of Science when
it met at Aberdeen in 1850. The education of his family and the
management of his domestic affairs furnished the prince with
another very important sphere of action, in which he employed
himself with conscientious devotedness.
The estates of the duchy of Cornwall, the hereditary appanage
of the prince of Wales, were so greatly improved under his
father's management that the rent-roll rose from £11,000 to
£50,000 a year. Prince Albert, indeed, had a peculiar talent for
the management of landed estates. His model farm at Windsor
was in every way worthy of the name; and the grounds at
Balmoral and Osborne were laid out entirely in. conformity with
his designs.
A character so pure, and a life so useful and well-directed in
all its aims, could scarcely fail to win respect among those who
were acquainted with the facts. As the prince became better
known, public mistrust began to give way. In 1847, but only
after a significantly keen contest with Earl Powis, he was elected
chancellor of the university of Cambridge; and he was after-
wards appointed master of the Trinity House. In June 1857 the
formal title of prince-consort was conferred upon him by letters
patent, in order to settle certain difficulties as to precedence that
had been raised at foreign courts.
But in the full career of his usefulness he was cut off. During
496
ALBERT
the autumn of 1861 he was busy with the arrangements for the
projected international exhibition, and it was just after returning
from one of the meetings in connexion with it that he was seized
with his last illness. Beginning at the end of November with
what appeared to be influenza, it proved to be an attack of
typhoid fever, and, congestion of the lungs supervening, he died
on the 14th of December. The grief of the queen was over-
whelming and the sympathy of the whole nation marked a
revulsion of feeling about the prince himself which was notdevoid
of compunction for earlier want of appreciation. The magnificent
mausoleum at Frogmore, in which his remains were finally
deposited, was erected at the expense of the queen and the royal
family; and many public monuments to " Albert the Good "
were erected all over the country, the most notable being the
Albert Hall (1867) and the Albert Memorial (1876) in London.
His name was also commemorated in the queen's institution of
the Albert medal (1866) in reward for gallantry in saving life, and
of the order of Victoria and Albert (1862).
By the queen's authority, her secretary. General Grey, compiled
The Early Days of the Prtnce Consort, published in 1867; and The
Life and Letters of the Prince Consort (1st vol., 1874; 2nd, 1880)
was similarly edited by Sir Theodore Martin. A volume of the
Principal Speeches and Addresses of Prince Albert, with an intro-
duction by Sir Arthur Helps, was published in 1862. See also the
Letters of Queen Victoria (1907). (H. Ch.)
ALBERT I. (c. 1250-1308), German king, and duke of Austria,
eldest son of King Rudolph I., the founder of the greatness of the
house of Habsburg, was invested with the duchies of Austria
and Styria, together with his brother Rudolph, in 1 282. In 1 283
his father entrusted him with their sole government, and he
appears to have ruled them with conspicuous success. Rudolph
was unable to secure the succession to the German throne for
his son, and on his death in 1291, the princes, fearing Albert's
power, chose Adolph of Nassau as king. A rising among his
Swabian dependants compelled Albert to recognize the sovereignty
of his rival, and to confine himself to the government of the
Habsburg territories. He did not abandon his hopes of the
throne, and, in 1208, was chosen German king by some of the
princes, who were dissatisfied with Adolph. The armies of the
rival kings met at G&llheim near Worms, where Adolph was
defeated and slain, and Albert submitted to a fresh election.
Having secured the support of several influential princes by
extensive promises, he was chosen at Frankfort on the 27th of
July 1208, and crowned at Aix-la-Chapelle on the 24th of
August following. Albert sought to play an important part in
European affairs. He seemed at first inclined to press a quarrel
with France over the Burgundian frontier, but the refusal of
Pope Boniface VIII. to recognize his election led him to change
his policy, and, in 1299, a treaty was made between Albert and
Philip IV., king of France, by which Rudolph, the son of the
German king, was to marry Blanche, a daughter of the French
king. He afterwards became estranged from Philip, and, in
1303, was recognized as German king and future emperor by
Boniface, and, in return, admitted the right of the pope alone
to bestow the imperial crown, and promised that none of his
sons should be elected German king without the papal consent.
Albert had failed in his attempt to seize Holland and Zealand,
as vacant fiefs of the Empire, on the death of Count John I. in
1299, but in 1306 he secured the crown of Bohemia for his son
Rudolph on the death of King Wenceslaus III. He also renewed
the claim which had been made by his predecessor, Adolf, on
Thuringia, and interfered in a quarrel over the succession to
the Hungarian throne. His attack on Thuringia ended in his
defeat at Lucka in 1307, and, in the same year, the death of his
son Rudolph weakened his position in eastern Europe. His
action in abolishing all tolls established on the Rhine since
1 250, led to the formation of a league against him by the Rhenish
archbishops and the count palatine of the Rhine; but aided
by the towns, he soon crushed the rising. He was on the way
to suppress a revolt in Swabia when he was murdered on the
1st of May 1308, at Windisch on the Reuss, by his nephew John,
afterwards called " the Parricide," whom he had deprived of his
inheritance. Albert married Elizabeth, daughter of Meinhard IV.,
count of G6rz and Tirol, who bore him six sons and five
daughters. Although a hard, stern man, he had a keen sense
of justice when his selfish interests were not involved, and few
of the German kings possessed so practical an intelligence.
He encouraged the cities, and not content with issuing proclama-
tions against private war, formed alliances with the princes in
order to enforce his decrees. The serfs, whose wrongs seldom
attracted notice in an age indifferent to the claims of common
humanity, found a friend in this severe monarch, and he pro-
tected even the despised and persecuted Jews. The stories of
his cruelty and oppression in the Swiss cantons first appear in
the x6th century, and are now regarded as legendary.
See G. Droysen, Albrechts I. BetnUhuugen urn die Nacmfoie* im
Reich (Leipzig, 1862); J. F. A. Mucke, Albrecht I. ton Hahsimrz
(Gotha, 1866); A. L. J. Michelsen, Die Landgrafschaji Thmrmgem
unter den Kdnigen Adolf, Albrecht, und Heinrich VII. (Jena, i860).
ALBERT II. (1397-2439), German king, king of Bohemia
and Hungary, and (as Albert V.) duke of Austria, was born oa
the 10th of August 1397, the son of Albert IV. of Habsburg, duke
of Austria. He succeeded to the duchy of Austria on his father's
death in 1404. After receiving a good education, he undertook
the government of Austria in 141 1, and succeeded, with the aid
of his advisers, in ridding the duchy of the evils which had arises
during his minority. He assisted the German king, Sigismund,
in his campaigns against the Hussites, and in 1422 married
Elizabeth, daughter and heiress of Sigismund, who designated
him as his successor. When the German king died in 143 7, Albert
was crowned king of Hungary on the 1st of January 1438, and
although crowned king of Bohemia six months later, he was
unable to obtain possession of the country. He was engaged ta
warfare with the Bohemians and their Polish allies, when on the
1 8th of March 1438 he was chosen German king at Frankfort, an
honour which he does not appear to have sought. Afterwards
engaged in defending Hungary against the attacks of the Turks,
he died on the 27th of October 1439 at Langendorf, and was
buried at Stuhlweissenburg. Albert was an energetic and war-
like prince, whose short reign gave great promise of usefulness
for Germany.
See W. Altmann, Die Wahl Albrecht II. sum rdmischen K9mif
(Berlin, 1886).
ALBERT (1400-1545), elector and archbishop of Mainz/and
archbishop of Magdeburg, was the younger son of John Cicero,
elector of Brandenburg, and was born on the 28th of June 1490.
Having studied at the university of Frankfort-on-the-Oder, he
entered the ecclesiastical profession, and in 15x5 became arch-
bishop of Magdeburg and administrator of the diocese of
Halberstadt. In 15x4 he obtained the electorate of Mainz,
and in 15x8 was made a cardinal. Meanwhile to pay for the
pallium of the see of Mainz and to discharge the other expenses
of his elevation, Albert had borrowed a large sum of money from
the Fuggers, and had obtained permission from Pope Leo X. to
conduct the sale of indulgences in his diocese to obtain funds
to repay this loan. For this work he procured the services of
John Tetzel, and so indirectly exercised a potent influence
on the course of the Reformation. When the imperial election
of 1 519 drew near, the elector's vote was eagerly solicited by
the partisans of Charles (afterwards the emperor Charles V.)
and by those of Francis I., king of France, and he appears to
have received a large amount of money for the vote which
he cast eventually for Charles. Albert's large and liberal ideas,
his friendship with Ulrich von Hutten, and his political ambi-
tions, appear to have raised hopes that he would be won over
to the reformed faith; but after the Peasants' War of 1525 he
ranged himself definitely among the supporters of Catholicism,
and was among the princes who met to concert measures for its
defence at Dessau in July 1525. His hostility towards the
reformers, however, was not so extreme as that of his brother
Joachim I., elector of Brandenburg; and he appears to have
exerted himself in the interests of peace, although he was a
member of the league of Nuremberg, which was formed in 1538
as a counterpoise to the league of Schmalkaklen. The new
doctrines nevertheless made considerable progress in his
dominions, and he was compelled to grant religious liberty
ALBERT
497
to the inhabitants of Magdeburg in return for 500,000 florins.
During his latter years indeed he showed more intolerance
towards the Protestants, and favoured the teaching of the
Jesuits in his dominions. Albert adorned the Stiftskircke at
Halle and the cathedral at Mainz in sumptuous fashion, and
took as his motto the* words Domine, dilexi decorem domus tuae.
A generous patron of art and learning, he counted Erasmus
among his friends. He died at .Aschaffenburg on the 24th of
September 1545.
See J. H. Hennes, Albrechi von Brandenburg, Enbisekofvon Mains
und Magdeburg (Mainz, 1858); J. May, Der Kurfurst, Kardinal,
und Ersbisckof Albrechi II. von Mainz und Magdeburg (Munich,
1865-1875); W. Schum, Kdrdinal Albrechi von Maim und die
Erturter Kirchenreformation (Halle, 1878); P. Redlich, Kardinal
Albrechi von Brandenburg, und das neue Stift su Halle (Mainz, 1900).
ALBERT ( 1 400-1 568), Grand Master of the Teutonic Order,
and first duke of Prussia, was the third son of Frederick of
Hohenzollem, prince of Ansbach and Bayreuth, and Sophia,
daughter of Casimir IV., king of Poland. Born at Ansbach on
the 16th of May 1400, he was intended for the church, and
passed some time at the court of Hermann, elector of Cologne,
who appointed him to a canonry in his cathedral. Turning to
* more active life, he accompanied the emperor Maximilian I.
to Italy in x 508, and after his return spent some time in Hungary.
In December, Frederick, grand master of the Teutonic Order,
died, and Albert, joining the order, was chosen as his successor
early in 15x1 in the hope that his relationship to Sigismund I.,
king of Poland, would facilitate a settlement of the disputes
over east Prussia, which had been held by the order under Polish
suzerainty since 1466. The new master, however, showed no
desire to be conciliatory, and as war appeared inevitable, he
made strenuous efforts to secure allies, and carried on tedious
negotiations with the emperor Maximilian I. The ill-feeling,
influenced by the ravages of members of the order in Poland,
culminated in a struggle which began in December 1510. During
the ensuing year Prussia was devastated, and Albert consented
early in x 52 x to a truce for four years. The dispute was referred
to the emperor Charles V. and other princes, but as no settlement
was reached the master continued his efforts to obtain help in
view of a renewal .of the war. For this purpose he visited
Nuremberg in 152a, where he made the acquaintance of the
reformer, Andreas Osiander, by whose influence he was won
over to the side of the new faith. He then journeyed to Witten-
berg, where he was advised by Martin Luther to cast aside the
senseless rules of his order, to marry, and to convert Prussia
into an hereditary duchy for himself. This proposal, which
commended itself to Albert, had already been discussed by
some of his relatives; but it was necessary to proceed cautiously,
and be assured Pope Adrian VI. that he was anxious to reform
the order and punish the knights who had adopted Lutheran
doctrines. Luther for his part did not stop at the suggestion,
but in order to facilitate the change made special efforts to
spread his teaching among the Prussians, while Albert's brother,
George, prince of Ansbach, laid the scheme before Sigismund
of Poland. After some delay the king assented to it provided
that Prussia were held as a Polish fief; and after this arrange-
ment had been confirmed by a treaty made at Cracow, Albert
was invested with the duchy by Sigismund for himself and his
heirs on the xoth of February 1525. The estates of the land
then met at Kdnigsberg and took the oath of allegiance to the
new duke, who used his full powers to forward the doctrines
of Luther. This transition did not, however, take place without
protest Summoned before the imperial court of justice, Albert
refused to appear and was placed under the ban; while the
order, having deposed the grand master, made a feeble effort to
recover Prussia. But as the German princes were either too
busy or too indifferent to attack the duke, the agitation against
him soon died away. In imperial politics Albert was fairly
active. Joining the league of Torgau in x 5 26, he acted in unison
with the Protestants, and was among the princes who banded
themselves together to overthrow Charles V. after the issue of
the Interim in May x 548. For various reasons, however, poverty
and personal inclination among others, he did not take a
L 9»
prominent part in the military operations of this period. The
early years of Albert's rule in Prussia were fairly prosperous.
Although he had some trouble with the peasantry, the lands
and treasures of the church enabled him to propitiate the nobles
and for a time to provide for the expenses of the court. He did
something for the furtherance of learning by establishing schools
in every town and by giving privileges to serfs who adopted a
scholastic life. In 1544, in spite of some opposition, he founded
a university at Kdnigsberg, where he appointed his friend
Osiander to a professorship in x 549. This step was the beginning
of the troubles which clouded the closing years of Albert's reign.
Osiander's divergence from Luther's doctrine of justification
by faith involved him in a violent quarrel with Melanchthon,
who had adherents in Kdnigsberg, and these theological disputes
soon created an uproar in the town. The duke strenuously
supported Osiander, and the area of the quarrel soon broadened.
There were no longer church lands available with which to
conciliate the nobles, the burden of taxation, was heavy, and
Albert's rule became unpopular. After Osiander's death in
1552 he favoured a preacher named John Funck, who, with an
adventurer named Paul Scalich, exercised great influence ovex
him and obtained considerable wealth at the public expense.
The state of turmoil caused by these religious and political
disputes was increased by the possibility of Albert's early death
and the necessity in that event for a regency owing to the youth
of his only son, Albert Frederick. The duke was consequently
obliged to consent to a condemnation of the teaching of Osiander,
and the climax came in 1566 when the estates appealed to
Sigismund II., king of Poland, who sent a commission to Kdnigs-
berg. Scalich saved his life by flight, but Funck was executed;
the question of the regency was settled; and a form of Lutheran-
ism was adopted, and declared binding on all teachers and
preachers. Virtually deprived of power, the duke lived for two
years longer, and died at Tapiau on the 20th of March 1568. In
1526 he had married Dorothea, daughter of Frederick I., king of
Denmark, and after her death in 1547, Anna Maria, daughter
of Eric I., duke of Brunswick. Albert was a voluminous letter-
writer, and corresponded with many of the leading personages
of the time. In 1891 a statue was erected to his memory at
Kdnigsberg.
See J. Voigt, Briefwechsd der berUhmlesten CeUhien des ZeitaUers
der Reformation mtt Hertog Albrechi von Preusscn (Kdnigsberg,
1 841); E. Joachim, Die Poittik des letzten Hochmeisters in Preussen,
Albrechi von Brandenburg (Leipzig, 1892); K. Lohmeyer, Hertog
Albrecht von Preusscn (Danzig, 1890).
ALBERT HI. (1443- 1500), duke of Saxony, surnamed Andiosus
or the Courageous, younger son of Frederick II., the Mild,
elector and duke of Saxony, was born on the 27th of January
1443, and after escaping from the hands of Kunz von Kaufungen,
who had abducted him together with his brother Ernest, passed
some time at the court of the emperor Frederick III. in Vienna.
In 1464 he married Zedena, or Sidonia, daughter of George
Podebrad, king of Bohemia, but failed to obtain the Bohemian
crown on the death of George in 1471. After the death of the
elector Frederick in 1464, Albert and Ernest ruled their lands
together, but in 1485 a division was made by the treaty of Leipzig,
and Albert received Meissen, together with some adjoining
districts, and founded the Albertine branch of the family of
Wettin. Regarded as a capable soldier by the emperor, Albert,
in 1475, took a prominent part in the campaign against Charles
the Bold, duke of Burgundy, and in 1487 led an expedition
against Matthias Corvinus, king of Hungary, which failed owing
to lack of support on the part of the emperor. In 1488 he
marched with the imperial forces to free the Roman king
Maximilian from his imprisonment at Bruges, and when, in
1489, the king returned to Germany, Albert was left as his repre-
sentative to prosecute the war against the rebels. He wis
successful in restoring the authority of Maximilian in Holland,
Flanders and Brabant, but failed to obtain any repayment of
the large sums of money which he had spent in these campaigns.
His services were rewarded in 1408 when Maximilian bestowed
upon him the title of hereditary governor (potestat) of Friesland,
but he had to make good his* claim by force of arms. He had
la
498
ALBERT
to a great extent succeeded, and was paying a visit to Saxony,
when he was recalled by news of a fresh rising. Groningen was
captured, but soon afterwards the duke died at Emden, on the
rath of September 1500. He was buried at Meissen. Albert,
who was a man of great strength and considerable skill in feats
of arms, delighted in tournaments and knightly exercises. His
loyalty to the emperor Frederick, and the expenses incurred in
this connexion, aroused some irritation among his subjects, but
his rule was a period of prosperity in Saxony.
See F. A. von Langenn. Hertog Albrecht der Bchertte, Stammvater
des kdniglichen Hauses Sachsen (Leipzig, 1838); O. Sperling, Hertog
Albrecht der BekertU von Sachsen als Cubemator Frieslamds (Leipzig,
1892).
ALBERT, FREDERICK AUGUSTUS, king of Saxony (1828-
1902), was born on the 33rd of April 1828, being the eldest son
of Prince John, who succeeded to the throne in 1854. His educa-
tion was, as is usual with German princes, to a great extent
military, but he attended lectures at the university of Bonn.
His first experience of warfare was in 1849, when he served as
a captain in the campaign of Schleswig-Holstein against the
Danes. When the war of 1866 broke out, the crown-prince was
placed in command of the Saxon forces opposing the Prussian
army of Prince Frederick Charles. No attempt was made to
defend Saxony; the Saxons fell back into Bohemia and effected
a junction with the Austrians. They took a prominent part in
the battles by which the Prussians forced the line of the Iser and
in the battle of Gitchin. The crown-prince, however, succeeded
in effecting the retreat in good order, and in the decisive battle
of Ktiniggr&tz (see Seven Weeks' War) he held the extreme
left of the Austrian position. The Saxons maintained their post
with great tenacity, but were involved in the disastrous defeat
of their allies. During these operations the crown-prince won
the reputation of a thorough soldier; after peace was made and
Saxony had entered the North German confederation, he was
placed in command of the Saxon army, which had now become
the XII. army corps of the North German army, and in this
position carried out the necessary reorganization. He was a
firm adherent of the Prussian alliance. On the outbreak of war
in 1870 he again commanded the Saxons, who were included in
the 2nd army under Prince Frederick Charles, his old opponent.
At the battle of Gravelotte they formed the extreme left of the
German army, and with the Prussian Guard carried out the
attack on St Privat, the final and decisive action in the battle.
In the reorganization of the army which accompanied the march
towards Paris the crown-prince was given a separate command
over the 4th army (army of the Meuse) consisting of the Saxons,
the Prussian Guard corps and the IV. (Prussian Saxony) corps.
He was succeeded in command of the XII. corps by his brother
Prince George, who had served under him in Bohemia. He
took a leading part in the operations which preceded the battle
of Sedan, the 4th army being the pivot on which the whole army
wheeled round in pursuit of MacMahon; and the actions of
Buzancy and Beaumont on the 39th and 30th of August were
fought under his direction; in the battle of Sedan itself, with
*ne troops under his orders, he carried out the envelopment of
the French on the east and north. His conduct in these engage-
ments won for him the complete confidence of the army, and
during the siege of Paris his troops formed the north-east section
of the investing force. After the conclusion of the armistice he
was left in command of the German army of occupation, a
position which he held till the fall of the Commune. On the
conclusion of peace he was made an inspector-general of the
army and field-marshal. On the death of his father on the 39th of
October 1873 he succeeded to the throne. His reign was un-
eventful, and he took little public part in politics, devoting
himself to military affairs, in which his advice and experience
were of the greatest value, not only to the Saxon corps but to
the German army in general. In 1897 he was appointed arbi-
trator between the claimants for the principality of Lippe. King
Albert married in 1853 Carola, daughter of Prince Gustavus
of Vasa, and granddaughter of the last king of Sweden of the
house of Holstein. He died on the xoth of June 190a.
ALBERT, surnamed the Degskekate (c. 1340-1314). laad-
grave of Thuringia, was the eldest son of Henry III., the nha-
trious, margrave of Meissen. He married Margaret, daughter of
the emperor Frederick II., in 1254, and in 1265 received from
his father Thuringia and the Saxon palatinate. His infatuatjoa
for Kunigunde of Eisenberg caused his wife to leave him, and
after her death in 1270 he married Kunigunde, who had already
borne him a son, Apitz or Albert. He wished to make Apia
his successor in Thuringia, a plan "which was resisted by his two
elder sons, and a war broke out which lasted until 1307, who
he abandoned Thuringia, in return for a yearly payment, but
retained the title of landgrave (see Thuringia). Albert, who
had married Elizabeth, daughter of Hermann III., count of
Orlamilnde, after the death of his second wife in 1286, died os
the 13th of November 1314.
See F. X. Wegele, Friedrich der Friedige, Uarkgnf von Meissm,
und die WeUiner seiner Zeit (Nordlingen, 1820) ; F. W. Tittmaon.
Gesckichte Heinrich des Erlauchkn Marhgraven s* Mcisstn (Leipzig,
1863).
ALBERT (FRIEDRICH RUDOLF ALBRECHT), Axchdcii
(181 7-1895), Austrian field-marshal, was the eldest son of the
archduke Charles (Karl Friedrich), and was born on the 3rd of
August 181 7 at Vienna. After being educated under the carehi
superintendence of his father, he entered the Austrian (K.K.)
army as a colonel of infantry in 1837, and was transferred to
the cavalry arm in 1839, "becoming a major-general in 1840. A
brief period of leave in this year he spent at the great manannrres
in Italy, to learn the art of troop-leading from the first soldier
in Europe, Radetzky. He then took over the command of a
brigade of all arms at Graz. In 1844 he married Princess
Hildegarde of Bavaria. He had been made a lieutenant field-
marshal in the previous year, and was now placed in command of
the forces in Upper and Lower Austria. In this position he did
much to maintain and improve the efficiency of the troops under
his .command, at a time when nearly all armies in Europe, with
the exception of Radetzky's in Italy, had sunk to the lowest
level. The influence of Radetzky over the young archduke was
indeed remarkable. At this time the Austrian generals and
staff officers had committed themselves blindly to the strategical
method of the archduke Charles, the tradition of whose practical
soldiership survived only in Radetzky and a few others, Albert
chose to follow the latter, and was thus saved from the pseudo-
scientific pedantry which brought defeat to the Austrian arms
in 1859 and in 1806. His first serious service came in March
1848, when it became his duty, as district commander, to
maintain order in Vienna by force, and at the outbreak of
revolution in Vienna during the month of March he was is
command of the troops who came into collision with the rioters
Owing to the collapse of the government it was impossible to
repress the disturbances, and he was relieved from a post which
brought much unpopularity and was not suitable to be held by
a member of the imperial family. He went at once to the seat
of war in Italy, and fought under Radetzky as a volunteer
throughout the campaign of 1848, being present at the action of
Pastrengo and the battles of Santa Luda and Custozxa. In the
following campaign he applied for and obtained the command
of a division in the II. corps (FZM. d'Aspre). though his previous
grade had been that of a general commanding-in-chief. Tb:
splendid fighting of the corpsjU Novara was decisive of the war,
and Radetzky named d'Aspre, Count Thurn, and the archduke
as the general officers worthy of the greatest rewards. The
field-marshal indeed recommended, and almost insisted, that
Albert should receive the much-prized order of Maria Theresa.
In 1850 he became a general of cavalry, and in 1851 military
and civil governor of Hungary. In this important and diffi-
cult position he remained until i860, when he was relieved at his
own request. Shortly afterwards he was appointed to succeed
Radetzky as commander-in-chief in Italy, and in 1863 be was
promoted field-marshal. In the following year the archduke
lost his wife, soon after the marriage of their elder daughter to
Duke Philip or WUrttemberg. In 1859 and 1864 he was seat
on important military and diplomatic missions to Berlin. When-
ALBERT— ALBERTA
499
war became imminent in 1866, the archduke took command of
the field army in Italy. The story of the campaign of 1866 in
Italy will be found under Italian Wars (1848-1870); the
operations of the archduke, who disposed of greatly inferior
forces, were crowned with success in the brilliant victory of
Custosza (June 23), and his reputation as a general-in-chief
was firmly established by only eight days of field operations,
though it is possible that his chief of staff, Lieut. Field-Marshal
von John, contributed not a little to the success of the Austrian
arms. The result of Custozza was the retreat and complete
immobilization of the whole Italian army, so that Albert was
able to despatch the greater part of his troops to reinforce the
Bohemian army, when, after being defeated by the Prussians,
it fell back on Vienna. On the xoth of July the archduke was
summoned to Vienna to take supreme command of the forces
which were being collected to defend the capital, but peace
was made before further hostilities took place. From this time,
under various titles, he acted as inspector-general of the army.
Like his father, and with better fortune, he was called upon to
reorganize the military system of his country on an entirely
new plan, learned, as before, by defeat. The principle of universal
short service, and the theory of the armed nation, were necessarily
the groundwork of the reforms, and the consequent preparation
of all the national resources for their task in war, by the super-
intendence of peace administration, by the skilful conduct of
manoeuvres, was thenceforward the task of his lifetime. In
1870 he conducted the military negotiations preparatory to an
alliance with France, which, however, was not concluded. The
tragic death of his daughter, Princess Mathilde, in 1867, and
the death of his brother, Archduke Karl Ferdinand, in 1874,
narrowed still further his family circle, and impelled him to
even greater activity in his military duties, and to effective par-
ticipation in the work of many military charities. He retained
personal control of the army until his last illness, which be
contracted at the funeral of his nephew Francis, ex-king of
Naples. His only remaining brother, the archduke Wilhelm,
had died a few months before, as the result of an accident.
He himself died on the 18th of February 1895. His only son
died in childhood, and his nephew Archduke Frederick (born
1856) inherited his great possessions, including the Albertina,
a famous collection of books, manuscripts, engravings and maps,
founded by Duke Albert of Saxe-Teschen.
Amongst the military works of the Archduke Albert may be
named Uber die Veronsvortlichheil im Kriege (a work which
created a great sensation, and was translated into English and
French), Cedanhen Uber dem Militdrgeist, Vber die hohere Leitung
im Kriege, and Kritische Betrachtungen Uber den Feldtug 1866 in
Italien. He also was the principal editor of the military works
of bis father.
See Duncker, P. U. Erthenog Albrtcht (Vienna and Prague,
1897) ; Mathes v. Bilabruck, " Gedenkrede auf Weiland Sr. K. u. K.
H. Erzh. Albrecht," MU.-WissenschaM. Verein, 1895; Teuber,
F. M. Ertk. Albrecht, em Lebensbild (Vienna, 1895).
ALBERT, Madams (c. 1 80s- 1846), French actress, whose
maiden name was Thlrese Vernet, was born of a family of players.
She first appeared in children's and ingenue parts, and in comic
opera, and it was not until 1827, two years after her Paris dibut,
that her great talents were seen and appreciated. In Caleb
Valentine, Henry V. t Madame Dubarry, Catherine 1 1. ,Lcontine,
Un duel sous le cardinal de Richelieu, and many other plays, her
grace, beauty and distinction of manner made her the idol of
Paris, and her circle of admirers was widened by long tours of
the provinces and abroad. Dl-health compelled her to retire in
1846. She was twice married, about 1825 to Albert Rodrigues,
an actor who played under his Christian name, and in 1846 to
Eug&ne Bignon (181 2-1858), the actor and playwright.
ALBERT OF AIX (fl. c. a.d. 1100), historian of the first
crusade, was born during the later part of the nth century,
and afterwards became canon and custos of the church of Aix-la-
Chapeile. Nothing else is known of his life except that he was
the author of a Historic Hierosolymitanaeexpeditionis, or Chroni-
con HicratolymUanum de beUo sacro, a work, in twelve books,
written between 1125 and 1150. This history begins at the time
of the council of Clermont, deals with the fortunes of the first
crusade and the earlier history of the Latin kingdom of Jerusalem,
and ends somewhat abruptly in 1 121. It was well known during
the middle ages, and was largely used by William, archbishop of
Tyre, for the first six books of his Belli sacri historia. In modern
times its historical value has been seriously impugned, but the
verdict of the best scholarship seems to be that in general it forms
a true record of the events of the first crusade, although contain-
ing some legendary matter. Albert never visited the Holy Land,
but he appears to have had a considerable amount of intercourse
with returned crusaders, and to have had access to valuable
correspondence. The first edition of the history was published
at Helmstadt in 1584, and a good edition is in the Recueil des
historicns des croisades, tome iv. (Paris, 1841-1887).
See F. Krebs, Zur Kritih Alberts von Aachen (Monster, 1881);
B. Kugler, Albert von Aachen (Stuttgart, 1885); M. Pigeonneau,.
Le Cycle de la eroisade et de lafamille de Bouillon [Paris, 1877) : H. von
Sybel, Ceschichte des ersten Kreunuges (Leipzig, 1881) ; F. vercruysse,
Essai critique sur la ckronique d' Albert d'Aix (Lttge, 1889).
ALBERTA, a province of western Canada, established in
1005. Area 260,000 sq. m. It is bounded S. by the United
States boundary line, 49? N.; E. by no° W., which divides
it from the province of Saskatchewan; N. by 6o° N., which
separates it from the North-West Territories; and W. by the
line of peaks of the Rocky Mountains range, which runs north-
westerly, and divides it from British Columbia. A fertile
province, in the eastern and southern portions its surface con-
sists chiefly of plains almost entirely treeless. As the slopes of
the Rocky Mountains to the west are reached more trees are
found, until in the foot-hills of the mountains bodies of forest
timber occur. Trees become more numerous also northward
in the province, until in the region north of the North Saskat-
chewan river forests are again met with. From the southern
boundary line for two and a half degrees north the prairie is
dry, but of good soil, which grows excellent crops when irrigated.
North of this region the surface of the province is of most fertile
soil, the ordinary rainfall sufficing for agriculture. The appear-
ance of the prairie section of the province is that of undulating
meadows, with rounded sloping ridges covered with shorter
grasses, which serve for the support of great herds of cattle and
horses. The wooded portions of the terrain are dotted with
clumps and belts of trees of moderate size, giving them a park-
like appearance. In winter the snowfall is very light, and even
this is frequently removed by warm winds from the west
Within a hundred miles of the mountains there is constantly
in view, in clear weather, the beautiful line of snowy peaks
along the western horizon. This continues for hundreds of
miles north-westward. The Rocky Mountains, which give its
charm to Alberta, are ascended by a gradual approach from the
east, but are exceedingly abrupt on their transalpine slope in
British Columbia. The peaks of these mountains are majestic,
many of them reaching a height of more than two miles above
the sea. Among the more notable of these are Robson peak,
13,700 ft; Athabasca, 13,700; Assiniboine, 11,830; Lyell,
12,000; Mummery, 12,000; Temple, 11,658; and Geikie, 11,000.
Mt. Brown reaches 0050.
Through these Rocky Mountains the explorers and fur-
traders, by ascending the streams running down the eastern
declivities of the mountains, and crossing by short portages to
the streams of the western slope, have succeeded in discovering
passes by which the mountain chain can be crossed, the range
rarely exceeding 60 m. in breadth. The most noted of the
Alberta passes are (1) the Crow's Nest Pass, near the southern
boundary line, through which a branch of the Canadian Pacific
railway runs; (2) the Ricking Horse Pass, through which the
main line of the Canadian Pacific railway is built; 40 m. from
the eastern end of this pass is the Rocky Mountains Park, with
the famous watering-place of Banff as its centre; (3) the Yellow
Head Pass, running west from the northern branch of the
Saskatchewan river; this pass was discovered by Capt Palliser
(1858), was crossed by Lord Milton and Dr W. B. Cheadle(i86i),
and by Sandford Fleming (1871-1873) in the Ocean to Ocean,
5oo
ALBERTA
expedition; (4) Peace River Pass. By this pass Alexander
Mackenzie made his celebrated voyage. There are other minor
passes, and no doubt more to be discovered.
With the exception of the southern section, the province of
Alberta may be said to be well watered. Rising from numerous
valleys on the Alberta declivity of the Rocky Mountains between
the international boundary line and 52° N. are streams which
unite to form the Belly river, and farther north the Bow river.
Running eastward these two rivers unite about 112 W., and
flow on under the name of the South Saskatchewan river.'
North of 5 2 N. many small streams unite to form the Red Deer
river, which flowing south-eastward joins the South Saskat-
chewan near 1 io° W. Between 52 and 53 N. rises the great
river, the North Saskatchewan. It receives a southern tributary,
the Battle river, which joins it about 108 W. Pursuing their
courses eastward the North and South Saskatchewan rivers
unite in the Saskatchewan (Cree, rapid-flowing river), which
finds its way to Lake Winnipeg, and thence by way of Nelson
river to Hudson Bay. It is one of the mightiest rivers of the
continent.
Between 53° and 54° N. begins the height of land running
north-easterly, north of which all the waters of Alberta flow
toward the Arctic Sea. In northern Alberta, on the northern
slope, gathering its tributaries from rills in the Rocky Mountains,
the river Athabasca runs north and empties into Lake Athabasca
near 58° N. North of 56 N. flows through and from the Rocky
Mountains the Peace river. After descending north-eastward
to within a few miles of Lake Athabasca, it is met by a stream
emerging from that lake. The united river carrying down the
waters of the Athabasca slope is called the Slave river, which,
passing through Great Slave Lake, emerges as the great
Mackenzie river, which falls into the Arctic Sea. Alberta thus
gives rise to the two great rivers Saskatchewan and Mackrnric
While a number of fresh-water, or in some cases brackish, lakes
each less than 100 sq. m. in extent are situated in Alberta, two
of more considerable size are found. These are Lake Athabasca,
3085 sq. m. in extent, of which a part is in the province of
Saskatchewan, and the other Lesser Slave Lake some 600 sq. m.
in area.
Climate. — As Alberta extends for 750 m. from north to
south — as great a distance as from Land's End in England to
the north of the Shetland Isles — it is natural that the climate
should vary considerably between parallels of 49° and 60* N .
and also between no° and 1 20 W. It is also further influenced
by the different altitudes above the sea of the several parts of
the province. Dividing the province into three equal parts of
250 m. each from north to south, these may be called (A)
the south, (B) the centre, (C) the north. The following data
may be considered.—
Climatic Table
Climate.
Places.
Above the
Sea.
Mean
Winter
Tempu
(A) Moderate and
changeable
Medicine Hat. lat.
50* N.
Calgary, lat. 51 *
Banff, lat. 51!*
2 171 ft.
34*1 ,.
451S »
M-3* F.
15-9* m
(B) Steady . .
Edmonton, lat. 53!*
2210 „
io-3* ..
(C) Severe . .
Fort Chipewyan, lat.
59* N.
600 „
7*° -
Climate (A) allows, in what is a great ranching district,
cattle and horses to run at large through the whole winter.
Through the mountain passes come at times dry winds from
the Pacific coast, which lick up the snow in a few hours. These
winds are known as Chinook winds. While elevating the tem-
perature they bring more moisture into the air and produce
a change not entirely desirable.
Climate (B) is the steady winter climate of Edmonton district.
This while averaging a lower temperature than (A) is not so
subject to change; it retains the snow for sleighing, which is a
boon to the farmer. This climate is mudi less influenced by
the Pacific winds than (A).
Climate (C), that of Fort Chipewyan, having a mean winter
temperature of 22-6° lower than Calgary, is a decidedly sub-arctic
climate. It is the region in winter of constant ice and snow, bat
its lower altitude gives it a summer climate with a mean tem-
perature of only i-6° less than Calgary, and x-8° less than Ed-
monton. It will thus be seen that the agricultural capabilities
of the Athabasca and Peace river districts, not yet fully known,
are full of promise.
Fauna.— The three climatic regions of Alberta have naturally
a varying fauna. The south and central region was the land of
the bison, its grasses affording a great pasture ground for tens of
thousands of " buffaloes." They were destroyed by whites and
Indians in 1870-1882 on the approach of the Canadian Pacific
railway. Grizzly, black and cinnamon bears are found in the
mountains and wooded districts. The coyote or small wolf, here
and there the grey wolf, the fox and the mountain lion (panther)
occur. The moose and red deer are found in the wooded regions,
and the jumping deer and antelope on the prairies. WOd sheep
and goats live in the Rocky Mountains. The lynx, wolverine,
porcupine, skunk, hare, squirrel and mouse are met. The gopher
is a resident of the dry plains. District (C) is the fur-trader's
ALBERTA
5 oi
paradise. The buffalo is replaced by the mountain buffaloes, of
which a few survive. The musk-ox comes in thousands every
year to the great northern likes, while the mink, marten, beaver,
otter, ermine and musk-rat are sought by the fur-trader. Fort
Chipewyan was long known in Hudson's Bay Company history
as the great depot of the Mackenzie river district Northern
Alberta, and the region farther north is the nesting-ground of the
migratory birds. Here vast numbers of ducks, geese, swans and
pelicans resort every year. Cranes, partridges and varieties of
singing birds abound. The eagle, hawk, owl and crow are plenti-
ful. Mosquitoes and flies are everywhere, and the wasp and wild
bee also. In the rivers and lakes pike, pickerel, white fish and
sturgeon supply food for the natives, and the brook trout is found
in the small mountain streams. The turtle and frog also appear.
Flora. — In central and northern Alberta the opening spring
brings in the prairie anemone, the avens and other early flowers.
The advancing summer introduces many flowers of the sunflower
family, until in August the plains are one blaze of yellow and
purple. The southern part of Alberta is covered by a short grass,
very nutritive, but drying up in the middle of summer until the
whole prairie is brown and unattractive. The trees in the wooded
sections of the province are seen in clumps and belts on the hill-
sides. These are largely deciduous. On the north side of the
Saskatchewan river forests prevail for scores and even hundreds
of miles. They contain the poplar or aspen ( Populus trtmuloides),
balsam poplar (Populus balsomifera), and paper or canoe birch
( Betula papyri/era). The Coniferae are found northward and in
the mountain valleys. Some of these arc: Jack pine (Pinus
Banksiana), Rocky Mountain pine (Pinus fiexilis), black pine
{Pinus Murray ana), white spruce (Picca alba), black spruce
(Pkea nigra), Engelman's spruce (Picea Engclmanni), mountain
balsam (Abies subalpina), Douglas fir (Pseudotsuga Douglasit),
mountain larch (Larix LyaUis).
Population.— fy the census of 1006 the population of Alberta
W3S found to be 185,41 2. It has grown from 73,022 in 1001 (the
area of Alberta being then slightly different). The basis of the
population is Canadian, and the immigration has been chiefly
from (x) the British Isles, (2) United States, (3) continent of
Europe (chiefly Austria, Hungary and Russia). Of the popula-
tion in 1901, 17,24s had immigrated thither from the three
mentioned sources. The following table shows the percentages
of origins: —
1 901.
Canadian and native born
The British Isles ....
United States ....
Continent of Europe
166%
24-4%
Of the Indian and Indian half-breed population there were in
x 001 , 14,660 of the former and 1 1 ,63 5 of the lat ter. The Indians
of central Alberta are chiefly plain Crees, a tribe of Algonquin
stock. In southern Alberta are several thousands of Indians on
reserves south and west of Calgary, consisting of the Blackfoots
Of Algonquin stock, Sarcees, Piegans and a few Assiniboins.
The chief cities and towns of Alberta are Edmonton (11,167),
Calgary (11,967), Medicine Hat (3020), Lethbridge (2948) and
Strathcona (2927).
Industries. — The chief industries of the people are farming and
ranching. Cattle, horses and sheep are largely reared in the
southern prairie region on ranches or smaller holdings. In this
region irrigation is widely used. Red winter wheat is now pro-
duced to a considerable degree. In the town of Raymond is a
large beet sugar manufactory, and in the vicinity great quantities
of beets are grown by irrigation. In central Alberta coarse
grains-— oats and barley— and some wheat are grown, in conjunc-
tion with mixed farming. While washing out the sands of the
North Saskatchewan for gold is still somewhat resorted to, the
only real mining in Alberta is that for coal. Vast beds of coal are
found extending for hundreds of miles, a short distance below the
surface of the plains. The coal belongs to the Cretaceous beds,
and while not so heavy as that of the Coal Measures is of excellent
quality. In the valley of the Bow river, alongside the Canadian
Pacific railway, valuable beds of anthracite coal are worked, and
the coal is carried by railway as far east as Winnipeg. The usual
coal deposits of Alberta are of bituminous or semi-bituminous
coal. These are largely worked at Lethbridge in southern
Alberta and Edmonton in the centre of the province. Many other
parts of the province have pits for private use. The Athabasca
river region, as well as localities far north on the Mackenzie river,
has decided indications of petroleum, though it is not yet de-
veloped. Natural gas has been found at several poiQts. The
most notable gas discovery is that at Medicine Hat, which has
wells with unlimited quantities. The gas is excellent, is used for
lighting the town, supplies light and fuel for the people, and a
number of industries are using the gas for manufacturing.
Communications. — For transportation the North Saskatchewan
is to some extent depended on for carrying freight by steamboats,
but railways are widespread in the province. The Canadian
Pacific railway has its main line running from east to west chiefly
between 50 and 5 1° N. Over this line passes an enormous trade
from the Atlantic to the Pacific Ocean — the railway with its
" Empress " steamers on the Pacific and also on the Atlantic
Ocean claiming to have as its termini Liverpool and Yokohama.
A branch line of the Canadian Pacific railway runs from Medicine
Hat between 49° and 50° N., passing through the Crow's Nest
Pass of the Rocky Mountains and carrying on trade with British
Columbia. Another branch from Calgary runs southward to
Macleod, and to Lethbridge there comes from the south a branch
cf the Great Northern railway of the United States, connecting
with the state of Montana. From Calgary to Edmonton north-
ward runs a line under the control of the Canadian Pacific railway.
From this railway also run, eastward from Lacombe and
Wetaskiwin, branch lines to complete the system. In 1906 the
new line of the -Canadian Northern railway was opened,
connecting Winnipeg, 1000 m. to the east, along the North
Saskatchewan river, with Edmonton. The Grand Trunk Pacific
railway, backed by the Canadian government, forms a new
transcontinental line; the prairie section from Winnipeg to
Edmonton was in xoo8 under contract.
A d ministration, c>c. — The local government of Alberta is carried
on by a provincial organization resembling that of the other
Canadian provinces. The capital of the province is Edmonton,
and here reside the lieutenant-governor and cabinet The
legislature consists of one house — the Legislative Assembly^-of
twenty-five members. Responsible government after the British
model is followed, and the revenue is chiefly derived from grants
from the Dominion government Alberta has a system of muni-
cipal government similar to that of the other provinces.
Education is given by a public-school system, which, while
nominally providing for separate schools for Catholics and Pro-
testants, makes it practically impossible at most points to carry
on such schools. A normal school is situated at Calgary. There
is a college for secondary education in Calgary and another in
Edmonton.
The following are the leading denominations in Alberta:—
1901.
Roman Catholics • . 12.957
Presbyterians 10,655
Methodists • • • . 9,623
Church of England . . . . 8,888
Lutherans 5.8x0
Greek Church . 4,618
Mormons 3,212
Baptists 2,722
The Mormons of Alberta are in the most southerly part of the
province, and are a colony from the Mormon settlements in
Utah, U.S. On coming to Canada they were given lands by the
Dominion of Canada. The organization adopted in Utah among
the Mormons is found also in Alberta, but the Canadian Mormons
profess to have received a later revelation condemning polygamy.
History.— The present province of Alberta as far north as the
height of land (53° N.) was from the time of the incorporation
of the Hudson's' Bay Company (1670) a part of Rupert's Land.
After the discovery of the north-west by the French in 1731
and succeeding years the prairies of the west were occupied by
502
ALBERT EDWARD NYANZA— ALBERTINELLI
them, and Fort La Jonquiere was established near the present
city of Calgary (175 a). The North-West Company of Montreal
occupied the northern part of Alberta district before the Hudson's
Bay Company succeeded in coming from Hudson Bay to take
possession of it. The first hold of the 'Athabasca region was
gained by Peter Pond, who, on behalf of the North- West Company
of Montreal, built Fort Athabasca on river La Biche in 1778.
Roderick Mackenzie, cousin of Sir Alexander Mackenzie, built
Fort Chipewyan on Lake Athabasca in 1788. By way of the
North Saskatchewan river Alexander Mackenzie crossed the
height of land, and proceeding northward discovered the river
which bears his name, and also the Arctic Sea. Afterward
going westward from Lake Athabasca and through the Peace
river, he reached the Pacific Ocean, being the first white man
to cross the North American continent, north of Mexico.
As part of the North -West Territories the district of Alberta
was organized in 1875. Additional privileges and a local legis-
lature were added from time to time. At length in 1005 the
district of Alberta was enlarged and the present province formed
by the Dominion parliament. (G. Br.)
ALBERT EDWARD NYANZA. a lake of Central Africa, the
southern of the two western reservoirs of the Nile. It lies in
the Albertine rift-valley between o° 8' and o° 40' S. and 29 28'
and 20° 52' E. t at an elevation of 3004 ft. above the sea.
It is roughly oval in shape and has no deep indentations. On
its N.E. side it is connected by a winding channel, 25 m. long
and from a quarter of a mile to a mile wide, flowing between
high banks, with a smaller sheet of water, Lake Dweru, which
extends north of the equator. Albert Edward Nyanza has a
length of 44 m. and a breadth of 32 m. (maximum measurement).
Dweru is about 20 m. long and 10 across at its widest part.
The area of the two lakes is approximately 820 sq. m., or about
the size of Leicestershire, England. A swampy plain, traversed
by the Ruchuru and other rivers, extends south of the Nyanza
and was once covered by its waters. The plain contains several
salt-pans, and at the S.E. corner are numerous geysers. Along
the eastern shore the low land extends to Kamarangu, a point
about midway between the south and north ends of the lake, a
considerable stretch of ground intervening between the wall of
the rift-valley and the water, two terraces being clearly defined.
The euphorbia trees and other vegetation on the lower terrace
are of small size and apparently of recent origin. At some
distance from the lake runs a belt of forest. North of Kamarangu
the wall of the valley approaches the water in a series of bluffs
some 300 to 350 ft. high. At the N.E. end the hills again recede
and the plain widens to include Dweru. On the west side of
the Nyanza the wall of the rift-valley runs close to the lake
shore and at the N. W. corner the mountain* close in on the water.
North of the lake a high alluvial plain stretches to the southern
slopes of the Ruwenzori mountains. From Ruwenzori a sub-
sidiary range, known as the Kipura mountains, runs due south
to the lake shore, where it ends in a low rounded hill. In general,
the plain rises above the lake in a series of bold bluffs, a wide
margin of swamp separating them from the water. The Semliki,
the only outlet of the lake, issues from its N. W. end. Round the
north-eastern shore of the lake are numerous crater lakes, many
salt, the most remarkable being that of Katwe, This lake lies
west of the Dweru channel and is separated from Albert Edward
Nyanza by a ridge of land, not more than 160 ft. in breadth.
The sides of this ridge run down steeply to the water on either
side. The waters of the Katwe lake have a beautiful rose colour
which becomes crimson in the shadows. The salt is highly prized
and is exported to great distances.
The main feeder of Albert Edward Nyanza, and western
head-stream of the Nile, the Ruchuru, rises on the north side of
the volcanoes north of Lake Kiyu (see Mfumbiro). On reaching
the level plain is m. from the lake its waters become brackish,
and the vegetation on its banks is scanty. The reedy marshes
near its mouth form a retreat for a primitive race of fishermen.
Lake Dweru, the shores of which are generally high, is fed by
the streams from the eastern slopes of the Ruwenzori range.
Que of these, the Mpango, is a larger river than the Ruchuru.
The outlet of the Nyanza, the Semliki, and the part played
by the lake in the Nile system are described under Auut
Nyanza.
A feature of Lake Albert Edward Nyanza is the thick haze
which overhangs the water during the dry season, blotting oat
from view the mountains. In the rains, when the sky is dear,
the magnificent panorama of hills encircling the lake 00 the west
and north-west is revealed. The lake water is dear of a light
green colour, and distinctly brackish. Fish abound, as do
waterfowl, crocodiles and, in the southern swamps, hippo-
potami. In the rainy season the lake is subject to viokni
storms.
The entire area of Albert Edward Nyanza was found, by the
work of the Anglo-German Boundary Commission of 1002-1004,
to lie within the limits of the sphere of influence of the Congo
Free State as defined in the agreement of the 1 2th of May 1804
between that state and Great Britain. Dweru was discovered
in 1875 by H. M. Stanley, then travelling westward from Uganda,
and by him was named Beatrice Gulf in the belief that it was
part of Albert Nyanza. In 1888- 1889 Stanley, approaching
the Nile region from the west, traced the Semliki to its source
in Albert Edward Nyanza, which lake he discovered, naming it
after Albert Edward, prince of Wales, afterwards Edward VII
Stanley also discovered the connecting channel between the
larger lake and Dweru. The accurate mapping of the lake was
mainly the work of British officials and travellers, such as Scott
Elliott, Sir F. D. Lugard, Ewart Grogan, J. E. Moore and Sir H
Johnston; while Emin Pasha and Franz Stuhlmann, deputy-
governor (189 1 ) of German East Africa, explored its southern
shores. (See Albert Nyanza and Nile, and the authorities
there quoted.) (W. E. G. ; F. R. C.)
ALBERTI, DOMENICO (;.' 17 10-1740), Italian musician, is
known in musical history as the writer of dozens of sonatas io
which the melody is supported from beginning to end by an
extremely familiar formula of arpeggio accompaniment, conse-
quently known as the Alberti bass. He thus shows how advanced
was the decay of polyphonic sensibility (as a negative preparation
for the advent of the sonata-style) already during the lifetime of
Bach. His works have no other special qualities, though it is
probable that Mozart's first violin sonatas, written at the age
of seven, were modelled on Alberti in spite of their superior
cleverness.
ALBERTI, LEONE BATT1STA (1404-147?). Italian painter,
poet, philosopher, musician and architect, was born in Venice
on the 1 8th of February 1404. He was so skilled in Latin verse
that a comedy .he wrote in his twentieth year, entitled Pkile-
doxius, decdved the younger Aldus, who edited and published
it as the genuine work of Lepidus. In music he was reputed
one of .the first organists of the age. He hdd the appointment
of canon in the metropolitan church of Florence, and thus had
leisure to devote himself to his favourite art. He is generally
regarded as one of the restorers of the andent style of archi-
tecture. At Rome he was employed by Pope Nicholas V. in
the restoration of the papal palace, and of the foundation of
Acqua Vergine, and in the ornamentation of the magnificent
fountain of Trcvi. At Mantua he designed the church of Sant'
Andrea and at Rimini the celebrated church of San Francesco,
which is generally esteemed his finest work. On' a commission
from Rucellai he designed the principal facade of the church
of Santa Maria Novella in Florence, as well as the family palace
in the Via della Scala , now known as the Palazzo Stroaza. Alberti
wrote works on sculpture, Delia Statua, and on painting, Di
Pkiura, which are highly esteemed; but his most celebrated
treatise is that on architecture, De Re Aedificatoria, which has
been translated into Italian, French, Spanish and English.
Alberti died at Rome in the April of 1472.
See Passerini, Cli Alberti di Firenu (1869, 1870); Mandni. Pfia
di Alberti (Firenze, 1882); V. Hoffmann. Studien m Leon Bettuto
Albert?* ukn Buchern: De Re Aedifacatona (Frankenberg, 1883).
ALBERTINELLI, MARIOTTO (1474-1515). Italian painter,
was bom in Florence, and was a fellow-pupil and partner of
Fra Bartolommeo, with whom he painted many works. His
ALBERTITE— ALBERT NYANZA
5o3
Chief paintings *» in Florence, notably his masterpiece, the
" Visitati on of the Virgin " (1503) at the Uffia.
ALBERTTTB, a variety of asphalt found in Albert county,
New Brunswick. It is of jet-black colour and brilliant pitch-like
lustre. Its percentage chemical composition is: —
c.
H.
O.
N.
S.
Ash.
86-04
8-96
1-97
2-93
trace
010
It softens slightly in boiling water, but only fuses imperfectly
when further heated, -and it is less soluble than ordinary asphalt
in oil of turpentine.
ALBERT LEA, a city and the county-seat of Freeborn county,
Minnesota, U.S.A., about 97 m. S. of St Paul Pop. (1800)
3305; (1000) 4500; (1005, state census) 5657, 1206 being for-
eign-born (461 Norwegians, 411 Danes, 08 Swedes); (1910, U. S.
census) 619a. It is served by two branches of the Chicago,
Milwaukee & St Paul, by the main line and one branch of
the Chicago, Rock Island & Pacific, by the Illinois Central,
by the Iowa Central, and by the Minneapolis & St Louis
railways. It is attractively situated between Fountain Lake
and Albert Lea Lake, and is a summer resort. It has a public
library and the Freeborn County Court House, and is the seat
of Albert Lea College (Presbyterian, for women), founded in
1 884, and of Luther Academy (Norwegian Evangelical Lutheran),
founded in 1888. Albert Lea is a railway and manufacturing
centre of considerable importance, has grain elevators and
foundries and machine shops, and manufactures bricks, tiles,
carriages, wagons, flour, corsets, refrigerators and woollen
goods. The city is also the centre of large dairy interests, and
there are many creameries in the county. Numerous artesian
wells furnish the city with an ample supply of water of unusual
excellence. Albert Lea was settled in 1855 and received a city
charter in 1878. The city and the lake were named in honour of
Lieutenant Albert Miller Lea (1808-1891), a West Point graduate
(1831) who, on behalf of the United States government, first
surveyed the region and described it in a report published in
1836. He was a lieutenant-colonel of engineers in the Con-
federate army during the Civil War.
ALBERT NYANZA, a lake of Central Africa, the northern
of the two western reservoirs of the Nile, lying in the western
(Albertine) rift-valley, near its north end. The southern reser-
voir is Albert Edward Nyanza (?.«.). Lake Albert lies between
i° 9' and a° 17' N. and 30° 30' and 31 3s' E., at an elevation
of about 2000 ft above the sea.' Its greatest length is about
100 m., its greatest width 22 m., its area being approximately
1640 sq. m., about the size of Lancashire, England. South of
the lake is a wide plain, traversed by the Semliki river, which
enters the Nyanza through a swamp of tall weeds, chiefly ambach
and papyrus. Both east and west the walls of the rift-valley are
dose to the lake, the water in many places washing the base of the
cliffs. Elsewhere the narrow foreshore is thickly wooded. The
ascent to the plateaus is generally by three tiers of hills rising
one behind the other. On the west side the mountains present
many pointed and conical summits; on the east the cliffs rise
abruptly 1000 to 2000 ft. On either coast wild gorges and
ravines, densely wooded, break the outline of the mountains.
Through these gorges dash magnificent cascades, others leaping
the escarpments of the plateaus in waterfalls of great volume
and depth. Towards the north the hills recede from the coast
and on both sides flats extend for distances varying from
5 to 15 m. On the eastern side, 92 m. from the southern end
of the Nyanza, the Victoria Nile enters the lake, here not
more than 6 m. across, through a wilderness of woods, the
delta of the Nile extending over 4 m. The mouth of the
main stream is obstructed by a bar of its own formation; the
current is sluggish; there are many side channels, and the appear-
ance of the lake gives no hint that a great river has joined its
waters. For 5 or 6 m. north of the junction of the Victoria
Nile the lake suffers no material diminution in width. Then,
however, the eastern and western shores approach each other,
and a current is perceptible flowing north. The lake has become
the Bahr-el-Jebd, or Mountain river, as this section of the Nfle
is called. Throughout its extent Albert Nyanza is shallow;
at its southern end the water for a considerable distance is not
more than 3 ft deep. The deepest soundings give only 50 to
55 ft, the average depth being 30 to 40 ft
The Albertine Basin of the Nile.— Albert Nyanza receives the
whole of the drainage of Albert Edward Nyanza and the Semliki
river, and with them and its own basin forms the " Albertine "
Nile system. Its waters, as stated above, mingle with those
of the Victoria Nile, their united volume flowing north towards
the Mediterranean. A study of the changes going on in the rift-
valley in which the lakes lie leads, however, to the belief that
the Albert Edward and Albert Nyanzas are drying up, a process
which the nature of the drainage areas is helping to bring about
That the Albert Edward Nyanza once covered a much larger
area than it does at present is certain. At that time, recent
from a geological standpoint, the valley to the north, through
which now flows the Semliki river, was blocked. The removal of
the block led to the shrinkage of the lake and the formation of
the Semliki, which found its way to the more northern lake —
Albert Nyanza. Gradually the Semliki eroded its bed, and
consequently the level of Albert Edward Nyanza continued to
fall. The process continues but is checked by the existence of
the rock barrier which stretches across the Semliki. This stream
leaves Albert Edward Nyanza at its N.W. end in o 8 8' 30' S.,
and after a course of about 160 m. enters Albert Nyanza in
i° 9' N. In its upper and in its lower course the river flows
either through high alluvial plains, in which it has scored a
deep channel, or across swamp land. In the middle section, which
has a length of some 75 m., the river runs in a deep narrow valley
covered with the densest forest On the west this valley is
bounded by the Congo mountains, which form the wall of the
rift- valley, on the east by the mighty range of Ruwcnzori, whose
heights tower over 16,000 ft. above sea-level. In this length
of 75 m. the river falls in cataracts and rapids over 800 ft. This
rocky barrier acts as a regulator for the water received from
Albert Edward Nyanza and, by checking the erosion of the
river bed, tends to maintain the level of the lake. When this
bar wears away Albert Edward Nyanza will, in all probability,
disappear as a lake and will become a river, a continuation of
its present most southern affluent, the Ruchuru.
Albert Nyanza, on the other hand, is threatened in the distant
future with destruction from another cause — the filling of its bed
by the alluvium poured into it by the Semliki, the Victoria Nile
and, in a lesser degree, by other streams. The Semliki receives
directly or indirectly the whole of the drainage of Ruwcnzori, and
also that of the eastern face of the Congo mountains as well as
the drainage basin of Albert Edward Nyanza. The amount of
alluvial matter carried is enormous; from Ruwenzori alone the
detritus is very great Charged with all this matter, the Semliki,
as it emerges from the region of forest and cataracts (in which,
often closely confined by its mountain barriers, the stream is deep
and rapid), becomes sluggish, its slope flattens out, and its waters,
unable to carry their burden, deposit much of it upon the land.
This process, continually going on, has formed a large plain at the
south end of Albert Nyanza, which has seriously encroached upon
the lake. At the northern end of the lake the sediment brought
down by the Victoria Nile is producing a similar effect Albert
Nyanza has indeed shrunk in its dimensions during the com-
paratively few years it has been known to Europeans. Thus at
the S.W. end, Nyamsasi, which was an island in 1889, has become
a peninsula. Islands which in 1876 were on the east coast no
longer exist ; they now form part of the foreshore. On the other
hand, the shrinkage of the lake level caused the appearance in
1885 of an island where in 1879 there had been an expanse of
shallow water. It seems probable that, in a period geologically
not very remote, the " Albertine " system will consist of one
great river, extending from the northern slopes of the Kivu range,
where the Ruchuru has its rise, to the existing junction of the
Victoria Nile with Albert Nyanza
The combined drainage area, including the water surface of
Albert Edward Nyanza, the Semliki and Albert Nyanza, is some
50 4
ALBERTUS MAGNUS— ALBERY
16,600 sq. m. Throughout this area the rainfall is heavy (40 to
60 in. or more per annum), the volume of water entering
Albeit Nyanza by the Semliki when in flood being not less than
700 cubic metres per second. Of the water received by Albert
Nyanza annually (omitting the Victoria Nik from the calculation)
between 50 and 60% is lost by evaporation, whilst 34,265,000,000
cubic metres areannually withdrawn by the Bahr-el-JebeL The
" Albertine " system plays a comparatively insignificant part in
the annual flood rise of the White Nile, but to its waters are due
the maintenance of a constant supply to this river throughout
the year.
Discovery and Exploration.— Albert Nyanza was first reached
by Sir Samuel Baker on the 14th of March 1864 near Vacovia, a
small village of fishermen and salt-makers, on the east coast.
From a granitic cliff 1500 ft. above the water he looked out over
a boundless horizon on the south and south-west, and towards the
west descried at a distance of 50 or 60 m. mountains about 7000
ft. high. Albert Nyanza was consequently entered on his map as
a vast lake extending about 380 m. But the circumnavigation
of the lake by Gessi Pasha (1876K and by Emin Pasha in 1884,
showed that Baker had been deceived as to the size of the lake.
By the end of the 19th century the topography of the lake region
was known with fair accuracy. The lake forms part of the
(British) Uganda Protectorate, but the north-west shores were
leased in 1804 to the Congo Free State during the sovereignty
of king Leopold II. of Belgium. Of this leased area a strip
15 m. wide, giving the Congo State a passage way to the
lake, was to remain in its possession after the determination of
the lease.
See Nile; Sir W. Garstin't Report upon Ike Basin of Ike Upper
Nile (Egypt, No. 2, 1904); Capt. H. C. Lyons' The Physiography
of the Rwer Nile and Us Basin (Cairo, 1906), and the authorities
quoted in those works. (W. E. G. ; F. R. C.)
ALBERTUS MAGNUS (Albert of Cologne, ? 1306-1280),
count of BollsULdt, scholastic philosopher, was born of the noble
family of Bollstadt at Lauingen in Suabia. The date of his birth,
generally given as 1 1 93, is more probably 1 206. He was educated
principally at Padua, where he received instruction in Aristotle's
writings. In 1 2 23 (or 1 2 2 1 ) he became a member of the Domini-
can order, and studied theology under its rules at Bologna and
elsewhere. Selected to fill the position of lecturer at Cologne,
where the order had a house, he taught for several years there, at
Regensburg, Freiburg, Strassburg and Hildesheim. In 1245 he
went to Paris, received his doctorate and taught for some time,
in accordance with the regulations, with great success. In 1254
he was made provincial of his order, and fulfilled the arduous
duties of the office with great care and efficiency. During the time
he held this office he publicly defended the Dominicans against
the university of Paris, commented on St John, and answered the
errors of the Arabian philosopher, Averroes. In 1260 the pope
made him bishop of Regensburg, which office he resigned after
three years. The remainder of his life he spent partly in preach-
ing throughout Bavaria and the adjoining districts, partly in
retirement in the various houses of his order; in x 270 be preached
the eighth Crusade in Austria; almost the last of his labours
was the defence of the orthodoxy of his former pupil, Thomas
Aquinas. He died in 1 280, aged seventy-four. He was beatified
in 1622, and he is commemorated on the 16th of November.
Albert's works (published in twenty-one folios by the Dominican
Pierre Jammy in 1651, and reproduced by the Abbe Borgnct,
Paris, 1890, 36 vols.) sufficiently attest his great activity. He
was the most widely read and most learned man of his time. The
whole of Aristotle's works, presented in the Latin translations
and notes of the Arabian commentators, were by him digested,
interpreted and systematized in accordance with church doctrine.
Albert's activity, however, was rather philosophical than theo-
logical (see Scholasticism). The philosophical works, occupying
the first six and the last of the twenty-one volumes, are generally
divided according to the Aristotelian scheme of the sciences,
and consist of interpretations and condensations of Aristotle's
relative works, with supplementary discussions depending on the
questions then agitated, and occasionally divergences from the
opinions of the master. His principal theological works ase a
commentary in three volumes on the Boohs of the Sentences of
Peter Lombard (M agister SentenHarum), and the Summa Thm-
logiae in two volumes. This last is in substance a repetition of
the first in a more didactic form. Albert's knowledge of physical
science was considerable and for the age accurate. His industry
in every department was great, and though we find in his systea
many of those gaps which are characteristic of scholastic pado-
sophy, yet the protracted study of Aristotle gave bun a great
power of systematic thought and exposition, and the result* of
that study, as left to us, by no means warrant the conterflptaoes
title sometimes given him — the "Ape of Aristotle." They rather
lead us to appreciate the motives which caused his contempo-
raries to bestow on him the honourable surnames " The •Great "
and " Doctor Universalis." It must, however, be admitted that
much of his knowledge was ill digested; it even appears that he
regarded Plato and Spcusippus as Stoics. Albertus is frequent*?
mentioned by Dante, who made his doctrine of free-will the basis
of his ethical system. Dante places him with his pupa Aquinas
among the great lovers of wisdom (Spirits Sapients) in the Heaves
of the Sun.
See Paget Toynbee, " Some Obligations of Dante to Albert*
Magnus "in Romania, xxh-. 400-412, and the Dante Dictionary by
the same author. For Al ben's Kftj -*e J. Sighart, Albertus Mcgm.
sein Leben und seine WizsmukaU t Regensburg, 1857; Eng. tnsv,
Dixon, London, 1876); It Finite, IMgedruckte DonumikoMerhrvk
des 13. Jakrk. (Paderbc m, 1891), For his philosophy A. Seftrkl,
Gesckichte a\ scholastischen PhUawtikie:}. E. Erdmann, GeundrusL
Ces. d. Phil. voL i. 8. The hist or ... of Haureau. Ritter. Prand sad
Windelband may also be conMitt H. See also W. Fefler. Die Mtnt
d. A. M. (Leipzig, 1891 }, M. Weiss, Ueber ntariologiscke Scknpm
des A. M. (Paris, 1808) ; Jo*. Barh, Des A. U. VerkMtuiss a L
Erkenntnisslekre <L Gruihm, Ramer. Araber u. Jnden (Vieasa.
1881): Herzqg-Hauck, Reaiencyk. (1897); Vacant. Did. The*
Caikol. (s.9.)i Ch. Jourdsin in Diet. d. scunces pkUos. (*.».): M. lod.
Das Verkdltniss A. d. C. en Moses Maimonidei (Breslau, 1863).
ALBERUS, ERASMUS (c. 1500-1553), German humanist,
reformer and poet, was a native of the village of Sprendfingea
near Frankfort -on-Main, where he was born about the year 1500.
Although his father was a schoolmaster, his early education was
neglected. Ultimately in x 5 1 8 he found his way to the university
of Wittenberg, where he studied theology. He had here the
good fortune to attract the attention of Luther and Melanchtboa,
and subsequently became one of Luther's most active hdpen
in the Reformation. Not merely did he fight for the Protestaxt
cause as a preacher and theologian, but he was almost the oalr
member of Luther's party who was able to confront the Romaa
Catholics with the weapon of literary satire. In 1542 he pub-
lished a prose satire to which Luther wrote the preface, Dtr
Barfilsser Ubncke Eulenspiegel und Alkoran, an adaptation of
the Liber conJortnUatum of the Franciscan Bartolommeo Albaa
of Pisa (Pisanus, d. 1401), in which the Franciscan order is held up
to ridicule. Of higher literary value is the didactic and satirical
Buck ton der Tugend und Weiskeit (1550), a collection of fbrty-
nine fables in which Alberus embodies his views on the relations
of Church and State. His satire is incisive, but in a scholarly
and humanistic way; it does not appeal to popular passions
with the fierce directness which enabled the master of Cathofic
satire, Thomas Murner, to inflict such telling blows. Several of
Alberus's hymns, all of which show the influence of his master
Luther, have been retained in the German Protestant hymaaL
After Luther's death, Alberus was for a time Diakonus in Witten-
berg; he became involved, however, in the political conflicts of
the time, and was in Magdeburg in 1 550-1 551, while that tows
was besieged by Maurice of Saxony. In 1 552 he was appointed
Generalsuperintendent at Neubrandenburg in Mecklenburg, where
he died on the 5th of May 1553.
Das Buck von der Tugend und Weiskeit has been edited by W.
Braune (1802); the sixteen Geisdicke Lieder by C. W. Stromberfe*
(1857). Alberus's prose writings have not been reprinted in recent
times. See F. Schnorr von Carolsfeld, Erasmus Alberus (1894).
ALBERT, JAMES (1838-1880), English dramatist, was bora
in London on the 4th of May 1 838. On leaving school he entered
an architect's office, and started to write plays. After maay
failures be at last succeeded in getting an adaptation^ Ar Deej
ALBI— ALBIGENSES
505
—produced at the Lyceum (1866). His most successful piece,
Two Roses, a comedy, was produced at the Vaudeville in 1870,
in which Sir Henry Irving made one of his earliest London
successes as Digby Grant. He was the author of a large number
of other plays and adaptations, including Jingle (a version of
Pickwick), produced at the Lyceum in 1878, and Pink Dominoes,
the latter being one of a series of adaptations from the French
which he made for the Criterion theatre. At that house his
wife, the well-known actress, Miss Mary Moore, played the
leading parts. He died on the 15th of August 1889.
ALBI, a city of south-western France, capital of the depart-
ment of Tarn, 48 m. N. E. of Toulouse, on a branch line of the
Southern railway. Pop. (1006) 14,956. Albi occupies a com-
manding position on the left bank of the Tarn; it is united to
its suburb of La Madeleine. on the right bank by a medieval
and a modern bridge. The old town forms a nucleus of narrow,
winding streets surrounded by boulevards, beyond which lie
modem quarters with regular thoroughfares and public gardens.
The cathedral of Sainte Cecfle, a fine fortress-church in the
Gothic style, begun in 1277, finished in 151 2, rises high above
the rest of the town. The exterior, flanked at the western end
by a lofty tower and pierced by high, narrow windows, is devoid
of ornament. Its general plainness contrasts with the elaborate
carving of the stone canopy which shelters the southern portal.
In the interior, which is without transepts or aisles, the rood-
screen and the choir-enclosure, which date from about 1500,
are masterpieces of delicate sculpture; the vaulting and the
walls are covered with paintings of the 15th and 16th centuries.
The archbishop's palace to the north-east of the cathedral is
a fortified building of the 14th century. St Salvi, the chief of
the other churches of Albi, belongs to the 13th and x 5th centuries.
A statue of the sailor La Penrose (1741-1788) stands in the
square named after him.
Albi is the seat of an archbishop, a prefect and a court of
assizes. It has tribunals of first instance and of commerce, a
board of trade-arbitrators, a chamber of commerce, a lycie
and training colleges. The industrial establishments of the town
include dye-works, distilleries, tanneries, glass-works and
important flour-mills. It is also a centre for hat-making, and
produces cloth-fabrics, lace, umbrellas, casks, chairs, wooden
shoes, candles and pastries. Trade is in wine and anise.
Albi (Albiga) was, in the Gallo-Roman period, capital of the
Albigenses, and later of the viscounty of Albigeois, which was a
fief of the counts of Toulouse. From the x 2 th century onwards,
its bishops, the first of whom appears to have lived about the
3rd century, began to encroach on the authority of the viscounts;
the latter, after the Albigensian war, lost their estates, which
passed to Simon de Montfort and then to the crown of France.
By a convention concluded in X264 the chief temporal power
in the city was granted to the bishops. The archbishopric dates
from 1678.
ALBUM (Fr. Albien, from Alba - Aube in France), in
geology the term proposed in 1842 by A. d'Orbigny for that
stage of the Cretaceous System which comes above the Aptian
and below the Cenomanian (Pal. France. Crii. ii.). The precise
limits of this stage are placed somewhat differently by English
and continental geologists. In England it is usual to regard
the Albian stage as equivalent to the Upper Greensand plus
Gault, that is, to the " Selbornian " of Jukes-Browne. But
A. de Lapparent would place most of the Upper Greensand in
the Cenomanian. The English practice is to commence the
upper Cretaceous with the Albian; on the other hand, this
stage closes the lower Cretaceous according to continental usage.
It is necessary therefore, when using the term Albian, to bear
these differences in mind, and to ascertain the exact position
of the strata by reference to the zonal fossils. These are, in
descending order, Pecten asper and Cardiaster fossarius, Sckloen-
backia rostrala, Hoplites lautus and H. interruptus, Dowilleiceras
mammiUatum. In addition to the formations mentioned above,
the following representatives of the Albian stage are worthy of
notice: the gaize and phosphatic beds of Argonne and Bray in
France; the Flammenmcrgel of North Germany; the lignites of
Utrillas in Spain; the Upper Sandstones of Nubia, and the
Fredericksburg beds of North America.
See Gault, Grbbnsano, and Cretaceous. (J. A. H.)
ALBIGENSES, the usual designation of the heretics— and
more especially the Catharist heretics— of the south of France
in the 12th and 13th centuries. This name appears to have
been given to them at the end of the 12th century, and was used
in x 181 by the chronicler Geoffrey de Vigeois. The designation
is hardly exact, for the heretical centre was at Toulouse and in
the neighbouring districts rather than at Albi (the ancient
Albiga). The heresy, which had penetrated into these regions
probably by trade routes, came originally from eastern Europe.
The name of Bulgarians (Bougres) was often applied to the
Albigenses, and they always kept up intercourse with the Bogomfl
sectaries of Thrace. Their dualist doctrines, as described by
controversialists, present numerous resemblances to those of the
Bogomils, and still more to those of the Paulicians, with whom
they are sometimes connected. It is exceedingly difficult, how-
ever, to form any very precise idea of the Albigensian doctrines,
as our knowledge of them is derived from their opponents, and
the very rare texts emanating -from the Albigenses which have
come down to us (e.g. the Ritud catkare de Lyon and the Nouveau
Testament en provencal) contain very inadequate information
concerning their metaphysical principles and moral practice.
What is certain is that, above all, they formed an anti-sacerdotal
party in permanent opposition to the Roman church, and raised
a continued protest against the corruption of the clergy of their
time. The Albigensian theologians and ascetics, the Cathari or
perfecti, known in the south of France as bons homines or bons
chritiens, were few in number; the mass of believers (credentes)
were perhaps not initiated into the Catharist doctrine; at all
events, they were free from all moral prohibition and all religious
obligation, on condition that they promised by an act called
convenenta to become " hereticized " by receiving the consola-
mentum, the baptism of the Spirit, before their death or even
in extremis.
The first Catharist heretics appeared in Limousin between
xox2 and 102a Several were discovered and put to death at
Toulouse in 1022; and the synod of Charroux (dep. of Vieune) in
X028, and that of Toulouse in 1056, condemned the growing sect.
The preachers Raoul Ardent in xxox and Robert of Arbrissel in
11x4 were summoned to the districts of the Agenais and the
Toulousain to combat the heretical propaganda. But, protected
by William IX., duke of Aquitaine, and soon by a great part of
the southern nobility, the heretics gained ground in the south,
and in 1 1 19 the council of Toulouse in vain ordered the secular
powers to assist the ecclesiastical authority in quelling the
heresy. The people were attached to the bons kommes, whose
asceticism imposed upon the masses, and the anti-sacerdotal
preaching of Peter of Bruys and Henry of Lausanne in Pengord,
Languedoc and Provence, only facilitated the progress of
Catharism in those regions. In 1x47 Pope Eugenius III. sent
the legate Alberic of Ostia and St Bernard to the affected
district. The few isolated successes of the abbot of Clairvaux
could not obscure the real results of this mission, and the meeting
at Lombers in 1165 of a synod, where Catholic priests had to
submit to a discussion with .Catharist doctors, well shows the
power of the sect in the south of France at that period. Moreover,
two years afterwards a Catharist synod, in which heretics from
Languedoc, Bulgaria and Italy took part, was held at St Felix
de Caraman, near Toulouse, and their deliberations were un-
disturbed. The missions of Cardinal Peter (of St.Chrysogonus),
formerly bishop of Meaux, to Toulouse and the Toulousain in
x x 78, and of Henry, cardinal-bishop of Albano (formerly abbot of
Clairvaux), in 11 80-1 181, obtained merely momentary successes.
Henry of Albano attempted an armed expedition against the
stronghold of heretics at Lavaur and against Raymond Roger,
viscount of Blziers, their acknowledged protector. The taking
of Lavaur and the submission of Raymond Roger in no way
arrested the progress of the heresy. The persistent decisions
of the councils against the heretics at this period— in particular,
those of the council of Tours (1x63) and of the oecumenical
506
ALBINO
Lateran council (1x79)— had scarcely more effect. But on
ascending the papal throne, Innocent m. resolved to suppress
the Albigenses. At first he tried pacific conversion, and in
xx 08 and 11 00 sent into the affected regions two Cistercian
monks, Regnier and Guy, and in 1203 two monks of Fontiroide,
Peter of Castclnau and Raoul (Ralph), with whom in 1204 he
even associated the Cistercian abbot, Arnaud (Arnold). They
had to contend not only with the heretics, the nobles who
protected them, and the people who listened to them and
venerated them, but a 'so with the bishops of the district, who
rejected the extraordinary authority which the pope had con-
ferred upon his legates, the monks. In 1204 Innocent III.
suspended the authority of the bishops of the south of France.
Peter of Castelnau retaliated by excommunicating Raymond VL,
count of Toulouse, as an abettor of heresy (1207), and kindled
in the nobles of the south that animosity of which he was the
first victim (1209). As soon as he heard of the murder of Peter
of Castelnau, the pope ordered the Cistercians to preach the
crusade against the Albigenses. This implacable war, which
threw the whole of the nobility of the north of France against
that of the south, and destroyed the brilliant Provencal civiliza-
tion, ended, politically, in the treaty of Paris (1229), by which
the king of France dispossessed the house of Toulouse of the
greater part of its fiefs, and that of Bericre of the whole of its
fiefs. The independence of the princes of the south was at an
end, but, so far as the heresy was concerned, Albigensianism
was not extinguished, in spite of the wholesale massacres of
heretics during the war. Raymond VII. of Toulouse and the
count of Foix gave -asylum to the " faidits " (proscribed), and
the people were averse from handing over the bans kommes.
The Inquisition, however, operating unremittingly in the south
at Toulouse, Albi, Carcassonne and other towns during the
whole of the 13th century and a great part of the 14th, succeeded
in crushing the heresy. There were indeed some outbursts of
rebellion, some fomented by the nobles of Languedoc (1240-
1242), and others emanating from the people of the towns, who
were embittered by confiscations and religious persecutions
(e.g. at Narbonne in 1234 and Toulouse in 1235), but the repress-
ive measures were terrible. In 1245 the royal officers assisting
the Inquisition seized the heretical citadel of Montsegur, and
200 Cathari were burned in one day. Moreover, the church
decreed severe chastisement against all laymen suspected of
sympathy with the heretics (council of Narbonne, 1235; Bull
Ad extirpanda, X252).
Hunted down by the Inquisition and quickly abandoned by
the nobles of the district, the Albigenses became more and more
scattered, hiding in the forests and mountains, and only meeting
surreptitiously. There were some recrudescences of heresy,
such as that produced by the preaching (1208-1309) of the
Catharist minister, Pierre Authier; the people, too, made some
attempts to throw off the yoke of the Inquisition and the French, 1
and insurrections broke out under the leadership of Bernard of
Foix, Aimery of Narbonne, and, especially, Bernard Delideux
at the beginning of the 14th century. But at this point vast -
inquests were set on foot by the Inquisition, which terrorized
the district. Precise indications of these are found in the
registers of the Inquisitors, Bernard of Caux, Jean de St Pierre,
Geoffrey d'Ablis, and others. The sect, moreover, was exhausted
and could find no more adepts in a district which, by fair means
or foul, had arrived at a state of peace and political and religious
unity. After 1330 the records of the Inquisition contain but
few proceedings against Catharists. (Sec also under Cathaks.)
Authorities.— See C. Schmidt's Histoire de la sect* des Cathares
ou Albigeois (Paris. 1840), which is still the most important work
on the subject. The following will be found useful: D. Vaissetc,
Histoire de Languedoc, vols. tii. iv. vii. viii. (new edition); Ch.
Molinier, V Inquisition dans le Midi de la France (Paris, 1880), and
the other works by the same author: L. Tanon, Histoire des tribunaux
de ['Inquisition en France (Paris. 1893). Les Albigeois, lews engines
(Paris, 1 878). by Douais, should be read with caution. Of the sources,
which are very numerous, may be mentioned : the Liber Sententiarum
'These they often confounded, and a heretic is described as
aying : " Clergy and French, they are one and the same thing."
of the Inquisition of Carcassonne, published by Ph. van Limbonft
at the end of his Historia Inquisittonis (Amsterdam. 169a) : och#*
registers of the Inquisition analysed at length by Ch. Moltnkr.
op. ciL, some published in vol iu of the Documents ponr rkistavt
de F Inquisition (Paris. 1000), by C. Douais; numerous texts <r*-
cerning the last days of Albigensianism. collected by M. Vtdal. " Les
derniersminist res albigeois,' in Rev. de quest, kistor. (1906). Sice also
the Ritud calhare, ed. by Cunitz (Jena, 1852); the Noutean Te>ia-
ment enprovencal, ed. by Cledat (Paris, 1887) ; and the very curves
Dibat d'Yzarn et de Sicart de Ftgueiras. ed. by P. Meyer (iSSol.
On the ethics of the Catharists, see Jean Guiraud. Questions aTkis&rrt
et darckiologie ckriiienne (Paris. 1906); and P. Alphandcry. La
idea morales eke* Us kilirodoxes latins am. dibut du XIII* sirue
(Paris, 1903). (P. A.)
ALBINO, a biological term (Lat albus, white), in the usual
acceptation, for a pigmentless individual of a normally pigmented
race. Among some flowering plants, however, the character
has become one of specific rank, and among animah we have
in the polar bear and the Greenland hare instances where partial
albinism — for in them the eyes are black and other parts may be
pigmented— has also become a specific character.
A true or complete albino is altogether devoid of pigment.
One result of this among the Vertebrata is that the eyebaD is
pink in colour, since the cornea, iris and retina being transparent,
the red blood contained in the capillaries is unmasked by the
absence of pigmentary material In man, and doubtless also
in lower forms, the absence of this pigment produces the well-
marked albinotic fades. This is a condition in which the eyelids
are brought into a nearly closed position accompanied by blinkicg
movements and a general wrinkling of the skin around the
immediate neighbourhood of the eyes. It is the result of the
too great intensity of the light incident upon the retina, and
which in normal eyeballs is adequately diminished by the
absorptive power of the pigmentary material
In a complete albino not only is ail pigment absent in the skin,
but also that which is normally present in deeper organs, seek
as the sympathetic nervous system and in the substantia nigra
of the brain. There is some reason to believe that a pectuur '
condition found in the majority of human albinoes, and knovs |
as nystagmus, is correlated with the absence of pigment in the
central nervous system. This condition is one marked by u> I
steadiness— a sort of nickering rolling — of the eyeballs, and it
becomes more marked as they endeavour to adjust their ac-
commodation to near objects. It is- thought to depend upon
some connexion, not yet anatomically demonstrated, between
the third cranial nerve and its nucleus in the floor of the Her
and the substantia nigra.
In addition to complete albinism, there exist, however, varices
albinotic conditions in which more or less pigment may be
present Familiar instances of this partial albinism is seen in. the
domestic breed of Himalayan rabbits. In these jmimaic the
eyeball and the fur of the body are unpigmented, but the tips
of the ear pinnae and extremities of the fore and hind limbs,
together with the tail, are marked by more or less well defined
colour. One remarkable feature of these animals is that for
a few months after birth they are complete albinoes. Occasion-
ally, however, some are born with a grey colour and a few may
be quite black, but ultimately they attain their characteristic
coat. There is some reason to. believe, as we shall see later,
that in spite of the presence of a little pigment and of occasiocd
wholly pigmented young ones, Himalayans must be regardiJ
as true albinoes. Other individual rabbits, but belonging 10
no particular breed, are similarly marked, but in addition tbe
eyeballs are black. Some domesticated mice are entirely white
with the exception that they have black eyeballs; and in-
dividuals of this type arc known in which there is a reduction
of pigment in the eyeballs, and since the colour of the blood is
then partially visible these appear of a reddish-black colour.
Such cases are interesting as representing the last step in the
graded series through which the condition of complete pigmenta-
tion passes into that of complete albinism.
There is evidence, as shown by G. M. Allen, that partial
albinism is a condition in which pigment is reduced around
definite body centres, so that unpigmented areas occur betwea
ALBINO
507
die pigment patches or at their borders. In the mouse, ten such
centres may be distinguished, arranged symmetrically five on
cither side of the median plane— a cheek patch, neck patch,
shoulder patch, side patch and rump patch. Various degrees
in the reduction of the pigment patches up to that of complete
elimination may be traced.
Some animals are wholly pigmented during the summer and
autumn, but through the winter and spring they are in the
condition of extreme partial albinism and become almost com-
plete albinoes. Such instances are found in the Scotch blue hare
(Lepus timidus), in the Norway hare, in the North American
hare (L. americanus), in the arctic fox {Cants lagopus), in the
stoat and ermine, and among birds, in the ptarmigan, and some
other species of Lagopus. How the change from the autumnal
to the winter condition takes place appears not to be definitely
settled in all cases, and accurate observations are much to be
desired. In the case of the Norway hare, it has been stated that
a general moult, including all the hairs and under fur, takes place
and new white hairs are substituted. The process of moulting
is said to begin in the middle of autumn and is completed before
the end of December, by which time the fur is in its winter
condition, and is closer, fuller and longer than in summer
{Naturalists' Library, vol. vii.). On the other hand, it has been
stated that during the whole of the transformation in the fur
no hairs fall from the animal, and it is attributed to an actual
change in the colour of the hair (Edinburgh Philosophical Journal,
vol. xi. p. 10 1). In the case of the American hare, however,
some very careful observations have been made by F. H. Welch.
In this animal the long hairs (which form the pile) become white
at their extremities, and in some of them this whiteness extends
through their whole length. At the same time, new hairs begin
to develop and to grow rapidly, and soon outstrip the hairs of
the autumn pile. From their first appearance these new hairs
are white and stiff, and they are confined to the sides and back
of the body. It is not clear from Welch's account what is the
cause of the whiteness of the tips of the hairs of the autumn
coat, but his figures suggest that it is due to the development
of gas in the interspaces between the keratin bridges and
trabeculae of the hairs. There is nothing to show whether the
pigment persists or is absorbed. Probably it persists. In this
event, the whiteness of the dps will be due to the scattering or
irregular reflexion of the incident rays of light from the surface
of the numerous gas bubbles. In the case of the ptarmigan the
evidence is clear that the existing autumnal feathers do change,
more or less completely, to white. But the evidence is not
conclusive as to whether any part of the winter condition is
additionally produced by moulting.
The condition of albinism thus assumed as a seasonal variation
is never complete, for the eyes at least retain their pigmented
state. The reason of this is readily understood when it is borne
in mind how disadvantageous to the function of sight is the
unpigmented condition of an albino's eyeball; a disadvantage
which would be probably much accentuated, in the cases now
under consideration, by the bright glare from the surface of the
snow, which forms the natural environment of these animals
at the particular period of the year when the winter change
occurs. In some cases, as in all the varying hares, in addition
to the eyes retaining their normal pigmentation, areas similar
in extent and situation to those on the Himalayan rabbits also
retain their pigmentation; and in the ptarmigan there is a
bhek band on each side of the head stretching forwards and
backwards from the eyeball, and the outer tail feathers are
black.
Albinism is restricted to no particular class of the animal
kingdom; for partial albinism at least is known to occur in
Coelentera, worms, Crustacea, Myriapoda, Colcoptera.Arachnida
and fishes. The individuals in which this diminished pigmenta-
tion is found arc for the most part those living in caves,
and it is probable that their condition is not truly albinotic,
but only temporary and due to the absence of the stimulus of
light. This may be also true of some of those instances that
have occurred among frogs, in Proteus, and with an axololl
once possessed by the present writer. This latter animal was
quite white, with the exception of the black eyeballs. At the
end of four weeks after it was first purchased the dorsal or upper
surface of its external gills developed a small amount of dark
pigment Within the next few weeks this increased in quantity
and the dorsal surface of the head and of the front end of the
trunk began to be pigmented. The animal died at the end of
the eighth week, but it is possible that had it lived it would
have become wholly pigmented. But, apart from these instances,
albinism is known, according to W. £. Castle, who cites it on
the authority of Hugh M. Smith, to occur among a breed of albino
trout, which breed true and are reared in the State fish-hatcheries
of America. With birds and mammals, however, there Is no
doubt that complete albino individuals do occur; and among
species which, like the jackdaw, certain deer and rabbits, are
normally deeply pigmented.
Albinism occurs in all races of mankind, among mountainous
as well as lowland dwellers. And, with man, as with other
animals, it may be complete or partial. Instances of the latter
condition are very common among the negroes of the United
States and of South America, and in them assumes a piebald
character, irregular white patches being scattered over the
general black surface of the body. Occasionally the piebald
patches tend to be symmetrically arranged, and sometimes the
eyeballs are ptgmcntless (pink) and sometimes pigmented (black).
According to A. R. Gunn, of Edinburgh University, who has
recently been investigating the subject of albinism in man, there
is reason to believe that a condition of piebald albinism occurs
also in Europeans (Scotsmen). He has examined subjects in
which the whole of the hair of the body is white, but the eyeballs
are pigmented, often deeply; and, conversely, he has seen cases
in which the eyes are pink but the hair is pigmented. The hair
and the eyes may be regarded as skin patches, in which some-
times the one and sometimes the other is pigmentless. He
believes that, were it not for the generally very pale colour of
white-skinned races, this piebald condition would be as manifest
in them as in negroes, over the whole surface of the body.
In complete human albinoes, albinism is correlated, in addition
to nystagmus, with a peculiar roughness of the skin, making it
harsh to the touch. The skin is also milky-white in appearance.
According to C. J. Seligmann, there exists among the Papuans
an albinotic race whose skin varies in colour from a pink-white to
that of caft au lait; the eyes are generally greenish, hazel or
brown, and the hair is tow-coloured. The skin where unexposed
is pinker than that of a normal North European. Like complete
albinoes, this race suffers from photophobia, and is characterized
by the albinotic fades.
Before we can inquire into the cause and meaning of albinism
it will be necessary first to consider the nature of pigmentation.
It has recently been ascertained that the coloration of certain
sponges is due to the interaction of an oxydizing ferment,
tyrosinase, upon certain colourless chromogenic substances. In
1901, Otto v. Furth and Hugo Schneider showed that a tyrosinase
could be obtained from the blood of certain insects, and, acting
upon a chromogen present in the blood, converted it into a pig-
mentary substance of melanin-like nature. Hans Przibram also
extracted a tyrosinase from the ink-sac of Sepia, and, causing it
to act upon a watery solution of tyrosin, obtained a black pig-
ment. From the blood of Bombyx mori, V. von Ducceshi has
also obtained a tyrosinase.
Subsequently (1903) L. Cu£not, in order to explain certain
features in the hereditary transmission of coat colour in mice,
postulated the hypothesis that the grey colour of the wild mouse
(which is known to be a compound of black, chocolate and yellow
pigments) may be due either to the interaction of a single ferment
and three chromogens, or vice versa, to one chromogenic substance
and three ferments.
Since then (1904) Miss Florence Durham has shown that if
the skins of young or embryonic mammals (rats, rabbits and
guinea-pigs) be ground up and extracted in water, and the ex-
pressed juice be then incubated with solid tyrosin for twenty-
four hours, with the addition of a very small amount of ferrous
508
ALBINO
sulphate to act as an activator, a pigmentary substance is thrown
down. The colour of this substance is that of the pigment in the
skin or hairs of the animal used. Miss Durham interprets her
results as indicating that the skin of these pigmented animals
normally secretes one or more tyrosinases. The same result was
obtained from the skins of some unhatched chickens. The skins
of albinoes gave no results.
Not only have such results been obtained with sponges, insects,
cephalopoda, birds and mammals, but Em. Bourquelot and
G. Bertrand have shown that certain fungi, the tissues of which,
when exposed to the air by injury, become immediately coloured,
do so owing to the action of tyrosinase upon one or more chromo-
genous substances present in the plant. We may conceive, then,
that a pigmented animal owes its colour to the power that certain
tissues of its body possess to secrete both tyrosinases and chromo-
genic substances. And the period at which this process is most
active is at birth, or preceding it or immediately succeeding it
In spite of the inquiry being only in its initial stages, there is
already good evidence to believe that Cufnot's theory is correct,
and that an albino is an individual whose skin lacks the power to
secrete either the ferment or the chromogen. It forms one but
not both of these substances.
A moment's consideration, however, will show that, while an
albino may be an individual in which one or more of the com-
plementary bodies of pigmentation are absent, a pigmented
animal is something more than an individual which carries all the
factors necessary for the development of colour. For it must be
borne in mind that animals are not only coloured but the colour
is arranged in a more or less definite pattern. The wild mouse,
rat and rabbit are self-coloured, but the domesticated forms'
include various piebald patterns, such as spotted forms among
mice, and the familiar black and white hooded and dorsal-striped
pattern of some tame rats.
Colour, therefore, must be correlated with some determinant
(determining factor) for pattern, and it cannot, therefore, exist
alone in an animal's coat. And we must conceive that each
kind of pattern— the self, the spotted, the striped, the hooded
and all others— has its own special determinant. Given the
presence of all the necessary determinants for the development of
pigment in a mammal's coat, some or all of the hairs may bear
this pigment according to the pattern determinants, or absence of
pattern determinants, which the cells of the hair papillae carry.
And this brings us to the question as to whether in a piebald
animal the pigmented hairs are in any way different from the
pigmentless or white hairs. No adequate investigation of this
subject has yet been made, but some observations made by the
author of this article, on the piebald black and white rat, show
that differences connected with the microscopic structure exist.
There is thus evidence that colour is correlated with other
factors which determine pattern. And this leads to the inquiry
as to whether albinoes ever exhibit evidence that they carry the
pattern determinants in the absence of those for pigmentation.
For it is to be expected a priori that, since albinoes were derived
from pigmented progenitors and may at any time appear, side by
side with pigmented brothers, in a litter from pigmented parents,
they would be carrying the pattern determinants of some one or
other of their pigmented ancestors. Now we know, from the
numerous experiments in heredity which have resulted since the
rediscovery of Mendel's principles, that an individual may carry
a character in one of two conditions. It may be carried as a
somatic character, when it will be visible in the body tissues, or
it may be carried as a gametic character, and its presence can
only then be detected in subsequent generations, by adequately
devised breeding tests.
With regard to pattern, the evidence is now dear that albinoes
may carry the determinants in both these ways. So far as they
are carried gametically, i.e. by the sex-cells, it has been shown by
Cuenot and G. M. Allen for mice, by C. C. Hurst for rabbits, and
by L. Doncaslcr and G. P. Mudge for rats, that in a cross between
a coloured individual of known gametic purity and an albino,
the individuals of the progeny in either the first or second, or
both generations, may differ, and that the difference in some
cases wholly depends upon the albino used. It has been shown
that the individuals in such an offspring may bear patterns which
never occurred in the ancestry of the coloured parent, but did ta
that of the albino; and, moreover, if the same coloured pareot
be mated with another individual, either albino or coloured, that
their offspring may never contain members bearing such patterns.
The particular pattern will only appear when the coloured parent
is mated with the particular albino. And yet the albino itself
shows no somatic pattern or pigment. So dear is the evidence
on this point that any one adequately acquainted at first hand
with the phenomena, by employing an albino of known gametic
structure and mating it with a coloured individual, also of known
gametic constitution, could predict the result.
With respect to albinoes carrying pattern as a visible somatic
character, i.e. in the body cells, no definite evidence has as yet
been published. But W. Haacke has described a single albino rat,
in which he states that the hairs of the shoulder and mid-dorsal
regions were of a different texture from those of the rest of the
body. And it is possible that this albino, had it devdoped colour,
would have been of the piebald pattern. But the author of this
article has quite recently reared some albinoes in which the
familiar shoulder hood and dorsal stripe of the piebald rat s
perfectly obvious, in spite of the absence of the slightest pig-
mentation. The hairs which occupy the region which in the
pigmented individual is black, are longer, thinner and mote
widely separated than those in the regions which arc white. As
a result of this, the pink skin is quite visible where these hairs
occur, but elsewhere it is invisible. Thus these albinoes exhibit
a pattern of pink skin similar in form with the black pattern of
the piebald rat. Moreover, some of the albinoes possess these
particular " pattern " hairs all over the body and obviously such
individuals arc carrying the self pattern. There are other details
into which we cannot here enter, but which support the inter-
pretation put upon these facts, i.e. that these particular albinoes
are carrying in the soma the pattern determinants simultaneously
with the absence of some of the factors for pigmentation.
Not only do albinoes thus carry the determinants for pattern,
but it has been known for some time that they also carry gametk-
ally, but never visible somatically, the determinants for either
the ferment or the chromogen for one or more colours. L. Cuenot
was the first to show this for albino mice. He was able by
appropriate experiments to demonstrate that when an albino is
derived (extracted) from a coloured ancestry, and is then crossed
with a coloured individual, both the colour of the pigmented
parent and of the pigmented ancestry of the albino may appear
among the individuals of the offspring.
Immediately subsequent to Cuenot, G. M. Allen in America
demonstrated the same fact upon the same species of rodents.
C. C. Hurst, more recently, has shown that albino rabbits
whether pure bred for eight generations at least, or extracted
from pigmented parents, may carry the determinants for black
or for black and grey. In this latter case the determinants for
black are carried by separate gametes from those carrying grey,
and the two kinds of sex-cells exist in approximately equal
numbers. This is likewise true of albino mice when they carry
the determinants for more than one colour.
Since Hurst's work, L. Doncastcr and G. P. Mudge have both
shown that albino rats also carry in a latent condition the
determinants for black or grey. The experiments of the latter
author show that, if a gametically pure black rat be crossed with
an albino derived from a piebald black and white ancestry, all
the offspring in successive litters will be black; but if the
same black parent be crossed with albinoes extracted from
parents of which one or both are grey, then both grey and
black members will appear in the successive Utters.
The proportions in which the various coloured individuals
appear are approximately those demanded by the Menddian
principle of gametic purity and segregation. Cuenot and Hurst
have also shown that when albinoes of one colour extraction are
crossed with albinoes of another colour extraction the segrega-
tion of the colour determinants in the gamctogencsis of the
albinoes takes place in precisely the same way that it does in the
ALBINO
509
_ _ 1 of a pigmented Individual; that is, in Mendelian
fashionT Or, to express it otherwise, an albino extracted from
yellow parents, bred with an albino extracted from black parents,
will give an albino offspring whose gametes in equal numbers
are bearers of the black and yellow determinants. And when
one of these albinoes is bred with a pure coloured individual, a
mixed offspring will appear in the first generation. Some of the
individuals will be one or other of the two colours, the deter-
minants of which were borne by the albino, and others the colour
off the pigmented parent But in such albino crosses the colour
characters are latent because albinoes do not carry the* whole of
the complements for colour production. They carry only some
determinant or determinants which are capable of developing
colour when they interact with some other determinant or
determinants carried alone by pigmented individuals. Whether
albinoes carry the tyrosinase or other ferment, or whether they
carry the chromogen or chromogens, is not yet settled. Miss
Durham's work suggests that they carry the latter. But that
they never hear both is proved by the fact that, when albinoes
are crossed with each other, none but albinoes ever result in the
offspring. One apparent exception to this rule only U known,
and this almost certainly was due to error.
It is not only among albino animals that colour factors are
carried in a latent condition, but also in white flowers. W.
Bateson has shown this to be the case for the sweet-pea (Laikyrus
odorotus), var. Emily Henderson, and for certain white and
cream stocks {Matthiola). When white Emily Henderson (the
race having round pollen grains) is crossed with a blue-flowered
pea, purple offspring result Similarly, when white Emily
Henderson (long pollen grains) is crossed with white Emily
Henderson (round pollen grains), the offspring wholly consists
of the reversionary purple type, and sometimes wholly of a red
bicolor form known as " Painted Lady." These two types never
appear in the same family. With the stocks, when a white-
flowered and hairless form is crossed with a cream-flowered
and hairless one, all the offspring are purple and hairy. Bateson
considers that the purple colour is due to the simultaneous
existence in the plant of two colour factors which may be desig-
nated by C and R. If either one of these two is absent the plant
is colourless. Cream-coloured flowers are regarded as white
because cream is due to yellow plastids and not to sap colour.
Thus the cream plant may carry C and the white<onc R- When
they are crossed the two factors for colour production are brought
together. Obviously, we may regard C as a tyrosinase and R
as a chromogen, or vice versa; and in the case of the white sweet-
pea crossed with a blue-flowered one, and producing purple
offspring, we may imagine that the white flower brought in an
additional tyrosinase or a chromogen not present in the blue
flower, which, when combined or mixed with the chromogen or
tyrosinase for blue, gave purple. A similar explanation may
apply to C. Correns's experiment, in which he crossed white
Mvabilis jalapa with a yellow form, and always obtained red-
flowered offspring.
In heredity, complete albinism among animals is always
recessive; and partial albinism (piebald) is always recessive
to complete pigmentation (self-coloured). When an albino
mouse, rat, guinea-pig or rabbit is crossed with either a pure
self or pure pied-coloured form, the offspring are similar to,
though not always exactly like, the coloured parent; provided,
of course, that the albino is pure and is not carrying some
colour ot pattern determinant which is dominant to that of the
coloured parent used. No albinoes, in such a case, will appear
among the first generation, but if the individuals of this (F.x)
generation are crossed inter sc or back crossed with the albino
parent, then albino individuals reappear among the offspring.
In the former case they would form one-quarter of the individuals
of this second (F.a) generation, and in the latter, one-half.
The recessive nature of albinism and its distribution in*
Mendelian fashion is almost certainly as true for man as for
lower forms. This has been shown by W. C. Farabee for negroes
in Coahoma county, Mississippi. The facts are as follows. An
albino negro married a normal negress. They had three children,
all males. AH three sons married, and two of them had only
normal children, judged of course by somatic characters. But
the third son married twice, and by the first wife bad five normal
and one albino children, and by the second, six normal and three
albino children. If we assume that the two negresses which the
third son married were themselves carrying albinism recessive
— an exceedingly probable condition considering that albino
negroes are not uncommon— the result is accurately in accord-
ance, as W. E. Castle has shown, with Mendelian expectation.
For there is expected in the offspring of this third son coloured
individuals and albinoes in the proportion of 3:1. There is
actually 11:4, which is the nearest possible approximation
with the number 15.
The operation of Mendelian processes in human heredity is
further shown by the dose relationship that exists between
the appearance of albinoes and cousin marriages. An albino
is a homozygote; that fe, all its gametes are carrying the char-
acter of albinism and none of them bear the alternative character
— the allelomorph— of pigmentation. By pigmentation is here
meant all those factors which go to its production. Now such a
gametic (egg or sperm) constitution can only result when two
individuals, all or some of whose gametes are pure with regard
to the character albinism, meet in fertilization. Hence it is
readily seen that it is among cousin marriages that the greater
probabilities exist that two individuals bearing identical char-
acters will meet, than in the population at large. This can be
illustrated in the following scheme. Let A stand for a pure
albino and (A)N for a normal person, who nevertheless carries
the character albinism (A) recessive. Then, in the scheme
below, if A b and (A)N 6 are two brothers who both marry normal
wives N, their children N(A) in the first case will be all normal
in appearance but will be carrying albinism recessive; and in
the second case some will be pure normal individuals N, and
some will be like the children of the first brother, i.e. N(A).
Now, if one of these latter children of the second brother marries
a cousin—- a child of the first brother, — their offspring, if large
enough, will consist of some pure normals N, impure normals
N(A), and of albinoes A.
A*XN (A)N*XN
fife
fo(A)+tf
N+2N(A)-|-A
No other rational explanation of the dose relationship between
albinism and cousin marriages is at present forthcoming. And,
when the whole facts are borne in mind, there can be no reason-
able doubt that the Mendelian principles offer an intelligible
solution of the problem.
A popular conception exists that albinoes are less constitu-
tionally strong than the pigmented individuals of the same
species. In support of this belief there is more or less scientifically
ascertained evidence. Conversely, there is, however, conclusive
evidence that in some instances and in respect of certain qualities
the opposite belief is true.
To deal with the former belief first, we have the remarkable
case cited by Charles Darwin on the authority of Professor
L J. Wyman. In Virginia the paint-root plant {Lacknanthes
Hnctcria) occurs abundantly, and Professor Wyman noticed
that all the pigs in this district were black. Upon inquiry of
the farmers he found -that all the white pigs born in a litter were
destroyed, because they could not be reared to maturity. The
root of this plant, when eaten by white pigs, caused their bones
to turn to a pink colour and their hoofs to fall off, but the
black pigs could eat the same plant with impunity. Partial
albinism in this case was undoubtedly correlated with some
inherent constitutional defect, in virtue of which the individuals
characterized by it were injuriously affected by the juices of a
plant quite innocuous to their pigmented brethren. Heusinger
has shown that white sheep and pigs are injured by the ingestion
5*°
ALBINONI
of certain plant*, while the pigmented individuals may eat
them without harm. In Devonshire and in parts of Kent the
farmers entertain a marked prejudice against white pig*, because
"the sun blisters their skin." More remarkable is the case of
certain cattle, whose skin is piebald, marked by a general ground
colour over which are scattered patches of unpigmented coat
In these animals, in certain inflammatory skin eruptions, caused
by the ingestion of harmful plants, the albinotic areas are alone
affected. And with certain cutaneous diseases accompanied by
constitutional disturbances which afflict cattle, the affection in
the skin Appears on the patches bearing white hairs, the other
parts remaining apparently healthy. Such cases suggest that
we should be more correct in regarding, not albinism as correlated
with constitutional defects, but rather pigmentation as correlated
with powers of immunity or increased resistance against certain
injurious processes. In the West Indies "the only horned cattle
fit for work are those which have a good deal of black in them;
the white are terribly tormented by the insects and they axe
weak and sluggish in proportion to the black."
Coming to man, it is known that some albino negroes are
peculiarly sensitive to the bites of insects; and with Europeans
it is a generally observed fact that the fairer individuals are
more seriously affected by the bites of fleas and bugs than are
darker ones. Dr Twining, in the British Association Reports
for 1845, p. 70, cites some instances described by Humboldt,
who says that the copper-coloured natives of the high plain
of Bogoto, and at a lower level on the Magdalcna river, were
generally free from goitre. Professor Pflffig, also cited by Dr
Twining, states that on the east side of the Andes in Chile, in
some of the races which live there, he did not see a single case of
goitre, and yet in the white inhabitants, who live exactly as
the natives, it prevails in a great degree.
Turning now to instances of the opposite kind, it is known
that silkworms which spin colourless cocoons are more resistant
to the attacks of a certain deadly fungus than are those which
spin the yellow ones. In some parts of North America it is found
that the white peaches are much less liable to the attack of a
disease known as the "yellows" than are the yellow-fleshed
ones. In the region of the Mississippi, Farabee has observed
that the albino negroes are taller and broader than the black-
skinned individuals. Wc may assume that increased stature
and breadth imply some sort of inherent physical superiority,
and if such an assumption is valid we have in man evidence
that albinism is correlated not with constitutional defectiveness
but with greater perfectness.
But the question as to -whether albinoes are more or less
constitutionally vigorous than pigmented individuals of the
same species may be tested by exact measurement In 1803
W. D. Halliburton and T. G. Brodie, in ascertaining the physio-
logical properties of nudeo-proteids, found that when they
were intra vascularly injected into pigmented rabbits, coagulation
of the blood resulted, but of the eight albinoes. which they used,
none dotted. At a subsequent period (1897) Halliburton and
J. W. Pickering showed that the three synthesized colloids of
Grimaux in the same way produced coagulation in pigmented
animals, but failed to do so in albinoes. Pickering, still later,
showed, in the case of four Norway hares, two of which were
injected while in their pigmented or summer coat, and two while
in their albino or winter coat, that coagulation occurred in the
former cases but not in the latter.
Quite recently, however, the author of this artide has made
a more detailed examination of the question, operating upon
several hundreds of rabbits. And he found that all albinoes
do not fail to dot when intravascularly injected with nudeo-
proteids. Only about 9% of them thus failed absolutely to
manifest any trace of coagulation. But about 7 % showed an
exceedingly limited coagulation, in which the clot was colourless
and flocculent, and confined to the heart. The rest gave a typical
and more or less wide-spread coagulation. Moreover, it was
found that all the failures of coagulation occurred when the
nudeo-protdd used was obtained from pigmented animals.
When it was derived from albinoes no failures occurred. All
pigmented animals dotted when the nucleo-proteid was dermd
from either source. The Himalayan rabbits reacted like coopktt
albinoes, and ia% of them failed to dot when injected will
nudeo-protdd extracted from pigmented animalv
The interesting fact was thus ascertained that all albinoes tie
not alike. To students of heredity this is precisely what wotad
have been expected. For, as the facts above described show,
albinoes, though apparently identical externally, are yet the
carriers of different hereditary characters. Among albino rats.
for instance, the author of this artide has reason to believe, epos
theoretical grounds resting on an experimental basis, that prob-
ably no less than thirteen types exist With rabbits and ssce
there must be a still larger number.
In the intravascular coagulation experiments above described,
all the rabbits were carefully weighed, and the amount of node*
proteid injected until coagulation occurred was measured. Tte
would give for albinoes and pigmented individuals the amccsi
per kilogramme of body-weight required to kill in each cast,
and would afford a measurement of the relative resistance d
the two races. It was found that the resistance of albinos
towards the coagulative effects of injected nudeo-proteids ns
to that of pigmented individuals as 1*5 to x-o. In this case, the
greater constitutional vigour of the albino is thus accurately
demonstrated. But it does not. necessarily follow that vita
other materials and with other constitutional qualities the stale
of things would not be reversed.
One other feature remains to be mentioned. Albinism appean,
in the processes of heredity, to be sometimes indissohihly corre-
lated with certain peculiar traits. It is well known that the
long-haired albino rabbit, called Angora, when at rest, has th?
habit of swaying its head sideways in a peculiar fashion. C C
Hurst has shown that the long-haired and albino rharactea
are always accompanied in heredity with the swaying habit
The Angora character never occurs without it
Bibliography.— G. M. Allen, "Heredity of Coat Colour ia Mice."
Proc. Amor. Acad. Arts and Set. vol. xL'No. 2; W. Bateaoa. Menids
Principles of Heredity* a Defence (Cambridge, 1903); W. Batean
and E. R. Saunders, " Experimental Studies in the Phyaokgy d
Heredity, " Reports to the Evolution Committee of tke Royal SoeuH,
Report I. (London, 1901); W. Bateson, E. R. Saunders, R. C
Punnett and C C. Hurst, Reports to the Evolution Committee efue
Royal Society, Report II. (London, 1905); W. Bateaoa, E. R.
Saunders and R. C Punnett, " Further Experiments on' Inheritance
in Sweet-Peas and Stocks, " Proc Roy. Soc B. vol. borvii: W. E.
Castle, " Note on Mr Farabee's Observations, " Science. SJS. wL
xvii. (New York); " Mendel'. Law of Heredity." Science. S3, vd
xviii. (New York); W. E. Castle and G. M. Allen, "Mendel's Law
and the Heredity of Albinism," Proc. Amer. Acad. Arts and ScL
vol. xxxviii.: L. Cue 1 not, " L'hertditt de la pigmentation cbea la
souris," Arch. d. Zool. Expfr. et On. Notes et Rente, ser. 3, torn, to,
and ser. 4, torn. 1 and 2; Charles Darwin, Variation ef Animals ami
Plants under Domestication, vols. i. and it, 2nd ed. (London, 1899);
L. Doncaster, " Inheritance of Coat Colour in Rata," Proc. Cemk
Phil. Soc vol ariii. (Camb., 1906); V. von Ducceachi. RauHamW
delta R. Accad. dei Lined, vol. iL; Archeeio di Fisietogio, voL L;
Florence M. Durham, "Tyrosinases in the Skins of Pigmented
Vertebrates." Proc Roy.Soe. vol. Ixxiv.; W. C. Farabee, "Notes
on Negro Albinism," Science, N.S. voL xvii. (New York); Furta r.
Schneider, Beitr. s. Chenu Pkys. u. Path. Bd. 1; W. Haacla,
"Uebcr Wesen, Ursachen und Vererbung von Albtnisnus una
Scheckung, Ac.," BioL Centralbk Bd. 15; Halliburton and Breda.
Joum. Pkys. Camb. and Land. vols, ziv., xvi., xviL, xviii.: Hallibartoa
and Pickering, Joum. Pkys. vol. xviii. ; C. C. Hurst, " Experimental
Studies on Heredity in Rabbits," Joum. Lin. Soc. Z00L voL axis.;
Geo. P. Mudge. " Intravascular Coagulation and Albinism, Pre-
liminary Note, Proc. Pkys. Soc, 1903; Packard, Memoirs ef
National Academy of Sciences (1888); Pickering, Joum, Pkys. voh.
xviii. and xx.; E. B. Poulton, Colour of Annuals (Load., 189°}:
Twining, Brii. Assoc Reports, 1845; H. M. Vernon. Varietie* «
Animals and Plants (London, 1903) ; F. H. Welch, " Winter Cost is
Lepus americanus, " Proc Zool Soc, i860. (G. P. II.)
ALBINONI, TOMASSO (c. 1674-c. 1745), Italian muskiao,
was born at Venice. He was a prolific composer of opess
attracting contemporary attention for their originality, but ■
more remarkable as a composer of instrumental musk, which
greatly attracted the attention of Bach, who wrote -at least rso
fugues on Albinoni's themes and constantly used his basses far
harmony exercises for his pupils.
ALBINOVANUS PEDO— ALBITE
5"
ALB1X0VAMU8 FIDO, Roman poet, flourished during the
Augustan age. He wrote a Tbeseis, referred to in a letter from
his intimate friend Ovid (Ex Panto, iv. 10), epigrams which are
commended by Martial (ii. 77, v. 5) and an epic poem on the
exploits of Germanicus. He had the reputation of being an
excellent raconteur, and Quintfljan (x. L 00) awards him qualified
praise as a writer of epics. All that remains of his works is a
beautiful fragment, preserved in the Suascrioe (i. 15) of the
rhetorician Seneca^rom a description of the voyage of Germanicus
(aj>. 16) through the river Ems to the Northern Ocean, when he
was overtaken by the storm described by Tacitus {Ann. ii. 23).
The cavalry commander spoken of by the historian is probably
identical with the poet Three elegies were formerly attributed
to Pedo by Scaliger; two on the death of Maecenas {In Obitum
MsecenaHs and De Verbis MaecenatU moribund*), and one
addressed to Livia to console her for the death of her son Drusus
(ConsolaHo ad Lmam de Mart* Drusi or Epieidian Drusi, usually
printed with Ovid's works); but it is now generally agreed
that they are not by Pedo. The CansaUUio has been put down
as late as the 15th century as the work of an Italian imitator,
there being no MSS. and no trace of the poem before the publica-
tion of the ediHa princeps of Ovid in 1471. There is an English
verse translation of the elegies by Plumptre (1007).
See Bihrens, PoetaeLaHni Minores (1879) and Fragment* Poetarum
LaMmenm (1886); Haupt, Opuscule, I (1873); Haube, Beitrag our
Kemutwu dee Albinovonus Pedo (1880).
ALBDTOS (originally Weiss), BBRMHARD gIBO FRIED
(1697-1770), German anatomist, was born on the 34th of Feb-
ruary 1697, at Frankfort-on-Oder, where his father, Bernhard
Albinus (1653-1731), was professor of the practice of medicine.
In 1703 the latter was transferred to the chair of medicine at
Leiden, and it was there that Bernhard Siegfried began his
studies, having for his teachers such men as H. Boerhaave and
NikoUus Bidloo. Having finished his studies at Leiden, he
went to Paris, where, under the instruction of Stbastien VaiUant
(1669-1723),). B.Winslow (1669-1760) and others, he devoted
himself especially to anatomy and botany. After a year's
absence he was, on the recommendation of Boerhaave, recalled
in 1719 to Leiden to be a lecturer on anatomy and surgery.
Two years later he succeeded his father in the professorship of
these subjects, and speedily became one of the most famous
teachers of anatomy in Europe, his class-room being resorted
to not only by students but by many practising physicians.
In 1745 Albinus was appointed professor of the practice of
medicine, being succeeded in the anatomical chair by his brother
Frederick Bernhard (1715-1778), who, as well as another brother,
Christian Bernhard (1700-1752), attained considerable distinc-
tion. Bernhard Siegfried, who was twice rector of his university,
died on the 9th of September 1770 at Leiden.
ALBION (in Ptolemy »AXoUur; Lat Albion, Pliny 4.x6bo],xo2),
the most ancient name of the British Islands, though generally
restricted to England. The name is perhaps of Celtic origin,
but the Romans took it as connected with albus, white, in refer-
ence to the chalk-dills of Dover, and A. Holder {AU-Kdtischcr
5^0^*^.1896) unhesitatingly translates it Weis stand, " white-
land." The early writer (6th cent B.C.) whose periplus is
translated by Avienus (end of 4th cent aj>.) does not use
the name Britannia; he speaks of vrjox* 'lepra? ml 'Mfktmwv
(" island of the Icrni and the Albiones ")« So Pythcasof Massilia
(4th cent. B.C.) speaks of "AA#or and 'Ilpn?. From the fact
that there was a tribe called the Albiones on the north coast
-of Spain in Asturia, some scholars have placed Albion in that
neighbourhood (see G. F. Unger, Rhcin. Mus. xxxviii., 1883,
pp. 156-106). The name Albion was taken by medieval writers
from Pliny and Ptolemy.
ALBION, a city of Calhoun county, Michigan, U.S.A., on the
Kalamasoo river, 21 m. W. of Jackson. Pop. (1890) 3763;
(1900) 45 19. of whom 62 2 were foreign-born; (1904) 4943; (1910)
5833. AlbionJs served by the Michigan Central and the Jackson
division of the Lake Shore and Michigan Southern railways,
and by an inter-urban electric line. The city has a public park
and a public library The W. part of the city has most of the
factories; the principal manufactures are flour, agricultural
implements, windmills, gasolene engines, harness and proprietary
medicines. On a commanding site in the E. part of the city is
Albion College (Methodist Episcopal; co-educational), embracing
a College of Liberal Arts, a preparatory department a con-
servatory of music, a school of art, a school of oratory, a
normal course, and a commercial department The college was
incorporated in 1835 as Spring Arbor Seminary, and in 1839
by an amended charter was located at Albion, where it was
first opened in 1843 under the name of the Wesfeyan Seminary
of Albion; in 1849 it became the Wesfeyan Seminary and Female
Collegiate Institute, with power to grant degrees to women only;
but in 1861 the present name was adopted and the college was
permitted to grant degrees to men and women. In 1906 it had a
library of 16,500 volumes, a faculty of 19, and an enrolment of
483 (si 1 being women). The municipality owns and operates
the water-works, the water-supply being obtained from artesian
wells. Albion was settled in 1831, was incorporated as a village
in 1866 and was chartered as a city in 1885.
ALBION,- a village and the county-seat of Orleans county,
New York, U.S.A about 30 m. W.N.W. of Rochester. Pop.
(1800) 4586; (1000) 4477, (084 being foreign-born and 43
negroes) ; (1005, state census) 5174 ; (1910) 5016. The village is
served by the New York Central & Hudson River railway,
by the Buffalo, Lockport & Rochester electric railway, and by
the Erie Canal. In Albion are the Western House of Refuge for
Women (a state institution established in 1890), a public park,
the Swan Library, and the county buildings, including the court
house, the jail and the surrogate's office; and about 2 m. to the
S.E. is the beautiful Mount Albion Cemetery. Albion is the
centre of the Medina sandstone industry, and lies in the midst
of a good farming region, of which it is the principal shipping
point, especially for apples, cabbages and beans. The village
manufactures agricultural implements, vinegar, evaporated
fruit, and canned fruit and vegetables, and has two large cold-
storage houses. Albion was settled in 18x2, was incorporated
in 1823 and became the county-seat in 1825.
ALBITE, a, mineral of the felspar group, belonging to the
division of the plagiodases (qv.). It is a sodium and aluminium
silicate, NaAlSUO*, and crystallizes in the anorthic system.
Like all the felspars it possesses two cleavages, one perfect and
the other less so, which are here inclined at an angle of 86° 24'.
On the more perfect cleavage, which is parallel to the basal plane
(P), is a system of fine striations. parallel to the second cleavage
(M), due to twinning according to the •" albite law " (figs. 1
and 2). The hard-
ness is 6, and the
specific gravity
2.63. The colour
is usually pure
white, hence the
name (from the
Lat aibus) for the
species.
Albite forms
an essential con-
stituent of many
acidic igneous and Pick Fie. a.
crystalline rocks; Twinned crystals of Albite.
in granites, diorites, andesites, &c, it occurs as a primary mineral,
whilst in crystalline schists, phyllites and crystalline limestones
it is of secondary (metamorphic)origin. The beautifully developed
crystals so abundant in crystal-lined crevices of Alpine granites
and gneisses have been deposited, with other minerals, from
solution; the crystals lining veins in the slates of Tintagel in
Cornwall have the same origin.
Several varieties of albite are distinguished, of which the
following may be here specially mentioned. Pericline (from
the Gr. wtpukuHft, "sloping") is the nsme given to large
opaque white crystals from the chlorite-schists of the Alps,
they are tabular parallel to the direction of. perfect cleavsge
and are twinned according to the " pericline law." Peristerite
512
ALBO— ALBRET
(from the Gr. wtptemok, a doVe) is characterized by a
beautiful bluish sheen, somewhat resembling that seen on the
neck of a pigeon; it is found mainly in Ontario, Aventuxine
and moonstone varieties occur, though these special appea ra nces
are more usually displayed by the oligodase and orthodase
felspars respectively. (L. J. S.)
'ALBO, JOSEPH, a Spanish Jewish theologian of the 15th cen-
tury. He was author of a very popular book on the philosophy
of Judaism, entitled 'Iqqarim or Fundamentals. Maimonides in
the 1 2 th century had formulated the principles of Judaism in
thirteen articles; Albo reduced them to three: (i) The Existence
of God, (H) Revelation and (ixi) Divine Retribution. Albo set
the example of minimizing Messianism in the formulation of
Jewish beliefs. Though he fully maintained the Mosaic author-
ship of the Law and the binding force of tradition, he dis-
criminated between the essential and the non-essential in the
practices and beliefs of Judaism. An English translation of the
* Iqqarim appeared in the Hebrew Review, vols. L-iiL
ALBOm (d. 572 or 573), king of the Lombards, and conqueror
of Italy, succeeded his father Audoin about 565. The Lombards
were at that time dwelling in Noricum and Pannonia (archduchy
of Austria, Styria and Hungary, west of the Danube). In
alliance with the Avars, and Asiatic people who had invaded
central Europe, Alboin defeated the Gepidae, a powerful nation
on his eastern frontier, slew their king Cunimund, whose skull
he fashioned into a drinking-cup, and whose daughter Rosamund
be carried off and made his wife. Three years later (in 568), on
the alleged invitation of Narses (?.«.), who was irritated by the
treatment he had received from the emperor Justin II., Alboin
invaded Italy, probably marching over the pass of the PrediL
He overran Venetia and the wide district which we now call
Lombardy, meeting with but feeble resistance till be came to the
city of Tidnum (Pa via), which for three years (560-572) kept the
Lombards at bay. While this siege was in progress Alboin was
also engaged in other parts of Italy, and at its dose he was
probably master of Lombardy, Piedmont and Tuscany, as
wdl as of the regions which afterwards went by the name
of the duchies of Spoleto and Benevento. In 572 or 573, how-
ever, he was assassinated by his chamberlain Pcredeo at the
instigation of Queen Rosamund, whom Alboin had grievously
insulted by forcing her to drink wine out of her father's skull.
After his death and the short reign of his successor Cleph
the Lombards remained for more than ten years in a state of
anarchy.
The authorities for the history of Alboin are Frocopius, Paulus
Diaconus and Agnellus (in his history of the church of Ravenna).
ALBONI, MARIETTA (1823-1804), Italian opera-singer, was
born at Cesena, Romagna, and was trained in music at Bologna,
where she became a pupil of Rossini She had a magnificent
contralto voice, and in 1843 made her first appearance at La
Scala, Milan, being recognized at once as a puhUc favourite. In
England her reputation was established by her appearance at
Covent Garden in 1847, and she had brilliant success all over
Europe in the leading operatic roles; in 1853 she repeated these
triumphs in the United States. Indeed, with the exception of
Malibran,she had no compeer among the contraltos of theccntury,
the old Italian school of singing finding in her a really great
representative. She married first Count A. Pepoli, who died
in 1866, and secondly (1877) a French officer, M. Ziegcr; she
lived in Paris after her first marriage, and died at Ville d'Avray
in 1804.
ALBORNOZ. GIL ALVAREZ DE, Spanish cardinal, was born
at Cuenca early in the 14th century. He was the son of Gil
Alvarez de Albornoz and of Dona Teresa de Luna, sister of
Kimeno de Luna, archbishop of Toledo. He was educated at
Saragosa, while his uncle was bishop of that see, and studied law
at Toulouse. The powerful influence of his family opened him a
public career early in life. He was made archdeacon of Calatrava,
and became a member of the king's council while young. In 1337
he was chosen archbishop of Toledo in succession to his uncle by
the favour of the king, Alphonso XI. At the battle of Tarifa he
fought against a great invasion from Africa in 1340, and at the
taking of Algedras in 1344 he led the armed levy of Ma arch-
bishopric. In 1343 be had. been sent to Pope dement VL at
Avignon to negotiate a grant of a tax on the revenues of the
Church for the Crusade. His military and diplomatic ability
became known to the pope, who made him a cardinal in 1350.
Albornoz left Spain on the death of the king Alphonso XI. in that
year, and never returned. It has been said, but not on contem-
porary evidence, that he fled from fear of Peter the GrueL la
1353 Innocent VL sent him as a legate into Italy, with a view to
the restoration of the papal authority in the states of the Church.
He was recalled in 1357, but was sent again to Italy after a brief
interval, and in 1362 had paved the way for the return of
Urban V. to Rome. As legate, Albornoz showed himself to be
an astute manager of men and effective fighter. He began by
making use of Ricnzi, whose release from prison at Avignon he
secured. After the murder of the tribune in 1354 Albomos
pursued his task of restoring the pope's authority by intrigue and
force with remarkable success. As a mark of gratitude the pope
appointed him legate at Bologna in 1367, but he died at Viterbo
the same year. According to his own desire his remains were
carried to Toledo, where Henry of Castile caused them to be
entombed with almost royal honours. A work by Albornos on
the constitution of the Church of Rome, first printed at Jesi
in Z473, is now very rare. The college of St Cement at Bologna
was founded by Albornoz for the benefit of Spanish students.
See " De Vita et Rebus Gestis Aegidii AlbornotH " in SepolvebVs
Opera Omnia, vol. iv. (1780) ; Cardenal Albomoa der swnfe Be&Gmder
dee Kirchenstaates, by Dr H. J. Wurm (189a).
ALBRECHTSBERGER, JOHAHH GBORO (1736-1809),
Austrian musician, was born at KJoster-Neuburg, near Vienna,
on the 3rd of February 1736. He studied musical composition
under the court organist, Mann, and became one of the moat
learned and skilful contrapuntists of his age. After being
employcdas organist at Raab and Maria-Taferi, he was appointed
in 1 77a organist to the court of Vienna, and in x 79a Ka p e ll m eist er
of St Stephen's cathedral. His fame as a theorist attracted to
him in the Austrian capital a large number of pupils, some of
whom afterwards became eminent musicians. Among these were
Beethoven, Hummd, Moscheles and Josef Weigl (1766-1846).
Albrechtsberger died in Vienna on\the 7th of March 1800. His
published compositions consist oi preludes, fugues and sonatas
for the piano and organ, string quartets, &c; but the greater
proportion of his works, vocal and instrumental, exists only in
manuscript They are in the library of the Vienna Gesgttsckafi
der J&usikfreundc. Probably the most valuable service he
rendered to music was in his theoretical works. In 1790 he
published at Leipzig a treatise on composition, of which a third
edition appeared in 1821. A collection of his writings on har-
mony, in three volumes, was published under the care of his pupil
Ignaz von Scyfried (1776-1841) in 1826. There is an English
version of this published by Novello in 1855. Beethoven knew
his own needs when he put himself under Albrechtsberger on
finding that Haydn was not thoroughly disposed for the trouble
of training him; and though Albrechtsberger could tee nothing
in him, and warned his other pupils against " that young man
who would never turn out anything in good style," he justified
Beethoven's confidence.
ALBRET. The lordship (seigneurie) of Albret (Labrit,
Lcbret), situated in the Landes, gave its name to one of the
most powerful feudal families of France in the middle ages.
Its members distinguished themselves in the local wars of that
epoch; and during the 14th century they espoused the English
cause for some time, afterwards transferring their support to
the side of France. Arnaud Amanieu, lord of Albret, helped
to take Guicnne from the English. His son Charles became
constable of France, and was killed at the battle of Agmconrt
in 1415. Alain the Great, lord of Albret (d. 1522), wished to
marry Anne of Brittany, and to that end fought against Charles
VIII.; but his hopes being defeated by the betrothal of Anne
to Maximilian of Austria, he surrendered Nantes to the French
in i486. At that time the house of Albret had attained consider*
able territorial importance, due in great part to the liberal grant!
ALBRIGHT— ALBUMIN
513
which it had obtained from successive kings of France. John
of Albret, son of Alain, became king of Navarre by his marriage
with Catherine of Foix. Their son Henry, king of Navarre,
was created duke of Albret and peer of France in 15 so. By his
wife Margaret, sister of the French king, Francis I., he had a
daughter, Jeanne d'Albret, queen of Navarre, who married
Anthony de Bourbon, duke of Vendome, and became the mother
of Henry IV., king of France. The dukedom of Albret, united
to the crown of France by the accession of this prince, was
granted to the family of La Tour d'Auvergne in 165 1, in exchange
for Sedan and Raucourt.
To a younger branch of this house belonged Jean d'Albret,
seigneur of Orval, count of Dreux and of Rethel, governor of
Champagne (d. 1524)1 who was employed by Francis I. in many
diplomatic negotiations, more particularly in his intrigues to
get himself elected emperor in 1510. (M. P.*)
ALBRIGHT, JACOB (1750-1808), American clergyman, was
born near Pottstown, Pennsylvania, on the 1st of May 1759.
He was of " Pennsylvania-German " parentage, his name being
originally Albrecht, and was educated in the Lutheran faith.
At an early age he became a tile-burner. In 1790 he was con-
verted to Methodism, and in 1796 determined to devote himself
to preaching that faith among the Pennsylvania Germans. His
efforts met with great success, and in 1800 he founded what
was virtually a new and independent church organization
on the Methodist system, of which he became the presiding
elder, and eventually (1807) bishop. This church is officially the
Evangelical Association, but its adherents have been vari-
ously known as " New Methodists." " Albrights," and " Albright
Brethren." Albright died on the 18th of May 1 808, atMUhlbach,
Penns ylvan ia.
ALBUERA, or Auuhexa, LA, a small village of Spain, in
the province of Badajoz, 13 m. S.E. of the town of that name*
Pop. (1900) 820. Albuera is celebrated on account of the victory
gained there on the 16th of May 181 1 by the British, Portuguese
and Spaniards, under Marshal Beresford, over the French army
commanded by Marshal Soult (See Peninsular Wax.)
ALBUFBRA DB VALENCIA, a lagoon, 7 m. S. of Valencia
in Spain, about la m. in length and 4 in breadth, ia ft being its
greatest depth. It communicates with the sea by a narrow
outlet, which can be opened or dosed at pleasure. The lake
is crown property, and is of great value from the fish and wild-
fowl with which it abounds. Rice is grown in large quantities
by the inhabitants of the adjoining villages. In 181 2 Marshal
Suchet was created duke of Albufera by Napoleon for his con-
quest of Valencia, and invested with the domain; but the battle
of Vittoria in 18 13 deprived him of his possession, though he still
retained the title. Subsequently the revenues of Albufera were
conferred upon the duke of Wellington in token of the gratitude
of the Spanish nation. (See Peninsula* War.)
ALBULAB AQUAB, a group of springs, 4 m. W. of Tibur, the
water of which b bluish, strongly impregnated with sulphur
and carbonate of lime, and rises at a temperature of about
75° F. Remains of a Roman thermal establishment exist near
the principal spring, the so-called Lago della Regina (which is
continually diminishing in size owing to the deposit left by the
water), and dedicatory inscriptions in honour of the waters have
been found. The baths are still frequented by the Romans,
though the modern establishment is about 1 m. S. on the high
road.
See T. Ashby in Papers of the British School at Rome, til. 117.
ALBULA PASS, now the principal route from the N. to the
Upper Engadine in the Swiss canton of the Grisons. It was
already frequented in the 13th century, while a carriage road
(highest point, 7595 ft.) was constructed across it in 1865, but for
a long time it was not as much used as the easier and more direct
Julier Pass (7504 ft.), until the opening of the railway in 1003,
which has vastly increased its practical importance. Starting from
Coire the Rhine valley is followed to Reichenau (6} m.), and then
that of the Hinter Rhine to Thusis (10) m.). The line then runs
through the grand Schyn gorge (cut by the Albula torrent) to
Tiefenkastdl (7} m.), where it leaves the Julier road on the right
(S.) and continues to follow the course of the Albula past FOisof
and Bergun (ia| m.) to the mouth (5879 ft.) of the great tunnel
(3! m. in length; highest point, 5087 ft.) which has been pierced
below the pass. The descent lies through the Bevcrs glen to
Bevers (a) m.), where the Upper Engadine is reached, about
5 m. below St. MoriU, which is 56 m. from Coire by this
route. (W. A. B. C.)
ALBUM (Lat. albus, white), in ancient Rome, a board chalked
or painted white, on which decrees, edicts and other public
notices were inscribed in black. The Annates Maximi of the
Pontifez Maximus, the annual edicts of the praetor, the lists
of Roman and municipal senators (decurumes) and jurors
(album indicum) were exhibited in this manner. In medieval
and modern times album denotes a book of blank pages in which
verses, autographs, s k e tches , photographs and the like are
collected. It is also applied to the official list of matriculated
students in a university, and to the roll in which a bishop
inscribes the names of his clergy. In law, the word is the
equivalent of mcilles blenches, for rent paid in silver (" white ")
money.
ALBUMAZAR, more properly Abu-maaschak (805-885),
Arab astronomer, was born at Balkh, flourished at Bagdad, and
died at Wasid in Central Asia. His principal works are: De
Magnis Conjunctionibus (Augsburg, 1489); fnlroduclcrium in
Astronomiam (Venice, 1506); and Floret Astralogici (Augsburg,
1488). He maintained in the first that the world, created when
the seven planets were in conjunction in the first degree of
Aries, will come to an end at a like conjunction in the last degree
of Pisces.
See Biog. UnmerseUe (Jourdain); Lalande, BtUiograpkie Astrono-
miouex Poggendorff, Biog. liUrarudus HamdwdrUrbuch; Houstau,
BibL A s tro nomia m.
ALBUMIN, or Albuven (Lat albus, white), an organic sub-
stance typical of a group of bodies (albumins or albuminates)
of very complicated chemical composition. They are sometimes •
called the histogenetic bodies or proteids, because they are
essential to the building up of the animal organism. The
vegetable kingdom is the original source of albuminous sub-
stances, the albumins being found in greatest quantity in the
seed. They also occur in the fluids of the living organism.
The chemistry of the albumins is one of the most complicated
and difficult in the whole domain of organic chemistry. It has
attracted the attention of many workers, and has formed the
subject of a huge literature. In this field Bechamp, Cohnheim,
Albrecht Kossel, and, especially, Enul Fischer and his pupils
have been extremely active. The general trend of these
resea r ches lies in the study of the decomposition or " breaking
down" products of the albumin molecules; once these are
accurately determined, the synthesis of an albumin is but a
matter of time. Already we have proceeded far in our know-
ledge of the decomposition products, and certain simple proteids
have been synthesized.
The albumins contain in all cases the elements carbon,
hydrogen, nitrogen, sulphur and oxygen; their composition,
however, varies within certain limits: C-50-55 %,
H-6.9-7-3%,N-i5-i9%,S-o-3-a-4%.°- IO - 2 4%.
crystallised albumin is C-5148 %, H-6-76 %, N-
18-14%, S-o-96%, O-aa-66%, which points to the
formula CmHiu»NnaS»OM, corresponding to the molecular
weight 16,954. A high molecular weight characterizes these
substances, but so far no definite value has been determined by
either physical or chemical means; A. P. Sabanezhev obtained
the value 15,000 by Raoult's method for purified egg albumin.
All albumins are laevo-rotatory; and on incineration a small
amount of inorganic ash is invariably left They are usually
insoluble in water, alcohol and ether; and their presence as
solutes in vegetable and animal fluids is not yet perfectly under-
stood, but it is probably to be connected with the presence of
salts or other substances. A remarkable change occurs when
many albumins are boiled with water, or treated with certain
adds, their solubility and general characters being entirely
altered, and the fluid becoming coagulated. This change is seen
5H
ALBUMIN
in the transformation of the " white " of an' egg on boiling.
Albumins are generally detected by taking advantage of this
property, or of certain colour changes. The reagents in common
use are: Millon's reagent, a solution of mercuric nitrate contain-
ing nitrous acid, this gives a violet-red coloration; nitric acid,
which gives a yellow colour, turning to gold when treated with
ammonia (xanthoproteic reaction); fuming sulphuric acid,
which gives violet solutions; and caustic potash, and copper
sulphate, which, on warming, gives a red to violet coloration
(biuret reaction).
Boiling with dilute mineral acids, or baryta water, decomposes
albumins into carbon dioxide, ammonia and fatty amino- and
other acids. These decomposition products include:
glycocoll or aminoacetic acid, NHjCHjCOOH, alanine
or aminopropionicacid.CHr CH(NH,) • COOH ,a-amino-
butyric acid, a-aminovalerianic add, leudn or isobutyl-
a-aminoacetic add, (CH,) a CHCHrCH(NHj)- COOH, isoleudn,
probably 0-aminocaproic add, serin or a-amino-^-hydroxy-
propionic add, HOCH,CH(NH,)COOH, aspartic add or
aminosucdnic add, HOOCCH,CH(NH,)COOH, gluUminic
acid or o-amino-»-glutaricadd,HOOC-(CHj)»CH(NH,)- COOH,
diaminoacetic add, a-0-diaminopropionic add, lysin. or
a-c-diamino-n-caproic acid, NH,(CHj)«CH(NH 2 ) COOH, arginin
or guanidine-a-amino-n-valerianic add, (NH)(NH a )C NH«
(CH 2 ) 3 CH(NHi)COOH, ornithin or oA-diamino valcr.anic add,
NHi(CHi),CH(NH«)COOH, histi din or a-amino- ff-imidazol-
propionicadd, HOOCCH(NH,)CH a C : CHN:CHNH, pro line
or a-pyrrolidin carboxylic add, HOOCCH:;HCH s CH,CH,,
hydroxyproline, phenyl alanine or phenyl-a-aminopropionic
add, CiHi CH,CH(NHi)-COOH,tyrosineor p-hydroxyphenyl-o-
aminopropionic add, phenyl ethylaminc, p-hydroxyphenyl
ethylamine, tryptophane or indol aminopropionic add, A.
cystin (protein-cystin) or a-amino-pMhioglyceric add " disul-
phide," (S-CHsCH(NHO-COOH)a, B. cystin (stone-cystin), or
a-thio-0-aminoglyceric add " disulphide," (NH 2 CH a CH : S-
COOH)i. This list is not exhaustive; other products are
given in Gustav Mann, Chemistry of the Protcids (xooo), to which
reference should be made for a complete account of this class of
compounds.
The complexity of composition militates in a great measure
against a rational classification of albumins by purely chemical
considerations. Such classifications have been at-
a ^*" 1 ' tempted by A. Kossd and by W. Ktthne and E. P. Pick;
2fcu»to*. but in the present state of our knowledge, however,
the older classification of £. Dreschel and F. Hoppc-
Seyler, based primarily on solubilities and distribution, may be
conveniently retained. This classification is with certain modi-
fications as follows: —
X. Albumins proper: characterized by having colloidal
solutions,
(i) Albumins: serum-albumin, egg-albumin, lact-
albumin.
(2) Globulins: serum-globulin, egg-globulin, Iacto-
globulin, cell-globulins.
(3) Plant-globulins and plant-vitellines.
(4) Fibrinogen.
(5) Myosin.
(6) Phosphorus containing albumins (nudeo-albumins),
caseins, vitellines, nudeo-albumins of the cell-
protoplasm, mucoid nudeo-albumins.
(7) Histones.
(8) Protamines.
IL Transformation products of the albumins proper.
(1) Acid-albumins, alkali albuminates.
(2) Albumoses, peptones and peptides.
(3) Halogen-albumins, oxyprotein, oxyprotsulphonic
add, &c
HI. Proteids.
(x) Nudeo-proteids.
(2) Haemoglobin and allied substances.
(3) Glyco-protcids, murins, mucoids, helico-protdd.
IV. Albuminoids.
(1) Collagen.
(2) Keratin.
(3) Elastin.
(4) Fibroin.
(5) Spongin,&c
(6) Amyloid.
(7) Albumoid.
(8) Colouring matters derived from albumin.
Albumins proper. — Albumins (as classified above) is
soluble in water, dilute adds and alkalies, and in satantri
neutral salt solutions; they are coagulated by heat. " Seras-
albumin," or "blood-albumin," possibly CwHtsNo^O*
occurs in blood-serum, lymph, chyle, milk, &c; its coagaktic
temperature is about 67°. It differs from egg-albumin it >>
specific rotation (-57 to -64°), and in being slowly coagukipi
by alcohol and ether. Egg-albumin is the chief constituent «
the white of egg; this fluid also contains a globulin asd 1
mucoid. It coagulates at about 56°, and its specific rotaLoe *
-30*70°. " Lact-albumin " occurs in all kinds of m3k- Be
globulins are insoluble in water and in dilute acids, but sc!a&
in alkalies and in neutral salt solutions; these solution* ut
coagulated on boiling. " Serum-globulin," also termed gkfc-sa
or fibrino-plastic globulin, paraglobulin and paxaglobin. ocean
in blood serum; " cell-globulins " occur in many organs— fc-.tr.
kidneys, pancreas and the thyroid gland, also in musde-pbsr*,
" crystalline," a globulin occurring in two forms a and $ i»
found in the lens of the eye; " egg-globulin *' and " 1*ctj-
globulin " occur respectively in the white of egg and in sJ&
Plant albumins or phyto-albumins have been chiefly investip'^i
in the case of those occurring in seeds; most are gbboliv
insoluble in pure water, but soluble in salt solutions; ** edestir, '
a globulin of this class, is very widely distributed. Oths
varieties or classes of these compounds are: plant casejs,
phyto-vitellines, legumins and conglutins. Fibrinogen oco3
in the blood plasma, and is changed by a ferment into fibrj",
to which the dotting of blood is due. Fibrinogen is insofuhk 2
water, but soluble in salt solutions; it has three different emu-
lation temperatures, 56°, 67°, 75°". Fibrin, produced fcwa
fibrinogen by a ferment, is a jelly-like substance, coagukbk by
heat, alcohol, &c. The musde-albumins indude " myosin " or
paramyosinogen, a globulin, which by coagulation induces rip*
mortis, and the dosely related " myosinogen " or myogEz;
myoglobulin and myoalbumin are also found in 'muscles. Tbe
nudeo-albumins or phospho-globulins are insoluble in nter
and adds, but soluble in alkalies, and have an add reaction
" Caseinogen " (after. W. D. Halliburton) is the chief albosia
of milk; its composition varies with the animal It is insoluble
in water, while its salts are readily soluble. " Eucasein " s
the ammonium salt; " nutrose " and " plasmon " are sodira
salts. By the rennet ferment caseinogen is converted int»
casein, a substance resembling caseinogen in being soluble a
water, but differing in having an insoluble caldum salt. Tbt
formation of casein involves the curdling of milk. Otba
phosphoglobulins are vitelline, found in the yolk of bos'
eggs, and ichthulin, found in the eggs of fish. Histones art *
class of albumins soluble in water and acids, but esaentiaDy
basic in character; hence they are precipitated by alkalies.
It is remarkable that many histones are soluble m an excess *
alkali. They do not exist in a free state, but in combicat^a
with a " prosthetic group " (after A. Kossd) they give rise u
important cell constituents — haemoglobin, nudeo-proteids, fc
" Thymus histone " occurs in the thymus gland; globin occc»
in combination as haemoglobin; other histones have ben
extracted from the red blood corpusdes of the goose and Ot
testes of fishes and other animals. The protamines are a «*-
characterized dass of albumins found in the ripe spermatozoa d
fishes.
Albumoses and Peptones. — The primary products of the dis-
sociation of albumins are the albumoses, characterized by do*
being coagulable by heat, more soluble than the albumins, navies
a far less complex composition, and capable of being " salted
ALBUMINURIA
515
out " by certain salts, and the peptones, similar to aibumoscs but
not capable of being " salted out "; moreover, peptones are less
complex than aibumoscs. By further decomposition peptones
yield peptides, a certain number of which have been synthesized
by Emil Fischer and his collaborators. Albumoses and peptones
«.re white powders, readily soluble in water, with the exception
of the hetero-albumoses— a subdivision of primary albumoses.
They give the biuret and xanthoproteic reactions, and form salts
-with both acids and bases. Albumoses and peptones are
obtained by peptic digestion, the 1 latter being termed peptic-
peptones; tryptic digestion also produces peptones. Adds and
moist heat induce similar changes.
Proteids. — These substances are combinations of one, or more
albumins with a radical of an essentially different nature, termed
toy Kossel a "prosthetic group." It is convenient to classify
proteids by those groups. " Nucleo-proteids," constituents of
the cell-nucleus, are combinations of albumins and nucleic acid;
they always contain iron. They are loose, white, non-hygroscopic
powders, soluble in water and salt solutions, and have an acid
reaction; they give the colour reactions of albumins. Nucleic
acid is at present of unknown constitution; decomposition
products are: phosphoric acid, uracil or 2.6-dXoxy-pyrimidin, 1
cytosin or 2-oxy-6-amino-pyrimidin, thymin (nudeosin) or
2.6-dioxy-5-methyl pyrimidin hypoxanthin 1 or 6-oxypurin,
xanthin or 3.6-dioxypurin, adenine or 6 amino-purin, guanine or
2-amino-6-oxypurin, pentoses (1-xylose), laevulinic acid, am-
monia, etc. The nucleic adds vary with the source of the pro-
teids, there being considerable differences in chemical composi-
tion. In general they are white, loose powders, slightly soluble
in cold water, more soluble in hot water; they are predpitatcd
by mineral adds, but dissolve in an excess. They are dextro-
rotatory, and the spedfic rotation is numerically greater than
that of albumin; hence the proteids are, in general, dextro-
rotatory.
An important nudeo-proteid is haemoglobulin or haemoglobin,
the colouring matter of the red blood corpuscles of vertebrates;
a related substance, haemocyanin, in which the iron of haemo-
globin is replaced by copper, occurs in the blood of cephalopods
and crayfish. Haemoglobin is composed of a basic albumin and
an add substance haematin; it combines readily with oxygen,
carbon dioxide and carbon monoxide to form loose compounds
(see Nutrition). It coagulates at 64 . By a dilute add
haemoglobin is decomposed into globin, and "haematin," a
ferri-pyrrol derivative of the probable formula CuH M N«Fe(V,
under certain conditions the iron-free " haematoporphyrin " is
obtained. This last substance may be reduced to mesopor-
phyrin, C M H»0«N4, which by further reduction gives haemo-
pyrrol, C«HuN, possibly mcthyl-propyl-pyrrol or butyl-pyrrol.
Other derivatives are haemin, haemochromogen and the
haematinic adds.
" Glyco-protcids " differ from nucleo-proteids in containing
a carbohydrate radical, which is liberated only by boiling with
mineral adds or alkalies. The mucins and mucoids belong to
this group; they are add and contain no phosphorus; they
. give the albumin colour reactions but tare not coagulated by heat.
Mudns occur in most of the slimy fluids of the body; they vary
in composition with thdr source. Mucoids resemble mudns in
their composition and reactions, but differ, in general, in thdr
physical properties. They occur in tendons, bones and cartilage.
The " phospho-glyco-proteids " resemble the mudns and mucoids
in containing a carbohydrate residue, but differ in containing
phosphorus. Ichthulin (see above) may be placed in this group;
" helico-protdd," found in the serous gland of Helix pomatia, the
vineyard snail, also belongs here.
Albuminoids is the anatomical name given to albuminous
substances forming the connective tissues. Chemically they
resemble the albumins, being split up by acids or ferments into
albumoses, peptones and amino-adds, forming salts, and giving
The pyrimidin ring b numbered al
t PURIN.
•N-
nog, see
•C*. Forthepurin
the same colour reactions! They are quite insoluble in water
and in salt solutions, and difficultly soluble in dilute adds and
alkalies. Typical albuminoids are gelatin, keratin, elastin,
fibroin, Spongin and conchiolin.
" Collagen " (Gr. <c6XXa, glue, and root ytr- of 7ewaer, to
produce, ylyvectiai, to become), the ground-substance of bones
and tissues, is decomposed by boiling water or on warming with
acids into substances named gelatin, glutin or glue. Gelatin
forms a white amorphous powder; the commerdal product,
however, generally forms glassy plates. The decomposition
products are generally the same as with the general albumin; it
gives the biuret reaction; forms salts with adds and alkalies, but
is essentially add in nature. Immersed in cold water gelatin
docs not dissolve but swells up; it dissolves readily in hot water,
forming, according to the quantity present, a thick jelly which
solidifies to a hard mass on cooling (the " glue " of the wood-
worker), or a thin jelly (used in cookery). Gelatin occurs also
in the cornea and the sclerotic coat of the eye;- and in fish
scales, the latter containing 80% of collagen, and 20% of
ichthylepidin, a substance differing from gelatin in giving a well-
marked Millon's reaction. Keratin (Gr. jcipas, a horn), the
chief constituent of horny material, occurs in hair, nails, hoofs
and feathers. It is quite insoluble in water, dilute acids and
alkalies. Related to this substance are " neuro-keratin," found
in the medullary sheath of nerves, and " gorgonin," the matrix of
the axial skeleton of the coral Gorgonia CavoliniL Elastin occurs
either as thick strands or as membranes; it constitutes the
" elastic tissue " of the anatornist Its insolubility is much the
same as keratin. " Fibroin " and silk-glue or seridn occur in
natural silk fibres. Fibroin is insoluble in water, adds and
alkalies; silk-glue resembles gelatin in its solubility, but it is
less readily gelatinized. " Spongin," the matrix of bath-sponge,
is insoluble in water and dilute acids, but soluble in concentrated
mineral adds. " Conchiolin," the matrix of shells of the mol-
lusca, is only slightly soluble in adds. " Cornein " forms the
framework of corals. " Amyloid " occurs as a pathological
product, and also in the healthy aorta and in old cartilage. It
is an albumin, and not a carbohydrate as was formerly hdd; and
gives most of the colour reactions of albumins. It forms shiny,
homogeneous masses, quite insoluble in cold water and in salt
solutions, but soluble in alkalies. The albumoids indude, accord-
ing to Cohnhcim, substances which possess certain properties in
common, but differ from the preceding groups. In general they
resemble coagulated albumin, and also the gelatin-yidding tissues,
but they themselves do not yield gelatin.
Colouring matters derived from albumins indude the
" melanins " (Gr. piAas, black), substances which differ very
considerably in composition, the sulphur and iron content being
by no means constant; they do not give the reactions of albumins.
The black colouring matter of hair, the skin of negroes, and of the
ink bag of Sepia have been examined. Melanins obtained from
tumours form black, shiny masses; they are insoluble in water,
neutral salt solutions, dilute adds and in the common organic
solvents.
ALBUMINURIA (Physiological or Functional), a term in-
dicating the presence of albumin in the urine. This may depend
on a number of morbid conditions, of which kidney troubles,
acute illnesses and venous congestion are some of the commoner.
But after exclusion of all known pathological causes, there still
remains a large class of cases among subjects who appear to be
in perfect health. This form has been called functional or
physiological albuminuria, intermittent albuminuria, &c. Its
recognition is of extreme importance, as it must be distinguished
from the albuminuria due to Blight's disease and other troubles.
The following are the main forms that have been described :—
(1) Dietetic Albuminuria. This form affects some people after
partaking of a meal consisting largely of albuminous foods, such
as eggs. In others any extra indulgence in the pleasures of the
table may give rise to it. (2) Cydic Albuminuria. This name
was first used by the physiologist Pavy, but other observers
have called the same condition "postural albuminuria." It
occurs in people enjoying perfect health, and U characterized by
S i6
ALBUQUERQUE— ALBURNUM
the presence of albumin in the urine at certain times of the day.
It has been shown to depend entirely on the assumption of the
erect position, and it disappears as a result of the recumbent
position at night (3) Albuminuria from exercise. This form
affects some people after any unusual muscular exertion. (4)
Prolonged mental strain or worry may give rise to a transient
form of albuminuria. (5) Adolescent albuminuria is met with
in some subjects, especially boys. The question of the real
significance of " physiological " albuminuria is one about which
there is much difference of opinion. But its importance and
recognition— especially in questions of life insurance— admits of
no question.
ALBUQUERQUE, AJLPHONSO V (in Old Port AnoNSO
d'Alboqut&quz) (1453-1515), sumamed the Great, and
the Portuguese Mars, was born in 1453 at Alexandria, near
Lisbon. Through his father, Gonxalvo, who held an important
position at court, he was connected by illegitimate descent with
the royal family of Portugal. He was educated at the court of
Alphonso V., and after the death of that monarch seems to have
served for some time in Africa. On his return he was appointed
cstribeiro-mor (chief equerry) to John II. In 1503 he set out on
his first expedition to the East, which was to be the scene of
his future triumphs. In company with his kinsman Francisco
he sailed round the Cape of Good Hope to India, and succeeded
in establishing the king of Cochin securely on his throne, obtaining
in return for this service permission to build a Portuguese fort
at Cochin, and thus laying the foundation of his country's empire
in the East. He returned home in July 1504, and was well
received by King Emmanuel, who entrusted him with the com-
mand of a squadron of five vessels in the fleet of sixteen which
sailed for India in 1506 under Tristan da Cunha. After a series
of successful attacks on the Arab cities on the east coast of
Africa, Albuquerque separated from Da Cunha, and sailed with
his squadron against the island of Ormuz, in the Persian Gulf,
which was then one of the chief centres of commerce in the East.
He arrived on the 25th of September 1507, and soon obtained
possession of the island, though he was unable long to maintain
his position. With his squadron increased by three vessels,
he reached the Malabar coast at the close of the year 1508, and
immediately made known the commission he had received from
the king empowering him to supersede the governor Francisco
de Almeida. The latter, however, refused to recognize Albu-
querque's credentials and cast him into prison, from which he
was only released, after three months' confinement, on the
arrival of the grand-marshal of Portugal with a large fleet
Almeida having returned home, Albuquerque speedily showed
the energy and determination of his character. An unsuccessful
attack upon Calicut in January 1510, in which the commander-
in-chief received a severe wound, was immediately followed by
the investment and capture of Goa. Albuquerque, finding
himself unable to hold the town oh his first occupation,
abandoned it in August, to return with the reinforcements in
November, when he obtained undisputed possession. He next
directed his forces against Malacca, which he subdued after a
severe struggle. He remained in the town nearly a year in order
to strengthen the position of the Portuguese power. In 151a
he sailed for the coast of Malabar. On the voyage a violent
storm arose, AJbuquerque's,vessel, the " Flor de la Mar/' which
carried the treasure he had amassed in his conquests, was wrecked,
and he himself barely escaped with his life. In September of
the same year he arrived at Goa, where he quickly suppressed
a serious revolt headed by Idalcan, and took such measures
for the security and peace of the town that it became the most
flourishing of the Portuguese settlements in India. Albuquerque
had been for some time under orders from the home government
to undertake an expedition to the Red Sea, in order to secure
that channel of communication exclusively to Portugal. He
accordingly laid siege to Aden in 1513, but was repulsed; and
a voyage into the Red Sea, the first ever made by a European
fleet, led to no substantial results. In order to destroy the
power of Egypt, he is said to have entertained the idea of divert-
ing the course of the Nile and so rendering the whole country
barren. His last warlike undertaking was a second attack epec
Ormuz in 1515. The island yielded to him without resstaacs.
and it remained in the possession of the Portuguese until it::.
Albuquerque's great career had a painful and ignominious cksc
He had several enemies at the Portuguese court who lost r*
opportunity of stirring up the jealousy of the king s
and his own injudicious and arbitrary conduct on several c
served their end only too well. On his return fa
at the entrance of the harbour of Goa, he met a vessel ire-
Europe bearing despatches announcing that he was superset-:
by his personal enemy Soarez. The blow was too much for hrs
and he died at sea on the 16th of December 1515. Before La
death he wrote a letter to the king in dignified and affects*
terms, vindicating his conduct and claiming for fats son the
honours and rewards that were justly due to himself. His body
was buried at Goa in the Church of our Lady, and it is perhaps
the most convincing proof possible of the justice of his adminzstr*-
tion that, many years after, Mussulmans and Hindis used to
go to his tomb to invoke protection against the injustice ef
his successors. The king of Portugal was convinced too late
of his fidelity, and endeavoured to atone for the ingratitude
with which he had treated him by heaping honours upon us
natural son Affonso. The latter published a selection from fas
father's papers under the title Commentaries do Grande Ajmsr
d l Alboqueroue.
See the Cartas de Albuquerque, published by the Lisbon Acadewy
(vol. i., 1884); also Morse Stephens' Life of Albuquergmez aa artide
in the Bolittm of the Lisbon Geographical Society (January to Ju«w
1902) on " O antigo Imperialtsmo portuguez, &c," has es peoa l
reference to Albuquerque.
ALBUQUERQUE, a city and the county-seat of BernanBo
county, New Mexico, U. S. A., situated in the central part of the
state, about 325 m. S. by W. of Denver, on the £. bank of
the Rio Grande, at an altitude of 4950 ft Pop. (1890) 3785,
(xooo) 6238(956 foreign-born and 226 negroes); (ioioccasnt)
xi,020. In 1000 Albuquerque was the largest city in New
Mexico. It is the connecting point of two main lines of lac
Atchison, Topcka & Santa Fe railway system. A short rtrstascr
E. of the city is the university of New Mexico, under state
control, founded in 1889 and opened in 1892; in 1008 it had a
college of letters and science, a school of engineering, a school
of education, a preparatory school and a commercial school
Albuquerque is also the seat of the Harwood Industrial School
(Methodist) for Mexican girls, of the Menaul Mission School
(Presbyterian) for Mexican boys, and of a government Indian
training school (1881) for boys and girls. The city has a pabfic
library. The excellent climate has given Albuquerque and the
surrounding country a reputation as a health resort The city is
an important railway centre, has extensive railway repair shops
and stock-yards, and exports large quantities of live-stock,
hides and wool. The largest industrial establishment is the
American Lumber Company's plant, including a saw-mill, a sash,
door and blind factory and a box factory. The timber used,
chiefly white pine, is obtained from the Zufti mountains. Tie
city has also flour and woollen mills, breweries and ice factories.
The old Spanish town of Albuquerque (pop. in 1900 about 1200)
lies about x m. W. of the present dty; it was founded in
1706, and was named in honour of the duke of Albuquerque,
viceroy of New Spain from 1 702 to 17x0. During the Civil War
it was occupied, late in February 1862, by Confederate troops
under General Henry Hopkins Sibley (1816-1886), who soon
afterwards advanced with his main body into northern New
Mexico. In his retreat back into Texas he made a stand 00
the 8th of April 1862 at Albuquerque, where during the whok
day there was a fight at long range and with few casualties
against a detachment of Union soldiers commanded by Cotond
Edward R. S. Canby (18x0-1873). The modern dty dates its
origin from the completion of the first railway to Albuquerque
in 1880.
ALBURNUM (sapwood), the outermost and youngest part of
the wood of a tree, through which the sap rises. It is distin-
guished from the harder inner and older wood, the duramea or
heart, wood.
ALBURY— ALCAMENES
517
ALBURY, a town in Goulburn county, New South Wiles,
Australia, 386 m. by rail W.S.W. of Sydney. Pop. (1901) 5821.
It stands near the border of Victoria, on the right bank of the
Murray river, here crossed by two bridges, one built of wood
carrying a road, the other of iron bearing the railway. The
Murray is navigable for small steamers from this town to its
mouth, a distance of 1800 miles. Albury is the centre of a sheep-
rearing and agricultural district; grapes, cereals and tobacco are
largely grown, and the wine produced here is held in high repute
throughout Australia. The tree under which the first explorers
encamped here in November 1824 is still standing in an enclosed
space. Albury became a municipality in 1850.
ALCAEU8 (Alkaios), Greek lyric poet, an older contemporary
of Sappho, was a native of Mytilene in Lesbos and flourished
about 600 B.C. His life was greatly mixed up with the political
disputes and internal feuds of his native city. He belonged to
one of the noble families, and sided with his class against the
" tyrants " who at that time set themselves up in Mytilene. He
was in consequence obliged to leave his native country, and spent
a considerable time in exile. He is said to have become reconciled
to Pittacus, the ruler set up by the popular party, and to have
returned to Lesbos. The date of his death is unknown. The
subjects of his poems, which were composed in the Aeolic dialect,
were of various kinds: some were hymns to the gods; others
were of a martial or political character; others breathed an
ardent love of liberty and hatred of tyrants; lastly, some were
love-songs. Alcaeus was allotted the second place among the nine
lyric poets in the Alexandrian canon. The considerable number
of fragments extant, and the well-known imitations of Horace,
who regarded Alcaeus as his great model, enable us to form a
fair idea of the character of his poems. A new fragment has
recently been discovered, together with some fragments of Sappho
{Classical Review, May 1002).
See Ben k, Poeiae Lyrici Graeei (1882) : alto The Sonts of Alcaeus,
by J. Easby-Smith (Washington, 1901); Plehn, Lesbiacorum Liber
( 1826) ; Flach. Gestkicku der gricckiscken Lyrik (1883-1884) ; Farnell,
Greek Lyric Poets (1891).
ALCAICS, in andent poetry, a name given to several kinds of
verse, from Alcaeus, their reputed inventor. The first kind
consists of five feet, vix. a spondee or iambic, an iambic, a Jong
syllable and two dactyles; the second of two dactyles and two
trochees. Besides these, which are called dactylic Alcaics, there
is another, simply styled Alcaic, consisting of an epitrite, two
choriamb! and a bacchius; thus —
Cur timet Asfvum Tiberim | tangere, cur | olivum?
The Alcaic ode is composed of several strophes, each consisting
of four verses, the first two of which are always eleven-syllable
alcaics of the first kind; the third verse is an iambic dimeter
hypercatalectic consisting of nine syllables; and the fourth verse
is a ten-syllable aleak of the second kind. The following strophe
Is of this species, which Horace calls Alcaci minaccs camenac—
Non potaidentcm multa vocavcria
Recte beatum ; rectius occupat
Nomen beati. qui deorum
Muneribus sapienter uti.
There is also a decasyllabic variety of the Alcaic metre.
The Alcaic measure was one of the most splendid inventions of
Greek metrical art. In its best examples it gives an impression
of wonderful vigour and spontaneity. Tennyson has attempted
to reproduce it in English in his
O mighty-mouthed inventor of harmonies.
O skilled to sing of time or eternity,
God-gifted organ-voice of England,
Muton, a name to resound for ages.
German is, however, the only modern literature in which
alexia have been written with much success. They were intro-
duced by Klopstock, and used by Holderlin, by Voss in his
translations of Horace, by A. Kopisch and other modern German
poets.
ALCAL4 (Moorish al Kola, the " Fortress " or " Castle "), the
name of thirteen Spanish towns, all founded or named by the
Moors. Alcali de Hcnares (pop. (1000) 11,206) is separately
described on account of its historical importance. Alcali la Real
(i5.973)i » picturesque town with a fine abbey, is situated in
mountainous country in the extreme south-west of Jain. Its
distinctive name la Real, " the Royal," was conferred in memory
of its capture by Alphonso XI. of Leon in 1340. In 18 10 the
French under Count Sebastiani here defeated the Spaniards.
Alcali de los Gaxules (8877) , on the river Barbate, in the province
of Cadis, has a thriving trade in cork and agricultural produce.
Alcali de Guadaira (8108), on the river Guadaira, near Seville, is
popularly called Alcali de los Panadores, or "Alcali of the
Bakers/' because It supplies Seville with large quantities of bread.
Alcali de Chisbert (6293) is situated on the coast of Castellon de
la Plana; Alcali del Rio (3006), on the Guadalquivir, 6 m. N. of
Seville; Alcali del Jucar (2968), on the Jucar, in Albacete;
Alcali de la Selva (1400), on the southern slopes of the Sierra del
Gudar, in Teruel; Alcali de la Vega (712), on the river Cabriel,
in Cuenca; Alcali de Gurrea (632), on the river Seton, in Huesca;
Alcali del Obispo (43s), in the same province; Alcali de Ebro
(388) and Alcali de Moncayo (367), both in Saragossa.
ALCAL& DB HENARES, a town of Spain, in the province
of Madrid, 17 m. E.N.E. of Madrid, on the river Henares, and
the Madrid-Saragossa railway. Pop. (1000) 11,206. Alcali de
Henares contains a military academy and various public institu-
tions, but its commercial importance is slight and its main
interest is historical The town has been identified with the
Roman Cemplutum, which was destroyed about the year 1000,
and was rebuilt by the Moors in 1083. In later times it was
renowned for its richly endowed university, founded by Cardinal
Jimenes de Cisneros in 1 510, which at the height of its prosperity
numbered 12,000 students, and was second only to that of
Salamanca. Here the famous edition of the Bible known as
the Comptutensian Polyglot was prepared from 1514 to 1517*
The college of San Ildefonso, completed in 1583, was the chief
university building. Its modernised Gothic church , the Colegiata,
contains the 16th century marble monument of Jimenes (d. 151 7)
and a fine reredos. The greatest of Spanish writers, Cervantes,
was born at Alcali de Henares, and baptized in the otherwise
insignificant church of S. Maria on the 9th of October 1547. A
tablet, set up in 1840, marks the house in which he is said to
have been born. Other illustrious natives of the town were the
emperor Ferdinand I. (1503-1564) tnd the Spanish dramatist
and historian Antonio de Solis (16x0-1686). After the removal
of the university to Madrid in 1836 the town rapidly declined,
and the government turned most of the principal buildings
erected by Cardinal Jimenes in the 16th century into a depot
for the archives of various state departments. Here are kept
very complete and curious documents of the Inquisition, showing
all its workings from the 15th to the 19th century. One of the
principal libraries is the former palace of the archbishops of
Toledo.
For a fuller description of Alcali see the Cuia id najero
en Alcald de Henares, by L. A. de la Torre (Alcali, 1882). The
following works are mainly of historical interest : — M. de Ayala
and F. Sastre, Alcald de Henares (Madrid, 1890); J. C. Garcia,
Ensayo de una Tipografia Complutense (Madrid, 1889) ; M. PortUla y
Esqutvel, Histona de la ciudad de Comjbluto (Alcali, 1725-1728);
and the " Annates Complutenaes " and " Chrontcon Complutense " in
Espaha Sagrada, by H. Floras and others (Madrid, 1754-1 879).
ALCALDE (from the Arab, al-quadi, the " Cadi " or " judge "),
the title in Spanish for officials of somewhat varied functions,
in which, however, there is always a judicial element Alcalde
de carte was a judge of the palace court, having jurisdiction in
and about the residence of the king. But the mayor of a town
or village who discharged the functions of a justice of the peace
was also an alcalde. It is in this sense that the title is now
exclusively used. He is subject to yearly election and the post
has often been an undesirable one in Spain. The title of alcalde
must be carefully distinguished from alcaide, which is derived
from the Arabic al-quMd, a general, and means the governor
of a fortress.
ALCAMENES, a Greek sculptor of Lemnos and Athens. He
was a younger contemporary of Pheidias and noted for the
delicacy and finish of his works, among which a Hephaestus
5*8
ALCAMO— ALCESTER
and an Aphrodite "of the Gardens" were conspicuous.
Pausanias says (v. 10. 8) that he was the author of one of the
pediments of the temple of Zeus at Olympia (see Greek Aet),
but this seems a chronological and stylistic impossibility. At
Pergamum there was discovered in iooj a copy of the head of
the Hermes " Propylaeus " of Alcamenes {AlMeniscke liitthcil-
ungen, 1004, p. 180). As, however, the deity is represented
in an archaistic and conventional character, this copy cannot
be relied on as giving us much information as to the usual style
of Alcamenes, who was almost certainly a progressive and original
artist. It b safer to judge him hy the sculptural decoration of
the Parthenon, in which he must almost certainly have taken
a share under the direction of Pheidias.
ALCAMO, a town of Sicily, in the province of Trapani, 24 m.
W.S.W. of Palermo direct (sx| m, by rail). Pop. (1881) 37,407;
(1001) 51,800. It was founded in a.d. 828 by the Saracenic
chief Al-Kamuk, who erected the castle (which still stands,
though considerably altered), but was christianized by the
emperor Frederick II. in 1233, who removed the site lower
down. It possesses some medieval buildings of interest. The
surrounding district is very fertile and the trade in agricultural
products is considerable.
ALCANTARA, a small seaport of Brazil, in the state of
Maranhio, on the W. shore of the bay of Sao Marcos, 16 m. from
the city of Maranhio by water. It has a fairly good harbour,
and excellent cotton and rice are grown in the vicinity and
shipped thence.
ALCANTARA, a town of western Spain, In the province of
Caceres, situated on a rocky height on the left bank of the river
Tagus, 7 m. from the Portuguese frontier. Pop. (1900) 3248.
Alcantara (in Arab, "the bridge") owes its name to the magnificent
Roman bridge which spans the Tagus on the north-west This
was originally built about a.d. 105, in honour of the Roman
emperor Trajan and at the cost of eleven Lusitanian communities.
It is entirely constructed of granite blocks, without cement,
and consists of six arches of various sizes, with a total length
of 616 feet and a height of about 190 ft. in the middle piers,
which are surmounted by a fortified gateway. One of the arches
was broken down in 1213 and rebuilt in 1553; another was
blown up by the British troops in 1800, and, though temporarily
reconstructed, was again destroyed in 1836, to prevent the
passage of the Carlist forces. But in x 860 the whole was restored.
A small Roman temple, dedicated to Trajan and other deified
emperors, stood on the left bank, adjoining the bridge. It is
doubtful, however, if Alcantara marks the site of any Roman
town, though archaeologists have sometimes identified it either
with Norba Caesorea or with InUramnium. It first became
famous about 1215 as the stronghold of the knightly Order of
Alcantara. Many of the grand masters of this order lie buried
in the 13th-century Gothic church. The town possesses another
interesting church built in 1506.
See Antiguedades y sanies do to muy nobU nUa,<U Alcdnlora, by
J. Arias de Quintanadueflas (Madrid, 1661) ; and Retrato politico de
Alcdmtara, by L. Santibanex (Madrid, 1779).
ALCAVALA (Spanish, from Arab. aLquabalah, " t*x," quobala,
" to receive "; cf. Fr. gabelU), a duty formerly charged in Spain
and its colonies on all transfers of property, whether public or
private. Originally imposed in 134 1 by Alphonso XI. to secure
freedom from the Moors, it was an ad valorem tax of xo, increased
afterwards to 14%, on the selling price of all commodities,
whether raw or manufactured, chargeable as often as they were
sold or exchanged. It subjected every farmer, manufacturer,
merchant and shopkeeper to the continual visits and examination
of the tax-gatherers, whose number was necessarily very great.
This monstrous impost was permitted to ruin the industry and
commerce of the greater part of the kingdom up to the time of
the invasion of Napoleon. Catalonia and Aragon purchased
from Philip V. an exemption from the alcavala, and, though
still burdened with other heavy taxes, were In consequence in
a comparatively flourishing state,
ALCAZAR DB SAN JUAN, or Alcazae, a town of Spain, in
the province of Ciudad Real, in the plain of La Mancha, at
the junction of the Madrid-Manzanares and Madrid-Abac
railways. Pop. (1900) 1 1,499- Owing to its position « m
important railways, Alcazar has a flourishing transit-toi a
the wines of Estremadura and Andalusia; the soda and u*j
of La Mancha are used in the manufacture of soap; tad gs-
powder, chocolate and inlaid daggers are also mads ket
Alcazar is sometimes identified with the Roman Atu, open:
by Tioerius- Sempronius Gracchus in 180 B.C. It derive £
existing name from its medieval Moorish castle (al-kosr), «ix:
was afterwards garrisoned by the knights of St Jobs, Ts.
townsfolk contend that the great Cervantes was a natitt a
Alcazar; and, although this claim** must be disallowed, aau
of the action of bis masterpiece, Don Quixote, takes place ia *
neighbourhood. El Toboso, for instance, a village 1 2 m. LSI
[pop. (1900) 1895], was the home of the Lady Duldnea del Tobc©
Argamasilla de Alba (3505), 22 m, S.E., is declared by trite
to be the birthplace of Don Quixote himself. Local antiqtnra
even identify the knight with Don Rodrigo de Pacbeco, *k*
portrait adorns the parish church; and the same aothoriw
hold that part of the romance was written while Cervantes m
a prisoner in their town. An edition of Don, Quxsk «as
published at Argamasilla in 1864.
ALCESTER, FREDERICK BBAUCHAMP PAGET SEYim
Baeon (1821-1895), British admiral, son of Colonel Sir Hon*
Beauchamp Seymour and cousin of Francis George Hep
Seymour, 5th marquess of Hertford, was born on the nth i
April 1821. Entering the navy in 1834, he served in the MteV
terranean and the Pacific, was for three years flag-lieuteairt
to his uncle Sir George Seymour, and was promoted to be
commander in 1847. He served in Burma as a volunteer is
1852, was made a captain in 1854, took the "Meteor" ira*
clad battery out to the Black Sea and home again in 1856, us
captain of the " Pelorus " on the Australian station from ii$T
to 1863, and commanded the naval brigade in New Eeatoi
during the Maori War, x 860-61, for which he was made 1 CI
He became a rear-admiral in 1870; in 1871-1872 he comxato^d
the flying squadron, was a lord of the admiralty in 1872-1*%
and commanded the Channel fleet, 1874-1876. On the jtst"
December 1876 he was made a vice-admiral, a K.GB. oa tfc
2nd of June 1877. In 1880-1883 he was coniniander-ia-d»
of the fleet in the Mediterranean, and in x88o had also thecairf
command of the European squadron sent to the coast of AJbiaa
as a demonstration to compel the Porte to cede Dulagao to
Montenegro. On the 24th of May 1881 he was made a G.C&
and on the 6th of May 1882 was promoted to the rank of adnini
In July 1882 he commanded at the bombardment of Alexandra
and in the subsequent operations on the coast of Egypt* **
which service he was raised to the peerage as Baron Alcotff
of Alcester in the county of Warwick, received a parliameatsry
grant of £25,000, the freedom of the dty of London and 1
sword of honour. On his return from the Meditensneu *
was for a couple of years again at the admiralty, and ia 1^
he was placed on the retired list. For the next nine yew fc
lived chiefly in London, but latterly his health was much bioto
and he died on the 30th of March 1895. He was unmarried ixd
the peerage became extinct.
ALCESTER [pronounced Ausler), a market-town &» J*
Stratford-on-Avon parliamentary division of Warwick^
England, 16 m. W.S.W. from Warwick by the Great Wests*
railway, served also by the Birmingham-Evesham brmcfl*
the Midland railway. Pop. (1001) 2303. It is pleasantly
situated among low wooded hills at the junction of the is* 1
stream Alne with the Arrow, a northern tributary of the Av*
The church of St Nicholas, with the exception of the Decorated
tower, is a reconstruction of 1734; among several moouflKB*
is a fine example of Chantrey's work, to the 2nd marque? «
Hertford (d. X822). There are a picturesque town hall {ifoO.
raised on stone columns, and a free grammar school J*
manufacture of needles is less important than formerly, h*^
been absorbed into the centre of the industry at Redditcl i»
the neighbouring county of Worcestershire. There are taP*
ment works and cycle works, and brewing Is prosecuted.
ALCESTIS— ALCHEMY
5'9
The*ftame (Alfleeettfe. Alyncester) signifies u the camp 00 the
Aloe." A small Romano-British town or village was situated here,
on the road which runs from Derby and Wall, near Lichfield, to
join the Fosse Way near Cirencester. Its name is not known. A
relief figure in stone, some pavements, potsherds, coins and burials
have been found, but nothing to indicate an important station.
No written document relating to Alcester exists before the reign of
Henry I. No mention occurs in Domesday, but it is given in a list
of serjeanties of the reign of Henry III. as having been a royal
borough in the time of Henry I., and in 1 177 it rendered four marks'
aid with the other boroughs of the county. However, there is no
evidence of the grant of a royal charter, and the title of borough
soon lapsed. In the reign of Henry III. a moiety of the manor was
purchased by Sir Walter Beauchamp, who granted a charter to the
inhabitants of the town establishing a Tuesday market for corn,
cattle, and all kinds of merchandise, and also obtained grants of
fairs at the feasts of St Giles (afterwards transferred to the feast
of St Faith) and St Barnabas. In 1444 Sir John Beauchamp pur-
chased the remaining moiety of the manor, and was granted an
additional fair at the feast of St Dunstan. From this date the
Beauchamps were lords of the whole manor until it passed by female
descent to the Gravities in the reign of Henry VIII. In 1140 a
Benedictine monastery was founded here by Ralph Boteler of
Oversley, and received the name of the Church of Our Lady of the
Isle, owing to its insulation by a moat meeting the river Arrow.
The monastery was suppressed among the smaller houses in 1536.
Traces of the moat and the foundations are still to be seen in Priory
Close. The ancient fairs survived to the end of the 19th century.
In 1830 the needle-manufacture employed nearly a thousand
ALCESTIS (Alkestxs), in Greek legend the daughter of Pelias
and Anaxibia, and wife of Admetus, king of Pherae in Thessaly.
She consented to die in place of her husband, and was afterwards
rescued by Heracles. This beautiful story of conjugal devotion
forms the subject of the Alccstis of Euripides, which furnished
the basis of Robert B rowning's Balaustum's A dventure. Sophocles
also wrote an Alccstis, of which only fragments remain.
See Dissel, Dtr Mythos von Admetus und Alkestis, 1882.
ALCHEMY. In the narrow sense of the word, alchemy is
the pretended art of making gold and silver, or transmuting
the base metals into the noble ones. The idea of such trans-
mutation probably arose among the Alexandrian Greeks in the
early centuries of the Christian era; thence it passed to the
Arabs, by whom it was transmitted to western Europe, and its
realization was a leading aim of chemical workers down to the
time of Paracelsus and even later. But "alchemy" was some-
thing more than a particularly vain and deluded manifestation
of the thirst for gold, as it is sometimes represented; in its
wider and truer significance it stands for the chemistry of the
middle ages. The idea of transmutation, in the country of its
origin, had a philosophical basis, and was linked up with the
Greek theories of matter there current; thus, by supplying a
central philosophical principle, it to some extent unified and
focussed chemical effort, which previously, so far as it existed at
all, had been expended on acquiring empirical acquaintance
with a mass of disconnected technical processes. Alchemy in
this sense is merely an early phase of the development of syste-
matic chemistry; in Liebig's words, it was " never at any time
anything different from chemistry."
Regarding the derivation of the word, there are two main
views which agree in holding that it has an Arabic descent,
the prefix al being the Arabic article. But according to one,
the second part of the word comes from the Greek xw*fo>
pouring, infusion, used in connexion with the study of the
juices of plants, and thence extended to chemical manipulations
in general; this derivation accounts for the old-fashioned
spellings N chymist " and " chymistry." The other view traces
it to khem or khami, hieroglyph khmi, which denotes black earth
as opposed to barren sand, and occurs in Plvltarch as x u M«*«;
on this derivation alchemy is explained as meaning the " Egyptian
art.* The first occurrence of the word is said to be in a treatise
of Julius Firmkus, an astrological writer of the 4th century,
but the prefix al there must be the addition of a later copyist.
Among the Alexandrian writers alchemy was designated as
4 rip •xpuerdu rt ml bpybpov rtx^riort r*x»"? ^tla nal Upb or
4 kxurHjfa) Upa. , In English. Piers Plowman (1362) con-
tains the phrase " experimentis of alconomye," with variants
"alkenemye" and "alknamye." The prefix al begins to bo
dropped about the middle of the 16th century.
Origins of Alchemy.— Numerous legends cluster round the
origin of alchemy. According to one story, it was founded by
the Egyptian god Hermes (Thoth), the reputed inventor of the
arts and sciences, to whom, under the appellation Hermes
Trismegistus, Tertullian refers as the master of those who occupy
themselves with nature; after him later alchemists called their
work the " hermetic art," and the seal of Hermes, which they
placed upon their vessels, is the origin of the common phrase
" hermetically sealed." Another legend, given by Zosimus of
Panopolis, an alcbemistlcal writer said to date from the 3rd
century, asserts that the fallen angels taught the arts to the
women they married (cf. Genesis vi. a), their instruction being
recorded in a book called Ckemd. A similar story appears in the
Book of Enoch, and Tertullian has much to say about the wicked
angels who revealed to men the knowledge of gold and silver, of
lustrous stones, and of the power of herbs, and who introduced
the arts of astrology and magic upon the earth. Again, the
Arabic KUdb-ol-Fihrist, written by al-Nadfm towards the end of
the 20th century, says that the " people who practise alchemy,
that is, who fabricate gold and silver from strange metals, state
that the first to speak of the science of the work was Hermes the
Wise, who was originally of Babylon, but who established him-
self in Egypt after the dispersion of the peoples from Babel."
Another legend, also to be found in Arabic sources, asserts that
alchemy was revealed by God to Moses and Aaron. But there is
some evidence that, in accordance with the strong and constant
tradition among the alchemists, the idea of transmutation did
originate in Egypt with the Greeks of Alexandria. In the Leiden
museum there are a number of papyri which were found in a tomb
at Thebes, written probably in the 3rd century A.D., though their
matter is older. Some are in Greek and demotic, and one, of
peculiar interest from the chemical point of view, gives a number
of receipts, in Greek, for the manipulation of base metals to form
alloys which simulate gold and are intended to be used in the
manufacture of imitation jewellery. Possibly this is one of the
books about gold and silver of which Diocletian decreed the de-
struction about a.d. 390— an act which Gibbon styles the first
authentic event in the history of alchemy (Decline and Fall,
chap. xiii.). The author of these receipts is not under any delusion
that he is transmuting metals; the MS. is merely a workshop
manual in which are described processes in daily use for preparing
metals for false jewellery, but it argues considerable knowledge
of methods of making alloys and colouring metals. It has been
suggested by M. P. E. Berthelot that the workers in these pro-
cesses, which were a monopoly of the priestly caste and were kept
strictly secret, though fully aware that their products were not
truly gold, were in time led by their success in deceiving the
public to deceive themselves also, and to come to believe that
they actually had the power of making gold from substances
which were not gold. Philosophical sanction and explanation of
this belief was then found by bringing it into relation with the
theory of the prima materia, which was identical in all bodies but
received its actual form by the adjunction of qualities expressed
by the Aristotelian elements— earth, air, fire and water. Some
support for this view is gained from study of the alcbemistical
writings of the period. Thus, in the treatise known as Physica
et Mystica and falsely ascribed to Democritus (such false attribu-
tions are a constant feature of the literature of alchemy), various
receipts are given for colouring and gilding metals, but the con-
ception of transmutation does not occur. This treatise was
probably composed at a date not very different from that of the
Leiden papyrus. Later, however, as in the Commentary on this
work written by Synesius to Dioscorus, priest of Serapis at
Alexandria, which probably dates from the end of the 4th century,
a changed attitude becomes apparent; the more practical parts
of the receipts are obscured or omitted, and the processes for
preparing alloys and colouring metals, described in the older
treatise, are by a mystical interpretation represented as resulting
in real transmutation
But while there are thus some grounds for supposing that the
J
520
ALCHEMY
idea of transmutation grew out of the practical receipt* of
Alexandrian Egypt, the alchemy which embraced it as a lead-
ing principle was also strongly affected by Eastern influences
such as magic and astrology. The earliest Greek alchemistical
writings abound with references to Oriental authorities and
traditions. Thus the peeudo-Democritus, who was reputed the
author of the Pkysica et Myslica, which itself concludes each of
its receipts with a magical formula, was believed to have travelled
in Chaldaea, and to have had as his master Ostanes 1 the Mede,
a name mentioned several times in the Leiden papyrus, and often
by early Christian writers such as Tertullian, St Cyprian and
St Augustine. The practices of the Persian adepts also are
appealed to in the writings of the pseudo-Democritus, Zosimus
and Synesius. The philosopher's egg, as a symbol of creation, is
both Egyptian and Babylonian. In the Greek alchemists it
appears as the symbol at once of the art and of the universe,
enclosing within itself the four elements; and there is sometimes
a play of words between to 6> and rd ^6V. The conception of
man, the microcosm, containing in himself all the parts of the
universe or macrocosm, is also Babylonian, as again probably is
the famous identification of the metals with the planets. Even,
in the Leiden papyrus the astronomical symbols for the sun and
moon are used to denote gold and silver, and in the Utteorologica
of Olympiodorus lead is attributed to Saturn, iron to Mars, copper
to Venus, tin to Hermes (Mercury) and electrum to Jupiter.
Similar systems of symbols, but elaborated to include compounds,
appear in Greek MSS. of the 10th century, preserved in the
library of St Mark's at Venice. Subsequently electrum (sn alloy
of gold and silver) disappeared as a specific metal, and tin was
ascribed to Jupiter instead, the sign of mercury becoming common
to the metal and the planet. .Thus we read in Chaucer (Chanouns
Yemannes Tale):—
The bodies seven* eek. lo! hem heer a noon:
Sol gold is, and Luna silver we thrcpe,
Mars yren, Mercuric quik-silver we clepe,
Saturnus Iced and Jupiter is tin,
And Venus coper, by my fader kin!
Literature of Alchemy.— A considerable body of Greek chemical
writings is contained in MSS. belonging to the various great
libraries of Europe, the oldest being that at St Mark's, just
mentioned. The contents of these MSS. are all of similar com-
position, and in Bert helot's opinion represent a collection of
treatises made at Constantinople in the 8th or 9th century. The
treatises are nearly all anterior to the 7th century, and most
appear to belong to the 3rd and 4th centuries; some are the work
of authentic authors like Zosimus and Synesius, while of others,
such as profess to be written by Moses, Democritus, Ostanes, &c:,
the authorship is clearly fictitious. Some of the same names and
the same works can be identified in the lists of the Kildb-al-
Fihrist. But the Arabs did not acquire their knowledge of this
literature at first hand. The earliest Hellenic culture in the East
was Syrian, and the Arabs made their first acquaintance with
Greek chemistry, as with Greek philosophy, mathematics,
medicine, &c, by the intermediary of Syriac translations. (See
Arabian Philosophy and Syriac Literature.) Examples of
such translations are preserved in MSS. at the British Museum,
partly written in Syriac, partly in Arabic with Syriac characters.
In Berthelot's opinion, the Syriac portions represent a compila-
tion of receipts and processes undertaken in the Syrian school
of medicine at Bagdad under the Abbasids in the 9th or 10th
century, and to a large extent constituted by the earlier transla-
tions made by Sergius of Resaena in the 6th century. They
contain, under the title Doctrine of Democritus, a fairly methodical
treatise in ten books comprising the Argyropoeia and Chrysopocia
of the pscudo-Dcmocritus, with many receipts for colouring
metals, making artificial precious stones, effecting the diplosu or
doubling of metals, &c. They give illustrations of the apparatus
employed, and their close relationship to the Greek is attested by
the frequent occurrence of Greek words and the fact that the
1 An alchemistical work bearing the name of Ostanes speaks of a
divine water which cures all maladies— an early appearance of the
universal panacea or elixir of Ufa>
signs and symbols of the Greek alchemists appear almost ta.
changed. The other portion seems of somewhat later date.
Another Syriac MS., in the library of Cambridge University.
contains a translation of a work by Zosimus which is so far
unknown in the original Greek. Berthelot gives reproductkss
of the British Museum MSS. in vol. ii. of La Ckinrie am mayem igs.
Several alchemistical treatises, written in Arabic, exist ia
manuscript in the National Library at Paris and in the library
of the university of Leiden, and have been reproduced by
Berthelot, with translations, in vol. iii. of La Ckimie am mayem Age.
They fall into two groups: those in one are largely co m po se d of
compilations from Greek sources, while those in the other have
rather the character of original compositions. Of the first group
the most interesting and possibly the oldest it the Book of
Crates ; it is remarkable for containing some of the signs used
for the metals by the Greek alchemists, and for giving; figures of
four pieces of apparatus which closely resemble those depicted
in Greek MSS., the former being never, and the latter rarely,
found in other Arabic MSS. Its concluding words suggest that
its production was due to Khalid ben YexM (died in 708), who
was a pupil of the Syrian monk Marianus, and according to the
Kitdb-al-Fihrist was the first Mussulman writer on alchemy.
The second group consists of a number of treatises professcf
to be written by Jaber, celebrated in Latin alchemy ns Geptr
(q.v.). Interna] evidence suggests that they are not all from the
same hand or of the same date, but probably they are not earlier
than the 9th nor later than the nth century. The Arabic
chroniclers record the names of many other writers on alchemy,
among the most famous being Rhaaes and Avicenna.
But the further development of alchemy took place in the
West rather than in the East. With the spread of their empire
to Spain the Arabs took with them their knowledge of Greek
medicine and science, including alchemy, and thence it passed,
strengthened by the infusion of a certain Jewish element, to
the nations of western Europe, through the medium of Latin
translations. The making of these began about the 1 1 th century,
one of the earliest of the translators, Constantinus Africanus,
wrote about 1075, and another, Gerard of Cremona, lived from
1 1 14 to X187. The Liber de composition alchemic*, which
professes to be by Morienus— perhaps the same as the Marianus
who was the teacher of Khalid— was translated by Robertas
Castrensis, who states that he finished the work in 1182, and
speaks as if he were making a revelation — " Quid sit alchemia
nondum cognovit vestra Latinitas." The earlier translations,
such as the Turba Philosophorum and other works printed in
collections like the Artis auriferae quam chrmiam vacant (1572),
Theatrum ahemicum (1602), and J. J. Manget's Bibliatheca
chemica curiosa (1702), are confused productions, written in sn
allegorical style, but full of phrases and even pages taken literally
from the Greek alchemists, and citing by name various authorities
of Greek alchemy. They were followed by treatises of a different
character, clearer in matter, more systematic in arrangement,
and reflecting the methods of the scholastic logic; these are
farther from the Greek tradition, for although they contain
sufficient traces of their ultimate Greek ancestry, their authors
do not know the Greeks as masters and cite no Greek names.
So far as they are Latin versions of Arabico-Greek treatises,
they must have been much remodelled in the course of transla-
tion; but there is reason to suppose that many of them, even
when pretending to be translations, are really original Composi-
tions. It is curious that although we possess a certain number
of works on alchemy written in Arabic, and also many Latin
treatises that profess to be translated from Arabic, yet in no case
is the existence known of both the Arabic and the Latin version.
The Arabic works of Jaber, as contained in MSS. at Paris and
Leiden, are quite dissimilar from the Latin works attributed to
Geber, and show few if any traces of the positive chemical
knowledge, as of nitric add (aqua dissolutiva or fortis) or of the
mixture of nitric and hydrochloric acids known as aqua regis or
regia % that appears in the latter. The treatises attributed to
Geber, in fact, appear to be original works composed not earlier
than the 13th century and fathered on Jaber in order to enhance
ALCHEMY
5 ai
tlaeir authority. If this view be accepted, an entirely new light
as thrown on the achievements of the Arabs in the history .of
chemistry. Gibbon asserts that the Greeks were inattentive
«i ther to the use or to the abuse of chemistry (Decline and Fall,
chap. xiiL), and gives, the Arabs the credit of the origin and
improvement of the science (chap. Hi.). 1 But the chemical
knowledge attributed to the Arabs.' has been so attributed
largely on the basis of the contents of the Latin Geber, regarded
ms a translation from the Arabic Jaber. If, then, those contents
do not represent the knowledge of Jaber, and if the contents of
other Latin translations which there is reason to believe arc
really made from the Arabic, show little, if any, advance on
the knowledge of the Alexandrian Greeks, evidently the part
played by the Arabs must be less, and that -of the -Westerns
greater, than Gibbon is prepared to admit
The descent of alchemistical doctrine can thus be traced with
fair continuity for a thousand years, from the Greeks of Alex-
andria down to the time when Latin alchemy was firmly estab-
lished in the West, and began to be written of by historical
authors like Albertus Magnus, Roger Bacon and Arnoldus
Villanovanus in the 13th century. But side by side with this
literary transmission Berthelot insists that there was another
mode of transmission, by means of the knowledge of practical
receipts and processes traditional among jewellers, painters,
workers in glass and pottery, and other handicraftsmen. The
chemical knowledge of Egyptian metallurgists and jewellers,
he holds, was early transmitted to the artisans of Rome, and was
preserved throughout the dark ages in the workshops of Italy
and France until about the 13th century, when it was mingled
with the theories of the Greek alchemists which reached the
West by way of the Arabs. Receipts given in the Leiden
papyrus reappear in the Compositiones ad Tingenda and the
Afappae Clavicula, both workshop receipt books, one known in
an 8th-century MS. at Lucca, and the other in a 10th-century MS.
in the library of Schlettstadt; and again in such works as the
De Artibus Romanorum of Eraclius and the Schedule Diversarum
A rlium of Theophilus, belonging to the 1 1 th or x 2th century.
Theory of Transmutation.— -The fundamental theory of the
transmutation of metals is to be found in the Greek alchemists,
although in details it was modified and elaborated by the
Arabs and the .Latin alchemists. Regarding all substances as
being composed of one primitive matter — the prima materia,
and as owing their specific differences to the presence of different
qualities imposed upon it, the alchemist hoped, by taking away
these qualities, to obtain the prima materia itself, and then to
get from it the particular substance he desired by the addition
of the appropriate qualities. The prima materia was early
identified with mercury, not ordinary mercury; but the " mercury
of the philosophers,!' which was the essence or soul of mercury,
freed from the four Aristotelian elements— earth, air, fire and
water— or rather from the qualities which they represent.
Thus the operator had to remove from ordinary mercury, earth
or an earthy principle or quality, and water or a liquid principle,
and to fix it by taking away air or a volatile principle. The
prima materia thus obtained had to be treated with sulphur
(or with sulphur and arsenic) to confer upon it the desired
qualities that were missing. This sulphur again was not ordinary
sulphur, but some principle derived from it, which constituted
the philosopher's stone or elixir— white for silver and yellow or
» Some traditionary knowledge might be secreted in the temples
and monasteries of Egypt; much useful experience might have
been acquired in the practice of arts and manufactures, but the
science of chemistryowe* its origin and improvement to the industry
X the ™? n t J^SF . fir,t Inven** 1 and namcd tbe «kmbic for
the purposes of distillation, analyzed the substances of the three
kingdoms of nature, tried the distinction and affinities of alkalis
and acids, and converted the poisonous mineral* into soft and
8a,uta . ry rernedws. .But the most eager search of Arabian chemistry
was the transmutation of metals, and the elixir of immortal health :
!J»»on and the fortunes of thousands were evaporated in the
crucibles of alchemy, and the coniummation of the great work was
JT^Ei ^V?TL hy a 5 2* PVfPt?. 1 ** am * •uperstition."
It mayta noted that the 1 word - alembic *' is derived froiithe Greek
ZTTi £ up !^ • , the «A , ? bM ; artlcle prefixed, and that the instru-
ment is figured in the MSS. of some of the Greek^lchemists.
red for gold. This is briefly the doctrine that the metals are
composed of mercury and sulphur, which persisted in one form
or another down to the' 17th century. Of course there were
numerous variations and refinements. Thus in the Speculum
Naturale of Vincent of Beauvais (c. 1250) it is said that there
are Jour spirits— mercury, sulphur, arsenic and sal ammoniac —
and six bodies — gold, silver, copper, tin, lead and iron. 1 Of
these bodies the two first are pure, the four last impure. Pure
white mercury, fixed by the virtue of white non-corrosive
sulphur, engenders in mines a matter which fusion changes into
silver, and united to pure clear red sulphur it forms gold, while
with various kinds of impure mercury and sulphur the other
bodies are produced. Vincent attributes to Rhazes the state-
ment that copper is potentially silver, and any one who can
eliminate the red colour will bring it to the state of silver, for it
is copper in outward appearance, but in its inmost nature silver.
This statement represents a doctrine widely held in the 13th
century, and also to be found in the Greek alchemists, that
everything endowed with a particular apparent quality possesses
a hidden opposite quality, which can be rendered apparent by
fire. Later, as in the works attributed to Basil Valentine,
sulphur, mercury and salt are held to be the constituents of
the metals.
It must be noted that the processes described by the alchemists
of the 13th century are not put forward as being miraculous
or supernatural; they rather represent the methods employed
by nature, which it is the end of the alchemist's art to reproduce
artificially in the laboratory. But even among the late Arabian
alchemists it was doubted whether the resources of the art were
adequate to the task; and in the West, Vincent of Beauvais
remarks that success had not been achieved in making artificial
metals identical with the natural ones. Thus he says that the
silver which has been changed into gold by the projection of the
red elixir is not rendered resistant to the agents which affect
silver but not gold, and Albertus Magnus in his De Miner alibus
— the De Alchemia attributed to him is spurious— states that
alchemy cannot change species but merely imitates them— for
instance, colours a metal white to make it resemble silver or
yellow to give it the appearance of gold. He has, he adds, tested
gold made by alchemists, and found that it will not withstand
six or seven exposures to fire. But scepticism of this kind was
not universal. Roger Bacon— or more probably some one who
usurped his name— declared that with a certain amount ot
the philosopher's stone he could transmute a million times as
much base metal into gold, and on Raimon Lull was fathered the
boast, " Mare tingercm si mercurius esset" Numerous less dis-
tinguished adepts also practised the art, and sometimes were
so successful in their deceptions that they gained the ear of
kings, whose desire to profit by the achievements of science was
in several instances rewarded by an abundant crop of counter-
feit coins.
Later History of Alchemy.— In the earlier part of the 16th
century Paracelsus gave a new direction to alchemy by declaring
that its true object was not the making of gold but the prepara-
tion of medicines, and this union of chemistry with medicine
was one characteristic of the iatrochemical school of which he .
was the precursor. Increasing attention was paid to the in*
vestigation of the properties of substances and of their effects
on the human body, and chemistry profited by the fact that it
passed into the hands of men who possessed the highest scientific
culture of the time, Still, belief in the possibility of transmuta-
tion long remained orthodox, even among the most distinguished
men of science. Thus it was accepted, at least academically,
by Andreas Iibavius (d. 1616); by F. de la BoC Sylvius (1614-
1672), though not by his pupil Otto Tachcnius, and by J. R.
Glauber (1603-1668); by Robert Boyle (1627-1691) and, for
a time at least, by Sir Isaac Newton and his rival and
* Cf Chaucer, Chanouns Yemannes Tale, where, however, mercury
figures both as a spirit and a body:—
" The firste spirit quik-silver called is.
The second orpiment, the thridde ywis
Sal armoniak, and the ferthe brimstoon."
522
ALCIATI— ALCIBIADES
contemporary, G. W. LeibniU (1646-1716); and by G. E. Stahl
(1660-1734) and Hermann Boerhaave (166&-17J8). Though
an alchemist, Boyle, in his Sceptical Chemist (1661), cast doubts
on the "experiments whereby vulgar Spagyrists are wont to
endeavour to evince their salt, sulphur and mercury to be the
true principles of things," and advanced towards the conception
of chemical elements as those constituents of matter which
cannot be further decomposed. With J. J. Becher (1635-1682)
and G. E. Stahl, however, there was a reversion to earlier ideas.
The former substituted for the salt, sulphur and mercury of
Basil Valentine and Paracelsus three earths— the mercurial,
the vitreous and the combustible— and he explained combustion
as depending on the escape of this last combustible element;
while Stahl's conception of phlogiston— not fire itself, but the
principle of fire — by virtue of which combustible bodies burned,
was a near relative of the mercury of the philosophers, the soul
or essence of ordinary mercury.
Perhaps J. B. van Hclmont (1577-1644) was the last dis-
tinguished investigator who professed actually to have changed
mercury into gold, though impostors and mystics of various
kinds continued to claim knowledge of the art long after his
time. So late as 1782, James Price, an English physician,
showed experiments with white and red powders, by the aid of
which he was supposed to be able to transform fifty and sixty
times as much mercury into silver and gold. The metals he
produced are said to have proved genuine on assay; when,
however, in the following year he was challenged to repeat the
experiments he was unable to do so and committed suicide.
In the course of the 19th century the idea that the different
elements are constituted by different groupings or condensations
of one primal matter— a speculation which, if proved to be well
grounded, would imply the possibility of changing one element
into another — found favour with more than one responsible
chemist; but experimental research failed to yield any evidence
that was generally regarded as offering any support to this
hypothesis. About the beginning of the 20th century, however,
the view was promulgated that the spontaneous production
of helium from radium may be an instance of the transforma-
tion of one element into another. (See Radioactivity; also
Element and Matter.)
See M. P. E. Bert helot, Us Origines de rakhimie (1885) ; Collection
des anciens akhimistes greet (text and translation, 3 vols., 1887-
1888); Introduction HVitude de la chimie des anciens et du moyen Age
'1889); La Chimie au tnoyen Age (text and translation of Synac and
rabic treatises on alchemy, 3 vols., 1893). Much bibliographical
and other information about the later writers on alchemy is contained
in Bibtiotheca Chemica (2 vols., Glasgow, 1906), a catalogue by John
Ferguson of the books in the collection of James Young of Kelly
(printed for private distribution). (H. M. R.)
ALCIATI, ANDREA (1492-1 550), Italian jurist, was bora at
Alzano, near Milan, on the 1 2th of January 1492. He displayed
great literary skill in his exposition of the laws, and was one of
the first to interpret the civil law by the history, languages and
literature of antiquity, and to substitute original research for
the servile interpretations of the glossators. He published many
legal works, and some annotations on Tacitus. His Emblems,
a collection of moral sayings in Latin verse, has been greatly
admired, and translated into French, Italian and Spanish.
Alciati's history of Milan, under the title Return Patriae, seu
Historiae Mediolanensis, Libri I V., was published posthumously
at Milan in 1625. He died at Pavia in 1550.
ALCIBIADES (*. 450-404 B.C.), Athenian general and politician,
was born at Athens. He was the son of Cleinias and Deinomache,
who belonged to the family of the Alcmaeonidae. He was
a near relative of Pericles, who, after the death of Cleinias at
the battle of Coroneia (447) , became his guardian. Thus early
deprived of his father's control, possessed of great personal beauty
and the heir to great wealth, which was increased by his marriage,
he showed himself self-willed, capricious and passionate, and
indulged in the wildest freaks and most insolent behaviour. Nor
did the instructors of his early manhood supply the corrective
which his boyhood lacked. From Protagoras, Prodicus and
others he learnt to laugh at the common ideas of justice,
Ji
temperance, holiness and patriotism. The laborious thought, tk
ascetic life of his master Socrates, he was able to admire, but art
to imitate or practise. On the contrary, his ostentatious vac^ty,
his amours, his debaucheries and Jus impious revels becare
notorious. But great as were his vices, his abilities were eves
greater.
He took part in the battle of Potidaea (43*), where his life was
saved by Socrates, a service which he repaid at the battle cs
Delium (424). As the reward of his bravery, the wealthy Hip-
ponicus bestowed upon him the hand of his daugh ter. From tfcs
time he took a prominent part in Athenian politics during tk
Peloponnesian war. Originally friendly to Sparta, he subse-
quently became the leader of the war party in oppositioa to
Nicias, and after the peace of 421 he succeeded by an unscrspa-
lous trick in duping the Spartan ambassadors, and persua&?
the Athenians to conclude an alliance (420) with Argos, Elis aad
Mantineia (Thuc. v. 56, 76). On the failure of Nicias in Thrace
(4 1 8-4 1 7) he became the chief advocate of the Sicilian expediuoa,
seeing an opportunity for the realization of his ambitious projects,
which included the conquest of Sicily, to be followed by thaL cf
Peloponnesus and possibly of Carthage (though this seems u>
have been an afterthought). The expedition was decided epos
with great enthusiasm, and Alcibiades, Nicias and Lamacfecs
were appointed joint commanders. But, on the day before the
expedition sailed, there occurred the mysterious multilation of the
Hermae, and Alcibiades was accused not only of being the ori-
ginator of the crime, but also of having profaned the EJeusmja
mysteries. His request for an immediate investigation being
refused, he was obliged to set sail with the charge still hangtrg
over him. Almost as soon as he reached Sicily he was recalSed
to stand his trial, but he escaped on the journey home and made
his way to Sparta. Learning that he had been condemned to
death in his absence and his property confiscated, he openly
joined the Spartans, and persuaded them to send Gylrppus to
assist the Syracusans and to fortify Decelea in Attica. He thes
passed over to Asia .Minor, prevailed upon many of the Ionic
allies of Athens to revolt, and concluded an alliance with the
Persian satrap Tissaphernes. But in a few months be bad lost
the confidence of the Spartans, and at the instigation of Agb JX f
whose personal hostility he had excited, an order was sent for
his execution. Receiving timely information of this order he
crossed over to Tissaphernes (412), and persuaded him to adopt
the negative policy of leaving Athens and Sparta to wear them-
selves out by their mutual struggles. Alcibiades was now beat
on returning to Athens, and he used his supposed influence with
Tissaphernes to effect his purpose. He entered into negotiation
with the oligarch Peisander, but when these led to no result be
attached himself to the fleet at Samos which remained loyal to
the democracy, and was subsequently recalled by Thrasybulus,
although he did not at once return to Athens. Being appointed
commander in the neighbourhood of the Hellespont, he defeated
the Spartan fleet at Abydos (411) and Cyxicus (410), and re-
covered Chalcedon and Byzantium. On his return to Athens
after these successes he was welcomed with unexpected enthu-
siasm (407); all the proceedings against him were cancelled,
and he was appointed general with full powers. His ill success,
however, at Andros, and the defeat at Notium (407) of bis
lieutenant Antiochus, led the Athenians to dismiss him from his
command. He thereupon retired to the Thracian Cbersonesos.
After the battle of Aegospotami, and the final defeat of Athens,
he crossed the Hellespont and took refuge with Pharnabazus ia
Phrygia, with the object of securing the aid of Artaxeraes against
Sparta. But the Spartans induced Pharnabazus to put him out
of the way; as he was about to set out for the Persian court his
residence was set on fire, and on rushing out on his tin****"*,
dagger in hand, he was killed by a shower of arrows (404) . There
can be no doubt that his advice to Sparta in connexion with
Syracuse and the fortification of Decelea was the real cause of his
country's downfall, though it is only fair to him to add that hid
he been allowed to continue in command of the Sicilian expedi-
tion he would undoubtedly have overruled the fatal policy of
Nicias and prevented the catastrophe of 413. His belated
ALCIDAMAS— ALCMAEON
523
attempt to repair his fatal treachery only exposed the essential
selfishness of his character. Though he must have known that
txls influence over the Persian satraps was slender in the extreme,
lie used it with the. most flagrant dishonesty as a bait first to
Sparta, then to the Athenian oligarchs, and finally to the de-
mocracy. Superficial and opportunist to the last, he owed the
successes of his meteoric career purely to personal magnetism
and an almost incredible capacity for deception.
There are lives of Alcibiades by Plutarch and Cornelius Nepos,
and monographs by Hertzbcrg, A. der Staatsmann und Feldherr
O853). and Houssaye, HisUrire d'Akibiadt (1873); but the best
accounts will be found in the histories of Greece by G. Grote (also
notes in abridged cd., 1907), Ed. Meyer, and works quoted under
OREECE.il nctenl History., sect. " Authorities " ; also PblOFONNESIAN
War.
ALCIDAMAS, of Elaea, in Aeolis, Greek sophist and rhetori-
cian, flourished in the 4th century B.C. He was the pupil and
successor of Gorgias and taught at Athens at the same time as
Isocrates, whose rival and opponent he was. We possess two
declamations under his name: IIcpl Zo^urr&i', directed against
Isocrates and setting forth the superiority of extempore over
-written speeches (a recently discovered fragment of another
speech against Isocrates is probably of later date); 'O&vaotirt, in
which Odysseus accuses Palamedcs of treachery during the siege
of Troy (this is generally considered spurious). According to
Alcidamas, the highest aim of the orator was the power of speak-
ing extempore on every conceivable subject. Aristotle (Rhet.
Hi. 3) criticizes his writings as characterized by pomposity of
style and an extravagant use of poetical epithets and compounds
and far-fetched metaphors. Of other works only fragments and
the titles have survived: M«r<n?via*ot, advocating the freedom
of the Messenians and containing the sentiment that " all are by
nature free "; a Eulogy of Death, in consideration of the wide
extent of human sufferings; a Tix^V or instruction-book in the
art of rhetoric; and a ♦wrucdi \6yos. Lastly, his Movctiov (a
word of doubtful meaning) contained the narrative of the contest
between Homer and Hcsiod, two fragments of which are found in
the 'Ay ww Vrfpov koL 'Hatofiov, the work of a grammarian in
the time of Hadrian. A 3rd-century papyrus (Flinders Petrie,
Papyri, ed. Mahaffy, 1801 , pi. xxv.) probably contains the actual
remains of a description by Alcidamas.
See the edition by Blass, 1881 ; fragments in Multcr, Oratores
Auici, ii (1858); Vahlen, Der Rhetor Alkidamas (1864); Blass, Die
aUische BeredsomkeiL
ALCINOUS (Alkino&s), in indent Greek legend, king of the
fabulous Phaeacians, in the island of Scheria, was the son of
Nausithous and grandson of Poseidon. His reception and enter-
tainment of Odysseus, who when cast by a storm on the shore of
the bland was relieved by the king's daughter, Nausicaa, is
described in the Odyssey (vi.-xiii.). The gardens and palace of
Alcinous and the wonderful ships of the Phaeacian mariners were
famous in antiquity. Scheria was identified in very early times
with Corcyra, where Alcinous was reverenced as a hero. In the
Argonautic legend, his abode was the island of Drepane (Apoll.
Rhodius iv. 000).
ALCINOUS, the Platonic philosopher, lived probably in the
time of the Caesars. He was the author of an 'ErtTO/ii) r&v
nXdrwvot ooyti&Tu>v t an analysis of Plato's philosophy accord-
ing to later writers. It is rather in the manner of Aristotle,
and freely attributes to Plato any ideas of other philosophers
which appeared to contribute to the system. He produced in
the end a synthesis of Plato and Aristotle with an admixture of
Pythagorean or Oriental mysticism, and is closely allied to the
Alexandrian school of thought. He recognized a God who is
unknowable, and a series of beings (&ai ports) who hold inter-
course with men. He recognized also Ideas and Matter, and
borrowed largely from Aristotle and the Stoics.
The 'Enroj<4 has been translated by Pierre Balbi (Rome, 1*69)
and by MarsiJio Ficmo: into French by J. 1. Combes- Dounous
(Paris, 1800). and into English by Thomas Stanley in his History
of Philosophy. Editions: Heinsius (Leiden, 1630); Fischer
(Leipzig, 1783): in Aldine Edition of Apuleius (Venice, 1521; Paris,
1532); Fell (Oxford. 1667)- See Ritter, Ceschithte der Philosophic,
ALC10NI0, PIETRO, or Pethus Alcyontos (c. 1467-1537),
Italian classical scholar, was born at Venice. After having
studied Greek under Marcus Musurusof Candia, he was employed
for some time by Aldus Manutius as a corrector of the press,
and in 1522 was appointed professor of Greek at Florence
through the influence of Giulio de' Medici. When his patron
became pope in 1523 under the title of Clement VII., Akionio
followed rum to Rome and remained there until his death.
AJcionio published at Venice, in 1521, a Latin translation of
several of the works of Aristotle, which was shown by the
Spanish scholar Sepulveda to be very incorrect. He wrote a
dialogue entitled M edicts Legatus, stve de Exilio (152a), in
connexion with which he was charged with plagiarism by his
persona] enemy, Paulus Manutius. The accusation, which
Tiraboschi has shown to be groundless, was that he had taken
the finest passages in the work from Cicero's lost treatise De
Gloria, and had then destroyed the only existing copy of the
original in order to escape detection. His contemporaries speak
very unfavourably of AJcionio, and accuse him of haughtiness,
uncouth manners, vanity and licentiousness.
ALCIPHRON, Greek rhetorician, was probably a contemporary
of Lucian (2nd century a.d.). He was the author of a collection
of fictitious letters, of which 124 (118 complete and 6 fragments)
have been published; they are written in the purest Attic dialect
and are considered models of style. The scene is throughout at
Athens; the imaginary writers are country people, fishermen,
parasites and courtesans, who express their sentiments and
opinions on familiar subjects in elegant language. The
" courtesan " letters are especially valuable, the information
contained in them being chiefly derived from the writers of the
New Comedy, especially Menander.
Editions.— Editio prineeps (44 letters), 1490; Bergler (171s);
Seiler (1856): Hercher (1873); Schepcrs (190$). English translation
by Monro and Beloe (1791).
ALCIRA, a town of eastern Spain, in the province of Valencia;
on the left bank of the river Jucar, and on the Valencia-
Alicante railway. Pop. (1000) 20,572. Alcira is a walled
town, surrounded by palm, orange and mulberry groves,
and by low-lying rice-swamps, which render its neighbour-
hood somewhat unhealthy. Silk, fruit and rice are its chief
products. It is sometimes identified with the Roman
Saetabicula. In the middle ages it was a prosperous Moorish
trading-station.
ALCMAEON, of Argos, in Greek legend, was the son of
Amphiaraus and. Eriphyle. When his father set out with the
expedition of the Seven against Thebes, which be knew would
be fatal to him, he enjoined upon his sons to avenge his death
by slaying Eriphyle and undertaking a second expedition against
Thebes. After the destruction of Thebes by the Epigoni,
Alcmacon carried out his father's injunctions by killing his
mother, as a punishment for which he was driven mad and
pursued by the Erinyes from place to place. On his arrival at
Psophis in Arcadia, he was purified by its king Phegcus, whose
daughter Arsinoe (or Alphesiboca) he married, making her a
present of the fatal necklace and the peplus of Harmonia. But
the land was cursed with barrenness, and the oracle declared
that Alcmacon would never find rest until he reached a spot on
which the sun had never shone at the time he slew his mother.
Such a spot he found at the mouth of the river Achelous, where
an island had recently been formed by the alluvial deposit: here
he settled and, forgetting his wife Arsinoe, married Callirrhoe,
the daughter of the river-god. His new wife longed for the
necklace and peplus, and Alcmacon, returning to Psophis,
obtained possession of them, on the pretence that he desired to
dedicate them at Delphi. When the truth became known he
was pursued and slain by Phegeus and his sons. After his
death Alcmaeon was worshipped at Thebes; his tomb was at
Psophis in a grove of cypresses. His story was the subject of
an old epic and of several tragedies, but none of these has been
preserved.
Homer. Odyssey xv. 248; Apollodorus Kt. 7; Thucydides ii.
68. 102; Pausanias viii. 24, x. 10; Ovid, iielam. ix. 400 etstq.
J
5 2 +
ALCMAEONIDAE— ALCOCK
ALCHAEONIDAE, a noble Athenian family, claiming descent
from Alcmaeon, the great-grandson of Nestor, who emigrated
from Pylos to Athens at the time of the Dorian invasion
of Peloponnesus. During the archonship of an Alcmaeonid
Megacles (? 632 B.C.), Cylon, who had unsuccessfully attempted
to make himself " tyrant," was treacherously murdered with his
followers. The curse or pollution thus incurred was frequently
in later years raked up for political reasons; the Spartans even
demanded that Pericles should be expelled as accursed at the
beginning of the Pcloponnesian war. All the members of the
family went into banishment, and having returned in the time
of Solon (594) were again expelled (538) by Peisistratus (?.».).
Their great wealth enabled them during their exile to enhance
their reputation and secure the favour of the Delphian Apollo
by rebuilding the temple after its destruction by fire in 548.
Their importance is shown by the fact that Cleisthenes, tyrant of
Sicyon, gave his daughter Agariste in marriage to the Alcmaeonid
Megacles in preference to all the assembled suitors' after the
undignified behaviour of Hippocleides. Under the statesman
Cleisthenes (q.v.) , the issue of this union, the Alcmaeonids
became supreme in Athens about 510 B.C. To them was generally
attributed (though Herodotus disbelieves the story — see Greece,
Ancient History, sect. " Authorities," II.) the treacherous raising
of the shield as a signal to the Persians at Marathon, bat,
whatever the truth of this may be, there can be little doubt
that they were not the only one of the great Athenian families
to make treasonable overtures to Persia. Pericles and Alcibiades
were both connected with the Alcmaeonidae, Nothing is heard
of them after the Pcloponnesian war.
See Herodotus vi. 121-131.
ALCMAN, or Alcmaeon (the former being the Doric form of
the name), the founder of Doric lyric poetry, to whom was
assigned the first place among the nine lyric poets of Greece in
the Alexandrian canon, flourished in the latter half of the 7th
century B.C. He was a Lydian of Sardis, who came as a slave
to Sparta, where he lived in the family of Agesidas, by whom
he was emancipated. His mastery of Greek shows that he must
have come very early to Sparta, where, after the close of the
Messenian wars, the people were able to bestow their attention
upon the arts of peace. Alcman composed various kinds of
poems in various metres', Parthenia (maidens' songs), hymns,
paeans, prosodia (processionals), and love-songs, of which he
was considered the inventor. He was evidently fond of good
living, and traces of Asiatic sensuousness seem out of place
amidst Spartan simplicity. The fragments are scanty, the most
considerable being part of a Parlhenion found in 1855 on an
Egyptian papyrus; some recently discovered hexameters are
attributed to Alcman or Erinna (Oxyrhynchus papyri, i. 1898).
For general authorities see Alcaeus.
ALCMENB, in ancient Greek mythology, the daughter of
Electryon, king of Mycenae, and wife of Amphitryon. She was
the mother of Heracles by Zeus, who assumed the likeness of
her husband during his absence, and of Iphicles by Amphitryon.
She was regarded as the ancestress of the Heradeidae, and
worshipped at Thebes and Athens.
See Winter, Alkmene und Amphitryon (1876).
ALCOBACA, a town of Portugal, in the district of Leiria,
formerly included in the province of Estremadura, on the
Alcoa and Baca rivers, from which it derives its name. Pop.
(1000) 2309. Aicobaca is chiefly interesting for its Cistercian
convent, now partly converted into schools and barracks. The
monastic buildings, which form a square 725 ft. in diameter,
with a huge conical chimney rising above them, were founded
in 1 1 48 and completed in 1222. During the middle ages it
rivalled the greatest European abbeys in size and wealth. It
was supplied with water by an affluent of the Alcoa, which still
flows through the kitchen; its abbot ranked with the highest
Portuguese nobles, and, according to tradition, 099 monks
continued the celebration of mass without intermission through-
out the year. The convent was partly burned by the French
in 1810, secularized in 1834 and afterwards gradually restored.
Portions of the library, which comprised over 100,000 volumes.
including many precious MSS., were saved in 18 10. and ss
preserved in the public libraries of Lisbon and Bxaga- Tie
monastic church (1 222) is a good example of early Gothic, some-
what defaced by Moorish and other additions. .It contilm 1
fine cloister and the tombs of Peter 1.(1357-1367) and his uss,
Inez de Castro.
ALCOCK, JOHN (c. 1430-1500), English divine, was borax:
Beverley in Yorkshire and educated at Cambridge. In i*5:
he was made dean of Westminster, and henceforward his pr>
motion was rapid in church and state. In the following year
he was made master of the rolls, and in 1470 was sent a
ambassador to the court of Castile. He was consecrated bis&flp
of Rochester in 1472 and was successively translated to the sea
of Worcester (1476) and Ely (i486). He twice held the 06*
of lord chancellor, and exhibited great ability in the ncgotis-
tions with James III. of Scotland. He died at Wisbech Castfe
on the 1st of October 1500. Alcock was one of the aod
eminent pre-Reformation divines; he was a man of deep
learning and also of great proficiency as an architect. Besides
founding a charity at Beverley and a grammar school at
Kingston-upon-Hull, he restored many churches and coBefs.
but his greatest enterprise was the erection of Jesus Colkge,
Cambridge, which he established on the site of the fonaer
convent of St Radigund.
Alcock's published writings, most of which are extremely rac
are: Mons Perfections, or the Hill of Perfection (London, 1497-:
Gallicontus Johannis Alcock episcopi Eiienns ad /rates suos cvt^s
in sinodo apud Barnwell (1498), a good specimen of early En^asi
printing and quaint illustrations; The Casfte of Labour, tran*U*ed
from the French (1536), and various other tracts and horaifir*
See J. Bass Mullingers Hist, of the University of Cambridge. voL I
ALCOCK, 8IR RUTHERFORD (1800-1807). British consw
and diplomatist, was the son of Dr Thomas Alcock, who practised
at Ealing, near London, and himself followed the medical pro-'
fession. In 1836 he became a surgeon in the marine brigtde
which took part in the Carlist war, and gaining distinction by his
services was made deputy inspector-general of hospitals. He
retired from this service in 1837, and seven years later was
appointed consul at Fuchow in China, where, after a short official
stay at Amoy, he performed the functions, as he himself expressed
it, " of everything from a lord chancellor to a sheriff's officer *
Fuchow was one of the ports opened to trade by the treaty of
1842, and Mr Alcock, as he then was, had to maintain an entirdy
new position with the Chinese authorities. In so doing he was
eminently successful, and earned for himself promotion to the
consulate at Shanghai. Thither he went in 1S46 and made it
an especial part of his duties to superintend the establishment
and. laying out of the British settlement, which has developed
into such an important feature of British commercial life in
China. In 1858 he was appointed consul-general in the newly
opened empire of Japan, and in the following year was promoted
to be minister plenipotentiary. In those days residence in Japaa
was surrounded with many dangers, and the people were intensely
hostile to foreigners. In i860 Mr Alcock's native interpreter
was murdered at the gate of- the legation, and in the following
year the legation was stormed by a body of Ronins, whose
attack was repulsed by Mr Alcock and his staff. Shortly after
this event he returned to England on leave. Already he had
been made a C.B. (i860); in 1862 he was made a K.C.B., aad
in 1863 hon. D.C.L. Oxon. In 1864 he returned to Japan, and
after a year's further residence he was transferred to Petjo r
where he represented the British government until 1871, wbca
he retired. But though no longer in official life his leisure was
fully occupied. He was for some years president of the Royal
Geographical Society, and he served on many commissiofis.
He was twice married, first in May 2841 to Henrietta Mary,
daughter of Charles Bacon, who died in 1853, *nd secondly
(July 8, 1862) to the widow of the Rev. John Low Jer, who died
on the 13th of March 1809. He was the author of several works,
and was one of the first to awaken in England an interest io
Japanese art; his best-known book is The Capital of the Tyroon,
which appeared in 1863. He died in London on the *nd of
November 1897. (R. K. D.)
ALCOFORADO— ALCOHOL
525
ALCOFORADO, MARIANKA (1640-1723), Portuguese author-
ess, writer of the Letters of a Portuguese Nun, was the daughter
of a landed proprietor in Alemtejo. Beja, her birthplace,
was the chief garrison town of that province, itself the prin-
cipal theatre of the twenty-eight years' war with Spain that
followed the Portuguese revolution of 1640, and her widowed
father, occupied with administrative and military commissions,
placed Marianna in her childhood in the wealthy convent of the
Conception for security and education. She made ber profession
as a Fandscan nun at sixteen or earlier, without any real
vocation, and lived a routine life in that somewhat relaxed
bouse until her twenty-fifth year, when she met Noel Bouton.
This man, afterwards marquis de Chamilly, and marshal of
France, was one of the French officers who came to Portugal to
serve under the great captain, Frederick, Count Schomberg, the
re-organizer of the Portuguese army. During the years 1665-
1667 Chamilly spent much of his time in and about Beja, and
probably became acquainted with the Alcoforado family through
Marianna'* brother, who was a soldier. Custom then permitted
religious to receive and entertain visitors, and Chamilly, aided
by his military prestige and some flattery, found small diffi-
culty in betraying the trustful nun. Before long their intrigue
became known and caused a scandal, and to avoid the conse-
quences Chamilly deserted Marianna and withdrew clandes-
tinely to France. The letters to her lover which have earned
her renown in literature were written between December 1667
and June 1668, and they described the successive stages of faith,
doubt and despair through which she passed. As a piece of
unconscious psychological self-analysis, they are* unsurpassed;
as a product of the Peninsular heart they are unrivalled. These
five short letters written by Marianna to "expostulate her
desertion " form one of the few documents of extreme human
experience, and reveal a passion which in the course of two
centuries has lost nothing of its heat Perhaps' their dominant
note is reality, and, sad reading as they are from the moral
standpoint, their absolute candour, exquisite tenderness and
entire self-abandonment have excited the wonder and admiration
of great men and women in every age, from Madame de Sevigne
to W. £. Gladstone. There are signs in the fifth letter that
Marianna had begun to conquer her passion, and after a life of
rigid penance, accompanied by much suffering, she died at the
age of eighty-three. The letters came into the possession of
the comte de Guilleragues, director of the Gazette de France,
who turned them into French, and they were published anony-
mously in Paris in January 1669. A Cologne edition of the
same year stated that Chamilly was their addressee, which is
confirmed by St Simon and Duclos, but the name of their
authoress remained undivulged. In 18 10, however, Boissonade
discovered Marianna's name written in a copy of the first edition
by a contemporary hand, and the veracity of this ascription
has been placed beyond doubt by the recent investigations of
Luciano Cordeiro, who found a tradition in Beja connecting
the French captain and the Portuguese nun. The letters
created a sensation on their first appearance, running through
five editions in a year, and, to exploit their popularity, second
parts, replies and new replies were issued from the press in
quick succession. Notwithstanding that the Portuguese original
of the five letters is lost, their genuineness is as patent as the
spuriousnesB of their followers, and though Rousseau was ready
to wager they were written by a man, the principal critics of
Portugal and France have decided against him. It is now
generally recognized that the letters are a verbatim translation
from the Portuguese.
The foreign bibliography of the Letters, containing almost one
hundred numbers, will be found in Cordeiro'* admirable study,
Seror Marianne A Friera Portuguesa, and cd. (Lisbon, 1 891).
Besides the French editions, versions exist in Dutch, Danish. Italian
and German; and the English bibliography is given by Edgar
Prestage in his translation The Letters of a Portuguese Nun (Marianna
Alcoforado), 3rd cd. (London, 1903). The French text of the ediiio
prinaps was printed in the first edition (1893) of this book. Edmund
Cosse in the Fortnightly Review, vol. xfix. (old series) p. 506. shows
the considerable influence exercised by the Leilas on the sentimental
literature of France and England. (E. Pa.)
Btbyt
ALCOHOL, in commerce, the name generally given to " spirits
of wine "; in systematic organic chemistry it has a wider mean-
ing, being the generic name of a class of compounds (hydroxy
hydrocarbons) of which ordinary alcohol (specifically ethyl
alcohol) is a typical member (see Alcohols).
The word " alcohol " is of Arabic origin, being derived from
the particle al and the word kohl, an impalpable powder used
in the East for painting the eyebrows. For many _
centuries the word was used to designate any fine
powder; its present-day application to the product
of the distillation of wine is of comparatively recent date.
Thus Paracelsus and Libavius both used the term to denote
a fine powder, the latter speaking of an alcohol derived
from antimony. At the same time Paracelsus uses the word
for a volatile liquid; alcool or alcool vini occurs often in
his writings, and once he adds " id est vino ardente. n Other
names have been in use among the earlier chemists for this
same liquid. Eau de tie (" elixir of life ") was in use during
the 13th and 14th centuries; Arnoldus Vfllanovanus applied
it to the product of distilled wine, though not as a specific
name.
Ordinary alcohol, which we shall frequently refer to by its
specific name, ethyl alcohol, seldom occurs in the vegetable
kingdom; the unripe seeds of .Heracleum giganteum
and H. Sphondylium. contain it mixed with ethyl
butyrate. In the animal kingdom it occurs in the urine
of diabetic patients and of persons addicted to alcohol. Its
important source lies in its formation by the " spirituous " or
" alcoholic fermentation " of saccharine juices. The mechanism
of alcoholic fermentation is discussed in the article Fermenta-
tion, and the manufacture of alcohol from fermented liquors in
the article Spirits.
The qualitative composition of ethyl alcohol was ascertained
by A. L. Lavoisier, and the quantitative by N. T. de Saussure
in 1808. Sir Edward Frankland showed how it could be derived
from, and converted into, ethane; and thus determined it to be
ethane in which one hydrogen atom was replaced by a hydroxyl
group. Its constitutional formula is therefore CHaCHjOH.
It may be synthetically prepared by any of the general methods
described in the article Alcohols.
Pure ethyl alcohol is a colourless, mobile liquid of an agreeable
odour. It boils at 78-3° C. (760 mm.); at -90 C. it is a thick
liquid, and at -130 it solidifies to a white mass. Its high
coefficient of thermal expansion, coupled with its low freezing
point, renders it a valuable thermometric fluid, especially when
the temperatures to be measured are below -39° C, for which
the mercury thermometer cannot be used. It readily inflames,
burning with a blue smokeless flame, and producing water and
carbon dioxide, with the evolution of great heat; hence it
receives considerable application as a fuel. It mixes with
water in all proportions, the mixing being attended by a con-
traction in volume and a rise iu temperature; the maximum
contraction corresponds to a mixture of 3 molecules of alcohol
and z of water. Commercial alcohol or "spirits of wine"
contains about 90 % of pure ethyl alcohol, the remainder being
water. This water cannot be entirely removed by fractional
distillation, and to prepare anhydrous or " absolute " alcohol
the commercial product must be allowed to stand over some
dehydrating agent, such as caustic lime, baryta, anhydrous
copper sulphate, &c, and then distilled. Calcium chloride
must not be used, since it forms a crystalline compound with
alcohol. The quantity of alcohol present in an aqueous solu-
tion is determined by a comparison of its specific gravity with
standard tables, or directly by the use of an alcoholometer,
which is a hydrometer graduated so as to read per cents by
weight (degrees according to Richter) or volume per cents
(degrees according to Tralles). Other methods consist in deter-
mining the vapour tension by means of the vaporimeter of
Geissler, or the boiling point by the ebullioscope. In the United
Kingdom " proof spirit " is defined as having a specific gravity
at 51 of 1 1/13 (-02308) compared with water at the same tempera-
ture. The " quantity at proof " is given by the formula.—
526
ALCOHOL
quantity of sample X (degrees over or under proof 4- ioo)
divided by ioo.
The presence of water in alcohol may be detected in several
ways. Aqueous alcohol becomes turbid when mixed with
benzene, carbon disulphide or paraffin oil; when added to a
solution of barium oxide in absolute alcohol, a white precipitate
of barium hydroxide is formed. A more delicate method consists
in adding a very little anthraquinone and sodium amalgam;
absolute alcohol gives a green coloration, but in the presence of
minute traces of water a red coloration appears. Traces of
ethyl alcohol in solutions are detected and estimated by oxidation
to acetaldehyde, or by conversion into iodoform by warming
with iodine and potassium hydroxide. An alternative method
consists in converting it into ethyl benzoate by shaking with
benzoyl chloride and caustic soda.
Alcohol is extensively employed as a solvent; In fact, this
constitutes one of its most important industrial applications. It
dissolves most organic compounds, resins, hydrocarbons, fatty
adds and many metallic salts, sometimes forming, in the latter
case, crystalline compounds in which the ethyl alcohol plays a
role similar to that of water of crystallization. This fact was first
noticed by T. Graham, and, although it was at first contradicted,
its truth was subsequently confirmed. In general, gases dissolve
in it more readily than in water; ioo volumes of alcohol dissolve
7 volumes of hydrogen, 25 volumes of oxygen and 16 volumes of
nitrogen.
Potassium and sodium readily dissolve in ethyl alcohol with
the production of alcoholates of the formula QH»OK(Na).
fftActfa**. The**** voluminous white powders. Sulphuric acid
RctcaosM. convtrti j t mt0 ctn yi 9U iphuric add (see Ether),
and sulphur trioxide gives carbyl sulphate. The phos-
phorous haloids give the corresponding ethyl haloid. Ethyl
chloride (from the phosphorus chlorides and alcohol) is an
ethereal liquid boiling at xa*5° C, soluble in alcohol, but spar-
ingly so in water. Oxidation of ethyl alcohol gives acetaldehyde
and acetic add. Chlorine oxidizes it to acetaldehyde, and under
certain conditions chloral (q.v.) is formed.
In almost all countries heavy taxes are levied on manufactured
alcohol mainly as a source of revenue. In the United Kingdom
the excise duty is eleven shillings per proof gallon of
alcohol, while the customs duty is eleven shillings and
fivepence; the magnitude of these imposts may be
more readily understood when one remembers that the proof
gallon costs only about sevenpence to manufacture. The great
importance of alcohol in the arts has necessitated the intro-
duction of a duty-free product which is suitable for most in-
dustrial purposes, and at the same time is perfectly unfit for
beverages or internal application.
In the United Kingdom this " denaturized " alcohol is known
as methylated spirit as a distinction from pure alcohol or " spirits
of wine." It was first enacted in 1855 that methylated
iptiit*^ spirit, a specific mixture of pure alcohol -and wood-
naphtha, should be duty-free; the present law is to
be found in the Customs and Inland Revenue Act of 1800,
and the Finance Act (sect. 8) of 1003. From 1858 to 1861
methylated spirit was duty-free when it was required for manu-
facturing processes, and the methylation or " denaturizing " was
carried out in accordance with a prescribed process. During the
next three decades (x86i-x8oi) the law was extended, and
methylated spirit was duty-free for all purposes except for use
as beverages and internal medicinal applications. This spirit
(" unmineralized methylated spirit ") consisted of 00 parts of
alcohol of 60-66 over-proof (91-95 % of pure alcohol) and
10 parts of wood-naphtha. It was found, however, that
certain classes were addicted to drinking this mixture, and
since 1891 the sale of such spirit has been confined to manu-
facturers who must purchase it in bulk from the " methylators."
For retail purposes the " ordinary " methylated spirit is mixed
with -357 % of mineral naphtha, which has the effect of rendering
it quite undrinkable. The Finance Act of 1002 allows a manu-
facturer to obtain a license which permits the use of duty-free
alcohol, if he can show that such alcohol is absolutely essential
for the success of his business, and that methylated spirit ■
unsuitable. Notwithstanding this permission there have two
many agitations on the part of chemical manufacturers to ofcuia
a less restricted use of absolute alcohol, and in 1905 axt Industrial
Alcohol Committee was appointed to receive evidence and report
as to whether any modification of the present law was advtsihlr
In the United States the same question was 'considered in i§o£
by a Joint Select Committee on the use of alcohol in the maaa-
factures and arts. Reference should be made to the repora
of these committees for a full account of the use, manufactsi
and statistics of "denaturized" spirits in various European
countries.
In Germany, the use of duty-free spirit is only allowed to state
and municipal hospitals, and state sdentific institutions, and for
the manufacture of fulminates, fuzes and smokeless povders
The duty-free " denaturized " spirits may be divided into t»o
groups — " completely denaturized "and " incompletely denatcr-
ized." In the first category there are two varieties: — (1) A
mixture of 100 litres of spirit and 2} litres of a mixture of 4 pars
of wood-naphtha and x of pyridine bases; this spirit, the use of
which is practically limited to heating and lighting purposes, mi?
be mixed with 50 grs. of lavender or rosemary, in order to destroy
the noxious odour of the pyridine bases. (2) A mixture of 10c
litres of spirit, i\ litres of the naphtha-pyridine mixture described
above, \ litre of methyl violet solution, and from a to 20 litres
of benzol; this fluid is limited to combustion in motors and
agricultural engines. The second category, or " incompletely
denaturized " spirits, indude numerous mixtures. The " general "
mixture consists of 100 litres of spirit, and 5 litres of wood spirit
or \ litre of pyridine. Of the " particular " varieties, we cm
only notice those used in the colour industry. These cocsai
of 100 litres of spirit mixed with either 10 litres of sulphuric
ether, or 1 litre of benzol, or \ litre of turpentine, or -025 litre of
animal oil.
The German regulations are apparently based on a keem
appreciation of the fact that while one particular denaturiziBf
agent may have little or no effect on one industry, yet it would be
quite fatal to the success of another; there is consequently a
great choice of denaturizing agents, and in certain cases it is
sufficient to mix the alcohol with a reagent necessary for the
purpose in hand, or even with a certain amount of the final
product, it being only necessary to satisfy the state that the
spirit is not available as a beverage.
In France, the general denaturizing agent is wood-spirit of at
least 58 over-proof, and containing 25 % of acetone and 2-5 % of
"impuritis pyrogenies"; 10 litres of this spirit denaturizes 100
litres of alcohol. This mixture is supplied to manufacturers and
corresponds to the British unmineralized methylated spirit; bet
the regulations are more stringent. When sold for lighting and
heating purposes, it is further admixed with 0-5 % of heavy
benzene boiling at xso°-2oo° C. Provisions are also made for
special denaturizing processes as in Germany.
In America the internal revenue tax on denaturized alcohol
(formerly duty-free only to sdentific institutions) was removed
by Congress in xoo6 (act of June 7th).
Pharmacology, Toxicology and Therapeutics of Alcokel.—
Alcohol is of great medicinal value as a solvent, being used to
form solutions of alkaloids, resins, volatile oils, iodoform, fte.
In strength of about xo % and upwards it is an antiseptic If
applied to the skin it rapidly evaporates, thereby cooling the skin
and diminishing the amount of sweat excreted. This refrigerant
and anhidrotic action is employed to soothe many forms of
headache by bathing the forehead with eau dc^ Cologne. If, oa
the other hand, the alcohol be rubbed into the skin, or if its
evaporation be prevented— as by a watch-glass— it absorbs water
from the tissues and thus hardens them.
Thoroughly rubbed into the skin alcohol dilates the blood-
vessels and produces a mild counter-irritant effect. Many
alcoholic liniments are therefore employed for the relief of pais,
espedally muscular pains, as in lumbago and other forms of
so-called " muscular- rheumatism." Given internally in small
quantities and in sufficient dilution, alcohol causes dilatation of
ALCOHOLS
527
LHe> gastric blood-vessels, increased secretion of gastric juice, and
greater activity in the movements of the muscular layers in the
wall of the stomach. It also tends to lessen the sensibility of
the stomach and so may relieve gastric pain. In a 50 %
solution or stronger — as when neat whisky is taken — alcohol
precipitates the pepsin which is an essential of gastric digestion,
and thereby arrests this process. The desirable effects produced
\yy alcohol on the stomach are worth obtaining only in cases of
acute diseases. In chronic disease and in health the use of alcohol
as an aid to digestion is without the support of clinical or labora-
tory experience, the beneficial action being at least neutralized by
undesirable effects produced elsewhere.. The continued use of
large doses of alcohol produces chronic gastritis, in which the
continued irritation has led to overgrowth of connective tissue,
atrophy of the gastric glands and permanent cessation of the
gastric functions.
A single dose of concentrated alcohol (e.g. brandy) produces
-very valuable reflex effects, the heart beating more rapidly and
forcibly, and the blood-pressure rising. Hence the immediately
beneficial effect produced in the cases of " fainting " or syncope.
After absorption, which is very rapid, alcohol exerts a marked
action upon the blood. The oxygen contained in that fluid, and
destined for consumption by the tissues, is retained by the
influence of alcohol in its combination with the haemoglobin
or colouring matter of the red blood corpuscles. Hence the
diminished oxidation of the tissues, which leads to the accumula-
tion of unused fat and so to the obesity which is so often seen
in those who habitually take much alcohol. The drug exerts
a noteworthy action upon the body-temperature. As it dilates
the blood-vessels of the skin it increases the subjective sensation
of warmth. The actual consequence, however, is that more heat
than before is necessarily lost from the surface of the body.
Alcohol also diminishes the oxidation which is the main source
of the body-heat. It follows that the drug is an antipyretic,
and it is hence largely used in fevers as a means of reducing the
temperature. This reduction of the temperature, carried to an
undesirable extreme, is the reason why the man who has copiously
consumed spirits "to keep out the cold " is often visited with
pneumonia. The largest amount of alcohol that .can be burnt
up within the healthy body in twenty-four hours is 1) or.,
but it must be consumed in great dilution and divided into
small doses taken every four hours. Otherwise the alcohol will
for the most part leave the body unused in the urine and the
expired air. In fever the case is different. The raised tempera-
ture appears to facilitate the oxidation of the substance, so that
quantities may be taken and completely utilized which would
completely intoxicate the individual had his temperature been
normal. It follows that alcohol is a food in fever, and its value
in this regard is greatly increased by the fact that it requires
no primary digestion, but passes without changes, and without
needing change, to the tissues which are to use it. According
to Sir Thomas Fraser nothing else can compete with alcohol
as a food in desperate febrile cases, and to this use must be added
its antipyretic power already explained and its action as a
soporific. During its administration in febrile cases the drug
must be most carefully watched, as its action may prove
deleterious to the nervous system and the circulation in certain
classes of patient. The state of the pulse is the best criterion of
the action of alcohol in any given case of fever. The toxicology of
alcohol is treated in other artides. It includes acute alcoholism
{i.e. intoxication), chronic alcoholism, delirium tremens, and all
the countless pathological changes— extending to every tissue
but the bones, and especially marked in the nervous system—
which alcohol produces. (See Drunkenness: Deukium).
After death the presence of alcohol can be detected in all the
body fluids. Its especial affinity for the nervous system is in-
dicated by the fact that, when all traces of it have disappeared
elsewhere, it can still be detected with ease in the cerebro-spinal
fluid.
ALCOHOLS, in organic chemistry, a class of compounds which
Day be considered as derived from hydrocarbons by the replace-
ment of one or more hydrogen atoms by hydroxyl groups. It is
convenient to restrict the term to compounds in which the
hydroxyl group is attached to an aliphatic residue; this excludes
such compounds as the hydroxy-benzenes, naphthalenes, &c,
which exhibit many differences from the compounds derived
from the aliphatic alkyls.
Alcohols are classified on two distinct principles, one depend-
ing upon the number of hydroxyl groups present, the other on
the nature of the remaining groups attached to the carbon atom
which carries the hydroxyl group. Monatomic or monohydric
alcohols contain only one hydroxyl group; diatomic, two,
known as glycols (9.9.); triatomic, three, known as glycerols
(9.9.); and so on.
The second principle leads to alcohols of three distinct types,
known as primary, secondary and tertiary. The genesis and
formulation of these types may be readily understood by con-
sidering the relation which exists between the alcohols and the
parent hydrocarbon. In methane, CH 4 , the hydrogen atoms
are of equal value, and hence only one alcohol, viz. CHiOH, can
be derived from it. This compound, methyl alcohol, is the
simplest primary alcohol, and it is characterized by the grouping
•CH3OH. Ethane, C t H«, in a similar manner, can only give rise
to one alcohol, namely ethyl alcohol, CHaCHsOH, which, is also
primary. Propane, CHaCH s CHa, can give rise to two alcohols
— a primary alcohol, CH»CHtCH«OH (normal propyl alcohol),
formed by replacing a hydrogen atom attached to a terminal
carbon atom, and a secondary alcohol, CH»CH(OH)CH« (iso-
propyl alcohol), when the substitution is effected on the middle
carbon atom. The grouping CH • OH characterizes the secondary
alcohols; isopropyl alcohol is the simplest member of this class.
Butane, C«Hw, exists in the two isomeric forms— normal butane,
CHrCHrCHrCH,, and iso-butane, CH(CH,)». Each of these
hydro-carbons gives rise to two alcohols: »-butane gives a
primary and a secondary; and iso-butane a primary, when the
substitution takes place in one of the methyl groups, and a
tertiary, when the hydrogen atom of the I CH group is substituted.
Tertiary alcohols are thus seen to be characterized by the group
: COH, in which the residual valencies of the carbon atom are
attached to alkyl groups.
In i860 Hermann Kolbe predicted the existence of secondary
and tertiary alcohols from theoretical considerations. Regarding
methyl alcohol, for which he proposed the name carbinol, as the
simplest alcohol, he showed that by replacing one hydrogen atom
of the methyl group by an alkyl residue, compounds of the general
formula RCHjOH would result. These are the primary alcohols.
By replacing two of the hydrogen atoms, either by the same or
different alkyls, compounds of the formula (RRi)CH OH {i.e.
secondary alcohols) would result; while the replacement of the
three hydrogen atoms would generate alcohols of the general
formula (RRjROCOH, i.e. tertiary alcohols. Furthermore, he
exhibited a comparison between these three types of alcohols
and the amines. Thus: —
RNH,
RCH.OH
Primary. Secondary.
To distinguish Primary, Secondary and Tertiary Alcohols,—
Many reactions serve to distinguish these three types of alcohols.
Of chief importance is their behaviour on oxidation. The
primary alcohols are first oxidized to aldehydes (?.».), which,
on further oxidation, yield acids containing the same number
of carbon atoms as in the original alcohol. Secondary alcohols
yield ketones <?.».), which are subsequently oxidized to a mixture
of two acids. Tertiary alcohols yield neither aldehydes nor
ketones, but a mixture of two or more adds. Another method
is based upon the different behaviour of the corresponding
nitro-alkyl with nitrous add. The alcohol is first acted upon
with phosphorus and iodine, and the resulting alkyl iodide is
treated with silver nitrite, which gives the corresponding nitro-
alkyl. The nitro-alkyl is then treated with potassium nitrite
dissolved in concentrated potash, and sulphuric add is added.
By this treatment a primary nitro-alkyl yields a nitrolic add,
the potassium salt of which forms an intense red solution; a
secondary nitro-alkyl forms a pseudo nitrol, which gives an
(R,R.)NH
(RiR,)CHOH
(r!r,r!)coh
Tertiary.
528
ALCOTT
-**C<BgH
intense blue solution, while the tertiary compound does not act
with nitrous add. The reactions outlined above may be thus
represented j—
iVCHjOH -^RCH,I -»RCHiNOk
Primary alcohol Nitrolk add.
K>CH.OH -frJXSM ^£>CHNO,^K>C<Ng»
Secondary alcohol Paeudo nitroL
(R4R,R,)C.OH-^(R4R,R,)C'I->(RiR.R*)CNQ^
Tertiary alcohoL
By heating to the boiling point of naphthalene (218°) tertiary
alcohols are decomposed, while heating to the boiling point of
anthracene (360°) suffices to decompose secondary alcohols, the
primary remaining unaffected. These changes can be followed
out by determinations of the vapour density, and so provide
a method for characterizing alcohols (see Compt. Rend. 2904, 138,
p. 984).
Alcohols may be readily prepared from the corresponding
alkyl haloid by the action of moist silver oxide (which behaves
as silver hydroxide); by the saponification of their
esters; or by the reduction of polyhydric alcohols
with hydriodic add, and the subsequent conversion
of the resulting alkyl iodide into the alcohol by moist silver
oxide. Primary alcohols are obtained by decomposing their
sulphuric add esters (from sulphuric add and the olefines)
with boiling water; by the action of nitrous add on primary
amines; or by the reduction of aldehydes, add chlorides or
add anhydrides. Secondary alcohols result from the reduction
of ketones; and from the reaction of sine alkyls on aldehydes or
formic add esters.
CH,CHO-»CH,CH<§gt tHi -»CH,CH<g£«
Acetaldehyde.
HC<g
k OC#,
->HO
iZnCH, .
CH, -»HC<
* c <a-» R ' c <
Methyl ethyl carbinot
/OZnCHi yOH
rCH, -»HC£CH.
^CH t x:h,
Formic eater. Isopropyl alcohoL
Tertiary alcohols may be synthesized by a method devised by
A. Butlerow in 2864, who thus discovered the tertiary alcohols.
By reacting with a zinc alkyl (methyl or ethyl) on an add chloride,
an addition compound is first formed, which decomposes with
water to give a ketone. If, however, a second molecule of a zinc
alkyl be allowed to react, a compound is formed which gives a
tertiary alcohol when decomposed with water.
DZnCH »->RCMZnCH,-»RC^OH'
Add chloride. Tertiary alcohoL
It is interesting to note that, whereas zinc methyl and ethyl
give tertiary alcohols, zinc propyl only gives secondary alcohols.
During recent years (2900 onwards) many brilliant syntheses
have been effected by the aid of magnesium-alkyl-haloids.
The alcohols are neutral in reaction, and the lower members
possess the property of entering into combination with salts,
in which the alcohol plays the role of water of crystal-
lization. Sodium or potassium dissolves in them
with the formation of alcoholates, the hydrogen of
the hydroxyl group bang replaced by the metal. With strong
adds water is split off and esters are formed. The haloid
esters of the paraffin alcohols formed by heating the alcohols
with the halogen adds are the monohaloid derivatives of the
paraffins, and are more conveniently prepared by the action of
the phosphorous haloid on the alcohol. Energetic dehydration
gives the define hydrocarbons, but under certain conditions
ethers (see Ether) are obtained.
The physical properties of the alcohols exhibit a gradation
with the increase of molecular weight. The lower members are
colourless mobile liquids, readily soluble in water and exhibiting
a characteristic odour and taste. The solubility decreases as
the carbon content rises. The normal alcohols containing 2 to
16 carbon atoms are liquids at the ordinary temperatures ;
the higher members are crystalline, odourless and tasteless
solids, doscly resembling the fats in appearance. The boiling
points of the normal alcohols increase regularly about »' I
each CHi increment; this is characteristic of all home*
series of organic compounds. Of the primary, secondary 1
tertiary alcohols having the same empirical formula, the prri
have the highest, and the tertiary the lowest boiTmg \<k
this is in accordance with the fairly general rule that a pj
symmetry is attended by a fall in the boiling point.
The following monatomic alcohols receive special treatsess vd
their own headings:— Alcohol (Ethyl), Allyl Alcohol, A*l
Alcohols, Benzyl Alcohol, ButylAlcohol*, Mkthyl Aicea
and Propyl Alcohols.
ALCOTT, AMOS BRONSOM (2700-2888), American edaai
alist and writer, born on Spindle Hill, in the town of Wcfal
New Haven county, Connecticut, on the aoth of November :-j
His father, Joseph Chatfield Alcox, was a farmer and wtdii
whose ancestors, then bearing the name of Alcocke, had seas
in eastern Massachusetts in colonial days. The son adopted 1
spelling "Alcott" in his early youth. Self-educated and aM
thrown upon his own resources, he began in 1814 to ens m
living by working in a dock factory in Plymouth, Cosa.nl
for many years after 281s he peddled books and merchaacst
chiefly in the southern states. He began teaching in Ersat
Conn., in 2823, and subsequently conducted schools in Cbcbx,
Conn., in 2825-2827, again in Bristol in 2827-1828, in Bcstees |
2828-2830, in Germantown, now part of Philadelphia, is i'P" ,
2833, and in Philadelphia in 2833. In 2830 he had married A^f
May, the sister of Samuel J. May (2797-2871), the reformer tal
abolitionist. In 2834 he opened in Boston a school whkh beast
famous because of his original methods; his plan being to dero;
self-instruction on the basis of self -analysis,' with an ever-preer
desire on his own part to stimulate the child's personality. The
feature of his school which attracted most attention, perk;*
was his scheme for the teacher's receiving punishment, in ecrtu
circumstances, at the hands of an offending pupal, whereb) ^
sense of shame might be quickened in the mind of the enx3
child. The school was denounced in the press, was not pecurat >
successful, and in 2839 was given up, although Alcott had «c
the affection of his pupils, and his educational experiments \d
challenged the attention of students of pedagogy. The sdod
is perhaps best described in Miss E. P. Peabody's A Read *
Mr AUott's School (2835). In 2840 Alcott removed to Conrad
Massachusetts. After a visit to England, in 1842, be stanch
with two English associates, Charles Lane and Henry C. Wright
at "Fruitlands," in the town of Harvard, Massachusetts,!
communistic experiment at farm-living and nature-mediutxa
as tending to develop the best powers of body and souL Tb
speedily came to naught, and Alcott returned (2844) to his boa*
near that of Emerson in Concord, removing to Boston four yean
later, and again living in Concord after 2857. He spoke, n
opportunity offered, before • the " lyceums " then common a
various parts of the United States, or addressed groups of beam*
as they invited him. These " conversations," as he called then,
were more or less informal talks on a great range of topics
spiritual, aesthetic and practical, in which he emphasised th;
ideas of the school of American TranscendentaJists led by
Emerson, who was always his supporter and discreet admirer
He dwelt upon the illumination of the mind and soul by direct
communion with the Creative Spirit; upon the spiritual sad
poetic monitions of external nature; and upon the benefit t«
man of a serene mood and a simple way of life. As regards the
trend and results of Alcott's philosophic teaching, it must be
said that, like Emerson, he was sometimes inconsistent, bar;
or abrupt. But though he formulated no system of philosophy,
and seemed to show the influence now of Plato, now of Kant, or
of German thought as filtered through the brain of Cokridge,
he was, like his American master, associate and friend, steadily
optimistic, idealistic, individualistic. The teachings of WOoib
Ellery Channing a little before, as to the sacred inviolability of
the human consdence — anticipating the later condustoas of
Martineau— really lay at the. basis of the work of most 0/ tbt
Concord transcendentalists and contributors to The Did, of
whom Alcott was one. In his last years, living in a serene sad
ALCOTT— ALCUIN
529
beautiful old age in his Concord home, the Orchard House, where
every comfort was provided by his daughter Louisa (qt), Alcott
was gratified at being able to become the nominal, and at times
the actual, head of a Concord " Summer School of Philosophy
and Literature," which had its first session in 1879, and in which
— in a rudely fashioned building next his house — thoughtful
listeners were addressed during a part of several successive
summer seasons on many themes in philosophy, religion and
letters. Of Alcott's published works the most important is
Tabids (1868); next in order of merit is Concord Days (1871).
His Sonnets and Canzonets (1882) are chiefly interesting as an
old man's experiments in verse. He left a large collection of
persona] jottings and memorabilia, most of which remain un-
published. He died in Boston on the 4U1 of March 1888. Alcott
was a Garrisonian abolitionist.
See A. Bnmson Alcott, His Life and Philosophy (2 vols , Boston,
1893). by F. B. Sanborn and William T. Harm; New Connecticut:
on Autobiographical Poem (Boston. 1887). edited by F. B. Sanborn;
and LowdT t criticism in his Fable for Critics. (C. F. R.)
ALCOTT, LOUISA MAY (1832-1888), American author, was
the daughter of Amos Bronson Alcott, and though of New
England parentage and residence, was born in Gennantown,
now part of Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, on the 29th of November
1 83 2. She began work at an early age as an occasional teacher
and as a writer— her first book was Flower Fables (1854), tales
originally wriuen for Ellen, daughter of R. W. Emerson. In
i860 she began writing for the Atlantic Monthly, and she was
nurse in the Union Hospital at Georgetown, D.C., for six weeks
in 1862-1863. Her home letters, revised and published in the
Commonwealth and collected as Hospital Sketches (1863, re-
published with additions in 1869), displayed some power of
observation and record; and Moods, a novel (1864), despite its
uncertainty of method and of touch, gave considerable promise.
She soon turned, however, to the rapid production of stories
for girls, and, with the exception of the cheery tale entitled
Work (1873), and the anonymous novelette A Modern Me phis-
lopheles (1877), which attracted little notice, she did not return
to the more ambitious fields of the novelist. Her success dated
from the appearance of the first series of Little Women: or
Meg, Jo, Beth and Amy (1868), in which, with unfailing humour,
freshness and lifelikeness, she put into story form many of the
sayings and doings of herself and sisters. Little Men (1871)
similarly treated the character and ways of her nephews in
the Orchard House in Concord, Massachusetts, in which Miss
Alcott's industry had now established her parents and other
members of the Alcott family; but most of her later volumes,
An Old-Fashioned Girl (1870), Aunt Jo's Scrap Bag (6 vols.,
1871-1870). Rose in Bloom (1876), &c, followed in the line
of Little Women, of which the author's large and loyal public
never wearied. Her natural love of labour, her wide-reaching
generosity, her quick perception and her fondness for sharing
with her many readers that cheery humour which radiated from
her personality and her books, led her to produce stories of a
diminishing value, and at last she succumbed to overwork,
dying in Boston on the 6th of March 1888, two days after the
death of her father in the same city. Miss Alcott's early educa-
tion had partly been given by the naturalist Thoreau, but had
chiefly been in the hands of her father; and in her girlhood and
early womanhood she had fully shared the trials and poverty
incident to the life of a peripatetic idealist. In a newspaper
sketch entitled " Transcendental Wild Oats," afterwards re-
printed in the volume Silver Pitchers (1876), she narrated, with
a delicate humour, which showed what her literary powers might
have been if freed from drudgery, the experiences of her family
during an experiment towards communistic " plain living and
high thinking" at " Fruitlands," in the town of Harvard,
Massachusetts, in 1843.
The story of her career has been fully and frankly told in Mrs
? dnan . t L Chene y» UuUa M °y AUoU: Htr Life, Letters and
Journals (Boston, 1889). (C. F. R.)
ALCOVE (through the Span, alcove, from the Arab, of*,
the, and quobbdh, a vault), an architectural term for a recess
in a room usually screened off by pillars, balustrade or drapery.
L TO
ALCOT, a town of south-eastern Spain, in the province of
Alicante, on the small river Serpis, and at the terminus of a
branch railway connected with the Barcelona- Valencia-Alicante
line. Pop. (1000) 32,053. Alcoy is built on high ground at
the entrance to a gorge in the Moncabrer range (4547 ft). It
is a thriving industrial town, devoid of any great antiquarian
or architectural interest, though founded by the Moors. It
owes its prosperity to its manufacture of linen, woolen goods
and paper, especially cigarette paper. Many of the factories
derive their motive power from the falls of a mountain torrent
known as the Salto de las Aguas. Labour disturbances are
frequent, for, like Barcelona, Alcoy has become one of the
centres of socialistic and revolutionary agitation, while preserv-
ing many old-fashioned customs and traditions, such as the
curious festival held annually in April in honour of St George,
the patron saint of the town.
Cocentaina (pop. 1900, 7093) is a picturesque and ancient
town, 4 m. N.E. by rail. It is surrounded by Roman walls,
which were partly rebuilt by the Moors, and it contains an
interesting fortified palace, owned by the dukes of Medinaceli.
For an account of the festival of St George of Alcoy, see Apuntes
historicos acerca de las fiestas que celebra coda 0M0 la ciudad de Alcoy
a su patron San Jorge, oy J. A. Llobct y Valloaera (Alcoy, 1853).
ALCUIN (Alchuxne), a celebrated ecclesiastic and man of
learning in the 8th century, who liked to be called by the Latin
name of Albinxjs, and at the Academy of the palace took the
surname of Flaccus, was born at Eboracum (York) in 735.
He was related to WiUibrord, the first bishop of Utrecht,
whose biography he afterwards wrote. He was educated at the
cathedral school of York, under the celebrated master iElbcrt,
with whom he also went to Rome in search of manuscripts.
When iElbert was appointed archbishop of York in 766, Alcuin
succeeded him in the headship of the episcopal school. He
again went to Rome in 780, to fetch the pallium for Archbishop
Eanbald, and at Parma met Charlemagne, who persuaded him
to come to his court, and gave him the possession of the great
abbeys of Ferriercs and of Saint-Loup at Troyes. The king
counted on him to accomplish the great work which was his
dream, namely, to make the Franks familiar with the rules of
the Latin language, to create schools and to revive learning.
From 781 to 790 Alcuin was his sovereign's principal helper in
this enterprise. He had as pupils the king of the Franks, the
members of bis family and the young clerics attached to the
palace chapel; he was the life and soul of the Academy of the
palace, and we have still, in the Dialogue of Pepin (son of Charle-
magne) and Alcuin, a sample of the intellectual ezerdses in
which they indulged. It was under his inspiration that Charles
wrote his famous letter de litteris celendis (Boretius, Copituloria,
1. p. 78), and it was he who founded a fine library in the palace.
In 790 Alcuin returned to his own country, to which he had
always been greatly attached, and stayed there some time;
but Charlemagne needed him to combat the Adoptianist heresy,
which was at that time making great progress in the marches of
Spain. At the council of Frankfort in 794 Alcuin upheld the
orthodox doctrine, and obtained the condemnation of the
heresiarch Felix of Urgel. After this victory he again returned
to his own land, but on account of the disturbances which broke
out there, and which led to the death of King iEthelred (796), he
bade farewell to it for ever. Charlemagne had just given him
the great abbey of St Martin at Tours, and there, far from the
disturbed life of the court, he passed his last years. He made
the abbey school into a model of excellence, and many students
nocked to it; he had numerous manuscripts copied, the calli-
graphy of which is of extraordinary beauty (v. Leopold Delisle
in the Memoir es de V Academic des Inscriptions, vol. xxxii., xst
part, 1885). He wrote numerous letters to his friends in England,
to Arno, bishop of Salzburg, and above all to Charlemagne.
These letters, of which 311 are extant, are filled chiefly with
pious meditations, but they further form a mine of information
as to the literary and social conditions of the time, and are the
most reliable authority for the history of humanism in the
Carolingian age. He also trained the numerous monks of the
S3©
ALCYONE— ALDBOROUGH
abbey in piety, and it was in the midst of these pursuit* that he
was struck down by death on the 19th of May 804.
Alcuin is the most prominent figure of the Caroiingian Re-
naissance, in which have been distinguished three main periods:
in the first of these, up to the arrival of Alcuin at the court,
the Italians occupy the chief place; in the second, Alcuin and
the Anglo-Saxons are dominant; in the third, which begins in
804, the influence of the Goth Theodulf is preponderant Alcuin
transmitted to the ignorant Franks the knowledge of Latin
culture which had existed in England since the time of Bede.
We still have a number of his works. His letters have already
been mentioned; his poetry is equally interesting. Besides
some graceful epistles in the style of Fortunatus, he wrote some
long poems, and notably a whole history in verse of the church
at York: Versus de pclribus, regions el Sanctis Eboracmsis
eccksiae. We owe to him, too, some manuals used in his educa-
tional work; a grammar and works on rhetoric and dialectics.
They are written in the form of dialogues, and in the two last
the interlocutors are King Charles and Alcuin. He wrote,
finally, several theological treatises: a treatise de Fide Trtnitali*,
commentaries on the Bible, &c. The complete works of Alcuin
have been edited by Froben: Alcuini opera, 1 vol. in 4 parts
(Regcnsburg, 1777); this edition is reproduced in Migne's
Patrotog. lot. vols. c. and ci. The letters have been published
by Jafife and Dummler in Ta fife's Bibliolheca rerum germanicarum,
vol. vi. pp. 132-897 (1873). E. Dummler has also published an
authoritative edition, Epistdae aeti CaroHni, vol. ii. pp. 1-481,
in the Monument a Germaniae, and has edited the poems in the
same collection: Poelae latini aeti Carolini, vol. i. pp. 169-341.
Authorities. — Monnier, Alcuin et Charlemagne (Paris, 1863);
K. Werner, Alkuin und sein Jakrkundert (Paderbora, 1876); J. Bass
Mullinger, The Schools of Charles the Great and the Restoration of
Education in the of A Century (London, 1877); Aug. Molinier. Les
Sources de Vhistotre de France, vol. 1. p. 191 ; G. Monod, Etudes
critiques sur les sources de Vhistotre carolingienne, part i. (Paris,
1898): C. J. B. Gaskoin, Alcuin: His Life and his Work (London,
1903). See further U. Chevalier, Ripertoire des sources, 6>c, bio-
btbtiographie. s.v. Alcuin; Wattenbach, Deutschlands Geschichts-
queUen (Stuttgart and Berlin, 1904), i- p. 186. (C. Pp.)
ALCYONE, or Halcyoke, in Greek mythology, daughter of
Aeolus and wife of Ceyx. For their presumption in calling
themselves Zeus and Hera they were changed into birds-
Alcyone into a diver, Ceyx into a kingfisher. According to
another story, Ceyx was drowned and his body cast on the shore.
His wife found the body, and the gods, out of compassion,
changed both her and her husband into kingfishers. By com-
mand of Zeus (or Aeolus) the winds ceased to blow during their
brooding-time, for seven days before and after the shortest day,
that their eggs might not be carried away by the sea. Hence
the expression " halcyon days," used in ancient and modern
times to denote a period of calm and tranquillity.
Apotlonius Rhodius i. 1087: Ovid, Mctam. xi. 410 et acq.;
Hyginut, Fabulae, 65.
ALOABRA, the collective name of a group of islands in the
Indian Ocean, forming part of the British colony of Seychelles.
They lie in 9 30' S., 46° E., are 265 m. N.W. of the northern
point of Madagascar and 690 m. S.W. of Mabi, the principal
island of the Seychelles archipelago. The Comoro Islands lie
Sao m. S. by W. of Aldabra. The Aldabra Islands constitute an
atoll consisting of an oval ring of land, some 40 m. in circum-
ference and about i| m. broad, enclosing a shallow lagoon.
Channels divide the ring into four Islands. Grande Terre or South
Island forms three-fifths of the circumference. The other islands
are West Island or lie Picard, Polymnie and Middle Island.
There are in addition several islets in the lagoon, the most im-
portant being lie Michel. The total land area is estimated at
about 60 sq. m., the lagoon, 16 m. long and 4 m. wide, covering a
somewhat larger area. Pop. (1906) 127. The islands rise from
so to 80 ft. above the sea, and consist of rugged coral rock and
limestone, there being very little soil. The sea-face is generally
overhanging cliff, but in a few places are sandy beaches and low
sandhills. Dense scrub covers most of the land, but the inner
(lagoon) shore is everywhere bounded by mangrove swamps.
The flora and fauna of the islands present features of niiamiT
interest. They are chiefly noted as the habitat of the gigaav.-
land tortoise {Testudo elephantina), now carefully preserved, and
of several rare and peculiar birds, including a rail (Dryeiimxu
aldabranus), an ibis (Ibis abboUii) and a dove (Alectrocnas sgsn-
sini). Crustacea are abundant They. include oysters, crated
great size, and a small mussel, found in enormous numbers. The
flora includes mangroves, Rubiaceae, Sapotaceae and other fores
requiring more than puce coralline material for their growth.
Writing of the fauna and flora generally, Mr R. Dupont, curator
of the Botanic station at Mane, who visited Aldabra in 1906
says: " The specimens represented, besides being partly peculiar
mostly belong to the Mascarenes, Madagascar and Comoros
species. Many species, are also common to East Africa and tc
India. . . . The predominant species arc Madagascar plants and
birds, which arc carried by the currents and the winds. .
There are comparatively few (10) species of plants which are
endemic as far as the flora has been investigated, and it is probata
that most of them are also existing in the Comoros, where the
flora is not well known. . . . Endemic inferior animals and
mammals are practically non-existent, except two bats and one
scorpion, which are allied to Madagascar species or introduced
The reptiles (tortoises) are also nearly allied to the Mascaxeses
and Madagascar species which once existed. With regard to
birds and land shells the relation is much closer to the Comoros
species, and the latter, of which I have collected seven species
besides Rachis aldabrae, may serve to point out more than the
birds the land connexion of Aldabra with the neighbouring
countries." Aldabra, however, although situated in that regwe
of the Indian Ocean which forms part of the site of the Indo-
Madagascar continent of the Secondary period, is not a peak of
the submerged land. It has been built up from the sunken
remains of the old continent by a deposit, in the opinion of Pro
fessor A. Voelukow, of foraminiferal remains (mostly coccoliS
and rhabdoliths). In any case, however Aldabra was formed
there can be no suggestion of its ever having been joined to any
other land (Stanley Gardiner). Dupont states that at AMabn
the coral foundation is totally above water. The coral limestone
of the atoll has a peculiar vitrified appearance and gives out *
ringing sound when struck or simply walked on. The coral n
generally reddish, but the colouring ranges from light yeuow to
chocolate-brown.
Aldabra was visited by Portuguese navigators in 1511. The
islands were already known to the Arabs, from whom they get
their name. They became in the middle of the 18th century
dependencies of the French establishments at Bourbon (Reunkwi,
whence expeditions were made for the capture of the giaot
tortoises. In 18 10 with Mauritius, Bourbon, the Seychelles and
other islands, Aldabra passed into the possession of Great Britain.
The inhabitants are emigrants from the Seychelles. Goats are
bred and coco-nuts cultivated, but fishing is the chief industry.
With other outlying islands Aldabra is held under lease froa
the Seychelles government, the lessees having exclusive trading
privileges.
Sec R. Dupont, Report on a Visit of Investigation to ...th
Aldabra. Group of the Seychelles Islands (Seychefle*. 1907): Or
Abbott m Proceedings, United States National Museum (Wasbinfioa.
1894); A. Voelukow in Abh. der Senckenbertischen Nalurforschtnde*
Ges. vol. xxvi. part iv. (1901); J. S. Gardiner, "The Indus
Ocean," Geo. Journ. Oct. 1906.
ALDBOROUGH, a village in the Ripon parliamentary division
of the West Riding of Yorkshire, England, 16 m. W.N.W. of
York, and 1 m. E. of the market town of Boroughbridge, which
has a station on a branch of the North-Eastern railway. Aid-
borough formerly returned two members to parliament, but was
disfranchised by the Reform Act of 1832. The place is remarkable
from its numerous ancient remains. It was the Isurium Brig**-
turn of the Romans, originally perhaps a capital of the Brigade*
tribe, and afterwards a Romano-British town of constderablt
size. Inscriptions, beautiful mosaics and other traces of com-
fortable houses have been found, with many potsherds, coins aod
bronze, iron and other objects; and a large part of the tows
walls, several mosaics and parts of buildings, can be seen. A
ALDEBURGH— ALDEHYDES
53i
fine collection is kept in tlie Museum Isurianum in the grounds of
the manor-house.
ALDEBURGH (Aldborough), a market town and municipal
borough in the Eye parliamentary division of Suffolk, England,
the terminus of a branch of the Great Eastern railway, 09J m.
K.E. by E. from London. Area, 1629 acres. Pop. (1901) 2405.
The surrounding district is open and somewhat bleak, but a 6ne
stretch of sand fringes the shallow inlet of the North Sea known
as Aldeburgh Bay. To the W. the river Aide broadens as if into
an estuary, but its outflow is here prevented by the sand, and it
runs south for nearly 10 m. parallel with the shore. The sand-
banks have arrested the encroachments of the sea, which sub-
merged a former site of Aldeburgh. The church of St Peter and
St Paul is Perpendicular, largely restored, and contains a
monument to the poet George Crabbe, born here on the 24th of
December 1754. A small picturesque Moot Hall of the 16th
century is used for corporation meetings. Slaughden Quay on
the Aide admits small vessels, and fishing is carried on. Alde-
burgh is governed by a mayor, 4 aldermen and 12 councillors.
Aldeburgh (Aldburc) takes its name from the river Aide on
which it stands. It is not mentioned in pre-Conquest records,
but at the Domesday survey most of the land was held by Robert
Malet, a Norman. In 1 1 55 the manor was granted to the abbey
of St John of Colchester, later to Cardinal Wolsey, and on his
disgrace, to Thomas Howard, duke of Norfolk, to whom Elizabeth
in 1 567 granted a market on Saturday. In the 16th century
Aldeburgh was a place of considerable commercial importance,
due, no doubt, to its position on the sea-coast. Aldeburgh claims
to be a borough by prescription: the earliest charter is that
granted by Henry VIII. in 1529. Edward VI. in 1548 raised it
to the rank of a free borough, granting a charter of incorporation
and a market on Wednesday. Later charters were granted by
Philip and Mary in 1553, by Elizabeth in 1558 and 1567, by
James I. (who granted two annual fairs) in 1606, and by Charles I.
in 16 j 1 and 1637. The corporation included 2 bailiffs, 10
capital and 24 inferior burgesses, until the Municipal
Corporations Act 1883. The fairs and markets became so
unimportant that they were discontinued about the middle of the
ioth century. The town returned two members to Elizabeth's
parliament of 1572, and continued to be so represented till the
Reform Bill of 1832 disfranchised it. Frequent disastrous incur-
sions of the sea in the 18th century reduced Aldeburgh to a mere
fishing village. In recent years it has grown as a seaside resort,
with excellent golf-links.
See John Kirhy. The Suffolk Traveller (jnded., 1764); N. F. Hcle,
Notes about Aldeburgh (1870); Victoria County History— Suffolk.
ALDEGRBVBR, or Aldecraf, HEINRICH (1502-1558),
German painter and engraver, was born at Paderborn, from
which he removed in early life to Soest, where he died. Frdm
the close resemblance of his style to that of Albrecht DUrcr he
has sometimes been called the Albert of Westphalia. His
numerous engravings, chiefly from his own designs, arc delicate
and minute, though somewhat hard in style, and entitle him to
a place in the front rank of the so-called "Little Masters."
There is a good collection in the British Museum. Specimens
of his painting are exceedingly rare. Five pictures are in
continental galleries, but the genuineness of the works in the
Vienna and Munich collections attributed to him is at least
doubtful, the only unchallenged example being a portrait of
Engelbert Therlaen (1551) in the Berlin Museum.
ALDEHYDES, a class of chemical compounds of the general
formula R CHO (R-an alkyloran aryl group). The name is
derived from alcohol dehydrogenatum in allusion to the fact that
they may be prepared by the oxidation of alcohols. The lower
members of the series are neutral liquids possessing a character-
istic smell; they are soluble in water and are readily volatile
(formaldehyde, however, is a gas at ordinary temperatures).
As the carbon content of the molecule increases, they become
less soluble in water, and their smell becomes less marked with
the increase in boiling point, the highest members of the series
being odourless solMs, which can only be distilled without
decomposition in vacuo.
The aldehydes may be prepared by the careful oxidation
of primary alcohols with a mixture of potassium dichromate
and sulphuric acid,— 3R-CH l OH+K a Cri07+4H a SQ«-'K»SQ l +
Cr,(SO«)s+7Hrf>+3R-CHO; by distilling the calcium salts of
the fatty acids with calcium formate; and by hydrolysis of
the acetals. L. Bouveault (Bull. soc. chim., 1904 [3], 31, p. 1306)
prepares aldehydes by the gradual addition of disubstituted
formamides (dissolved in anhydrous ether) to magnesium alkyl
haloids, the best yields being obtained by the use of diethyl
formamide. Secondary reactions take place at the same time,
yielding more particularly hydrocarbons of the paraffin series.
G. Darzens (Compus Rendu*, 1004, 139, p. 12x4) prepares esters
of disubstituted glycidic acids, by condensing the corresponding
ketone with monochloracetic ester r in the presence of sodium
ethylate. These esters on hydrolysis yield the free acids, which
readily decompose, with loss of carbon dioxide and formation
of an aldehyde.
» yCRR« yCRR*
OC<5 +ClCH|COOC|H,-> OC\ ~> <K I
R| \OI-G00GH. NCH-COOH
-> COk+CHRR'CHO.
In the German Patent 157573 (1904) it is shown that by the
action of at least two molecular proportions of an alkyl formate
on two molecular proportions of a magnesium alkyl tw aryl
haloid, a complex addition compound is formed, which readily
decomposes into a basic magnesium salt and an aldehyde,
C,H»MgBr+HCOOR->RO-CHC i H»-OMgBr->MgBrOR+
QH»CHO.
The aldehydes are characterized by their great chemical re-
activity. They act as reducing agents, silver nitrate in the
presence of ammonia being rapidly reduced to the condition of
metallic silver. They are easily oxidized to the corresponding
fatty acid, in many cases simply by exposure to air. Nascent
hydrogen reduces them to primary alcohob, and phosphorus
pentachloride replaces the carbonyl oxygen by chlorine. They
form many addition compounds, combining with ammonia to
form aldehyde ammonias of the type R CH(OH)NH,. These
are colourless crystalline compounds, which are most readily
prepared by passing ammonia gas into an ethereal solution of
the aldehyde. With sodium bisulphite they form the so-called
bisulphite compounds R-CH(OH)-SO*Na, which are readily
resolved into their components by distillation with dilute
acids, and arc frequently used for the preparation of the pure
aldehyde.
With hydrocyanic acid aldehydes form the cyanhydrins
R.CH(OH)CN. They react with hydroxylamine and
phenylhydrazinc, with the formation of aldoximes and hydra-
zones. (For the isomerism of the aldoximes see Oxjmes).
The hydrazones are crystalline substances which are of value
in the characterization of the aldehydes. Both oximes and
hydrazones, on boiling with dilute acid, regenerate the parent
aldehyde. The hydrazones are best prepared by mixing the
aldehyde with phenylhydrazinc in dilute acetic acid solution,
in the absence of any free mineral acid. Semfaxamazid,
NH, CO CO NH NH,, has also been employed for the
identification of aldehydes (W. Kerp and K. Unger, Berichle,
>897i 30. p. sS$). Aldehydes are converted into resins by
the action of caustic alkalies. On heating with alcohols to
ioo° C. they form acetals, and they also form condensation
products with para-amido-di-methyl-aniline (A. Calm, Berichle,
1884. 17. P 2939)- They react with the zinc alkyls to form
addition products, which are decomposed by water with for-
mation of secondary alcohols (K. Thurnlach, Annalen, 1882, 213,
P- 369) thus: —
Zn(QH,)t ris H.0 nxi L
CH.CHO -> CH,CH<C.H {:<H ^cH,CH<g.H»+
ZnO+C,H»
The reaction is a general one for all aldehydes with zinc methyl
and zinc ethyl, but not with the higher zinc alkyls. V. Grignard
(Comptes Rendu*, 1900 et seq.) showed that aldehydes combine
with magnesium alkyl iodides (in absolute ether solution) to
form addition products, which arc decomposed by water with the
532
ALDEHYDES
formation of secondary alcohols, thus from acetaldehyde and
magnesium methyl iodide, isopropyl alcohol is obtained.
CHi CHO+CHiMgI->CH.CH<g{J gI ->(CH,)jCHOH +MgIOH.
The lower members of the aliphatic series are characterized
by their power of polymerisation (see Formalin, and the
account of Acetaldehyde below) , and also by the so-called
"aldol" condensation, acetaldehyde in this way forming
aldol, CH,CHOHCHrCHO. These aldols generally lose the
elements of water readily and pass into unsaturated com-
pounds; aldol itself on distillation at ordinary atmospheric
pressure gives crotonaldehyde, CH»-CH : CH-CHO.
Aldehydes are characterized by the reddish-violet colour
which they give with a solution of fuchsine that has been de-
colorized by sulphurous acid (H. Schiff, Ann., 1866, 140, p. 131).
With diazobenzene sulphonic acid in the presence of alkali and
a trace of sodium amalgam, a reddish-violet coloration is
formed on standing (E. Fischer, Iter., 1883, 16, p. 657). A. Angeli
(Can. ckim. ltd., 2806, as, ii. 17) has shown that aldehydes in
the presence of nitrohydroxylaminic add form hydroxamic
acid. The aldehydes condense readily with acetoacetic ester in
the presence of ammonia, to pyridines (see Pyridine), whilst
O. Doebner and W. v. Miller (/for., 1892, 25, p. 2864; 1806, 29,
p. 59) have shown that in the presence of aniline and sulphuric
acid they give substituted quinolines. (See also C. Beyer, Ber.,
1 887, 20, p. 2008). The chief aldehydes are shown in the following
table:—
Name.
Formula.
Boiling
Point.
Melting
Point.
Formaldehyde
H-CHO
-21°
Acetaldehyde
Propyl aldehyde
n- Butyl „
CHri HO
ao-8°
CHj-CHrCHO
49°
CH» (CH,)tCHO
75!
ISO- „ „
n-Valeryl „
<CH,)»CH cho
CH* (CHi)iCHO
61°
103;
iio- „ „
OH, CHO
92°
Oenanthyl „
CH, (CH,)*CHO
l *sl
Capric „
CHMCHi), CHO
121°
Laurie „
CHHCHO-CHO
445°
Myristic „
Palmitic „
VI* ■'.-.• 10
52-5°
CH.-(CH,WCHO
«?
Stearic M
CH,-(CrWCHO
Acrolein,
allyl aldehyde
CH, : CHCHO
5*°
Crotonic ,,
CH.CH : CHCHO
l<H°
Tiglic
(guaiacol)
CH,CH:CCH,CHO
1 16°
Propargylic A.
CH : C-CHO
59°
Benzaldehyde
CH,CHO
179*
r°
Tolukaldehydc-j m
^P
200°
C.H.CH.CHO
199°.
204°
Comic
C.H«-C,H,-CHO
235°
Cinnamic „
CH.CH : CHCHO
247°
For formaldehyde see Formalin. Acetaldehyde, CH,CHO,
was first noticed by C. Scheele in 1774 and isolated and investi-
gated by J. v. Liebig (Annalen, 1835, 14, p. 133). It is prepared
by oxidizing ethyl alcohol wifh dilute sulphuric acid and potassium
bichromate, and is a colourless liquid of boiling point 20-8° C,
possessing a peculiar characteristic smell. Its specific gravity is
0-8009 (o° C). It is miscible in all proportions with alcohol, ether
and water. It is readily polymerized, small quantities of hydro-
chloric acid, zinc chloride, carbonyl chloride, &c. converting it,
at ordinary temperatures, into paraldehyde, (C*H«0)», a liquid
boiling at 1 24° C. and of specific gravity 0998 (15° C). Paralde-
hyde is moderately soluble in water, and when distilled with
sulphuric acid is reconverted into the ordinary form. Mctalde-
hyde, (C,H 4 0)i, is produced in a similar way to paraldehyde, but
at lower temperatures (e.g. in presence of a freezing mixture).
It is a crystalline solid, which sublimes at iia°-ii5° C. It is
insoluble in water, and is only slightly soluble in alcohol and
ether. When heated in a sealed tube at 120* C. it is completely
converted into the ordinary form. Paraldehyde is oxidized by
dilute nitric acid, with formation of much glyozal, (CHO)*. (For
trichloracetaldehyde see Chloral.)
By the action of acetaldehyde on alcohol at 100* C, acetal,
CHrCH(OCiH«)i, is produced. It may also be prepared by
oxidizing ethyl alcohol with manganese dioxide and sulphuric
acid (A. Wurtz). It is a colourless liquid of specific gravity
0-8314 (so e /4°) (J. W. Brtthl) and boiling point 104* C Dilute
acids readily transform it into alcohol and aldehyde, and chxocak
acid oxidizes it to acetic add. Chlor- and brom-acetals bare
been described.
Thioaldehydes are also known, and are obtained by leading
sulphuretted hydrogen into an aqueous solution of acetaldehyde.
By this means a mixture is obtained which by distillation or the
action of hydrochloric acid yields trithioaldehyde, (C«H*S)>
For the constitution of these substances see E. Baumann and
E. Fromm (BerickU, 1891, 24, p. 1426). Aldehyde ammonia.
CH>CH(OH)NHj, is formed when dry ammonia gas is passed
into an ethereal solution of acetaldehyde. It crystallizes is
glistening rhombohedra, melting at 7o°-8o° C, and boiling at
ioo° C. It is completely resolved into its components whea
wanned with dilute acids.
The higher aldehydes of the series resemble acetaldehyde a
their general behaviour. Unsaturated aldehydes are also known,
corresponding to the olefine alcohols; they show the character-
istic properties of the saturated aldehydes and can form additive
compounds in virtue of their unsaturated nature. The simplest
member of the series is acrolein, C»H 4 or CHj : CH-CHO, which
can be prepared by the oxidation of allyl alcohol, or by the
abstraction of the elements of water from glycerin by beating it
with anhydrous potassium bisulphite. It is also produced by the
action of sodium on a mixture of epichlorhydxin and methyl
iodide, C,H 6 0a+CHJ+2Na-C,H«0+NaI+Naa+CH4. It
is a colourless liquid, with a very pungent smell, and attacks the
mucous membrane very rapidly. It boils at $2-4° C. and b
soluble in water. It oxidizes readily: exposure to air givir?
acrylic acid, nitric acid giving oxalic acid, bichromate of potash
and sulphuric acid giving carbon dioxide and formic acid It
combines with bromine to form a dibromide, from which
E. Fischer, by the action of baryta water, obtained the synthetic
sugars a- and 0-acrose (Berichte, 1889, 22, p. 360). Metacroleio.
(CarLjO)* is a polymer of acrolein. By passing acrolein vapour
into ammonia, acrolein ammonia, C«H»NO, is obtained. It is 1
reddish amorphous mass, insoluble in alcohol, and when distilled
yields picoline (methyl pyridine) (A. Baeyer, Ann., 1870, 155.
p. 283). Citronellal, rhodinal and gcranial are also unsaturated
aldehydes (see Terpenes).
The aromatic aldehydes resemble the aliphatic aldehydes ie
most respects, but in certain reactions they exhibit an entirely
different behaviour. They do not polymerize, and in the presence
of caustic alkalies do not resinify, but oxidize to alcohols and
acids (see Benzaldehyde for Cannizzaro's reaction). When
heated with alcoholic potassium cyanide they are converted into
benzoins (qt.). Vanillin docs not give the Cannizzaro reaction,
but with alcoholic potashformsvanillicacid,HOOC( 1 )• CJlrOCHj
(3) OHU), and vanilloin. With ammonia, benzaldehyde dots
not form an aldehyde ammonia, but condenses to hydrobenz-
amide, (C«HiCH)*N f , with elimination of water. Cumic aldehyde
(cuminol), (CH«)tCH(i)C«H4-CHO(4),isfoundin Roman caravay
oil and in oil of the water hemlock. It is a liquid, boiling at
23 5 C, and has a specific gravity of 0973. On distillation «ith
zinc dust it forms cymene (14 methyl isopropyl benzene).
Salicylic aldehyde (ortho-hydroxybenzaldehydc), HOO)
C»Hi CHO(j), an aromatic oxyaldehyde, is a colourless
liquid of boiling point 196 C. and specific gravity i- 172 (15*)
It is found in the volatile oils of Spiraea, and can be obtained by
the oxidation of the glucoside salicin, (CuHuCh), which is found
in willow bark. It is usually prepared by the so-called " Reimer "
reaction (Ber., i876,9,p. 1268), in which chloroform acts on phenol
in the presence of a caustic alkali,
GH.OH+CHCli+4KHO-3Ka+3HiO+KOGH«-CHO.
some para-oxybcnaldehyde being formed at the same time. It
ALDEN— ALDERNEY
533
Is volatile (para-oxybenzaldehyde is not) and gives a violet
coloration with ferric chloride. For dioxybenxaldehydes and
their derivatives see Pxpeional and Vanillin.
Cinnamic aldehyde (0-phenyl acrolein), QH»CH:CHCHO,
an unsaturated aromatic aldehyde, is the chief constituent of
cinnamon oil It is prepared by oxidizing dnnamyl alcohol, or
by the action of sodium ethylate on a mixture of benzaldehyde
and acetaldehyde. It is a colourless aromatic-smelling oily
liquid, which boils at 247° C. and readily oxidizes on exposure.
By condensation of aldehydes with pyruvic add and naph-
thylamines, the a-alkyl-naphthoquinoline-7-carboxylic adds are
produced; the same reaction takes place with the aromatic
amines generally (0. Doebner, Ann. 1894, 281, p. 1),
COOH
U\NHi + <b-CH. +R ' "UInAR
+2H<0+2R
ALDEN, JOHN (1590 M687), one of the " Pilgrims" who in
1620 emigrated to America on the " Mayflower " and founded
the Plymouth Colony. According to William Bradford's History
cf the Plimoth Plantation, he was hired as a cooper at Southampton,
" where the ship victuled," just before the voyage, "and being
a hopfull yong man, was much desired." He was one of the first
settlers of Duxbury, Massachusetts, where he lived during the
greater part of his life, and from 1633 until 1675 he was an
" Assistant "to the governor of the colony, frequently serving
as acting governor. At the time of his death, at Duxbury, on
the 1 ath of September 1687, he was the last male survivor of
the signers of the " Mayflower Compact " of 1620, and with the
exception of Mary Allerton was the last survivor of the " May-
Bower" company. He is remembered chiefly because of a
popular legend, put into verse as The Courtship of Miles Standish
by Henry W. Longfellow, concerning his courtship of Prisdlla
Mullins, whom he married in 1623, after having wooed her first
on behalf of his friend, Miles Standish.
ALDER, a genus of plants (Alnus) belonging to the order
Betulaceae, the best-known of which is the common alder
(A. glutinosa). The genus comprises a few species of shrubs or
trees, seldom reaching a large size, distributed through the
North Temperate zone, and in the New World passing along the
Andes southwards to Chile. The British spedes A. glutinosa
is confined to the Old World. This tree thrives best in moist
soils, has a shrubby appearance, and grows under favourable
circumstances to a height of 40 or 50 ft It is characterized
by its short-stalked roundish leaves, becoming wedge-shaped
at the base and with a slightly toothed margin. When young
they are somewhat glutinous, whence the specific name, becoming
later a dark olive green. As with other plants growing near
water it keeps its leaves longer than do trees in drier situations,
and the glossy green foliage lasting after other trees have put on
the red or brown of autumn renders it valuable for landscape
effect. The stout cylindrical male catkins are pendulous, red-
dish in colour and 2 to 4 in. long; the female are smaller, less
than an inch in length and reddish-brown in colour, suggesting
young fir-cones. When the small winged fruits have been
scattered the ripe, woody, blackish cones remain, often lasting
through the winter. The alder is readily propagated by seeds,
but throws up root-suckers abundantly. It is important as
coppice-wood on marshy ground. The wood is soft, white when
first cut and turning to pale red; the knots are beautifully
mottled. Under water the wood is very durable, and it is there-
fore used for piles. The supports of the Rialto at Venice, and
many buildings at Amsterdam, are of alder- wood. Furniture
is sometimes made from the wood, and it supplies excellent
charcoal for gunpowder. The bark is astringent; it is used
for tanning and dyeing.
ALDER-FLY, the name given to neuropterous insects of the
family Sialidae, related to the ant-lions, with long filamentous
antennae and four large wings, of which the anterior pair is
rather longer than the posterior. The females lay a vast number
of eggs upon grass stems near water. The larvae are aquatic,
active, armed with strong sharp mandibles, and breathe by means
of seven pairs of abdominal branchial filaments. When full-
sized they leave the water and spend a quiescent pupal stage
on the land before metamorphosis into the sexually mature
insect. Sialis lutaria is a well-known British example. In
America there are two genera, Corydalis and Chauliodes, which
are remarkable for their relatively gigantic size and for the
immense length and sabre-like shape of the mandibles.
ALDERMAN (from A.-S. ealdorman, compounded of the com-
parative degree of the adjective eald, old, and man), a term
implying the possession of an office of rank or dignity, and, in
modern times, applied to an office-bearer in the municipal
corporations and county coundlsof England and Wales, and in the
munidpal corporations of Ireland and the United States. Among
the Anglo-Saxons, earls, governors of provinces and other persons
of distinction received this title. Thus we read of the alder-
mannus totius AngHae, who seems to have corresponded to the
officer afterwards styled capitalis justiciarius Angliae, or chief-
justice of England; the aUermannus regis, probably an occasional
magistrate, answering to the modern justice of assize, or perhaps
an officer whose duty it was to prosecute for the crown; and
aldermamms comUatus, a magistrate with a middle rank between
what was afterwards called the earl and the sheriff, who sat at
the trial of causes with the bishop and dedared the common
law, while the bishop proceeded according to ecdesiastical law.
Besides these, we meet with the titles of aldermannus cmtotis,
burgi, casteUi, hundreii she wapentaehii, &c In England, before
the passing of the Munidpal Corporations Act, their functions
varied according to the charters of the different boroughs. By
the Munidpal Corporations Act 1835, *nd other acts, consoli-
dated by the Munidpal Corporations Act 1882, the aldermen
are elected by the coundllors for six years, one-half going out
every three years. The number of councillors in each borough
varies according to its magnitude. One-fourth of the municipal
council consists of aldermen and three-fourths of councillors.
In the counties, too, the number of aldermen is one-third of the
number of councillors, except in London, where it is one-sixth.
In the munidpal corporations of Scotland there is no such title
as alderman, the office-bearers of corresponding rank there being
termed bailies. The corporation of the dty of London was not
induded in the Borough Reform Act, and the antiquated system
remains there in full force. The court of aldermen consists of
twenty-six, twenty-five of whom are dected for life by the free-
men of the respective wards, who return two persons, one of
whom the court of aldermen dect to supply the vacancy. The
dty is divided into twenty-six wards; twenty-four of these send
up one alderman each, the other two combine to choose a twenty-
fifth. The twenty-sixth alderman serves for the independent
borough of Southwark (?.».) and is appointed by the other
aldermen, who generally select the senior from among themselves
when a vacancy occurs. The lord mayor is elected from such
of the aldermen as have served the office of sheriff; of these the
Common Hall, which consists of the freemen of the different
wards, select two, and the aldermen elect one of these to the
mayoralty. The court of aldermen has the power of appoint-
ment to certain offices, exercises judical functions in regard to
licensing and in disputes connected with the ward election, has
some power of disposal over the dty cash and possesses magis-
terial control over the dty, each alderman being a judge and
magistrate for the whole dty, and by virtue of his office exercising
the functions of a justice of the peace. The aldermen are members
of the court of common coundl, the legislative body of the
corporation, which consists in all of 232 members, the remainder
being elected annually by the freemen. In the United States
aldermen form as a rule a legislative rather tnan a judicial body,
although in some cities they hold courts and possess very con-
siderable magisterial powers.
ALDERNEY (Fr. Aurigny), one of the Channel Islands, the
northernmost of the prindpal members of the group, belong-
ing to England. It lies in 40° 43' N. and 2° 12' W., m. W.
of Cape La Hague on the coast of Normandy. The harbour,
on the north coast in the bay of Braye, is 25 m. from St Peter
534
ALDERSHOT
Port, Guernsey, by way of which outer communications are
principally carried on, and 55 m. S. by E. of Portland Bill, the
nearest point of England. The length of the bland from N. E.
to S. W. is 3} m., its average breadth x m., its area 1062 acres,
and its population (1001) 2062.
The strait between the island and Cape La Hague, called
the Race of Alderney (French Rax Blanchard), confined by
numerous rocks and reefs off either coast, is rendered very
dangerous in stormy weather by conflicting currents. Through
this difficult channel the scattered remnant of the French fleet
under Tourville escaped after the defeat of La Hogue in 1692.
To the west is the narrower and also dangerous channel of the
Swinge (Singe), between Alderney and the uninhabited islets of
Burhou, Ortach and others. West of these again are the
Casquets, a group of rocks to which attaches a long record of
shipwreck. Rocks and reefs fringe all the coasts of Alderney.
The island itself is a level open tableland, which on the south-
west and south falls abruptly to the sea in a majestic series of
cliffs. The greatest elevation of the land is about 300 ft. Towards
the north-west, north and east the less rocky coast is indented
by several bays, with open sandy shores, of which those of
Crabby, Braye, Corblets and Longy are the most noteworthy.
South-west of Longy Bay, where the coast rises boldly, there
is a remarkable projecting block of sandstone, called La Roche
Pendante (Hanging Rock) overhanging the cliff. Sandstone
(mainly along the north-east coast), granite and porphyry are
the chief geological formations. There are a few streams, but
water is obtained mainly from wells. Trees are scarce. The
town of St Anne stands almost in the centre of the island over-
looking and extending towards the harbour. Here are the court-
house, a gateway commemorating Albert, prince-consort, the
clock tower, which belonged to the ancient parish church, and
the modern church (1850), in Early English style, an excellent
example of the work of Sir Gilbert Scott. The church is a
memorial to the family of Le Mesurier, in which the hereditary
governorship of the island was vested until the abolition of the
office in. 1825. There is a chain of forts round the north coast
from Clanque Fort on the west to Fort Essex on the east, the
largest is Fort Albert, above Braye Bay. In 1847 work was
begun on a great breakwater west of the harbour, the intention
being to provide a harbour of refuge, but although a sum exceed-
ing one and a half million sterling was spent the scheme was
unsuccessful. The soil of Alderney is light, fertile and well
cultivated; grain and vegetables are grown and early potatoes
are exported. A large part of the island is under grass, affording
pasture for cattle. The well-known term " Alderney cattle/'
however, has lost in great measure its former signification of
a distinctive breed. Alderney is included in the bailiwick of
Guernsey. It has a court consisting of a judge and six jurats,
attorney-general, privet, greffUrd and sergeni; but as a judicial
court it is subordinate to that of Guernsey, and its administrative
powers are limited to such matters as the upkeep of roads.
For its relations to the constitution of the bailiwick, and for the
history of. the island, tee Channel Islands.
ALDERSHOT, an urban district in the Basingstoke parlia-
mentary division of Hampshire, England, 34 m. S.W. by W. of
London, on the London & South-Western and the South-
Eastern & Chatham railways. It was a mere village till 1855,
when Aldershot camp was established. Pop. (i8ox) 25,595;
(1901) 30,974. Its germ is to be found in the temporary camp
on Chobham Ridges, formed in 1853 by Lord Hardinge, the
commander-in-chief, the success of which convinced him of the
necessity of giving troops practical instruction in the field and
affording the generals opportunities of manoeuvring large bodies
of the three arms. He therefore advised the purchase of a tract
of waste land whereon a permanent camp might be established.
His choice fell on Aldershot, a spot also recommended by strategic
reasons, being situated on the flank of any army advancing
upon London from the south. Nothing came of Lord Hardinge's
proposal till the experience of the Crimean campaign fully
endorsed his opinion. The lands at Aldershot, an extensive
open heath country, sparsely dotted by fir-woods and intersected
by the Basingstoke canal, were then acquired by the crura.
Wooden huts were erected in 1855, and permanent buildinss
to replace them were begun in x88t. Under the Barracks Act
1800, and the Military Works Act of 1897 and 1899. large subs
were provided for completing the work. The former divinca
of North and South camps and permanent barracks 00 longer
obtains. North camp is now named Marlborough Lines, witk 1
field artillery barrack and five infantry barracks called after
Marlborough's victories. South camp is now named Stanhope
Lines, after Mr Stanhope, who was secretary of state for war
when the Barracks Act 1890 was passed and the recoostructiae
commenced in earnest They contain barracks for the Royal
Engineers and Army Service Corps, the general parade, wfcd
stretches east and west, and five infantry barracks calkd after
battles (other than those of Wellington), of the wars with France,
x 793- 1815. There are also barracks for the Royal Army Medio!
Corps. The old permanent barracks (which were built for the
most part about 1857) have been renamed Wellington Lines.
with cavalry and artillery barracks; and three infantry barracks
called after Wellington's victories in the Peninsula. For the
sick there are the Connaught Hospital in the Marlborough Lines,
the Cambridge Hospital in Stanhope Lines, and the Union
Hospital in Wellington Lines, besides the Louise Margaret
Hospital for women and children and the isolated infectioa
hospital.
The drainage of the station is all modern, and the sewage is
disposed of on a sewage farm under the direction of the war
department. The water supply is partly from the Aldershot
Water Company, and partly from springs and reservoirs collecting
water from a reserved area of war department property.
Most of the barracks can accommodate not only the units
they are constructed for, but also detachments going through
courses of instruction* The total of men, women and duldrea
for whom quarters are provided is at times as high as 24.000
Besides the regimental buildings there are a large number of
buildings for garrison purposes, such as quarters and offices foe
general, staff and departmental officers, with the warrant and
non-commissioned officers employed under them, the supply
depot with abattoir and bakery; the ordnance stores; barrack
stores for furniture and bedding, shops and stores for R- E
services, the balloon establishment; the detention barracks,
fire brigade stations; five churches; recreation grounds for
officers and men; schools, and especially the military technical
schools of army cooking, gymnastics, signalling, ballooning and
of mounted infantry, Army Service Corps, Royal Army Medkal
Corps and veterinary duties. The work of these schools ts,
however, only a small part of the military training afforded at
Aldershot; of greater importance is the field and musketry
training, for the carrying out of which a considerable extent of
land is essential. The land required for these purposes extends
at present over an area about 9} m. in extreme length by 7} b.
in extreme width. In addition to this there is the land at
Sandhurst and the Staff College (Camberley) about 6} en.
distant, and at Woolmer Forest, it m. distant. The musketry
practice of the troops at Aldershot is carried out at the Ash
ranges, 2 m. east of the barracks, while the Pirbright ranges,
alongside those of the National Rifle Association at Bisky. are
utilised by the Household Cavalry and Guards, who are en-
camped there in succession. Suitable grounds in the vicinity
of the barracks, of which Caesar's Camp, the Long Valley and
Laffan's Plain are best known, are utilised for company, bat-
talion and brigade training of infantry, while the mounted
branches work over a wider area, and the engineers carry out
their practices where most convenient For the field-days of the
combined arms, the whole of the war department property is
available. Aldershot is the headquarters of the "Aldershot
Army Corps," which is the largest organised force maintained
in the United Kingdom.
Besides the troops in barracks, during the drill season there
is often a considerable force in camp, both regular troops
from other stations and militia and volunteer units, so that,
including the regular garrison, sometimes as many as 40,000
ALDHELM
S35
troops hive been concentrated at the station for training and
manoeuvres.
ALDHELM (c 640-709), bishop of Sherborne, English scholar,
was born before the middle of the 7 th century. He is said to
have been the son of Kenten, who was of the royal house of
Wessex, but who was certainly not, as Aldhelm's early biographer
Faritius asserts, the brother of Ring Ine. He received his first
education in the school of an Irish scholar and monk, Maildulf,
Marldubh or Meldun (d. c. 675), who had settled in the British
stronghold of Bladon or Bladow on the site of the town called
MaUduberi, Maldubesburg, Meldunesburg, &c, and finally
Malmesbury, 1 after him. In 668 Pope Vitalian sent Theodore
of Tarsus to be archbishop of Canterbury, and about the same
time came the African scholar Hadrian, who became abbot of
St Augustine's at Canterbury. Aldhelm was one of his disciples,
for he addresses him as the " venerable preceptor of my rude
childhood." He must, nevertheless, have been thirty years of
age when he began to study with Hadrian. His studies included
Roman law, astronomy, astrology, the art of reckoning and the
difficulties of the calendar. He learned, according to the doubtful
statements of the early lives, both Greek and Hebrew. He
certainly introduces many Latinized Greek words into his works.
Ill-health compelled him to leave Canterbury, and he returned
to Malmesbury, where he was a monk under Maildulf for fourteen
years, dating probably from 661, and including the period of
his studies with Hadrian. When Maildulf died, Aldhelm was
appointed in 675, according to a charter of doubtful authenticity
cited by William of Malmesbury, by Leutherius, bishop of
Dorchester from 671 to 676, to succeed to the direction of the
monastery, of which he became the first abbot. He introduced
the Benedictine rule, and secured the right of the election of
the abbot to the monks themselves. The community at Malmes-
bury increased, and Aldhelm was able to found two other
monasteries to be centres of learning at Frome and at Bradford
on Avon. The little church of St Lawrence at Bradford dates
back to his time and may safely be regarded as his. At Malmes-
bury he built a new church to replace Maildulf 's modest building,
and obtained considerable grants of land for the monastery.
His fame as a scholar rapidly spread into other countries. Artwil,
the son of an Irish king, submitted his writings for Aldhelm's
approval, and Cellanus, an Irish monk from Pcronne, was one
of his correspondents. Aldhelm was the first Englishman, so
far as we know, to write in Latin verse, and his letter to Acircius
(Aid frith or Eadfrith, king of Northumbria) is a treatise on
Latin prosody for the use of his countrymen. In this work he
included his most famous productions, 101 riddles in Latin
hexameters. Each of them is a complete picture, and one of
them runs to 8j lines. That his merits as a scholar were early
recognized in his own country is shown by the encomium of Bede
(Ecci. Hist. v. 18), who speaks of him as a wonder of erudition
His fame reached Italy, and at the request of Pope Sergius I
(687-701) he paid a visit to Rome, of which, however, there is
no notice in his extant writings. On his return, bringing with
him privileges for his monastery and a magnificent altar, he
received a popular ovation. He was deputed by a synod ot the
church in Wessex to remonstrate with the Britons of Domnonia
(Devon and Cornwall) on their differences from the Roman
practice in the shape of the tonsure and the date of Easter
This he did in a long and rather acrimonious letter to their king
Geraint (Geruntius), and their ultimate agreement with Rome
is referred by William of Malmesbury to his efforts. In 705. or
perhaps earlier, Hrddi, bishop of Winchester, died, and the
diocese was divided into two parts. Sherborne was the new see.
of which Aldhelm reluctantly became the first bishop* He
wished to resign the abbey of Malmesbury which he had governed
for thirty years, but yielding to the remonstrances of the monks
be continued to direct it until his death He was now an old man,
but he showed great activity in his new functions. The cathedral
church which he built at Sherborne, though replaced later by a
1 For the disputed etymology of Malmesbury. which some connect
with Aldhelm's name, see Bishop Browne. St Aldhelm: his Life and
Tim*., p. 73.
Norman church, b described by William of Malmesbury. He
was on his rounds in his diocese when he died in the church of
Doulting on the 25th of May 709. The body was taken to
Malmesbury, and crosses were set up by the pious care of his
friend, Bishop Ecgwine of Worcester, at the various halting-
places. He was buried in the church of St Michael. His
biographers relate miracles due to his sanctity worked during
his lifetime and at his shrine.
Aldhelm wrote poetry in Anglo-Saxon also, and set his own
compositions to music, but none of his songs, which were still
popular in the time of Alfred, have come down to us. Finding
his people slow to come to church, he is said to have stood at the
end of a bridge singing songs in the vernacular, thus collecting
a crowd to listen to exhortations on sacred subjects. Aldhelm
wrote in elaborate and grandiloquent Latin, which soon came
to be regarded as barbarous. Much admired as he was by his
contemporaries, his fame as a scholar therefore soon declined,
but his reputation as a pioneer in Latin scholarship in England
and as a teacher remains.
Aldhelm's works were collected in J. A. Giles's Patres eccl. Angl.
(Oxford, 1844), and reprinted by J. P. Migne in his Patrologiae
Cursus, vol. 89 (1850). The letter to Geraint, king of Domnonia,
was supposed to have been destroyed by the Britons (W. of
Malmesbury, Cesta Pontificum, p. 361), but was discovered with
others of Aldhelm's in the correspondence of St Boniface, arch-
bishop of Mainz. A long letter to Eahf rid, a scholar just returned
from Ireland (first printed in Usscrii Velerum Epistl. Hibcr.
Sylloge, 163a), is of interest as casting light on the relations
between English and Irish scholars. Next to the riddles,
Aldhelm's best-known work is De Laude Virginitaiis she de
Virginitate Sanctorum, a Latin treatise addressed about 705
to the nuns of Barking, 1 in which he commemorates a great
number of saints. This was afterwards turned by Aldhelm into
Latin verse (printed by Delrio, Mainz, 1601). The chief source
of his Epistoia ad Acircium sive liber de septenario, ei de met r is,
aenigmatibus ac pedum regulis (ed. A. Mai, Class. Aud. vol. v.)
is Priscian. For the riddles included in it, his model was the
collection known as Symposii aenigmata. The acrostic intro-
duction gives the sentence, " Aldhelmus cecinit millenis versibus
odas," whether read from the initial or final letters of the lines.
His Latin poems include one on the dedication of a basilica built
by Bugge (or Eadburga), a royal lady of the house of Wessex.
Aut hori TIF4,— Farit ins (J. 1 1 1 ?}< an Italian monk or Malmesbury,
afterwards abbot oJ Abingdon , wrote a Ytla S. Aldhelmt (MS. Cot Eon,
FattaUm. B. 4), primed by Giles and Miene, also in Original Livrs of
A mtlo-Sas&rt 4 tCaxton Sot:., iSs+h but the best authority it William
of Malmesbury, who in ihe fifth book h devoted to Si Aldhclm H of the
Ctiia Ptfttfifitutn proposes to fill up the outline of Faritius, u&inc the
church records, the traditions of Aldhelm's miracks preserved by
the monks of Malmesbury h and the lost " Handboc" or commonplace
book of King Alfred, His narrative is divided UHK> four pan*: the
birth and attainments of Aldhelm. the religious house* be had
established and endowed, the miracles recorded of him, and the
history of the abbey down to the writer's own time (see De Cesiis
Pontificuwi, ed N* TL Sl A, Hamilton. i$70 r for the Roll* Series,
PP 330- 4 4 J I T he li fe by J oh n Opera ve in ha Ltgtnda Nova ( 1 $tb j
is chieHy an abridgment of Malnitstury'* narrative- Consult alio
L. &6nhon\ Atdhdm von Moimtshury {Dresden. 1&91); T D. Hardy.
Dettrtptrtx Catalogue {136?), vol. L _&p. 389-396 1 T. Wright , Bwe.
Brtt UL (A --5. Period. 1S4J); G, F. Browne, buhop of Bristol, St
Aldkflm, iii s Life and Times (1903); and \V. B. Wild man. Lift vf
S. EtxittktJm. Jirst Bishop of Sherborne (1905), containing many
interesting local details, For some poems attributed to Aldhelm,
ami printed in Dummler's edition of the letters of St Boniface and
Lul in MonumrnU Germaniae Hiitorita (epi*tt. torn. iii-). set H.
Bradlry in En*. Ihsl. /frrirtn. xv. p. 291 (l90Q) f where they are
attributed to A fdhelm's disciple ^thilwald 1 . The very varied sources
and the chronology of Aldhelm's work art- discussed in " Zu Aldhelm
und Baeda." by Max Maiutius, in Sitztingsbtrkhte der koiierlichen
Akad der Wissenschajten (Vienna, 1886).
An excellent account of his ecclesiastical importance is given by
W. Bright in Chapters on Early English Church History (Oxford.
1878). For his position as a writer of Latin verse consult A. Ebert.
AUgemeine Ceschichte d. Literahtr des Mittelalters im Abtndlande,
'Cuthburga. sister of King lne of Wessex. and therefore related
to Aldhelm, left her husband Aldfrith, king of Northumbria. to
enter the nunnery at Barking. She afterwards founded the nunnery
of Wimborne. of which she became abbess.
536
ALDINE PRESS— ALDRICH
vol. L new edition (1889); M. Manhios, Gesckukie der ehrutiick-
latemischen Poesie 6>c. (Stuttgart, 1891), pp. 487-496; also
H. Hahn. Bonifaz und Lul ihre angdstaksiscken Korrespondenten,
chap. i. (Leipzig, 1884). The two last«named works contain many
further bibliographical reference*
ALDINB PRESS, the printing office started by Aldus Manutius
at the end of the 15th century in Venice, from which were issued
the celebrated Aldine editions of the classics of that time.
(See Manutixjs.) The Aldine Press is famous in the history of
typography (q.v.), among other things, for the introduction of
italics.
ALDINI, GIOVANNI (x 7 6*-x8j4), Italian physicist, born at
Bologna on the xoth of April 1 762, was a brother of the statesman
Count Antonio Aldini (1756-1836) and nephew of L. Galvani,
whose treatise on muscular electricity he edited with notes in
1 791. He became professor of physics at Bologna in 1708, in
succession to his teacher Sebastiano Canterxani (1734-18x0).
His scientific work was chiefly concerned with galvanism and
its medical applications, with the construction and illumination
of lighthouses, and with experiments for preserving human life
and material objects from destruction by fire. He wrote in
French and English in addition to his native Italian. In recogni-
tion of his merits, the emperor of Austria made him a knight of
the Iron Crown and a councillor of state at Milan, where he died
on the 17 th of January 1834. He left by will a considerable
sum to found a school of natural science for artisans at Bologna.
ALDRED, or Eaidked (d. 1069), English ecclesiastic, became
abbot of Tavistock about 1027, in 1044 was made bishop of
Worcester, and in 1060 archbishop of York. He had considerable
influence over King Edward the Confessor, and as his interests
were secular rather than religious he took a prominent part in
affairs of state, and in 1046 led an unsuccessful expedition
against the Welsh. In 1050 he was largely instrumental in
restoring Sweyn, the son of Earl Godwin, to his earldom, and
about the same time went to Rome " on the king's errand." In
1054 he was sent to the emperor Henry IH. to obtain that mon-
arch's influence in securing the return to England of Edward, son
of Edmund Ironside, who was in Hungary with King Andrew I.
In this mission he was successful and obtained some insight into
the working of the German church during a stay of a year with
Hermann II., archbishop of Cologne. After his return to England
he took charge of the sees of Hereford and Ramsbury, although
not appointed to these bishoprics; and in 1058 made a pilgrimage
to Jerusalem, being the first English bishop to take this journey.
Having previously given up Hereford and Ramsbury, Aldred
was elected archbishop of York in 1060, and in xofii he proceeded
to Rome to receive the pallium. On his arrival there, however,
various charges were brought against him by a synod, and Pope
Nicholas II. not only refused his request but degraded him
from the episcopate. The sentence was, however, subsequently
reversed, and Aldred received the pallium and was restored to
his former station. It is stated by Florence of Worcester that
Aldred crowned King Harold II. in 1066, although the Norman
authorities mention Stigand as the officiating prelate. After
the battle of Hastings Aldred joined the party who sought to
bestow the throne upon Edfcar the iEtheling, but when these
efforts appeared hopeless he was among those who submitted to
William the Conqueror at Berkhampstead. Selected to crown
the new king he performed the ceremony on Christmas Day
xo66, and in xo68 performed the same office at the coronation of
Matilda, the Conqueror's wife. But though often at court, he
seems to have been no sympathiser with Norman oppression,
and is even said to have bearded the king himself. He died at
York on the 1 ith of September 1069 and was buried in his own
cathedral. Aldred did much for the restoration of discipline
in the monasteries and churches under his authority, and was
liberal in his gifts for ecclesiastical purposes. He built the
monastic church of St Peter at Gloucester, and rebuilt a large
part of that of St John at Beverley. At his instigation, Folcard,
a monk of Canterbury, wrote the Life of St John of Beverley.
See The AntUhSaxon Chronicle, edited by C. Plummer (Oxford,
1892-1899); Florence of Worcester. Chronuum ex Ckrtmicis, edited
by B. Thorpe (London, 1848M849); William of Malraesbury, De
CesHsPt
1870): W.
._ , m . . N. E. S. A. Ham^f* I
•o/v/j ™. J. Dixon, Fasti Eboracenses, vol. j., edited by 1- -- —
(London, 1863); T. Stubbs, Chronica Ponkficum Ecctesuw EU—
eensis, edited by J. Raine (I*iidpn, w 1870-1 894): E. A. JVecsnaa.
History of the Norman Conquest, vols. iL, hi., hr. (Oxford, 1867-1*79)-
ALDRICH, HENRY (1647-1710). English theologian and
philosopher, was born in 1647 at Westminster, and was educated
at the collegiate school there, under Dr Busby. In 1662 he
entered Christ Church, Oxford, and in 1689 was made dean in
succession to the Roman Catholic, John Massey, who had fled
to the continent In 1692 he was vice-chancellor of Use Uni-
versity. In 1702 he was appointed rector of Wem in Shropshire,
but continued to reside at Oxford, where he died on the 14th of
December 171a He was buried in the cathedral without any
memorial at his own desire. Aldrich was a man of unusaa&y
varied gifts. A classical scholar of fair merits, he is best known
as the author of a little book on logic (Compendium ArUs Uficet),
a work of little value in itself, but used at Oxford (in 14aaseTi
revised edition) till long past the middle of the 19th century.
Aldrich also composed a number of anthems and church services
of high merit, and adapted much of the music of Palestrina and
Carissimi to English words with great skill and judgment. To
him we owe the well-known catch, " Hark, the bonny Christ
Church bells." Evidence of his skill as an architect may be
seen in the church and campanile of All Saints, Oxford, and in
three sides of the so-called Peckwater Quadrangle of Christ
Church, which were erected after his designs. He bore a great
reputation for conviviality, and wrote a humorous Latin version
of the popular ballad—
A soldier and a sailor.
A tinker and a tailor, Ac
Another specimen of his wit is furnished by the following epigram
of the five reasons for drinking.*—
Si bene quid memini, causae sunt qutnque bibendi;
Hosfntis adoentus, praesens siiis atque futura,
Aut vini bonitas, out quaeUbet altera causa.
The translation runs:—
If on my theme I rightly think,
There are five reasons why men drink r—
Good wine; a friend; because I'm dry*
Or lest 1 should be by and by;
Or— any other reason why.
ALDRICH, NELSON WILMARTH (1841- ), Americas
politician, was born at Foster, Rhode Island, on the 6th of
November 1841. His first political service was as a member
(1860-1875) and president (1871-1872) of the Providence
common council. He was a member of the lower house of the
Rhode Island legislature in 1875 and 1876, and speaker in the
latter year. By this time he had become a power in Republics*
state politics, and in 1878 and 1880 was elected to Congress.
Early in his second term he was chosen United States senator,
and was re-elected in x886, 1892, 1898 and 1905. In the Senate
he was looked upon as the special representative of the high
protective industries and moneyed interests, and he took s
prominent part in all legislation dealing with the tariff, banking
and- the merchant marine.
ALDRICH, THOMAS BAILEY (1836-1007), American author.
was born in Portsmouth, New Hampshire, on the 11th of
November 1836. When he was but a child his father moved to
New Orleans, but after ten years the boy was sent back to
Portsmouth— the " Rivermouth " of several of his stories— to
prepare for college. This period of his life is partly described in
his Story of a Bad Boy (1870), of which "Tom Bailey n b the
juvenile hero. 1 His father's death in 1852 compelled Aldrich
to abandon the idea of college and enter a business office in New
York. Here he soon became a constant contributor to the news-
papers and magazines, and the intimate friend of the young poets,
artiste and wits of the metropolitan Bohemia of the early 'sixties,
among whom were E. C. Stedman, R. H. Stoddard, Bayard
Taylor and Walt Whitman. From 1856 to 1859 he was oa the
staff of the Home Journal, then edited by N. P. Willis, whOe
1 This book has been translated into French as Bdmeatum A
rUriation, and into German as a specimen of American humoar.
ALDRINGER— ALE
537
during the Civil War he was himself editor of the New York
Illustrated News. In 186*5 hc moved to Boston and was editor
for ten years for Ticknorand Fields— then at the height of their
prestige— of the eclectic weekly Every Saturday, discontinued in
1 875. Prom 1 88 1 to 1800 he was editor of the Atlantic Monthly.
Meanwhile Aldrich had written much, both in prose and verse.
His genius was many-sided, and it is surprising that so busy an
editor and so prolific a writer should have attained the perfection
of form for which he was remarkable. His successive volumes of
verse, chiefly The Ballad of Babie Bell (1*56), Pampinea, and
Other Poems (1861), Cloth of Cold (1874), Flower and Thorn (1876),
Friar Jerome's Beautiful Book (j88x), Mercedes and Later Lyrics
( 1 SS&Wyndham Towers (1 889), and the collected editions of 2865,
1882, 1897 and 1000, showed him to be a poet of lyrical skill,
dainty touch and felicitous conceit, the influence of Hcrrick
being constantly apparent. He repeatedly essayed the long
narrative or dramatic poem, but seldom with success, save in
such earlier work as Carnaut Hall. But no American poet has
shown more skill in describing some single picture, mood, conceit
or episode. His best things are such lyrics as " Hesperides,"
" When the Sultan goes to Ispahan," " Before the Rain," "Name-
less Pain," " The Tragedy," " Scadrift," " Tiger Lilies," " The
One White Rose," " Palabras Carifiosas," " Destiny," or the
eight-line poem " Identity," which did more to spread Aldrich's
reputation than any of his writing after Babie Bell. Begin-
ning with the collection of stories entitled Marjorie Daw and
Other People (1873), Aldrich applied to his later prose work that
minute care in composition which had previously characterized
his verse — taking a near, new or salient situation, and setting it
before the reader in a pretty combination of kindly realism and
reticent humour. In the novels, Prudence Palfrey (1874), The
Queen of Sheba (1877), and The Stillwater Tragedy (1880), there
is more rapid action; but the Portsmouth pictures in the first
are elaborated with the affectionate touch shown in the shorter
humourous tale, A Rivermouth Romance (1877). In An Old Town
by the Sea (1803) the author's birthplace was once more com-
memorated, while travel and description are the theme of From
Ponhapog to Pesth (1883). Aldrich died at Boston on the 19th of
March 1007
His Life was written by Ferris Greenslet (1908).
ALDRINGER (Altunger, Alouncen), JOHANN, Count
von ( 1 588-1634), Austrian soldier, was born at Diedenhofen
(Thionville) in Lorraine. After travelling as page to a nobleman
in France, Italy and the Netherlands, he went to the university
of Paris. In 1606 he entered the service of Spain, in which he
remained until 16x8, when he joined the imperial army Here he
distinguished himself in the field and in the cabinet. Made a
colonel in 1622, two years later he was employed on the council
of war and on diplomatic missions. At the bridge of Dessau in
1626 be performed very distinguished service against Ernst von
Mansfcld. He and his constant comrade Matthias Gallas (q.v )
were ennobled on the same day, and in the course of the Italian
campaign of 1630 the two officers married the two daughters of
Count d'Arco. Aldringer served as Count Rambold Collalto's
major-general in this campaign and was present at the taking of
Mantua. The plunder of the duke of Mantua's treasures made
Gallas and Aldringer wealthy men. Back in Germany in 1631,
he served after Breitenfeld as Tilly's artillery commander, and,
elevated to the dignity of count of the Empire, he was present
at the battle of the Lech, where he was wounded. When Tilly
died of his wounds Aldringer succeeded to the command. Made
field-marshal after the assault of the Alte Veste near Nuremberg,
at which he had been second in command under Wallenstein,
duke of Friedland (with whom he was a great favourite), he was
next placed at the head of the corps formed by Maximilian I.
of Bavaria to support Wallenstein. In this post his tack and
diplomatic ability were put to a severe test in the preservation
of harmony between the two dukes. Finally Count Aldringer
was won over by the court party which sought to displace the
too successful duke of Friedland After Wallenstein's death
Aldringer commanded against the Swedes on the Danube, and
st the defence of Landshut he fell (July 22. 1634) His great
possessions descended to his sister, and thence to the family of
Clary and Aldringen.
See Brohm, Johann ton Aldringen (Halle, 1882), and Hermann
Hallwich, Johann von Aldringen (Leipzig, 1885) ; also AUgemeine
Deutsche Biographie, s.v. Gallas, correcting earlier biography of
Aldringer in the same work.
ALDROVANM, ULISSI (1522-1605), Italian naturalist, was
born of noble parentage at Bologna on the nth of September
1522. He was apprenticed to a merchant in Brescia, but a
commercial career being distasteful to him, he turned his atten-
tion to law and medicine, studying first in his native town and
afterwards at Padua. In 1550 he was accused of heresy, but
succeeded in clearing himself before the Inquisition. In 1 553 he
took his doctor's degree in medicine at Bologna, and in the
following year was appointed professor of philosophy and also
lecturer on botany at the university. In x 560 he was transferred
to the chair of natural history. At his instance the senate of
Bologna established in 1568 a botanical garden, of which he was
appointed the first director. About the same time he became
inspector of drugs, and in that capacity published in 1 574 a work
entitled AntidotarU Bononiensis Epitome, which formed the
model for many subsequent pharmacopoeias. He was also
instrumental in founding the public museum of Bologna, which
contains, especially in the natural history department, a large
number of specimens collected by him. The results of his various
researches were embodied in a magnum opus, which was designed
to include everything that was known about natural history.
The first three volumes, comprising his ornithology, were pub-
lished in x 509, and a fourth, treating of insects, appeared in 1602.
After his death a number of other volumes were compiled from
his manuscript materials, under the editorship of several of his
pupils, to whom the task was entrusted by the senate of Bologna.
The work was enriched by a large number of illustrations pre-
pared at great expense, the author having, it b said, employed
several celebrated artists for thirty years. Among these were
Lorenzo Benin! of Florence and Christopher Coriolanus of
Nuremberg. It has been said, indeed, that the cost of the under-
taking was so great as to exhaust its author's means, and that he
died penniless and blind in the public hospital of Bologna. This,
however, is probably incorrect, at least as regards the allegation
of poverty. Published records of the senate of Bologna show that
it liberally supported Aldrovandi in his undertaking, doubling his
salary soon after his appointment as professor, and bestowing on
him from time to time sums amounting in all to 40,000 crowns.
If, therefore, he died in the public hospital, he probably went
there for the better treatment of his disease. His death occurred
on the xoth of May x 605. Aldrovandi was chiefly remarkable for
laborious and patient research. He seems to have been totally
destitute of the critical faculty, and hardly any attempt is made
in his great work to classify facts or to distinguish between the
true and the fabulous, the important and the trivial. Much is
thus included that is of no scientific value, but it also contains
much information of very great interest to the naturalist
ALB, an old word for a fermented liquor obtained chiefly
from malt. In England " ale " is nowadays practically synony-
mous with " beer." Before the introduction of hops into
England from Flanders in the 16th century ale was the name
exclusively applied to malt liquor, the term beer being gradually
introduced to describe liquor brewed with an infusion of hops.
This distinction does not apply at the present time, except in
so far as the term ale is not applied to black beers (stout and
porter) nor to lager beer. In the United States, however, it is
customary to confine the designation beer to the article obtained
by the bottom fermentation process. In former times the Welsh
and Scots had two distinct kinds of ale, called common and
spiced ales, the relative values of which were appraised by law
in the following terms: " If a farmer have no mead, he shall pay
two casks of spiced ale, or four casks of common ale, for one cask
of mead. " There are numerous varieties of English ales, such as
mild ale, which is a full, sweetish beer, of a dark colour and with
relatively little hop; pale ale, which is relatively dry, of light
colour and of a more pronounced hop flavour than the mild ale;
538
ALEANDRO— ALECSANDRI
and bitter and stock ales, the latter term being generally reserved
for superior beers, snch as are used for bottling. The terms
pale, bitter, stock, light, &c, are to be regarded as trade distinc-
tions and not as exact definitions of quality or type. (See Beer
and Brewing.)
Parish Ales.— In old England an " ale " was synonymous
with a parish festival or merry-making at which ale was the
chief drink. The word was generally used in composition.
Thus there were leet-ales (that held on leet or manorial court
day); lamb-ales (that held at lamb-shearing) , Whitsun-ales,
clerk-ales, church-ales and so on. The word bridal is really
bride-ale, the wedding feast Bid-ales, once very common
throughout England, were " benefit " feasts to which a general
invitation was given, and all the neighbours attending were
expected to make some contribution to help the object of the
"benefit." (See "Bidding-Weddings" under Bride.) These
parish festivals were of much ecclesiastical and social importance
in medieval England. The chief purpose of church-ales and
clerk-ales, at least, was to facilitate the collection of parish-dues,
or to make an actual profit for the church from the sale of the
liquor by the church wardens. These profits kept the parish
church in repair, or were distributed as alms to the poor. At
Sygate, Norfolk, on the gallery of the church is inscribed-
God speed the plough
And give us good ale enow . . .
Be merry and glade,
With good ale was this work made.
On the beam of a screen in the church of Thorpe-le-Soken,
Essex, is the following inscription in raised Gothic letters, on a
scroll held by two angels — " This cost is the bachelers made by
ales thesn be ther med." The date is about 1480. The feast
was usually held in a barn near the church or in the churchyard.
In Tudor times church-ales were held on Sundays. Gradually
the parish-ales were limited to the Whitsun season, and these
still have local survivals. The colleges of the universities used
formerly to brew their own ales and hold festivals known as
college-ales. Some of these ales are still brewed and famous,
like " chancellor " at Queen's College, and " archdeacon " at
Merton College, Oxford, and " audit ale " at Trinity, Cambridge.
See Brand's Popular Antiquities of Great Britain (Win. Carew
Hazlitt's edition, 1905).
ALEANDRO, GIROLAMO (Hieronymus Aleander) (1480-
1542), Italian cardinal, was born at Motta, near Venice, on the
13th of February 1480. He studied at Venice, where he became
acquainted with Erasmus and Aldus Manutius, and at an early
age was reputed one of the most learned men of the time. In
1508 he went to Paris on the invitation of Louis XII. as pro-
fessor of belles Uttres, and held for a time the position of rector
in the university. Entering the service of Eberhard, prince-
bishop of Liege, he was sent by that prelate on a mission to Rome,
where Pope Leo X. retained him, giving him (1519) the office of
librarian of the Vatican. In the following year he went to
Germany to be present as papal nuncio at the coronation of
Charles V., and was also present at the diet of Worms, where he
headed the opposition to Luther, advocating the most extreme
measures to repress the doctrines of the reformer. His conduct
evoked the fiercest denunciations of Luther, but it also displeased
more moderate men and especially Erasmus. The edict against
the reformer, which was finally adopted by the emperor and the
diet, was drawn up and proposed by Aleandro. Alter the close
of the diet the papal nuncio went to the Netherlands, where he
kindled the flames of persecution, two monks of Antwerp, the
first martyrs of the Reformation, being burnt in Brussels at
his instigation. In 1523 Clement VII., having appointed him
archbishop of Brindisi and Oria, sent him as nuncio to the court
of Francis I. He was taken prisoner along with that monarch
at the battle of Pa via (1525), and was released only on payment
of a heavy ransom. He was subsequently employed on various
papal missions, especially to Germany, but was unsuccessful in
preventing the German princes from making a truce with the
reformers, or in checking to any extent the progress of the new
doctrines. He was created cardinal in 1536 by Paul III. (at the
same time as Reginald Pole) and died at Rome on the 1st oi
February 1542.
Aleandro compiled a Ltxuon Graeto-Lattnum (Pari*. 151*). tad
" * ....... ^ * 1 M. Tus
wrote Latin verse of considerable merit inserted in 1
Carmina Ittustrium Poetarum Italiorum. The Vatican Kbnry
contains a volume of manuscript letters and other doenmeao
written by him in connexion with his various ausssocu agaisst
Luther. They were utilized by Pallavidno in his istoria del Comam
Tridentino (i. 23-28), who gives a very partial account of the Worn
conference.
Aleandro, who is sometimes called "the elder," must be.distis-
guished from his grand-nephew, also called Girolamo Aleandro
(1*74-1629). The younger Aleandro was a very distinguish*:
scholar, and wrote Psalmi poenitentiales versions eUgiacis expran
(Treves, 1593), Can, veteris juris consulH Institutionum frtgmrme,
cum eommentario (Venice, 1600), ExpHeaHo veteris tabula* mat menu
salts effigie symbohsque exculptae (Rome, 1616).
ALEARDI, ALEARDO, Count (1812-1878), Italian pott.
was born at Verona on the 4th of November 181 2, and thus soca
after his birth became an Austrian subject. Inspired from las
cradle with a hatred of the foreigner, he found himself disqualified
for the position in the public service to which his rank would
have entitled him, and unable to publish his patriotic verses.
Arnaldo da Rocca, a narrative poem, nevertheless appeared a
1842, and the revolutionary year 1848 made an opening for fej
Lettere a Maria. He took an active part in the popular uprising,
and was for some time imprisoned. In 1856 he produced the
finest of his pieces, an ode to the maritime cities of Italy, and »
1858 a poem on his own misfortunes. After the expulsion of
the Austrians from Lombardy he returned to Verona, published
his poems in a collected edition (1862), became professor at the
Academy of Fine Art, member of the Italian parliament and
eventually senator. He died on the 1 7 th of July 1878, Akardi's
warmth of patriotic feeling hardly finds adequate expression ia
his poetry; it is his merit to excel in description, but his fault to
substitute description for action.
ALE-CONNER, an officer appointed yearly at the court-leet of
ancient English manors for the assize of ale and ale-measures.
The gustatores cervisiae — called in different localities by the
different names " ale-tasters," "ale-founders," and "ale-
conners " — were sworn to examine beer and ale, to take care that
they were good and wholesome and were sold at proper prices.
In London four ale-conners, whose duty it is to examine the
measures used by beer and liquor sellers to guard against
fraud, are still chosen annually by the liverymen in common
hall assembled on Midsummer Day Since ale and beer have
become excisable commodities the custom of appointing
ale-tasters has in most places fallen into disuse (See also
Adulteration.)
ALECSANDRI, or Alexandri, VASILB (1821-1800). Rumanian
lyric poet, was born at Bacau in Moldavia on the 21st of July
1821. His father was the Spatar Alecsandri, of Jewish and
Italian origin, who had settled in Moldavia in the 18th century
Vasile was educated first in Jassy and afterwards (1 834-1 830.1
in Paris. In 1839 he started on a long journey through the
Carpathian Mountains, and was the first to collect Rumanian
popular songs, no doubt influenced by Western examples. He
first published his collection in 1844. His Doine {i Lacrimioert.
lyrical poems, appeared at Paris in 1852, and in 1852-1853 he
produced at Jassy a fuller collection of popular ballads and songs
He then adapted tome French plays for the newly founded
Rumanian theatre, and wrote some original pieces. His con-
nexion with the revolutionary movement of 1848 compelled him
to seek shelter in the west of Europe, and he visited England.
where a beautifully illuminated edition of his poems was printed
in the original Rumanian language. In 1867 he published some
fugitive pieces, written in a lighter vein, and entitled Pcstdt;
these were followed in 187 1 by the Legende of similar character.
More serious are his dramatic writings which began with Dap*
Voda and culminated in Ovid. In later life Alecsandri took sa
active part in politics, he became minister for foreign affairs
from 1859 to i860, and in 1885 was appointed Rumanian minister
in Paris. He died on the 26th of August 1800 at his country
seat. Mircesti. His best title to fame consists in the fact that he
ALEMAN— ALEMBERT
539
gave the first impetus to the collection of Rumanian popular
songs and first drew attention to their inimitable charm.
See L. Sainsanu, y< uteris Romans modemi (1891), pp. 00 and 318.
A complete edition of Alecsandri's writing* in nine volume* was
published at Bucharest in 187s teq. (M. G.)
ALBMAM, LOUIS (c. 1300-1450), French cardinal, was born of
a noble family at the castle of Arbent near Bugey about the year
1300. He was successively bishop of Maguelonne (14x8), arch-
bishop of Aries (1423) and cardinal priest of St Cecilia (1426). He
was a prominent member of the council of Basel, and, together
with Cardinal Julian, led the party which maintained the
supremacy of general councils over the pope's authority. In
1440 Aleman obtained the support of the emperor Sigismund
and of the duke of Milan to his views, and proclaiming the
deposition of Pope Eugenius IV., placed the tiara upon the head
of Amadeus VIII., duke of Savoy (henceforward known as
antipope Felix V.). Eugenius retorted by excommunicating
the antipope and depriving Aleman of all his ecclesiastical
dignities. In order to make an end of the schism, Felix V. finally
abdicated on Aleman 's advice, and Nicholas V.,who had succeeded
in 1447, restored the cardinal to all his honours and employed
him as legate to Germany in. 1449. On his return he retired to
his diocese of Aries, where he devoted himself zealously to the
instruction of his people He died on the 16th of September 1450,
and was beatified by Pope Clement VII. in 2537
See U Chevalier, Ripert. des sources hist. (Paris, 1905), p. 130.
ALEMJllf, MATEO (1547-1609?), Spanish novelist and man
of letters, was born at Seville in 1547. He graduated at Seville
University in 1564, studied later at Salamanca and Alcala, and
from 1571 to 15S8 held a post in the treasury, in 1594 he was
arrested on suspicion of malversation, but was speedily released.
In 1509 he published the first part of Cuxmdn de A! far ache, a
celebrated picaresque novel which passed through not less than
sixteen editions in five years, a spurious sequel was issued in
160?, but the authentic continuation did not appear till 1604.
In 1608 Aleman emigrated to America, and is said to have carried
on business as a printer in Mexico, his Ortografia costellana
(1609), published in that city, contains ingenious and practical
proposals for the reform of Spanish spelling Nothing is recorded
of Aleman after 1609. but it is sometimes asserted that he was
still living in 16x7. He married, unhappily, Catalina de Es-
pinosa in 1571, and was constantly in money difficulties, being
imprisoned for debt at Seville at the end of 1602. He is the
author of a life (1604) of St Antony of Padua, and versions of
two odes of Horace bear witness to his taste and metrical accom-
plishment. His chief title to remembrance, however, is
Cuxmdn de Alfaracke, which was translated into French in
1600, into English in 1623 and into Latin in 1623.
See J. Hazaffas y la Rua. Discursos Uidos en la Real Academic
Seoittana de Buenos letros el 25 de ntarto de 1802 (Sevilla. 1892); J.
Gestoso y Peres, Nuevos datos paraUustrar las htografias del Maestro
Juan de Jdalara y de Mateo Aieman (Sevilla, 1896). (J. F K.)
ALEMBERT, JEAN LB BOND D' (1717-1783). French mathe-
matician and philosopher, was born at Paris in November 1717.
He was a foundling, having been exposed near the church of
St Jean le Rond, Paris, where he was discovered on the 17th of
November It afterwards became known that he was the
illegitimate son of the chevalier Destouches and Madame de
Tendn. The infant was entrusted to the wife of a glazier named
Rousseau who lived close by He was called Jean le Rond from
the church near which he was found; the surname Alembert
was added by himself at a later period. His father, without
disclosing himself, having settled an annuity on him, he was
sent at four years of age to a boarding-school. In 1 730 he entered
the Mazarin College under the Jansenists, who soon perceived
his exceptional talent, and, prompted perhaps by a commentary
on the Epistle to the Romans which he produced in the first year
of his philosophical course, sought to direct it to theology. His
knowledge of the higher mathematics was acquired by his own
unaided efforts after he had left the college. This fact naturally
led to his crediting himself with many discoveries which he after-
wards found had been already established, often by more direct
and elegant processes than his own
On leaving college he returned to the house of his foster-mother,
where he continued to live for thirty years. Having studied
law, he was admitted as an advocate in 1738, but did not enter
upon practice. He next devoted himself to medicine, but his
natural inclination proved too strong for him, and within a year
he resolved to give his whole time to mathematics. In 174 1 he
received his first public distinction in being admitted a member
of the Academy of Sciences, to which he had previously presented
several papers, including a Mtmoire sur It calcul inttgral (1 739).
In his Memoir e sur le refraction da corps salides (174O he v/as
the first to give a theoretical explanation of the phenomenon
which is witnessed when a body passes from one fluid to another
more dense in a direction not perpendicular to the surface which
separates the two fluids. In 1743 he published his Traiii de
dynamique, a work famous as developing the mechanical principle,
known as "Alembert's Principle," first enunciated in 1742 (see
Mechanics). In 1744 Alembert applied this principle to the
theory of the equilibrium and the motion of fluids {Traiii de
Viquilibre ct du mouvement desfluides), and all the problems before
solved by geometricians became in some measure its corollaries.
This discovery was followed by that of the calculus of partial
differences, the first trials of which were published in his Reflexion
sur la cause gtniraU des vents (174 7). This work was crowned
by the Academy of Berlin, and was dedicated to Frederick the
Great, who made several unsuccessful attempts to induce him
to settle in Berlin. In 1763 he visited Berlin, and on that occasion
finally refused the office of president of the Academy of Berlin,
which had been already offered to him more than once. In 1 747
he applied his new calculus to the problem of vibrating chords,
the solution of which, as well as the theory of the oscillation of
the air and the propagation of sound, had been given but in-
completely by the geometricians who preceded him. In 1749 he
furnished a method- of applying his principles to the motion of
any body of a given figure; and in 1754 he solved the problem
of the precession of the equinoxes, determined its quantity and
explained the phenomenon of the nutation of the earth's axis.
In 1752 he published an Essai d'une nouvelle thiorie sur la ri~
sistance des /fetfa, which contains a large number of original ideas
and new observations. In 1746 and 1748 he published in the
Memoirs of the Academy of Berlin " Recherches sur le calcul
integral," a branch of mathematical science which is greatly in-
debted to him. In his Recherches sur dijirents points im porta nts
du systime du monde (1754-1756) he perfected the solution of
the problem of the perturbations of the planets, which he had
presented to the academy some years before.
Alembert's association with Diderot in the preparation
of the Dklionnaire Encychpidique led him to take a somewhat
wider range than that to which he had previously confined
himself. He wrote for that work the Disc ours priliminaire on
the rise, progress and affinities of the various sciences, which he
read to the French Academy on the day of his admission as a
member, the 18th of December 1754. He also wrote several
literary articles for the first two volumes of the Encyclopaedia,
and to the remaining volumes he contributed mathematical
articles chiefly. One of the few exceptions was the article on
" Geneva," which involved him in a somewhat keen controversy
in regard to Calvinism and the suppression of theatrical perform-
ances within the town. During the time he was engaged on the
Encyclopaedia he wrote a number of literary and philosophical
works which extended his reputation and also exposed him to
criticism and controversy, as in the case of his Melanges de
Philosophic, d'Histoire, ct de Littcrature. His Essai sur la- sociiil
des gens deleUres atec Us grands was a worthy vindication of the
independence of literary men, and a thorough exposure of the
evils of the system of patronage. He broke new ground and
showed great skill as a translator in his Traduction de quelques
morceaux choisis de Tacite. One of his most important works
was the Aliments de Philosophic published in 1759, in which
he discussed the principles and methods of the different sciences.
He maintained that the laws of motion were necessary, not
contingent. A treatise, Sur la destruction des Jesuites (176s)
involved him in a fresh controversy, his own share in which was
54°
rendered very easy by the violence and extravagance of hb
adversaries. The list of his more noteworthy literary works is
completed by the mention of the Hisloirc des membra de
VAcademie franqaise, containing biographical notices of all the
members of the Academy who died between 1700 and 1772, the
year in which he himself became secretary. Alembert was
much interested in music both as a science and as an art, and
wrote £liments de musique thtorique et pratique (1770), which
was based upon the- system of J. P. Rameau with important
modifications and differences.
Alembert's fame spread rapidly throughout Europe and
procured for him more than one opportunity of quitting the
comparative retirement in which he lived in Paris for more
lucrative and prominent positions. The offer of Frederick the
Great has already been mentioned. In 176a he was invited by
Catherine of Russia to become tutor to her son at a yearly salary
of 100,000 francs. On his refusal the offer was repeated with
the additional inducement of accommodation for as many of his
friends as he chose to bring with him to the Russian capital.
Alembert persisted in his refusal, and the letter of Catherine
was ordered to be engrossed in the minutes of the French
Academy In 1755, on *h* recommendation of Pope Benedict
XIV , he was admitted a member of the Institute of Bologna.
A legacy of £200 from David Hume showed the esteem in which
he was held by that philosopher.
Alembert continued to the end to lead the quiet and frugal
life dictated by his limited means as well as his simple tastes.
His later years were saddened by circumstances connected with
a romantic attachment he had formed for Mademoiselle de
Lespinasse, whose acquaintance he made at the house of Madame
du Deffand, a noted resort of literary men and savants. She
nursed him assiduously during an illness he had in 1765, and
from that period till her death in 1776 they lived in the same
house without any scandal. On her part there seems to have
been from first to last nothing more than warm friendship, but
his feelings towards her were of a stronger kind and her death
deeply affected him. He never recovered his elasticity of spirits,
though he continued to occupy himself with his favourite pursuits,
and to frequent the society of his brother philosophers. After
the death of Voltaire (1778), whose friend and correspondent
he had been for more than thirty years, he was regarded as the
leader of the philosophical party in the Academy. He died at
Paris on the 29th of October 1783.
The chief features of Alembert's character were benevolence,
simplicity and independence. Though his income was never
large, and during the greater part of his life was very meagre,
he contrived to find means to support his foster-mother in her
old age, to educate the children of his first teacher, and to help
various deserving students during their college career. His
cheerful conversation, his smart and lively sallies, a singular
mixture of malice of speech with goodness of heart, and of
delicacy of wit with simplicity of manners, rendered him a
pleasing and interesting companion; and if his manner was
sometimes plain almost to the extent of rudeness, it probably
set all the better an example of a much-needed reform to the
class to which he belonged. The controversy as to the nature
of his religious opinions, arising as it did chiefly out of his con-
nexion with the Encyclopaedia, has no longer any living interest
now that the Encyclopaedists generally have ceased to be
regarded with unqualified suspicion by those who count them-
selves orthodox. It is to be observed, moreover, that as
Alembert confined himself chiefly to mathematical articles,
his work laid him less open to charges of heresy and infidelity
than that of some of his associates. The fullest revelation of
his religious convictions is given in his correspondence with
Voltaire, which was published along with that with Frederick
the Great in Bossange's edition of his works.
The scientific works of Alembert have never been published in
a collected form. The most important of them have been mentioned
above, with the exception of the Opuscules maUUmaiiques (1761-
1780). 8 vols. 4to. Hit literary and philosophical works were
collected and edited by Battien ( Paris, 1 80$, 1 8 vols. 8vo). A better
edition by Boscange was published at Paris in 1821 (5 vol*. 8vo)
ALEMBIC— ALENCpON
The best account of the life and writings of Alembert it
in Condorcet's Ehge, presented to the Academy and pu
1784.
ALEMBIC (Arab, c/, definite article, anbiq, a still, cognate t»
the Gr. &>/&(, a cup), an apparatus for distillation, used dnedr
by the alchemists, and now superseded by the retort and the
worm-still. It varied considerably in form and construction, bat
consisted essentially of three parts— a vessel containing the
material to be distilled and called, from its gourd-like shape, the
cucurbit or mattrass; a vessel to receive and condense the
vapour, called the head or capital; and a receiver for the spirit,
connected by a pipe with the capital. The entire apparatus was
sometimes constructed of glass, but it was more usual to make the
cucurbit of copper or earthenware, and the capital alone of glass.
ALBMTEJO (i.e. " Beyond the Tagus "), an ancient province
of central and southern Portugal, bounded on the N. by Beira.
E. by Spanish Estremadura and Andalusia, S. by Algarve and
W by the Atlantic Ocean and Portuguese Estremadura. Pop.
'(1000) 416*105; area 9210 sq. m. Alemtejo is traversed by
several mountain ranges, whose height does not generally rise
much above aooo ft. The low and sandy coast has a length of
less than 25 m. and includes no harbour, except at the unim-
portant town of Villa Nova de Milfontes (pop. xooo, 82 s), which
overlooks the Mira estuary. The principal rivers are the Tagus.
which divides Alemtejo from Beira; its tributary the Zatas,or
Sorraia, fed by a whole system of lesser affluents; the Guadiana.
which, crossing the Spanish frontier, flows southwards through
the province; the Sado, which rises in the Serra de Monchiquc,
and flows to the north; and the Mira, which waters the valley
between the Caldeirao and Monchique ranges. There are several
extensive plains, notably those of Alemtejo. lying south-west of
the Serra de Portalegre; of Beja, between the Sado and Guadiana:
and of Ourique, farther south between the same rivers. Some
portions of these plains are fruitful, others marshy, while large
tracts are mere desolate wastes.
The climate in the lower parts of the country is exceedingly hot
and is rendered unhealthy in summer by the stagnant "Mr rW
Towards the Spanish frontier the soil is fertile, and in the south
the country is covered by extensive forests of oak, pine, chestnut
cork and ilex, especially on the sides of the Mezquiu and
Caldeirao ranges. In the more fertile parts, grapes, figs, citrons,
pomegranates and other fruits are produced. Wheat, main?
and rice are grown, and some attention is given to the rearing ol
mules, asses, goats, cattle and sheep; while the Alter breed of
horses, named after the villages of Alter do Chio and Alter
Pedroso (3971), near Portalegre, is often accounted the best in
the kingdom. Agriculture, however, is in a backward stale, the
sparse population being mostly concentrated in the towns, leaving
extensive districts uncultivated and almost uninhabited. Droves
of swine are fed on the waste lands, growing to a great site and
affording excellent hams. The mineral wealth of Alemtejo is
little exploited, although there are copper and iron mines and
marble quarries. Medicinal springs exist at Aljustrel (3700),
Castello de Vide (5192). Me>tola (3873), Portalegre, Vimieiro
(1838) and elsewhere. Chief among the local industries are the
preparation of exceptionally fine olive oil, and the manufacture
of cloth, pottery and leather. Alemtejo is traversed by three
very important main lines of railway, the Madrid-Caccres- Lisbon.
Madrid-Bada jot-Lisbon and Lisbon-Faro; while the two last
are connected by a branch line from Casa Branca to Evora and
Elvas. For administrative purposes the province is divided into
the districts of Portalegre in the north, Evora in the central
region and Beja in the south; but the dtles of these new
districts have not superseded the ancient name of Alemtejo in
ordinary usage. The chief towns Beja (8885), Elvas (13.081),
Estremoz (702°)-, Evora (16,020) and Portalegre (11,820) are
described in separate articles.
ALENCON, COUNTS AND DUKES OP. The first line of the
counts of Alencon was founded by Yves, lord of Bellesme, who in
the middle of the xoth century possessed and fortified the town
of Alencon. His successors, involved In all the wars of the
kings of England in Normandy, were alternately deprived aad
ALENQON— ALEPPO
54*
repossessed of their domains, according' to the fluctuations of
fortune between the rival parties. Mabille, countess of Aiencon
and heiress of this family (d. 1082). married Roger of Montgomery,
and from them descended a second house of Aiencon which
became extinct in the person of Robert IV. ; the county of Aiencon
was then joined to the royal domain. It was successively granted
as an appanage to Peter, son of St Louis (1268), and to Charles,
count of Valois, brother of Philip the Fair (1203). The third
house of Aiencon sprang from Charles, second son of the count
of Valois, who was killed at the battle of Crecy in 1346.
The countship of Aiencon was raised to a peerage in 1367
and into a dukedom in 14 14. John, 1st duke of Aiencon, was
killed at Agincourt on the 25th of October 1415, after having
with his own hand slain the duke of York. His son, also named
John, was dispossessed of his duchy by the king of England, but
reconquered it in 1449. In 1524 the dukedom of Aiencon
reverted to the crown, in consequence of the death of the duke
Charles IV. without issue of his marriage with Margaret, sister
of Francis L It was given as a jointure to Catherine de'Medid in
1559. and as an appanage to her son Francis in 1566. It was
pawned by Henry IV. to the duke of WOrttemberg, and sub-
sequently it passed to Gaston, duke of Orleans, by grant of
Louis XIII.; to Elizabeth of Orleans, duchess of Guise; to
Charles, duke of Berry, grandson of Louis XIV. (1710); and to
Monsieur (Louis XVIII ), brother of Louis XVI.
The title of due d'Alencon was given to Ferdinand of
Orleans, son of the due de Nemours, and grandson of Louis-
Philippe. (M. P.')
ALENQON, a town of north-western France, capital of the
department of Orne, 36 m. N. of Le Mans on a branch line of
the Western railway. Pop (1006) 14478. Aiencon, a dean,
regularly built town with broad handsome streets, is situated in
a wide and fertile plain, on the Sarthe at its confluence with the
Brian te. The only remains of the ancient castle of Aiencon are
two towers of the 15th century, which serve as a prison, and a
third of the 14th century known as the Tour Couronnee, to which
they are united. Notre-Dame, the chief church, dates from the
15th century. It is remarkable for a porch ornamented in the
richest Gothic style, and for its stained windows of the x6th
century. Aiencon has a large circular corn-market and a cloth-
market. The manufacture of the point aVAlencpn lace has greatly
diminished. The weaving and bleaching of cloth, which is of less
importance than formerly, the manufacture of vehicles, and
tanning are carried on; there is a large trade in the horses of the
district, and granite is worked in the neighbourhood. Aiencon
is the seat of a prefect and a court of assizes. It has tribunals
of first instance and of commerce, a board of trade-arbitrators,
a lycee, training-colleges and a chamber of arts and manu-
factures.
ALEKIO, GRTLIO (1532-1649), Italian Jesuit missionary,
was born at Brescia. He entered the Society of Jesus and was
sent to the East. He landed at Macao in 1610, and while
waiting a favourable opportunity to penetrate into China
busied himself for three years in teaching mathematics. His
thirty years' residence in China was marked by unceasing zeal
and considerable success. He adopted the dress and manners
of the country, was the first Christian missionary in Riang-si,
and built several churches in Fo-Kien. He wrote in Chinese a
Lij§ of Christ (Pekin, 1635-1637, 8 vols.; often reprinted, e.g.
in 1887 in vols., and used even by Protestant missionaries)
and a cosmography (Iche fang wai ki Hang-chow, 1623, 6 vols.)!
which was translated into Manchu under the title The True
Origin of 10,000 Things, a copy of which was sent from Pekin
to Paris in 1780. Alenio died at Fu-chow in 1640.
For bibliography see de Backer and Sommervogel, Bibl. do la Cie.
do Jisus, 1. 158-160.
ALEPPO (native Haleb). (1) A vilayet of Asiatic Turkey,
comprising N. Syria and N.W.Mesopotamia, with an extension
N. of Taurus to the neighbourhood of Goran. It comprises
three sanjaks, Aleppo, Marash and Urfa. About half is moun-
tain, but there are fertile plains of great extent N. of Antakia,
S. of Marash and around the city of Aleppo (see below). The
only seaport of importance is Alexandretta (?.».). The exports
are, on the average, over one million sterling, and imports about
double in value. The settled population is barely a million;
but there is a considerable unsettled element in the S.E.which
cannot well be estimated. The Christians, mainly Jacobite
Syrian, but including also Armenians of several denominations
(e.g. those of Marash and Zeitun), Maronites and Greeks, form
about one-fifth. There are some 20,000 Jews, resident chiefly
in the provincial capital; and of the Moslem majority the bulk
is Arab, Turkoman and Ansarieh. In the N.W. and N. is a
considerable Kurdish population.
(2) The provincial capital (anc KhaUp; Gr. Chalybon-
Beroea), situated on a plateau in the valley of the Kuwaik (anc.
Chalus) about 10 m. above its dissipation in the great salt-marsh
of Matkh. Pop. about 130,000, three-quarters Moslem. Aleppo
is about midway between the sea and the Euphrates, a little
nearer the latter.
The modern city stands on both banks of the Kuwaik, and
the older portions are contained within a Saracenic wall, 3}
m. in circuit with seven gates. The European residents and
Christians live outside in the Kitab and new Axixieh quarters,
and the Jews in that of Bahsita. A modern citadel occupies
the N.W., the medieval castle on its mound (partly artificial
and not a strong position, according to Istakhri) being almost
deserted but still forbidden to visitors. There are two mosques
of special interest— the Umavri (or Zaharia) on the site of a
church ascribed to the empress Helena and containing a tomb
reputed to be that of the Baptist's father, and the Kahun.
Many minor ones serve the needs of a population traditionally
fanatical. Gardens extend for miles along the river, and the
bazaars and khans are unusually large. The climate is cold,
dry and healthy, despite the prevalence of the famous " Aleppo
button," a swelling which appears either on the face or on the
hands, and breaks into an ulcer which lasts a year and leaves a
permanent scar. It has been ascribed to a fly, to the water and
to other causes; but it is not peculiar to Aleppo, being rife also
at Aintab, Bagdad, &c.
The attempt made by the British Euphrates expedition in
1 841 to connect Aleppo with the sea by steamer through the
nearest point on the Euphrates, Meskin6, failed owing to the
obstructed state of the stream and the insecurity of the riparian
districts. The latter drawback has been minimized by the
continued success of the Aleppo administration in inducing the
Anazeh Bedouins to become feilahin; but river traffic has not
been resumed. A railway, however, connects southward with the
Beirut-Damascus line at Rayak. Aleppo is an important consular
station for all European powers, the residence of the Greek
and Armenian Patriarchs of Antioch, and of Jacobite and
Maronite bishops, and a station of Roman Catholic and Protestant
missions. It is the emporium of N. Syria, and manufactures
textiles In silk, cotton and wool, carpets and leather commodities,
besides being the centre of a large district growing cereals,
pistachios and fruit The Turks regard it as one of the strong-
holds of their dominion and faith, and a future capital of their
empire should they be forced into Asia. As a centre from
which good natural roads lead N.,N.E.,W. and S., Aleppo would
make a good capital.
History and Remains.— Tht site lies high (1400 ft.) on eight
hillocks in a fertile oasis plain, beyond which stretch on the S.
and S.E. grassy steppes merging ere long into desert, and on
the other quarters rather sterile downs. It has superseded
Antioch as the economic centre of N. Syria, and Palmyra as the
great road-station for eastern caravans. But it is rather a
revived than a new capital; KhaUp was a very ancient Syrian
and probably "Hittite" dty of importance, known from
Babylonian, Assyrian and Egyptian records. Seleucus Nicator
gave it a Macedonian name, Beroea; but Chalds, some distance
S., was the capital of the province, Chalddice (later, Kinnasrin),
in which it lay, and the centre of that hellenized region, now a
vast field of ruins, which stretches W. to the Orontes. Khalep-
Bcroea, we may infer, remained a native town and a focus of
Aramaic influence, a fact which will explain the speedy oblivion
542
ALES
of its Macedonian name and the permanent revival of Its andent
title, even by Greeks.
As Beroea we hear of the place in Seleudd wars and dissensions.
There Menelaus, the fomenter of war with the Asmoneans, was
put to death by Lysias in 164 b. c, " as the manner is in that
place " (Mace. ii. 13. 4), being thrown into a lofty tower full of
cinders. There Heracleon, the court favourite and murderer of
Antiochus Grypus, was born and made himself a prinripality
(96 B.C.); and there the son of the latter king besieged his
brother Philip in the last struggle for the heritage of Seleucus.
As Chalybon, the town is called by Ptolemy head of a district,
Chalybonitis; but we continue to hear of it as Beroea up to the
Arab conquest, e.g. in the history of Julian's eastward march
in a.d. 363, and in that of the Persian raid of 54a It was
occupied in 61 1 by Chosroes II. Overwhelmed by the Saracen
flood in a.d. 638, Beroea disappears, and as Moslem sodety
settles down Hakp emerges again as the great gathering-place
of caravans passing from Asia Minor and Syria to Mesopotamia,
Bagdad and the Persian and Indian kingdoms. Like Antioch it
suffered from earthquakes, and late in the 12th century, after a
terrible shock, had to be rebuilt by Nur ed-Din. But neither
earthquakes nor the plague, to which it was also peculiarly
liable, could divert trade and prosperity from it It belonged
to the Eastern Caliphate (the Hamdanids) until temporarily
reoccupied by John Zimisces, emperor of Byzantium and a
native of neighbouring Hierapolis (?.*.), a.d. 974, after an
abortive attempt by Nicephorus thirteen years earlier. Thirteen
years later it recognized and received the Fatimites, and passed
under various Moslem dynasties, forming part of the Seljuk
dominion from 1090 to 1 1 17. The crusading princes of Antioch
never held the place, though they attacked it in 1x24; and
Saladin, who took it in 1 183, made it a stronghold against them
and the northern capital of himself and his successors until the
Tatar invasion of 1260. Thereafter the Mamelukes took and
kept possession, despite the renewed Tatar inroad of 1401, until
the final conquest by the Ottomans in 1517. Under the strong
hand of the latter the trade of Aleppo with the East revived.
One of the first provincial factories and consulates of the British
Turkey (Levant) Company was established there in the reign of
James I.; and a British agent had been in residence there even
in Elizabeth's time. As the eastern outpost of the company's
operations, it was connected with the western outpost of the
East India Company in Bagdad by a private postal service,
and its name became very familiar in England from the part
that its merchants (largely Jewish) bore in the transmission of
Eastern products to Europe (d., e.g. Shakespeare, Uacb. i. 3. 7;
Oth. v. 2. 352). Through it passed the silks of Bambyce, called
bombazines, the light textiles of Mosul (mosulines— muslins)
and many other commodities for the wealthy and luxurious.
The first blow was struck at this trade by the discovery of the
Cape route to India; the second by the opening of a land route
through Egypt to the Red Sea; the third and final one by the
making of the Suez Canal Long ere this last event, however,
Aleppo had been declining from internal causes. In the latter
part of the 18th century and the first years of the 19th it was
constantly the scene of bloody dissensions between two rival
parties, one led by the local janissaries, the other by the sherifs
(religious); and the Ottoman governors took the side, now of
one, now of the other, in order to plunder a distracted dty, too
far removed from the centre to be controlled by the sultans, and
too near the rebellious pashaiik of Acre and the unsettled district
of Lebanon not to be affected by the disorders natural to a
frontier province. This state of things led to the suspension
of the British consulate by the Turkey Company in 1791; and
it was not revived till 1800, after which date till 1825 it was
maintained jointly by the East India Company. In 1803 Jezzar
of Acre advanced as near as Hamah; but his death occurred
in the following year; and after a sanguinary rising in 1805,
Aleppo settled down, but was not at peace, even after a local
janissary massacre in 1814, till Mahmud II. had dealt finally
with the corps at headquarters (1826). Meanwhile there had
been a frightful earthquake in 1822, and a visitation of cholera
in the following year. More cholera in 1827 *nd '832 and
another earthquake in 1830 had left the place a wreck, with
only half its former population, when Mehemet All of Cairt
invaded and took Syria. • Aleppo shared, and to some extern
headed, the Syrian discontent with Egyptian rule, and was
strongly held by troops whose huge barracks are stilt one of the
sights of the dty. Ready to rise behind Ibrahim Pasha in 1839.
it was only prevented by the news of Nezib. Tumults aad
massacres of Christians occurred in 1850 and 1862, accompanied
by great destruction of property; but on the whole, since the
consolidation of Ottoman rule over Syria by Abdul Mejids
ministers, Aleppo has been reviving, although its trade is more
local than of old.
Bibliography.— F.R. Chesney ,7V Euphrates Exfedifontt&yH
H. Guys. Statistiquedu PachalikdTAlep (1853), and Esouissederhot
de la Syrie (1862); E. B. B. Barker. Syria and Egypt (1876); W. F
Ainsworth. Personal Narratm of the Euphrates Expediitem (1888).
E. R. Bevan, House of Seleucus (1902); G. le Strange. PaUstxm
under the Moslems (1890). (D. G. H.)
ALES (Alesius), ALEXANDER (1500-1565), Scottish divine
of the school of Augsburg, whose family name was Alans, was
born at Edinburgh on the 23rd of April 1500* He studied at
St Andrews in the newly-founded college of St Leonard's, where
he graduated in. 151 5. Some time afterwards he was appointed
a canon of the collegiate church, and at first contended vigor-
ously for the scholastic theology as against the doctrines of the
Reformers. His views were entirely changed, however, on the
execution of Patrick Hamilton, abbot of Fern, in 1528. He had
been chosen to meet Hamilton in controversy, with a view to
convincing him of his errors, but the arguments of the Scottish
proto-martyr, and above all the spectacle of his heroism at the
stake, impressed Alesius so powerfully that he was entirely woa
over to the cause of the Reformers. A sermon which he preached
before the Synod at St Andrews against the dissoluteness of the
dergy gave great offence to the provost, who cast him into
prison, and might have carried his resentment to the e xtre mes !
limit had not Alesius contrived to escape to Germany in 1532.
After travelling in various countries of northern Europe, be
settled down at Wittenberg, where he made the acquaintance of
Luther and Mdanchthon, and signed the Augsburg confession.
Meanwhile he was tried in Scotland for heresy and condemned
without a hearing. In 1533 a decree of the Scottish dergy,
prohibiting the reading of the New Testament by the laity, drew
from Alesius a defence of the right of the people, in the form of
a letter to James V. A reply to this by John Cochlaetis, also
addressed to the Scottish king, occasioned a second letter from
Alesius, in which he not only amplifies his argument with great
force, but enters into more general questions connected with the
Reformation. In August 1 534 he and a few others were excom-
municated at Holyrood by the deputy of the archbishop of St
Andrews. When Henry VIII. broke with the church of Rome
Alesius was induced to go to England, where he was very cordially
received (August 1 535) by the king and his advisers Cranmer and
Thomas Cromwell. After a short residence at Lambeth he wis
appointed, through the influence of Cromwell, then chancellor of
the university, to lecture on theology at Cambridge; but when
he had delivered a few expositions of the Hebrew psalms, he
was compelled by the opposition of the papal party to desist.
Returning to London he supported himself for some time by
practising as a physician. In 1 537 he attended a convocation of
the dergy, and at the request of Cromwell conducted a con-
troversy with Stokesley, bishop of London, on the nature of the
sacraments. His argument was afterwards published under the
title Of the Auctorite of the Word of Cod concerning ike number ef
the Sacraments. In 1539 Alesius was compelled to flee for the
second 1 time to Germany, in consequence of the enactment of
the statute of the Six Articles, He was appointed to a theological
chair in the university of Frankfort-on-Oder, where he was the
first professor who taught the reformed doctrines. In 1543 he
quitted Frankfort for a similar position at Leipzig, his contra
tion that it was the duty of the rivil magistrate to punish fornica-
tion, and his sudden departure, having given offence to the
authorities of the former university. He was in England again
ALESIA— ALEUTIAN ISLANDS
543
Car a short time during Edward VI.'s reign, and was commissioned
by Cranmer to make a Latin version of the First Prayer-Book
li 549) for the information of Bucer, whose opinion was desired.
He died at Leipzig on the 17th of March 1565.
Alesius was the author of a large number of exegetical, dog-
matic and polemical works, of which over twenty are mentioned
by Bale in his List of English Writers. (See also the British
Museum catalogue.) In his controversial works he upholds the
synergistic views of the Scottish theologian John Major. He
displayed his interest In his native land by the publication of a
Cohortatio ad Coneordiam PietoHs, missa in Patriam suam (x 544),
which had the express approval of Luther, and a Cohortatio ad
PietaUs Concordiam ineundam (15*9).
The best early account of AJestua U the Oratio do Alexandro AUsio
of Jacob Thomasius (April 1661), printed in the latter'* Oration**
(No. XIV., Leipzig, 1683) : the best modern account is by Dr A. W.
Ward in the Dictionary of National Biography. See also A. F.
Mitchell's introduction to Gau's Rkht Vay (Scottish Text Society,
1888).
ALESIA. the ancient name for a hill in central France,
ncrw Alise-Ste-Reine (department Cote d'Or), where in 5a B.C.
Caesar besieged the Gaulish national leader Verdngetorix within
enormous entrenchments, forced him to surrender, and thus
practically ended his conquest of Gaul. The siege-works have
been excavated by Napoleon in. and others, down to the present
day. The site seems to have been inhabited also during the
Roman empire, but its importance is limited to Caesar's siege,
ALES3ANDRI, ALE88ANDR0 (Alexander ab Alexandbo)
(1461-1533), Italian jurist, was born at Naples about the year
1 461. He studied law at Naples and Rome, and afterwards
practised for a time as advocate in both cities. He is said to have
been royal proto-notary aUNaples in 149a Dissatisfied, accord-
ing to his own account, with the corrupt administration of
justice, he at length quitted the bar and devoted himself entirely
to literary pursuits, especially to the study of philology and
antiquities. A sinecure appointment, which he owed to the
favour of the pope, enabled him to lead a life of learned leisure at
Rome, where he died on the and of October 1523. His work
entitled Dies Ceniales appeared at Rome in 1522, and was con-
structed after the model of the Nodes AUicae of Aulus Gellius,
and the Saturnalia of Macrobius. It consists of a confused mass
of heterogeneous materials relating to philology, antiquities, law,
dreams, spectres, &c. and is characterized by considerable
credulity
ALESSANDRIA, a city and episcopal see of Piedmont, Italy,
capital of a province which bears its name, situated on the river
Tanaxo, 57 m. E. by S of Turin by rail. Pop. (1901) 71,208, of
which about half reside in the actual town: the rest are dis-
tributed over the suburbs. Alessandria was founded in 1168 by
the inhabitants of the district in order to defend themselves
against the marquis of Monferrato and the town of Pavia, at
whose request it was besieged in 11 74 by Frederick Barbarossa
for six months, but without success. The Lombard League now
included it among the allied cities and named it Alessandria,
after Pope Alexander III. The traditional account of its founda-
tion by the Lombard League has been disproved by F Graf, Die
Crtindung Alessandrias: tin Beitrag tur Ceschichte des Lom-
bardenbundes (1888). After falling into various hands, it was
ceded to Savoy by the peace of Utrecht in 171 J, and its citadel
was begun in 1 728 During the French occupation (1800-1814),
which began after the battle of Marengo, it was still more strongly
fortified; the works were entirely destroyed by the Austrians in
181 5. but were afterwards reconstructed, and Alessandria is still
an important fortress and the headquarters of the second army
corps The citadel is on the left bank of the Tanaro. the town
being on the right bank It is regularly built and contains few
buildings of architectural interest, but is a flourishing and
important commercial town, not merely owing to its own manu-
factures (which are miscellaneous) but for the products of the
district, and one of the greatest railway centres in Italy Lines
diverge from it to Turin via Asti, to Valenza (and thence to
VerceUi. Mortara— for Novars or Milan — and Pavia), toTortona,
to Novi. to Acqui and to Bra.
ALBSSL GALBAZZO (1512-1572), Italian architect, was born
at Perugia, and was probably a pupil of CaporaU. He was an
enthusiastic student of ancient architecture, and his style
gained for him a European reputation. Genoa is indebted to
him for a number of its most magnificent palaces, and specimens
of his skill may be seen in the churches of San Paolo and Santa
Vittoria at Milan, in certain parts of the Escurial, and in numerous
churches and. palaces throughout Sicily, Flanders and Germany.
See Rossi, Di CaUauo Alessi memorio (Perugia, 1873).
ALBTHIOLOOY (from the Gr. dXtfsta, truth), an uncommon
expression for the doctrine of truth, used by Sir William Hamilton
in his philosophic writings when treating of the rules for the
disc rimina tion of truth and error.
ALETR1UM (mod. Aktri), a town of the Herald, about 6 m.
due N. of Frusino, Italy, mentioned in 306 B.C. for its fidelity
to Rome. In Cicero's time it was a municipium, and continued
in this position throughout the imperial period. It is chiefly
remarkable for its finely preserved fortifications constructed
of tetrahedral and polygonal blocks of local limestone well
jointed, with maximum dimensions of about 3 by 1 J ft; the
outer circuit of the dty wall measures about a) m. It is almost
entirely ad embanking wall, as is the rule in the cities of this part
of Italy, with a maximum height, probably, of about 30 ft.
Two of the gates (of which there were perhaps five) are still to
some extent preserved, and three posterns are to be found. In
the centre of the dty rises a hill (1647 ft.) which was adopted
as the dtadel. Remains of the fortifications of three successive
periods can be traced, of which the last, perhaps a little more
recent than that of the dty wall, is the best preserved. In the
first two periods the construction is rough, while in the third
the" blocks are very well and finely jointed, and the faces
smoothed; they- are mostly polygonal in form and arc much
larger (the maximum about 10 by 6 ft.) than those of the dty
wall A flat surface was tormed partly by smoothing off the
rock and partly by the erection of huge terrace walls which rise
to a height of over 50 ft, enclosing a roughly rectangular area
of 235 by 115 yds. Two approaches to the dtadel were con-
structed, both passing through the wall; the openings of both
are rectangular. The architrave of the larger, known as Porta
di Civita, measures about 17 ft in length, c ft. in height, 6 ft. in
thickness; while- that of the smaller is decorated with three
phalli in relief. Later, though probably in andent times, a
ramp was added on the northern side. In the centre of the arx
was a building on the site of the present cathedral, of which
only a small portion is preserved. Remains of a high-pressure
aqueduct, which supplied the town with water and was con-
structed with other public buildings (Corp. Inscr. Lot. x., Berlin,
1883. P- 5807) by L. Betilienus Varus, may still be traced. A
temple was excavated in 1889 about } m. to the north of the town,
and many fragments of the painted terra-cottas with which it
was decorated were found. A reconstruction of it has been
erected in the Museo di Villa Giulia at Rome. The present town
(pop. in 1001* 15.322) has a picturesque aspect, and contains
many buildings in the Gothic style.
See R. Basse), Centralblatt der Banoerwallnng, 1881, 121, p. 134;
H. Winnefeld. R&mische Miiteilungen, 1889, 126; G. Fiortlli in
Notiue degfi Scan, 1882. 417. (T As.)
ALEUR1TBS (Gr. dXcvpfrwf, pertaining to ftXcvpor, ground
meal, from dXciv, to grind), a genus of trees belonging to the
natural order Euphorbiaceae Aleurites moluccana, or triloba,
is widely cultivated throughout the tropical and subtropical
parts of the world for its fruit, which is about the size of a
walnut, and contains several seeds which are rich in oil. The oil
is extracted and used for food and light; it is known in India
as hehuna. and the tree as the " candle-nut" In the Sandwich
Islands the nuts are strung upon strips of wood and used as
torches. The oil is exported to Europe for candle-making
A. cordata flourishes in China, where it is known as the varnish-
tree, on a ccount of the lac contained in its seeds.
ALEUTIAN ISLANDS (possibly from Chukchi aliat, " island "),
a chain of small islands situated in the Northern Pacific Ocean,
and extending about 1200 m. westward from the extremity of
544
ALEXANDER
the Alaskan peninsula toward the peninsula of Kamchatka;
they constitute part of the District of Alaska, U.S.A. The
islands, of which an alternative collective name is the Catherine
Archipelago, comprise four groups— the Fox, Andreanof, Rat
and Near Islands. They are all included between 5a and 55°
N. lat and 17a £. and 163° W. long.
The axis of the archipelago near the mainland of Alaska has
a S.W. trend, but near the 129th meridian its direction changes
to the N.W. This change of direction corresponds to a curve
in the line of volcanic fissures which have contributed their
products to the building of the islands. Such curved chains
are repeated about the Pacific Ocean in the Kurile Islands,
the Japanese chain, the Philippines, &c The general elevation
is greatest in the eastern islands and least in the western. The
island chain is really a western continuation of the Aleutian
Range on the mainland.
The great majority of the islands bear evident marks of
volcanic origin, and there are numerous volcanic cones on the
north side of the chain, some of them active; many of the
islands, however, are not wholly volcanic, but contain crystalline
or sedimentary rocks, and also amber and beds of lignite. The
coasts are rocky and surf-worn and the approaches are exceed-
ingly dangerous, the land rising immediately from the coasts to
steep, bold mountains.
The climate of the islands is oceanic, with moderate and fairly
uniform temperatures and heavy rainfall. Fogs are almost
constant. The summers are much cooler than on the mainland
at Sitka (q.v.), but the winter temperature of the islands and of
south-eastern Alaska is very nearly the same. The mean annual
temperature for Unalaska, the most important island of the
group, is about 38° F. ; being about 30° for January and about
5a for August. The highest and lowest temperatures recorded
on the islands are 78° and 5°. The average annual amount of
rainfall is about 80 in., and Unalaska, with about 350 rainy days
per year, is said to be the rainiest place within the territory of
the United States. The growing season lasts about 135 days,
from early in May till late in September, but agriculture is
limited to the raising of a few vegetables. With the^ exception
of some stunted willows the islands are practically destitute of
trees, but are covered with a luxuriant growth of herbage,
including grasses, sedges and many flowering plants. On the
less mountainous islands the raising of sheep and reindeer is
believed to be practicable. The principal occupations of the
natives have always been fishing and hunting, and the women
weave basketry of exquisite fineness. From the end of the
1 8th century the Russian fur traders had settlements here
for the capture of the seal and the sea otter and the blue and
the Arctic fox. Under the American regime seal fishing off the
Aleutians save by the natives has never been legal, but the deple-
tion of the PribOof herd, the almost complete extinction of the
sea otter, and the rapid decrease of the foxes and other fur
animals, have threatened the Aleuts (as the natives are commonly
called) with starvation. In recent years enterprising traders
have raised foxes by culture and by especially protecting certain
small islands, and this has furnished employment to whole com-
munities of natives. Fish and sea-fowl are extremely abundant
The natives are rather low in stature, but plump and well
shaped, with short necks, swarthy faces, black eyes and long
black hair. They are a branch of the Esquimauan family, but
differ greatly from the Eskimo of the mainland in language,
habits, disposition and mental ability. They were good fighters
until they were cowed by the treatment of the Russians, who
practically reduced them to slavery. Sporadic efforts to Chris-
tianize the Aleuts were made in the latter half of the 18th
century, but little impression was made before the arrival in
1824 of Father Ivan Venyaminov, who in 1840 became the first
Greek bishop of Alaska While the missionaries of the Greek
Church have nominally converted the natives to Christianity,
white adventurers have more effectually converted them to
various bad habits. In dress and mode of life they have adopted
outwardly civilized customs. From the position of the Aleutian
islands, stretching like a broken bridge from Asia to America,
some ethnologists have supposed that by means of them America
was first peopled. Raised shore-lines, occasional earthquakes,
and slow measurable elevation of the land about active vakaaocs.
indicate that elevation is now in progress, bat the g roi o g ri l
evidence shows no sign of former submergence of * conneccsg
isthmus. There is granite at the core of the ShaJer range of
mountains in southern Unalaska.
It is stated that before the advent of the Russians there were
35,000 Aleuts on the archipelago, but that the barbarities of the
traders eventually reduced the population to one-tenth of this
number. The number of Aleuts in 1890 was reported as 90S;
the total population of the archipelago in xooo was aooo.
The principal settlements are on the Unalaska Island. Of
these Diuliuk (also called Unalaska), the oldest, settled m 1760-
1775, has a custom house, a Russian-Greek Church, and a
Methodist Mission and orphanage, and is the headquarter* for s
considerable fleet of United States revenue cutters which patrol
the sealing grounds of the Pribilofs; adjacent is Dutch Harbor
(so named, it is said, because a Dutch vessel was the first to
enter it), which is an important port for Bering Sea commerce.
The volcano Makushin (5691 ft) is visible from Itiutiok, and the
volcanic islets Bogoslof and Grewingk, which rose from the sea
in 1706 and 1883 respectively, lie about 30 m. W. of the bay.
The latter is still active; in 1006 a new cone rose bet s um the
two earlier islets, and in 1007 still another: these were nearly
demolished by an explosive eruption on the 1st of September
1007. The population of Unalaska Island in 1900 was 57s
Aleuts and 66 whites. The Commander Islands group near the
Asiatic coast is geographically, but since the acquisition of the
Russian possessions in America not politically, a part of the
Aleutian system.
In 1 74 1 the Russian government sent out Vitus Bering, s
Dane, and Alexei Chirikov, a Russian, in the ships "Saiai
Peter " and " Saint Paul " on a voyage of discovery in the
Northern Pacific. After the ships were separated by a storm,
Chirikov discovered several eastern islands of the Aleutian
group, and Bering discovered several of the western islands,
finally being wrecked and losing his life on the island of the
Commander group that now bears his name. The survivor*
of Bering's party reached Kamchatka in a boat constructed
from the wreckage of their ship, and reported that the islands
were rich in fur-bearing animals. Siberian fur hunters at once
flocked to the Commander Islands and gradually moved eastward
across the Aleutian Islands to the mainland. In this manner
Russia gained a foothold on the north-western coast of North
America. The Aleutian Islands consequently belonged to Russia,
until that country in 1867 transferred to the United States all
its possessions in America. During his third and last voyage,
in 1778, Captain James Cook surveyed the eastern portion of the
Aleutian archipelago, accurately determined the position of
some of the more important islands and corrected many errors
of former navigators. Some preliminary surveys have been
made by the United States government with a view to establish-
ing a naval station on the island Kiska, in the western part of
the Aleutian Chain.
ALEXANDER (Alexander or Battenbexc) (1857-1893),
first prince of Bulgaria, was the second son of Prince Alexander
of Hesse and the Rhine by his morganatic marriage with Julia,
countess von Hauke. The title of princess of Battenberg, derived
from an old residence of the grand-dukes of Hesse, was con-
ferred, with the prefix DurcUauchi or " Serene Highness," on the
countess and her descendants in 1858. Prince Alexander, who
was born on the 5th of April 1857, was nephew of the tsu
Alexander II., who had married a sister of Prince Alexander
of Hesse; his mother, a daughter of Count Montr von Hauke,
had been lady-in-waiting to the tsaritsa In his boyhood sad
early youth he was frequently at St Petersburg, and he accom-
panied his uncle, who was much attached to him, during the
Bulgarian campaign of 1877. When Bulgaria under the Bertie
Treaty was constituted an autonomous principality under the
suzerainty of Turkey, the tsar recommended his nephew to the
Bulgarians as a candidate for the newly created throne, sad
ALEXANDER I.— ALEXANDER THE GREAT
545
Prince Alexander was elected prince of Bulgaria by unanimous
vote of the Grand Sobranye (April 29, 1879). He was at that
time serving as a lieutenant in the Prussian life-guards at
Potsdam. Before proceeding to Bulgaria, Prince Alexander
paid visits to the tsar at Livadia, to the courts of the great
powers and to the sultan; he was then conveyed on a Russian
warship to Varna, and after taking the oath to the new con-
stitution at Tirnova (July 8, 1879) he repaired to Sofia, being
everywhere greeted with immense enthusiasm by the people.
(For the political history of Prince Alexander's reign, see Bul-
garia.) Without any previous training in the art of governmen t,
the young prince from the outset found himself confronted with
difficulties which would have tried the sagacity of an experienced
ruler. On the one hand he was exposed to numberless humilia-
tions on the part of the representatives of official Russia, who
made it clear to him that he was expected to play the part of a
roi faineant; on the other he was compelled to make terms
with the Bulgarian politicians, who, intoxicated with newly
won liberty, prosecuted their quarrels with a crude violence
which threatened to subvert his authority and to plunge the
nation in anarchy. After attempting to govern under these
conditions for nearly two years, the prince, with the consent
of the tsar Alexander III., assumed absolute power (May 9,
188 1 ), and a suspension of the ultra^dcmocratic constitution
for a period of seven years was voted by a specially convened
assembly (July 13). The experiment, however, proved un-
successful; the Bulgarian Liberal and Radical politicians were
infuriated, and the real power fell into the hands of two Russian
generals, Sobolev and Kaulbars, who had been specially
despatched from St Petersburg. The prince, after vainly
endeavouring to obtain the recall of the generals, restored the
constitution with the concurrence "of all the Bulgarian political
parties (September 18, 1883). A serious breach with Russia
followed, which was widened by the part which the prince
subsequently played in encouraging the national aspirations of
the Bulgarians. The revolution of Philippopolis (September 18,
1885), which brought about the union of Eastern Rumelia with
Bulgaria, was carried out with his consent, and he at once
assumed the government of the revolted province. In the
anxious year which followed, the prince gave evidence of con-
siderable military and diplomatic ability. He rallied the
Bulgarian army, now deprived of its Russian officers, to resist
the Servian invasion, and after a brilliant victory at Slivnitza
(November 19) pursued King Milan into Servian territory as
far as Pirot, which he captured (November 27). Although
Scrvia was protected from the consequences of defeat by the
intervention of Austria, Prince Alexander's success scaled the
union with Eastern Rumelia, and after long negotiations he was
nominated governor-general of that province for five years by
the sultan (April 5, 1886). This arrangement, however, cost
him much of his popularity in Bulgaria, while discontent pre-
vailed among a certain number of his officers, who considered
themselves slighted in the distribution of rewards at the close
of the campaign. A military conspiracy was formed, and on
the night of the 20th of August the prince was seized in the
palace at Sofia, and compelled to sign his abdication; he was
then hurried to the Danube at Rakhovo, transported on his
yacht to Reni, and handed over to Russian authorities, by
whom he was allowed to proceed to Lemberg. He soon, how-
ever, returned to Bulgaria, owing to the success of the counter-
revolution led by Stamboloff, which overthrew the provisional
government set up by the Russian party at Sofia. But his
position had become untenable, partly owing to an ill-considered
telegram which he addressed to the tsar on his return; partly in
consequence of the attitude of Prince Bismarck, who, in con-
junction with the Russian and Austrian governments, forbade
him to punish the leaders of the military conspiracy. He
therefore issued a manifesto resigning the throne, and left
Bulgaria on the 8th of September 1886. He now retired into
private life. A few years later he married Fraulein Loisinger,
an actress, and assumed the style of Count Hartenau (Feb-
ruary 6, 1889). The last years of his life were spent principally
at Grata, where he held a local command in the Austrian army.
Here, after a short illness, he died on the 23rd of October 1893.
His remains were brought to Sofia, where they received a public
funeral, and were eventually deposited in a mausoleum erected
in his memory. Prince Alexander possessed much charm and
amiability of manner; he was tall, dignified and strikingly
handsome. His capabilities as a soldier have been generally
recognized by competent authorities. As a ruler he committed
some errors, but his youth and inexperience and the extreme
difficulty of his position must be taken into consideration. He
was not without aptitude for diplomacy, and his intuitive insight
and perception of character sometimes enabled him to outwit
the crafty politicians by whom he was surrounded. His principal
fault was a want of tenacity and resolution; his tendency to
unguarded language undoubtedly increased the number of his
enemies.
See Drandar, Le Prince Alexandre de Baltenberg en Bulgaria
(Paris, 1884); Koch, Furst Alexander von Bulgarien (Darmstadt,'
1887) ; Matveycv, Bulgarien nock dem Berliner Congress (Petersburg,
1887); Bourchier, " Prince Alexander of Battcnbcrg," in Fortnightly
Review, January 1894. (J. D. B.) •
ALEXANDER I., king of Epirus about 342 B.C., brother of
Olympias the mother of Alexander the Great, and son-in-law
of Philip of Macedon, whose daughter. Cleopatra he married
(336). In 332 he crossed over to Italy to assist the Taren tines
against the Lucanians, Bruttians and Samnites. He gained
considerable successes and made an arrangement with the
Romans for a joint attack upon the Samnites ; but the Taren-
tines, suspecting him of the design of founding an independent
kingdom, turned against him. Although the advantage at first
rested with Alexander, he gradually lost it, and his supporters
dwindled away. In 330 (or earlier) he. was defeated at Pandosia
and slain by a Lucanian emigrant.
See Justin viii. 6, ix. 6, xii. 2; Livy viii. 3, 17, 24; Aulus Gelliua
xvii. 21 ; and article Macedonian Empire.
ALEXANDER II., king of Epirus, succeeded his father
Pyrrhus, 272 B.C. He attacked Antigonus Gonatas and con-
quered the, greater part of Macedonia, but was in turn driven
out of both Epirus and Macedonia by Demetrius the son of
Antigonus. He subsequently recovered his kingdom by the aid
of the Acarnanians and Aetolians. He died about 260 (Polybius
ii. 45, ix. 34; Plutarch, Pyrrhus, o; Justin xviii. 1, xxvi. 2,
xxviii. 1).
See Thi^wall, History of Greece, vol. via. ; Droysen, Hellenismus;
B. Niese, Cesch. d. griech. u. maked. Staaten; J. Beloch, Criech.
Cesch. vol. iii.
ALEXANDER III., known as The Great 1 (356-323 B.C.),
king of Macedon, was the son of Philip II. of Macedon, and
Olympias, an Epirote princess. His father was pre-eminent for
practical genits, his mother a woman of half-wild blood, weird,
visionary and terrible; and Alexander himself is singular among
men of action for the imaginative splendours which guided him,
and among romantic dreamers for the things he achieved. He was
born in 356 B.C., probably about October (Hogarth, pp. 284 ff.).
The court at which he grew up was the focus of great youth
activities, for Philip, by war and diplomacy, was raising
Macedon to the headship of the Greek states, and the air was
charged with great ideas. To unite the Greek race in a. war
against the Persian empire was set up as the ultimate mark for
ambition, the theme of idealists. The great literary achievements
of the Greeks in the 5th century lay already far enough behind
to have become invested with a classical dignity; the meaning
of Hellenic civilization had been made concrete in a way which
might sustain enthusiasm for a body of ideal values, authori-
tative by tradition. And upon Alexander in his fourteenth year
this sum of tradition was brought to bear through the person of
the man who beyond all others had gathered it up into an organic
whole: in 343-342 Aristotle (q.v.) came to Pella at Philip's bidding
to direct the education of his son. We do not know what faculty
the master-thinker may have had for captivating this ardent
spirit; at any rate Alexander carried with him through life a
1 The use of the surname is proved as far back as the 1st century
B.c. (Ncpos, De Reg. 2).
5+6
ALEXANDER THE GREAT
fBlOGEAFBY
passion for Homer, however he may have been disposed to greyer
philosophic theory. But his education was not all from books.
The coming and going of envoys from many states, Greek and
Oriental, taught him something of the actual conditions of the
world. He was early schooled in war. At the age of sixteen he
commanded in Macedonia during Philip's absence and quelled a
rising of the hill-tribes on the northern border; in the following
year (338) he headed the charge which broke the Sacred Band at
Chaeronea. Then came family dissensions such as usually vex
the polygamous courts of the East In 337 Philip repudiated
Olympias for another wife, Cleopatra, Alexander went with his
mother to her home in Epirus, and, though he soon returned and
an outward reconciliation between father and son was contrived,
their hearts were estranged. The king's new wife was with child;
her kinsmen were in the ascendant; the succession of Alexander
was imperilled. Some negotiations which Pixodarus, the satrap
of Caria, opened with the Macedonian court with a view to
effecting a marriage alliance between his house and Philip's,
brought Alexander into fresh broils. In 336 Philip was suddenly
assassinated whilst celebrating at Aegae the marriage of his
daughter to Alexander I. of Epirus in the presence of a great
concourse from all the Greek world. It is certain that the hand
of the assassin was prompted by some one in the background;
suspicion could not fail to fall upon Alexander among others.
But guilt of that sort would hardly be consistent with his
character as it appears in those early days.
Alexander was not the only claimant to the vacant throne, but,
recognized by the army, he soon swept all rivals from his path.
fln—iftm T** new Jy b° m 8on °* FMKp °y Cleopatra, and
Alexander's cousin Amyntas, were put to death, and
Alexander took up the interrupted work of bis father. That
work was on the point of opening its most brilliant chapter
by an invasion of the great king's dominions; the army was
concentrated and certain forces had already been sent on to
occupy the opposite shore of the Hellespont The assassination
of Philip delayed the blow, for it immediately made the base,
Macedonia, insecure, and in such an enterprise, plunging into the
vast territories of the Persian empire, a secure base was every-
thing. Philip's removal had made all the hill-peoples of the
north and west raise their heads and set the Greek states free
from their fears. A demonstration in Greece, led by the new
king of Macedonia, momentarily checked the agitation, and at
the diet at Corinth Alexander was recognized as captain-general
(1fttp&v abroKp&Twp) of the Hellenes against the barbarians,
in the place of his father Philip. In the spring of 33$
he went out from Macedonia northwards, struck across
the Balkans, probably by the Shipka Pass, frustrating
the mountain warfare of its tribes by a precision of
discipline which, probably, no other army of the time could have
approached, and traversed the land of the Triballians (Rumelia)
to the Danube. To gratify his own imagination or strike the
imagination of the world he took his army over the Danube and
burnt a settlement of the Getae upon the other side. Meanwhile
the Illyrians had seized Pelion (Pliassa), which commanded the
passes on the west of Macedonia, and from the Danube Alexander
marched straight thither over the hills. He had hardly restored
Macedonian prestige in this quarter when he heard that Greece
was aflame. Thebes had taken up arms. By a forced march he
took the Thebans completely by surprise, and in a few days the
city, 'which a generation before had won the headship of Greece,
was taken. There were to be no half-measures now; the city was
wiped out of existence with the exception of its temples and the
house which had been Pindar's. Greece might now be trusted to
lie quiet for some time to come. The Panhellenic alliance (from
which Sparta still stood aloof) against the barbarians was renewed.
Athens, although lenown to be hostile at heart to the cities of
Macedonian power, Alexander treated all through with eager
courtesy.
In the spring of 334, Alexander crossed with ftn army of
between 30,000 and 40,000 men, Macedonians, Illyrians,
Thracians and the contingents of the Greek states, into Asia.
The place of concentration was Arisbe on the Hellespont
Alexander himself first visited the site of Troy and there west
through those dramatic acta of sacrifice to the Hiaxi Athsa,
assumption of the shield believed to be that of Achilles _
and offerings to the great Homeric dead, which axe Jjj*
significant of the poetic glamour shed, in the young asm
king's mind, over the whole enterprise, and which men
will estimate differently according to the part they assign to
imagination in human affairs. To meet the invader the great
king had in Asia Minor an army slightly larger, it would sees,
than Alexander's, gathered under the satrap* of the westers
provinces at Zeleia. He had also, what was more scrkes,
command of the Aegean. Alexander could communicate w-.i
his base only by the narrow line of the Hellespont, and ran the
risk, if he went far from it, of being cut off altogether. Todnv
him after them, while avoiding a conflict, was sound strategy
for the Persian generals. It was urged upon them by thcr
colleague the Rhodian Memnon. But strategic cansxderatkes
were cancelled by the Persian barons* code of chivalry, aai
Alexander found them waiting for him on the banks of the
Granicus. It was a cavalry melee, in which the BatAtt
common code of honour caused Macedonian and rtMlM
Persian chieftains to engage hand to hand, and at the
end of the day the relics of the Persian army were in-flight, lesrxsf
the high-roads of Asia Minor clear for the invader. Alexander
could now accomplish the first part of the task belonging to baa
as captain-general to the Hellenes, that liberation of the Greek
cities of Asia Minor, for which Panhellenic enthusiasts had cried
out so long. He first went to take possession of the old Lydha
capital Sardis, the headquarters of the Persian government ca
this side of the Taurus, and the strong city surrendered whbc*
a blow. And now in all the Greek cities of Aeolis and Ionia the
oligarchies or tyrants friendly to Persia fell, and democracies were
established under the eye of Alexander's officers. Only where the
cities were held by garrisons in the. Persian service, garrisons
composed mainly of Greek mercenaries, was the liberator hkeij
to meet with any resistance. From Ephesus indeed the garrisoa
fled upon the news of Granicus, but Miletus required a siege. Tie
Persian fleet in vain endeavoured to relieve it, and MDeaa
did not long hold out against Alexander's attack. It was at
Halicarnassus that Alexander first encountered stubborn resist'
ance, at Halicarnassus where Memnon and the satraps of Caria
had rallied what land-forces yet belonged to Persia in the west
When winter fell, Alexander had captured indeed the city rtscH,
but the two citadels still held out against his blockade.
Meanwhile Alexander was making it plain that he had come sot
merely as captain-general for a war of reprisals, but to take the
Persian's place as king of the land. The conquered provinces
were organized under Macedonian governors and in Caria a
dethroned princess of the native dynasty, Ada, was restored
to power. In the winter, whilst Parmenio advanced upon the
central plateau to make the occupation of Fhrygia effective,
Alexander himself passed along the coast to receive the sob-
mission of the Lydans and the adherence of the Greek cities d
the Pamphylian sea-board. The hills inland were the domain of
fighting tribes which the Persian government had never been abk
to subdue. To conquer them, indeed, Alexander had no time, but
he stormed some of their fortresses to hold them in check, a=J
marched through their territory, when he turned north from
Pampbylia into the interior. The point of concentration for next
year's campaign had been fixed at Gordium, a meettng-place of
roads in Northern Phrygia. The story of Alexander's cutting the
fatal " Gordian knot " on the chariot of the ancient Phrygian
king Gordius is connected with his stay in this place.
Whilst Alexander had been grounding his power in Asia Minor,
be had run a narrow risk of losing his base in Europe. He had
after the siege of Miletus disbanded the Graeco- b**—*»
Macedonian fleet, surrendering for the time all attempts •Mir*
to challenge the command of the Aegean. Memnon f ****
the Rhodian, now in supreme command of the Persian *****
fleet, saw the European coasts exposed and set out to nu*
Greece, where discontent always smouldered in Alexander's rear.
But Memnon died at the critical moment whilst laying siege to
BIOGRAPHY]
&f ytilene and the great plan collapsed. A Fenian fleet still held
the sea, but it effected little, and presently fresh Graeco-Mace-
donian squadrons began to hold it in check. It was, however,
the need to ensure command of the sea and free all lines of com-
munication behind him that determined Alexander's plan for the
next campaign. If he mastered the whole coast-lino of the
Levant, the enemy's fleet would find itself left in the air. The
Syrian coast was accordingly his immediate objective when he
broke up f rdm Gordium for the campaign of 333. He was through
the Cicilian Gates before the Persian king, Darius III., had sent
up a force adequate to hold them; His passage through Cilida
«ras marked by a violent fever that arrested him for a while in
Tarsus, and meantime a great Persian army was waiting for him
In northern Syria under the command of Darius himself. In the
knot of mountains which close in about the head of the Gulf of
Alexandretta, Alexander, following hard by the coast, marched
past the Persian army encamped on the plains to the east. To
cut Alexander's communications with the rear, Darius now com-
mitted the error of entangling his large force in the mountain
denies. Alexander turned, and near the town of
Issus fought his second pitched battle, sending Darius
and the relic of his army in wild flight back to the
east. 1 It was an incident which did not modify Alexander's
plan. He did not press the pursuit far, although the great king's
camp with his harem fell into his hands. The chivalrous courtesy
which he showed to the captive princesses was a favourite theme
for later rhetoricians. He went on his way to occupy Syria and
Phoenicia. It is now that we get definite evidence as to the
reach of Alexander's designs; for Darius opened negotiations in
-which he ultimately went so far as to offer a partition of the
empire, all west of the Euphrates, to be Alexander's. Alexander
refused the bargain and definitely claimed the whole.* The
conquest of the Phoenician coast was not to be altogether easy,
for Tyre shut its gates and for seven months Alexander had to sit
before it— one of those obstinate sieges which mark the history of
the Semitic races. When it fell, Alexander had the old Tyrian
people scattered to the winds, 30,000 sold as slaves. Gaza offered
a resistance equally heroic, lasting two months, and here too the
old population was dispersed. The occupation of the rest of
Syria and Palestine proceeded smoothly, and after the fall of
Gaza Alexander's way lay open into Egypt.* Egypt was the last
of the Mediterranean provinces to be won, and here no defence
was made. To the native Egyptians Alexander appeared as a
deliverer from the Persian tyranny, and he sacrificed piously to
the gods of Memphis. The winter (332-331) which Alexander
spent in Egypt saw two memorable actions on his part. One was
the expedition (problematic in its motive and details) to the oracle
of Zeus Ammon (Oasis of Siwa), where Alexander was hailed by
the priest as son of the god, a belief which the circle of Alexander,
and perhaps Alexander himself, seem hereafter to have liked to
play with in that sort of semi-serious vein which still allowed him
in the moments of everjr-day commonplace to be the son of
Philip. The other action was the foundation of Alexandria at
the Canopic mouth of the Nile, the place destined to be a new
commercial centre for the eastern Mediterranean world which
Alexander had now taken in possession, to rise to an importance
which the founder, although obviously acting with intention, can
hardly have foreseen (E. Keller, Alex. d. Crosse nock der Schlacht
bei Issus, 1004).
In the spring of 331 Alexander could at last leave the Mediter-
ranean to strike into the heart of the Persian empire, for by
his occupation of the coasts the Persian command of
the sea had inevitably collapsed. Returning through
Syria, and stopping at Tyre to make final arrangements
for the conquered provinces; he traversed Mesopotamia and
* See Bauer/," Die Schlacht beilwui" mJahreshefle d.dslerr. arth&oL
InstiL ii. pp. 105 f.; A. Janke. Auf Alex. d. gtossen Pfaden; Gruhn,
Das ScUidufeld von Issus; Lammert in BerU Phild. Wocketuehr.
(1903). col. 1596 f.
1 Pndik. De Alex. Mat. ePisL commercio (Dorpat, 1893) ; Schwartz,
art. " Curtiua " in Pauly-wiaaowa, coU 1884.
* The story of Alexander's visit to Jerusalem rests on no better
authority than a later Jewish
ALEXANDER THE GREAT
547
struck the Tigris some four marches above the site of Nineveh.
It was near Nineveh that Darius was waiting with the immense
host which a supreme effort could muster from all parts of the
empire. The happy coincidence of a lunar eclipse gives us the
aoth of September 331 as the exact day upon which the Mace-
donian army crossed the Tigris. Alexander came within sight
of the Persian host without having met with any opposition since
he quitted TVre. He had now to settle the most serious problem
which had yet faced him, for in the plains the Persian army was
formidable by sheer bulk. But the day showed the .
Macedonian army equal to the task. The last army JtftfM
gathered by an Achaemenian king was shattered in
the battle called popularly after the dty of Arbela some 60 m.
distant, or more precisely after the village of Gaugamela hard by.
Darius fled eastwards into Media and again Alexander waited till
he had secured the provinces to the south. He followed the
Tigris into Babylonia, the central seat of the empire and its
richest region, and from Babylon went on to seize the fabulous
riches which the Persian kings had amassed in their spring
residence, Suss. Thence he at last ascended upon the Iranian
plateau. The mountain tribes on the road (the Oxli, Pers,
Huzha), accustomed to exact blackmail even from the king's
train, learnt by a bitter lesson that a stronger hand had come to
wield the empire. Alexander entered Persis, the cradle of the
Achaemenian house, and came upon fresh masses of treasure in
the royal city, Persepolis. He destroyed the royal palace by
fire, an act which has been variously estimated by historians.
Ostensibly a solemn revenge for the burning of Greek temples
by Xerxes, it has been justified as a symbolical act calculated
to impress usefully the imagination of the East, and condemned
as a senseless and vainglorious work of destruction.
With the spring of 330 Alexander was prepared for further
pursuit. Darius fled northwards from Ecbatana upon his ap-
proach. At Ecbatana new masses of treasure were seized, but
when once the necessary measures which its disposal and the
occupation of the Median capital entailed were taken, Alexander
continued the pursuit. It was an exciting chase of king by king,
in which each covered the ground by incredible exertions, shed-
ding their slower-going followers as they went, past Rhagae (Rai)
and the Caspian gates, till early one morning Alexander came in
sight of the broken train which still clung to the fallen king. He
had become a puppet in the hands of his cousin Bessus and the
Persian magnates with him (see Daxius III.), and at this
extremity they stabbed him and allowed Alexander to become
master only of his corpse (summer 330).
The pursuit had brought Alexander into that region of moun-
tains to the south of the Caspian which connects western Iran
with the provinces to the east of the great central desert. To
conquer this remaining portion of the empire, Alexander now went
on through the mountain belt, teaching the power of his arms to
the hillsmen, Tapyri and Mardi, till he came, passing through
Zadracarta (Asterabad), to Parthia and thence to Aria. In these
further provinces of Iran the Macedonian invader had for the
first time to encounter a serious national opposition, for in the
west the Iranian rule had been merely the supremacy of an alien
power over native populations indifferent or hostile. Here the
ruling race was at home. In Asia Alexander learnt that Bessus
had taken the diadem as Darius' successor in Bactria, but so soon
as he marched against him Aria rose in his rear, and Alexander
had to return in all haste to bring the revolt under. Nor did he,
when this was accomplished, again strike directly at Bactria,
but made a wide turning movement through Scistan over
Kandahar into the Kabul valley. It was on the way, in Seistan
at Prophthasia (mod. Farrah ?), that the alienation between
Alexander and his Macedonian followers, which becomes sensible
in the Utter part of his career, first showed itself in an ugly form.
Alexander had come to merge the characters of Macedonian king
and Hellenic captain-general, with which he had set out, in that
of Oriental despot (Spieker. Hof u. Hofordnung Al. d. Cr. f 1004).
He wore on occasions of state the Persian dress. (According to
pseudo- Plutarch, de fort. Al. i. 8, it was the simpler Persian
dress, not the Median.) A discontent began to work among the
548
ALEXANDER THE GREAT
(BIOGHAPHT
Macedonians, and at Prophthasia the commander of the Mace-
donian cavalry Philotas, the son of Parmenio, and certain others
were arraigned before the army on the charge of conspiring
against the king's life. They were condemned and put to death.
Not satisfied with procuring this, Alexander had Parmenio him-
self, who had been left in command in Media, put to death by
secret orders. It is perhaps the worst crime, because the most
cold-blooded and ungenerous, which can be laid to his charge.
By the winter of 320-328 Alexander had reached the Kabul
valley at the foot of the Paropamisadae (Hindu Rush).
The ordinarily received chronology makes Alexander reach the
Kabul valley in the winter of 330-329. That to fit the actions
and distances covered by Alexander into such a scheme, assuming
that he went by Seistan and Kandahar, would involve physical
impossibilities has been pointed out by Count Yorck v. Warten-
burg and Mr D. G. Hogarth. Kaeist and Beloch continue to
give the ordinary chronology untroubled.
In the. spring of 328 Alexander crossed the Hindu Kush into
Bactria and followed the retreat of Bessus across the Oxus and
terastoa int0 Sosdiana (Bokhara). Here Bessus was at last
ot caught and treated with the barbaric cruelty which
Nortbrm the rule of the old Persian monarchy prescribed for
ta4ta ~ rebels. Till the spring of 327 Alexander was moving
to and fro in Bactria and Sogdiana, beating down the recurrent
rebellions and planting Greek cities. Just as in 335 he had
crossed the Danube, so he now made one raid across the frontier
river, the Jaxartes (Sir Dana), to teach the fear of his name
to the outlying peoples of the steppe (summer 328). And mean*
while the rift between Alexander and his European followers
continued to show itself in dark incidents — the murder of Clitus
at Maracanda (Samarkand), when Alexander struck down an old
friend, both being hot with wine; the claim that Alexander
should be approached with prostration (proskynesis), urged in
the spring of 327, and opposed boldly by the philosopher Calli-
sthenes, Aristotle's nephew, who had come in the king's train;
the conspiracy of the pages at Bactria, which was made an
occasion for putting Callisthenes to death. It was now that
Alexander completed the conquest of the provinces north
of the Hindu Kush by the reduction of the last mountain
strongholds of the native princes. In one of them he captured
Roxana, the daughter of Oxyartes, whom he made his wife.
Before the summer of 327 he had once more crossed the
Hindu Kush on his way to India (for the campaigns in the
N.E. see F. von Schwarx, Alex. d. Crossen Fcldzuge in Turke-
stan, 1893, v.).
Whilst the heavier troops moved down the Kabul valley
to Pencelaotis (Chflrsadda) under Perdiccas and Hephaestion,
Alexander with a body of lighter-armed troops and cavalry
pushed up the valleys which join the Kabul from the north-
through the regions now known as Bajour, Swat and Buner,
inhabited by Indian hill peoples, as fierce then against the
western intruder as their Pathan successors are against the
British columns. The books give a number of their " cities "
reduced by Alexander— walled mountain villages which can in
some cases be identified more or less certainly with places where
the clans are established to-day. The crowning exploit was the
reduction of Aornus, 1 a stronghold perched on a precipitous
summit above the Indus, which it was said that Heracles had
failed to take. How much of the story of Alexander's discovery
of the sacred mountain of the Nysa and the traces of Dionysus
is due to the invention of Aristobulus and Clitarchus (Arrian
did not find it in Ptolemy) we cannot say. Meantime Perdiccas
and Hephaestion had built a bridge over the Indus, and by this
in the spring of 326 Alexander passed into the Punjab (at Ohind,
16 m. above Attock, according to Foucher, Notts sur la giogr.
ant. du Gandhdra, 1002). The country into which he came was
dominated by three principalities, that of Ambhi (Gr. Omphis,
Curt. viii. 12 6) between the Indus and the Hydaspes (Jhelum,
1 The best opinion now confirms Abbott's identification of Aornus
with Mahaban— Deane, Journ. R. Asiat. Soc. (Oct. 1806), p. 673;
Stein, Report of an Archaeological Tour with the Buner Field Force
(Lahore, 1898), pp. 45-48.
Jetton), centred in the great dty of Taataala (Gr. Tes3s\
that of the Paurara rajah (Gr. Poms) between the Hydaspa
and Acesines (Ckenab), and that of Abhisara (Gr. Abiseret
between the same two rivers higher up, on the rwnfcji i r* of
Kashmir (Stein, Rojatarangini, transl. bk. i. 180^ ▼. srrf
The kings of Taxila and Poms were at enmity, and for thb ess*
the invader could reckon upon Omphis aa a firm ally. Pens
was prepared to contest the passage of the Hydaspes with a3
his strength. Abisares preferred to play a doable same aad
wait upon events. Alexander reached the Hydaspes just as the
rains broke, when the river was already swollen. Forts beH
the opposite bank with a powerful army, including soo etepihasa.
Alexander succeeded in taking a part of his forces across tir
river higher, up during a night of torrential rain, and thei
he fought the fourth and last of his pitched battles in Asia, £e
one which put to proof more shrewdly than any of the others tar
quality of the Macedonian army as an instrument of war, asd
yet again emerged victorious. Porus fell sorely wonnded fas
his hands. 1 Porus had saved his honour, and now Alexander
tried, and not in vain, to gain him as a friend. When he con-
tinued his progress eastwards across the Acesines, Pons w*j
an active ally. Alexander moved along dose under the h£s>
After crossing the HydraOtes (Ravi) he once more came ism
contact with hostile tribes, and the work of storming petty
towns began again. Then the Hyphasis (Beas) was reached,
and here the Macedonian army refused to go any farther. It
was a bitter mortification to Alexander, before whose imagizA-
tioh new vistas had just opened out eastwards, where the*
beckoned the unknown world of the Ganges and its splendid
kings. For three days the will of king and people were locked J
antagonism; then Alexander gave way; the long eastward
movement was ended; the return began.
Alexander left the conquered portion of India east of the Iada
to be governed under Porus, Omphis of Taxila, and Abisares,
the country west of the Indus under Macedonian
governors, and set out to explore the great river j^la
to its mouth (for the organization of the Indian
provinces, see especially Niese, vol. I. pp. 500 f.). The fleet
prepared on the Hydaspes sailed in October, while a land ansy
moved along the bank. The confluence of the Hydaspes and
Acesines passed, the Macedonians were once more in a region of
hostile tribes with towns to be stormed. It was at one of
these, a town of the Malli, that a memorable incident occurred,
such as characterized the personality of Alexander for all ssc-
ceeding time. He leapt from the wall with only three companta
into the hostile town, and, before the army behind htm could
effect an entrance, lay wounded almost to death.' He re cover ed
and beat down the resistance of the tribes, leaving them annexed
to the Macedonian satrapy west of the Indus. Below the con-
fluence of the Punjab rivers into the single stream of the Indas
the territory of loose tribes was succeeded by another group of
regular principalities, under the rajahs called by the Greeks
Musicanus, Oxycanus and Sambus. These opposed a national
resistance to the Macedonians, the fires of which were fanned
by the Brahmins, but still the strong arm of the western people
prevailed. The rajah of Patala at the apex of the Indus delta
abandoned his country and fled. It was the high summer of
325 when Alexander reached Patala. From here he explored
both arms of the delta to the ocean, now seen by the Macedonians
for the first time. He had determined that the Indus fleet
should be used to explore this new world and try to find a water-
way between the Indus and the Persian Gulf. A great part of
the land-forces had been already sent off under Craterus in the
earlier summer to return west by Kandahar and Seistan; tie
fleet was to sail under the Greek Nearchus from the Indus
mouth with the winter monsoon; Alexander himself ni'Ja
the rest of the land-forces set out in October to go by the
1 Beside V. Smith (cited below) see Schubert, " Die PorusscUacst.*
in Rhein. Afus. Ivt, root, p. 543.
■There seems nothing to nx the exact spot of this town; Aa
common identification with Multan is, according to Ravtrty sad
V. Smith, certainly wrong.
BIOGRAPHY]
coast of Baluchistan, through the appalling sand-waste* of the
Mekran.*
He would seem to have kept down to the coast until the
headland of Ras Milan was reached, scattering before him the
bands of Arabitaeand Oritae who were the inhabitants of this
well-provisioned tract. For the z$o miles between Ras Milan
and Pasni Alexander was compelled by the natural barriers to
march inland, and it was here that his troops sank under the
horrors of heat and thirst and sand. The coast once regained,
the way was easy; no such desert had to be traversed, when
Alexander again struck inland for the chief city of the Gediosians
<Pura), and thence made his way into Carmania. Here the spent
troops rested; here the army of Craterus joined them, and
Nearchus came to announce his safe arrival at the entrance of
the Persian Gulf. 1
The machine of empire had not functioned altogether smoothly
while the king had been absent, and on Alexander's re-appearance
many incapables and rogues in high office had to be replaced by
better men. In Cannania, in Penis, complaints from the pro-
vinces continued to reach him, as well as the news of disorders in
Macedonia and Greece. New orders and appointments served to
bring the empire into hand again, and at Susa in the spring of
324 Alexander rested, the task of conquering and compassing
the Achaemenian realm achieved. The task of its internal re-
organization now began to occupy him— changes, for instance,
in the military system which tended to assimilate Macedonians
and Orientals. The same policy of fusion was furthered by the
great marriage festival at Susa, when Alexander took two more
wives from the Persian royal house, married a number of his
generals to Oriental princesses; and even induced as many as he
could of the rank-and-file to take Asiatic wives. This policy did
not allay the discontent of the Macedonian army, and when
Alexander in the summer of 324 moved to the cooler region of
Media, an actual mutiny of the Macedonians broke out on the
way at Opis on the Tigris. It was occasioned by the discharge
of the Macedonian veterans, and only the personal m «g*»*»"^
of Alexander and his threat to entrust himself altogether to the
Orientals availed to quell it At Ecbatana the death of Hephaes-
tton for a time plunged Alexander into a passion of mourning.
But by the winter (334-323) he was again active, bringing the hill-
tribes on the S.W. border of Media, the Cossaei, into subjection.
In the spring of 323 he moved down to Babylon, receiving on
the way embassies from lands as far as the confines of the known
world, for the eyes of all nations were now turned with fear or
wonder to the figure which had appeared with so superhuman
an effect upon the world's stage. The embassy from Rome,
however, is almost certainly a later, and an inevitable, invention.
The exploration of the waterways round about the empire was
Alexander's immediate concern, the discovery of the presumed
connexion of the Caspian with the Northern Ocean, the opening
of a maritime route from Babylon to Egypt round Arabia. The
latter enterprise Alexander designed to conduct in person;
under his supervision was prepared in Babylon an immense fleet,
a great basin dug out to contain 1000 ships, and the water-
communications of Babylonia taken in hand. Innovations were
carried out in the tactical system of the army which were to
modify considerably the methods of future battle-fields. At
last all was ready; the aoth of the month Daesius (? June 5)
was fixed for the king's setting forth. On the 15th and z6th
Alexander caroused deep into the night at the house
JJj** of the favourite Medius. On the 17th he developed
**t. fever; for a time he treated it as a momentary impedi-
ment to the expedition; but on the 27th his speech
was gone, and the Macedonian army were suffered to pass man
* For the Indian campaigns of Alexander tee especially McCrindfe,
Imasien of India by AUxapder the Great (1896); Vincent A. Smith,
Early History of India (*9<>4). and the references there given to the
ALEXANDER THE GREAT
549
researches of SurT. H. 1
De Alex. Magni exped. ind. (1903).
* Tomascbek. ''Topographische
Raverty and Foucher; A. Anspach,
Erliutening der Kustenfahrt
Nearchs " in the SUeungsberithie der kaiterL Ahad. d. Wissensch.
of Vienna (Philosopk.-kistor. Klasse, vol. out.): Major P. M. Sykes,
Ten Thousand tides in Persia (1902). pp. 166 f.
by man through his chamber to bid him farewell. On the 28th
(? June 13) Alexander died. 1
His son by 'Roxana, the so-called Alexander " Aegus," was
born a few months later. He and his uncle Philip, as joint kings,
were placed under the guardianship of Perdiccas, Peithon and
Antipater in succession. After the death of Antipater (319)
Roxana fled with him to Epirus, and was afterwards taken back
to Macedonia, together with Olympias, by Polyperchon. All
three fell into the hands of Cassander; Alexander and his
mother were in 3x0-309 put to death l>y order of Cassander
(Justin xiv. 6, xv. 2). The meaningless surname of Aegus,
still given in some books to this Alexander, is derived simply
from a modern misreading of the text of the Astronomical Canon,
AirOT for AAAOT.
Alexander the Great is one of the instances of the vanity
of appealing from contemporary disputes to " the verdict of
posterity "; his character and his policy are estimated ^
to-day as variously as ever. Certain features— the 2j mrt,r
high physical courage, the impulsive energy, the potty,
fervid imagination— -stand out clear; beyond that
disagreement begins. That he was a great master of war is
admitted by most of those who judge his character unfavourably,
but even this has been seriously questioned (e.g. by Beloch,
Grieck. Cesck. iii. (L), p. 66). There is a dispute as to his real
designs. That he aimed at conquering the whole world and
demanded to be worshipped as a god is the traditional view.
Droysen denies the former, and Niese maintains that his ambition
was limited by the bounds of the Persian empire and that the
claim to divine honours is fabulous (Historiscke Zeilsckr. lxxix.,
1897, z f.). It is true that our best authority, Arrian, fails to
substantiate the traditional view satisfactorily; on the other
hand those who maintain it urge that Arrian's interests were
mainly military, and that the other authorities, if inferior in
trustworthiness, are completer in range of vision. Of those,
again, who maintain the traditional view, some, like Niebuhr
and Grote, regard it as convicting Alexander of mad ambition
and vainglory, whilst to Kaerst Alexander only incorporates
ideas which were the timely fruit of a long historical development.
Tne policy of fusing Greeks and Orientals again is diversely
judged. To Droysen and Kaerst it accords with the historical
conditions; to Grote and to Beloch it is a betrayal of the pre-
rogative of Hellenism.
Some notion of the personal appearance of Alexander may be
got from the literature and the surviving monuments. He is
described as of an athletic frame, though not taller than the
common, and a white and ruddy complexion. The expression of
his eyes had something " Kquid and melting" (r&r 6uu6.r<a*
Hjp k&xwiv K<d vypbrrtra), and the hair which stood "up over his
forehead gave the suggestion of a lion. He had a way of carrying
his head somewhat aslant. (See especially Plut. Alex. 4; de
Alex. fart. ii. 2.) The greatest masters of the time executed
portraits of him, Lysippus in sculpture, Apelles in painting
and Pyrgoteles in graven gems. Among surviving monuments,
we have no completely certified portraits except the Tivoli
herm (now in the Louvre) and the coins struck by his successors.
The herm is a dry work and the head upon the coins shows
various degrees of idealization. There are, however, a considerable
number of works which can make out a better or worse claim
either to be portraits of Alexander or to reproduce his type,
and a large field of discussion is therefore open as to their values
and classification (F. Kopp, Ober das Bildnis Alexanders d.
Grossen (1892); K. J. Ujfalvy, Lt Type physique d 1 Alexandre U
Grand (1902); T. Schreiber, Sludien liber das Bildnis Alexanders
d. Grossen (1903); J. J. Bernoulli, Die erkalUnen DorsUUungen
Alexander} a? Grossen (1905). Alexander shaved dean, and set
the fashion in this respect for the Graeco-Roman world for the
next 500 years.
BiBLiooRArmr.— The campaigns and life of Alexander did not
lack contemporary historians, some of them eye-witnesses and even
' ^ They included the philosopher Callisthenes, put to
* For Alexander's funeral see F. Jacoby in Rbein. Mus. (1903).
pp. 461 f.
550
ALEXANDER THE GREAT
(ROMANCE
death by Alexander in 327, whose history vent up to the death of
Darius, Alexander's general Ptolemy, afterwards king in Egypt,
Nearchus who commanded the fleet that sailed from the Indus to
the Persian Gulf, Oneskritus who served as pilot in the same fleet,
Aristobulus who was with Alexander in India, Clitarchus, a con-
temporary, if not an eye-witness, important from the fact that his
highly coloured version of the life of Alexander became the popular
authority for the succeeding centuries. Besides the historical
narrative, there were works mainly geographical or topographical
left by persons like Baeton and Diognetus, whom Alexander had
employed (as pnttanerd) to survey the roads over which he passed.
All such original sources have now perished. The fragments are
collected in tne Didot edition of Arrian by Karl Mailer. Not reckon-
ing scattered notices, we depend principally upon five later com-
positions. Diodorus, book xvii. (c. 20 B.C.), the work of Quintus
Curtius (c. a.d. 42), Plutarch's (c 45-12$ a.d.) Life of Alexander,
Arrian's Anabasis and Indica (c a.d. 150), and the relevant books
of Justin's abridgment (2nd cent. A.D J of the history of Troguj
(c. 10 B.C.?). To these we may add the Latin Ititurarium Alex-
andri, a skeleton outline of Alexander's campaigns dedicated to the
emperor Constantius (a.d. 324-361), printed at the end of the Didot
edition of Arriaa, and the Epitome Kenan Gestarum Alexandri magni,
an abridgment made in the 4th or 5th century of a lost Latin work
of uncertain date, combining history with elements taken from the
Romance (edited by O. Wagner, Leipzig, 1900). The relation of
these works to the various original sources constitutes the critical
problem before the modern historian in reference to the history of
Alexander. See Droysen vol. i. appendix i. ; A. Schoene. De return
Alexandri Magni scrtptorum imprtmis Arriani fir Plutarchi fontibus
^1870); Fraenkel, Dte Ceschichtschreiber Alex. d. Grossen (1883);
>. Maas, Kleilarck und Diodor (Petersburg, 1894); Kaerst, For-
schungen *ur Gesch. Alex. d. Grossen (1887), and Gesch. d. hellenist.
ZeitaUers(y<A.L, 190O.pp.421 f.;F.L.Schoenlc f Diodorstudien (1891)';
E. Schwartz, articles Aristobuloa (14)," ''Arrianus," "Quintus
Curtius," " Diodorus " in Pauly-Wissowa's RealencydopHdie.
For modern views of Alexander see Thirl wall. History of Greece;
Niebuhr, Lectures on Ancient History (Eng. trans, rev. by author,
1852); Crote, History of Greece; Droysen, Hissoire de FHclUnistne
(translation by Bouche-Leclera) ; Ad. Holm. History of Greece
SEng. trans., 1898); B. Niese, Gesch, der grieck. u, maied. Staalen
vol. i.); Kaerst, Gesch. des hellenist. Zeitalters (1001); J. Beloch,
"iriechische Gesch. (vol. iii., 1904) ; t. B. Bury, History of Greece ( 1902);
A. von Gutschmid, Geschichte Irons (1888). Among the mass of
monographs and special articles, reference may be made to Freeman,
897). a striking effort of historical imagination to reconstruct
.Jexander as a man of the real world; Benjamin I. Wheeler.
Alexander the Great (1900) in the " Heroes of the Nations Series. '*
The purely military aspect of Alexander's campaigns b treated in
general histories of warfare (Rustow-Kochly, Bauer, Delbruck.
verdy du Vernois), and in special monographs by Hogarth. Journ.
of Philol. vol. xvii., 1888, pp. I foil. : W. Droysen, Untersuchungen
uber A.desGr. Heerwesen (1885), and Graf Yorck von Wartenburg.
Kurte Obersicht der FeUzUte A.deGr. (1897). For further references
to the literature on Alexander, see Kaerst 's article in Pauly-Wissowa's
Realencyclopadie (1894)- (E. R. B.)
The Romance of Alexander.
The figure of Alexander naturally impressed itself upon the
imagination of the world which his career had shaken. Even
in India we are told that he was held in honour by the native
kings who took his farthest provinces in possession. But
Eastern tradition, so tenacious of the old myths of primitive
man, has a short memory for actual history, and five centuries
later Alexander was only remembered in Iran as the accursed
destroyer of the sacred books, whose wisdom he had at the same
time pilfered by causing translations to be made into " Roman."
That the East to-day has so much to tell about Alexander is only
due to the fact that old mythical stories of gods or heroes who
go travelling through lands of monsters and darkness, of magical
fountains and unearthly oceans, became attached to his name
in the popular literature of the Roman empire, and this mythical
Alexander was reintroduced in the 7th century a.d. into the
farther East, where the historical Alexander was almost forgotten.
The romance of Alexander is found written in the languages of
nearly all peoples from the Indian Ocean to the Atlantic, but
all these versions axe derived, mediately or immediately, from
the Greek original which circulated under the false name of
Callisthenes. The Greek pseudo-Callisthenes (otherwise Aisopos
we possess in three recensions, based all upon a book produced
In Egypt in the 2nd century kjk But this book itself was a
farrago of heterogeneous elements—pieces of genuine Instatr
ancient stories once told in Babylon of Gilgamesh or Etazmi.
literary forgeries of the days soon after Alexander, like the aides
part of the "Testament of Alexander/' variations dot a
Egyptian patriotic sentiment, like that which made Alexander
the son of the last Pharaoh, Nectanebus. As the story vs
reproduced, variations were freely introduced according to the
bent of different times and peoples; in the Persian versxx
Alexander (Iskander) became a son of Darius; among the
Mahommedans he turned into a prophet, hot against idols; the
pen of Christian monks made him an ascetic saint.
The Alexander romance found its way into Europe through
the medium of Latin, but originated mainly from the versos*
of the pseudo-Callisthenes, not from the more sober naratht
of Quintus Curtius. The pseudo-Callisthenes, in a recenska
which has not been preserved, was translated into Latin by
Julius Valerius about the end of the 3rd century, and an epitome*
of this translation, also in Latin, was made some time before the
9th century, and is introduced by Vincent de Beauvais into his
Speculum historiale. Much of the legend is a running travesty
of the true history of the conqueror. The first book deals with
his birth and early exploits. The trace of Alexandrian inflnmrr
is to be found in the pretence that his actual father was
Nectanebus, a fugitive king of Egypt. The latter was a great
magician, able, by operating upon waxen figures of the arnues
and ships of his enemies, to obtain complete power over their
real actions. Obliged, however, to flee to Pella in Macedonia,
he established himself as an astrologer, and as such was consulted
by the childless Olympias. Having promised that Zeus Amman
would visit her in the form of a dragon, he himself assumed the
disguise. In due course Alexander was born, and Philips
suspicions were overcome by a second appearance of the dragon,
which was held to prove the divine fatherhood. The child was
small and somewhat deformed, but of great courage and in-
telligence. When he was twelve years old he was instructed
in starcraft by Nectanebus, who was killed by a fall into a pit,
into which he had been playfully pushed by Alexander. The
first book also relates his conquests in Italy, Africa, Syria and
Asia Minor; his return to Macedonia and the submission cf
Greece. The second book continues the history of his conquests,
and the third contains the victory over Porus, the relations with
the Brahmins, the letter to Aristotle on the wonders of India,
the histories of Candace and the Amazons, the letter to Olympiss
on the marvels of Farther Asia, and lastly the account of
Alexander's death in Babylon.
The most wide-spread Latin version of the story, however,
was the Historic de proeliis, 1 printed at Strasbourg in i486, which
began to supersede the Epitome of Julius Valerius in general
favour about the end of the 13th century. It is said to have
been written by the Neapolitan arch-presbyter Leo, who was seat
by Johannes and Marinus, dukes of Campania (041-065) to
Constantinople, where he found his Greek original Auxiliary
sources for the medieval romance-writers were: — the opuscule
(4th century) known as Alexandri magni tier ad Parodismm, a
fable of Eastern origin directed against ambition; the Itimerarinm
Alexandri (340), based partly on Julius Valerius and dedicated
to Constans, son of the emperor Constantine; the letter of
Alexander to Aristotle (Epist. de situ ei mirabilibus Indiac), and
the correspondence between Alexander and the king of the
Brahmins, Dindimus, both of which are often contained in MSS.
of the Epitome; and the treatise (based on a lost history of
Alexander by Onesicritus), De gentibus Indiae el BragmamJtmt,
ascribed without certainty to Palladius (d. c. 430), successively
bishop of Helenopolis and Aspona.
The Ethiopic versions are of great interest as a striking example
of literary " accommodation. " Not only b the whole atmosphere
Christian in colouring, but we actually find the Greek gods in
the guise of Enoch, Elijah, &c, while Philip is a Christian martyr,
and Alexander himself a great apostle, even a saint; quotations
from the Bible are frequent. Syriac and Armenian versions
were made in the 5th century. Persians and Arabs told the
1 Natmtatet Victoria* Alexandri magni regis was the original title.
ROMANCE]
deeds of Iskander; and Firdousi made use of the story in the
Shdhndma. Another early Persian poet, Nizami, made the story
specially his own. The crusaders brought back fresh develop-
ments; Gog and Magog (partly Arab and partly Greek) and
some Jewish stories were then added. In the nth century
Simeon Seth, prototestiarius at the Byzantine court, translated
the fabulous history from the Persian back into Greek.
The Alexander legend was the theme of poetry in all European
languages; six or seven German poets dealt with the subject,
and it may be read in French, English, Spanish, Danish, Swedish,
Icelandic, Flemish and Bohemian.
French.— The earliest known French romance of Alexander,
by Alberic of Besancon (or more properly Briancon), was, until
the discovery of a fragment of too lines at Florence in 1852,
known only through the German adaptation by Lamprecht the
preacher, who wrote towards the end of the 12th century, and
by the version made by a Poitevin poet named Simon in deca-
syllabic lines. Alberic followed the epitome of Julius Valerius.
He had some knowledge of authentic history, and rejected the
more marvellous elements of the story. The French feudal
romance, Li Romans d* Alexandre, was written in the 1 2th century
by Lambert li Tors of Chateaudun, Alexandre dc Bernai, sur-
xiamed de Paris, and others. It contained 20,000 lines, and was
written in twelve-syllabled lines, whence the term " alexandrine "
verse. The authors endowed Alexander with the fashionable
virtues of the chivalric hero, making him especially the type
of lavish generosity They used as their sources Valerius, the
letter to Aristotle and the Iter ad Paradisian, adding much of
their own. Pierre de Saint Cloud, the writer of the fourth section
of the romance, was evidently acquainted with the Hisloria de
proeliis. The incident of the Fuerre de Cadres (Foray of Gaza),
interpolated in the second section, is" assigned to a certain
Eustache. The redaction of the whole work is due to Alexandre
de Bernai, who replaced the original assonance by rhyme.
According to all the traditions of romance it was necessary to
avenge the death of Alexander. At the end of the 1 2th century
Gui de Cambrai and Jean le Nevelon (or Nevelaux or Venelais),
each wrote a Vengeance d' Alexandre. Jean le Nevelon relates
how Alior, the son of Alexander and Candace, avenged his
father's death on Antipater and others. Between 1 3 1 o and 1315
Jacques de Longuyon (or Langhion) introduced into the account
of the Indian war Les Veeux du paon, aromanesqueand fantastic
episode very loosely connected with Alexander. It is interesting
for its connexion with the 15th-century romance of Perceforest,
since in it Alexander visits Britain, where he bestows Scotland
onGadiferand England on Betis (otherwise Perceforest). Les
Varux du paon enjoyed great popularity, and had two sequels,
Le Restor du paon, written before 1338 by Jean Brisebarre de
Douai, and Le Par/ait du paon, written in 1340 by Jean de la Mote.
Florimont, a 12th-century poem by Aimon de Varenne, relates
to a fictitious personage said to have been the grandfather of
Alexander. This poem gave rise to two prose romances — La
Conquest* de Greet jaicU par Philippe de M adieu, by Perrinet du
Pin, first printed in 1527, and Histoire du roi Florimond (1528).
Quintus Curttus was largely used for the Alexandreis (c. 1180)
of Gaultier de Lille or de Chatillon (Galtherus ab Insulis or de
Castellione). It is a Latin poem in ten books of hexameters,
and contains a curious admixture of Biblical history. It was
translated at the end of the next century into Flemish by J. van
Maerlant and into German by Ulrich von Eschenbach.
Of the French prose versions of the Hisloria de proeliis may be
noticed the late romance, V Histoire du noble el taiUant roy
Alixandre le Grant (1506). After an account of the ancient
history of Macedonia and of the intrigue of Nectanebus we are
told how Philip dies, and how Alexander subdues Rome and
receives tribute from all European nations. He then makes his
Persian expedition; the Indian campaign gives occasion for
descriptions of all kinds of wonders. The conqueror, visits a
cannibal kingdom and finds many marvels in the palace of
Poms, among them a vine with golden branches, emerald
leaves and fruit of other precious stones In one country he
meets with women who, after the burial in the winter, become
ALEXANDER THE GREAT
55i
alive again in the spring full of youth and beauty. Having
reached the ends of the earth and conquered all nations, he
aspires to the dominion of the air. He obtains a magic glass
cage, yoked with eight griffins, flies through the clouds, and,
thanks to enchanters who know the language of birds, gets
information as to their manners and customs, and ultimately
receives their submission. The excessive heat of the upper
regions compels him to descend, and he next visits the bottom
of the sea in a kind of diving-bell. The fish crowd round him
and pay homage. Alexander returns to Babylon, is crowned
with much pomp and mass is celebrated. He dies by poison
soon afterwards.
English Versions.— -The Alexander cycle was no less popular
in Great Britain. The letter from Alexander to Aristotle and
his correspondence with Dindimus are found in Early English
versions dating from the nth century. These are printed by
O. Cockayne in his Narraliunculae Angliee conscripta* (1861).
The Monk (De Cos. ill. sir.) in Chaucer's Canterbury Tales
prefaces his account of Alexander with the statement that his
story is so common
That every wight that hath discredoun
Hath herd somewhat or all of his fortune.
There are two considerable fragments of an English' alliterative
romance on the subject written in the west midland dialect, and
dating from the second half of the 14th century. The first, The
Cestes of the Worthy King and Emperor Alisaunder of Macedoine.
(ed. W. W. Skeat, E.E.T.S., 1877, with William of Palerme)
contains an account of the wars of Philip, of Nectanebus and of
the education of Alexander. A second fragment (ed. Skeat,
E.E.T.S., 1878) contains Alexander's visit to the Gymnosophists
and his correspondence with Dindimus. Another alliterative
poem in the northern dialect, of 15th-century origin, is based on
the Historia de proeliis, and was edited by Skeat for the E.E.T.S.
(1886) as The Wars of Alexander. Earlier than any of these
is the rhyming Lyfe of Alisaunder (c. 1330) which is printed in
H. Weber's Metrical Romances (vol. i., 1810). It is written in
unusually picturesque and vigorous language, and is based on
the Roman de toute chevalerie, a French compilation made about
1250 by a certain Eustace or Thomas of Kent. Fragments of
another rhyming poem (pr. c. 1550) are preserved in the British
Museum. The Scots Buik of the most noble and vailyseand
Conqueror Alexander the Great, printed by Alexander Arbuthnot
(d. 1585) about 1580, reprinted in 183 1 for the Bannatyne Club,
is not really a life. It contains three episodes of the cycle, the
" Forray of Gadderis " (not taken from the Fuerre de Gadres
but from the Assaut de Tyr in the Romans d* Alixandre), " The
Avowes of Alexander," and " The Great Battel of Effesoun."
taken from the Vamx du paon. Many passages in John Barbour's
Bruce are almost identical with this book, and it is suggested
by G. Neilson (John Barbour, Poet and Translator, London,
1000) that Barbour was the author, although the colophon
states that it was written in 1438. Bruce at Bannockburn
makes the same oration as Alexander at " Effesoun." A Buke
of the Conqueror Alexander the Great by Sir Gilbert Hay (fl. 1456)
is in MS. at Taymouth Castle.
Bibliography.— -The best sketch of the Alexander romance
literature is by Paul Meyer, Alexandre le grand dans la litUralure
francaise au moyen Sge (2 vols.. Paris, 1886). The first volume
contains some French texts, and the second a detailed discussion
of the various versions from the pseudo-Callisthenes downwards.
See also J. Zacher, Pseudo-Callisthenes, Foruhungen tur . . . .
Alexander sage (Halle, 1867), and for Oriental versions, T. NSldcke,
" Beitrlgc zur Geschkhte des Alexanderromans " (Denkschriflen der
kst. A had. d. Wissensthafkn, Phil.-hisL Klasse, vol.38 : Vienna, 1 890) .
For early printed versions see Brunet, Manuel du libraire, s.v.
" Alexandre."
The text of the pseudo-Callisthenes was edited by C. W. Muller
from three MSS. in the Bibl. Nat. and printed in the Annan of the
Coll. Didot (Paris, 1846), and by H. Meusel (Leipzig, 1871) from a
Leiden MS. A. Mai edited Julius Valerius (Milan. 1817) and the
I liner ahum Alexandri (Class. Auct. vol. vii.; Milan, 1835); J.
Zacher, the Epitome (Halle, 1867) and Alex, iter ad Paradisum
(Regensburs, 1859); the Oxford MS. of the Epitome was edited
by G. Cilli (Strassburg. 1005); G. Landgraf, Du " Vita Alex-
andri " ... des Archpresbyter Loo (Historia de proeliis), (Erlangen,
55*
ALEXANDER
(POPES
1885); Alexander's letter to Aristotle and his correspondence with
Dindimus are included in the Teubner edition of Julius Valerius
fed. B. Kubler, Leipzig, 1888). A newly discovered anonymous
Epitome was edited by O. Wagner (Leipzig, 1900).
The fragment by AJberic was edited by P. Heyse (Berlin, 1856) :
Lamprecht's German text by H. Weismann (Frankfort, 1850) and
by C Kinzel (Halle, 1884); the Alexandre** of Gaultier de Lille,
by F. A. W. MQldener (Leipzig, 1863); an Icelandic prose version
(c. 1250) of the same, Alexanders Saga, by C. R- Unger (Christiania,
1848); Li Romans d'Alixandre, by H. Michelant (Stuttgart. 1846);
the Ethiopic version by E. A. T. Wallb Budge (1896, a vols., with
English translation); the Syriac text of pseudo-Callistbenes by
Budge (Cambridge. 1889); cp. K. F. Weymann, Dte athtofnsche
und arabische Ooersettungen des Pseudo-KaiUsthenes (Kircnhain,
Besides the English editions ouoted in the text, the alliterative
English poems were partially edited by I. Stevenson for the Rox-
burgh* Club (1849). There is a great deal of information on the
various texts in H. L. Wood's Catalog** cf Romances in the British
Museum (1883, vol. i. pp. 04 et seq.). See also A. Hermann, Vnter~
suckungen uber das SccUtsche Alexonderbuck (1893); and Unters.
Uber das med. Cedicht, The Wars of Alexander (Berlin. 1889). Among
other works see E. Rohde, Der griechische Roman (and cd. Leipzig,
1900); B. Meissner, Alexander «. Cilgamos (Leipzig, 1894); *•
kampers, " Alex. d. Crosse und die Idee des Weltimpenums in
Prophetie und Sage " " " ' * "*
Adolf Ausfeld, Der
Prophetie und Sage " (in H. Granert's Studien, &c, Freiburg, 1901) ;
_" usfeld, Der griechische Alexanderroman (Leipzig, 1907),
edited after the author's death by W. Kroll; Wilhelm Hertz,
' Aristoteles in den Alex. Dichtungen d. Mittelalters " (Kgl. Acad,
d. Wissenschaften, Munich, 1801); H. Becker, Die Brahmanen in
d. Alex. Sage (Konigsberg, 1889). (M. Br.)
ALEXANDER, tagus or despot of Pherae in ThessaJy, ruled
from 369 to 358 b.c His tyranny caused the Aleuadae of
Larissa to invoke the aid of Alexander II. of Macedon, whose
intervention was successful, but after his withdrawal Alexander
treated his subjects as cruelly as before. The Thessalians now
applied to Thebes; Pelopidas, who was sent to their assistance,
was treacherously seized and thrown into prison (368), and it
was necessary to send Epaminondas with a large army to secure
his release. Alexander's conduct caused renewed intervention,
in 364 he was defeated at Cynoscephalae by the Thebans, although
the victory was dearly bought by the loss of Pelopidas, who fell
in the battle. Alexander was at last crushed by the Thebans,
compelled to acknowledge the freedom of the Thessalian cities
and to limit his rule to Pherae, and forced to join the Boeotian
league. He was murdered by his wife's brother at her instiga-
tion. Ancient accounts agree in describing Alexander as a
typically cruel and suspidous tyrant
ALEXANDER (1461-1506), king of Poland and grand-
duke of Lithuania, fourth son of Casimir IV., king of Poland,
was elected grand-duke of Lithuania on the death of his father
in 1492, and king of Poland on the death of his brother John
Albert in 1501. His extreme impecuniosity made him from
the first subservient to the Polish senate and nobles (sjlockto),
who deprived him of the control of the mint— then one of the
most lucrative sources of revenue of the Polish kings— curtailed
his prerogative, and generally endeavoured to reduce him to a
subordinate position. This ill-timed parsimony reacted injuri-
ously upon Polish politics. Thus, for want of funds, Alexander
was unable to assist the Grand Master of the Order of the Sword
against Muscovite aggression, or prevent Tsar Ivan III. from
ravaging Lithuania with the Tatars. The utmost the king
could do was to garrison Smolensk and other fortresses and
employ his wife Helena, the tsar's daughter, to mediate a truce
between his father-in-law and himself. During his reign Poland
suffered much humiliation from the attempts of her subject
principalities, Prussia and Moldavia, to throw off her yoke.
Only the death of Stephen, the great hospodar of Moldavia,
enabled Poland still to hold her own on the Danube; while the
liberality of Pope Julius II., who issued no fewer than 29 bulls
in favour of Poland and granted Alexander Peter's Pence and
other financial help, enabled the Polish king to restrain somewhat
the arrogance of the Teutonic Order. In Alexander the char-
acteristic virtues of the JagieOos, patience and generosity,
degenerated into slothfulness and extravagance. Frequently
he was too poor to pay the expenses of his own table. But he
never felt at home in Poland, and bestowed his favour principally
upon his fellow-countrymen, the most notable of whom was the
wealthy Lithuanian magnate Michael Glinsky, who justified fas
master's confidence by his great victory over the Tatars at
Kleck (August 5, 1506), the news of which was brought t»
Alexander on his deathbed.
See V. Czerny. The Reigns of John Albert and Alexander Jmpdm
(Pol.) (Cracow. 1882).
ALEXANDER, the name of eight popes.' —
Alexander I. was bishop of Rome from about 106 to 1 1$- Ik
has been identified, without any foundation, with Alexander, a
martyr of the Via NomenUna, whose day is the 3rd of May.
Alexander II. (Anselmo Baggio), pope from 106 1 to 1073, was
a native of Milan. As bishop of Lucca he had been an energetic
coadjutor with Hildebrand in endeavouring to suppress simony,
and to enforce the celibacy of the clergy. His election, which
Hildebrand had arranged in conformity with the decree of
1059 (see Nicholas II.), was not sanctioned by the imperial
court of Germany. This court, faithful to the practice observed
by it in the preceding elections, nominated another candidate,
Cadalus, bishop of Parma, who .was proclaimed at the council of
Basel under the name of Honorius II., marched to Rome, and
for a long time jeopardized his rival's position. At length.
however, he was abandoned by the Germanic court and deposed
by a council held at Mantua; and Alexander's position re-
mained unchallenged. Alexander was succeeded by his associate
Hildebrand, who took the title of Gregory VII. (L. D.')
Alexander III. (Orlando BandinelH), pope from 1159 to
1 181, was a Siennese, and as a teacher of canon law in Bologna
composed the Stroma or the Summa iiagistri Rdandi, one of
the earliest commentaries on the Decretum GratianL la
October 1x50 Eugenius III. created him cardinal deacon SS.
Cosmae and Damiani; later he became cardinal priest of St
Mark's. Probably about this time he composed his Se n te nc e s ,
based on the Introduetio ad theologians of Abelard. In 1153 he
became papal chancellor, and was the leader of the rantirah
opposed to Frederick Barbarossa. On the 7th of September
1x59 he was chosen the successor of Adrian IV., a minority of
the cardinals, however, electing the cardinal priest Octaviaa,
who assumed the name of Victor IV. This antipope, and Ids
successors Paschal III. (1164-1168) and Calixtus HL (1x68-
1 178), had the imperial support; but after the defeat of Legaano,
Barbarossa finally (in the peace of Venice, 1x77) recognized
Alexander as pope. On the 12th of March 1x78 Alexander
returned to Rome, which he had been compelled to leave twice,
namely, from 1162 until the 33rd of November 1165, and again
in 1x67. The first period he spent in France, the latter chiefly
in Gaeta, Benevento, Anagni and Venice. In March 11 79
Alexander held the third Lateran synod, a brilliant assemblage,
reckoned by the Roman church as the eleventh oecumenical
council; its acts embody several of the pope's proposals for the
betterment of the condition of the church, among them the
present law requiring that no one may be elected pope without
the votes of two-thirds of the cardinals, This synod marks the
summi t of Alexander's power. Besides checkma ting Barbarossa,
he had humbled Henry II. of England in the affair of Thomas
Becket, he had confirmed the right of Alphonso I. of Portugal
to the crown, and even as a fugitive had enjoyed the favour and
protection of Louis VII. of France. Nevertheless, soon after the
close of the synod the Roman republic forced Alexander to
leave the city, which he never re-entered; and on the 29th of
September 11 79 some nobles set up the antipope Innocent 111.
By the judicious use of money, however, Alexander got him
into his power, so that he was deposed in January xx8o. Is
1 181 Alexander excommunicated William the Lion of Scothod
and put the kingdom under the interdict. The great pope died
at Civita Castellana on the 30th of August 1181.
See Herzog-Hauck, Realencyklopadie, 3rd ed., L 340-344;
Wetter and Weltc. Kirchenlexikon, and ed., 1481. The most elabo-
rate biography is H. Reuter, Geschichte Alexanders III. und der Kinkt
inerZeitls vols., 2nd ed., Leipzig, i860). (W. W. R.*)
Alexander IV. (Rinaldo), pope from 1954 to xa6x, was, use
Innocent III. and Gregory IX., a member of the family of the
MPESI
ALEXANDER
553
counts of Segni. Hit node Gregory DC made him cardinal
deacon in 1937 and cardinal bishop of Ostia in taji. On the
death of Innocent IV. he was elected pope at Naples 00 the 1 2th
of December 1354. He is described as a stout man, kindly,
cheerful, but of no great brilliancy. He succeeded Innocent IV.
avs guardian of Conradin, the last of the Hohenstaufen, promising
him his benevolent protection; but in less than a fortnight he
conspired against him and bitterly opposed Conradin's uncle
Manfred. Alexander fulminated with excommunication and
interdict against the party of Manfred, but in vain; nor could
be enlist the kings of England and Norway in a crusade against
the Hohenstaufen. Rome itself became too Ghibelline for the
pope, who withdrew to Viterbo, where he died on the 25th of
May 1 261. His pontificate was signalized by efforts to unite
the Greek and Latin churches, by the establishment of the
Inquisition in France, by favours shown to the mendicant orders,
and by an attempt to organize a crusade against the Tatars.
The registers of Alexander IV. are published by Bourel de la
Ronciere and others in the BMiotkiqua dts EcoUs francaues <TA tkhus
et <U tome, Paris, 1895 &• (W. W. R.')
Alexander V. (Peter Philarges), pope 1400- 14 10, was born
in Crete of unknown parents and entered the order of St Francis,
for which, as for the other mendicant orders, he later manifested
his affection in a striking manner. He was a member in turn
of the universities of Oxford and Paris, and finally settled in
Lombardy, where, thanks to the favour of Gian Galeazzo
Visconti, he became bishop, first of Piacenaa, then of Vincenza,
then of Novara, and afterwards archbishop of Milan. On being
created cardinal by Innocent VII. he devoted all his energies
from 1408 onwards to the realization of the union of the church,
in spite of the two rival popes. He was one of the promoters
of the council of Pisa, and after that assembly had declared
Gregory XII. and Benedict XIII. deposed, the cardinals
assembled in conclave thought they could not do better than
crown with the tiara this cosmopolitan prelate, who had an
equal mastery of the Latin and Greek languages, and was re-
nowned not only for his learning in theology but for his affability
(June 26, 1409). As a matter of fact, the only effect of this
election was to aggravate the schism by adding a third to the
number of rival pontiffs. During his short reign of ten months
Alexander V.'s aim was to extend his obedience with the assist-
ance of France, and, notably, of the duke Louis II. of Anjou,
upon whom he conferred the investiture of the kingdom of
Sicily, together with the title of gonfalonier of the church. He
proclaimed and promised rather than effected a certain number
of reforms: the abandonment of the rights of " spoils " and
" procurations," the re-establishment of the system of canonical
election in the cathedral churches and principal monasteries, &c.
But death came upon him almost without warning at Bologna,
in the night of the jrd-4th May 1410. A rumour went about
that he had been poisoned by the cardinal Baldassare Cossa,
impatient to be his successor, who succeeded him in fact under
the name of John XXm. The crime has, however, never
been proved, though a Milanese physician, who performed the
task of dissecting the corpse of Peter Philarges, seems to have
thought that he found traces of poison. (N. V.)
Alexander VI. (Rodrigo Borgia) (1431-1503). pope from
1492 to his death, is the most memorable of the corrupt and
secular popes of the Renaissance. He was born (January 1 , 143 1)
at Xativa, near Valencia in Spain, and his father's surname was
Lanzol or Llancol; that of his mother's family, Borgia or Borja,
was assumed by him on the elevation of his maternal uncle to
the papacy as Calixtus III. (April 8, 1455)* He studied law at
Bologna, and after his uncle's election he was created successively
bishop, cardinal and vice-chancellor of the church, an act of
nepotism characteristic of the age. He served in the Curia under
five popes and acquired much administrative experience, in-
fluence and wealth, although no great power; he was economical
in his habits; on occasion he displayed great splendour and lived
in a fine palace. His manners were agreeable and his appearance
fascinating, but, like many other prelates of the day, his morals
were far from blameless, his two dominant passions being greed
of gold and love of women, and he was devotedly fond of the
children whom his mistresses bore him. Although ecclesiastical
corruption was then at its height, his riotous mode of life called
down upon him a very severe reprimand from Pope Pius II., who
succeeded Calixtus III. in 1458. Of his many mistresses the one
for whom his passion lasted longest was a certain Vannozza
(Giovanna) dei Cattani, born in 1442, and wife of three successive
husbands. The connexion began in 1470, and she bore him many
children whom he openly acknowledged as his own: Giovanni,
afterwards duke of Gandia (born 1474), Cesare (born 1476),
Lucrezia (born 1480), and Goffredo or Giuffre (born 1481 or 1482).
His other children— Girolamo, Isabella and Pier Luigi— were of
uncertain parentage. Before his elevation to the papacy Cardinal
Borgia's passion for Vannozza somewhat diminished, and she
subsequently led a very retired life. Her place in his affections
was filled by the beautiful Giulia Farnese (Giulia Bella), wife of
an Orsini, but his love for his children by Vannozza remained as
strong as ever and proved, indeed, the determining factor of his
whole career. He lavished vast sums on them and loaded them
with every honour. A characteristic instance of the corruption
of the papal court is the fact that Borgia's daughter Lucrezia (see
Borgia, Lucrezia) lived with his mistress Giulia, who bore him
a daughter Laura in 1492.
On the death of Pope Innocent VIII. the three likely can-
didates for the Holy See were Cardinals Borgia, Ascanio Sforza
and Giuliano delta Rovere; at no previous or subsequent election
were such immense sums of money spent on bribery, and Borgia
by his great wealth succeeded in buying the largest number of
votes, including that of Sforza, and to his intense joy be was
elected on the 10th of August 1492,. assuming the name of
Alexander VI. Borgia's elevation did not at the time excite
much alarm, except in some of the cardinals who knew him, and
at first his reign was marked by a strict administration of justice
and an orderly method of government in satisfactory contrast
with the anarchy of the previous pontificate, as well as by great
outward splendour. But it was not long before his unbridled
passion for endowing his relatives at the expense of the church
and of his neighbours became manifest. For this object he was
ready to commit any crime and to plunge all Italy into war.
Cesare, then a youth of sixteen and a student at Pisa, was made
archbishop of Valencia, his nephew Giovanni received a cardinal's
hat, and for the duke of Gandia and Giuffre the pope proposed to
carve fiefs out of the papal states and the kingdom of Naples.
Among the fiefs destined for the duke of Gandia were Cervetri
and Anguillara, lately acquired by Virginio Orsini, bead of that
powerful and turbulent house, with the pecuniary help of
Ferdinand of Aragon, king of Naples (Don Ferrante). This
brought the latter into conflict with Alexander, who determined
to revenge himself by making an alliance with the king's enemies,
especially the Sforza family, lords of Milan. In this he was
opposed by Cardinal della Rovere, whose candidature for the
papacy had been backed by Ferdinand. Della Rovere, feeling
that Rome was a dangerous place for him, fortified himself in his
bishopric of Ostia at the Tiber's mouth, while Ferdinand allied
himself with Florence, Milan, Venice, and the pope formed a
league against Naples (April 25, 1493) and prepared for war.
Ferdinand appealed to Spain for help; but Spain was anxious
to be on good terms with the pope to obtain a title over the newly
discovered continent of America and could not afford to quarrel
with him.
Alexander meditated great marriages for his children.
Lucrezia had been married to the Spaniard Don Gasparo de
Prorida, but on her father's elevation to the papacy the union
was annulled, and in 1493 *he was married to Giovanni Sforza,
lord of Pesaro, the ceremony being celebrated at the Vatican
with unparalleled magnificence. But in spite of the splendours
of the court, the condition of Rome became every day more
deplorable. The city swarmed with Spanish adventurers,
assassins, prostitutes and informers; murder and robbery were
committed with impunity, heretics and Jews were admitted to
the city on payment of bribes, and the pope himself shamelessly
cast aside all show of decorum, living a purely secular and
j
554
ALEXANDER
immoral life, and indulging in the chase, dancing, stage plays and
indecent orgies. One of his boon companions was Jem, the
brother of the sultan Bayezid, detained as a hostage.
The general political outlook in Italy was of the gloomiest, and
the country was on the eve of the catastrophe of foreign invasion.
At Milan Lodovico Sforza (il Moro) ruled, nominally as regent for
the youthful duke Cian Galeaazo, but really with a view to making
himself master of the state. He made many alliances to secure
his position, but fearing himself isolated he sought help from
Charles VIII. of France, and as the king of Naples threatened to
come to the aid of Gian Galeazzo, who had married his grand-
daughter, he encouraged the French king in his schemes for the
conquest of Naples. Alexander earned on a double policy,
always ready to seize opportunities to aggrandize his family.
But through the intervention of the Spanish ambassador he made
peace with Naples in July 1493 and also with the Orsini; the
peace was cemented by a marriage between the pope's son
Giuf fre and Dofia Sancha, Ferdinand 's grand-daughter. In order
to dominate the Sacred College more completely he created twelve
new cardinals, among them his own son Cesare ,- then only eighteen
years old, and Aiessandro Farnese, the brother of Giulia Bella,
one of the pope's mistresses, creations which caused much scandal.
On the 25th of January 1404 Ferdinand died and was succeeded
by his son Alphonsa II. Charles of France now advanced formal
claims on the kingdom, and Alexander drew him to his side and
authorized him to pass through Rome ostensibly on a crusade
against the Turks, without mentioning Naples. But when the
French invasion became a reality he was alarmed, recognized
Alphonso as king, and concluded an alliance with him in exchange
for various fiefs to his sons (July 1404)- Preparations for defence
were made; a Neapolitan army was to advance through the
Romagna and attack Milan, while the fleet was to seize Genoa;
but both expeditions were badly conducted and failed, and on the
8th of September Charles crossed the Alps and joined Lodovico il
Moro at Milan. The papal states were in a turmoil, and the
powerful Colonna faction seized Ostia in the -name of France.
Charles rapidly advanced southward, and after a short stay
in Florence set out for Rome (November 1404). Alexander
appealed to Ascanio Sforza for help, and even to the sultan. He
tried to collect troops and put Rome in a state of defence, but
his position was most insecure, and the Orsini offered to admit
the French to their castles. This defection decided the pope to
come to terms, and on the 31st of December Charles entered
Rome with his troops and the cardinals of the French faction.
Alexander now feared that the king might depose him for simony
and summon a council, but he won over the bishop of §t Malo,
who had much influence over the king, with a cardinal's hat, and
agreed to send Cesare, as legate, to Naples with the French army,
to deliver Jem to Charles and to give him Civitavecchia (January
16, 1495). On the i8th Charles departed for Naples with Jem
and Cesare, but the Utter escaped to S pole to. Neapolitan resist-
ance collapsed; Alphonso fled and abdicated in favour of his
son Ferdinand II., who also had to fly abandoned by all, and the
kingdom was conquered with surprising ease. But a reaction
against Charles soon set in, for all the powers were alarmed at his
success, and on the 31st of March a league between the pope, the
emperor, Venice, Lodovico il Moro and Ferdinand of Spain
was formed, ostensibly against the Turks, but in reality to expel
the French from Italy. Charles had himself crowned king of
Naples on the 1 2th of May, but a few days later began his retreat
northward. He encountered the allies at Fornovo, and after a
drawn battle cut his way through them and was back in France
by November; Ferdinand II. with Spanish help was reinstated
at Naples soon afterwards. The expedition, if it produced no
material results, laid bare the weakness of the Italian political-
system and the country's incapacity for resistance.
Alexander availed himself of the defeat of the French to break
the power of the Orsini, following the general tendency of all
the princes of the day to crush the great feudatories and establish
a centralized despotism. Vtrginio Orsini, who had been captuted
by the Spaniards, died a prisoner at Naples, and the pope -con-
fiscated his property. But the rest of the dan still held out.
and the papal troops sent against them under Gujdobaldo dab
of Urbino and the duke of Gandia were defeated ax Sana;
(January 1497). Peace was made through Venetian mrrifirir
the Orsini paying 50,000 ducats in exchange for their cxm£aa-ri
lands; the duke of Urbino, whom they had captured, was fcfc
by the pope to pay his own ransom. The Orsini still remain
very powerful, and Alexander could count on none but fats tax
Spaniards. His only success had been the capture of Ostia aai
the submission of the Francophile cardinals Colonna and SaveS.
Now occurred the first of those ugly domestic tragedies tx
which the house of Borgia remained famous. Chi the 14th a
June the duke of Gandia, lately created duke of Beneves^
disappeared; the next day his corpse was found in the Tibet.
Alexander, overwhelmed with grief, shut himself up in Castie
St Angelo, and then declared that the reform of the church wocli
be the sole object of his life henceforth— a resolution which he
did not keep. Every effort was made to discover the — «=»«*«
and suspicion fell on various highly placed personages. Suddenly
the rumour spread about that Cesare, the pope's second son, was
the author of the deed, and although the inquiries then ceased
and no conclusive evidence has yet come to light, there is every
probability that the charge was well founded. No doubt Cesare,
who contemplated quitting the church, was inspired by jeaioesy
of Gandia 's influence with the pope. Violent and revengeful
be now became the most powerful man in Rome, and even ha
father quailed before him. As he needed funds to carry out ha
various schemes, the pope began a series of confiscations, of
which one of the victims was his own secretary, in order to ennch
him. The process was a simple one: any cardinal, nobksua
or official who was known to be rich would be accused of some
offence; imprisonment and perhaps murder followed at onee,
and then the confiscation of his property. The disorganization
of the Curia was appalling, the sale of offices became a veritable
scandal, the least opposition to the Borgia was punished wits
death, and even in that corrupt age the state of things shocked
public opinion. The story of Alexander's relations with Savona-
rola is narrated under the latter heading; it is sufficient to say
here that the pope's hostility was due to the friar's outspokei
invectives against papal corruption and to his appeals for •
General Council Alexander, although he could not get Savocs-
rola into his own hands, browbeat the Florentine government
into condemning the reformer to death (May 33, 1408). The
pope was unable to maintain order in his own dominions; the
houses of Colonna and Orsini were at open war with each other,
but after much fighting they made peace on a basis of affiance
against the pope. Thus further weakened, he felt more than ever
that he had only his own kin to rely upon, and his thought
were ever turned on family aggrandizement. He had annulled
Lucrezia's marriage with Sforaa in 1497. and, unable to arrange
a union between Cesare and the daughter of Frederick, king of
Naples (who had succeeded Ferdinand II. the previous year).
he induced the latter by threats to agree to a marriage betweea
the duke of Bisceglie, a natural son of Alphonso IL, and Lucrezia.
Cesare, who renounced his cardinalate, was sent on a missioa
to France at the end of the year, bearing a bull of divorce for
the new king Louis XII., in exchange for which he obtained the
duchy of Valentino is (hence his title of Duca Valentino) and *
promise of material assistance in his schemes to subjugate the
feudal princelings of Romagna ; he married a princess of Navarre,
Alexander hoped that Louis's help would be more profitable to
his house than that of Charles had been and, in spite of the
remonstrances of Spain and of the Sforza, he allied himself wua
France in January 1409 and was joined by Venice. By the
autumn Louis was in Italy and expelled Lodovico Sforza fron
the Milanese. In order to consolidate his possessions still further,
now that French success seemed assured, the pope determined
to deal drastically with Romagna, which although nominally
under papal rule was divided up into a number of practkaQy
independent lordships on which Venice, Milan and Florence
cast hungry eyes. Cesare, nominated gonfalonm of the Church,
and strong in French favour, proceeded to attack the turbulent
dties one by one (for detail see Boaou, daaax). But tfce
POPES)
ALEXANDER
555
expulsion of the French from Milan and the return of Lodovico
Sforza interrupted his conquests, and he returned to Rome
early in 1 500. This year was a, jubilee year, and crowds of pflgrims
flocked to the city from all parts of the world bringing money
for the purchase of indulgences, so that Alexander was able to
furnish Cesare with funds for his enterprise. In the north the
pendulum swung back once more and the French reoccupied
Milan in April, causing the downfall of the Sforzas, much to
Alexander's gratification. But there was no end to the Vatican
tragedies, and in July the duke of Bisceglie, whose existence
-was no longer advantageous, was murdered by Cesare's orders;
this left Lucrezia free to contract another marriage. The pope,
ever in need of money, now created twelve new cardinals, from
whom be received 1 20,000 ducats, and fresh conquests for Cesare
were considered. But while a crusade was talked of, the real
object was central Italy, and in the autumn Cesare, favoured
by France and Venice, set forth with 10,000 men to complete
his interrupted enterprise. The local despots of Romagna were
dispossessed and an administration was set up, which, if tyrannical
and cruel, was at least orderly and strong, and aroused the
admiration of Machiavclli (q.v.). On his return to Rome (June
1 501) he was created duke of Romagna. Louis XII., having
succeeded in the north, determined to conquer southern Italy
as well, and concluded a treaty with Spain for the division of
the Neapolitan kingdom, which was ratified by the pope on
the 25th of June, Frederick being formally deposed. The French
army proceeded to invade Naples, and Alexander took the
opportunity, with the help of the Orsini, to reduce the Colonna
to obedience. In his absence he left Lucrezia as regent, offering
the astounding spectacle of a pope's natural daughter in charge
of the Holy See. Shortly afterwards he induced Alphonso d' Este,
son of the duke of Ferrara, to marry her, thus establishing her
as heiress to one of the most important principalities in Italy
(January x 502). About this time a Borgia of doubtful parentage
was born, Giovanni, described in some papal documents as
Alexander's son and in others as Cesare's.
As France and Spain were quarrelling over the division of
Naples and the Campagna barons were quiet. Cesare set out
once more in search of conquests. In June he seized Camenno
and Urbino, the news of which capture filled the pope with
childish joy. But his military force was uncertain, for the
condoUUri were not to be trusted. His attempt to draw Florence
into an alliance failed, but in July Louis of France again invaded
Italy and was at once bombarded with complaints from the
Borgia's enemies. Alexander's diplomacy, however, turned the
tide, and Cesare, in exchange for promising to assist the French
in the south, was given a free hand in central Italy. A new
danger now arose in the shape of a conspiracy against him on
the part of the deposed despots, the Orsini and some of his own
condottieri. At first the papal troops were defeated and things
looked black for the house of Borgia. But a promise of French
help at once forced the confederates to come to terms, and Cesare
by an act of treachery seized the ringleaders at Senigallia, and
put Oliverotto da Fermo and Vitellozzo Vitelli to death (Dec 31 ,
1 502). As soon as Alexander heard the news he decoyed Cardinal
Orsini to the Vatican and cast him into a dungeon, where he
died. His goods were confiscated, his aged mother turned into
the street and numbers of other members of the clan in Rome
were arrested, while Giuffre Borgia led an expedition into the
Campagna and seized their castles. Thus the two great houses
of Orsini and Colonna, who had long iought for predominance
in Rome and often flouted the pope's authority, were subjugated,
and a great step achieved towards consolidating the Borgia's
power. Cesare then returned to Rome, where his father wished
him to assist Giuffre in reducing the last Orsini strongholds;
this for some reason he was unwilling to do, much to Alexander's
annoyance, but he eventually marched out, captured Ceri and
made peace with Giulio Orsini, who surrendered Bracciano.
Three more high personages fell victims to the Borgia's greed
this year, viz. Cardinal Michicl, who was poisoned in April,
J. da Santa Croce, who had helped to seize Cardinal Orsini,
and Troches or Trocdo, one of the family's most faithful assassins ;
all these murders brought immense sums to the pope. About
Cardinal Ferrari's death there is more doubt; he probably died
of fever, but the pope immediately confiscated his goods.
The war between France and Spain for the possession of
Naples dragged on, and Alexander was ever intriguing, ready
to ally himself with whichever power promised at the moment
most advantageous terms. He offered to help Louis on condi lion
that Sicily be given to Cesare, and then offered to help Spain in
exchange for Siena, Pisa and Bologna. Cesare was preparing
for another expedition into central Italy in July 1503, when, in
the midst of all these projects and negotiations, both he and
his father were taken ill with fever. The occurrence was of
course attributed to poison, although quite without foundation,
being merely due to malaria, at that time very prevalent in
Rome. On the x8th of August Alexander died at the age of 72.
His death was followed by scenes of wild disorder, and Cesare,
being himself ill, could not attend to business, but sent Don
Michelotto, his chief bravo, to seize the pope's treasures before
the demise was publicly announced When the body was
exhibited to the people the next day it was in a shocking state
of decomposition, which of course strengthened the suspicion
of poison. At the funeral a brawl occurred between the soldiers
and the priests, and the coffin having been made too short the
body without the mitre was driven into it by main force and
covered with an oil-cloth. Alexander's successor on the chair
of St Peter was Francesco Todeschini-Piccok>mini v who assumed
the name of Pius III.
Alexander VI has become almost a mythical character, and
countless legends and traditions are attached to his name. As
a matter of fact he cannot be regarded in any sense as a great
man. His career shows no great political ideas, and none of bis
actions indicate genius. His one thought was family aggrandize-
ment, and while it is unlikely that he meditated making the
papacy hereditary in the house of Borgia, be certainly gave away
its temporal estates to his children as though they belonged to
him. The secularization of the church was carried to a pitch
never before dreamed of, and it was clear to all Italy that he
regarded the papacy as an instrument of worldly schemes with
no thought of its religious aspect. During his pontificate the
church was brought to its lowest level of degradation. The
condition of his subjects was deplorable, and if Cesare's rule in
Romagna was an improvement on that of the local tyrants, the
people of Rome have seldom been more oppressed than under
the Borgia. Alexander was not the only person responsible for
the general unrest in Italy and the foreign invasions, but he
was ever ready to profit by them Even if we do not accept all
the stories of his murders and poisonings and immoralities as
true, there is no doubt that his greed for money and his essentially
vicious nature led him to commit a great number of crimes.
For many of his misdeeds his terrible son Cesare was responsible,
but of others the pope cannot be acquitted The one pleas-
ing aspect of his life is his patronage of the arts, and in his
days a new architectural era was initiated in Rome with the
coming of Bramante Raphael. Michelangelo and Pinturicchio
all worked for him, and a curious contrast, characteristic of the
age, is afforded by the fact that a family so steeped in vice and
crime could take pleasure in the most exquisite works ofc art.
Bibliography— The chief contemporary authorities for this
reign arc * the diary of Alexander's master of ceremonies, Johannes
Burchardus. edited by L Thuasne (Paris. 1883-1884), which is
characterized by accuracy and extraordinary candour oftenamount-
ing to gross indecency; the despatches of Giustiniani. the Venetian
ambassador, edited bv P Villan (Florence. 1876), which show great
insight and are bascdon the most accurate information; and Paolo
Cappelli's " Diarii " in £. Albert's Reiationi. series it., iii. Among
modern works the most important are F Gregorovius's Ceschuhte
der Sladt Rom (3rd ed.. Stuttgart, 1881), a work of immense research
and admirable synthesis, giving a very unfavourable view of the
Borgia; A. von Keumont's Gesckickte der Sladt Rom (Berlin, 1867-
1870). also a valuable book; M. Crcighton's History of the Papacy
(London, 1897) is very learned and accurate, but the author is
more lenient towards Alexander; F Gregorovius's Lucrezia Borgia
(Stuttgart. 1874) contains a great deal ol information on the Borgia
family; P. Villari's Mackiaveut (English translation, new ed., 1893)
deals with the subject at some length. Of the Catholic writers
556
ALEXANDER I.
(TSAR OF RUSSIA
L. Pattor. fesdksdted* ft*sftj (Fmboif L B. 1886) should be coo-
suited, for although the author trie* to extenuate the pope tojeome
extent, on the whole he is fair. (L. V.*)
Alexander VIL (Fafaio Cbigi), pope from 165s to 1667, wis
born at Siena on the 13th of February 1 590. He was successively
inquisitor at Malta, vice-legate at Ferrara and nuncio in Cologne
(1630-1651). Though expected to take part in the negotiations
which led in 1648 to the peace of Westphalia, he refused to
deliberate with heretics, and protested against the treaties
when completed. Innocent X. subsequently made him c a rdin al
secretary of state. When Innocent died, Chigi, the candidate
favoured by Spain, was elected pope on the 7th of April 1655.
The conclave believed he was strongly opposed to the nepotism
then prevalent. In the first year of his reign Alexander VII.
forbade his relations even to visit Rome, but in 1656 he gave
them the best-paid civil and ecclesiastical offices, also palaces
and princely estates. Alexander disliked business of state,
preferring literature and philosophy; a collection of his Latin
poems appeared at Paris in 1656 under the title Pkilomatki
Labores Juveniles. He also encouraged architecture, and in
particular constructed the beautiful colonnade in the piazza
of St Peter's. He favoured the Jesuits, especially in their
conflict with the Jansenists, forbade in 166 1 the translation
of the Roman Missal into French, and in 1665. canonized
Francis of Sales. His pontificate was marked by protracted
controversies with France and Portugal He died on the 22nd
of May 1667. (W. W. R.*)
Alexander VHL (Pietro Ottoboni), pope from 1689 to 1691,
was born in 161 o of a noble Venetian family, was created cardinal,
and then successively bishop of Brescia and datary. The
ambassador of Louis XIV. succeeded in procuring his election
on the 6th of October 1689 as successor to Innocent XI.; never-
theless, after months of negotiation Alexander finally condemned
the declaration made in 1682 by the French clergy concerning
the liberties of the Gallican church. Chanties on a large scale
and unbounded nepotism exhausted the papal treasury. He
bought the books and manuscripts of Queen Christina of Sweden
for the Vatican library. Alexander condemned in 1600 the
doctrines of so-called philosophic sin, taught in the Jesuit
schools. He died on the 1st of February 1691. (W. W. R.*)
ALEXANDER I. (Alexsande* Pavlovich) (1 777-1825),
emperor of Russia, son of the grand-duke Paul Petrovich, after-
wards Paul I., and Mana Fedorovna, daughter of Frederick
Eugene of Wurttemberg, was born on the 28th of December 1777.
The strange contradictions of his character make Alexander one
of the most interesting as he is one of the most important figures
in the history of the 19th century. Autocrat and " Jacobin,"
man of the world and mystic, he was to his contemporaries a
riddle which each read according to his own temperament.
Napoleon thought him a "shifty Byzantine," and called him the
Talma of the North, as ready to play any conspicuous part. To
Metternich he was a madman to be humoured. Castlereagh,
writing of him to Lord Liverpool, gives him credit for " grand
qualities," but adds that he is " suspicious and undecided." His
complex nature was, in truth, the outcome of the complex
character of his early environment and education. Reared in
the free-thinking atmosphere of the court of Catherine IL he
had imbibed from his Swiss tutor, Frederic Cesar de Labarpe,
the principles of Rousseau's gospel of humanity; from his
military governor, General Soltikov, the traditions of Russian
autocracy; while Ids father had inspired him with his own
passion of military parade, and taught him to combine a theo-
retical love of mankind with a practical contempt for men.
These contradictory tendencies remained with him through life,
revealed in the fluctuations of his policy and influencing
through him the fate of the world. Another .element in his
character discovered itself when in 1801 he mounted the throne
over the body of his murdered father: a mystic melancholy liable
at any moment to issue in extravagant action. At first, indeed,
this exercised but little influence on the emperor's life. Young,
emotional, impressionable, well-meaning and egotistic, Alexander
displayed from the first an intention of playing a great part on
the world's stage, and plunged with all the ardour of yoath fats
the task of realising his political ideals. While retaining for •
time the old ministers who had served and overthrown the
emperor Paul, one of the first acts of his reign was to appoint a
secret committee, called ironically the " Comite da saint pehbc,*
consisting of young and enthusiastic friends of his own — Victor
Gavovkh Kochubey, Nikolai Nikolaevich Novosfltsov, Pas*
Alexandrovich Strogonov and Adam Czartoryski — to draw sp s
scheme of internal reform. Their aims, inspired by their adora-
tion for English institutions, were far in advance of the possV
bilitiesof the time, and even after they had been raised to regular
ministerial positions but little of their programme coold be
realized. For Russia was not ripe for liberty; and Alexander.
the disciple of the revolutionist Laharpe, was— as be himself
said— but "a happy accident" on the throne of the tsars.
He spoke, indeed, bitterly of " the state of barbarism m
which the country had been left by the traffic in men*
" Under Paul," he said, " three thousand peasants had bees
given away like a bag of diamonds. If dvflizarion west
more advanced, I would abolish this slavery, if it cost sst
my head." 1 But the universal corruption, he complained.
had left him no men; and the filling up of the government
offices with Germans and other foreigners merely accentuated
the sullen resistance of the "old Russians" to his reform
That Alexander's reign, which began with so large a promise
of amelioration, ended by riveting still tighter the chsias
of the Russian people was, however, due less to the corrnptias
and backwardness of Russian life than to the defects of the
tsar himself. His love of liberty, though sincere, was in fact
unreal. It flattered his vanity to pose before the world as the
dispenser of benefits; but his theoretical liberalism was mates
with an autocratic will which brooked no contradiction. " Yes
always want to instruct mel" he exlaimed to Derzhavia, the
minister of justice, " but I am the autocratic emperor, and I vJ
this, and nothing else I" "He would gladly have agreed."
wrote Adam Czartoryski, " that every one should be free, if ewery
one bad freely done only what he wished." Moreover, with the
masterful temper was joined an infirmity of purpose which ever
let " I dare not wait upon I would," and which sewed upon say
excuse for postponing measures the principles of which he hid
publicly approved. The codification of the laws initiated a
1 801 was never carried out during his reign; nothing was dose
to improve the intolerable status of the Russian peasantry; the
constitution drawn up by Speranski, and passed by the emperor,
remained unsigned. Alexander, in fact, who, without beuf
consciously tyrannical, possessed in full measure the tyrant's
characteristic distrust of men of ability and independent judg-
ment, lacked also the first requisite for a reforming soveretga
confidence in his people; and it was this want that vitiated
such reforms as were actually realized. He experimented in the
outlying provinces of his empire; and the Russians noted with
open murmurs that, not content with governing through foraja
instruments, he was conferring on Poland, Finland and the
Baltic provinces benefits denied to themselves. In Russia, too,
certain reforms were carried out; but they could not survive the
suspicious interference of the autocrat and his officials- The
newly created council of ministers, and the senate, endowed for
the first time with certain theoretical powers, became in the cad
but the slavish instruments of the tsar and his favourites of the
moment. The elaborate system of education, culminating is the
reconstituted, or new-founded, universities of Dorpat, Vttna,
Kazan and Kharkov, was strangled in the supposed interests
of " order " and of orthodox piety; while the military cobeje
which Alexander proclaimed as a blessing to both soldiers aed
state were forced on the unwilling peasantry and army with
pitiless cruelty. Even the Bible Society, through which the
emperor in his later mood of evangelical seal proposed to bka
his people, was conducted on the same ruthless lines. The Roman
archbishop and the Orthodox metropolitans were forced to serve
on its committee side by side with Protestant pastors; sad
village popes, trained to regard any tampering with the letter af
1 Sevary to Napoleon. Nov. 4. 1807. Tatbcheff. p. xsfr
TSAR OP RUSSIA)
the traditional documents of the church as mortal sin, became
the unwilling instruments for the propagation of what they
regarded as works of the deviL
Alexander's grandiose imagination was, however, more strongly
attracted by the great questions of European politics than by-
attempts at domestic reform which, on the whole, wounded his
pride by proving to him the narrow limits of absolute power.
On the morrow of his accession he had reversed the policy of
Paul, denounced the League of Neutrals, and made peace with
England (April i8ox), at the same time opening negotiations
with Austria. Soon afterwards at Memel he entered into a dose
alliance with Prussia, not as he boasted from motives of policy,
but in the spirit of true chivalry, out of friendship for the young
king Frederick William and his beautiful wife. The develop-
ment of this alliance was interrupted by the short-lived peace of
October 1801; and for a while it seemed as though France and
Russia might come to an understanding. Carried away by the
enthusiasm of Iaharpe, who had returned to Russia from Paris,
Alexander began openly to proclaim his admiration for French
institutions and for the person of Bonaparte. Soon, however,
came a change. Laharpe, after a new visit to Paris, presented to
the tsar Ms Reflexions on the True Nature of the Consulship for
Life, which, as Alexander said, tore the veil from his eyes, and
revealed Bonaparte " as not a true patriot," but only as " the
most famous tyrant the world has produced." His disillusion-
ment was completed by the murder of the due d'Enghien. The
Russian court went into mourning for the last of the Condes, and
diplomatic relations with Paris were broken off.
The events of the war that followed belong to the general
history of Europe; but the tsar's attitude throughout is personal
to himself, though pregnant with issues momentous for the
world. In opposing Napoleon, " the oppressor of Europe and
the disturber of the world's peace," Alexander in fact already
believed himself to be fulfilling a divine mission. In his instruc-
tions to Novosiltsov, his special envoy in London, the tsar
elaborated the motives of his policy in language which appealed
as little to the common sense of Pitt as did later the treaty of
the Holy Alliance to that of Castlereagh. Yet the document is
of great interest, as in it we find formulated for the first time in
an official despatch those exalted ideals of international policy
which were to play so conspicuous a part in the affairs of the
world at the close of the revolutionary epoch, and issued at the
end of the 19th century in the Rescript of Nicholas IL 1 and the
conference of the Hague. The outcome of the war, Alexander
argued, was not to be only the liberation of France, but the uni-
versal triumph of " the sacred rights of humanity." To attain
this it would be necessary " after having attached the nations to
their government by making these incapable of acting save in
the greatest interests of their subjects, to fix the relations of the
states amongst each other on more precise rules, and such as it is
to their interest to respect." A general treaty was to become
the basis of the relations of the states forming " the European
Confederation "; and this, though " it was no question of realiz-
ing the dream of universal peace, would attain some of its results
if, at the conclusion of the general war, it were possible to
establish on clear principles the prescriptions of the rights of
nations." " Why could not one submit to it," the tsar continued,
" the positive rights of nations, assure the privilege of neutrality,
insert the obligation of never beginning war until all the resources
which the mediation of a third party could offer have been
exhausted, having by this means brought to light the respective
grievances, and tried to remove them? It is on such principles
as these that one could proceed to a general pacification, and give
birth to a league of which the stipulations would form, so to
speak, a new code of the law of nations, which, sanctioned by the
greater part of the nations of Europe, would without difficulty
become the immutable rule of the cabinets, while those who
should try to infringe it would risk bringing upon themselves
the forces of the new union." 1
1 Circular of Count Muraviev, Aug. 24, 1898.
• Instructions to M. Novotiltiov, Sept. II, 1804. Tatischeff.
p. Ba. ~*
ALEXANDER I.
557
Meanwhile Napoleon, little deterred by the Russian autocrat's
youthful idealogy, never gave up hope of detaching him from the
coalition. He had no sooner entered Vienna in triumph than he
opened negotiations with him; he resumed them after Austerlits.
Russia and France, he urged, were " geographical allies "; there
was, and could be, between them no true conflict of interests;
together they might rule the world. But Alexander was still
determined " to persist in the system of disinterestedness in
respect of all the states of Europe which he had thus far followed,"
and he again allied himself with Prussia. The campaign of Jena
and the battle of Eylau followed; and Napoleon, though still
intent on the Russian alliance, stirred up Poles, Turks and
Persians to break the obstinacy of the tsar. A party too in
Russia itself, headed by the tsar's brother the grand-duke
Constantine, was clamorous for peace; but Alexander, after a
vain attempt to form a new coalition, summoned the Russian
nation to a holy war against Napoleon as the enemy of the
orthodox faith. The outcome was the rout of Friedland (June
13 and 14, 1807). Napoleon saw his chance and seised it.
Instead of making heavy terms, he offered to the chastened
autocrat his alliance, and a partnership in his glory.
The two emperors met at Tilsit on the 35th of June. Alex-
ander, dazzled by Napoleon's genius and overwhelmed by his
apparent generosity, was completely won. Napoleon knew well
how to appeal to the exuberant imagination of his new-found
friend. He would divide with Alexander the empire of the
world; as a first step he would leave him in possession of the
Danubtan principalities and give him a free hand to deal with
Finland; and, afterwards, the emperors of the East and West,
when the time should be ripe, would drive the Turks from
Europe and march across Asia to the conquest of India. A
programme so stupendous awoke in Alexander's impressionable
mind an ambition to which he had hitherto been a stranger.
The interests of Europe were forgotten. " What is Europe?"
he exclaimed to the French ambassador. " Where is it, if it is
not you and we?"'
The brilliance of these new visions did not, however, blind
Alexander to the obligations of friendship; and he refused to
retain the Danubian principalities as the price for suffering a
further dismemberment of Prussia. "We have made loyal
war," he said, " we must make a loyal peace." It was not long
before the first enthusiasm of Tilsit began to wane. Napoleon
was prodigal of promises, but niggard of their fulfilment The
French remained in Prussia, the Russians on the Danube; and
each accused the other of breach of faith. Meanwhile, however,
the personal relations of Alexander and Napoleon were of the
most cordial character; and it was hoped that a fresh meeting
might adjust all differences between them. The meeting took
place at Erfurt in October 1808, and resulted in a treaty which
defined the common policy of the two emperors. But Alexander's
relations with Napoleon none the less suffered a change. He
realized that in Napoleon sentiment never got the better of
reason, that as a matter of fact he had never intended his pro-
posed " grand enterprise " seriously, and had only used it to
preoccupy the mind of the tsar while he consolidated his own
power in central Europe. From this moment the French alliance
was for Alexander also not a fraternal agreement to rule the
world, but an affair of pure policy. He used it, in the first
instance, to remove " the geographical enemy " from the gates
of St Petersburg by wresting Finland from the Swedes (1800);
and he hoped by means of it to make the Danube the southern
frontier of Russia. Events were in fact rapidly tending to the
rupture of the Franco-Russian alliance. Alexander, indeed,
assisted Napoleon in the war of 1809, but he declared plainly
that he would not allow Austria to be crushed out of existence;
and Napoleon complained bitterly of the inactivity of the Russian
troops during the campaign. The tsar in his turn protested
against Napoleon's encouragement of the Poles. In the matter
of the French alliance he knew himself to be practically isolated
in Russia, and he declared that he could not sacrifice the interest
of his people and empire to his affection for Napoleon. " I don't
* Ssvary to Napoleon, Nov. 18. 1807. Tatischeff, p. 33s.
558
ALEXANDER I.
(T5AROFK0SS&
want anything for myself/' he said to the French ambassador,
" therefore the world is not large enough to come to an under-
standing on the affairs of Poland, if it is a question of its restora-
tion." 1 The treaty of Vienna, which added largely to the
grand-duchy of Warsaw, he complained had " ill requited him
for bis loyalty," and he was only mollified for the time by
Napoleon's public declaration that he had no intention of
restoring Poland, and by a convention, signed on the 4th of
January 1810 but not ratified, abolishing the Polish name and
orders of chivalry.
But if Alexander suspected Napoleon, Napoleon was no less
suspicious of Alexander; and, partly to test his sincerity, he
sent an almost peremptory request for the hand of the grand-
duchess Anne, the tsar's youngest sister. After some little delay
Alexander returned a polite refusal, on the plea of the princess's
tender age and the objection of the dowager empress to the
marriage. Napoleon's answer was to refuse to ratify the conven-
tion of the 4th of January, and to announce his engagement to
the archduchess Marie Louise in such a way as to lead Alexander
to suppose that the two marriage treaties had been negotiated
simultaneously. From this time the relation between the two
emperors gradually became more and more strained. The
annexation of Oldenburg, of which the duke was the tsar's
uncle, to France in December 18 10, added another to the personal
grievances of Alexander against Napoleon; while the ruinous
reaction of " the continental system " on Russian trade made it
impossible for the tsar to maintain a policy which was Napoleon's
chief motive for the alliance. An acid correspondence followed,
and ill-concealed armaments, which culminated in the summer of
181 2 in Napoleon's invasion of Russia. Yet, even after the
French had passed the frontier, Alexander still protested that
his personal sentiments towards the emperor were unaltered;
" but," he added, " God Himself cannot undo the past." It was
the occupation of Moscow and the desecration of the Kremlin,
the sacred centre of Holy Russia, that changed his sentiment
for Napoleon into passionate hatred. In vain the French
emperor, within eight days of his entry into Moscow, wrote
to the tsar a letter, which was one long cry of distress, reveal-
ing the desperate straits of the Grand Army, and appealed to
" any remnant of his former sentiments." Alexander returned
no answer to these " fanfaronnades." " No more peace with
Napoleon!" he cried, "He or I, I or He: we cannot longer
reign together!"'
The campaign of 181 2 was-the turning-point of Alexander's
life; and its horrors, for which his sensitive nature felt much of
the responsibility, overset still more a mind never too well
balanced. At the burning of Moscow, he declared afterwards,
his own soul had found illumination, and he had realized once
for all the divine revelation to him of his mission as the peace-
maker of Europe. He tried to calm the unrest of his conscience
by correspondence with the leaders of the evangelical revival on
the continent, and sought for omens and supernatural guidance
in texts and passages of scripture. It was not, however, accord-
ing to his Own account, till he met the Baroness de Kriidcner — a
religious adventuress who made the conversion of princes her
special mission— at Basel, in the autumn of z8zj, that his soul
found peace. From this time a mystic pietism became the
avowed force of his political, as of his private actions. Madame
de Kriidcner, and her colleague, the evangelist Empaytaz,
became the confidants of the emperor's most secret thoughts;
and during the campaign that ended in the occupation of Paris
the imperial prayer-meetings were the oracle on whose revelations
hung the fate of the world.
Such was Alexander's mood when the downfall of Napoleon
left him the most powerful sovereign in Europe. With the
memory of Tilsit still fresh in men's minds, it was not unnatural
that to cynical men of the world like Metternich he merely
seemed to be disguising "under the language of evangelical
abnegation" vast and perilous schemes of ambition. The
1 Coulaincourt to Napoleon, 4th report, Aug. 3, rSoo. Tatischeff,
• Alexander speaking to Colonel Michaud. Tatischeff. p. 612.
puzzled powers were, in fact, the more inclined to be s n sf aVi i a
in view of other, and seemingly inconsistent, tendencies a
the emperor, which yet seemed all to point to a like dbquirja?
conclusion. For Madame de Krtidencr was not the only in&acxe
behind the throne; and, though Alexander had declared mar
against the Revolution, Laharpe was once more at bis dhow,
and the catchwords of the gospel of humanity were still on hs
lips. The very proclamations which denounced Napoleon 2s
" the genius of evil," denounced him in the name of " liberty."
and of "enlightenment." A monstrous intrigue was suspected
for the alliance* of the eastern autocrat with the Jacobtnhai of
all Europe, which would have issued in the substitution of ±a
all-powerful Russia for an all-powerful France. At the co&gres
of Vienna Alexander's attitude accentuated this distrust
Castlereagh, whose single-minded aim was the restoratioB of
"a just equilibrium" in Europe, reproached the tsar to his ferr
for a "conscience" which suffered him to imperil the coeren
of the powers by keeping his hold on Poland in violation of ha
treaty obligation.'
Yet Alexander was sincere. Even the Holy Alliance, the pet
offspring of his pietism, does not deserve the sinister reputaLca
it has since obtained. To the other powers it seemed, at best
" verbiage " and " exalted nonsense," at worst an effort of tie
tsar to establish the hegemony of Russia on the goodwill of the
smaller signatory powers. To the Liberals, then and afterwards
it was clearly a hypocritical conspiracy against freedom. Yet to
Alexander himself it seemed the only means of placing the
"confederation of Europe" on a firm basis of principle* aed,
so far from its being directed against liberty he declared roundly
to all the signatory powers that " free constitutions were the
logical outcome of its doctrines." Europe, in fact, owed roach
at this time to Alexander's exalted temper. During the period
when his influence was supreme, the fateful years, that is, bet wees
the Moscow campaign and the close of the congress of Aix-la-
Chapelle, it had been used largely in the interests of moderatioa
and liberty. To him mainly it was due that France was saved
from dismemberment, and received a constitution which, to
use his own words, " united crown and representatives of the
people in a sense of common interests." 1 By his wise inter-
vention Switzerland was saved from violent reaction, and suffered
to preserve the essential gains of the Revolution. To his pro-
tection it was due that the weak beginnings of constitutional
freedom in Germany were able for a while to defy the hatred of
Austria. Lastly, whatever its ultimate outcome, the constitution
of Poland was, in its inception, a genuine effort to respond to
the appeal of the Poles for a national existence.
From the end of the year 1818 Alexander's views began to
change. A revolutionary conspiracy among the officers of the
guard, and a foolish plot to kidnap him on his way to the congress
of Aix-la-ChapcUe (9.0.), are said to have shaken the foundations
of his Liberalism. At Aix he came for the first time into intimate
contact with Metternich, and the astute Austrian "was swift to
take advantage of the psychological moment. From this tine
dates the ascendancy of Metternich over the mind of the Russian
emperor and in the councils of Europe. It was, however, no
case of sudden conversion. Though alarmed by the revolutionary
agitation in Germany, which culminated in the murder of us
agent, the dramatist Kotzebue (?-&.), Alexander approved of
Castlereagh 's protest against Mettcrnich's policy of " the govern-
ments contracting an alliance against the peoples," as formulated
in the Carlsbad decrees, 18 19, and deprecated any intervention
of Europe to support " a league of which the sole object is the
absurd pretensions of absolute power." 4 He still declared his
belief in " free institutions, though not in such as are forced from
feebleness, nor contracts ordered by popular leaders from their
» Castlereagh to Liverpool, Oct. 4, 1814. F.O. Papers. Vinua
4 Martens IV. part i. p. 49.
* Etat <Us nigociations actudks, &c, mem. prepared by order of
the Tsar, July 16, 1815, enclosed in Castlereagh to Liverpool. F.Q.
Cont. papers. Congress Paris, Castlereagh, 22.
'Despatch, of Lieven, Nov. 30 (Dec. 12), 18 19, and Re**
Circular of Jan. 27, 1820. . Martens IV. part i. p. 27a
TSAR OF RUSSIA)
ALEXANDER II.
559
sovereigns, nor constitutions granted in difficult circumstances
to tide over a crisis. " Liberty/' he maintained, " should be
confined within just limits. And the limits of liberty are the
principles of order." 1
It was the apparent triumph of the principles of disorder
in the revolutions of Naples and Piedmont, combined with
increasingly disquieting symptoms of discontent in France,
Germany and among his own people, that completed Alexander's
conversion. In the seclusion of the little town of Troppau, where
in October of 1820 the powers met in conference, Metternich
found an opportunity for cementing his influence over Alexander
which had been wanting amid the turmoil and feminine intrigues
of Vienna and Aix. Here, in confidence begotten of friendly
chats over afternoon tea, the disillusioned autocrat confessed
his mistake. "You have nothing to regret," he said sadly to
the exultant chancellor, "but I have I " f The issue was
momentous. In January Alexander had still upheld the ideal
of a free confederation of the European states, symbolized by
the Holy Alliance, against the policy of a dictatorship of the
great powers, symbolized by the Quadruple Treaty; he had
still protested against the claims of collective Europe to interfere,
in the internal concerns of the sovereign states. On the 19th of
November he signed the Troppau Protocol, which consecrated
the principle of intervention and wrecked the harmony of the
concert. (See Troppau, Congress op.)
At Laibach, whither in the spring of 1821 the congress had
been adjourned, Alexander first heard of the revolt of the Greeks.
From this time until his death his mind was torn between his
anxiety to realize his dream of a confederation of Europe and his
traditional mission as leader of the Orthodox crusade against
the Turks. At first, under the careful nursing of Metternich,
the former motive prevailed. He struck the name of Alexander
Ypsilanti from the Russian army list, and directed his foreign
minister, Count Capo d'Istria, himself a Greek, to disavow all
sympathy of Russia with his enterprise; and, next year, a
deputation of the Greeks of the Morea on its way to the congress
of Verona was turned back by his orders on the road. He made,
indeed, some effort to reconcile the principles at conflict in his
mind. He offered to surrender the claim, successfully asserted
when the sultan had been excluded from the Holy Alliance and
the affairs of the Ottoman empire from the deliberations of
Vienna, that the affairs of the East were the "domestic concerns
of Russia," and to march into Turkey, as Austria had marched
into Naples, " as the mandatory of Europe." * Metternich's
opposition to this, illogical, but natural from the Austrian point
of view, first opened his eyes to the true character of Austria's
attitude towards his ideals. Once more in Russia, far from the
fascination of Metternich's personality, the immemorial spirit
of his people drew him back into itself; and when, in the autumn
of 1825, he took his dying empress for change of air to the south
of Russia, in order— as all Europe supposed— to place himself
at the head of the great army concentrated near the Ottoman
frontiers, his language was no longer that of " the peace-maker
of Europe," but of the Orthodox tsar determined to take the
interests of his people and of his religion " into his own hands."
Before the momentous issue could be decided, however, Alexander
died at Taganrog on the 1st of December (November 18, O.S.)
1825, "crushed," to use his own words, "beneath the terrible
burden of a crown " which he had more than once declared his
intention of resigning. A report, current at the time and often
revived, affirmed that he did not in fact die. By some it is sup-
posed that a mysterious hermit named Fomich, who lived at
Tomsk until 1870 and was treated with peculiar deference by
successive tsars, was none other than Alexander. 4
Modern history knows no more tragic figure than that of
Alexander. The brilliant promise of his early years; the
haunting memory of the crime by which he had obtained
the power to realize his ideals; and, in the end, the terrible
» Aterqu des idles de rEmpereur, Martens IV. part i. p. 269.
\ £ fe,t .E n S h ¥ em - ■ Martens IV. part i. pp. 307. Ac.
• See W. Gasiorowski, Tragic Russia, translated by viscount de
Buaancy (London, 1908).
legacy he left to Russia: a principle of government which,
under lofty pretensions, veiled a tyranny supported by spies
and secret police; an uncertain succession; an army permeated
by organized disaffection; an armed Poland, whose hunger for
liberty the tsar had whetted but not satisfied; the quarrel with
Turkey, with its alternative of war or humiliation for Russia;
an educational system rotten with official hypocrisy; a Church
in which conduct counted for nothing, orthodoxy and ceremonial
observance for everything; economical and financial conditions
scarce recovering from the verge of ruin; and lastly, that curse
of Russia,— serfdom.
In private life Alexander displayed many lovable qualities.
All authorities combine in praising his handsome presence and
the affability and charm of his address, together with a certain
simplicity of personal tastes, which led him in his intercourse
with his friends or with the representatives of friendly powers
to dispense with ceremonial and etiquette. His personal friend-
ship, too, once bestowed, was never lightly withdrawn. By
nature he was sociable and pleasure-loving, he proved himself
a notable patron of the arts and he took a conspicuous part
in all the gaieties of the congress of Vienna. In his later years,
however, he fell into a mood of settled melancholy; and, though
still accessible to all who chose to approach him with complaints
or petitions, he withdrew from all but the most essential social
functions, and lived a life of strenuous work and of Spartan
simplicity. His gloom had been increased by domestic mis-
fortune. He had been married, in 1 793, without his wishes being
consulted, to the. beautiful and amiable Princess Maria Louisa
of Baden (Elizabeth Feodorovna), a political match which, as
he regretfully confessed to his friend Frederick William of Prussia,
had proved the misfortune of both; and he consoled himself
in the traditional manner. The only child of the marriage, a
little grand-duchess, died on the 12th of May 1808; and their
common sorrow drew husband and wife closer together. Towards
the close of his life their reconciliation was completed by the wise
charity of the empress in sympathizing deeply with him over
the death of his beloved daughter by Madame Narishkine.
See tjt6 Europe; Rus«ja; FRANCE;TtiRKEViVi£NKA i Congress
of; Napoleon: Metternich: Capo d'Istrla.
ALrTHPMTrEi — F. de Mjrttns, Rerueii dei traitfs cemdus par la
Rtusit. &t, (St Petereb.. 1874, &c.h Wtliinftm Despatches; tastle-
rea&h CflrrrspondtJtce; Prince Adam Cj-inoryski, Memoir fs tt
corrtsfMndanct avtt I'tmptrrur Alexundrr /, {Paris. 1887, 2 vol*.),
P. Bail leu (ed^ Brithcezhsel Rani£ Friedruh IVUhtlm's Iff. uttddcr
Kcti^ix L*ut mit A'airer AteTvndrr I, (Leipzig, iqoo); La harp*,
Le Gvaptmiur d'vn Prince {F.C-de Laharpe ct A kmxdre L de Rmrir )
iooj; Serge Tati&cheff, Akiandrr / r H Napoimn d'aprcs leur
correifHtnianfr iitfdile (Parh, iqoih Joseph de Maistfe. AffmiXre*
kiiittriqvirs tt tMTtitomd&nte dipte*ifittqu* r cd. A. Glanc (jnd ed*,
1859); Comteiae de Chaise yl-Goufbrr, Mtmvins histonquts ittr
Femptrrur Alexandre (tl^j. and Rrmimutmxs Sitr Vrmpereur
AlriQndrr /,, frc. (Paris, 1862) ; Ruicmamrt Fricdrich Eylerf, Cha-
raklrr-jige *nd kitimSCh Fragment* tfuj dem />&** AVflffc Frirdrieh
WtUvJm t fff. fi§46): H. L Emp-iyta*, Ntttcr tur Ate***dt*
Etfiprrtur de Ritsfit tind ecL Pari*, 1840}: CdTnte A. dc U Garde*
Cham bona; , Souvenir i dw Ctmgrli de Vitnnt; pubL ourr iutrod. H
notes par le Cte. Henry (1901).
Lives. — The principal life of Alcnandcr h U that, in Ruwtan,
by Nikolai Karlovich Schilder imprrtttor Attksaudet. cfc. (4 vota..
St Petersb., 1897, 1898). Se ir» I; ■>:■'. ^.vich, iluttwp cj the
Government of the Emperor Alexander f. iSt Pcter*burg, 1869-1471,
6 vols.); Tneodor Schiemann Qtjtlfejtiltf Runfondi n«Ur Katier
Nikolaus I. Band i. Kaiser Al*M*dtt f. unit dte Erttbniue seiner
Lebensarbeit (Beri., 1904), a vah. iMr Mudy foa*cd upon mych new
material from the state archive- ■■[ ^1 tVu-rsliurg, Paris. Berlin and
Vienna; A. Vandal, NapoUon it .Mfinndtr {.; tail in we Rtme soui
le premier empire (3 vols., Parfc. rSfji-iSgrt); A* N. Pvptn. Polttitat
ana Literary Movements under Air xnidrr f, i M u-^u n. jh. f td. Si PHtr*-
burg, 1885; German, Berlin, 11*94)- Among I he numerous lei*
authoritative biographies may be mentioned l v ,>n Golriuin, Ihft&irt
d' Alexandre J. (Leipzig. 1859), atv\ C. Joyneville. Life eind Times
of Alexander I. (3 vols., 1875) Thin la*t coniain* mych valujhte
information, but the reference- 111 footnote* are often wan ring in
precision, and it has no index. (W. A> P.)
ALEXANDER II. (1818-1881), emperor of Russia, eldest son
of Nicholas I., was born on the 29th of April 1818. His early
life gave little indication of his subsequent activity, and up to
the moment of his accession in 1855 no one ever imagined that
he would be known to posterity as a great reformer. In so far
560
ALEXANDER II.
(TSAR OF RUSSIA
as he had any decided political convictions, he seemed to be
animated with that reactionary spirit which was Dredominant
in Europe at the time of his birth, and continued in Russia to
the end of his father's reign. In the period of thirty years during
which he was heir-apparent, the moral atmosphere of St Peters-
burg was very unfavourable to the development of any originality
of thought or character. It was a time of government on
martinet principles, under which all freedom of thought and all
private initiative were as far as possible suppressed vigorously by
the administration. Political topics were studiously avoided in
general conversation, and books or newspapers in which the
most keen-scented press-censor could detect the least odour
of political or religious free-thinking were strictly prohibited.
Criticism of existing authorities was regarded as a serious offence.
The common policeman, the insignificant scribe in a public
office, and even the actors in the " imperial " theatres, were
protected against public censure as effectually as the government
itself; for the whole administration was considered as one and
indivisible, and an attack on the humblest representative of the
imperial authority was looked on as an indirect attack on the
fountain from which that authority flowed. Such was the moral
atmosphere in which young Alexander Nicolaevich grew up to
manhood. He received the education commonly given to young
Russians of good family at that time— a smattering of a great
many subjects, and a good practical acquaintance with the chief
modern European languages. Like so many of his countryman
he displayed great linguistic ability, and his quick ear caught up
even peculiarities of dialect. His ordinary life, was that of an
officer of the Guards, modified by the ceremonial duties incum-
bent on him as heir to the throne. Nominally he held the post
of director of the military schools, but he took little personal
interest in military affairs. To the disappointment of his father,
in whom the military instinct was ever predominant, he showed
no love of soldiering, and gave evidence of a kindliness of dis-
position and a tender-heartedness which were considered out of
place in one destined to become a military autocrat. These
tendencies had been fostered by his tutor Zhukovsky, the
amiable humanitarian poet, who had made the Russian public
acquainted with the literature of the German romantic school,
and they remained with him all through life, though they did
not prevent him from being severe in his official position when
he believed severity to be necessary. In 1841 he married the
daughter of the grand-duke Louis II. of Hesse, Maximilienne
Wilhelmine Marie, thenceforward known as Maria Alexandrovna,
who bore him six sons and two daughters. He did not travel
much abroad, for his father, in his desire to exclude from Holy
Russia the subversive ideas current in Western Europe, dis-
approved foreign tours, and could not consistently encourage
in his own family what he tried to prevent among the rest of his
subjects. He visited England, however, in 1839, and in the
years immediately preceding his accession he was entrusted
with several missions to the courts of Berlin and Vienna. On
the 2nd of March 1855, during the Crimean War, he succeeded
to the throne on the death of his father.
The first year of the new reign was devoted to the prosecution
of the war, and after the fall of Sevastopol, to negotiations for
peace. Then began a period of radical reforms, recommended
by public opinion and carried out by the autocratic power. The
rule of Nicholas, which had sacrificed all other interests to that
of making Russia an irresistibly strong military power, had been
tried by the Crimean War and found wanting. A new system
must, therefore, be adopted. All who had any pretensions to
enlightenment declared loudly that the country had been
exhausted and humiliated by the war, and that the only way of
restoring it to its proper position in Europe was to develop
its natural resources and to reform thoroughly all branches of
the administration. The government found, therefore, in the
educated classes a new-born public spirit, anxious to assist it
in any work of reform that it might think fit to undertake.
Fortunately for Russia the autocratic power was now in the
hands of a man who was impressionable enough to be deeply
influenced by the spirit of the time, and who had sufficient
prudence and practical common-sense to prevent his being
carried away by the prevailing excitement into the dangero
region of Utopian dreaming. Unlike some of his predece s sor,
he had no grand, original schemes of his own to impose by force
on unwilling subjects, and no pet crotchets to lead his judgment
astray; and he instinctively looked with a suspicious, critical
eye on the panaceas which more imaginative and less cautious
people recommended. These traits of character, together with
the peculiar circumstances in which he was placed, determined
the part which he was to play. He moderated, guided and in
great measure realized the reform aspirations of the educated
classes. Though he carefully guarded his autocratic rights acd
privileges, and obstinately resisted all efforts to push him
farther than he felt inclined to go he acted for several yeas
somewhat like a constitutional sovereign of the continental
type. At first he moved so slowly that many of the impatient,
would-be reformers began to murmur at the unnecessary delay.
In reality not much time was lost. Soon after the conclusion d
peace important changes were made in the legislation concerning
industry and commerce, and the new freedom thus accorded
produced a large number of limited Lability companies. At
the same time plans were formed for constructing a great net-
work of railways, partly for the purpose of developing the
natural resources of the country, and partly for the purpose of
increasing its powers of defence and attack. Then it was fcacd
that further progress was blocked by a great obstacle, the
existence of serfage; and Alexander II. showed that, m ,_
unlike his father, he meant to grapple boldly with the p^HTJ
difficult and dangerous problem. Taking advantage caw m*.
of a petition presented by the Polish landed proprietors
of the Lithuanian provinces, praying that their relations with
the serfs might be regulated in a more satisfactory way— meanieg
in a way more satisfactory for the proprietors— he authorized
the formation of committees " for ameliorating the condition
of the peasants," and laid down the principles on which the
amelioration was to be effected. This was a decided step and it
was followed by one still more significant. Without consulting
his ordinary advisers, his majesty ordered the minister of the
interior to send a circular to the provincial governors of European
Russia, containing a copy of the instructions forwarded to the
governor-general of Lithuania, praising the supposed generous,
patriotic intentions of the Lithuanian landed proprietors, and
suggesting that perhaps the landed proprietors of other provinces
might express a similar desire. The hint was taken, of course,
and in all provinces where serfage existed emancipation com-
mittees were formed. The deliberations at once raised a host
of important, thorny questions. The emancipation was not
merely a humanitarian question capable of being solved instan-
taneously by imperial ukas. It contained very complicated
problems affecting deeply the economic, social and political
future of the nation. Alexander II. had little of the special
knowledge required for dealing successfully with such problems,
and he had to restrict himself to choosing between the different
measures recommended to him. The main point at issue was
whether the serfs should become agricultural labourers dependent
economically and administratively on the landlords, or should
be transformed into a class of independent communal proprietor*.
The emperor gave his support to the latter project, and the
Russian peasantry accordingly acquired rights and privileges
such as are enjoyed by no other peasantry in Europe. In the
numerous other questions submitted to him be began by con-
sulting carefully the conflicting authorities, and while leaning as
a rule rather to the side of those who were known as " Liberals,"
he never went so far as they desired, and always sought some
middle course by which conflicting interests might be reconciled.
On the 3rd of March 1861, the sixth anniversary of his accession,
the emancipation law was signed and published. Other reforms
followed in quick succession during the next five or six years:
army and navy organization, a new judicial administration on
the French model, a new penal code and a greatly simplified
system of civil and criminal procedure, an elaborate scheme
of local self-government for the rural districts and the Urge
TSAR OF RUSSIA)
ALEXANDER III.
561
towns, with elective assemblies possessing a restricted right of
taxation, and a new rural and municipal police under the direc-
tion of the minister of the interior. These new institutions were
incomparably better than the old ones which they replaced, but
they did not work such miracles as inexperienced enthusiasts
expected. Comparisons were made, not with the past, but
with an ideal state of things which never existed in Russia or
elsewhere. Hence arose a general feeling of disappointment,
which acted on different natures in different ways. Some of
the enthusiasts sank into a sceptical, reactionary frame of mind;
while others, with deeper convictions or capable of more lasting
excitement,- attributed the failure to the fact that only half-
measures and compromises had been adopted by the government
Thus appeared in the educated classes two extreme groups:
on the one hand, the discontented Conservatives, who recom-
mended a return to a more severe disciplinarian rigimt; and
on the other, the discontented Radicals, who would have been
satisfied with nothing less than the adoption of a throughgoing
socialistic programme. Between the two extremes stood the
discontented Moderates, who indulged freely in grumbling
without knowing how the unsatisfactory state of things was to
be remedied. For some years the emperor, with his sound
common-sense and dislike of exaggeration, held the balance
fairly between the two extremes; but long years of uninterrupted
labour, anxiety and disappointment weakened his zeal for
reform, and when radicalism assumed more and more the form
of secret societies and revolutionary agitation, he felt constrained
to adopt severe repressive measures.
The revolutionary agitation was of a very peculiar kind. It
was confined to a section of the educated classes, and emanated
tfhiljifi from the universities and higher technical schools.
. At the beginning of the reform period there had been
much enthusiasm for scientific as opposed to classical education.
Russia required, it was said, not classical scholars, but practical,
scientific men, capable of developing her natural resources. The
government, in accordance with this view, had encouraged
scientific studies until it discovered to its astonishment that there
was some mysterious connexion between natural science and
revolutionary tendencies. Many of the young men and women,
who were supposed to be qualifying as specialists in the various
spheres of industrial and commercial enterprise, were in reality
devoting their time to considering how human society in general,
and Russian society in particular, could be reconstructed in
accordance with the latest physiological, biological and socio-
logical principles. Some of these young people wished to put their
crude notions immediately into practice, and as their desire to
make gigantic socialist experiments naturally alarmed the govern-
ment, their activity was opposed by the police. Many of them
were arrested and imprisoned or exiled to distant provinces, but
the revolutionary work was continued with unabated zeal. Thus
arose a struggle between the youthful, hot-headed partisans of
revolutionary physical science and the zealous official guardians
of political order— a struggle which has made the strange term
Nihilism (q.v.) a familiar word not only in Russia but also in west-
ern Europe. The movement gradually assumed the form of ter-
rorism, and aimed at the assassination of prominent officials,
and even of the emperor himself, and the natural result was that
the reactionary tendencies of the government were strengthened.
In foreign policy Alexander II. showed the same qualities of
character as in internal affairs, ever trying prudently to steer a
middle course. When he came to the throne a peace
policy was imposed on him by circumstances. The
Crimean War was still going on, but as there was no
doubt as to the final issue, and the country was showing symptoms
of exhaustion, he concluded peace with the allies as soon as he
thought the national honour had been satisfied. Prince Gor-
chakov could then declare to Europe, " La Russie ne boudt pas;
tilt st rtcueUU "; and for fifteen years he avoided foreign com-
plications, so that the Internal strength of the country might be
developed, while the national pride and ambition received a
certain satisfaction by the expansion of Russian influence and
domination in Asia. Twice, indeed, during that period the
L 10*
chancellor ran the risk of provoking war. The first occasion was
in 1863, when the Western powers seemed inclined to interfere
in the Polish question, and the Russian chancery declared cate-
gorically that no interference would be tolerated. The second
occasion was during the Franco-German War of 1870-71, when
the cabinet of St Petersburg boldly declared that it considered
itself no longer bound by the Black Sea clause of the treaty of
Paris. On both these occasions hostilities were averted. Not so
on the next occasion, when Russia abandoned her attitude of
rtcutUUmtnl. When the Eastern question was raised in 1875 by
the insurrection of Herzegovina, Alexander II. had no intention
or wish to provoke a great European war. No doubt he was
waiting for an opportunity of recovering the portion of Bessarabia
which had been ceded by the treaty of Paris, and he perceived
in the disturbed state of Eastern Europe a possibility of obtaining
the desired rectification of frontier, but he hoped to effect his
purpose by diplomatic means in conjunction with Austria. At
the same time he was anxious to obtain for the Christians of
Turkey some amelioration of their condition, and to give thereby
some satisfaction to his own subjects. As autocratic ruler of the
nation which had long considered itself the defender of the
Eastern Orthodox faith and the protector of the Slav nationalities,
he could not remain inactive at such a crisis, and he gradually
allowed himself to drift into a position from which he could not
retreat without obtaining some tangible result Supposing that
the Porte would yield to diplomatic pressure and menace so far
as to make some reasonable concessions, he delivered his famous
Moscow speech, in which he declared that if Europe would not
secure a better position for the oppressed Slavs he would act
alone. The diplomatic pressure failed and war became inevit-
able. During the campaign he displayed the same perseverance
and the same moderation that he had shown in the emancipation
of the serfs. To those who began to despair of success, and
advised him to conclude peace on almost any terms so as to avoid
greater disasters, he turned a deaf ear, and brought the campaign
to a successful conclusion; but when his more headstrong
advisers urged him to Insist on terms which would probably have
produced a conflict with Great Britain and Austria, he resolved,
after some hesitation, to make the requisite concessions. In this
resolution he was influenced by the discovery that he could not
rely on the expected support of Germany, and the discovery
made him waver in his devotion to the German alliance, which
had been the main pivot of his foreign policy; but his personal
attachment to the emperor William prevented him from adopting
a hostile attitude towards the empire he had helped to create.
The patriotic excitement produced by the war did not weaken
the revolutionary agitation. The struggle between the Terrorists
and the police authorities became more and more intense, and
attempts at assassination became more and more frequent
Alexander II. succumbed by degrees to the mental depression
produced originally by the disappointments which he experienced
in his home and foreign policy; and in 1880, when he had reigned
twenty-five years, he entrusted to Count Loris-Melikov a large
share of the executive power. In that year the empress died, and
a few weeks afterwards he married secretly a Princess Dolgoruki,
with whom he had already entertained intimate relations for
some years. Early in x88x , on the advice of Count Loris-Melikov,
he determined to try the effect of some moderate liberal reforms
on the revolutionary agitation, and for this purpose he caused a
ukaz to be prepared creating special commissions, composed of
high officials and private personages who should prepare reforms
in various branches of the administration. On the very day on
which this ukaz was signed— 13th of March x88x— he fell a
victim to a Nihilist plot. When driving in one of the central
streets of St Petersburg, near the Winter Palace, he was mortally
wounded by the explosion of some small bombs and died a few
hours afterwards. (D. M. W.)
ALEXANDER III. (184 5-1894), emperor of Russia, second son
of Alexander II., was born on the xoth of March 1845. In natural
disposition he bore little resemblance to his soft-hearted, liberal-
minded father, and still less to his refined, philosophic, senti-
mental, chivalrous, yet cunning grand-uncle Alexander I., who
562
ALEXANDER III.
rrsAfc or fxssu
coveted the title of " the first gentleman of Europe." With high
culture, exquisite refinement and studied elegance he had no
sympathy and never affected to have any. Indeed, he rather
gloried in the idea of being of the same rough texture as the great
majority of. his subjects. His straightforward, abrupt manner
savoured sometimes of gruffness, while his direct, unadorned
method of expressing himself harmonized well with his rough-
hewn, immobile features and somewhat sluggish movements.
His education was not fitted to soften these peculiarities. During
the first twenty years of his life he had no prospect of succeeding
to the throne, because he had an elder brother, Nicholas, who
seemed of a fairly robust constitution. Even when this elder
brother-showed symptoms of delicate health it was believed that
his life might be indefinitely prolonged by proper care and atten-
tion, and precautions had been taken for the succession by his
betrothal with Princess Dagmar of Denmark. Under these
circumstances the greatest solicitude was devoted to the educa-
tion of Nicholas as cesarevich, whereas Alexander received only
the perfunctory and inadequate training of an ordinary grand-
duke of that period, which did not go much beyond primary
and secondary instruction, practical acquaintance with French,
English and German, and a certain amount of drill. When he
became heir-apparent by the death of his elder brother in 1865,
he began to study the principles of law and administration under
Professor Pobtdonostsef, who did not succeed in awakening in
his pupil a love of abstract studies or prolonged intellectual
exertion, but who influenced the character of his reign by instil-
ling into his mind the belief that seal for Eastern Orthodoxy
ought, as an essential factor of Russian patriotism, to be specially
cultivated by every right-minded tsar. His elder brother when
on his deathbed had expressed a wish that his affianced bride,
Princess Dagmar of Denmark, should marry his successor, and this
wish was realized on the 9th of November 1866. The union proved
a most happy one and remained unclouded to the end. During
those years when he was heir-apparent — 1865 to i8Sz — he did
not play a prominent part in public affairs, but he allowed it to
become known that he had certain ideas of his own which did not
coincide with the principles of the existing government. He
deprecated what he considered undue foreign influence in general,
and German influence in particular, and he longed to see the
adoption of genuine national principles in all spheres of official
activity, with a view to realizing his ideal of a homogeneous
Russia— homogeneous in language, administration and religion.
With such ideas and aspirations he could hardly remain per-
manently in corjdial agreement with his father, who, though a
good patriot according to his lights, had strong German sym-
pathies, often used the German language in his private relations,
occasionally ridiculed the exaggerations and eccentricities of the
Slavophils and based his foreign policy on the Prussian alliance.
The antagonism first appeared publicly during the Franco-
German War, when the tsar supported the cabinet of Berlin and
the cesarevich did not conceal his sympathies with the French.
It reappeared in an intermittent fashion during the years 1875-
1879, when the Eastern question produced so much excitement
in all ranks of Russian society. At first the cesarevich was more
Slavophil than the government, but his phlegmatic nature pre-
served him from many of the exaggerations indulged in by others,
and any of the prevalent popular illusions he may have imbibed
were soon dispelled by personal observation In Bulgaria, where
he commanded the left wing of the invading army. The Bul-
garians had been represented in St Petersburg and Moscow
not only as martyrs but also at saints, and a very little personal
experience sufficed to correct the error. Like most of his brother
officers he could not feel any very great affection for the " little
brothers," as the Bulgarians were then commonly called, and he
was constrained to admit that the Turks were by no means so
black as they had been painted. He did not, however, scandalize
the believers by any public expression of his opinions, and did
not indeed make himself conspicuous' in any way during the
ca mp a i g n . Never consulted on political questions, he confined
himself to his military duties and fulfilled them in a conscientious
tad unobtrusive manner. After many mistakes and disappoint-
ments, the army reached Constantinople and the treaty of So
Stefano was signed, but much that had been obtained by tar
important document had to be sacrificed at the cong nsa a*
Berlin. Prince Bismarck failed to do what was coo£4es*h
expected of him. In return for the Russian support, which had
enabled him to create the German empire, it was thought that he
would help Russia to solve the Eastern question in accordance
with her own interests, but to the surprise and indignation of the
cabinet of St Petersburg he confined himself to acting the part rf
" honest broker " at the congress, and shortly afterwards he
ostentatiously contracted an alliance with Austria for the expres
purpose of counteracting Russian designs in Eastern Europe.
The cesarevich could point to these results as confirming ike
views he had expressed during the Franco-German War. and he
drew from them the practical conclusion that for Russia the best
thing to do was to recover as quickly as possible from her tem-
porary exhaustion and to prepare for future contingencies by a
radical scheme of military and naval reorganization. In accord-
ance with this conviction, he suggested that certain reJcrss
should be introduced. During the campaign in Bulgaria he hac*
found by painful experience that grave disorders and gross
corruption existed in the military administration, and after fcs
return to St Petersburg he had discovered that similar abases
existed in the naval department. For these abuses, seven]
high-placed personages— among others two of the grand-dukes—
were believed to be responsible, and he called his father's attention
to the subject. His representations were not favourably received
Alexander II. had lost much of the reforming zeal which distin-
guished the first decade of his reign, and had no longer the energy
required to undertake the task suggested to him. The coo-
sequence was that the relations between father and son becaae
more strained. The latter must have felt that there would be so
important reforms until he himself succeeded to the direction ci
affairs. That change was much nearer at hand than was com-
monly supposed. On the 13th of March 1881 Alexander II. was
assassinated by a band of Nihilists, and the autocratic power
passed to the hands of his son.
In the last years of bis reign, Alexander II. had been macfc
exercised by the spread of Nihilist doctrines and the increasisf
number of anarchist conspiracies, and for some time he tod
hesitated between strengthening the hands of the executive asd
making concessions to the widespread political aspirations of
the educated classes. Finally he decided in favour of the latter
course, and on the very day of his death he signed a uLk.
creating a number of consultative commissions which might
have been easily transformed into an assembly of notables.
Alexander III. determined to adopt the opposite policy. He
at once cancelled the ukaz before it was published, and in the
manifesto announcing his accession to the throne he let it be
very clearly understood that he had no intention of limiting er
weakening the autocratic power which he had inherited froa
his ancestor*. Nor did he afterwards show any inclination to
change his mind. All the internal reforms which he initiated
were intended to correct what he considered as the too liberal
tendencies of the previous reign, so that he left behind him the
reputation of a sovereign of the retrograde type. In his opinioo
Russia was to be saved from anarchical disorders and revolu-
tionary agitation, not by the parliamentary institutions and
so-called liberalism of western Europe, but by the three prin-
ciples which the elder generation of the Slavophils systematically
recommended— nationality, Eastern Orthodoxy and autocracy
His political ideal was a nation containing only one nationality.
one language, one religion and one form of administration,
and he did his utmost to prepare for the realization of tna
ideal by imposing the Russian language and Russian schools 00
his German, Polish and Finnish subjects, by fostering Eastern
Orthodoxy at the expense of other confessions, by persecuting
the Jews and by destroying the remnants of German, Polish
and Swedish institutions in the outlying provinces. In the
other provinces he sought to counteract what he considered
the excessive liberalism of his father's reign. Tor this purpose
he clipped the feeble wings oLthe zemstvo, an elective local
KINGS OF SCOTLAND; SERVIA)
ALEXANDER
563
administration resembling the county and parish councils in
England, and placed the autonomous administration of the
peasant communes under the supervision of landed proprietors
appointed by the government At the same time he sought to
strengthen and centralize the imperial administration, and to
bring it more under his personal control. In foreign affairs he
was emphatically a man of peace, but not at all a partisan of
the doctrine of peace at any price, and he followed the principle
that the best means of averting war is to be well prepared for it.
Though indignant at the conduct of Prince Bismarck towards
Russia, he avoided an open rupture with Germany, and even
revived for a time the Three Emperors' Alliance. It was only
in the last years of his reign, when M. Katkov had acquired a
certain influence over him, that he adopted towards the cabinet
of Berlin a more hostile attitude, and even then he confined
himself to keeping a large quantity of troops near the German
frontier, and establishing cordial relations with France. With
regard to Bulgaria he exercised similar self-control. The efforts
of Prince Alexander and afterwards of Stamboloff to destroy
Russian influence in the principality excited his indignation,
but he persistently vetoed all proposals to intervene by force of
arms. In Central Asian affairs he followed the traditional
policy of gradually extending Russian domination without
provoking a conflict with Great Britain, and he never allowed
the bellicose partisans of a forward policy to get out of hand.
As a whole his reign cannot be regarded as one of the eventful
periods of Russian history; but it must be admitted that
under his hard unsympathetic rule the country made consider-
able progress. He died at Livadia on the 1st of November 1894,
and was succeeded by his eldest son, Nicholas IL (D. M. W.)
ALEXANDER I. (c. 1078-1124), king of Scotland, was the
fourth son of Malcolm Canmore by his wife (St) Margaret,
grand-niece of Edward the Confessor. On .the death of his
brother Edgar in 1107 he succeeded to the Scottish crown;
but, in accordance with Edgar's instructions, he inherited only
a part of its possessions. By a partition, the motive of which
is not quite certain, the districts south of the Forth and Clyde
were erected into an earldom for Alexander's younger brother,
David. Alexander, dissatisfied, sought to obtain the whole,
but without success. A curious combination of the fierce
warrior and the pious churchman, he manifested the one aspect
of his character in his ruthless suppression of an insurrection
in his northern dominion (thus gaining for himself the title of
" the Fierce "), the other in his munificent foundation of
bishoprics and abbeys. Among the latter were those of Scone
and Inchcolm His strong championship of the independence
of the Scottish church involved him in struggles with both the
English metropolitan sees. He died on the 27 th of April n 24,
and was succeeded by his brother, David I.
ALEXANDER II. (1 108-1 249), king of Scotland, son of William
the Lion and Ermengarde of Beaumont, was born at Haddington
in x 108, and succeeded to the kingdom on the death of his father
in 1 214- The year after his accession the clans MacWilliam
and MacHeth, inveterate enemies of the Scottish crown, broke
into revolt; but the insurrection was speedily quelled. In the
same year Alexander joined the English barons in their struggle
against John, and led an army into England in support of their
cause, but on the conclusion of peace after John's death between
his youthful son Henry III. and the French prince Louis, the
Scottish king was included in the pacification. The reconcilia-
tion thus effected was further strengthened by the marriage of
Alexander to Henry's sister Joanna in 1 221. The next year was
marked by the subjection of the hitherto semi-independent
district of Argyll. A revolt in Galloway in 1235 was crushed
without difficulty; nor did an invasion attempted soon after-
wards by its exiled leaders meet with any better fortune. Soon
afterwards a claim for homage from Henry of England drew
forth from Alexander a counter-claim to the northern English
counties. The dispute, however, was settled by a compromise
in 1237 A threat of invasion by Henry in 1243 for a time
interrupted the friendly relations between the two countries,
but the prompt action of Alexander in anticipating his attack.
and the disinclination of the English barons for war, compelled
him to make peace next year at Newcastle. Alexander now
turned his attention to securing the Western Isles, which still
owned a nominal dependence on Norway. Negotiations and
purchase were successively tried but without success. Alexander
next attempted to seduce Ewen, the son of Duncan, lord of
Argyll, from his allegiance to the Norwegian king. Ewen
refused his overtures, and Alexander sailed forth to compel
him. But an the way he was seized with fever at Kerrera, and
died there on the 8th of July 1249.
ALEXANDER HI. (1241-1285), king of Scotland, son of
Alexander IL by his second wife Mary de Coucy, was born in
1 241. At the age of eight years the death of his father called
him to the throne. The years of his minority were marked by
an embittered struggle for the control of affairs between two
rival parties, the one led by Walter Comyn, earl of Menteith,
the other by Alan Durward, the justiciar. The former was in
the ascendant during the early years of the reign. At the
marriage of Alexander to Margaret of England in x 251 , Henry III.
seized the opportunity to demand from his son-in-law homage
for the Scottish kingdom, but the claim was refused. In X255
an interview between the English and Scottish kings at Kelso
resulted in the deposition of Menteith and his party in favour
of their opponents. But though disgraced, they still retained
great influence; and two years later, seizing the person of the
king, they compelled their rivals to consent to the erection of
a regency representative of both parties. On attaining his
majority in 1262, Alexander declared his intention of resuming
the projects on the Western Isles which had been cut short by
the death of his father thirteen years before. A formal claim
was laid before the Norwegian king Haakon. Not only was this
unsuccessful, but next year Haakon replied by a formidable
invasion. Sailing round the west coast of Scotland he halted
off Arran, where negotiations were opened. These were artfully
prolonged by Alexander until the autumn storms should begin.
At length Haakon, weary of delay, attacked, only to encounter
a terrific storm which greatly damaged his ships. The battle of
Largs, fought next day, was indecisive. But even so Haakon's
position was hopeless. Baffled he turned homewards, but
died on the way. The Isles now lay at Alexander's feet, and in
1266 Haakon's successor concluded a treaty by which the Isle
of Man and the Western Isles were ceded to Scotland in return
for a money payment, Orkney and Shetland alone being retained.
Towards the end of Alexander's reign, the death of all his three
children within a few years made the question of the succession
one of pressing importance. In 1284 he induced the Estates to
recognize as his heir-presumptive his grand-daughter Margaret,
the " Maid of Norway "; and next year the desire for a male
heir led him to contract a second marriage. But all such hopes
were defeated by the sudden death of the king, who was killed
by a fall from his horse in the dark while riding to visit the queen
at Kinghorn on the 16th of March 1285.
ALEXANDER (Alexander Obbenovich) (1876-1003), king
of Servia, was born on the 14th of August 1876. On the 6th of
March 1889 his father, King Milan, abdicated and proclaimed
him king of Servia under a regency until he should attain his
majority at eighteen years of age. King Alexander, on the 13th
of April 1893, being then in his seventeenth year, made his
notable first coup d'ttat, proclaimed himself of full age, dismissed
the regents and their government, and took the royal authority
into his own hands. His action was popular, and was rendered
still more so by his appointment of a radical ministry. In
May 1894 King Alexander, by another coup d'etat, abolished
the libesal constitution of 1889 and restored the conservative
one of 1869 His attitude during the Tu re o- Greek war of 1897
was one of strict neutrality In 1898 he appointed his father
commander-in-chief of the Servian army, and from that time,
ot rather from his return to Servia in 1894 until 1900, ex-king
Milan was regarded as the de jacto ruler of the country But
while, during the summer of 1000, Milan was away from Servia
taking waters in Carlsbad, and making arrangements to secure
the hand of a- German princess for his son t and.. while the
564
ALEXANDER
premier, Dr Vladan Dyorevich, was visiting the Paris Universal
Exhibition, King Alexander suddenly announced to the people of
Servia his engagement to Mme Draga Mashin, a widow, formerly
a lady-in-waiting to Queen Natalie. The projected union aroused
great opposition at first. Ex-King Milan resigned his post; so
did the government; and King Alexander had great difficulty
in forming a new cabinet. But the opposition subsided some-
what on the publication of Tsar Nicholas's congratulations to
the king on his engagement and of his acceptance to act as the
principal witness at the wedding. The marriage was then duly
celebrated on the 5th of August xooo. Still this union was
unpopular and weakened the position of King Alexander in the
army and the country. He tried to reconcile political parties
by granting from his own initiative a liberal constitution
(April 6, 1 001), introducing for the first time in the constitutional
history of Servia the system of two chambers (skupshtina
and senate). This did in a certain measure reconcile the
political parties, but did not reconcile the army, which,
already dissatisfied with the king's marriage, became still more
so at the rumours that one of the two unpopular brothers of
Queen Draga, Lieutenant Nicodiye, was to be proclaimed heir-
apparent to the throne. Meanwhile the independence of the
senate and of the council of state caused growing irritation to
King Alexander, which led him to another coup d'ttat. He
suspended (March 1903) the constitution for half an hour, time
enough to publish the decrees by which the old senators and
councillors of state were dismissed and replaced by new ones.
This arbitrary act naturally increased the dissatisfaction in the
country. The general impression was that inasmuch as the
senate was packed with men devoted to the royal couple, and
inasmuch as the government obtained a large majority at the
general elections, King Alexander would not hesitate any longer
to proclaim Queen Draga's brother as the heir to the throne.
Apparently to prevent this, but in reality to replace Alexander
Obrcnovich by Peter Karageorgevich, a military conspiracy was
organized. The conspirators penetrated into the palace and
savagely murdered King Alexander and Queen Draga in the
early morning of the nth of June X003. (C. Mi.)
ALEXANDER, son of Numenius, Greek rhetorician, flourished
in the first half of the second century a.d. In addition to general
treatises on rhetoric, he wrote a special work Ilepl rur rn»
Uavolas teal rijt \{{cus axytukruv, of which only an abridgment
is extant; later epitomes were made in Latin by Aquila Rdmanus
and Julius Rufinianus under the title De Piguris Scntcntiarum
ei Elocutionis. Another epitome was made in the fourth century
by a Christian for use in Christian schools, containing additional
examples from Gregory of Naxianzus.
Text in Spengd, Rhetores Graeci (1856).
ALEXANDER, ARCHIBALD (1772-1851), American Presby-
terian divine, was born, of Scottish-Irish descent, in that part
of Augusta county which is now Rockbridge county, Virginia,
on the 17th of April 1772. After completing his preliminary
education in the little school at Lexington, Virginia, which later
developed into Washington and Lee University, he came under
the influence of the religious movement known as the " great
revival" (1780-1700) and devoted himself to the study of
theology. Licensed to preach in 1 791 , he was engaged for several
years as an itinerant Presbyterian preacher in his native state,
and acquired during this period the facility in extemporaneous
speaking for which he was remarkable. He was president of
Hampden-Sidney College from 1706 to 1807, with a short inter-
mission (in 1801-1802), and in 1807 became pastor of Pine Street
Church, Philadelphia, In 1812 he became first professor in the
newly established Presbyterian Theological Seminary at Prince-
ton, New Jersey, where he remained until his death at Princeton
on the 22nd of October 1851, filling successively the chairs of
didactic and polemic theology (1812-1840), and pastoral and
polemic theology (1840-1851). He married, in 1802, Janetta
Waddel, the daughter of the celebrated blind preacher, James
Waddel (1730-1805), whose eloquence was described in William
Wirt's Letters of a British Spy (1803). Dr Alexander wrote a
considerable number of theological works, which had a large
circulation. Among these may be mentioned his Brief OmRme
of the Evidences of the Christian Religion (1825), which passed
through several editions, and was translated into variocs
languages; The Canon of the Old and New Testament Ascertained;
or the Bible Complete without the Apocrypha and Unwritten Tradi-
tions (1826); A History of the Isroelitish Nation (1852), and
Outlines of Moral Science (1852), the last two being published
posthumously.
See the biography (New York, 1854) by his son Janes W.
Alexander.
ALEXANDER, FRANCIS (z8oo-i88x), American portrait-
painter, was born in Windham county, Connecticut, in Febrcary
1800. Brought up on a farm, he taught himself the cse of
colours, and in 1820 went to New York City and studied painting
with Alexander Robertson. He spent the winter* of 1831 and
1832 in Rome, and then for nearly a decade he lived in Boston,
Massachusetts, where he had considerable vogue, and where in
1842 he painted a portrait of Charles Dickens. One of his best
portraits is that of .Mrs Fletcher Webster in the Boston Museum
of Fine Arts. He died in x 88 x in Florence.
ALEXANDER, GEORGE (1858- ), English 'actor, whose
family name was Samson, was born in Reading on the ioth of
June 1858, the son of a Scottish manufacturer. He went into
business in London after leaving school, but having acted as ia
amateur he determined to make the stage his profession. His
first appearance was at Nottingham in 1879, and after some
seasons of provincial experience he made his first Lomka
appearance as Caleb Dcecie in Two Roses in 1881 with Irving
at the Lyceum. He was selected by W. S. Gilbert to suppcit
Mary Anderson in Comedy and Tragedy, returned for a* time to
the Lyceum, where he was Irving's principal associate, especially
as Faust (1886) and Macduff (1888); and, after starting success-
fully under his own management at the Avenue Theatre in
1890 with Dr Bill, in 1801 became manager of the St Jasxs's
Theatre. There he produced a number of successful plays,
notably Oscar Wilde's Lady Windermere's Fan and The Im-
portance of being Earnest, Pinero's Second Mrs Tampteray, The
Princess and the Butterfly, HisHouseinOrdcrisxd TheTkunderbia,
C. Haddon Chambers's The Idler; H. A. Jones's Masqueradtn;
Alfred Sutro's John Clayde's Honour and The Builder of Bridges',
Carton's Liberty Hall and The Tree of Knowledge; Anthony Hope's
Prisoner of Zenda and Rupert of Hentzaw, and Stephen Phillips's
Paolo and Francesco, himself playing the leading parts with great
distinction. In 1007 he was elected a member of the London
County Council as a municipal reformer, but continued to act
regularly at the St James's.
ALEXANDER, SIR JAMBS EDWARD (1803-1885), British
soldier and traveller, was born on the 16th of October 1803.
He joined the East India Company's army in 1820, transferring
into the British army in 1825. As aide-de-camp to the Britsh
envoy to Persia, he was an eye-witness of the fighting in the wax
between Persia and Russia (1826), and in 1829 was present ia
the Balkans during the Russo-Turkish war. In 1832-1834 he
was in Portugal during the Miguelete war, and in X835 served ia
the Kaffir war in South Africa as aide-de-camp to Sir Benjamin
D'Urban. Subsequently he conducted an exploring expeditka
into Namaqualand and Damaraland, and was knighted for his
services (1838). From 1841 to 1855 he served in Canada, proceed-
ing thence to the Crimea, and in 1 86 2 held an important command
in New Zealand during the Maori war. He retired from the
service in 1877, and in 1881 was given the honorary rank of
general. He was largely responsible for the preservation and
transfer to England of Cleopatra's Needle in 1877. His varied
experiences provided material for a large number of books,
among which were Travels from India to England (1827); Trans-
atlantic Sketches (1833); An Expedition of Discovery into the
Interior of Africa (1838); Passages in the Life of a Soldier (1857);
Incidents of the Maori War (1863). He was also the author of a
Life of Field-Marshal the Duke of Wellington (1840). He died oa
the 2nd of April 1885.
ALEXANDER, JOHN WHITE (1856- ), American painter,
was born in Allegheny, Pennsylvania, on the 7th of October
ALEXANDER— ALEXANDER BALAS
56s
1*856. Re wu left «i orphan when very young, became an
illustrator for Harper's Magazine, studied in Europe, became a
pupil of the Royal Academy at Munich, and also worked in
Venice, in Holland and in Paris, where he attracted much atten-
tion by his exhibition at the Salon of two female portraits
entitled M Gris " and " Noir." He became a member of the
Socicte Nationale des Beaux Arts (Paris), of the National
Academy of Design (New York), of the International Society
(London), and of the Vienna and Munich Societies of Painters.
In 1 90 1 he was made a Chevalier of the Legion of Honour.
He executed decorative panels for the Congressional Library,
Washington, D.C., and a large decoration for the Carnegie
Institute, Pittsburg, Pennsylvania; and his works include
numerous portraits and subject pictures.
ALEXANDER, JOSEPH ADDISON (1809-1860), American
biblical scholar, the third son of Archibald Alexander, was
born in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, on the 24th of April 1809.
He graduated at the College of New Jersey (now Princeton
University) in 1826, having devoted himself especially to the
study of Hebrew and other oriental languages, and from 1830
to 1833 was adjunct professor of ancient languages and literature
there. In 1834 he became an assistant to Dr Charles Hodge,
professor of oriental and biblical literature in the Princeton
Theological Seminary, and in 1838 became associate professor
of oriental and biblical literature there, succeeding Dr Hodge
in that chair in 1840 and being transferred in 1851 to the chair
of biblical and ecclesiastical history, and in 1859 to that of
Hellenistic and New Testament literature, which he occupied
until his death at Princeton on the 28th of January i860.
Alexander was a remarkable linquist and exegete. He had been
ordained as a Presbyterian minister in 1839, and was well
known for *is pulpit eloquence. He was the author of The
Earlier Prophecies of Isaiah (1846), The Later Prophecies of
Isaiah (1847), and an abbreviation of these two volumes, Isaiah
illustrated and Explained (2 vols., 1851), The Psalms Translated
and Explained (3 vols., 1850), commentaries on Ads (2 vols.,
1857), Mark (1858) and Matthew (i860), and two volumes of
Sermons (i860).
See The Life of Joseph A. Alexander (2 vols.. 2nd ed.. New York.
1875) by hi* nephew, Henry C. Alexander.
His brother, James Waooel Alexander (1804-1850), born
in Louisa county, Virginia, on the 13th of March 1804, was a
famous Presbyterian preacher. He graduated at the College of
New Jersey in 1820, studied theology in the Princeton Seminary,
and was pastor of a Presbyterian church in Charlotte county,
Virginia, from 1826 to 1828, and of the First Presbyterian
church in Trenton, New Jersey, in 1820-1832. From 1833 to
1844 he was professor of belles-lettres and Latin language and
literature in the College of New Jersey, from 1844 to 1849
was pastor of the Duane Street Presbyterian church in New
York Gty, from 1849 to 1851 was professor of ecclesiastical
history, church government and sacred rhetoric in the
Princeton Theological Seminary, and from 1851 until his death,
at Red Sweet Springs, Virginia, on the 31st of July 1859, was
pastor of the Fifth Avenue Presbyterian church in New York
City. He wrote numerous magazine articles and published a
number of books, including The American Mechanic and Working-
man (2 vols., 1847, a collection of papers to mechanics first
printed under the pseudonym of " Charles Quill "), Thoughts
on Family Worship (1847). Sacramental Addresses (1854), The
Revival and its Lessons (1859), Thoughts on Preaching (1861),
Faith (1862), and many juvenile books for Sunday-school
libraries.
See Forty Years" Familiar Letters of James W. Alexander (2 vols..
New York, i860), edited by Dr John Hall (1806-1894) of Trenton,
N. J.
ALEXANDER, WILLIAM (1824- ), Protestant archbishop
of Armagh and primate of all Ireland, was born at Londonderry
on the 13th of April 1824 and educated at Tonbridge Grammar
School and Brasenose College, Oxford. After holding several
livings in the north of Ireland he was made bishop of Derry and
Raphoe in 1867, and was elevated to the primacy in 1806. He
was Bampton lecturer in 1876.. An eloquent preacher and the
author of numerous theological works, he is best known to
literature as a master of dignified and animated verse. His
poems were collected in 1887 under the title of St Augustine's
Holiday, and other Poems. His wife, Cecil Francis Humphreys
(1818-1895), wrote some tracts in connexion with the Oxford
movement, but is famous as the author of " Jesus calls us o'er
the tumult," " There is a green hill far away " and other well-
known hymns (nearly four hundred in all). A collection of her
verse was published in 1806.
ALEXANDER, WILLIAM UNDSAY (1808-1884), Scottish
divine, was born at Lcith on the 24th of August 1808. He was
educated at the universities of St Andrews and Edinburgh, where
he gained a lasting reputation for classical scholarship. He
entered Glasgow Theological Academy under Ralph Wardlaw in
September 1827, but in December of the same year he left to
become classical tutor at the Blackburn Theological Academy
(afterwards the Lancashire Independent College). At Blackburn
he stayed till 1831, lecturing on biblical literature, metaphysics,
Greek and Latin. After short visits to Germany and London he
was invited in November 1834 to become minister of North
College Street church (afterwards Argyle Square), Edinburgh, an
independent church which had arisen out of the evangelical
movement associated with the Haldanes. He deliberately put
aside the ambition to become a pulpit orator in favour of the
practice of biblical exposition, which he invested with a singular
charm and impressi veness. In 1 836 he became one of the editors
of the Congregational Magazine, to which he contributed articles
on biblical literature and theology and on the " v6luntary "
controversy. In 1840 he delivered the Congregational Lecture
in London on the " Connexion and Harmony of the Old and New
Testaments.**
Alexander took an active part in the " voluntary " controversy
which ended in the Disruption, but he also maintained broad and
catholic views of the spiritual relations between different sections
of the Christian church. In 184s he visited Switzerland with the
special object of inquiring into the religious life of the churches
there. He published an account of his journey in a book,
Switzerland and the Swiss Churches, which led to an inter-
change of correspondence between the Swiss and Scottish
churches. In 184s he received the degree of D.D. from the
university of St Andrews. In 1861 he undertook the editorship
of the third edition of Kitto's Biblical Encyclopaedia with the
understanding that the whole work should be thoroughly revised
and brought up to date. In January 1870 he became one of
the committee of Old Testament revisers, and by his thorough
biblical scholarship rendered exceptional service to the board;
he enjoyed the work and devoted much time to it for the next
fourteen years. In 1877 he became principal of the Edinburgh
Theological Hall, a position which he held, in spite of many
tempting offers of preferment elsewhere, until his death on the
20th of December 1 884.
See his Life and Work by James Ross (1887). (D. Mn.)
ALEXANDER AETOLUS, of Pleuron in Aetolia, Greek poet
and man of letters, the only representative of Aetolian poetry,
flourished about 280 B.C. When living in Alexandria he was
commissioned by Ptolemy Philadclphus to arrange the tragedies
and satyric dramas in the library; some ten years later he took
up his residence at the court of Antigonus Gonatas, king of
Macedonia. His reputation as a tragic poet was so high that he
was allotted a place in the Alexandrian tragic Pleiad; we only
know the title of one play (Astragalistae). He also wrote short
epics, epigrams and elegies, the considerable fragments of which
show learning and eloquence.
Mcineke, Analecta Alexandrina (1853); Bergk, Poetae Lyrici
Craeci; Couat, La Poisie alexandrine (1882).
ALEXANDER BALAS (i.e. " lord "), ruler of the Greek king-
dom of Syria 150-146 B.C., was a native of Smyrna of humble
origin, but gave himself out to h* the son of Antiochus IV
Epiphanes and heir to the Syrian throne. His claims were
recognized by the Roman senate, Ptolemy Philometor of Egypt
and others. At first unsuccessful, he finally defeated the reigning
566 ALEXANDER CORNELIUS— ALEXANDER OF HALES
king Demetrius Soter m i so B.C. Being now undisputed master of
Syria, he abandoned himself to a life of debauchery. Demetrius
Soter's son profited by the opportunity to regain the throne.
Ptolemy Philoirietor, who was Alexander's father-in-law, went
over to his side, and Alexander was defeated in a pitched battle
near Antioch in Syria. He fled for refuge to a Nabataean prince,
who murdered him and sent his head to Ptolemy, who had been
mortally wounded in the engagement.
See I Maccab. 10 ft*. ; Justin xxxv. I and 2; Josephus, Antiq. xiii. a;
Appian, Syr. 67; Polybtus xxxiii. 14.
ALEXANDER CORNELIUS, Greek grammarian, surnamed
Polyhistor from his great learning, born at Miletus or Myndus
in Caria, flourished about 70 B.C. He was taken prisoner in
the Mithridatic war by Sulla, from whom (or from Cornelius
Lentulus) he received his freedom and assumed the name
Cornelius. He accompanied Crassus on his Parthian campaigns,
and perished at the destruction by Are of his house at Laurentum.
He is said to have written " books without number," chiefly on
historical and geographical subjects. Of the extant fragments
(Mailer, Fragments Historicorum Craecorum, iii.) those relating
to the Jews are important as containing quotations from lost
Jewish authors.
ALEXANDER JANNAEUS, king of the Jews, succeeded his
brother Aristobulus in 103 B.C. and died in 76 B.C. His first act
was the murder of one of his brothers who claimed the throne,
and his reign was disgraced by the cruelties that he perpetrated
in order to retain his position. (Sec Jews and Pharisees.)
ALEXANDER NEVSKY, SAINT (1220-1263), grand-duke of
Vladimir, was the second son of the grand-duke Yaroslav. His
childhood and youth were spent at Great Novgorod, whither
his father sent him to rule (1228) with some guardian
boyars. In 1230 he married Alexandra, daughter of Prince
Bryachislav of Polotsk. At an early age he distinguished
himself in constant warfare with the Germans, Swedes and
Lithuanians, who tried to wrest Novgorod and Pskov from
Russia while she was still suffering from the effects of the
terrible Tatar invasion. The most notable of these battles,
whereby he won his honorific epithet of Nevsky (i.e. of the
Neva), was fought on the banks of the Neva (July 1 5, 1 240) against
the famous Swedish statesman, Birger Jarl, whom he utterly
defeated, besides wounding him with his lance. In the following
year the Teutonic Order, in conjunction with the Order of the
Sword, succeeded in capturing Pskov; but Alexander recovered
it in 1242, advanced into Livonia, and on the 5th of April
defeated the knights on the ice of Lake Peipus and compelled
them in the ensuing peace to renounce all their conquests. He
also prevented the Swedes (in 1256) from settling in South
Finland. On the death of his father (1246) Alexander and his
younger brother Andrew went on a two years' journey into
Mongolia to obtain their yarluiki, or letters of investiture, from
the Grand Khan, who then disposed of the fate of all the Russian
princes. He returned (1250) as grand-duke of Kiev and Nov-
gorod, while to Andrew was given the far more important grand-
duchy of Vladimir. In 1252, however, the Tatars themselves
expelled Andrew and placed Alexander on the throne of Vladimir.
Alexander henceforth did his best for his country by humbling
himself before the Tatars so as to give them no pretext for
ravaging the land again. Most of his spare money he devoted to
the ransoming of the numerous Russian captives detained at the
Golden Horde. But the men of Novgorod, in their serai-inde-
pendent republic, continued (1255-1257) to give the grand-duke
trouble, their chief grievance being the imposition of a Tatar
tribute, which they only submitted to in x 259 on the rumour of an
impending Tatar invasion. In 1262 the Tatar tribute was felt
so grievously all over Russia that preparations were made for a
general insurrection, and Alexander, who knew that an abortive
rebellion would make the yoke heavier, was obliged to go to the
Horde in person to prevent the Tatars from again attacking
Russia. He stayed at Sarai, their Volgan capital, all the winter,
and not only succeeded in obtaining a mitigation of the tribute,
but also the abolition of the military service previously rendered
b/ the Russians to the Tatars. This was his last service to his
country. He died on his way home from the" Horde, and in the
words of his contemporary, the metropolitan Cyril, " with him
the sun of Russia set. " The Orthodox Church has canonized the
ruler who gave his whole life for Russia and the Orthodox faith.
His relics, discovered In 1380, were in 1724* translated by Peter
the Great from Vladimir to St Petersburg.
See Sergyei Mikhailovich Solovev, History of Russia (Rus.. ltd
ed.. Si Petersburg, 1897, vol. 3). (R. N. B.)
ALEXANDER OP APHRODISIAS. pupil of Aristodes of
Messene, the most celebrated of the Greek commentators on the
writings of Aristotle, and styled, by way of pre-eminence,
o l&mrto ("the expositor"), was a native \f Aphrodisias in
Caria. He came to Athens towards the end of the 2nd century
a.o., became head of the Lyceum and lectured on peripatetic
philosophy. The object of his work was to free the doctrine from
the syncretism of Ammonius and to reproduce the pure doctrine
of Aristotle. Commentaries by Alexander on the following works
of Aristotle are still extant:— the Analytico Priora, i.; the
Topica; the Meteorological the De Seiisu, and the Metaphysica, j
i.-v., together with an abridgment of what he wrote on the
remaining books of the Metaphysica. His commentaries were
greatly esteemed among the Arabians, who translated many of
them. There are also several original writings by Alexander still
extant. The most important of these are a work On Fate, in
which he argues against the Stoic doctrine of necessity; and one
On the Soul, in which he contends that the undeveloped reason in
man is material (eoOs t>Xi«6s) and inseparable from the body.
He argued strongly against the doctrine of immortality. He
identified the active intellect (w>Df ratfrurot), through whose
agency the potential intellect in man becomes actual, with God.
Several of Alexander's works were published in the Aldine edition
of Aristotle, Venice, 1405-1498; his De Fato and De Anima were
printed along with the works of Themis tius at Venice (1534) ; the
former work, which has been translated into Latin by Grotius and
also by-Schulthess, was edited by J. C. Orelli, Zurich, 1824; and
his commentaries on the Metaphysica by H. Bonitz, Berlin, 1847-
J. Nourisson has treated of his doctrine of fate (De la liberii el
du hazard, Paris, 1870). In the early Renaissance his doctrine of
the soul's mortality was adopted by P. Pomponazzi against
the Thomists and the Averroists.
See Pe ri patetics (ad fin.) ; Alex andrists ; Pompon azxi. Piet to;
also A. Apclt. " Die Schrift d. Alex. v. Aphr./' Philologus, xlv.. 1SS6:
C. Ruelle, " Alex. d'Aphr. et le pretend u Alex. d'Alcxandric." Ra.
des itudes grecques, v.,. 1893; E. Zcller's Outlines of Ck. FhtL (Eng.
trans., ed. 1905, p. 396).
ALEXANDER OP HALES (Alexander Halensis), surnamed
Doctor Irrepragabius, Theologorum Monarcha and Fons
Vitae, a celebrated English theologian of the 13th century, was
bom in Gloucestershire. Trained in the monastery of Hales be
was early raised to an archdeaconry. He went, like most of the
scholars of his day, to study at Paris, where he took the degree of
doctor and became celebrated as a teacher. It is generally held
that he taught Bonaventura, Duns Scotus and Thomas Aquinas,
but a comparison of dates makes it clear that the two latter could
nothavebeenhispupilsand that the statementabout Bonaventura
is open todoubt. In X222 (or 1231, see Dcnific, Ckartul. Unhen,
Paris, Paris, 1889, i. 135) Alexander entered the order of Minorite
Friars and thenceforward lived in strict seclusion. He refused,
however, to renounce his degree of doctor, and was the first of his
order who continued to bear that title after initiation. He died
in 1245 and was buried in the convent Of the Cordeliers at Paris.
His most celebrated work was the Summa Theotogiae (Nurembeifc
1452; Venice, 1576; Cologne, x6u), undertaken by the orders of
Pope Innocent IV. and approved by Alexander IV., on the
report of seventy learned theologians, as a system of instructka
for all the schools in Christendom. The form is that of question
and answer, and the method is rigidly scholastic. Of scull
intrinsic value, it is interesting partly as the first philosophical
contribution of the Franciscans who were afterwards to take a
prominent part in medieval thought (see Scholasticism), and
partly as the first work based on a knowledge of the whole
Aristotelian corpus and the Arabian commentators.
See Wadding, Script, ord. minor. (Rome. 1650); for his method
ALEXANDER OF TRALLES— ALEXANDERSBAD
567
B. Haureau. Hist, de pkilos. sckalast. (Paris, 1880); F. Pica vet,
- Aboard et A. de H." in the Bibtiathique de McoU des hamies-Hudes
(and aeries, Paris, 1896, pp. 223-330); Schwane, Dormenetsch.
< Freiburg, 1*82); A. Harnack, Dogmengesch. (1890); J. Endres. a Des
A. von H. Lcben und psychol. Lehre " in Phiics. Jahrb. (i. Fulda, 1888.
pp. 24-55, J03-396); also Vacant's Did. de thtologi* catkolique, vol. i.
ALEXANDER OF TRALLfcS (Alexander Traluanus),
Greek f hysician, bom at Tralles in Lydia, lived probably about
the middle of the 6th century and practised medicine with
success at Rome. The Greek text of his BtjSXia iarpua was
printed at Paris in 1 548 and his De Lumbricis at Venice in 1570.
oce E. Mil ward, TraUianus Revmscetu (London, 1734)*
ALEXANDER SBVBRUS (Marcus Aurelius Severus
.exander) (208-235), Roman emperor from a.d. 222 to 235,
s born at Area Caesarea in Palestine on the 1st of October 208.
4 father, Gessius Marcianus, held office more than once as an
i serial procurator; his mother, Julia Mamaea, was the daughter
ofulia Maesa and the aunt of Heliogabalus. His original name
*r« Bassianus, but he changed it in 221 when his grandmother,
M .esa, persuaded the emperor Heliogabalus to adopt his cousin
-*-*3* successor and create him Caesar. In the next year, on the
nth of March, Heliogabalus was murdered, and Alexander
was proclaimed emperor by the Praetorians and accepted by
the senate. He was then a mere lad, amiable, well-meaning,
but entirely under the dominion of his mother, a woman of many
virtues, who surrounded him with wise counsellors, watched
over the development of his character and improved the tone
of the administration, but on the other hand was inordinately
jealous, and alienated the army by extreme parsimony, while
neither she nor her son had a strong enough hand to keep
tight the reins of military discipline. Mutinies became
frequent in all parts of the empire; to one of them the life of
the jurist and praetorian praefect Ulpian was sacrificed; another
compelled the retirement of Dio Cassius from his command.
On the whole, however, the reign of Alexander was prosperous
till he was summoned to the East to face the new power of the
Sassanians (see Persia: History). Of the war that followed
we have very various accounts; Mommsen leans to that which is
least favourable to the Romans. According to Alexander's own
despatch to the senate he gained great victories. At all events,
though the Persians were checked for the time, the conduct of
the Roman army showed an extraordinary lack of discipline.
The emperor returned to Rome and celebrated a triumph (233),
but next year he was called to face German invaders in Gaul,
where he was slain (on the 18th or 19th of March 235), together
with his mother, in a mutiny which was probably led by Maxi-
minus, a Thracian legionary, and at any rate secured him the
throne. Alexander was the last of the Syrian princes. During
his reign, acting, as he did in most things, under the influence
of his mother, he did much to improve the morals and condition
of the people. His advisers were men like the famous jurist
Ulpian, the historian Dio Cassius and a select board of sixteen
senators; a municipal council of fourteen assisted the city
praefect in administering . the affairs of the fourteen districts
of Rome. The luxury and extravagance that had formerly been
so prevalent at the court were put down; the standard of the
coinage was raised; taxes were lightened; literature, art and
science were encouraged; the lot of the soldiers was improved;
and, for the convenience of the people, loan offices were instituted
for lending money at a moderate rate of interest. In religious
matters Alexander preserved an open mind. In his private
chapel he had busts of Orpheus, Abraham, Apollonius of Tyana
and Jesus Christ. It is said that he was desirous of erecting
a temple to the founder of Christianity, but was dissuaded by
the pagan priests. There is no doubt that, had Alexander's
many excellent qualities been supported by the energy and
strength of will necessary for the government of a military
empire, he would have been one of the greatest of the Roman
emperors.
Sec Lampridius. Alexander 5«mu; Dio Cassius Ixxviii. 30,
Ixxix. 17, Ixxx. 1; Herodian vi. 1-18; Porrath, Der Kaiser Alex.
Stv. (1876): Pauly-Wisaowa. ReaUncydopadie, ii. 2526 foil. (Groebe);
monograph by R. V. Nind Hopkins, Cambridge Historical Essays,
No. xiv. (1007).
ALEXANDER THE PAPHLAG0N1AN. a celebrated impostor
and worker of false oracles, was born at Abonouteichos (see
Ineboli) in Paphlagonia in the early part of the 2nd century
a.d. The vivid narrative of his career given by Lucian might
be taken as fictitious but for the corroboration of certain coins
of the emperors Lucius Verus and Marcus Aurelius (J. H. Eckhel,
Doctrine Nummontm veterum, ii. pp. 383, 384) and of a statue
of Alexander, said by Athenagoras (Apology, c. 26) to have stood
in the forum of Pariura. After a period of instruction in medicine
by a doctor who also, according to Lucian, was an impostor,
he succeeded in establishing an oracle of Aesculapius at his
native town. Having circulated a prophecy that the son of
Apollo was to be born again, he contrived that there should
be found in the foundations of the temple to Aesculapius, then
in course of construction at Abonouteichos, an egg in which a
small live snake had been placed. In an age of superstition no
people had so great a reputation for credulity as the Paphlagonians,
and Alexander had little difficulty in convincing them of the
second coming of the god under the name of Glycon. A large
tame snake with a false human head, wound round Alexander's
body as he sat in a shrine in the temple, gave " autophones "
or oracles unasked, but the usual methods practised were those
of the numerous oracle-mongers of the time, of which Lucian
gives a detailed account, the opening of sealed inquiries by
heated needles, a neat plan of forging broken seals, and the
giving of vague or meaningless replies to difficult questions,
coupled with a lucrative blackmailing of those whose inquiries
were compromising. The reputation of the oracle, which was
in origin medical, spread, and with it grew Alexander's skilled
plans of organized deception. He set up an "intelligence
bureau" in Rome, instituted mysteries like those of Eleusis,
from which his particular enemies the Christians and Epicureans
were alike excluded as "profane," and celebrated a mystic
marriage between himself and the moon. During the plague
of a.d. 166 a verse from the oracle was used as an amulet and
was inscribed over the doors of houses as a protection, and an
oracle was sent, at Marcus Aurelius' request, by Alexander to
the Roman army on the Danube during the war with the
Marcomanni, declaring that victory would follow on the throwing
of two lions alive into the river. The result was a great disaster,
and Alexander had recourse to the old quibble of the Delphic
oracle to Croesus for an explanation. Lucian's own close in-
vestigations into Alexander's methods of fraud led to a serious
attempt on his life. The whole account gives a graphic descrip-
tion>of the inner working of one among the many new oracles
that were springing up at this period. Alexander had remarkable
beauty and the striking personality of the successful charlatan,
and must have been a man of considerable intellectual abilities
and power of organization. His income is said by Lucian to
have reached an enormous figure. He died of gangrene of the
leg in his seventieth year.
See Lucian, *AX«{Ai*pof 4 MMvni; Samuel Dill. Roman Society
from Nero to Marcus Aurelius (1904); and F.. Grcgorovius. The
Emperor Hadrian, trans, by M. E. Robinson (1898)
ALEXANDERS (botanical name, Smyrnium Olusatrum,
natural order Umbelliferae), a stout herbaceous plant with a
furrowed, much-branched stem 1-3 ft. high, and large compound
leaves with broad sheathing stalks, and broad, cut or lobed
segments. The small yellow flowers are borne in compound
umbels. The plant is a native of the Mediterranean region,
and was formerly cultivated as a pot-herb. It hi now found
apparently wild in Great Britain and Ireland, growing in waste
places, especially near the sea and amongst ruins.
In England the plant is sometimes popularly termed " alis-
ander"; in North America Thaspium aureum i* sometimes
called " alexanders." " Alexander's foot," botanical name
A naiyctus Pyrr thrum, is the pellitory of Spain
ALEXANDERSBAD, a watering-place of Germany, in the
kingdom of Bavaria, romantically situated in the Fichtelgebirge,
near Wunsiedel, at a height of 1000 ft. above the sea. Pop.
1 200. Its waters, which are ferruginous and largely charged
with carbonic acid gas, are of use in nervous and rheumatic
568
ALEXANDRE— ALEXANDRIA
disorders. In the neighbourhood is the Luisenburg (or Lux-
burg), so called after a visit paid by Queen Louise of Prussia in
1805, a hill covered by majestic granite rocks, commanding a
grand view of the whole range of the Fichtelgebirge.
ALEXANDRE* NOfiL (Natalis Alexander) (1639-1724),
French theologian and ecclesiastical historian, was born at
Rouen on the 19th of January 1639. In his 15th year he joined
the Dominicans, and shortly after his ordination was appointed
professor of philosophy at the convent of Saint-Jacques in
Paris. The success of his subsequent lectures at the Sorbonne
led to his selection by Colbert as tutor to his son, Jacques Nicolas
Colbert, afterwards archbishop of Rouen. Alexandre obtained
the degree of doctor in divinity from the Sorbonne in 1675 and
for twelve years taught philosophy, theology and ecclesiastical
law to the members of the Saint-Jacques community. He
played a prominent part in ecclesiastical affairs and preached
several times before Louis XIV., who granted him an annual
pension of 800 livres, and in the general assemblies of the French
bishops. He became provincial of his order in 1706, but was
banished to Chatellerauit in 1709 for having subscribed to the
Cos de conscience (1703), and was deprived of his pension in
1 7 13 on account of his opposition to the bull Unigenitus. He
died in Paris on the 21st of August 1724, having lost his sight
some time before owing to his strenuous literary activity. His
numerous works are still much valued by ecclesiastical students.
His best-known work, the Selecta kistoriae ccclesiasticae capita,
et in loca ejusdem insignia dissertationes historicae, ckronologicae,
dogmaticae (26 vols., Paris. 1676-1686), was placed on the Index
by Innocent XI., on account of his bold defence of the Gallican
claims. In 1689 he brought out at Paris his history of the Old
Testament: SeUcta kistoriae Veteris Testamenti capita, &c. t in
6 vols. Of the numerous editions of Alexandre's ecclesiastical
history the best is that of P. J. D. Mansi, which contains many
valuable notes and additions (11 vols., Lucca, 2749) and has
been frequently reprinted. Alexandre's principal contribution
to theological literature is his Tkeologia dogmatica et moralis
secundum ordinem cateckismi concilii Tridenlini (10 vols., Paris,
1694), in which he clearly shows himself a disciple of the Thomist
school. His Conformiti des cirimonies ckinoises avec Vidoldtric
grecque et romaine and Sept lettres sur les cirimonies dc la Chine
(both published at Cologne in 1700) are interesting as they mark
him out as a pioneer in the study of comparative religion.
See Catalogue complet des otuvrts du Pire Alexandre (Paris, 1 716);
Quetif-Echara, Scriptores ordinis pr dedicator urn (Parts, 1710-1721),
t. ii. p. 810; and full bibliography in A. Vacant. Diet, ae theplogie
(scholarly article by P. Mandounet, cols. 769-772).
ALBXANDRETTA, or Iskandesun (mcd. Scanderoon), a town
of N. Syria, situated in the N.E. angle of the Levantine
Mediterranean on the S.E. of the gulf to which it gives a title.
Pop. about 10,000, two-thirds Moslem. Iskanderun preserves
the name, but probably not the exact site, of Alexandria ad
Is sum, founded by Alexander in 333 B.C., about 23 m. S. of the
scene of his victory, to supersede Myriandrus as key of the
Syrian Gates (Beilan Pass). The importance of the place ever
since has been derived from its relation to this pass, the easiest
approach to the open ground of N. Syria of which Antioch and
Aleppo have been the successive capitals; and this relation
has prevailed over the extreme unhcalthiness of the site, which
lies on marshy deltaic ground, screened by the horseshoe of
Elma Dagh from all purifying influences of N. and E. winds.
As the main outlet for the overland trade from Bagdad and India,
whose importance was great until the establishment of the
Egyptian overland route, the place was a great resort, first of
Genoese and Venetian merchants, then of those of West and
North European nations. The British Levant (Turkey) Company
maintained an agency and factory here for 200 years, till 1825,
in spite of appalling mortality among its employes. Alexan-
drelta is still the main port for the Aleppo district, to which a
good ckaussie leads over the Beilan Pass, and it has a considerable
export trade in tobacco, silk, cereals, liquorice, textiles. The
hca!i h of the place has improved with the draining of the marshes
and the provision of a better supply of water, but still leaves
much to be desired. The wealthier inhabit**
residences at Beilan near the summit of the pa^ksjii
hold of freebooting Dere Beys and the scene m_Vm 1
won by Ibrahim Pasha in 1832, which opened
advance. There are resident consuls of all the prii
and the port is well served by coasting steamers unoW J
and Ottoman flags. The distance by road to Aleppm hat area
shortened to about 70 m., and Antakia (Antioch) is ah»aft 45 a.
distant by a branch of the same ckaussie. (D. C H_)
ALEXANDRIA (Arab. Iskcndcria), a city and chief a*«nofl
of Egypt, and for over a thousand years from its found* '-»
the capital of the country, situated on the Mediterranean
31 ia' N., 29 is' E., and 129 m. by rail N.W. of Cairo T
ancient Canopic mouth of the Nile (now dry) was naL
I. The Modern City.— The city is built on the strip of b
which separates the Mediterranean from Lake Mareotis (Man *
and on a T-shaped peninsula which forms harbours east d
west The stem of the T was originally a mole leading t**
island (Pharos) which formed the cross-piece. In the coun °*
centuries this mole has been silted up and is now an ist£s^.
half a mile wide. On it a part of the modern dty is built. The
cape at the western end of the peninsula is Ras et-Tin (Cape ci
Figs) ; the eastern cape is known as Pharos or Kail Bey. Soail
of the town — between it and LakcMareo lis— runs theM ahmwiji
canal, which enters the western harbour by a series of locks.
The customs house and chief warehouses are by the wester*
harbour, but the principal buildings of the city are in the east
and south-east quarters. From the landing-stage* by the
customs house, roads lead to the Place Mehemet Ah, the centre
of the life of the city and the starting-point of the electric track-
ways. The place, usually called the Grand Square, is an oUoeg
open space, tree- lined, in the centre of which there is an equestrian
statue of the prince after whom it is named. The square is faced
with handsome buildings mainly in the Italian style. The most
important are the law courts, exchange, Ottoman back.
English church and the Abbas Hilmi theatre. A number of
short streets lead from the square to the eastern harbour. Hex
a sea wall, completed in 1905, provides a magnificent drive ard
promenade along the shore for a distance of about 3 a la
building this quay a considerable area of foreshore was re-
claimed and an evil-smelling beach done away with. From the
south end of the square the rue Shcrif Pasha — in which arr the
principal shops— and the rue Tewfik Pasha lead to the boulevard,
or rue, de Rosette, a long straight road with a general £. and W.
direction. In it are the Zizinia theatre and the municipal
palace (containing the public library); the museum lies up a
short street to the N. Opened in 1895 this museum possesses
an important collection of Egyptian, Greek and Roman asti-
quilies, found not only in the city but in all Lower Egypt acd
the Fayum. The western end of the boulevard leads to the Place
Ibrahim, often called Place Ste Catherine, from the Roma
Catholic church at its S.E. side. In a street running S. from the
boulevard to the railway station is the mosque of Nebs Darnel,
containing the tombs of Said Pasha and other members of the
khedivial family. Immediately E. of the mosque is Kom ed-
Dik, garrisoned by British troops, one of several forts buili for
the protection of the city. Except Kom ed-Dik the forts ha\e
not been repaired since the bombardment of 1882. Equally
obsolete is the old line of fortifications which formerly marked
the limits of the city south and east and has now been partly
demolished. Throughout the central part of Alexandria the
streets are paved with blocks of lava and lighted by electricity.
The north quarter is mainly occupied by natives and Levan-
tines. The narrow winding streets and the Arab bazaars prosed
an Oriental scene contrasting with the European aspect of the
district already described. This Arab quarter is traversed by
the rue Ras et-Tin, leading to the promontory of that name,
Here, overlooking the harbour, is the khedivial yacht dob
(built 1903) and the palace, also called Ras et-Tin, built by
Mehemet Ali, a large but not otherwise noteworthy bui)dia£.
In the district between the Grand Square and the westera
harbour, one of the poorest quarters of the city, is an open spars
ALEXANDRIA
569
witB Fort CaftareE or Napoleon in the centre. This quarter
has been pierced by several straight roads, one of which, crossing
the Mahmudiya canal by the Pont Neuf, leads to Gabbari, the
most westerly part of the city and an industrial and manufactur-
ing region, possessing asphalt works and oil, rice and paper
mills. On either side of the canal are the warehouses of whole-
sale dealers in cotton, wool, sugar, grain and other commodities.
In the southern part of the city are the Arab cemetery, " Pompey's
Pillar" and the catacombs. "Pompey's Pillar/' which stands
011 the highest spot in Alexandria, ii nearly 00 ft high, including
the pedestal The shaft is of red granite and is beautifully
polished. Nine feet in diameter at the base, it tapers to eight
feet at the top. The catacombs, a short distance S.W. of the
pillar, are hewn out of the rocky slope of a hill, and are an
elaborate series of chambers adorned with pillars, statues,
religious symbols and traces of painting (see below, Ancient
City). Along the northern side of the Mahmudiya canal, which
here passes a little S. of the catacombs, are many fine houses
and gardens (Moharrem Bey quarter), stretching eastward for a
considerable distance, favourite residences of wealthy citizens.
A similar residential quarter has also grown up on the N.E.,
where the line of the old fortifications has become a boulevard.
The district extending outside the E. fortifications, in the
direction of Hadra, has been laid out with fine avenues, and
contains numerous garden-cafes and pleasure resorts. Thence
roads lead to the E. suburb known generally as Ramleh, which
stretches along the coast, and is served by a local railway. It
begins E. of the racecourse with Sidi Gabr, and does not end till
the khedivial estates E. of San Stefano are reached, some
5 m. E. All this space is filled with villas, gardens and hotels,
and is a favourite summer resort not only of Alexandrians but
also of Cairenes.
The eastern bay is rocky, shallow and exposed, and is now used
only by native craft The harbour is on the W. of Pharos and
partly formed by a breakwater (built 187 1-1873 and prolonged
1006-1007), 2 m. long. The breakwater starts opposite the
promontory of Ras et-Tin, on which is a lighthouse, 180 ft above
the sea, built by Mehemet Alt Another breakwater starts from
the Gabbari side, the opening between the two works being about
half a mile. A number of scattered rocks lie across the entrance,
but through them two fairways have been made, one 600 ft
wide and 35 ft deep, the other 300 ft wide and 30 ft deep. The
enclosed water is divided into an outer and inner harbour by a
mole, 1000 yds. long, projecting N.W. from the southern shore.
The inner harbour covers 464 acres. It is lined for a} m. by
quays, affording accommodation for ships drawing up to 28 ft
The outer harbour (1400 acres water area) is furnished with a
graving dock, completed in 1005, 520 ft long, and with quays
and jetties along the Gabbari foreshore. Their construction was
begun in 1006.
Alexandria is linked by a network of railway and telegraph
lines to the other towns of Egypt, and there is a trunk telephone
line to Cairo. The city secured in xoo6 a new and adequate
water-supply, modem drainage works having been completed the
previous year. Being the great entrepSt for the trade of Egypt,
the city is the headquarters of the British chamber of commerce
and of most of the merchants and companies engaged in the
development of the Delta. About 00 % of the total exports and
imports of the country pass through the port, though the com-
pletion, in 1004, of a broad-gauge railway connecting Cairo and
Port Said deflected some of the cotton exports to the Suez Canal
route. The staple export is raw cotton, the value of which is
about 80 % of all the exports. The principal imports are manu-
factured cotton goods and other textiles, machinery, timber and
coaL The value of the trade of the port increased from
£30,000,000 in 1000 to £46,000,000 in 1006. In the same period
the tonnage of the ships entering the harbour rose from 2,375,000
to 3,695,000. Of the total trade Great Britain supplies from 35
to 40 % of the imports and takes over 50 % of the exports.
Among the exports sent to England are the great majority of the
80,000,000 eggs annually shipped (see also Egypt: Commerce).
The population of the city (1907) was 332,246 or including the
suburbs, about 400,000. the foreigners numbered over 00,000.
The majority of these were Greeks, Italians, Syrians, Armenians
an"' other Levantines, though almost every European and
Oriental nation is represented. The predominant languages
spoken, besides the Arabic of the natives, are Greek, French, Eng-
lish and Italian. The labouring population is mainly Egyptian ;
the Greeks and Levantines are usually shopkeepers or petty
traders. In its social life Alexandria is the most progressive and
occidental of all the cities of North Africa, with, the possible ex-
ception of Algiers. (F. R. C.)
IL The Ancient City.— The Greek Alexandria was divided into
three regions: (x) the Jews' quarter, forming the north-east
portion of the city; (2) Rhacotis, on the west, occupied chiefly
by Egyptians; (3) Brucbeum, the Royal or Greek quarter,
forming. the most magnificent portion of the city. In Roman
times Brucheum was enlarged by the addition of an official
quarter, making up the number of four regiones in alL The city
was laid out as a gridiron of parallel streets, each of which had an
attendant subterranean canal Two main streets, lined with
colonnades and said to have been each about 200 ft wide, inter-
sected in the centre of the dry, close to the point where rose the
Sema (or Soma) of Alexander (*.«. his Mausoleum). This point
is very near the present mosque of Nebi Daniel; and the line of
the great east-west " Canopic " street only slightly diverged from
that of the modern Boulevard de Rosette. Traces of its pave-
ment and canal have been found near the Rosetta Gate; but
better remains still of streets and canals were exposed in 1809 by
the German excavators outside the E. fortifications, which lie
well within the area of the ancient dty.
Alexandria consisted originally of little more than the island
of Pharos, which was joined to the mainland by a mole nearly a
mile long and called the Hcptastadium. The end of this abutted
on the land at the head of the present Grand Square, where rose
the " Moon Gate." All that now lies between that point and the
modern Ras et-Tin quarter is built on the silt which gradually
widened and obliterated this mole. The Ras et-Tin quarter
represents all that is left of the island of Pharos, the site of the
actual lighthouse having been weathered away by the sea. On
the east of the mole was the Great Harbour, now an open bay;
on the west lay the port of Eunostos, with its inner basin Kibotos,
now vastly enlarged to form the modern harbour.
In Strabo's time, (latter half of zst century b.c) the prindpal
buildings were as follows, enumerated as they were to be seen
from a ship entering the Great Harbour. (1) The Royal Palaces,
filling the N.E. angle of the town and occupying the promontory
of Lochias, which shut in the Great Harbour on the east. Lochias,
the modem Pkarillon, has almost entirely disappeared into the
sea, together with the palaces,. the "Private Port" and the
island of Antirrhodus. There has been a land subsidence here,
as throughout the N. Delta and indeed all the N.E. coast of
Africa; and on calm days the foundations of buildings may be
seen, running out far under sea, near the Pharillon. Search was
made for relics of these palaces by German explorers in 1808-
1800, but without much success. (2) The Great Theatre, on the
modem Hospital Hill near the Ramleh station. This was used
by Caesar as a fortress, where he stood a siege from the dty mob
after the battle of Pharsalus. (3) The Poseideicn or Temple of
the Sea God, close to the theatre and in front of it (4) The
Timonium built by Antony. (5, 6, 7) The Emporium (Exchange),
Apostates (Magazines) and Navalia (Docks), lying west of (4),
along the sea-front as far as the mole. Behind the Emporium
rose (8) the Great Caesareum, by which stood the two great
obelisks, later known as " Cleopatra's Needles," and now removed
to New York and London. This temple became in time the
Patriarchal Church, some remains of which have been discovered :
but the actual Caesareum, so far as not eroded by the waves, lies
under the houses lining the new sea-wall. (9) The Gymnasium
and (to) the Palaestra are both inland, near the great Canopic
street (Boulevard de Rosette) in the eastern half of the town,
but on sites not determined, (n) The Temple of Saturn: site
unknown. (12) The Mausolea of Alexander (Soma) and the
Ptolemies in one ring-fence, near the point of intersection of
570
ALEXANDRIA
the two main streets. (13) The Museum with its library and
theatre in the same region; but on a site not identified. (14)
The Serapeum, the most famous of all Alexandrian temples.
Strabo tells us that this stood in the west o! the dty; and recent
discoveries go far to place it near " Pompey's Pillar" (see above),
which, however, was an independent monument erected to com-
memorate Diocletian's siege of the city. We know the names of
a few other public buildings on the mainland, but nothing as to
their position. On the eastern point of the Pharos island stood
the Great Lighthouse, one of the " Seven Wonders," reputed to
be 400 ft. high. The first Ptolemy began it, and the second
completed it, at a total cost of 800 talents. It is the prototype
of all lighthouses (9.9.) in the world. A temple of Hephaestus
also stood on Pharos at the head of the mole. In the Augustan
age the population of Alexandria was estimated at 300,000 free
folk, in addition to an immense number of slaves.
III. History.— Founded in 33a B.C. by Alexander the Great,
Alexandria was intended to supersede Naucratis (9.9.) as a Greek
Amd0mt centre in Egypt, and to be the link between Macedonia
mo4 and the rich Nile Valley. If such a dty was to be on
"MOnor the Egyptian coast, there was only one possible site,
***** behind the screen of the Pharos island and removed
from the silt thrown out by Nile mouths. An Egyptian
townlet, Rhacotis, already stood on the shore and was a
resort of fishermen and pirates. Behind it (according to the
Alexandrian treatise, known as pseudo-Callisthenes) were
five native villages scattered along the strip between Lake
Mareotis and the sea. Alexander occupied Pharos, and had
a walled dty marked out by Ddnocrates on the mainland to
include Rhacotis. A few months later he Irft Egypt for the East
and never returned to his dty; but his corpse was ultimately
entombed there. His viceroy, Cleomenes, continued the creation
of Alexandria. The Heptastadium, however, and the mainland
quarters seem to have been mainly Ptolemaic work. Inheriting
the trade of ruined Tyre and becoming the centre of the new
commerce between Europe and the Arabian and Indian East,
the city grew in less than a century to be larger than Carthage;
and for some centuries more it had to acknowledge no superior
but Rome. It was a centre not only of Hellenism but of
Semitism, and the greatest Jewish dty in the world. There the
Septuagint was produced. The early Ptolemies kept it in order
and fostered the development of its museum into the leading
Greek university; but they were careful to maintain the dis-
tinction of its population into three nations, " Macedonian "
(i.e. Greek), Jew and Egyptian. From this division arose
much of the later turbulence which began to manifest itself
under Ptolemy Philopater. Nominally a free Greek dty,
Alexandria retained its senate to Roman times; and indeed
the judicial functions of that body were restored by Septimius
Severus, after temporary abolition by Augustus. The dty passed
formally under Roman jurisdiction in 80 B.C., according to the
will of Ptolemy Alexander; but it had been under Roman
influence for more than a hundred years previously. There
Julius Caesar dallied with Cleopatra in 47 B.C. and was mobbed
by the rabble; there his example was followed by Antony, for
whose favour the city paid dear to Octavian, who placed over
it a prefect from the imperial household. Alexandria seems from
this time to have regained its old prosperity, commanding, as it
did, an important granary of Rome. This latter fact, doubtless,
was one of the chief reasons which induced Augustus to place it
directly under the imperial power. In a.d. 2x5 the emperor
Caracalla visited the city; and, in order to repay some insulting
satires that the inhabitants had made upon him, he commanded
his troops to put to death all youths capable of bearing arms.
This brutal order seems to have been carried out even beyond
the letter, for a general massacre was the result. Notwith-
standing this terrible disaster, Alexandria soon recovered its
former splendour, and for some time longer was esteemed the
first dty of the world after Rome. Even as its main historical
importance had formerly sprung from pagan learning, so now it
acquired fresh importance as a centre of Christian theology and
church government. There Arianism was formulated and there
Athanasius, the great opponent of both heresy and ptgsi
reaction, worked and triumphed. As native influences, however.
began to reassert themselves in the Nile valley, Alexandra
gradually became an alien city, more and more detached fraa
Egypt; and, losing much of its commerce as the peace of lie
empire broke up during the 3rd century as>., it dedmed fas
in population and splendour. The Brucheum and Je*ih
quarters were desolate in the 5th century, and the cestui
monuments, the Soma and Museum, fallen to rain. Ob the
mainland life seems to have centred in the vicinity of the
Serapeum and Caesareum, both become Christian drarcher
but the Pharos and Heptastadium quarters remained popolow
and intact In 616 it was taken by Chosroes, king of Persa,
and in 640 by the Arabians, under *Amr, after a siege tbi
lasted fourteen months, during which Heradius, the emperor cf
Constantinople, did not send a single ship to its aaaistaatt.
Notwithstanding the losses that the dty had sustained, 'Am
was able to write to his master, the caliph Omar, that he had
taken a dty containing " 4000 palaces, 4000 baths, x 3,000 desks
in fresh oil, 12,000 gardeners, 40,000 Jews who pay tribute, ♦»
theatres or places of amusement."
The story of the destruction of the library by the Arabs is
first told by Bar-hebraeus ( Abulf aragius), a Christian writer who
lived six centuries later; and it is of very doubtful authority.
It is highly improbable that many of the 700,000 vohuncs col-
lected by the Ptolemies remained at the time of the Arab cca-
quest, when the various calamities of Alexandria from the tise
of Caesar to that of Diodetian are considered, together with the
disgraceful pillage of the library in a.d. 380 under the rule of the
Christian bishop, Theophilus, acting on Theodosius* decree con-
cerning pagan monuments (see Libraries: Ancient History..
The story of Abulfaragius runs as follows:—
John the Grammarian, a famous Peripatetic philosopher, boa*
in Alexandria at the time of its capture, and in high favour with *Anr.
begged that he would give him the royal library. *Amr told hir--
that it was not in his power to grant such a request, but promised
to write to the caliph for his consent. Omar, on hearing the rcoont
of his general, is said to have replied that if those books contajaed
the same doctrine with the Koran, they could be of no use. since
the Koran contained all necessary truths; but if they concaisrd
anything contrary to that book, they ought to be destroyed; aad
therefore, whatever their contents were, he ordered them to be
burnt. Pursuant to this order, they were distributed among the
<)ublic baths, of which there was a large number in the dty, where,
or six months, they served to supply the fires.
Shortly after its capture Alexandria again fell into the hands
of the Greeks, who took advantage of 'Amr's absence with the
greater portion of his army. On hearing what had happened,
however, 'Amr returned, and quip kly regained possession of the
dty. About the year 646 'Amr was deprived of his government
by the caliph Othman. The Egyptians, by whom *Amr was
greatly beloved, were so much dissatisfied by this act, and eves
snowed such a tendency to revolt, that the Greek emperor
determined to make an effort to reduce Alexandria. The attempt
proved perfectly successful The caliph, perceiving bis mistake,
immediately restored 'Amr, who, on his arrival in Egypt, drove
the Greeks within the walls of Alexandria, but was only able
to capture the dty after a most obstinate resistance by the
defenders. This so exasperated him that he completely de-
molished its fortifications, although he seems to have spared the
lives of the inhabitants as far as lay in his power. Alexandra
now rapidly declined in importance. The building of Cairo in
969, and, above all, the discovery of the route to the East by
the Cape of Good Hope in 1498, nearly ruined its commerce;
the canal, which supplied it with Nile water, became blocked;
and although it remained a principal Egyptian port, at whka
most European visitors in the Mameluke and Ottoman periods
landed, we hear little of it until about the beginning of the
19th century.
[Alexandria figured prominently in the military operations of
Napoleon's Egyptian expedition of 1798. The French troops
stormed the dty. on the 2nd of July 1798, and it remained in
their hands until the arrival of the British expedition of 1801.
The battle of Alexandria, fought on the »ist of March of that
ALEXANDRIA
57"
year, between the French irmy under General Menou and the
Britiah expeditionary corps under Sir Ralph Abercromby, took
place near the ruins of Nicopolis, on the narrow spit of land
between the sea and Lake Aboukir, along which the British
troops had advanced towards Alexandria after the
MVfa actions of Aboukir on the 8th and Mandora on the
13th. The British position on the night of the 30th
extended across the isthmus, the right resting upon the ruins
of Nicopolis and the sea, the left on the lake of Aboukir and
the Alexandria canal. The line faced generally south-west
towards the city, the reserve division under Major-General (Sir)
John Moore on the right, the Guards brigade in the centre,
and three other brigades on the left. In. second line were two
brigades and the cavalry (dismounted). On the axst the troops
were under arms at 3 a.k., and at 3.30 the French attacked
and drove in the outposts. The French army now moved
forward with great rapidity in their usual formation of columns.
The brunt of the attack feU upon the command of Moore,
and in particular upon the 28th (Gloucestershire Regiment).
The first shock was repulsed, but a French column penetrated
in- Che dark between two regiments of the British and a confused
fight ensued in the ruins, in which the 42nd (Black Watch)
captured a colour. The front and rear ranks of the 28th were
simultaneously engaged, and the conduct of the regiment won
for it the distinction of wearing badges both at the front and at
the back of their head-dress. Other regiments which assisted
in the overthrow of the French column were the 93rd, 40th and
58th. In a second attack the enemy's cavalry inflicted severe
losses on the 42nd. Sir Ralph Abercromby was here engaged
in personal conflict with some French dragoons, and about this
time received a mortal wound, though he remained on the field
and in command to the end. The attack on the centre was
repulsed by the cool and steady fire of the Guards, and the left
wing maintained its position with ease, but the French cavalry
for the second time came to dose quarters with the reserve.
About half-past eight the combat began to wane, and the last
shots were fired at ten. The real attack had been pressed home
on the British right, and the History of the Queen's Royal West
Surrey Regiment gives no undue praise to the regiments of the
reserve in saying that " the determined attack would have been
successful against almost any other troops." Technically, the
details of the action show that, while not markedly better in
a mils* than the war-seasoned French, the British infantry had
in its volleys a power which no other troops then existing
possessed, and it was these volleys that decided the day even
more than the individual stubbornness of the men. The 42nd,
twice charged by cavalry, had but thirteen men wounded by
the sabre. Part of the French losses, which were disproportion-
ately heavy, were caused by the gunboats which lay close inshore
and cannonaded the left flank of the French columns, and by a
heavy naval gun which was placed in battery near the position
of the 28th. The forces engaged on this day were approximately
14,000 British to about 20,000 French, and the losses were.—
British, 1468 killed, wounded and missing, including Abercromby
(who died on the 28th), Moore and three other generals wounded;
French, 1160 killed and (?) 3000 wounded. The British sub-
sequently advanced upon Alexandria, which surrendered on the
31st of August. (C. F. A.).]
During the anarchy which accompanied Ottoman rule in
Egypt from first to last, Alexandria sank to a small town of
Mmmgm &bout 4000 inhabitants; and it owed its modern
dtr. renascence solely to Mehemet Ali, who wanted a deep
port and naval station for his viceregal domain. He
restored its water communication with the Nile by making
the Mahmudiya canal, finished in 1820; and he established
at Ras ct-TIn his favourite residence. The old Eunostus
harbour became the port, and a nourishing city arose on
the old Pharos island and the Heptastadium district, with out-
lying suburbs and vula residences along the coast eastwards
and the Mareotic shore. Being the starting-point of the " over-
land route " to India, and the residence of the chief foreign
consuls, it quickly acquired a European character and attracted
not only Frank residents, but great numbers of Greeks, Jews
and Syrians. There most of the negotiations between the
powers and Mehemet Ah* were conducted; thence started the
Egyptian naval expeditions to Crete, the Morea and Syria; and
thither sailed the betrayed Ottoman fleet in 1839. It was twice
threatened by hostile fleets, the Greek in 1827 and the combined
British, French and Russian squadrons in 1828. The latter
withdrew on the viceroy's promise that Ibrahim should evacuate
the Morea. The fortifications were strengthened in 1841, and
remained in an antiquated condition until 2882, when they were
renovated by Arabi Pasha. Alexandria was connected with
Cairo by railway in 1856. Much favoured by the earlier viceroys
of Mehemet Ali's house, and removed from the Mameluke
troubles, Alexandria was the real capital of Egypt till Said
Pasha died there in 1863 and Ismail came into power. Though
this prince continued to develop the dty, giving it a munidpality
in i860 1 and new harbour works in 1871-1878, he developed
Cairo still more; and the centre of gravity definitdy shifted
to the inland capital. Fate, however, again brought ^ ^__
Alexandria to the front. After a mutiny of soldiers jjjjjjj,
there in 1881, the town was greatly excited by the im*.
arrival of an Anglo-French fleet in May 1882, and
on the nth of June a terrible riot and massacre took place,
resulting in the death of four hundred Europeans.. Since satis-
faction was not given for this and the forts were being
strengthened at the instigation of Arabi Pasha, the war minister,
the British admiral, Sir Beauchamp Seymour (afterwards Lord
Alcester), sent an ultimatum on the 10th of July and opened
fire on the forts the next day. They were demolished, but as
no troops were landed immediately a fresh riot and massacre
ensued. As Arabi did not submit, a British military expedition
landed at Alexandria on the 10th of August, the sequel being the
British occupation of the whole country, the history of which is
set forth under Egypt.
Since the restoration of tranquillity and the establishment of
sound political and economic conditions in the Nile valley,
Alexandria has greatly expanded. As the British consular
report for 1004 says, " Building ... for residential and other
purposes proceeds with almost feverish rapidity. The cost of
living has doubled and the price of land has risen enormously."
On the E. and S.E. a new town of handsome houses, gardens
and boulevards has been called into existence, in the arrange-
ment of which the controlling influence of the munidpality is
evident (see Modem City above).
IV. Antiquities. — Persistent efforts have been made to explore
the antiquities of Alexandria. Encouragement and help have
been given by the local Archaeological Sodety, and by many
individuals, notably Greeks justly proud of a dty which is one
of the glories of their national story. The past and present
directors of the museum have been enabled from time to time
to carry out systematic excavations when opportunity offered;
Mr D. G. Hogarth made tentative researches on behalf of the
Egypt Exploration Fund and the Sodety for the Promotion of
Hellenic Studies in 1805; and a German expedition worked
for two years (1898-1809). But two difficulties face the would-
be excavator in Alexandria. First, since the great and growing
modern dty stands 'right over the andent one, it is almost
impossible to find any considerable space in which to dig, except
at enormous cost. Second, the general subsidence of the coast
has sunk the lower-lying parts of the andent town under water.
Unfortunately the spaces still most open are the low grounds to
N.E. and S.W., where it is practically impossible to get below
the Roman strata.
The most important results were those achieved by Dr G.
Botti, late director of the museum, in the neighbourhood of
" Pompey's Pillar," where there is a good deal of open ground.
Here substructures of a large building or group of buildings have
been exposed, which are perhaps part of the Serapcum. Hard
by immense catacombs and columbaria have been opened which
may have been appendages of the temple. These contain one
1 This munidpality was superseded by a new muaidpal body,
with extensive powers, created in 189a
572
ALEXANDRIA
very remarkable vault with curious painted reliefs, now lighted
by electricity and shown to visitors. The objects found in these
researches arc in the museum, the most notable being a great
basalt bull, probably once an object of cult in the Serapeum.
Other catacombs and tombs have been opened in Kom es-Shugafa
Hadra (Roman) and Ras et-Tin (painted). The Germans found
remains of a Ptolemaic colonnade and streets in the north-east
of the city, but little else. Mr Hogarth explored part of an
immense brick structure under the mound of Kom ed-Dik,
which may have been part of the Paneum, the Mausolea or a
Roman fortress. The making of the new foreshore led to the
dredging up of remains of the Patriarchal Church; and the
foundations of modern buildings are seldom laid without some
objects of antiquity being discovered. The wealth underground
is doubtless immense; but, despite all efforts, there is not much
for antiquarians to see in Alexandria outside the museum and
the neighbourhood of " Pompey's Pillar." The native tomb-
robbers, well-sinkers, dredgers and the like, however, come upon
valuable objects from time to time, which find their way into
private collections.
Bibliography.— (i) Modern City. See latest editions of guide-
books to Lower Egypt (Baedeker, Murray, Macmillan). (a) History.
See authorities for history of Egypt. (3) Ancient City and Anti-
?uhies- Mahmud Bey el Fallaki, J&tmoxre sur Fantique AUxandrie
1872); T. D. Neroutwo*, L' A ncieitneAlexandric (1888) ; D.C. Hogarth
and E. F. Benson, Report on Prospects of Research in Alexandria
(Egypt ExpLFund Archaeological Report, 1894-1895); Bulletin de la
SoalU Arckiologique d'Alexandrieiltifa foil.) ; O. Puchstein in Pauly
Topograpkie des alien Alexandria (1872). (O. G. H.)
ALEXANDRIA, a city of Madison county, Indiana, U.S.A.,
about 46 m. N.E. of Indianapolis. Pop. (1800) 715; (1900)
7221 (1002 foreign-born); (1 910) 5096* Alexandria is served by
the Cleveland, Cincinnati, Chicago & St Louis, and the Lake
Erie & Western railways, and by the Indiana Union Traction
System (electric). In the city are a Carnegie library and Beulah
Park (24 acres), the latter belonging to the Northern Indiana
Holiness Association, which there holds summer camp-meetings.
The city is in a rich farming country, which produces Indian
corn, oats and wheat; and is in the Indiana natural gas region,
to which fact it owes its rapid growth as a manufacturing centre.
It is one of the principal seats of the glass industry in Indiana —
plate glass, lamp chimneys, mirrors, &c, being manufactured
here— and also has mineral wool factories and paper mills.
The municipality owns and operates the water-works and the
gas-lighting plant Alexandria was founded in 1836 and was
chartered as a city in 1893.
ALEXANDRIA, a city of Louisiana, U.S.A., capital of Rapides
Parish, on the S. bank of the Red river in almost the exact
geographical centre of the state. Pop. (1890) 2861; (1900)
5648 (314a negroes); (19x0) 11,213. The city is served by the
Louisiana Railway & Navigation Company, the St Louis,
Watkins & Gulf, the Texas & Pacific, the Louisiana &
Arkansas, the Southern Pacific, the Chicago, Rock Island &
Pacific, and the Missouri Pacific railways. The Red river is
navigable to Alexandria during the entire year. Alexandria is
on a level plain in the centre of the Louisiana long-leaf pine
forests, in which pine is interspersed with various hardwoods.
The forests stretch on all sides within a radius of 75 m. In the
immediate vicinity of the dty, on the Red river, cotton, sugar,
alfalfa and garden vegetables are cultivated; south of the Red
river is a peculiarly rich farming country watered by Bayou
Rapides and Bayou Bccuf. Near the city is the. Louisiana
Asylum for the Insane. The principal industries are cotton-
pressing and the manufacture of lumber and of cotton-seed
products; sugar and molasses, artificial ice, mineral waters
and brick are other manufactures. The city owns and operates
the water- works and electric-lighting plant; the water-supply
is derived from artesian wells. Alexandria was named in
honour of Alexander Fulton, on whose grant from Spain the
first settlement was made in 1785; it was first incorporated as
a town in 18x8 and received a city charter in 1882. In the spring
of 1863 a Union fleet under Admiral David D. Portef, < _
on the Red river, co-operated with land force* under Geaen.
N. P. Banks in pushing the Confederates westward. Akxaacrj
was occupied on the 7th of May 1863, but the troops were ssc-
withdrawn for the Port Hudson attack. On the xoth of Marc
1864 it was again occupied by the Union forces, who made i iL
point of concentration for another land and naval eipHtfre
against E. Rirby Smith and Shreveport. After Use check a
this expedition and its abandonment, Alexandria was agu
vacated on the x 2th- 13th of May, when the city was alecs?
entirely burned. The Union gunboats, which had passed t?
the river toward Shreveport at high water, were caught a a
decline above the falls at Alexandria, but they were saved fe? 1
splendid piece of engineering (a dam at the falls), constructed fey
Lieutenant-Colonel Joseph Bailey (1827-1867), who for tbs
service received the thanks of Congress and the brevet d
brigadier-general of volunteers.
ALEXANDRIA, a town of Rumania, situated among the rx±
corn-lands of the Teleorman department, on the right bank ai
the river Vedea. Pop. (1900) 13,675. Its chief trade a is
grain, despatched by rail to the Danubian port of ZimrnVta,
or by river to Giurgevo. Alexandria was named after &
founder, Alexander John Cuaa, prince of Rumania from x?=s
to 1866.
ALEXANDRIA, a manufacturing town of Dumbartonshire.
Scotland, situated on the right bank of the Leven about 3 &
north of Dumbarton, on the North British and Caledonia*
railways. It owes its origin almost entirely to the cottsc
printing and bleaching works of the vicinity, for which there is
an abundant supply of excellent water, and contains one of
the largest of the Turkey-red dyeing establishments in the
Vale of Leven. The public buildings include a public baa, tk
mechanics' institute with library and lecture-hall, an institiKe
for men, with library and recreation rooms, a similar institu-
tion for women, banks and other important commercial oxaca.
Pop. (1891) 7796; (1901)8007. Alexandria js connected wui
Bonhxll, on the opposite bank of the river, by a bridge waka
replaced in 1898 one bought three years earlier by the couarv
council from the Smollett family, who have been closely associated
with the district since the time of Sir James Smollett, the
novelist's grandfather. The industries of Bonhill centre in the
calico printing, dyeing and bleaching which find their head-
quarters in the valley. Population (1891) 3843; (xoox) 3333.
Jamestown, about x m. to the north-east of Alexandria, with a
station on the Forth & Clyde railway from Balloch to Stirheg
(North British), contains some of the largest cotton-printing
works in Scotland. Population (1891) x668; (xoox) 2080.
ALEXANDRIA, a dty and a port of entry of Alexandra
county, Virginia, U.S.A., on the W. bank of the Fotossac
river, 6 m. below Washington, D.C, with which it is connected
by a ferry. Pop. (1890) 14,330; ( ,00 °) I4t5»*t of whom 4SJ
were negroes; (iqio. census), 15,329. Alexandria is served
by the Baltimore & Ohio, the • Chesapeake ft Ohio, the
Southern and the Washington Southern railways* by the
Washington, Alexandria & Mount Vernon electric railway;
and by several lines of river and coasting steamboats. It is a
quaint, old-fashioned dty, with quiet, shady streets, and a
number of buildings dating back to the 18th century; of
these the most interesting is the old Christ Church in whica
George Washington and Robert E. Lee worshipped. The crty
has a public library. About 2) m. W. of Alexandria is the
Protestant Episcopal Theological Seminary in Virginia, opened
here in 1823 and chartered in 1854; in 1906-1007 the Seminary
had a faculty of 7 and 46 students. Alexandria is a distributing
and jobbing centre for the north-east counties of Virginia. Among
its manufactures are fertilizers, bottles, carbonated beverages,
flour, beer, shoes, silk thread, aprons, brooms, leather, bricks,
and tiling and structural iron. The total value of its factory
product in X905 was $2,186,658. The munkipality owns and
operates its gas-lighting plant, Alexandria, first known as
Belhaven, was named in honour of John Alexander, who io tar
last quarter of the 17th century had bought the land 00 vska
ALEXANDRIAN SCHOOL
573
the city now stands from Robert Howison; the first settlement
here was made in 1695. Alexandria was laid out in 1749 and
was incorporated in 1779. From 1790 until 1846 Alexandria
county was a part of the District of Columbia; at present the
city, although within the limits of Alexandria county, is not
administratively a part of it. The city was re-chartered in
185a. For some time Alexandria seemed destined to become an
important commercial centre, but the rise of Washington created
a rival that soon outstripped it, and since the Civil War the
city's growth has been comparatively slight. At Alexandria in
175$ General Edward Braddock organized his fatal expedition
against Fort Duqucsne, and here, in April of the same year, the
governors of Virginia, Massachusetts, New York, Pennsylvania
and Maryland met (in a house still standing) to determine upon
concerted action against the French in America. In March
178 s commissioners from Virginia and Maryland met here to
discuss the commercial relations of the two states, finishing their
business at Mount Vernon on the 28th with an agreement for
freedom of trade and freedom of navigation of the Potomac.
The Maryland legislature in ratifying this agreement on the
2 2nd of November proposed a conference between representatives
from all the states to consider the adoption of definite com-
mercial regulations. This led to the calling of the Annapolis
convention of 1786, which in turn led to the calling of the
Federal convention of 1 787. In 1814 Alexandria was threatened
by a British fleet, but bought immunity from attack by paying
about $100,000. At the opening of the Civil War the city was
occupied by Federal troops, and great excitement throughout
the North was caused by the killing (May 24, 186 1) of Colonel
E. E. Ellsworth (183 7- »86i) by Captain James W. Jackson, a
hotel proprietor, from whose building Ellsworth had removed
a Confederate flag. After the erection of the state of West
Virginia (1863), and until the close of the war, Alexandria was
the scat of what was known as the " Alexandria Government "
(see Virginia).
ALEXANDRIAN SCHOOL Under this title are generally
included certain strongly marked tendencies in literature, science
and art, which took their rise in the ancient Egyptian city of
Alexandria. That city, founded by Alexander the Great about
the time when Greece, in losing her national independence, lost
also her intellectual supremacy, was in every way admirably
adapted for becoming the new centre of the world's activity and
thought. Its situation brought it into commercial relations with
all the nations lying around the Mediterranean, and at the same
time rendered it the one communicating link with the wealth and
civilization of the East. The great natural advantages it thus
enjoyed were artificially increased to an enormous extent by the
care of the sovereigns of Egypt. Ptolemy Soter (reigned 3 23-285
B.C.), to whom, in the general distribution of Alexander's con-
quests, this kingdom had fallen, began to draw around him from
various parts of Greece a circle of men eminent in literature and
philosophy. To these he gave every facility for the prosecution
of their learned researches. Under the inspiration of his friend
Demetrius of Phalcrum, the Athenian orator, statesman and
philosopher, this Ptolemy laid the foundations of the great
Alexandrian library and originated the keen search for all
written works, which resulted in the formation of a collection
such as the world has seldom seen. He also built, for the con-
venience of his men of letters, the Museum, in which, maintained
by the royal bounty, they resided, studied and taught. This
Museum, or academy of science, was in many respects not unlike
a modern university. The work thus begun by Ptolemy Soter
was carried on vigorously by his descendants, in particular by his
two immediate successors, Ptolemy Philadelphus and Ptolemy
Euergetcs Philadelphus (285-247), whose librarian was the
celebrated Callimachus, bought up all Aristotle's collection of
books, and also introduced a number of Jewish and Egyptian
works. Among these appears to have been a portion of the
Septuagint. Euergetes (247-222) largely increased the library by
seizing on the original editions of the dramatists laid up in the
Athenian archives, and by compelling all travellers who arrived
in Alexandria to leave a copy of any work they possessed.
The intellectual movement so originated extended over a long
period of years. If we date its rise from the 4th century B.C., at
the time of the fall of Greece and the foundation of the Graeco-
Maccdonian empire, we must look for its final dissolution in the
7th century of the Christian era, at the time of the fall of Alex-
andria and the rise of the Mahommcdan power. But this very
long period falls into two divisions. The first, extending from
about 306 to 30, includes the time from the foundation of the
Ptolemaic dynasty to its final subjugation by the Romans;
the second extends from 30 to a.d. 642, when Alexandria was
destroyed by the Arabs. The characteristic features of these
divisions arc very dearly marked, and their difference affords an
explanation of the variety and vagueness of meaning attaching to
the term " Alexandrian School." In the first of the two periods
the intellectual activity was of a purely literary and scientific
nature. It was an attempt to continue and develop, under new
conditions, the old Hellenic culture. This direction of effort was
particularly noticeable under the early Ptolemies, Alexandria
being then almost the only home in the world for pure literature.
During the last century and a half before the Christian era, the
school, as it might be called, began to break up and to lose its
individuality. This was due partly to the state of government
under some of the later Ptolemies, partly to the formation of new
literary circles in Rhodes, Syria and elsewhere, whose supporters,
though retaining the Alexandrian peculiarities, could scarcely be
included in the Alexandrian school. The loss of active life,
consequent on this gradual dissolution, was much increased when
Alexandria fell under Roman sway. Then the influence of the
school was extended over the whole known world, but men of
letters began to concentrate at Rome rather than at Alexandria.
In that city, however, there were new forces in operation which
produced a second grand outburst of intellectual life. The new
movement was not in the old direction— had, indeed, nothing in
common with it. With its character largely determined by
Jewish elements, and even more by contact with the dogmas of
Christianity, this second Alexandrian school resulted in the
speculative philosophy of the Neo-Platonists and the religious
philosophy of the Gnostics and early church fathers.
There appear, therefore, to be at least two definite significations
of the title Alexandrian School; or rather, there are two Alex*
andrian schools, distinct both chronologically and in substance.
The one is the Alexandrian school of poetry and science, the other
the Alexandrian school of philosophy. The term "school,"
however, has not the same meaning as when applied to the
Academics or Peripatetics, the Stoics or Epicureans. These
consisted of a company united by holding in common certain
speculative principles, by having the same theory of things.
There was nothing at all corresponding to this among the
Alexandrians. In literature their activities were directed to the
most diverse objects; they have only in common a certain spirit
or form. There was among them no definite system of philosophy.
Even in the later schools of philosophy proper there is found a
community rather of tendency than of definite result or of fixed
principles.
I. Litcralure.—The general character of the literature of the
school appears as the necessary consequence of the state of affairs
brought about by the fall of Greek nationality and independence.
The great works of the Greek mind had formerly been the pro-
ducts, of a fresh life of nature and perfect freedom of thought.
All their hymns, epics and histories were bound up with their
individuality as a free people. But the Macedonian conquest at
Chaeroneia brought about a complete dissolution of this Greek
life in all its relations, private and political. The full, genial
spirit of Greek thought vanished when freedom, with which it was
inseparably united, was lost A substitute for this originality
was found at Alexandria in learned research, extended and
multifarious knowledge. Amply provided with means for
acquiring information, and under the watchful care of a great
monarch, the Alexandrians readily took this new direction in
literature. With all the great objects removed which could excite
a true spirit of poetry, they devoted themselves to minute
researches in all sciences subordinate to literature proper. They
574
ALEXANDRIAN SCHOOL
studied criticism, grammar, prosody and metre, antiquities and
mythology. The results of this study constantly appear in their
productions. Their works are never national, never addressed
to a people, but to a circle of learned men. Moreover, the very
fact of being under the protection and, as it were, in the pay
of an absolute monarch was damaging to the character.of their
literature. There was introduced into it a courtly element, clear
traces of which, with all its accompaniments, are found in the
extant works of the school One other fact, not to be forgotten
in forming a general estimate of the literary value of their produc-
tions, is, that the same writer was frequently or almost always
distinguished in several special sciences. The most renowned
poets were at the same time men of culture and science, critics,
archaeologists, astronomers or physicians. To such writers the
poetical form was merely a convenient vehicle for the exposition
of science.
The forms of poetical composition chiefly cultivated by the
Alexandrians were epic and lyric, or elegiac Great epics are
wanting; but in their place, as might almost have been expected,
are found the historical and the didactic or expository epics.
The subjects of the historical epics were generally some of the
well-known myths, in the exposition of which the writer could
exhibit the full extent of his learning and his perfect command
of verse. These poems are in a sense valuable as repertoires of
antiquities; but their style is on the whole bad, and infinite
patience is required to clear up their numerous and obscure
allusions. The best extant specimen is the Argonautka of
Apollonius Rhodius; the most characteristic is the Alexandra
or Cassandra of Lycophron, the obscurity of which 2s almost
proverbial
The subjects of didactic epics were very numerous; they
seem to have depended on the special knowledge possessed by
the writers, who used verse as a form for unfolding their in-
formation. Some, e.g. the lost poem of Callimachus, called Alrta,
were on the origin of myths and religious observances; others
were on special sciences. Thus we have two poems of Aratus,
who, though not resident at Alexandria, was so thoroughly
imbued with the Alexandrian spirit as to be with reason included
in the school; the one is an essay on astronomy, the other an
account of the signs of the weather. Nicander of Colophon has
also left us two epics, one on remedies for poisons, the other on
the bites of venomous beasts. Euphorion and Rhianus wrote
mythological epics. The spirit of all their productions is the
same, that of learned research. They are distinguished by
artistic form, purity of expression and strict attention to the
laws of metre and prosody, qualities which, however good in
themselves, do not compensate for want of originality, freshness
and power.
In their lyric and elegiac poetry there is .much worthy of
admiration. The specimens we possess are not devoid of talent
or of a certain happy art of expression. Yet, for the most part,
they either relate to objects thoroughly incapable of poetic
treatment, where the writer's endeavour is rather to expound
the matter fully than to render it poetically beautiful, or else
expend themselves on short isolated subjects, generally myths,
and are erotic in character. The earliest of the elegiac poets
was Philetas, the sweet singer of Cos. But the most distinguished
was Callimachus, undoubtedly the greatest of the Alexandrian
poets. Of his numerous works there remain to us only a
few hymns, epigrams and fragments of elegies. 1 Other lyric
poets were Phanodes, Hermesianax, Alexander of Aetolia and
Lycophron.
Some of the best productions of the school were their epigrams.
Of these we have several specimens, and the art of composing
them seems to have been assiduously cultivated, as might
naturally be expected from the court life of the poets, and their
constant endeavours after terseness and neatness of expression.
Of kindred character were the parodies and satirical poems, of
which the best examples were the Silli of Timon and the Cinaedi
of Sotades.
1 A considerable fragment of his epic Heeatt has been discovered
la the Rainer papyrus.
Dramatic poetry appears to have flourished to some <
There are still extant three or four varying lists of the seves
great dramatists who composed the Pleiad of Alexandria. Thor
works, perhaps not unfortunately, have perished. A ruder Lie i
of drama, the amoebaean verse, or bucolic mime, developed iav
the only pure stream of genial poetry found in the Alexandria
School, the Idylls of Theocritus. The name of these peers
preserves their original idea; they were pictures of fresh coast:)
life. .
The most interesting fact connected with this Alexandria*
poetry is the powerful influence it exercised on Roman literature.
That literature, especially in the Augustan age, is not to be
thoroughly understood without due appreciation of the chancer
of the Alexandrian school. The historians of this period wwe
numerous and prolific Many of them, e.g. Cleitarchus, devoid
themselves to the life and achievements of Alexander the Great
The best-known names are those of Timaeus and Polybius.
Before the Alexandrians had begun to produce original works,
their researches were directed towards the masterpieces ci
ancient Greek literature. If that literature was to be a power
in the world, it must be handed down to posterity in a form
capable of being understood. This was the task begun and carried
out by the Alexandrian critics. These men did not merely coOec:
works, but sought to arrange them, to subject the texts to
criticism, and to explain any allusion or reference in them whkh
at a later date might become obscure. The complete philo-
logical examination of any work consisted, according to them, of
the following processes :-—&6f0taeit f arrangement of the ten,
6.v6.yvoM7ii, settlement of accents; rex**, theory of forms,
syntax; l£iiyyeit, explanation either of words or things; sad
finally, *ptat, judgment on the author and his work, indu&cg
all questions as to authenticity and integrity. To perkwn
their task adequately required from the critics a wide circle of
knowledge; and from this requirement sprang the sciences of
grammar, prosody, lexicography, mythology and archaeology
The service rendered by these critics is invaluable. To tbea
we owe not merely the possession of the greatest works of Greet
intellect, but the possession of them in a readable state. The
most celebrated critics were Zenodotus; Aristophanes of Byzan-
tium, to whom we owe the theory of Greek accents; Crates of
Mall us; and Aristarchus of Samothrace, confessedly the cory-
phaeus of criticism. Others were Lycophron, Callimachuss
Eratosthenes and many of a later age, for the critical schocl
long survived the literary. Dionysius Thrax, the author of the
first scientific Greek grammar, may also be mentioned. These
philological labours were of great indirect importance, for they
led immediately to the study of the natural sciences, and ia
particular to a more accurate knowledge of geography and history.
Considerable attention began to be paid to the ancient history ci
Greece, and to all the. myths relating to the foundation of states
and cities. A large collection of such curious information b con-
tained in the Bibliotkeca of ApoUodorus, a pupil of Aristarduo
who flourished in the 2nd century B.C. Eratosthenes was the
first to write on mathematical and physical geography; he a&>
first attempted to draw up a chronological table of the Egyptian
kings and of the historical events of Greece. The sciences d
mathematics, astronomy and medicine were also cultivated
with assiduity and success at Alexandria, but they can scarcto
be said to have their origin there, or in any strict sense to form a
part of the peculiarly Alexandrian literature. The founder of
the mathematical school was the celebrated Euclid (Eudekfc^;
among its scholars were Archimedes; Apollonius of fttfga,
author of a treatise on Conic Sections; Eratosthenes, to whom
we owe the first measurement of the earth; and Hipparcha*.
the founder of the cpicyclical theory of the heavens, afterward*
called the Ptolemaic system, from its most famous expositor.
Claudius Ptolemacus. Alexandria continued to be celebrated
as a school of mathematics and science long after the Christian
era. The science of medicine had distinguished representatives
in Herophilus and Erasistratus, the two first great anatomists.
Authorities-— Mailer and Donaldson. History ef the Liyntmo
of Ancient Greece; W. Christ. CesckichU der gruvbitcken U&ricr.
ALEXANDRIA TROAS— ALEXANDRINE VERSE
575
Mahafty, Grttk Life and Thought from tin Ate of Alexander to the
Roman Empire; Couat, La Point alexandrine-, and especially
Suscmihl, Ceschichte der griechischen LiUeratur in der Alexandrinersett.
Nicolai's Griechische LUeraturgesckickU, though somewhat out of
date, is useful for bibliography.
II. Philosophy.— Although it is not possible to divide literatures
with absolute rigidity by centuries, and although the intellectual
life of Alexandria, particularly as applied to science, long sur-
vived the Roman conquest, yet at that period the school, which
for some time had been gradually breaking up, seems finally to
have succumbed. The later productions in the field of pure
literature bear the stamp of Rome rather than of Alexandria.
But in that city for some time past there had been various
forces secretly working, and these, coming in contact with great
spiritual changes in the world around, produced a second out-
burst of intellectual activity, which is generally known as the
Alexandrian school of philosophy. The doctrines of this school
were a fusion of Eastern and Western thought, and combined in
Varving proportions the elements of Hellenistic and Jewish
philosophy. Traces of this eclectic tendency are discoverable as
far back as 280 B.C., but for practical purposes the dates of the
school may be given as from about 30 B.C. to a.d. 529. The city
of Alexandria had gradually become the neutral ground of
Europe, Asia and Africa. Its population* then as at the present
day, was a heterogeneous collection of all races. Alexander had
planted a colony of Jews who had increased in number until at
the beginning of the Christian era they occupied two-fifths of the
dty and held some of the highest offices. The contact of Jewish
theology with Greek speculation became the great problem of
thought. The Jewish ideas of divine authority and their tran-
scendental theories of conduct were peculiarly attractive to the
Greek thinkers who found no inspiration in the dry intellect-
ualism into which they had fallen (see Neo-Pythagoreanism).
At the same time the Jews of the Dispersion had to some extent
shaken off the exclusiveness of their old political relations and
were prepared to compare and contrast their old territorial
theology with cosmopolitan culture. Further, when the two
sides came to consider the results of their intellectual inheritance
they found that they had sufficient common ground for the
Initial compromise. Thus the Hellenistic doctrine of personal
revelation could be combined with the Jewish tradition of a
complete theology revealed to a special people. The result was
the application of a purely philosophical system to the somewhat
vague and unorganized corpus of Jewish theology. The matter
was Jewish, the arrangement Greek. According to the relative
predominance of these two elements arose Gnosticism, the
Patristic theology, and the philosophical schools of Nco-Pytha-
goreanism, Neo-Platonism and eclectic Platonism.
The members of the school may be enumerated under throe
heads. ( 1 ) The beginnings of the eclectic spirit are, according to
some authorities, discernible in the Scptuagint (280 B.C.) (sec
Frankcl, Historisch-kriiische Studicn zur Scptuagint a, 1841), but
the first concrete exemplification is found in Aristobulus (c. 160
B.C.). So far as the Jewish succession is concerned, the great
name is that of Philo in the first, century of our era. He took.
Greek metaphysical theories, and, by the allegorical method,
interpreted them in accordance with the Jewish Revelation. He
dealt with (a) human life as explained by the relative nature of
Man and God, (6) the Divine nature and the existence of God, and,
(<•) the great Logos doctrine as the explanation of the relation
between God and the material universe. From these three
arguments he developed an elaborate thcosophy which was a
syncretism of oriental mysticism and pure Greek metaphysic,
and may be regarded as representing the climax of Jewish philo-
sophy. (2) The first purely philosophical phenomenon of the
Alexandrian school was Neo- Pythagorean ism, the second and last
Nco- Platonism. Leaving all detailed descriptions of these schools
to special articles devoted to them, it is sufficient here to say that
their doctrines were a synthesis of Platonism, Stoicism and the
later Aristotclianism with a leaven of oriental mysticism which
gradually became more and more important. The world »o
which they spoke had begun to demand a doctrine of salvation to
satisfy the human soul. They endeavoured to deal with the
problem of good and evil. They therefore devoted themselves
to examining the nature of the soul, and taught that its freedom
consists in communion with God, to be achieved by absorption in
a sort of ecstatic trance. This doctrine reaches its height in
Plotinus, after whom it degenerated into magic and theurgy in its
unsuccessful combat with the victorious Christianity. Finally
this pagan theosophy was driven from Alexandria back to Athens
under Plutarch and Produs, and occupied itself largely in purely
historical work based mainly on the attempt to re-organize
ancient philosophy in conformity with the system of Plotinus.
This school ended under Damascius when Justinian closed the
Athenian schools (a.d. 529). (3) The eddies of Neo-Platonism
had ^considerable effect on certain Christian thinkers about the
beginning of the 3rd century. Among these the most important
were Clement of Alexandria and Origen. Clement, as a scholar
and a theologian, proposed to unite the mysticism of Neo-
Platonism with the practical spirit of Christianity. He combined
the principle of pure living with that of free thinking, and held
that instruction must have regard to the mental capacity of the
hearer. The compatibility of Christian and later Nco-Platonic
ideas is evidenced by the writings of Synesius, bishop of
Ptolemais, and though Nto- Platonism eventually succumbed to
Christianity, it had the effect, through the writings of Clement
and Origen, of modifying the tyrannical fanaticism and ultra-
dogmatism of the early Christian writers.
Authorities.— Matter, Histoire de Ttcole d'AUxandrie, and ed.
(3 vols., 1840-1844); Simon, Histoire de FicoU d'AUxandrie (a vols..
1 844- 1 845); Vachcrot, Histoire critique de rUole d'AUxandrie
(x vols., 1846-1851): Kingsley, Alexandria and her Schools (1854);
GfrSrcr, Philo und die AUxandrinische Theosophie (183$); Dahne,
Geschicht, Darstellunt der Judisck-Alexandrinischen Reitgionsphilo-
sophie (1834); Histories of Philosophy by Zcllcr, Ucbcrwcg, Windcl-
band, &c, and Bibliography of Church History. &c.
ALEXANDRIA TROAS (mod. Eski Stombul), an ancient Greek
city of the Troad, situated on the west coast at nearly its middle
point, a little south of Tenedos. It was built by Antigonus,
perhaps about 310 B.C., and was called by him Antigonia Troas.
Early in the next century the name was changed by Lysimachus
to Alexandria Troas, in honour of Alexander's memory. As the
chief port of north-west Asia Minor, the place prospered greatly
in Roman times, and the. existing remains sufficiently attest its
former importance. Thence St Paul sailed for Europe for the
first time, and there occurred later the episode of the raising of
Eutychus (Acts xx. 5-1 2). The site is now covered with valonia
oaks, and has been much plundered, e.g by Mahommcd IV.,
who took columns to adorn his new Validch mosque in Stambul;
but the circuit of the old walls can be traced, and in several
places they are fairly well preserved. They had a circumference
of about six English miles, and were fortified with towers at
regular intervals. Remains of some ancient buildings, including
a bath and gymnasium, can be traced within this area. Trajan
built an aqueduct which can still be traced. The harbour had
two large basins, now almost choked with sand. A Roman
colony was sent to the place, as Slrabo mentions, in the reign of
Augustus. The abridged name "Troas" (Acts xvi. 8) was
probably the current one in later Roman times. (D. G. H.)
ALEXANDRINE VERSE, a name given to the leading measure
in French poetry. It is the heroic French verse, used in epic
narrative, in tragedy and in the higher comedy. There is some
doubt as to the origin of the name; but most probably it is
derived from a collection of romances, collected in the 12th
century, of which Alexander of Maccdon was the hero, and in
which he Was represented, somewhat like the British Arthur,
as the pride and crown of chivalry. Before the publication of
this work most of the trouvere romances appeared in octosyllabic
verse. There is also a theory that the form was invented by a
poet named Alexander. The new work, which was henceforth
to set the fashion to French literature, was written in lines of
twelve syllables, but with a freedom of pause which was after-
wards greatly curtailed. The new fashion, however, was not
adopted all at once. The metre fell into disuse until the reign
of Francis I., when it was revived by Jean Antoine de BaTf.
one of the seven poets known as the Pleiades. Jodelle mingled
576
ALEXANDRISTS— ALEXIS
episodical Alexandrines with the vers communs of his tragedies
and so introduced them into drama. It was Ronsard, however,
who made the verse popular, and gave it vogue in France. From
his time it became the recognized vehicle for all great poetry,
and the regulation of its pauses became more and more strict.
The following is an example of the verse as used by Racine —
Ou suis-jc ? qu'ai-je fait ? II que dois- je faire encore ?
Quel transport me sai&it ? II quel chagrin me devote ?
Two inexorable laws came to be established with regard to the
pauses. The first is, that each line should be divided into two
equal parts, the sixth syllable always ending with a word. In
the earlier use of this metre, on the contrary, it frequently
happened that the sixth and seventh syllables belonged to»thc
same word. The other is that, except under the most stringent
conditions, there should be none of what the French critics call
enjambement, that is, the overlapping of the sense from one line
on to the next Ronsard completely ignored this rule, which
was after his time settled by the authority of Malherbe. The
latest school of French prosody has given great attention to
the breaking up of the Alexandrine, which no longer possesses
the rigidity of authoritative form which it held until about 1880,
but is often used with a licence no less than when Ronsard wrote.
Michael Draytod, who was twenty-two years of age when
Ronsard died, seemed to think that the Alexandrine might be
as pleasing to English as it was to French ears, and in this metre
he wrote a long poem in twenty-four books called the Polyolbum.
The metre, however, failed to catch the English ear. The
principal English measure is a line of ten syllables, and the
Alexandrine is used only occasionally to give it variety and
weight. In ordinary English heroic verse it is but rarely intro-
duced; but in the favourite narrative metre, known as the
Spenserian, it comes in regularly as the concluding line of each
stanza. In English usage, moreover, it is to be observed that
there is no fixed rule as to the position of the pause, though it is
true that most commonly the pause occurs at the end of the sixth
syllable. Spenser is very free in shifting the pause about; and
though the later poets who have used this stanza are not so free,
yet, with the exception of Shenstone and of Byron, they do not
scruple to obliterate all pause between the sixth and seventh
syllables. Thus Thomson (Castle of Indolence, I 42):—
And music lent new gladness to the morning air.
The danger in the use of the Alexandrine is that, in attempting
to give dignity to his line, the poet may only produce heaviness,
incurring the sneer of Pope—
A needless Alexandrine ends the song.
That, like a wounded snake, drags its stow length along.
The Alexandrine was the dominant metre in Dutch poetry
from the x6th to the middle of the 19th century, and about
the time of its introduction to Holland it was accepted in
Germany by the school of Opitz. In the course of the 17th
century, after being used without rhyme by Scckcndorf and
others, it formed a transitional station on the route to German
blank verse, and has since then been rarely employed, except
occasionally in rhymed comedy.
ALEXANDRISTS, the name given to those philosophers of
the Renaissance, who, in the great controversy on the subject of
personal immortality, adopted the explanation of the De Anima
given by Alexander of Aphrodisias. According to the orthodox
Thomism of the Roman Catholic Church, Aristotle rightly re-
garded reason as a faculty of the individual soul. Against
this, the Averroists, led by Agostino Nifo (q.v.), introduced the
modifying theory that universal reason in a sense individualizes
itself in each soul and then absorbs the active reason into itself
again. These two theories respectively evolved the doctrine
of individual and universal immortality, or the absorption of
the individual into the eternal One. The Alcxandrists, led by
Fictro Pomponazzi, boldly assailed these beliefs and denied
that cither was rightly attributed to Aristotle. They held that
Aristotle considered the soul as a material and therefore a
mortal entity which operates during life only under the authority
of universal reason. Hence the Alcxandrists denied the possi-
bility of immortality in every shape or form. Since the sod a
organically connected With the body, the dissolution of the
latter involves the extinction of the former.
ALEXANDRITE, a variety of chrysoberyl (q.v.) discovered ia
the Urals in 1833, on the day set apart for celebrating the majority
of the cesarevich, afterwards the tsar, Alexander II., in whose
honour the stone was named by Nils Gustaf NordenskioJd, of
Helsingfors. It is remarkable for being strongly dichrsc,
generally appearing dark green by daylight
and raspberry-red by candle-light, or by
daylight transmitted through the stone. As
red and green are the military colours of
Russia, the mineral became highly popular
as a gem-stone. The dark green crystals
are usually cloudy and cracked, and grouped
in triplets presenting a pseudo-hexagonal form.
Alexandrite was found originally in the emerald-
mine of Takovaya, east of Ekaterinburg in the Urals, and
afterwards in the gold-bearing sands of the Sanarka. in the
southern Urals. Subsequently it was discovered in greater
abundance in the gem-gravels of Ceylon. It has been found
also in Tasmania. Some of the Ceylon alexandrite exhibits,
when suitably cut, the Cat's-eye chatoyancc, whence it has
been called alexandrite cat's-eye. (F. W. R.*)
ALEXANDROPOL, or Aiexandrapol. (Turk. Gumril, a
Russian town and fortified camp in Transcaucasia, government
of Erivan, near the junction of the Arpa-chai with the Aras»
48 m. by rail E.N.E. of Kara. Altitude 5080 ft. It has a trade
in silk. Here the Russians defeated the Turks in 1853. Pop.
(1885) 22,670; (1807)32,735.
ALEXANDROVSK. (1) A town of N. Russia, in the govern-
ment of Archangel, on the harbour of Catherine (Ekaterimnsk),
on the Murman coast, 5 m. from the mouth of Kola Bay. It was
opened in 1809 and is a naval station, being free from ice all the
year round. It is also called Port Catherine. Pop. (tooi) 300.
(2) A town of S. Russia, 83 m. S. of Ekaterinoslav, on the railway
to the Crimea, near the left bank of the Dnieper, below its rapids.
Pop. (1897) 16,393. Opposite it is the island of Khortitsa, upon
which was the sieh (or syeck) or camp of the Zaporoxhian Cossacks.
All its neighbourhood is strewn with kurgans (tumuli).
ALEXIS, Greek comic poet of the Middle Comedy, was bore
about 394 B.C. at Thurii and taken early to Athens, where be
became a citizen. Plutarch says that he lived to the age of 106,
and that he died on the stage while being crowned. Accordieg
to Suidas, who calls him Mcnander's uncle, he wrote 24s comedies
of which some 130 titles are preserved. The fragments (about
1000 lines) attest the wit and refinement of the author (Rock,
Comicorum AUicorum Fragmenla).
ALEXIS, WILUBALD, the pseudonym of Georg Wiutclh
Heinrich Ha ring (1 798-1871), German historical novelist.
He was born on the 29th of June 1798 at Brcslau, where his
father, who came of a French refugee family, named Hareng.
held a high position in the war department. He attended the
Wcrdcrsche Gymnasium in Berlin, and then, serving asa volunteer
in the campaign of 181 5, took part in the siege of the Ardent*
fortresses. On his return he studied law at the universities
of Berlin and Breslau and entered the legal profession, but he
soon abandoned this career and devoted himself to literature.
Settling in Berlin he edited, 1827-1835, the Berliner Komeru-
tionsblalt, in which for the first two years he was assisted by
Friedrich Christoph Fdrster (179 1-1868); and in 1828 w
created a doctor of philosophy by the university of Halle. Id
1852 he retired to Arnstadt in Thuringia, where after many
years of broken health he died on the 16th of December 1871
Hiring made his name first known as a writer by an idyU ia
hexameters, Die Treibjagd (1820), and several short stories in
which the influence of Ticck is observable; but his literary
reputation was first established by the historical romance
Walladmor (1823), which, published as being " freely translated
from the English of Sir Walter Scott, with a preface by Willibald
Alexis," so closely imitated the style of the famous Scotsman
as really to deceive even Scott's admirers. The work became
ALEXISBAD— ALEXIUS
577
Immediately popular and was translated Into several languages,
including English. It was followed by Schloss Avalon (1827),
with regard to which the author adopted the same tactics and
with equal success. These historical novels, however, were of
considerable literary merit, and would doubtless have achieved
popularity even without the borrowed plumage. Soon after-
wards Hiring published a number of successful short stories
(Gesammelte Novellen, 4 vols., 1830-1831), some books of travel,
and in the novels Das Haus Dustenoeg (1835) and ZwOlf NUckte
(1838) showed for a while a leaning towards the "Young
German " school. In Cabcnis (1832), however, a story of the
time of Frederick the Great, he entered the field of patriotic-
historical romance, in which he so far excelled as to have earned
the name of " der Markische Walter Scott " (Walter Scott of the
Mark). From 1840 onwards he published at short intervals a
aeries of romances, each dealing with some epoch in the history
of Brandenburg. Among them may be especially noted Der
Roland von Berlin (1840), Der Jalsche Woldemor (1842), Die
Hosen des Herm ton Bredom (1846-1848), Ruhe ist die erste
BUrgerpflichi (1852), Isegrimm (1854) and Dorothe (1856).
In all these the author shows himself as a keen observer of men
and things; the characters, situations and natural surroundings
are excellently delineated, and the patriotic feeling which per-
vades them is not overdone. Hiring also made a name for
himself in the field of criminology by commencing in 2842, m
conjunction with the publicist, Julius Eduard Hi tag (1780-
1849), the publication of Der neue Pitaval (continued by A.
Vollert, 36 vols., Leipzig, 1842-1865; new edition, 24 vols.,
Leipzig, 1866-1891), a collection of criminal anecdotes culled
from all nations and all times. This publication attained great
popularity, and is to-day of psychological interest and value.
His GesammelU Werke were published in 20 volumes (Berlin, 1874) ;
the Vaterldndiscke Roman* separately in 8 volumes (Berlin, 188 1,
1884), and, since the expiry of the copyright in 1901, in many cheap
reprints. Cp. W. Alexu' Erinnerungen, edited by M. Ewert (1900),
and essays by Julian Schmidt (Neue Bilder aus dem geistigen Leben
unsrer Zeit, 1873), G. Freytag (Werke, vols. 16 and 23), A. Stern
(Zur LiUraiur d*r Cegewwart, 1880) and T. Fontane (In Bayreutker
BldOer, vi., 1883).
ALEXISBAD, a spa of Germany, in the duchy of Anhalt,
lying under the Han mountains, 1000 ft above the sea, on the
railway from Gernrode to Harzgerode. Pop. 1000. It is cele-
brated for its medicinal waters, of which the Alexisbrunnen, a
ferruginous spring, is used for drinking, while the Selkebrunnen
supplies the baths, which are of use in feminine disorders. The
place was founded in 18x0 by Duke Alexius of Anhalt-Bernburg.
ALEXIUS I. (1048-11x8), emperor of the East, was the third
son of John Comnenus, nephew of Isaac Comnenus, emperor
1057-1059. His father declined the throne on the abdication
of Isaac, who was accordingly succeeded by four emperors of
other families between that date and 1081. Under one of these
emperors, Romanus Diogenes (1067-107 1), he served with dis-
tinction against the Seljuk Turks. Under Michael Parapinaces
(1071-1078) and Nicephorus Botaniates (1078-1081) he was
also employed, along with his elder brother Isaac, against rebels
in Asia Minor, Thrace and in Epirus ( 107 1 ). The success of the
Comneni roused the jealousy of Botaniates and his ministers,
and the Comneni were almost compelled to take up arms in self-
defence. Botaniates was forced to abdicate and retire to a
monastery, and Isaac declined the crown in favour of his younger
brother Alexius, who then became emperor in the 33rd year of
his age. His long reign of nearly 37 years was full of difficulties
(see Rohan Eicpirs, Later). At the very outset he had to meet
the formidable attack of the Normans (Robert Guiscard and his
son Bohcmund), who took Dyrrhachhim and Corfu, and laid
siege to Larissa in Thessaly. The Norman danger ended lot the
time with Robert Guiscard's death (1085) and the conquests
were recovered. He had next to repel the invasions of Patzinaks
(Petchenegs) and Rinnans in Thrace, with whom the Manichaean
sects of the Paulicians and Bogomilians made common cause;
and thirdly, he had to cope with the fast-growing power of the
Turks in Asia Minor. Above all he had to meet the difficulties
caused by the arrival of the warriors of the First Crusade, which
had been in a great degree initiated owing to the representations
of his own ambassadors, though the help which he wanted from
the West was simply mercenary forces and not the immense
hosts which arrived to his consternation and embarrassment.
The first part, under Peter the Hermit, he got rid of by sending
them on to Asia Minor, where they were massacred by the Turks
( xoo6) . The second and much more serious host of warriors, led
by Godfrey of Bouillon, he conducted also into Asia, promising
to supply them with provisions in return for an oath of homage,
and by their victories recovered for the Empire a number of
important cities and islands— Nicaea, Chios, Rhodes, Smyrna,
Ephesus, Philadelphia, Sardts, and in fact most of Asia Minor
(1007-1099). This is ascribed as a credit to his policy and
diplomacy by his daughter, by the Latin historians of the crusade
to his treachery and falseness, but during the last twenty years
of his life he lost much of his popularity. They were marked
by persecution of the followers of the Paulirian and Bogomilian
heresies (one of his last acts was to burn Basilius, a Bogomilian
leader, with whom he had engaged in a theological controversy),
by renewed struggles with the Turks (1110-1117), by anxieties
as to the succession, which his wife Irene wished to alter in favour
of her daughter Anne's husband, Nicephorus Bryennius for
whose benefit the special title panhypcrsebastos {i.e. as it were
augustissimus si guts alius) was created. This in trigue disturbed
even his dying hours. He deserves the credit of having raised
the Empire from a condition of anarchy and decay at a time
when it was threatened on all sides by new dangers. No emperor
devoted himself more laboriously or with a greater sense of duty
to the task of ruling.
Authorities.— Zonaras xviii. 27-29; Anna* Comnena's Life;
see also Du Cange, Familiae Byxantinae; Friedrich Wilkcn, Rerutn
ab Alexio /., Joanne, Manuel* et Alexio 11. Comneni* Romanorum,
Bysantinorum imperatoribus gestarum, libri to. ComtntnloJio (Heidel-
berg, 181 1); Finlay, History of Greece (vol. iii., Oxford, 1877);
Gibbon, Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire, edited with notes,
&c, by Prof. J. B. Bury (London, 1898), where further authorities
are cited; F. Chalandon, Euai sur I* regno a" Alexis I" Comneni
(1900). (JB.B.)
ALEXIUS n. (Coidtcntjs) (1x67-1183), emperor of the East,
was the son of Manuel Comnenus and Maria, daughter of
Raymund, prince of Antioch, and was bom at Constantinople
on the 10th of September 1x67. On Manuel's death, Maria, who
had been immured in a convent under the name of Xene, had
herself proclaimed regent (xx 70-1x80), and handing over her
son to evil counsellors, who encouraged him in every vice,
supported the government of Alexius the protosebastos (nephew
of Manuel), who was supposed to be her lover. The young
Alexius and his friends now tried to form a party against the
empress mother and the protosebastos; and his sister Maria,
wife of Caesar John, stirred up riots in the streets of the capital.
Their party was defeated(May 2,1x82) ,bu t Andronicus Comnenus
took advantage of these disorders to aim at the crown, entered
Constantinople, where he was received with .almost divine
honours, and overthrew the regents. His arrival was celebrated
by a barbarous massacre of the Latins in Constantinople,
which he made no attempt to stop. He allowed Alexius to be
crowned, but forced him to consent to the death of all his friends,
including his mother, his sister and the Caesar, and refused to
allow him the smallest voice in public affairs. The betrothal
in 1 180 of Alexius with Agnes, daughter of Louis VII. of France,
a child of nine, was quashed, and he was married to Irene,
daughter of Andronicus. The latter was now formally pro-
claimed as co-emperor, and not long afterwards, on the pretext
that divided rule was injurious to the Empire, he caused Alexius
to be strangled with a bow-string (October 1183). (J. B. B.)
ALEXIUS III. (Angelus), emperor of the East, was the second
son of Andronicus Angelus, nephew of Alexius I. In x 195, while
his brother Isaac II. was away hunting in Thrace, he was pro-
claimed emperor by the troops; he captured Isaac at Stagira
in Macedonia, put out his eyes, and kept him henceforth a close
prisoner, though he had been redeemed by him from captivity at
Antioch and loaded with honours. To compensate for this crime,
and to confirm his position as emperor, he had to scatter money
57«
ALEXIUS— ALEXIUS PETROVICH
so lavishly as to empty his treasury, and to allow such licence
to the officers of the army as to leave the Empire practically
defenceless. He consummated the financial ruin of the state.
The empress Euphrosyne tried in vain to sustain his credit and
his court; Vatatzes, the favourite instrument of her attempts
at reform, was assassinated by the emperor's orders. Eastward
the Empire was overrun by the Turks; from the north Bulgarians
and Vlachs descended unchecked to ravage the plains of
Macedonia and Thrace; while Alexius squandered the public
treasure on his palaces and gardens. Soon he was threatened
by a new and yet more formidable danger. In 1 202 the Western
princes assembled at Venice, bent on a new crusade. To them
Alexius, son of the deposed Isaac, made appeal, promising as a
crowning bribe to heal the schism of East and West if they would
help him to depose his uncle. The crusaders, whose objective
had been Egypt, were persuaded to set their course for Constanti-
nople, before which they appeared in June 1203, proclaiming
the emperor Alexius IV. and summoning the capital to depose
his uncle. Alexius III., sunk in debauchery, took no efficient
measures to resist His son-in-law, Lascaris, who was the only
one to do anything, was defeated at Scutari, and the siege of
Constantinople began. On the 17th of July the crusaders, the
aged doge Dandolo at their head, scaled the walls and took the
city by storm. During the fighting and carnage that followed
Alexius hid in the palace, and finally, with one of his daughters,
Irene, and such treasures as he could collect, got into a boat
and escaped to Develton in Thrace, leaving his wife, his other
daughters and his Empire to the victors. Isaac, drawn from his
prison and robed once more in the imperial purple, received his
son in state.
Shortly afterwards Alexius made an effort in conjunction with
Murtzuphlos (Alexius V.) to recover the throne. The attempt
was unsuccessful and, after wandering about Greece, he sur-
rendered with Euphrosyne, who had meanwhile joined him, to
Boniface of Montferrat, then master of a great part of the
Balkan peninsula. Leaving his protection he sought shelter with
Michael, despot of Epirus, and then repaired to Asia Minor, where
his son-in-law Lascaris was holding his own against the Latins.
Alexius, joined by the sultan of Iconium (Konieh), now demanded
the crown of Lascaris, and on his refusal marched against him.
Lascaris, however, defeated and took him prisoner. Alexius
was relegated to a monastery at Nicaea, where he died on some
date unknown. -
Authorities. — Nicetas Acominatus, George Acropolites, Nice-
phorut Gregoras; and the sources for the Fourth Crusade (see
Crusades). (j> B. B.)
ALEXIUS V., eastern Roman emperor, was proclaimed
emperor on the 5th of February 1204, during the siege of
Constantinople by the Latins (Fourth Crusade). His name was
Alexius Ducas Murtzuphlos, and he was a connexion of the
imperial house of the Angeli. His elevation was the result of
a revolution in the city against Isaac II. and Alexius IV. He
conducted the defence with great bravery till it became hope-
less (April 12), whereupon he fled. He would then have made
common cause with Alexius III. against the Latins, but was
blinded by that ex-monarch and fell into the hands of the
crusaders, who put him to death by casting him from the top
of the Pillar of Theodosius as the murderer of Alexius IV.
ALEXIUS MIKHAILOVICH (1620-1676), tsar of Muscovy,
the son of Tsar Michael Romanov and Eudoxia Stryeshnevaya,
was born on the 9th of March 1629. A youth at his father's
death (1645)1 be was committed to the care of the boyarin Boris
Ivanovich Morosov, a shrewd and sensible guardian, sufficiently
enlightened to recognise the needs of his country, and by no
means inaccessible to Western ideas. Morozov's foreign policy
was pacificatory. He secured the truce with Poland and carefully
avoided complications with the Porte. His domestic policy was
severely equitable, and aimed at relieving the public burdens by
limiting the privileges of foreign traders and abolishing a great
many useless and expensive court offices. On the s 7th of January
1648 he procured the marriage of the tsar with Maria Miloslav-
akaya, himself marrying her sister, Anna, ten days later. The
Miloslavskis were typical self -seeking 17th century boyart,
whose extortions made them generally detested. In May 164!
the people of Moscow rose against them, and the young tsar *&i
compelled to dismiss both them and their patron Moroxov. The
successful issue of the Moscow riots was the occasion of disqwet-
ing disturbances all over the tsardom culminating in dangenss
rebellions at Pskov and Great Novgorod, with which the govern-
ment was so unable to cope that they surrendered, practka£$
granting the malcontents their own terms. One man only tad
displayed equal tact and courage at Great Novgorod, the
metropolitan Nikon (q.v.) t who in consequence became in ita
the tsar's chief minister. In 1653 the weakness and disorder W
Poland, which had just emerged, bleeding at every pore, from tk
savage Cossack war, encouraged Alexius to attempt to recover
from her secular rival the old Russian lailds. On the 1st of
October 1653 a national assembly met at Moscow to sancika
the war and find the means of carrying it on, and in April r6y
the army was blessed by Nikon (now patriarch). The rampaip
of 1654 was, an uninterrupted triumph, and scores of towns.
including the important fortress of Smolensk, fell into the hands
of the Muscovites. In January 1655 the rout of Ochmatcv
arrested their progress; but in the summer of the same year, the
sudden invasion by Charles X. of Sweden for the moment swept
the l?olish state out of existence; the Muscovites, u n oppo sed ,
quickly appropriated nearly everything which was not already
occupied by the Swedes, and when at last the Poles offered to
negotiate, the whole grand-duchy of Lithuania was the least of
the demands of Alexius. Fortunately for Poland, the tsar and
the king of Sweden now quarrelled over the apportionment
of the spoil, and at the end of May 1656 Alexius, stimulated by
the emperor and the other enemies of Sweden, declared war
against her. Great things were expected of the Swedish war, tat
nothing came of it Dorpat was taken, but countless multitudes
were lost in vain before Riga. In the meantime Poland had so
far recovered herself as to become a much more dangerous fee
than Sweden, and, as it was impossible to wage war with both
simultaneously, the tsar resolved to rid himself of the Swedes
first This he did by the peace of Kardis (July 2, 1661),
whereby Muscovy retroccded all her conquests. The Polish war
dragged on for six years longer and was then concluded by s
truce, nominally for thirteen years, which proved the most
durable of treaties. By the truce of Andrussowo (February
ix, 1667) Vitebsk, Polotsk and Polish Livonia were restored
to Poland, but the infinitely more important Smolensk and Kiev
remained in the hands of the Muscovite together with the whole
eastern bank of the Dnieper. This truce was the achievement of
Athanasy Orduin-Nashchokin, the first Russian chancellor anl
diplomatist in the modern sense, who after the disgrace of Nikon
became the tsar's first minister till 1670, when he was super-
seded by the equally able Artamon Matvyeev, whose beneficent
influence prevailed to the end of the reign. It is the crownac.
merit of the ever amiable and courteous tsar Alexius that be
discovered so many great men (like Nikon, Orduin, Matvyeev.
the best of Peter's precursors) and suitably employed them. Be
was not a man of superior strength of character, or he would never
have submitted to the dictation of Nikon. But, on the other
hand, he was naturally, if timorously, progressive, or he would
never have encouraged the great reforming boyarim Matvyeev
His education was necessarily narrow; yet he was learned in his
way, wrote verses, and even began a history of his own times.
His last years, notwithstanding the terrible rebellion of Steaks
Razin, were deservedly tranquil. By his first consort he had
thirteen children, of whom two sickly sons and eight healthy
daughters survived him. By his second consort, Natalis
Naruishkina, he had two* children, the tsarevich Peter and the
tsarevna Natalia.
See Robert Jfisbet Bain, The First Romances (London, 1005V
ALEXIUS PETROVICH (1600-1718), Russian tsarevich. the
sole surviving son of Peter I. and Eudoxia Lopukhina, was bom
on the 19th of February 1600. The young tsar married tht
boyarinta LoDukhina at his mother's command. We kao*
ALEXIUS PETROVICH
579
nothing of the bride except that she was beautiful, modest and
" brought up in the fear of the Lord." She would, doubtless,
have made a model tsaritsa of the pre-Petrine period, but,
unfortunately, she was no fit wife for such a vagabond of genius
as Peter the Great. From the first her society bored Peter
unspeakably, and, after the birth of their second short-1 vcd son
Alexander, on the 3rd of October 1601, he practically deserted
her. The young Alexius was ignored by his father till he was
nine years old. Peter was a rare and unwelcome guest in his own
family, and a son who loved his mother could have little affection
for a father who had ever been that mother's worst persecutor.
From his sixth to his ninth year Alexius was educated by the
diffuse and pedantic Vyazemsky, but after the removal of his
mother to the Suzdal Prokovsky Monastery he was confided to
the care of learned foreigners, who taught him history, geography,
mathematics and French. In 1703 Alexius was ordered to follow
the army to the field as a private in a bombardier regiment In
1704 he was present at the capture of Narva. At this period
the preceptors of the tsarevich had the highest opinion of his
ability; but, unfortunately, it was not the sort of ability that
his father could make use of. He was essentially a student,
with strong leanings towards archaeology and ecdesiology A
monastic library was the proper place for this gentle emotional
dreamer, who clung so fondly to the ancient traditions. To a
prince of his temperament the vehement activity of his ab-
normally energetic father was very offensive. He liked neither the
labour itself nor its object. Yet Peter, not unnaturally, wished
his heir to dedicate himself to the service of new Russia, and
demanded from him unceasing labour in order to maintain the
brand-new state at the high level of greatness to which it had
been raised. Painful relations between father and son, quite
apart from the personal antipathies already existing, were there-
fore inevitable. It was an additional misfortune for Alexius that
his father should have been too busy to attend to him just as he
was growing up from boyhood to manhood. He was left in the
hands of reactionary boyars and priests, who encouraged him to
hate his father and wish for the death of the tsar-antichrist His
confessor, Yakov Ignatiev, whom he promised to obey as " an
angel and apostle of God," was his chief counsellor in these days.
In 1708 Peter sent Alexius to Smolensk to collect provender and
recruits, and thence to Moscow to fortify it against Charles XIL
At the end of 1709 he went to Dresden for twelve months for
finishing lessons in French and German, mathematics and
fortification, and, his education completed, he was married,
greatly against his will, to the princess Charlotte of Brunswick-
WolfenbQttel, whose sister espoused, almost simultaneously,
the heir to the Austrian throne, the archduke Charles. The
wedding was celebrated at Torgau on the 14th of October 1711,
in the house of the queen of Poland, and three weeks later the
bridegroom was hurried away by his father to Thorn to super-
intend the provisioning of the Russian troops in Poland. For
the next twelve months Alexius was kept constantly on the
move. His wife joined him at Thorn in December, but in April
1712a peremptory ukaz ordered him off to the army in Pomerania,
and in the autumn of the same year he was forced to accompany
his father on a tour of inspection through Finland. Evidently
Peter was determined to tear his son away from a life of indolent
ease. Immediately on his return from Finland Alexius was
despatched by his father to Staraya Rusya and Ladoga to see
to the building of new ships. This was the last commission
entrusted to him. On his return to the capital Peter, in order
to see what progress his son had made in mechanics and mathe-
matics, asked him to draw something of a technical nature for
his inspection. Alexius, m order to escape such an ordeal,
resorted to the abject expedient of disabling his right hand by
a pistol-shot In no other way could the tsarevich have offended
his father so deeply. He had behaved like a cowardly recruit
who mutilates himself to escape military service. After this,
Peter seemed for a time to take no further interest in Alexius.
lie left him entirely to himself, lie employed him no more.
He no longer pressed him to attend public functions. Alexius
rejoiced at this welcome change, but he had cause rather to fear
it It marked the deepening of a hatred which might have been
overcome. Alexius was evidently consoling himself with the
reflexion that the future belonged to him. He was well aware
that the mass of the Russian nation was on his side. Nearly all
the prelates were devoted to him. Equally friendly were the
great boyar families. All Alexius had to do was to sit still,
keep out of his father's way as much as possible and await the
natural course of events. But with Peter the present was every-
thing. He could not afford to leave anything to chance. All
his life long he had been working incessantly with a single object
— the regeneration of Russia. What if his successor refused to
tread in his father's footsteps or, still worse, tried to destroy his
father's work? By some such process of reasoning as this must
the idea of changing the succession to the throne, by setting
aside Alexius, have first occurred to the mind of Peter the Great.
Nevertheless he made one last effort to reclaim his son. On the
a and of October 1715 Alexius' consort, the princess Charlotte,
died, after giving birth to a son, the grand-duke Peter, afterwards
Peter II. On the day of the funeral Peter addressed to Alexius
a stern letter of warning and remonstrance, urging him no longer
to resemble the slothful servant in the parable, and threatening
to cut him off, as though he were a gangrenous swelling, if he did
not acquiesce in his father's plans. But it was now that Alexius
showed what a poor creature he really was. He wrote a pitiful
reply to his father, offering to renounce the succession in favour
of his baby half-brother Peter, who had been born the day after
tfr princess Charlotte's funeral As if this were not enough,
in January 17 16 he wrote to his father for permission to become
a monk. Still Peter did not despair. On the 26th of August
1 7 16 he wrote to Alexius from abroad urging him, if he desired
to remain tsarevich, to join him and the army without delay
Rather than face this ordeal Alexius fled to Vienna and placed
himself under the protection of his brother-in-law, the emperor
Charles VI., who sent him for safety first to the Tirolean fortress
of Ahrenberg, and finally to the castle of San Elmo at Naples.
He was accompanied throughout his journey by his mistress, the
Finnish girl Afrosina. That the emperor sincerely sympathized
with Alexius, and suspected Peter of harbouring murderous
designs against his son, is plain from his confidential letter to
George I. of England, whom he consulted on this delicate affair
Peter's agitation was extreme. The flight of the tsarevich to a
foreign potentate was a reproach and a scandal. He must be
recovered and brought hack to Russia at all hazards. This
difficult task was accomplished by Count Peter Tolstoi, the
most subtle and unscrupulous of Peter's servants; but terrorized
though he was, Alexius would only consent to return on his
father solemnly swearing, " before God and His judgment seat,"
that if he came back he should not be punished in the least, but
cherished as a son and allowed to live quietly on his estates and
many Afrosina. On the 31st of January 1718 the tsarevich
reached Moscow. Peter had already determined to institute a
most searching inquisition in order to get at the bottom of the
mystery of the flight On the 18th of February a " confession "
was extorted from Alexius which implicated most of his friends,
and he then publicly renounced the succession to the throne in
favour of the baby grand -duke Peter Petrovich. A horrible reign
of terror ensued, in the course of which the ex-tsaritsa Eudoxia
was dragged from her monastery and publicly tried for alleged
adultery, while all who had in any way befriended Alexius were
impaled, broken on the wheel and otherwise lingeringly done to
death. All this was done to terrorize the reactionaries and
isolate the tsarevich. In April 17x8 fresh confessions were
extorted from Alexius, now utterly broken and half idiotic with
fright Yet even now there were no actual facts to go upon.
Alexius' " evil designs " were still in foro constieniiae, and had
not been, perhaps never would be, translated into practice.
The worst that could be brought against him was that he had
wished his father's death. In the eyes of Peter, his son was now
a self-convicted and most dangerous traitor, whose life was forfeit.
But there was no getting over the fact that his father had sworn
" before the Almighty and His judgment seat " to pardon him
and let him live in peace if he returned to Russia. From Peter's
580
ALFANI— ALFIERI
point of view the question was, di{l the enormity of the tsare-
vich's crime absolve the tsar from the oath which he had taken
to spare the life of this prodigal son? This question was solemnly
submitted to a grand council of prelates, senators, ministers and
other dignitaries on the 13 th of June 1718. The clergy left
the matter to the tsar's own decision. The temporal dignitaries
declared the evidence to be insufficient and suggested that
Alexius should be examined by torture. Accordingly, on the
19th of June, the weak and ailing tsarevich received twenty-
five strokes with the knout (as then administered nobody ever
survived thirty), and on the 24th fifteen more. It was hardly
possible that he could survive such treatment; the natural
inference is thai he was not intended to survive it. Anyway, he
expired two days later in the guardhouse of the citadel of St
Petersburg, two days after the senate had condemned him to
death for imagining rebellion against his father, and for hoping
for the co-operation of the common people and the armed inter-
vention of his brother-in-law, the emperor. This shameful
sentence was the outcome of mingled terror and obsequiousness.
Abominable, unnatural as Peter's conduct to his unhappy and
innocent son undoubtedly was, there is no reason to suppose
that he ever regretted it He argued that a single worthless life
stood in the way of the regeneration of Russia, and he therefore
deliberately removed it.
See Robert Nisbet Bain, The First Romanovs (London, 1905).
ALFANI, DOMENICO, Italian painter, was born at Perugia
towards the close of the 15th century. He was a contemporary
of Raphael, with whom he studied in the school of Perugino.
The two artists lived on terms of intimate friendship, and the
influence of the more distinguished of the two is so clearly
traceable in the works of the other, that these have frequently
been attributed to Raphael. Towards the close of his life Alfani
gradually changed his style and approximated to that of the
later Florentine school. The date of his death, according to
some, was 1540, while others say he was alive in 2553. ^ Pictures
by Alfani may be seen in collections at Florence and in several
churches m Perugia.
ALFELD, a town of Germany, in the Prussian province of
Hanover, 10 m. W. of Hildcsheim, on the river Leine and the
Hanover-Cassel main line of railway. Pop. (1000) 4900. It has
a handsome church with twin spires, and training colleges for
schoolmasters and theological candidates. Its industries are
flourishing, and embrace paper-making, agricultural machine-
works, iron-founding and flax-spinning.
ALFIERI. VITT0R10, Count (1 740-1803), Italian dramatist,
was born on the 17th of January 1749 at Asti in Piedmont He
lost his father in early infancy; but he continued to reside with
his mother, who married a second time, till his tenth year, when
he was placed at the academy of Turin. After he had passed a
twelvemonth at the academy, he went on a short visit to a
relation who dwelt at Coni; and during his stay there he made
his first poetical attempt in a sonnet chiefly borrowed from lines
in Ariosto and Metastasio, the only poets he had at that time
read. When thirteen years of age he was induced to begin the
study of civil and canonical law; but the attempt only served
to disgust him with every species of application and to increase
his relish for the perusal of French romances. By the death of
his uncle, who had hitherto taken some charge of his education
and conduct, he was left, at the age of fourteen, to enjoy without
control his vast paternal inheritance, augmented by the recent
accession of his uncle's fortune. He now began to attend the
riding-school, where he acquired that rage for horses and
equestrian exercise which continued to be one of his strongest
passions till the close of his existence.
After some time spent in alternate fits of extravagant dissipa-
tion and ill-directed study, he was seized with a desire of travel-
ling, and having obtained permission from the king, he departed
in 1 766, under the care of an English preceptor. Restless and
unquiet, he posted with the utmost rapidity through the towns
Of Italy, and his improvement was such as was to be expected
from his mode of travelling and his previous habits. Hoping to
find in foreign countries some relief from the tedium and eats!
with which he was oppressed, and being anxious to beccsr
acquainted with the French theatre, he proceeded to Para. 5::
he appears to have been completely dissatisfied with every tts;
he witnessed in France and contracted a dislike to its jwcpls
which his intercourse in future years rather contributed u
augment than diminish. In Holland he became deeply marrac:
of a married lady, who returned his attachment, but who n,
soon obliged to accompany her husband to Switzerland. Alin
whose feelings were of the most impetuous description, was -
despair at this separation, and returned to his own country in Ae
utmost anguish and despondency of mind. While under tia
depression of spirits he was induced to seek alleviation frc=
works of literature; and the perusal of Plutarch's Lives, wferii
he read with profound emotion, inspired him with an enthusi^c
passion for freedom and independence. Under the mftprrvt d
this rage for liberty he recommenced his travels; and his os. 1 ?
gratification, in the absence of freedom among the oo&tlnerul
states, appears to have been derived from contemplating the wad
and sterile regions of .the north of Sweden, where gloomy facets.
lakes and precipices conspired to excite those subfime z~d
melancholy ideas which were congenial to his disposition. Every-
where his soul felt as if confined by the bonds of socte:y; he
panted for something more free in government, more eleva*ed a
sentiment, more devoted in love and more perfect in frieadsh;x
In search of this ideal world he posted through various coeatna
more with the rapidity of a courier than of one who traves for
amusement or instruction. During a journey to IdMxton he
engaged in an intrigue with a married lady of high rank; *sd
having been detected, the publicity of a rencounter with the
injured husband, and of a divorce which followed, rendered s.
expedient and desirable for him to quit England. He the
visited Spain and Portugal, where he became acquainted wir>
the Abbe" Caluso, who remained through life the most attached
and estimable friend he ever possessed. In 177a Alfiexi retur-s:
to Turin. This time he became enamoured of the Marcbsi
Turinctti di Prie, whom he loved with his usual ardour, and *hs
seems to have been as undeserving of a sincere attachmec: is
those he had hitherto adored. In the course of a long at tetdixt
on his mistress, during a malady with which she was afflicted, he
one day wrote a dialogue or scene of a drama, which be left at her
house. On a difference taking place between them the piece w
returned to him, and being retouched and extended to five acts,
it was performed at Turin in {775, under the- title of CUef*n~
From this moment Alfieri was seized with an insatiable thirst
for theatrical fame, and the remainder of his life was devoted u
its attainment His first two tragedies, Filippo and Psltxx*.
were originally written in French prose; and when be cane t»
versify them in Italian, he found that, from his Lombard o?vpa
and long intercourse with foreigners, he expressed himself «££
feebleness and inaccuracy. Accordingly, with the view «
improving his Italian style, he went to Tuscany and, during *a
alternate residence at Florence and Siena, he completed ia
Filippo and PUinice, and conceived the plan of various other
dramas. While thus employed be became acquainted with lbs
countess of Albany, who then resided with her husband u
Florence. For her he formed an attachment which, if less xiokzi
than his former loves, appears to have been more pcrnsaaesL
With this motive to remain at Florence, he could not endure the
chains by which his vast possessions bound him to Piedmcei.
He therefore resigned his whole property to his sister, the cocatea
Cumiana, reserving an annuity which scarcely amounted to a
half of his original revenues. At this period the countess of
Albany, urged by the ill-treatment she received from her husfeud,
sought refuge in Rome, where she at length received penmssoa
from the pope to live apart from her tormentor. Alfieri followed
the countess to that capital, where he completed founees
tragedies, four of which were now for the first time printed at
Sienna.
At length, however, it was thought proper that, by lravt&g
Rome, he should remove the aspersions which had been throws
on the object of his affections. During the year J7S3 he
ALFIERI
58i
therefore travelled through different sUtei of Italy, and published
mx additional tragedies. The interests of his love and literary
glory had not diminished his rage for horses, which seems to
have been at least the third passion of his soul. He came to
England solely for the purpose of purchasing a number of these
animals, which he carried with him to Italy. On his return he
learned that the countess of Albany had gone to Colmar in
Alsace, where he joined her, and resided with her under the same
roof during the rest of his life. They chiefly passed their time
between Alsace and Paris, but at length took up their abode
entirely in that metropolis. While here, Alfieri made arrange-
ments with Didot for an edition of his tragedies, but was soon
after forced to quit Paris by the storms of the Revolution.
He recrossed the Alps with the countess, and finally settled at
Florence. The last ten years of his life, which he spent in that
city, seem to have been the happiest of his existence. During
that long period his tranquillity was only interrupted by the
entrance of the Revolutionary armies into Florence in 1709.
Though an enemy of kings, the aristocratic feeling of Alfieri
rendered him also a decided foe to the principles and leaders of
the French Revolution; and he rejected with the utmost con-
tempt those advances which were made with a view to bring
him over to their cause. The concluding years of his life were
laudably employed in the study of the Greek literature and in
perfecting a series of comedies. His assiduous labour on this
subject, which he pursued with his characteristic impetuosity,
exhausted his strength, and brought on a malady for which he
would not adopt the prescriptions of his physicians, but obsti-
nately persisted in employing remedies of his own. His disorder
rapidly increased, and he died on the 8th of October 1803.
The character of Alfieri may be best appreciated from the
portrait which he has drawn of himself in his own Memoirs
of his Life. He was evidently of an irritable, impetuous and
almost ungovernable temper. Pride, which seems to have been
a ruling sentiment, may account for many apparent inconsist-
encies of his character. But his less amiable qualities were
greatly softened by the cultivation of literature. His-application
to study gradually tranquillized his temper and softened his
manners, leaving him at the same time in perfect possession of
those good qualities which he had inherited from nature— a
warm and disinterested attachment to his family and friends,
united to a generosity, vigour and elevation of character, which
rendered him not unworthy to embody in his dramas the actions
and sentiments of Grecian heroes.
It is to his dramas that Alfieri is chiefly indebted for the high
reputation he has attained. Before his time the Italian language,
so harmonious in the Sonnets of Petrarch and so energetic in the
Commedia of Dante, had been invariably languid and prosaic in
dramatic dialogue. The pedantic and inanimate tragedies of the
1 6th century were followed, during the iron age of Italian litera-
ture, by dramas of which extravagance in the sentiments and
improbability in the action were the chief characteristics. The
prodigious success of the Metope of Maffei, which appeared in the
commencement of the x8th century, may be attributed more to a
comparison with such productions than to intrinsic merit. In
this degradation of tragic taste the appearance of the tragedies of
Alfieri was perhaps the most important literary event that had
occurred in Italy during the 18th century. On these tragedies
it is difficult to pronounce a judgment, as the taste and system
of the author underwent considerable change and modification
during the intervals which elapsed between the three periods of
their publication. An excessive harshness of style, an asperity
of sentiment and total want of poetical ornament are the
characteristics of his first four tragedies, FUippo, Polinice,
Antigone and Virginia. These faults were in some measure
corrected in the six tragedies which he gave to the world some
years after, and in those which he published along with Saul,
the drama which enjoyed the greatest success of all his produc-
tions—a popularity which may be partly attributed to the
severe and unadorned manner of Alfieri being well adapted to the
patriarchal simplicity of the age in which the scene of the tragedy
It placed. But though there be a considerable difference in his
dramas, there are certain observations applicable to them all.
None of the plots are of his own invention. They are founded
either on mythological fable or history; most of them had
been previously treated by the Greek dramatists or by Seneca.
Rosmunda, the only one which could be supposed of his own
contrivance, and which is certainly the least happy effusion of
his genius,1s partly founded on the eighteenth novel of the third
part of Bandeilo and partly on Prcvost's Memoires d'un komme de
qualiti. But whatever subject he chooses, his dramas are always
formed on the Grecian model and breathe a freedom and inde-
pendence worthy of an Athenian poet. Indeed, his Agide and
Brulo may rather be considered oratorical declamations and
dialogues on liberty than tragedies. The unities of time and
place are not so scrupulously observed in his as in the ancient
dramas; but he has rigidly adhered to a unity of action and
interest. He occupies his scene with one great action and one
ruling passion, and removes from it every accessory event or
feeling. In this excessive seal for the observance of unity he
seems to have forgotten that its charm consists in producing a
common relation between multiplied feelings, and not in the
bare exhibition of one, divested of those various accompaniments
which give harmony to the whole. Consistently with that austere
and simple manner which he considered the chief excellence of
dramatic composition, he excluded from his scene all coups de
tkUtre, all philosophical reflexions, and that highly ornamented
versification which had been so assiduously cultivated by his
predecessors. In his anxiety, however, to avoid all superfluous
ornament, he has stripped his dramas of the embellishments of
imagination; and for the harmony and flow of poetical language
he has substituted, even in his best performances, a style which,
though correct and pure, is generally harsh, elaborate and
abrupt; often strained into unnatural energy or condensed
into factitious conciseness. The chief excellence of Alfieri con-
sists in powerful delineation of dramatic character. In his
FUippo he has represented, almost with the masterly touches of
Tacitus, the sombre character, the dark mysterious counsels, the
suspense semper et obscura verba, of the modern Tiberius. In
Polinice, the characters of the rival brothers are beautifully con-
trasted; in Maria Stuarda, that unfortunate queen is represented
unsuspicious, impatient of contradiction and violent in her
attachments. In Mirra, the character of Ciniro is perfect as a
father and king, and Cecri is a model of a wife and mother. In
the representation of that species of mental alienation where the
judgment has perished but traces of character still remain, he is
peculiarly happy. The insanity of Saul is skilfully managed;
and the horrid joy of Orestes in killing Aegisthus rises finely and
naturally to madness in finding that, at the same time, he had
inadvertently slain his mother.
Whatever may be the merits or defects of Alfieri, he may be
considered as the founder of a new school in the Italian drama.
His country hailed him as her sole tragic poet; and his successors
in the same path of literature have regarded his bold, austere
and rapid manner as the genuine model of tragic composition.
Besides his tragedies, Alfieri published during his life many
sonnets, five odes on American independence and the poem of
Etruria, founded on the assassination of Alexander I., duke of
Florence. Of his prose works the most distinguished for anima-
tion and eloquence is the Panegyric on Trajan, composed in a
transport of indignation at the supposed feebleness of Pliny's
eulogium. The two books entitled La Tirannide and the Essays
on Literature and Government are remarkable for elegance and
vigour of style, but are too evidently imitations of the manner of
Machiavel. His Antigaiiican, which was written at the same
time with his Defence of Louis XV L, comprehends an historical
and satirical view of the French Revolution. The posthumous
works of Alfieri consist of satires, six political comedies and the
Memoirs of his Life—* work which will always be read with
interest, in spite of the cold and languid gravity with which he
delineates the most interesting adventures and the strongest
passions of his agitated life.
See Mem. di Vit. Alfieri; Sismondi, De la lit. du midi de rEurofcX
Walker's Memoir on Italian Tragedy \ Ciom. do Pisa, torn. IvuL:
5 82
ALFORD— ALFRED THE GREAT
Life of Alfieri, by Centofanti (Florence. 1843); Vila, Ciornuli,
Leltere di Alfuri, by Teza (Florence, 1861); Vittorio Alfuri, by
Antonini and Cognetti (Turin, 1898).
ALFORD, HENRY (1810-1871), English divine and scholar,
was born in London on the 7th of October 1810. He came of a
Somersetshire family, which had given five consecutive genera-
tions of clergymen 10 the Anglican church. Alford's early years
were passed with his widowed father, who was curate of Steeple
Ashton in Wiltshire. He was an extremely precocious lad, and
before he was ten had written several Latin odes, a history of the
Jews and a series of homiletic outlines.. After, a peripatetic
school course he went up to Cambridge in 1827 as a scholar of
Trinity. In 1832 he was 34th wrangler and 8th classic, and in
1834 was made fellow of Trinity. He had already taken orders,
and in 1835 began his eighteen years' tenure of the vicarage of
Wymeswold in Leicestershire, from which seclusion the twice-
repeated offer of a colonial bishopric failed to draw him. He
was Hulsean lecturer at Cambridge in 1841-1842, and steadily
built up a reputation as scholar and preacher, which would have
been enhanced but for his discursive rambling* in the fields of
minor poetry and magazine editing. In September 1853 Alford
removed to Quebec Chapel, London, where he had a large and
cultured congregation. In March 1857 Viscount Palmerston
advanced him to the deanery of Canterbury, where, till his death
on the 1 2th of January 1871, he lived the same strenuous and
diversified life that had always characterized him. The inscrip-
tion on his tomb, chosen by himself, is " Divcrsorium Viator is
Hierosolymam Proficiscentis"
Alford was a not inconsiderable artist, as his picture-bodk,
The Riviera (1870), shows, and he had abundant musical and
mechanical talent. Besides editing the works of John Donne,
he published several volumes of his own verse, The School of the
Heart (1835), The Abbot of Uuchelnayt (1841), and a number of
hymns, the best-known of which are ' c Forward I be our watch-
word," " Come, ye thankful people, come," and " Ten thousand
times ten thousand." He translated the Odyssey, wrote a well-
known manual of idiom, A Plea for the Queen's English (1863),
and was the first editor of the Contemporary Review (1866-1870).
His chief fame, however, rests upon his monumental edition of
the New Testament in Greek (4 vols.), which occupied him from
1 84 1 to 1 86 1. In this work he first brought before English
students a careful collation of the readings of the chief MSS.
and the researches of the ripest continental scholarship of his
day. Philological rather than theological in character, it marked
an epochal change from the old homiletic commentary, and
though more recent research, patristic and papyral, has largely
changed the method of New Testament exegesis, Alford's work
is still a quarry where the student can dig with a good deal of
profit.
His Life, written by his widow, appeared in 1873 (Rivington}.
(A J. G.)
ALFRED, or Alfred, known as The Great (848-? 900),
king of England, was born in 848 at Wantage, and was the fourth
son of King jEthelwulf and his first wife (Osburh). He seems to
have been a child of singular attractiveness and promise, and
stories of his boyhood were remembered. At the age of five (853)
he was sent to Rome, where he was confirmed by Leo IV., who
is also stated to have " hallowed him as king." Later writers
interpreted this as an anticipatory crowning in preparation for
his ultimate succession to the throne of Wessex. That, however,
could not have been foreseen in 853, as Alfred had three elder
brothers living. It is probably to be understood cither of
investiture with the consular insignia, or possibly with some
titular royalty such as that of the under-kingdom of Kent.
In 855 Alfred again went to Rome with his father iEthelwulf,
returning towards the end of 856. About two years later his
father died. During the short reigns of his two eldest brothers,
jEthclbald and iEthclberht, nothing is heard of Alfred. But
with the accession of the third brother iEthelred (866) the public
life of Alfred begins, and he enters on his great work of delivering
England from the Danes. It is in this reign that Asser applies
to Alfred the unique title of secundarius, which seems to indicate
a position analogous to that of the Celtic tanist. a recognized
successor, closely associated with the reigning prince. It ■
probable that this arrangement was definitely sanctioned by the
witenagemot, to guard against the danger of a disputed wirrnwi
should iEthelred fall in battle. In 868 Alfred married Ealhswica,
daughter of iEthelred MuciU, who is called ealdonnan of the
Gaini, an unidentified district The same year the two brothers
made an unsuccessful attempt to relieve Mertia from the ptrmzt
of the Danes. For nearly two years Wessex had a respite Bai
at the end of 870 the storm burst; and the year which followed
has been rightly called " Alfred's year of battles." Nine gears*:
engagements were fought with varying fortunes, though the
place and date of two of them have not been recorded. A
successful skirmish at Englcficld, Berks (December 31, 870), was
followed by a severe defeat at Reading (January 4, 871), and the
four days later, by the brilliant victory of Ashdown, near Compter
Beauchamp in Shrivenham Hundred. On the 22nd of January
the English were again defeated at Basing, and on the 22nd «
March at Marton, Wilts, the two unidentified battles h*rmg
perhaps occurred in the interval. In April iEthelred died, aarf
Alfred succeeded to the whole burden of the contest. While he
was busied with his brother's exequies, the Danes defeated the
English in his absence at an unnamed spot, and once more in ka
presence at Wilton in May. After this peace was made, and la-
the next five years the Danes were occupied in other parts «
England, Alfred merely keeping a force of observation on the
frontier. But in 876 part of the Danes managed to slip pas:
him and occupied Wareham; whence, early in 877, under cover
of treacherous negotiations, they made a dash westwards and
seized Exeter. Here Alfred blockaded them, and a re&viag
fleet having been scattered by a storm, the Danes had to subwi:
and withdrew to Mercia. But in January 878 they made a suddes
swoop on Chippenham, a royal vill in which Alfred had bees
keeping his Christmas, " and most of the people they reduced,
except the King Alfred, and he with a little band made his way
. . . by wood and swamp, and after Easter he . . . made a fort
at Athelney, and from that fort kepi fighting against the foe"
(Chron.). The idea that Alfred, during his retreat at Athetoey,
was a helpless fugitive rests upon the foolish legend of the cakes.
In *eality he was organizing victory. By the middle of May his
preparations were complete and he moved out of Athehxy,
being joined on the way by the levies of Somerset, Wilts acd
Hants. The Danes on their side moved out of Chippenham, and
the two armies met at Edington in Wiltshire. The result was a
decisive victory for Alfred. The Danes submitted. Guthrun.
the Danish king, and twenty-nine of his chief men accented
baptism. By the next year (879) not only Wessex, but Mercia,
west of Walling Street, was cleared of the invader. This is the
arrangement known as the peace of Wedmore (878), though co
document embodying its provisions is in existence. And though
for the present the north-eastern half of England, *****?&*$
London, remained in the hands of the Danes, in reality the bde
had turned, and western Europe was saved from the danger of
becoming a heathen Scandinavian power. For the next few yean
there was peace, the Danes being kept busy on the continent
A landing in Kent m 884 or 885, 1 though successfully repefied,
encouraged the East Anglian Danes to revolt. The measures
taken by Alfred to repress this revolt culminated in the captnre
of London in 885 or 886, and the treaty known as Alfred and
Guthrum's peace, whereby the boundaries of the treaty of
Wedmore (with which this is often confused) were materially
modified in Alfred's favour. Once more for a time there was a lull;
but in the autumn of 892 (893) the final storm burst. The Danes,
finding their position on the continent becoming more and more
precarious, crossed to England in two divisions, amounting in the
aggregate to 330 sail, and entrenched themselves, the larger body
at Appledore and the lesser under Haesten at Milton in Kent
The fact that the new invaders brought their wives and chfldreo
with them shows that this was no mere raid, but a deliberate
1 Where alternative dates are given the later date is that of tbe
Saxon Chronicle. But the evidence of the Continental Gbroskk*
makes it probable that the Saxon Chronicle b a year in advance of the
true chronology in this part.
ALFRED THE GREAT
583
attempt, in concert with the Northumbrian and East Anglian
Danes, to conquer England. Alfred, 893 (804) , took up a position
whence he could observe both forces. While he was negotiating
with Haesten the Danes at Appledore broke out and struck
north-westwards, but were overtaken by Alfred's eldest son,
Edward, and defeated in a general engagement at Farnham,
and driven to take refuge in Thorney Island in the Hertford-
shire Colne, where they were blockaded and ultimately compelled
to submit They then fell back on Essex, and after suffering
another defeat at Benfleet coalesced with Hacsten's force at
Shoebury. Alfred had been on his way to relieve his son at
Thorney when he heard that the Northumbrian and East
Anglian Danes were besieging Exeter and an unnamed fort on
the coast of North Devon. Alfred at once hurried westwards
and raised the siege of Exeter; the fate of the other place is not
recorded. Meanwhile the force under Haesten set out to march
up the Thames valley, possibly with the idea of assisting their
friends in the west. But they were met by a large force under
the three great ealdormen of Mercia, Wilts and Somerset, and
forced to head off to the north-west, being finally overtaken and
blockaded at Buttington, which some identify with Buttington
Tump at the mouth of the Wye, others with Buttington near
Welshpool. An attempt to break through the English lines was
defeated with loss; those who escaped retreated to Shoebury.
Then after collecting reinforcements they made a sudden dash
across England and occupied the ruined Roman walls of Chester.
The English did not attempt a winter blockade, but contented
themselves with destroying all the supplies in the neighbourhood.
And early in 804 (895) want of food obliged the Danes to retire
once more to Essex. At the end of this year and early in 805 (806)
the Danes drew their ships up the Thames and Lea and fortified
themselves twenty miles above London. A direct attack on the
Danish lines failed, but later in the year Alfred saw a means of
obstructing the river so as to prevent the egress of the Danish
ships. The Danes realized that they were out-manoeuvred.
They struck off north-westwards and wintered at Bridgenorth.
The next year, 806 (897), they abandoned the struggle. Some
retired to Northumbria, some to East Anglia; those who had no
connexions in England withdrew to the continent The long
campaign wasover. The result testifies to the confidence inspired
by Alfred's character and generalship, and to the efficacy of the
military reforms initiated by him. These were (1) the division of
thtfyrd or national militia into two parts, relieving each other
at fixed intervals, so as to ensure continuity in military operations;
(a) the establishment of fortified posts (burgs) and garrisons at
certain points; (3) the enforcement of the obligations of thane-
hood on all owners of five hides of land, thus giving the king a
nucleus of highly equipped troops. After the final dispersal of
the Danish invaders Alfred turned his attention to the increase
of the navy, and ships were built according to the king's own
designs, partly to repress, the ravages of the Northumbrian and
East Anglian Danes on the coasts of Wesscx, partly to pre-
vent the landing of fresh hordes. This is not, as often asserted,
the beginning of the English navy. There had been earlier naval
operations under Alfred. One naval engagement was certainly
fought under jEthelwulf (851), and earlier ones, possibly in 833
and 840. Nor were the new ships a great success, as we hear of
them grounding in action and foundering in a storm. Much, too,
was needed in the way of civil re-organization, especially in the
districts ravaged by the Danes. In the parts of Mercia acquired
by Alfred, the shire system seems now to have been introduced
for the first time. This is the one grain of truth in the legend
that Alfred was the inventor of shires, hundreds and ti things.
The finances also would need careful attention; but the subject
is obscure, and we cannot accept Asser's description of Alfred's
appropriation of his revenue as more than an ideal sketch.
Alfred's care for the administration of justice is testified both by
history and legend; and the title " protector of the poor " was
his by unquestioned right Of the action of the witenagemot we
do not hear very much under Alfred. That be was anxious to
respect its rights is conclusively proved, but both the circum-
stances of the time and the character of the king would tend to
throw more power into his hands. The legislation of Alfred
probably belongs to the later part of the reign, after the pressure
of the Danes had relaxed. The details of it cannot be discussed
here. Asser speaks grandiosely of Alfred's relations with foreign
powers, but little definite information is available. He certainly
corresponded with Elias III., the patriarch of Jerusalem, and
probably sent a mission to India. Embassies to Rome conveying
the English alms to the pope were fairly frequent; while Alfred's
interest in foreign countries is shown by the insertions which he
made in his translation of Orosius. His relations to the Celtic
princes in the southern half of the island are clearer. Com-
paratively early in his reign the South Welsh princes, owing to
the pressure on them of North Wales and Mercia, commended
themselves to Alfred. Later in the reign the North Welsh
followed their example, and the latter co-operated with the
English in the campaign of 893 (894). The Celtic principality in
Cornwall, which seems to have survived at least till 926, must
long have been practically dependent on Wessex. That Alfred
sent alms to Irish as well as to continental monasteries may be
accepted on Asser's authority; the visit of the three pilgrim
" Scots " (i.e. Irish) to Alfred in 891 is undoubtedly authentic;
the story that he himself in his childhood was sent to Ireland to
be healed by St Modwenna, though mythical, may point to
Alfred '5 in tcrcst in that island. The history of the church under
Alfred is most obscure. The Danish inroads had told heavily
upon it; the monasteries had been special points of attack, and
though Alfred founded two or three monasteries and imported
foreign monks, there was no general revival of monasticism under
him. To the ruin of learning and education wrought by the
Danes, and the practical extinction of the knowledge of Latin
even among the clergy, the preface to Alfred's translation of
Cregory's Pastoral Care bears eloquent testimony. It was to
remedy these evils that he established a court school, after the
example of Charles the Great; for this he imported scholars like
Grimbald and John the Saxon from the continent and Asser
from South Wales; for this, above all, he put himself to school,
and made the series of translations for the instruction of his
clergy and people, most of which still survive. These belong
unquestionably to the later part of his reign, not improbably to
the last four years of it, during which the chronicles are almost
silent. Apart from the lost Handboc or Encheitidion, which
seems to have been merely a commonplace-book kept by the
king, the earliest work to be translated was the Dialogues of
Gregory, a book enormously popular in the middle ages. In this
case the translation was made by Alfred's great friend Werferth,
bishop of Worcester, the king merely furnishing a preface. The
next work to be undertaken was Gregory's Pastoral Care,
especially for the benefit of the clergy. In this Alfred keeps very
close to his original; but the introduction which he prefixed to
it is one of the most interesting documents of the reign, or indeed
of English history. The next two works taken in hand were
historical, the Universal History of Orosius and Bedc's Ecclesi-
astical History of the English People. The priority should
probably be assigned to the Orosius, but the point has been much
debated. In the Orosius, by omissions and additions. Alfred so
remodels his original as to produce an almost new work; in the
Bode the author's text is closely adhered to, no additions being
made, though most of the documents and some other less inter-
esting matters are omitted. Of late years doubts have been
raised as to Alfred's authorship of the Bede translation. But
the sceptics cannot be regarded as having proved their point.
We come now to what is in many ways the most interesting
of Alfred's works, his translation of Boethius' Consolation of
Philosophy, the most popular philosophical manual of the middle
ages. Here again Alfred deals very freely with his original and
though the late Dr G. Schepss showed that many of the additions
to the text are to be traced not to Alfred himself, but to the
glosses and commentaries which he used, still there is much in the
work which is solely Alfred's and highly characteristic of bis
genius. It is in the Boethius that theof t-quoted sentence occurs:
14 My will was to live worthily as long as I lived, and after my life
to leave to them that should come after, my memory in good
1
J
5»4
ALFRED OF SAXE-COBURG— ALFRED
Works." The book has come down to us in two MSS. only. In
one of these the poems with which the original is interspersed are
rendered into prose, in the other into alliterating verse. The
authorship of the latter has been much disputed; but probably
they also are by Alfred. Of the authenticity of the work as a
whole there has never been any doubt. The last of Alfred's
works is one to which he gave the title Blostman, i.e. "Blooms"
or Anthology. The first half is based mainly on the Soliloquies of
St Augustine, the remainder is drawn from various sources, and
contains much that is Alfred's own and highly characteristic of
him. The last words of it may be quoted; they form a fitting
epitaph for the noblest of English kings. " Therefore he seems
to me a very foolish man, and very wretched, who will not
increase his understanding while he is in the world, and ever wish
and long to reach that endless life where all shall be made clear."
Besides these works of Alfred's, the Saxon Chronicle almost
certainly, and a Saxon Martyrohgy, of which fragments only
exist, probably owe their inspiration to him. A prose version of
the first fifty Psalms has been attributed to him; and the attri-
bution, though not proved, is perfectly possible. How Alfred
passed to " the life where all things are made clear "we do not
know. The very year is uncertain. The arguments on the
whole are in favour of 900. The day was the 36th of October.
Alike for what he did and for what he was, there is none to
equal Alfred in the whole line of English sovereigns; and no
monarch in history ever deserved more truly the epithet of
Great.
Bibliography. — The chief original authorities for the reign of
Alfred arc the so-called Life by Asser (best edition by W. H. Steven-
son, Clarendon Press, 1904);. and the Saxon Chronicle* (text and
notes by Earle and Plummer, 2 vols., Clar. Press. 1893-1899;
parallel texts and translation, Thorpe, 2 vols.. 1861, Rolls Series;
translation alone, Joseph Stevenson in Church Historians of England,
vol. ii.. 1 8m). The above sketch is based mainly on C. (Mummer's
Life and Times of Alfred the Great (Clar. Press, 1902). Of earlier
biographies that by Pauli is still of great value: Konig /Elf red
(Berlin, 1851); Eng. trans, by Thorpe (Bohn, 1853). °* rccent
works mention may be made of Alfred the Great, Chapters on his
Life and Times, by various authors, edited by Alfred Bowker (1899) ;
Earle, The Alfred Jewel (Clar. Press, 1901). V
For the bibliography of Alfred's works In general see Walker,
Gru'ndriss tur Gesch. der angelsdchsischen Litteratur, pp. 386-451
(Leipzig, 1885). Only the more recent and accessible editions are
mentioned here. Laws : The Legal Code of Alfred the Great (M. H.
Turk, Halle, 1803). (For the Anglo-Saxon laws as a whole see Lieber-
mann, Gesetze der A ngelsachsen, Halle, 1 898-1903. Earlieredittons,
Schmid, 1858; Thorpe, 1840.) Gregorys Dialogues: Hans Hccht,
in Greta's BMiotheh der angels. Prosa (1900). Gregorys Pastoral Care :
H. Sweet, for Early Eng.Text Society (1871-1872). (Dissertations by
Wack and DeWitz,i889.) Orosius: Thorpe (in his translation of Fault,
U. S. , ^)j,. B ^ 8 ^b_(ij5^Sweet,JE.fcT^ t (i883) i ^ (Dissert*
TMiller,
(U.S. 189,. ... ., . __„,
lation by the same (1900). (Dissertation: G. Schepss, Arckiv
fur's Sludium der neueren Sprachen, xdv. 14-160.) Blostman:
First printed by Cockayne in the Shrine (1868-1869): reprinted,
Enghsche Studien. xviiL; new edition by Hargrove, Yale Studies
in English, xiii. J1902): translation by the same, ib. xxii. (1904).
(Dissertation: F. G. Hubbard, Modem Language Notes, ix. 322 0.)
Anglo-Saxon Chronicle: see above. Martyrohgy: Cockayne, in
the Shrtne, v.s. Psalter: Thorpe (Clar. Press, 1835). (Disserta-
tions: for Alfred t authorship, Wichmann, Anglia, xi. 19 ft*. ; against,
J. D. Bruce. The Anglo-Saxon Version of the Booh of Psalms. Balti-
more, 1894.) (C. Pl.)
ALFRED ERNEST ALBERT, duke of Saxe-Coburg and
Gotha, and duke of Edinburgh (1844-1900), second son
and fourth child of Queen Victoria, was born at Windsor Castle
on the 6th of August 1844. In 1856 it was decided that the
prince, in accordance with his own wishes, should enter the
navy, and a separate establishment was accordingly assigned
to him, with Lieutenant Sowell, R. E., as governor. He passed
a most creditable examination for midshipman in August 1858,
and being appointed to the " Euryalus," at once began to work
hard at the practical part of his profession. In July i860,
while on this ship, he paid an official visit to the Cape, and made
a very favourable impression both on the colonials and on the
native chiefs. On the abdication of Otto, king of Greece, in
1862, Prince Alfred was chosen by the whole people to succeed
him, but political conventions of long standing l en dei o d fe
impossible for the British government to accede to their wisho.
The prince therefore remained in the navy, and was promcccd
lieutenant on the 24th of February 2863 and captain on the
23rd of February 1866, being then appointed to the comnasd
of the " Galatea." On attaining his majority in 1865 the pes*
was created duke of Edinburgh and earl of Ulster, with as
annuity of £15,000 granted by parliament While still m ces-
mand of the " Galatea " the duke started from Plymouth on the
24th of January 1867 for his voyage round the world. On the
nth of June 1867 be left Gibraltar and reached the Cape on tie
24th of July, and landed at Gknelg, South Australia, on the 31st
of October. Being the first English prince to visit Anstnla,
the duke was received with the greatest enthusiasm. Dung
his stay of nearly five months be visited Adelaide, Mettwcrar,
Sydney, Brisbane and Tasmania; and it was on his secosd
visit to Sydney that, while attending a public picnic at Cbciert
in aid of the Sailors' Home, an Irishman named OTarrefl shot
him in the back with a revolver. The wound was fortunately
not dangerous, and within a month the duke was able to reseat
command of his ship and return home. He reached Spithead
on the 26th of June 1868, after an absence of seventeen months.
The duke's next voyage was to India, where he arrived s
December 1869. Both there and at Hong Kong, which he visited
on the way, he was the first British prince to set foot m the
country. The native rulers of India vied with one another is
the magnificence of their entertainments during the duke's stay
of three months. On the 23rd of January 1874 the marriage
of the duke to the grand-duchess Marie Alexandrovna, only
daughter of Alexander IX, emperor of Russia, was cekbntcd
at St Petersburg, and the bride and bridegroom made their
public entry into London on the 12th of March. The duke stiB
devoted himself to his profession, showing complete mastery d
his duties and unusual skill in naval tactics. He was promoted
rear-admiral on the 30th of December 1878; vice-admiral, ictk
of November 1882; admiral, z8th of October 1887; and received
his baton as admiral of the Fleet, 3rd of June 1893. He com-
manded the Channel fleet, 1883-1884; the Mediterranean fleet,
1886-2889; and was commander-in-chief at Davenport, iSco-
1893. He always paid the greatest attention to his oxhcial
duties and was most efficient as an admiral.
On the death of his uncle, Ernest II., duke of Saxe-Cobcrg
and Gotha, on the 22nd of August 1893, the vacant duchy Is!
to the duke of Edinburgh, for the prince of Wales had renounced
his right to the succession. At first regarded with some coldness
as a " foreigner," he gradually gained popularity, and by ti*
time of his death, on the 30th of July jooo, he had amiplete>
won the good opinion of his subjects. The duke was exceedingly
fond of music and an excellent violinist, and took a promotes:
part in establishing the Royal College of Music He was abos
keen collector of glass and ceramic ware, and his coflectiaa,
valued at half a million of marks, was presented by his wide*
to the " Veste Coburg," near Coburg. When he became dab
of Saxe-Coburg he surrendered his English allowance of £15.003
a year, but the £10,000 granted in addition by parliament cc
his marriage he retained in order to keep up Clarence House
The duke had one son, who died unmarried on the 6th d
February 1899, and four daughters. The third daughter, Princess
Alexandra Louisa Olga Victoria, married the hereditary price*
Emest of Hohenlohe-Langenburg, who became regent of tre
duchy of Coburg during the minority of the deceased duke's
nephew, the young duke of Albany, to whom the mccessks
fell. (C. F. B)
ALFRED, a village in the township of Alfred, Allegany county,
New York, U.S.A., about 75 m. S.W. of Buffalo. Pop. of tfce
township, including the village (1900), 16x5; (1910 U. S.
census) 1 500. Pop. of the village (1000) 756; (1910 U. S. census)
759. The township is served, at Alfred station, by tkt
Erie railway. The village, which is connected by stage vitfe
the station, is situated at the junction of two valleys and coo-
mands delightful views of mountain scenery. On the west slope
of Pine Hill is Alfred University (co-educational), which embraces
ALFRETON— ALGAE
58s
a. college (non-sectarian), an academy (non-sectarian) and a
theological seminary (Seventh-Day Baptist). Closely associated
with it also, and under the management of the university
trustees, is the New York State School of day-Working and
Ceramics (1000), one of the most efficient schools of the kind
in the country. In 1008 the legislature of New York appropri-
ated $80,000 for the establishment of a state school of agricul-
ture in connexion with the university. The institution had its
beginning in 1836 in a private school This developed into an
academy, which in 1843 was incorporated as Alfred Academy
and Teachers' Seminary; in 1857 the university was chartered
under its present name. The principal industry of the village
is the manufacture of roofing tiles. The township of Alfred lies
within the territory purchased by Robert Morris in 1 791. He sold
it in the same year to a company resident in London, England.
Their agent sold most of it to settlers and, it is said, named the
township, when it was organized in 1806, in honour of Alfred
the Great. The first settlement within its present limits was
made in 1807. For several years most of the settlers were
SeVenth-Day Baptists, and in 181 2 they organized a church
here. The village of Alfred was chartered in 1887.
J. S. Minard, Allegany County and its People (Alfred. 1896).
ALFRETON, a market town in the mid-parliamentary division
of Derbyshire, England, 14 m N. by E. of Derby, on the Midland
railway. Pop. of urban district (1001) 17,505. It lies at a con-
siderable elevation above the valley of a small stream tributary
to the DerwenL The church of St Martin is Early English and
later. The neighbourhood abounds in ironworks, collieries,
quarries and potteries, and is thickly populated. To the north-
east of Alfreton are South Normanton (pop. 5170), Blackwell
(4144) and Tibshelf (3432); to the north Shirland (3929), to
the south Ironville and other busy industrial villages. The
foundation of Alfreton is traditionally ascribed to Ring Alfred.
ALFUROS (Alfuxes, Horafokas), a term of no ethnological
value applied by the Malays to all the uncivilized non-Mahom-
medan peoples in the eastern portion of the Malay Archipelago.
Its origin is uncertain, but its meaning Is " wild" or " un-
civilized." The term is not restricted to the aborigines, but is
far more frequently used to describe the tribes of Malayan
blood.
ALGAS. The Latin word alga seems to have been the
equivalent of the English word " seaweed " and probably stood
_ ,__ for any or all of the species of plants which form the
2S«T " WI * ck " of * seashore. When the word " Algae "
came to be employed in botanical classification as
the name of a class, an arbitrary limitation had to be set to
its signification, and this was not always in keeping with its
original meaning. The absence of differentiation into root,
stem and leaf which prevails among seaweeds, seems, for
example, to have led Linnaeus to employ the term in the
Genera Plantarum for a sub-class of Cryptogamia, the members
of which presented this character in a greater or less degree.
Of the fifteen genera included by Linnaeus among algae, not
more than six— viz. Chora, Pucus, Ulvd and Conferva, and in
part TremeUa and Byssus — would to-day, in any sense in which
the term is employed, be regarded as algae. The excluded
genera are distributed among the liverworts, lichens and fungi;
but notwithstanding the great advance in knowledge since the
time of Linnaeus, the difficulty of deciding what limits to
assign to the group to be designated Algae still remains. It
arises from the fact that algae, as generally understood, do not
constitute a homogeneous group, suggesting a descent from
a common stock. Among them there exist, as will be seen
hereafter, many well-marked but isolated natural groups, and
their inclusion in the larger group is generally felt to be a
matter of convenience rather than the expression of a belief in
their close inter-relationship. Efforts are therefore continually
being made by successive writers to exclude certain outlying
sub-groups, and to reserve the term Algae for a central group
reconstituted on a more natural basis within narrower limits.
It is perhaps desirable, in an article like this, to treat of algae
in the widest possible senso in which the term may be used, an
indication being at the same time given of the narrower senses
in which it has been proposed to employ it. Interpreted in this
way, the place of algae in the vegetable kingdom may be shown
by means of a table: —
The Vegetable
Kingdom
Cryptogamia
Phanerogamia i Gymnosperms
\ Angiospcrms
Thallophyta
Bryophyta
Pteridophyta
Myxomycetes
Fungi
Algae
Algae in this wide sense may be briefly described as the aggregate
of those simpler forms of plant life usually devoid, like the rest
of the Thallophyta, of differentiation into root, stem and leaf;
but, unlike other Thallophyta, possessed of a colouring matter;
by means of which they are enabled, in the presence of sunlight,
to make use of the carbonic acid gas of the atmosphere as a source
of carbon. It is true that certain Bryophyta (Marchantiaceae,
Anthoceroteae) possess a thalloid structure similar to that of
Thallophyta, and are at the same time possessed of the colour-
ing matter of the Green Algae. Their life-cycle, however, the
structure of the reproductive organs and their whole organiza-
tion proclaim them to be Bryophyta (q.v.). On the other hand,
certain undoubted animals (Stentor, Hydra, BoneUia) are pro-
vided with a green colouring matter by means of which they
make use of atmospheric carbonic add. A more important
consideration is the occasional absence of this colour in species,
or groups of species, with, in other respects, algal affinities.
Such aberrant forms are to be regarded in the same light as
Cuscuta and Orobanchaceae, for example, among Phanerogams.
As these non-green plants do not cease to be classed with other
Phanerogams, so must the forms in question be retained among
algae. In all cases the loss of the colouring matter is associated
with an incapacity to take up carbon from so simple a compound
as carbonic acid.
It might be mentioned here that the whole group of the Fungi
(q.v.), with its many thousands of species, is now generally regarded
as having been derived from algae, and the system of classifica-
tion of fungi devised by Brefcld is based upon this belief. The
similarity of the morphological characters of one group of fungi
to those of certain algae has earned for it the name Phycomycetes
or alga-fungi.
Further discussion of the general characters of algae will be
deferred in order to take a brief survey of the subdivisions of the
group. For this purpose there will be adopted the classification
of algae into four sub-groups, founded on the nature of the
colouring matters present in the plant: —
I. Cyanofhyceae, or Blue-green Algae.
II. Chlorofhyceae, or Green Algae.
III. Phaeophyceae, or Brown Algae.
IV. Riiooophyceae, or Red Algae.
The merits and demerits of this system will appear during the
description of the characters of the members of the several
subdivisions.
I. Cyanofhyceae.— This group derives its name from the cir-
cumstance that the cells contain in addition to the green colouring
matter, chlorophyll, a blue-greencolouringmatterto which „,_»
the term phycocyanin hat been applied. To the eye, Try,
however, members of this group present a greater variety mra * oa9 '
of colour than those of any other— yellow, brown, olive, red, purple,
violet and variations of all these being known. They undoubtedly
represent the lowest grade of algal life, and their distribution rivals
that of the Green Algae. They occur in the sea, in freah water, on
moist earth, on damp rocks and on the bark of trees. Certain species
are regularly found in the intercellular spaces of higher plants; such
are species of Nostoc in the thallus of A nthoceros x the leaves of A tolla
and the roots of Cycads. Many of them enter into the structure of
the Uchen-thallus, as the so-called gonidia. It is remarkable that
species belonging to the Oscillatoriaceae are known to flourish in hot
springs, the temperature of which rises as high as 8s*C.
The thallus may be unicellular or m ulticellular. When unicellular,
it may consist of isolated cells, but more commonly the cells are held
together in a common jelly (Chroococcaceac) derived from the outer
layers of the cell-wall. The multicellular species consist of filaments,
branched or unbranched, which arise by the repeated divisions of the
cells in parallel planes, no formation of mucilage occurring in the
dividing walls. Such filaments may not give rise to mucilage 00 the
586
ALGAE
lateral surface either, in which cue they are said to be free; when
mucilage does occur on the lateral wall, it appears as the sheath
surrounding either the single filament, or a sheaf of filaments of
common origin. The mucilage may also form an embedding sub-
stance similar to that of Chroococcaceae, in which the filaments lie
parallel or radiate from a common centre (Rivulariaceae). The cells
of the filament may be all alike, and growth may occur equally in
all parts (Oscillatonaceae) ;or certain cells (heterocysts) may become
marked off by their larger size and the transparency of their contents;
in which case growth may still be distributed equally throughout
(Nostoc), or the filament may be attached where the heterocyst
arises, and grow out at the opposite extremity into a fine hair
(Rivulariaceae). An African form (Comptotkrix), devoid of hetero-
cysts and hair-like at both extremities, has recently been described.
Branching has been described as " false " and " true." The former
arises when a filament in a sheath, either in consequence of growth
in length beyond the capacity of the sheath to accommodate it.
Fig. i.— Cyanophyceae, variously magnified.
.A. Gheocapsa sp., colony in muci-
lage.
B. Phormidium sp., single fila-
ment with hormogonium.
C. liter occleus %p„ several fila-
ments in common sheath.
D. Nostoc sp., young colony-fila-
ment with heterocysts.
E. Scylonemasp., false branching.
F. Ritndaria sp.
G. Stigonema sp., with hormo-
gonium and true branching.
H . Spirulina sp.
CPtro Easier sad Pnad. P/Umvnjtmiim, by permJauaa of Wuhcfca En*bn«nn.)
or because of the decay of a cell, becomes interrupted by break-
ing, and the free ends slip past one another. " True " branching
arises only by the longitudinal division of a- cell of a filament and
the lateral outgrowth of one of the cells resulting from the division
<Sirosiphonaceae).
The nature of the contents of the cells of Cyanophyceae has given
tise to considerable controversy. The cells arc lor the most part
exceedingly minute, and are not easy to free from their colouring
matters, so that investigation has been attended with great difficulty.
Occupying as these algae do perhaps the lowest grade of plant life,
it is a matter of interest to ascertain whether a nucleus or chromato-
phore is differentiated in their .cells, or whether the functions and
properties of these bodies are diffused through the whole protoplast.
It is certain that the centre of the cell, which is usually non-vacuo-
lated, b occupied by protoplasm of different properties from the
peripheral region; and A. Fischer has further established the fact
that the peripheral mass, which is a hollow sphere in spherical cells,
and either a hollow cylinder or barrel-shaped body in filamentous
forms, must be regarded as the single chromatophore of the Cyano-
phyceous cell. But what precisely is the nature of the central mass
is still uncertain. Some investigators, such as R. Heeler, F. G. Kohl
and E. W. Olive, claim that this body is a true nucleus comparable '
with that of the higher plants. It is said to undergo division by t
mitosis essentially of the same character, with the formatioa 4 1
spindle and the differentiation of chromo som e*. It is farther itaai
by Olive that the chromosomes undergo longitudinal fission, and the
for the same species the same number erf chromosome* spots: c
each division. H. Wager speaks with greater reserve, acknoviroc
ing. however, the central body to be a nucleus of a rudimes^rr
type, but devoid of nuclear membrane and nucleolus. He tfceb
it may possibly originate in the vacuolization of the central rrpn,
and the accumulation of chromatin granules therein. He foes »
spindle fibres or true chromosomes, and considers the division <5rsi
not indirect. With reference to the existence of a cbronutopfcxe.
he with others finds the colouring matter localized in granules a t*
peripheral region, but does not consider these individually or a 'J*
aggregate as chromatophores. Among other contents of the crl
fatty substances and tannin are known. A curious adaptation cess
to occur in certain floating forms, in the presence of a gas-vanee.
which may be made to vary its volume with varying pressure. Tkrt
is evidence that the dividing wall of filamentous forms is detpijr
pitted, as is found to be the case in red algae. Reprodsctka »
chiefly effected by the vegetative method. Asexual reprodoatt
cells are not infrequent, but sexual reproduction even in its iseuJ
stages is unknown. Nor is motility by means of ciKa known is tk
group. In the unicellular forms, cell-division involves mulcipJkatHi
of the plant. In all the multicellular plants of this group wkkn *»*
been adequately investigated, vegetative multiplication by mna
of what are known as horraogonia has been found to occur. Tk*
are short segments of filaments consisting of a few cells which do-
engage themselves from the ambient jelly, if it be present, « rat*
of a peculiar creeping movement which they possess at this sta#t
After a time they come to rest and give rise to new colonies. True
reproduction of the asexual kind occurs, however, in the forautios
of sporangia, particularly in the Chamaesiphonaceae. Here the
contents of certain cells break up endogenously into a great vmha
of spores, which arc distributed as a fine dust. 'Resting spores zrt
also known. In these cases, certain cells of a colony of uokt&cl*
plants or of the filaments of multicellular plants enlarge greatly a*/
thicken their wall. When unfavourable external conditions super-
vene and the ordinary cells become atrophied, these ecus pern*
and reproduce the plant with the return of more favourable con-
ditions. The Oscillatoriaceae are capable of a peculiar osolbrflrr
movement, which has earned for them their name, and which ennbb
them to move through considerable distances. It b not dear k*
the movement is effected, though it has frequently been the mhjeci
of careful investigation.
With the Cyanophyceae must be included, as their nearest iSa»
the Bacteriaceae (see Bacteriology). Notwithstanding the *>
sence of chlorophyll, and the consequent parasitic or tapmpk)*c
habit, Bacteriaceae agree in so many morphological features niA
Cyanophyceae that the affinity can hardly be doubted.
> A census of the Cyanophyceae with their two main grasps *
given below: —
i. Coccogoneae— a families, 29 genera, 253 species.
2. Hormogoncae— 6 families, 59 genera, 701 specks.
(Engler and Prantl's PflanunfomVi**, 1900.)
II. Chloroph ycbae.— This group includes those algae in w
the green colouring matter, chlorophyll, is not accompanied by *
second colouring matter, as it is m other groups. It consists a |
three subdivisions— Conjugatae, Euchlorophyceae and Chancer
Of these the first and last are relatively small and sharply deferd
families, distinguished from the second family, which fonts t*
bulk of the group, by characters so diverse that their indunkn **J
them in one larger group can only be justified on the ground a
convenience. Chlorophyceae include both marine and fresh***'
plants.
Euchlorophyceae in their turn have been until recently recirfH
as made up of the three series of families— Protococcales, Cooicrnk
and Siphonalcs. As the result of recent investigations by t*°
Swedish algologists, Bohlin and Luther, it has been proposed «
make a re-classification of a far-reaching nature. Algae are **t
drawn from each of the three series enumerated above and o»
solidated into an entirely new group. In these algae, the cofon*
matter is said to be yellowish-green, not strictly green, and ob-
tained in numerous small discoid chromatophores which are de«»
of pyre no ids. The products of assimilation are stored up is tk
form of a fatty substance and not starch. A certain inequabr/ »
the character of the two cilia of the zoospores of some of the mantn
of the group has earned for it the title Hcterokontae, from the Ok*
terror, a punting-pole. In consonance with this name, its nstfcn
propose to re-name the Conjugatae ; Akontaeand Oedogoniacesevi"
a chaplet of cilia become Stephanokontae, and the algae remain*
over in the three scries from which the Hcterokontae and Stepsa**'
kontae are withdrawn become Isokontae. Conjugatae, Protococtab
and Characcae are exclusively freshwater; Conferva tcs and Siphoc"
ales are both freshwater and marine, but the latter group tfta*t
its greatest development in the sea. Some Chlorophyceae are tent*
trial in habit, usually growing on a damp substratum, hove**
Trenupohlia grows on rocks and can survive considerable dearo*
U? n „ PtynPdH* Jirows on the surface of leaves. Pkyiiobhm t^
PhyUosxphon in their tissues. Gomonti* is a sheR-borinc ife*.
ALGAE
Fic. 2. — Chlorophyceae, variously magnified.
A. Cklamydomonas sp., unicellular ;cAr.,chromatophore ; p., pyrenoid ; H. Oedo%onium sp., intercalated growth by insertion of new picce(o)
n., nucleus; p.v., pulsating vacuoles; e.s., eyespot.
Bi. Volvox sp., witn a, antheridia, and o, oogonia.
Bi. Volvox sp., surface view of a single cell snowing connexions.
C. Pandorma sp., a 16-celled colony.
D. Hydrodiclyon, a single mesh surrounded by 6 cells.
E. Mtcrospora sp., showing H-pieces in the wall.
F. Entoderma sp., endophytic in Eetocarpus.
G. Coteochaete sp., growing as a plate.
leaving caps.
K. Struvea sp., showing branches forming a net-work.
L. Caulerpa sp., showing portion of axis with leaf-like and root-
like appendages.
Mi. Chara sp., axis with leaf-like appendages and a branch.
Mt. Chara sp., apical region.
N. Botrydi urn, a simple siphonaceous alga with root-like attachment.
O. Acetabular ia Mediterranea, mushroom-like calcareous siphona-
ceous alga.
(A. C E. F. O. H. K. L, M u M, from Eajder and Fraud. fUmwtmlamUkm.by permission of Wilhelm Engelmum; B,. N from Vine*. Stnindt Text BmI #/ BeUmy. by
' ' n of Swan Sonnnuchein and Co. ; B* D. O (ram Oltmanns. UerpKeiet** *. Bhi*gk 4tr Algem, by ptrmiuion of Guttav Fischer.)
nucleus, each cell is found to contain many small nuclei, and is
spoken of as a coenocyte. This character becomes still more pro-
nounced in the large group of the Siphonales. Valoniaceae and
Dasycladaceae are partially septate, but elsewhere no cellulose parti-
tions occur, and the thallus is more or less the continuous tube from
which the group is named. Yet the siphonaceous algae may assume
great variety of form and reach a high degree ot differentiation.
Protosipkon and Botrydium, on the one hand, are minute vesicles
attached to muddy surfaces by rhizoids; Caulerpa, on the other,
presents a remarkable instance of the way in which much the same
external morphology as that of cormophytes has been reached by a
totally different internal structure. Many Siphonales are encrusted
with lime like Coralline among Red Algae. Penicillus is brush-like,
Halimeda and Cynwpolia are jointed, A cctabvlaria has much the same
external form as an expanded Coprinus, Neomeris simulates the
fertile shoot of Equisetum with its densely packed whorled branches,
and in Microdiciyon, Anadyomene, Struvea and Boodlea the branches,
spreading in one plane, become bound together in a more or less close
network. Characeae are separated from other Chlorophyceae by
a long interval, and present the highest degree of differentiation of
Dermatophyte* grows on the carapace of the tortoise and Trichophtiu*
in the hairs of the sloth. Certain Protococcales and Confervales exist
as the gonidia of the lichenthaltus.
The thallus is of more varied structure in this group than in any
other. In the simplest case it may consist of a single cell, which may
remain free during the whole of the greater part of its existence,
or be loosely aggregated together within a common mucilage, or be
held together by the adhesion or the cell-walls at the surface of
contact. These aggregations or colonies, as they are termed, may
assume the form ofa plate, a ring, a solid sphere, a hollow sphere,
a perforate sphere, a closed net, or a simple or branched filament.
It is not easy in all cases to draw a distinction between a colony
of plants and a multicellular individual. In a Volvox sphere, for
example, there is a marked protoplasmic continuity between all the
cells of the colony. The Ulvaceae, the thallus of which consists of
laminae, one or more cells thick, or hollow tubes, probably represent
a still more advanced stage in the passage of a colony into a multi-
cellular plant. Hera there is some amount of localization of growth
and distinction of parts. It is only in such cases as Volvox and
Ulvaceae that there is any pretension to the formation of a true
parenchyma within the limits of the Chlorophyceae. In the whole
series of the Confervales, the thallus consists of filaments branched
or unbranched, attached at one extremity, and growine almost
wholly at the free end. The branches end in fine hairs in Chaeto-
phoraceae. In Coleochaetaceae the branches are often welded into
a plate, simulating a parenchvma. In all Conjugatae and most
Protococcales, and in the bulk of the Confervales, the thallus consists
of a cell or cells, the protoplast of which contains a single nucleus.
In Hydrodictyaceae, Cladophoraceae, Sphaeropleaceacand Gomonti-
aceae this is no longer the case. Instead of a single relatively large
partslcnown among Green Algae. Attached to the bottom of pools
by means of rhizoids, the thallus of Characeae grows upwards by
means of an apical cell, giving off whorled appendages at regular
intervals. The appendages have a limited growth; but in con-
nexion with each whorl there arise, singly or in pairs, branches which
have the same unlimited growth as the main axis. There is thus a
close approach to the external morphology of the higher plants.
The streaming of the protoplasm, known elsewhere among Chloro-
phyceae, is a conspicuous feature of the cells of Characeae.
The Chlorophyceae excel all other groups of algae in the magnitude
588
ALGAE
and variety of form of the chlorophyll-bodies. In Uha and Meso-
carpus the chromatophore is a single plate, which in the Utter
genus places its edge towards the incident light ; in Spirogyra they
arc spiral bands embedded in the primordial utricle; in Zygnema
they are a pair of stellate masses, the rays of which branch peri-
phcrally; in Oedogonium they are longitudinally-disposed anasto-
mosing bands; in Desraids plates with irregular margins; in Clado-
pkora polyhedral plates; in Vaucheria minute elliptical bodies
occurring in immense numbers. Embedded in the chromatophore,
much in the same way as the nucleus is embedded in the cytoplasm,
arc the pyrenoids. Unknown in Cyanophyceae and Phoeophyceae,
known only in Bangiaceae and Nemalion among Rhodophyceae,
they are of frequent occurrence among Chlorophyceae, excepting
Characcae. Sometimes several pyrenoids occur in each chloroplast.
as in Mesocarpus and Spirogyra; sometimes only an occasional
chloroplast contains pyrenoid at all, as in Cladophora. The pyrenoid
seems to be of proteid nature and gelatinous consistency, and to arise
as a new formation or by division of pre-existing pyrenoids. When
carbon-assimilation is active, starch-granules crowd: upon the surface
of the pyrenoid and completely obscure it from view.
Special provision for vegetative multiplication is not common
among Chlorophyceae. VaUmia and Caulerpa among Siphonales
detach portions of their thallus, which are capable of independent
growth. In Caulerpa no other means of multiplication is as yet known.
In Characeae no fewer than four methods of vegetative reproduction
have been described, and the facility with which buds and branches
are in these cases detached has been adduced as an evidence of
affinity with Bryophyta, which, as a class, are distinguished by their
ready resort to vegetative reproduction.
With regard to true reproduction, which is characterized by the
formation of special cells, the group Euchlorophyceae is characterized
by the production of zoospores (Gr. fOer, animal, onpa, seed);
that is to say, cells capable of motility tnrough the agency of cilia.
Such ciliary motion is known in the adult condition of the cells of
Volvocaceae, but where this is not the case the reproductive cells are
endowed with motility for a brief period. The zoospore is usually a
pyriform mass of naked protoplasm, the beaked end of which where
the cilia arise is devoid of colouring matter. A reddish-brown body,
known as the eyespot, is usually situated near the limits of the
hyaline portion, ana in the protoplasm contractile vacuoles similar
to those of lower animals have been occasionally detected. The
movement of the zoospore is effected by the lashing of the cilia and
is in the direction of the beak, while the zoospore slowly rotates on
its long axis at the same time. Usually two cilia are present; in
Botrydium and HydrodUlyon only one is present ; in certain species
of Cladophora four; in JDasycladus a chaplet, and in Oedogonium
a ring of many cilia. The so-called zoospore of Vauekerta is a
coenocyte covered over with paired cilia corresponding in position to
nuclei lying below. In all other cases, zoospores are uninucleate
bodies. Zoospores arise in cells of ordinary size and form termed
zoosporangia. In unicellular forms (Sphaerella) the thaHus becomes
transformed into a zoosporangium at the reproductive stage. In the
zoosporangia of Oedogonium* Tetraspora and ColeochaeU the con-
tents become transformed into a single zoospore. In most cases
repeated division seems to take place, and the final number is re-
presented by some power of two. In cocnocytic forms the zoospores
would seem to arise simultaneously, probably because many nuclei
are already present. The escape oi zoospores is effected by the
degeneration of the sporangial wall (Chaetophora), or by a pore
(Cladophora), a slit (Pediastrum), or a circular fracture {Oedogonium).
Zoospores are of two kinds: (i) Those which come to rest and ger-
minate to form a new plant ; these are asexual and are zoospores
ftroper. (a) Those which are unable to germinate of themselves, but
use with another cell, the product giving rise to a new individual ;
these are sexual and are zoogametes (Gr. f<£o», animal, and yauknn,
•yofifrft. husband, wife). When two similar zoogametes fuse, the
process is conjugation, and the product a zygospore (Gr. JvyA*,
yoke). Usually, however, only one of the fusing cells is a zoogamete,
the other gamete being a much larger resting cell. In such a case
the zoogamete is male, is called an antherozoid or spermatozoid,
and arises in an antheridium ; the larger gamete is an oosphere and
arises in an oogonium. The fusion is now known as fertilization,
and the product is an oospore. Reproduction by conjugation is
also known as isogamy, by fertilization as oogamy. When zoospores
come to rest, a new cell is formed and germination ensues at once.
When zygospores and oospores are produced a new cell-wall is also
formed, but a long period of rest ensues. All investigation goes to
show that an essential part of sexual union is the fusion of the two
nuclei concerned. It is interesting to know, on the authority of
Oltmanns, that when the oosphere is forming in the oogonium of
Vaucheria, there is a retrocession of all the included nuclei but one.
That the antherozoid of Vaucheria contains a single nucleus had
been inferred before.
From a comparison of those Euchlorophyceae which have been
most closely investigated, it appears probable that sexual repro-
ductive cells have in the course of evolution arisen as the result of
specialization among asexual reproductive cells, and that in turn
oogamous reproduction has arisen as the result of differentiation
of the two conjugating cells into the smaller male gamete and
the larger male gamete. It would further appear that oogamous
reproduction has arisen independently In each of the three sane
groups of Euchlorophyceae, viz. Protococcales, SspbooaJes aad
Confervales. Thus among Volvocaceae, a family of Procococcsks
while in some of the genera (ChlorasUr, Sfhondylo m cT um ) no sexiai
union has as yet been observed, in others (Pandorima, ClttWvgmsm,
Suphanosphaera, Sphaerella) conjugation of similar gasnetes taka
place, in others still (Phacotus. Eudorina, Vohox) the union is of tie
nature of fertilization. No other family of Protococcales hasadS aaces
beyond the stage of isogamous reproduction. Again, among Sipfcae-
ales only one family (Vaucheriaceae)has reached the stage of oogazay.
although an incipient heterogamy is said to occur la two otter
families (Codiaccae. Bryopeidaceac). Elsewhere among Sipbonak*
in those cases where reproductive cells are known, the r eprod ucTbe
is either isogamous or asexual. Among Confervales there is ao fa&2y
in which sexual reproduction— isog* my or oogamy — is not knows
to occur among some of the component species, and as many as fear
families (Cylindrocapsaceae. Sphacropleaceae.Oedcgoniaceae. Coke*
chactaceac) are oogamous. On these, as well as other grounds.
Confervales are regarded as having attained to the highest rask
among Euchlorophyceae. Although the phenomena attends*
isogamous and oogamous reproduction respectively are essential?
the same in all cases, slight variations in both instances appear m
different families, attributable doubtless to the indepeodew
of the process in different groups. Thus, although isogamy <
in typical cases of a union of naked motile gametes by a fossoa
begins at the beaked ends, and results in the formation of an inv
motile spherical zygote surrounded by a cell-wall, in L r pi rn s i r* k a
noticeable that the fusion begins at the blunt end: in a species of
Chlamydomonas the two gametes are each included in a ceO-waJ
before fusion; and in many cases the zygote retains for some tine
its motility with the double number of cilia. Again, in oogaroot
reproduction, while in general only one oosphere is differentiated
in the oogonium, in Sphaeroplea several oosphere* arise in each
oogonium; and while the oosphercs usually contract away fn*a
the oogonial wall, acquiring lor themselves a new cell-van «fua
fertilization, in ColeochaeU the oosphere remains throughout ts
contact with the oogonial wall. The oosphere is in all cases fertaized
while still within the oogonium, the anthcrozoids being admitted
by means of a pore. There is usually distinguishable apoa the
surface of the oosphere an area free from chlorophyll, known as the
receptive spot, at which the fusion with the antherozoid takes place;
and in many cases, before fertilization, a small mucilaginous buss
has been observed to separate itself off from the oosphere at this
point and to escape through the pore. In CoUockaete the oo g o o aJ
wall is drawn out into a considerable tube, which is provided »i*a
an apical pore, and this tube has a somewhat similar appearance to
the imperforate trichogyne of Florideae to be hereafter da " '
In certain species of Oedogonium minute male plantlcts, kn
dwarf males, become attached to the female plant in the nest
hood of the oogonia, thus facilitating fertilization. Indeed the |
Oedogonium exhibits a high degree of specialization in its re c wro duc -
tive system, considering that its thallus has not advanced beyond
the stage of an unbranched filament.
Many Euchlorophyceae are endowed with both asexual and ansa!
reproduction. Such are CoUockaete, Oedogonium, CyUudramfac.
Ulothrix, Vaucheria, Vohox, ftc. In others only the asexual method
is yet known. When a species resorts to both methods, it is gener-
ally found that the asexual method prevails in the early part of the
vegetative period and the sexual towards the dose of that period
This is in consonance with the facts already mentioned that zoo-
spores germinate forthwith, and that the sexually-produced cefi or
zygote enters upon a period of rest. It is known that zoogamete*.
which usually conjugate, may, when conjugation fails, germinate
directly (Sphaerella). In rare cases the oosphere has been knows
to germinate without fertilization (Oedogonium, Cyiindrwaxpsa).
The germination of a zygospore or oospore is effected by the rupture
of an outer cuticularizcd exosporium; then the cell may p ro t rude
an inner wall, the endosporium, and grow out into the new pbat
(Vaucheria), or the contents may break up into a first brood of
zoospores. It is held that in ColeochaeU a parenchyma results from
the division of the oospore, from each cell 01 which a zoospore arises.
Reproduction is also effected among Euchlorophyceae by mesas
of aplanospores and akinetes. Aplanosporcs would seen to repre-
sent zoospores arrested in their development; without reaching
the stage of motility, they germinate within the sporangium.
Akinetes are ordinary thallus cells, which on account of their
acquisition of a thick wall are capable of surviving unfavourable
conditions. Both aplanospores and akinetes may germinate with
or without the formation of zoospores at the initial stage.
Among Coniugatae reproduction is effected solely by means of
conjugation of what are literally aplanospores. Among those
Desmidiaceae which live a free life, two plants become surrounded
by a common mucilage, in which they lie either parallel (GosUritm)
or crosswise (Cosmarium). Gaps then appear in the apposed sur-
faces, usually at the isthmus; the entire protoplasts either pass out
to melt into one another clear of the old walls, or partly pass out
and fuse without complete detachment from the old walls. Among
colonial Desmidiaceae, the break-up of the filament b a preliminary
to this conjugation: otherwise the process is the same. The
zygospore becomes surrounded with its own wall, consisting finally
ALGAE
589
of <-%ree layers, the outer of which b furnished with sptcutar pro-
cnin«ncet of various forms. In Zygnemaceae there is no dissolution
of the filaments, but the whole contents of one cell pass over by
means of a coniugat ion-tube into the cavity of a cell of a neighbour-
ixijg filament, where the zygospore is formed by the fusion of the two
FlG. 3.— Chlorophyceae, variously magnified.
, in conjugation.
A. Spirogyrasf., w ,
B. Zoospore of Pamdorina. fit a
stages of conjugation.
C Ulotkrixsp., zoospores escap-
ing. Ct a, stages of con-
j ligation.
D> Oedogomhtm sp., oogonium
at moment of fertilization
with dwarf male attached.
Di. Oedogonium $p. f zoospore
with crown of cilia.
E|. CoUockatU sp., with anthe*
ridia and an oogonium.
Ei. CoUockatU sp. t fertilized egg
with investment of filaments.
(A from Cooke JMfe* PrtsbveUr Alga*, by permbdonof ategaa Paol.Trew*. Trflbner
and Co.: C. E, F.G. H. K Irom Engkr and Praotl. by pcrmitrion of WBhelm Enfrf-
mana; B, troan Vine*, by pcrtntaion of Swan Sonaenachdn and Co.; B* D from
OttmawM. by pwihrif of Gnauv Fiatncr.)
protoplasts. In these cases the activity of one of the gametes, and
the passivity of the other, is regarded as evidence of incipient
•ex In Sirogonium there is cell-division in the parent-cell prior
Ea. CoUochxeU $p., zoospore.
Fib a. Protosipkon, conjugation of
zoogametes.
G. Derbesia sp., zoospore with
chaplet of cilia.
Hi. Ckara sp., oogonium and
antheridium at a node on
a lateral appendage.
Ma. Ckara sp., antherozoid.
Ki. Vauckeria sp., oogonium and
antheridium before fertiliz-
ation.
Ka. Vauckeria sp., after fertiliza-
tion.
to conjugation; and as two segments are cut off in the case of the
active gamete, and only one in the case of the passive gamete, there
is a corresponding difference of size, marking another step in the
sexual differentiation. In Zygogenium, although no cell-division
takes place, the gametes consist of a portion only of the contents of
a cell, and this is regularly the case in Mesocarpaceae, which occupy
the highest grade among Conjugatae. Some Zygnemaceae and
Mesocarpaceae form either a short conjugating tube, or none at all,
but the filaments approach each other by a knee-like bend, and the
zygospore is formed at the point of contact, often being partially
contained within the walls of .the parent-cell. It would seem that
in some cases the nuclei of the gametes remain distinct in the zygo-
spore for a considerable time after conjugation. It is probable that
in all cases nuclear fusion takes place sooner or later. In Zyg-
nemaceae and Mesocarpaceae the zygospore, after a period of rest,
germinates, to form a new filamentous colony; in Desmidiaceae its
contents divide on germination, and thus give rise to two or more
TJesmids. Gametes which fail to conjugate sometimes assume the
appearance of zygospores and germinate in due course. They are
known as azygospores.
The reproduction of Characeae b characterized by a pronounced
oogamy, the reproductive organs being the most highly differ-
entiated among Chlorophyceae. The antheridia and oogonia are
formed at the nodes of the appendages. The oogonium, seated on
a stalk cell, is surrounded by an investment consisting of five spirally-
wound cells, from the projecting ends of which segments are cut off.
constituting the so-called stigma. The oosphere is not differentiated
within the wall of the oogonium, but certain cells known as wendmngs-
teUen, the significance of which has given rise to much speculation,
are cutoff from the basal portion of the parent-cell during its develop-
ment. The antheridia are spherical orange-coloured bodies of very
complex structure. The antherozoid is a spirally-coiled thread of
protoplasm, furnished at one end with a pair of cilia. It much more
resembles the antherozoids of Bryophyta and certain Pteridophyta
than any known among other algae. The fertilized egg charged with
food reserves rests for a considerable period, surrounded by its cortex,
the whole having assumed a reddish-brown colour. On germination
it gives rise to a row of cells in which short (nodal) and long (inter-
nodal) cells alternate. From the first node arise rhizoids; from the
second a lateral bud, which becomes the new plant. This peculiar
product of germination, which intervenes between the oospore and
the adult form, is the proembryo. It will be remembered that in
Musci, the asexual spore somewhat similarly gives rise to a protonema,
from which the adult plant is produced as a lateral bud. The pro-
embryonic branches of Characeae, one of the means of vegetative
reproduction already referred to. are so called because they repeat
the characters of the proembryo.
Before leaving the Chlorophyceae, it should be mentioned that
the genus Vohox has been included by some zoologists (BOtschli,
for example) among Flagellata; on the other hand, certain green
Flagellata, such as Eugtena, are included by some botanists (for
example, van Tieghem) among unicellular plants. A similar un-
certainty exists with reference to certain groups of Phaeophyceae,
and the matter will thus arise again.
A census of the Chlorophyceae is furnished below: —
1. Confervoidcae — 12 families, 77 genera, 1031 spe '
2. Siphoneae-y-Q families, 26 genera, 271 species.
3. Protococcoideae — 2 families, 90 genera, 342 species.
4. Conjugateae — 2 families, 33 genera, 1296 species.
(De Toni's SyUogc Algarum, 1889.)
5. Characeae — 2 families, 6 genera, 1 81 species.
(Engler and Prantl's PJlanxenfamilien. 1897.)
HI. Phaeophyceae. — The Phaeophyceae are distinguished by the
possession of a brown colouring matter, phycophaein, in addition
to chlorophyll. They consist of the following groups: — Fucaceae.
Phaeoeporeac, Dictyotaceae, Cryptomonadaceae, Peridiniaceae and
Diatomaceae. Of these the first three include multicellular plants,
some of them of great size: the last three are unicellular organisms,
with little in common with the rest excepting the possession of a
brown colouring matter. Fucaceae and Phaeosporeae are doubtless
closely allied, and to these Dictyotaceae may be joined, though the
relationship is less close. They constitute the Euphaeophyceae, and
will be dealt with in the first place.
Euphaeophyceae are almost exclusively marine, growing on rocks
and stones on the coast, or epiphytic upon other algae. In tidal
seas they range from the limits of high water to some distance
beyond the low-water line. On the British coasts zones are observ-
able in passing from high to low water mark, characterized by the
prevalence of different species, thus: — Pehetia canaliculata, Fucus
Uaiycarpus, Fucus wsicuCosus, AscopkyUum nodosum, Fucus strroius,
Laminoria digitata. Some species are minute filamentous plants,
requiring the microscope for their detection; others, like Lessonia,
are of considerable bulk, or, like Macrocyslis, of enormous length.
I n Fucaceae, Dictyotacea, and in Laminariaceae and Sphacelariaceae,
among Phaeosporeae, the thallus consists of a true parenchyma:
elsewhere it consists of free filaments, or filaments so compacted
together, as in Cutleriaceae and Desmarestiaceae, as to form a false
parenchyma. In Fucaceae and Laminariaceae the inner tissue is
differentiated into a conducting system. In Laminariaceae the in-
flation of the ends of conducting cells gives rise to the so-called
59°
ALGAE
trumpet-hyphae. In Nertocystis and Microcystis a tone of tube*
occurs, which present the appearance of sieve-tubes even to the
eventual obliteration of the perforations by a callus. While there
is a general tendency in the group to mucilaginous degeneration of
the cell-wall, in Laminaria dtgitata there are also glands secreting a
plentiful mucilage. Secondary growth in thickness is effected by
the tangential division of superficial cells. The most fundamental
externaldifferentiation is into holdfast and shoot. In Laminariaceae
secondary cylindrical props arise obliquely from the base of the
thallus. In epiphytic forms the rhizoids of the epiphyte often
Eenetrate into the tissue of the host, and certain epiphytes are not
nown to occur excepting in connexion with a certain host; but to
what extent, if any, there b a partial parasitism in these cases has
not been ascertained. In filamentous forms there is a differentiation
into branches of limited and branches of unlimited growth {Sfkace-
laria). In Laminariaceae there is a distinction of stipe and blade.
The blade is centrally-ribbed in Alaria and latsrally-ribbed in
Macrocystis. It is among the Sargassaceae that the greatest amount
of external differentiation, rivalling that of the higher leafy plants,
is reached. A characteristic feature of the more massive species is
the occurrence of air-vesicles in their tissues. In Fucus vesiculous
they arise in lateral pairs; in AscophyUnm they are single and
median; in Microcystis one vesicle arises at the base of each thallus
segment; in Sargassum and Halidrys the vesicles arise on special
branches. They serve to buoy up the plant when attached to the
sea-bottom, and thus light b admitted into the forest-like growths
of the gregarious species. When such plants are detached they are
enabled to float for great distances, and- the great Sargasso Sea of
the North Atlantic Ocean is probably only renewed by the constant
addition of plants detached from the shores of the Caribbean Sea
and Gulf of Mexico.
Growth in length U effected in a. variety of ways. In Dictyota,
Spbacelariaceae and Fucaceae there b a definite apical cell. In the
first it b a biconvex lens, from whkh segments are continually cut
off parallel to the posterior surface; and in the second an elongated
dome, from which segments are cut off by a transverse wall. While,
however, in Dictyota the product of the subsequent division in the
segment enlarges with each subdivision, the divisions in the cylin-
drical segment of Sphacelariaceae are such that the whole product
after subdivision, however many cells it may consist of, does not
exceed in bulk the segment as cut off from the apical cell. In
Dtctyotaceae the apical cell occasionally divides longitudinally, and
thus the dichotoroous branching b provided for. In some Sphace-
lariaceae branches may appear at their inception as lateral pro-
tuberances of the apical cell itself. In Fucaceae an apical cell is
situate at the surface of the thallus in a slit-like depression at the
apex. From thb cell segments are cut off in three or four lateral
oblique planes.
A peculiar manner of growth in length b that to whkh the term
trichothallic has been applied. It may readily be observed that in
the hair-like branches of Ectocarpaceae, the point at which most
rapid division occurs b situate near the base of the hair. In Des-
marestia and Artkrocladia. for example, it b found that the thallus
ends in a tuft of such hairs, each of them growing by means of an
intercalated growing point. In these cases, however, the portions
of the hairs behind the * * ^ ' * ' J ' '*
into a solid c
the laminated
growing region of Laminaria affords an example of another variety
of growth in Phaeophyceae. While the laminated portion of the
thallus b being gradually worn off in our latitudes during the
autumnal storms, a vigorous new growth appears at the junction
of the stipe and the blade, as the result of which a new piece b
added to the stipe and the lamina entirely renovated.
Both asexual and sexual reproduction occur among Euphaeo-
phyceae. Fucaceae are marked by an entire absence of the asexual
method. The sexual organs— oogonia and antberidia— are borne
on special portions of the thallus in cavities known as conceptacles.
Both organs may occur in one conceptacle, as in Pcbetia, or each
may be confined to one conceptacle or even one plant, as in Fucus
vcsvulosus. The oogonla arise on a stalk cell from the lining layer of
the cavity, the contents dividing to form eight oospheres as in rucus,
four as in AscophyUum, two as in Pebetio, or one only as in Halidrys.
It would seem that eight nuclei primarily arise in all Fucaceae, and
that a number corresponding to the number of oospheres subse-
quently formed b reserved, the rest being discharged to the periphery,
where they may be detected at a late stage. On the maturation of
the oospheres the outer layer of the oogonial wall ruptures, and the
oospheres, still surrounded by a middle and inner layer, pass out
through the mouth of the conceptacle. Then usually these layers
successively give way, and the spherical naked oospheres float free
in the water. The antheridia, which arise in the conceptacular
cavity as special cells of branched filaments, are similarly discharged
whole, the antherozoids only escaping when the antheridia are dear
of the conceptacle. The antherozoids are attracted to the oospheres,
round each of which they swarm in great numbers. Suddenly the
attraction ceases, and the oosphere n fertilised, probably at that
moment, by the entry of a single antheroxoid into the substance of
the oosphere; a cell-wall b formed thereupon, in some cases in so
short an interval as five minnfra Remarkable changes of size and
outline of the oosphere have recently been d es cribed asaconsu*
ing fertilization in Halidrys. Probably the act of fertiluatiosisjsaD
has nowhere been observed in such detail am in Fucaceae. Dict*>
taceae resemble Fucaceae in their pronounced oogamy. They ifr
however, in being also asexually reproduced. The asenu] era
are immotile' spores arising in fours in sporangia from stperfn.
cells of the thallus. In Dictyota the oospheres arise singly is oopss.
crowded together in son on. the surface of the female pbsL Tk
antheridia have a similar origin and grouping on the oak pbc
Until the recent discovery by Williams of motility, by neams'i
single cilium, of the antherozoids of Dictyota and Taomu, tar? *rr
believed to be immotile bodies, like the male celb of red sa«w&
In Dictyota the unfertilized oosphere b found to be capable of vasr-
going a limited number of divisions, but the body thus fora*
appears to atrophy sooner or Uter.
Of the small family of the Tilopteridaceae our knovkdp p*
yet inadequate, but they probably present the only tase of re-
nounced oogamy among Phaeosporeae. They are filamentous fa»
exhibiting, however, a tendency to division in more thaa one jam
even in the vegetative parts. The discovery by Brenner of '*
specific identity of Haplospora gjobosa and ScafUsporo sp**-*
marks an important step in the advance of our knowledee of at
group. Three kinds -of reproductive organs are knows: be.
sporangia, which each give rise to a single tetra-, or rouki-eodra
non-motile, probably asexual spore; second, plurilocular sponvs
which are probably antheridia, generating antherozoids; and uVi
sporangia, which are probably oogonia, giving rise to sisffe tr-
nucleate non-motile oospheres. No process of fertutzatioa s» »
yet been observed.
The Cutleriaceae exhibit a heterogamy in which the fenafce^a.
cell b not highly specialized, as it b in the groups already de*cn&
From each focule of a plurilocular sporangium there u set (ret u>
oosphere, which, being furnished with a pair of cilia, s*ar*» fori
time. I n similar organs on separate plants the much smaller sat***
zoids arise. Fertilization has been observed at Naples ; but it an**
ently depends on climatic conditions, as at Plymouth the oosj*»
have been observed to germinate parthenogeneticalry. The srw
organs in the case of Cutleria multifida arise on a crustaceow I**
Agtaotonio reptans, formerly considered to be a distinct species. T *!
are unilocular, each producing a small number of zoospore* . ,
The possession of two kinds of reproductive organs, aafloa*
and plurilocular sporangia, b general among; the rest of the n*»
sporeae. Bornet, however, called attention in 1671 to the bet tat
two kinds of plurilocular sporangia occurred in certain •©«** «
the genus Ectocarpus — somewhat transparent organs of sa on*
tint producing small zoospores, and also more opaque orgiM«*
darker colour producing relatively larger zoospores. On the »
covery of another such species by F. H. Buffham. Batten n iW
separated the three species, Ectocarpus secundms* E. J******
E, Lebetii, together with the new species, into a genus, &/**
characterized by the possession of two kinds of pluriloctuar ipo«sn»-
The suspicion that a distinction of sex accompanied thb dilert**
of structure has been justified by the discovery by Sauvajew*
undoubted fertilization in Ciffordta secunda and G. femes***-}*
conjugation of similar gametes, arising from distinct pk*****
sporangia, was observed by Bert hold in Ectocarpus silicmlons^-
Scytonphon lonuntarius in 1880; and these observations hive**
recently confirmed in the case of the former species by Samark-
and in the case of the latter by Kuckuck. In these cases, bo*"*
the potential gametes may. failing conjugation, germinate Aitcty
like the zoospores derived from unilocular sporangia. The ;«*jj*.
of Arescboug that conjugation occurs among zoospores derived no"
unilocular sporangia, in the case of Dictyosipko* hi o t ur oi iti , • L
doubt to be ascribed to error of observation.
unilocular sporai
doubt to be aaa
that the explanation of the existence of two kinds of «P** J TJ
unilocubr and plurilocular, among Phaeosporeae* lies b the t»
that unilocular sporangia are for asexual reproduction. «f d jT
plurilocular sporangia are gametangia— potential or actual. It mm.
however, be remembered that so important a generalixttsw f"
yet supported upon a somewhat narrow base of observation. W£*
over, for the important family of the Laminariaceae only D "J°X
sporangia are known to occur; and for many «P<^ °* J*T,
families, only one or other kind, and in some cases neither »«. "7
hitherto been observed. The four species— Ectocarpus *hc**
Ciffordta socundo. Cutleria multifida and Haplospora ft**'*':
be taken to represent, within the Pluumsporeae, successive step* ■
the advance from bogamy to oogamy. .-
The Peridiniaceae have been included among Fla^t**"*;
the title of Dinoflagellata. The majority of the spedei b**^!
the sea, but many are found in fresh water. The thallus • ****Z
spherical and unicellular, exhibiting a distinction t*****lEfZ
and posterior extremities, and dorsaland ventral surfaces- TK*JJ
consists of a basis of cellulose, and in some cases readily br»'°J^
irito a definite number of plates, fitting into one another fixe thrp**^
of the carapace of a tortoise; it b, moreover, often finely • CB T^
or coarsely ridged and flanged. Two grooves are a constant]^
of the family, one running transversely and another loflfttB*™^
In these grooves lie two dRa, attached at the point of sMenjf *' ,
dorsal surface. The protoplast b uninucleate and vacnoW* ■
contains chromatopborea of a brownish colour. It b not osv ^
ALGAE
A. Haiopieris, apical region.
B. Chorion* sp., apical region .showing to-called trichothallic growth.
C. Dictyota sp., apical cells immediately after dichotomy.
D. CutUria sp., margin of thallus showing trichothallic growth.
E. Halidrys, apical depression with leading cell.
F. Macrocystis sp., tubular elements from the medulla, with sieve-like
transverse walls.
G. Laminaria sp.^ hvphae with trumpet-like ends also from medulla.
H. Ela chisUa sp., piurilocular sporanges.
Fig. 4. — Phacophyceae, variously magnified.
K. Eetocarpus sp., unilocular tporange.
L. Eetocarpus suiculosus, female gamete surrounded by male gametes.
a, b, c, d, e, stages of conjugation.
M. Cutkria multifida. a, antherozoids, b, a female gamete.
N|. Fucus vesiculosa!, young oogonium.
Nf. Fucus vesiculosa*, discharge of eight oospheres from oogonium.
O. Laminaria sp., sporanges among paraphyses.
P. Dictyota dkholoma, a torus of oogonia.
Q. Dictyota dichotoma, part of a sorus of antheridia.
(A. B, C. D. E. H. L. M. P. from Easier and Praatl. by permimton of Wilbrira Eafdauaa: P. G, K. O. from Oltmtaac, by permiMioa of Giutav Fischer;
Q. from Tht Ammsh #/ Bttmy, by permimioo of tbt CUreadoa Prcm; N„ N,. from Hants. ii«tru*lgm. by permimfoB of F J - *
the brown colouring matter which is added to chlorophyll is identical
with phycophaein; two varieties of it have been termed phycopyrrin
and pendinine. Certain species, such as Gymnodinium spirale, are
colourless and therefore saprophytic in their method of nutrition.
Multiplication takes place in some cases by the endogenous formation
of zoospores, the organism having come to rest ; in others by longi-
tudinal division, when the organism is still motile. No method of
sexual reproduction is known with certainty.
The Cryptomonadaceae also are unicellular, and live free or in
colonies. Each cell contains a flattened chromatophore of a brown
or yellow colour. Hydrurus forms a branched gelatinous colony
attached to stones in mountain streams. Chromopkyton forms an
eight-celled colony. Both plants multiply solely by means of zoo-
spores. The Cryptomonadeae and Chromulineae are motile through
the greater part of their life. Crybtomonas, when dividing in a
mucilage after encystment, recalls the condition in Gloeocystts. In
Synura and Chromulina the cells form a spherical motile colony,
recalling Volvocaceae. Chromulina is uniciliate, and is contained
in a hyaline capsule. Like the Peridiniaceae, the Cryptomonadaceae
have been included among Flagellata. They have no close affinity
with Euphaeophyceae. Such colonial forms as Hydrurus and
Phaeocystis are supposed, however, to indicate a stage in the passage
to the multicellular condition.
Diatomaceae have long been recognized as plants. Together with
Peridiniaceae they constitute the bulk of marine plankton, and thus
play an important part in the support of marine animal life. They
exhibit striking adaptations in these circumstances to the floating
habit. (See Diatomaceae.)
A census of Phaeophyceae is given below:— «
(1) Cyclosporinae (Fucaceae)— 4 families. 32 genera, 347 species.
(2) Tetrasporinae(Dictyotaceae)— 1 family. 17 genera. 130 species.
(3) Phaeosoosporineae (Phaeosporeae)— 24 families, 143
571 species.
(De Toni's SyOoge Algarum.)
(4) Peridtnialca— 3 families, 32 genera, 167 species.
I Edtiard Kammcr .)
(5) Cryptomonadaceae (including Chrysomonadaceae) — 2 families.
28 genera, 50-60 species.
(6) BaciUariales (Diatomaceae)— about 150 genera and 5000
* , fossil and recent.
(Eng'.cr and Prantl's Pfiantenfamilien.)
IV. Rhodoph yceae. or Flobjdbae. — The members of this group
are characterized by the possession of a red colouring matter,
phycoerythrin, in addition to chlorophyll. There is, however, a
considerable amount of difference in the shades of red which mark
different species. The brightest belongs to those species which grow
near low-water mark, or under the shade of larger algae at higher
levels; species which grow near high* water mark are usually of so
dark a hue that they are easily mistaken for brown seaweeds.
Rhodophyceae are mostly marine, but not exclusively so. Thorea,
Lemanea, Tuomeya, Stenocladia, Bairackospermum, Balbiania are
genera belonging entirely to fresh water; and Bangui, Chantransia,
Caloglossa, Bostryckia and Delesseria contain each one or more
freshwater species. Most of the larger species of marine Rhodo-
phyceae are attached by means of a disc to rocks, stones or shells.
Many are epiphytic on other algae, more especially the larger Phaeo-
phyceae and Rhodophyceae. As in the case of epiphytic brown
seaweeds, the rhizoids of the epiphyte of ten penetrate the substance
of the supporting alga. Some Red Algae find a home in the gela-
tinous substance of Flustra, AUyonidium and other polyzoa, only
emerging for the formation of the reproductive organs. Some are
perforating algae and burrow into the substance of molluscan shells,
in company with certain Green and Blue-green Algae. Some species
belonging to the families Squamariaceae and Corallinaceae grow
attached through their whole length and breadth, and are often
encrusted with lime. The forms which grow away from the sub-
stratum vary greatly in external configuration. In point of sue the
largest cannot rival the larger Brown Algae, while the majority
require the aid of the microscope for their investigation.
No unicellular Rhodophyceae are known, although a flagellate
organism, Rhodomonas, has. recently been described as possessed
592
ALGAE
of the same red colouring matter. If the sub-group, Bangiaceae,
be excluded, they may be said to consist exclusively of branched
filaments. Growth in these cases takes place by means of an apical
cell, from which successive segments are cut off by means of a
transverse wall. The segment so cut off does not usually divide
again by means of a transverse wall, nor indeed by a longitudinal
wall which passes through the organic axis of the cell. New cells
may be cut off laterally, which become the apical cells of branches.
When the new cells grow no further, but constitute a palisading
round the central ceil covering its whole length, the condition
is reached which characterizes the species of Polysiphonia, the
" siphons " of which may be regarded as one-celled branches. To the
law that no subsequent transverse division takes place in segments
cut off from the apical cell, there seem to be two exceptions: first,
the calcareous genus Coralline, in the pliable joints of which inter*
calated division occurs; and, second, the NUopkytUae, in which,
moreover, median longitudinal division of axial cells is said to occur.
Like the Fungi, therefore, the Red Algae consist for the most part
of branched filaments, even where the thallus appears massive to
the eye, and, as in the case of Fungi, this fact is not inconsistent
with a great variety of external morphology. In the great majority
the thallus is obviously filamentous, as in some species of CaUttham-
nion. In other species of that jgenus an apparent cortication arises
by the downward growth of rhizoids, which are retained within the
gelatinous wall of the axial cells. In Balrackospermum the whole
system of branches are retained within a diffluent gelatinous sub-
stance derived from the outer layers of the cell-walls. I n other cases
the mucilage is denser and the branches more closely compacted
(Hdminthora). In such cases as Lemanea, the terminal cells of the
lateral branches form a superficial layer which' has all the appearance
of a parenchyma when viewed from the surface. In Champia and
allied genera, the cylindrical axis is due not to the derivatives of one
axial filament, but of several, the growth of which is co-ordinated
to form a septated tube. The branching of the thallus, which meets
the eye in all these cases, is due to the unlimited growth of a few
branches. When such a lateral branch overtops the main axis
whose growth has become limited, as in Plccamtum and Dasya, a
sympodium is formed. For the most part the branching is mono-
podial. Besides the differentiation into holdfast and snoot, and
into branches of limited and branches of unlimited growth, there
appear superficial structures of the nature of hairs. These are for
the most part long, thin-walled, unicellular and colourless, and arise
from the outer cells of the pseudo-cortex, or from the terminal
cells of branches when the filaments are free. AmongRhodomelaccae,
hair-tike structures of a higher order are known. These arise from
the axial cell, and are multicellular and branched. They soon fall
off, and it is from the persistent basal cell that the branches of un-
limited growth arise. Upon them also the reproductive organs arise
in this family. It is not surprising, therefore, that they have been
regarded as the rudiments of leaves. In Iridaea the thallus is an
entire lamina; in Callophytlis a lobed lamina; in Delesseria it is
provided with midrib and veins, simulating the appearance of a leaf
of the higher plants; in Constantinea the axis remains cylindrical,
and the lateral branches assume the form of leaves. In the compact
thalli a secondary development often takes place by the growth
of rhizoid-like internal filaments. They present a hypha-like appear-
ance, running longitudinally for considerable distances. It is not
difficult in such compact species to distinguish between superficial
cells, whose chief function is assimilation, subjacent cells charged with
reserve material, and a core of tissue engaged in the convection of
elaborated material from part to part.
An interesting feature of the minute anatomy of Euflorideae, as the
Red Algae, exclusive of the Bangiaceae, have been termed, is the
existence of the so-called Floridean bit. When a cell divides it is
found that there remains in the middle of the new wall a single large
circular pit, which persists throughout the life of the cells, becoming
more and more conspicuous with the progress of the thickening ol
the wall. These pits serve to indicate the genetic relationship of
adjacent cells, when they form a compact pseudo-parenchyma, not-
withstanding the fact that somewhat smaller secondary pits appear
later between any contiguous cells. Protoplasmic continuity has
been observed in the delicate membrane closing the pit.
Vegetative multiplication occurs only sparingly in Khodophyceae.
Melobesia callitkamnioides gives rise to multicellular propagula;
Griffiiksia coraUina is said to give rise to new individuals, by detach-
ing portions of the thallus from the base of which new attachment
organs have already arisen. The spores of Monostoora are by some
regarded as unicellular propagula. Reproduction b both asexual
and sexual. It is noteworthy that although all the members of the
group are aquatic no zoospores are produced, a negative character
common to them and the Blue-green Algae. As a rule the asexual
cells, and the male and female sexual cells arise upon different plants,
so that the species may be said to be trioecious. Numerous excep-
tions, however, occur. Thus in Lemaneaccae asexual spores are
unknown; in Balracho-spermum, Bonnemoisonia and Polysiphonia
byssoides both kinds of sexual cells appear on the same plant; and
in some cases the asexual cells may occur in conjunction with either
the male or female sexual cells. The asexual cells are termed tetra-
spores on account of the usual occurrence of four in each sporangium,
what may be termed roonospores, bispores and octosporcs, however.
are not unknown. The sporangia may be terminal or uuercalaeed
When they are confined to special branches such brancbrt zrs
spoken of as stichidia. The tetraspores may arise by the sUnah.ise
ous division of the contents of a sporangium, when they are arrar^et:
tetrabedrally, or they may arise by two successive division*, in vfa*:*.
case the arrangement may be zonate when the spores are in a rat
or cruciate when the second divisions are at right angles to the enc
or tetrahedral when the second divisions are at right ancles to the
first and also to one another. Tetraspores are at first naked, but sor-
acquire a cell-wall and germinate without a period of rest. Ttc
male sexual cells are produced singly in the terminal cells of branches
They are spoken of as spermatia. Great numbers of antheridb an
usually crowded together, when the part b distinguishable by •!«
absence of the usual red colour. In Polysiphonia they cover r<*
joints of the so-called leaves; in Chondria they arise on fLatte^es*
disks; in the more massive forms they arise in patches on the ordisary
surface; in a few cases (Gracilaria, CoraUina, Galaxamrd) they Lsr
the walls of conceptacle-like depressions. The female sexual eel h
represented by the contents of a cell which b terminal on ordiszry
or specialized branches. Thb b the carpogonium; it consists of a
ventral portion which contains a nucleus, but in which no oosphee
is differentiated, and an elongated tubular portion known as tie
trichogyne, into which the cytoplasm extends. Fertilization s
effected by the passive convection of a spermatium from the aache-
ridium to the trichogyne, to which it adheres, and to which it panes
over its nucleus through an open communication set up at the pee:
of contact. The nucleus then passes down the trichogyne and fasts
with that of the egg. This fusion has been observed by Wiflr a
Nemalion multifidim, and by Schmidle in Batrackospermwm. It a
singular that in the last-named species two nuclei occur regubrfj
in the spermatium. The ventral portion of the carpogonium car
be imbedded deep in the thallus in the massive species; the crieh>
gyne, however, always reaches the surface. The first effect cj
fertilization b the occlusion of the trichogyne from the fertile^
carpogonium. The subsequent course of development b character-
istic of the Florideae. The carpogonium germinates forth* t\
drawing its nourishment almost wholly from the parent plant. Tx
ultimate product in all cases is a number of carpospores. but befors
thb stage b reached the development b different in different sob-
groups. In Balrackospermum filaments arise from the carpogofisea
on all sides; in Chanlransia and Scinaia on one side only; a
Helminikora- the filaments are enclosed in a dense cnocuage: is
Nemalion, prior to the formation of the filaments, a sterile sef.uest
is cut off below. In all these cases, however, the end-crib of the
filaments each give rise to a carpospore, and the aggregate of sacs
sporiferous filaments is a cystocarp. Again, in the family of the
Gelidiaceae. the single filament arising from the carpogonium gran
back into the tissue and preys upon the cells of the axis and tarcer
branches, after which the end-cells give rise to carpospores and a
diffused cystocarp b formed. In the whole group of the Crypt*
nembles the parasitism becomes more marked still. The fitaraean
arising from the carpogonia grow into long thin tubes, which fuse
with special celb rich in protoplasm contents; and from these p&st*
issue isolated tufts of sporogenous filaments, several of which cu?
form the product of one fertilized female cell. In Nocturia, oat c*
the Gelid taceae, it is observable that the ooblastema filament, as tse
tube arising from the fertilized carpogonium has been called, fuse
completely with a cell contiguous to the carpogonium before gms?
rise to the foraging filaments already referred to. Thb is also the
case among Cryptonemiales. In a whole series of Red Algae, tfee
existence of a highly specialized auxiliary cell in the neighbourhood
of the carpogonium is a characteristic feature. In the Ctganiaa<c*
it b already differentiated previous to fertilization ; in Rhody menacs
it arises subsequent to fertilization. In the Gigartinales, the fca-
ments which arise from the auxiliary cell may spread and give nse
to isolated tufts of sporogenous filaments, as in the Cryptoneroiak*
In the Rhodymemales a single tuft arises directly from the auxiliary
cell. The carpospores are in all cases bright red naked masses i«
protopbsm when first discharged. They soon acquire a cett-vsil
and germinate without a period of rest. When the cystocarp* rr
segments of cystocarps are formed in the substance of a thallus, tbe
site is marked merely by a swelling of the substance. When the
cystocarp is produced externally, it may form a berry-like man
without an envelope,, in which case it is known as a tavdia. fa
Rhodomelaccae there is a special urn-shaped envelope surrounding tfc*
sporogenous filaments. This is a ceramidium.
The attachment of the cell of an ooblastema filament to a erf
of the thallus may be effected by means of a minute pore, or the
two cells may fuse their contents into one protoplasmic mass, la
the latter case, and especially where the union is with a spetut
auxiliary cell, it is of importance to know what happens to the tiocfci
of the fusing cells. Schmitz was of opinion that in the cases of con
union there occurred a fusion of nuclei similar to that which occurs ia
the sexual union of two cells. He founded his generalization to a Unit
extent upon the observation that in Glotosiphonia capUUris tno c*JU
completely fuse, and that only one nucleus can be detected in the
fused mass. Oltmanns has recently re-investigated tbe pheooeras
in this plant, among others, and has shown that the nucleus of the
cell which is being preyed upon recedes to the wall and graduafiy
atrophies. The nucleus of the ooblastema filament dominates tat
ALGAE
A. Polysiphonia sp., apical region showing leading cell and cuning
off of pericentral cell.
B. Polysiphonia sP„ transverse section through a branch, and at
a, mother-cell of tetraspores.
C. Lomentaria sp., apex snowing growth
FlC. 5. — Rhodophyceae, variously magnified.
. . . _ - 1* length through co-
ordinated growth of many filaments.
D. Deltsseria sp., showing apical region with leading cell.
E. Chrysymenia uoaria, axis with swollen leaf-like appendages.
F. Polyxonia sp., branch with leaf-like branches of limited growth.
G. CaUithamnum sp., tetrasporangium with spores arranged in a
tetrad.
] {. Coralline sp,, tetrasporangia with zonate arrangement of tetra-
spores.
(A, C. D. E. P. O. H. K. L. M, P. Q. Iron C
K. Nemalion sp., carpogonial and antheridial branches.
L. Batrachospermum sp., trichogyne with spermatia attached ; carpo*
spores arising from fertilized carpogonium.
M. Polysiphonia sp., antheridium.
N. Constantinta sp. t with flattened leaf-like appendages.
O. Dudresnaya cocctnea, fusion of ooblastema filaments with auxil-
iary cells; a is an axial cell in transverse section with four
appendages.
P. CaUithamnum corymbosum, a joint cell with carpogonial branch
and a, b, two auxiliary cells.
Q. CaUithamnum corymbosum, fusion of products of fertilization with
auxiliary cells, the nuclei of which a and b retire to the walL
R. Polysiphonia sp., section through young cystocarp.
mass and from it all the nuclei of the carposporcs are thus derived.
There thus seems to be no justification for believing, as Schmiti
taught, that a second sexual act occurs in the life-cycle of these
Florideae.
The Bangiales are a relatively small group of Red Algae, to which
much of the description now given does not apply. Structurally
t hey are either a plate of cells, as in Porphyra, or filaments, as in
Bangia. There is no exclusive apical growth, and the cells divide
in all directions. The characteristic pit is also absent. Sexual and
asexual reproduction prevail. The male cell is a spermatium, but
the female cell bears no such receptive trichogyne as occurs in other
Rhodophyceae. After fertilization the equivalent of the oospore
divides directly to form a group of carppspores. There is thus a
certain resemblance to Euflondeae, but sufficient difference to necessi-
tate their being grouped apart. Fertilization by means of non-motile
spermatia ana a trichogyne are known among the Fungi in the
families CoUemaceae and Laboulbeniaceae.
A census of Rhodophyceae is furnished below: —
(1) Bangiaceae — 4 families, 9 genera, 58 species.
(2) Nemalkminae— 4 families, 33 genera, 343 species.
(3) Gigartininae — 3 families, 54 genera, 409 species.
(4) Rhodymeninae — 4 families, 92 genera, 602 species.
(De Toni's SyUogt Algarum, 1897.)
After this survey of the four groups comprised under Algae
it is easier to indicate the variations in the limits of the class as
defined by different authorities. To consider the Cyanophyceae
j. it
\, by penoksko of Gmtav Fischer, B, N. O. R, from Eagler sad PtsaU, by pcnnfcsioa of WHbdn Eafrinsaa,)
first, either the marked contrast in the method of nutrition of
the generally colourless Bacteriaceae to that of the blue-green
Cyanophyceae is regarded as sufficient ground for u^^ai
excluding Bacteriaceae from algae altogether, notwith- tfmttm.
standing their acknowledged morphological affinity
with Cyanophyceae, or, in recognition of the incongruity of
effecting such a separation, the whole group of the ScbJzophyta
— that is to say, the Cyanophyceae in the narrow sense, together
with Bacteriaceae, is included or excluded together. Again,
while Conjugatae may be shut out from Chlorophyceae as an
independent group coord ina te with them in rank, the Characeae
constitute so aberrant a group that it has even been proposed
to raise them as Charophyta to the dignity of a main division
co-ordinate with Thallophyta. Similarly, while Diatomaceae
may be excluded from among Phaeophyceae, though retained
among algae, the Cryptomonadaceae and Peridiniaceae, like
Eugltna and other Chlorophyceae, may be excluded from
Thallophyta and ranged among the flagellate Protozoa. It is
doubtful, however, whether the conventional distinction between
plants and animals wfl] continue to be urged; and the suggestion
of Haeckel that a class Protista should be established to receive
the forms exhibiting both animal and plant affinities has much
594
ALGAE
to recommend it on phylogene*tic grounds. To adopt a figure,
it is probable that the sources from -which the two streams of
life — animal and vegetable— spring may not be separable by a
well-defined watershed at all, but consist of a great level upland,
in which the waterways anastomose. Finally, while Chloro-
phyceae and Phaeophyceae exhibit important affinities, the
Rhodophyceae are so distinct that the term "algae" cannot be
made to include them, except when used in its widest sense.
It has been well said that the attempt to classify plants
according to their natural affinities is an attempt to construct
Phyhfay. * or tncm ^ e genealogical tree by which their relation-
* ships can be traced. Algae are, however, so hetero-
geneous a class, of which the constituent groups are so
inadequately known, that it is at present futile to endeavour
thus to exhibit their pedigree. A synoptical representation of
the present state of knowledge would be expressed by a network
rather than by a tree. The following table is an adaptation of a
scheme devised by Klebs, and indicates the inter-relationships
Fbotosoa
Flapllata /
protomuUgioa.
jrUnctt
PtridiniuMU Diatomaeaaft
-Hjdruraous— Evfiiabofhyceak
.BactwiMtae*
I
Chloi
Ctaxofkyckajb....
..Thnghww EurioMpKAa
ipliMraoMrCosfjruoATAS J3l
— Ulrac— _ CoCTgkvALM:„...CHABAyKAa
BiraOKALES
Futfoi
-ComrzkvA:
BarorarriC
of the various constituent groups. The area included in the
thick boundary line represents algae in the widest sense in
which the term is used, and the four included areas the four
main subdivisions. A continuous line indicates a close affinity,
and a dotted line a doubtful relationship.
In comparing algae with the great archegoniate series which
has doubtless sprung from them, it is natural to inquire to what
AH^rmmUaa extcnt » ** ^i toy present evidence of the existence
•/*«■•*■■" °* to marKe ^ alternation of generations which
tjta* dominates the life-history of the higher plants. Turn-
ing first to the Rhodophyceae, both on account of the
high place which they occupy among algae and also the remark-
able uniformity in their reproductive processes, it is clear that,
as is the case among Archegoniatae, the product of the sexual
act never germinates directly into a plant which gives rise to the
sexual organs. Even among Bangiaceae the carpospores arise
from the fertilized cell by division, while in all other Rhodo-
phyceae the oospore, as it may be called, gives rise to a fila-
mentous structure, varying greatly in its dimensions, epiphytic,
and to a large extent parasitic upon the egg-bearing parent
plant, and in the end giving rise to carpospores in the terminal
cells of certain branches. There is here obviously a certain
parallelism with the case of Bryophyta, where the sporogonium
arising from the oospore is epiphytic and partially parasitic
upon the female plant, and always culminates in the production
of spores. Not even Riccia, with its rudimentary sporogonium,
has so simple a corresponding stage as Bangui, for, while there is
some amount of sterile tissue in Riccia, in Bangui the oospore
completely divides to form carpospores. Excluding Bangiaceae,
however, from consideration, the Euflorideae present in the
product of the development of the oospore like Bryophyta a
structure partly sterile and partly fertile. There is, nevertheless,
this important difference between the two cases. While the
spore of Bryophyta on germination gives rise to the sexual
plant, the carpospore of the alga may give rise on germination
to a plant bearing a second sort of asexual cells, viz. the tetra-
spores, and the sexual plant may only be reached after a series
of such plants have been successively generated. It is poss&e.
however, that the tetraspore formation should be regarded as
comparable with the prolific vegetative reproduction of Brj»
phyta, and in favour of this view there is the fact that the
tetraspores originate on the thallus in a different way feon
carpospores with which the spores of Bryophyta are in the
first place to be compared; moreover, in certain NemaEoaaks
the production of tetraspores does not occur, and the di£cch?
referred to does not arise in such cases. Altogether it is diScc!:
on morphological grounds to resist the conclusion that Horirfete
present the same fundamental phenomenon- of aitematke at
generations as prevails in the higher plants. It is by meats <*
the cytological evidence, however, that this problem will final?
be solved. As is well known, the dividing nuclei of the crib «
the sporophyte generation of the higher plants exhibit a daefcie
number of chromosomes, while the dividing nuclei of the celt
of the gametophyte generation exhibit the single number. la i
fern-plant, for example, which is a sporophyte, every karyokinesa
divulges the double number, while in the prothaBtss.
which is the gametophyte generation, the single number
appears. The doubling process is provided by the act
of fertilization, where an antherozoid with the smjfc
number of chromosomes fuses with an oosphere aha
with the single number to provide a fertilized egg wai
the double number. The reduction stage, on the other
hand, is the first division of the mother-cell of tie
spore. From egg to spore-mother-cell is sporopbytt;
from spore-mother-cell to egg is gametophyte. Asd
since this rule has been found to hold good for aB the
archegoniate series and also for the flowering place
where, however, the gametophyte generation has becoee
so extremely reduced as to be only with difficulty est-
eemed, it is natural that when alternation of generatke
is stated to occur in any group of Thallophyta it shock!
be required that the cytological evidence should support
the view. The genus Nemalion has been recently investigated
by Wolfe with the object of examining the cytological evidence.
He finds that eight chromosomes appear in karyokinesb in the
ordinary thallus cells, but sixteen in the gonimoblast filamesa
derived from the fertilized carpogonium. Eight chromosoao
appear again in the ultimate divisions which give rise to the
carpospores. Upon the evidence it would seem therefore that
so far as Nemalion is concerned an alternation occurs ooinpanbk
with that existing in the lower Bryophyta where the sporophyte
is relatively small, being attached to and to some extent parasitic
upon the gametophyte. Nemalion is, however, one of those
Florideae in which tetraspores do not occur. What is the cast
with those Florideae which have been described as txioedoes?
If the sporophyte generation is confined to the cystocarp, is the
tetrasporiferous plant, as has been suggested, merely a pA****** 1
gametophyte reproducing by a process analogous to the bud-
formation of the Bryophyta? In answer to this question a
recent writer, Yamanouchi, states in a preliminary communica-
tion that he has found that in Polysiphonia violacea the germinat-
ing carpospores exhibit forty chromosomes, and the germinatisg
tetraspores twenty chromosomes. From this it would seem
that in this plant reduction takes place in the tetraspore mother-
cell, and that the tetrasporiferous plants are sporophytcs whkh
alternate with sexual plants. Novel as this result may stem,
the tetraspores of Florideae become hereby comparable with
the tetraspores of Dictyota, to which reference will be made
hereafter. But it Is dear that it becomes on this view increas-
ingly difficult to explain the occasional occurrence of tetraspores
on male, female and monoecious plants or the role of the
carpospores in the life-cycle of Florideae. The results of future
research on the cytology of the group will be awaited with
interest.
Among Phaeophyceae it is well known that the oospore of
Fucaceae germinates directly into the sexual plant, and there a
thus only one generation. Moreover, it Is known that the re-
duction in the number of chromosomes which occurs at the
initiation of the gametophyte generation in Pteridophyta «
ALGAE
595
in the culminating stage of Fucus, where the oogonium is
separated from the stalk-cell, so that unless it be contended
that the Fucus is really a sporophyte which does not pro-
duce spores, and that the gametophyte is represented merely
by the oogonium and antheridium, there is no semblance of
alternation of generation in this case. The only case among
Phaeophyceae which has been considered to point to the existence
of such a phenomenon is CuiUria. Here the asexual cells are
borne upon the so-called AgUumonia reptans and the sexual cells
upon the plants known as CuiUria. The spores of the Aglaozonia
form are known to give rise to sexual plants, and the oospore of
CuiUria has been observed to grow into rudimentary Aglaozonia.
Latterly, however, as the result of the cytological investigations
of Mottier and Lloyd Williams, great advance has been made in
our knowledge of the conditions existing in Dictyota. Mottier
first observed that a reduction in the number takes place in the
mother-cells of the tetraspore. It will be remembered that, as
in most Florideae, the male, female and asexual plants are
distinct in this genus. Mottier's observation has been confirmed
by Lloyd Williams, who has shown, moreover, that the single
number occurs in germlings from the tetraspore, and also in the
adult stages of all sexual plants, while the double number occurs
in germlings from the oospore, and in adult stages of all asexual
plants. It is probable, therefore, that we have here a sharp
alternation of generations, both generations being, however,
precisely similar to the eye up to point of reproduction. Among
Cblorophyceae it is often the case that the oospore on germina-
tion divides up directly to form a brood of zoospores. In
CoUochacU this seems to be preceded by the formation of a
minute parenchymatous mass, in each cell of which a zoospore
is produced. In SpkaeropUa it is only at this stage that
zoospores are formed at all; but in most cases, such as
Oedogonium, Ulotkrix, CoUochaete, similar zoospores are pro-
duced again and again upon the thallus, and the product of
the oospore may be regarded as merely a first brood of a series.
It has been held by some, however, that the first brood corre-
sponds to the sporophyte- generation of the higher plants, and
that the rest of the cycle is the gametophyte generation. Were
the case of SpkaeropUa to stand alone, the phenomenon might
perhaps be regarded as an alternation of generations, but still
only comparable with the case of Bangia, and not the case of the
Florideae. But it is difficult to apply such a term at all to those
cases in which there intervene between the oospore and the next
sexual stage a series of generations, the zoospores of which are
all precisely similar.
The difficulty of tracing the relationships of algae is largely
due to the inadequacy of our knowledge of the conditions under
which they pass through the critical stages of their
life-cycle. Of the thousands of species which have
been distinguished, relatively few have been traced
from spore to spore, as the flowering plants have been observed
from seed to seed. The aquatic habit of most of the species and
the minute size of many of them are difficulties which do not
exist in the case of most seed-plants. From the analogy of the
higher plants observers have justly argued that when they have
seen and marked the characters of the reproductive organs they
have found the plant at the stage when it exhibits its most note-
worthy features, and they have named and classified the species
in accordance with these observations. While even in such cases
it is obvious that interesting stages in the life of the plant may
escape notice altogether, in the cases of those plants the repro-
duction of which is unknown, and which have been named and
placed on the analogy of the vegetative parts alone, there is
considerable danger that a plant may be named as a distinct
species which b only a stage in the life of another distinct and
perhaps already known species. To take an example, Lemanea
and Batrachospermum are Florideae which bear densely-whorled
branches, but which, on the germination of the carpospore, give
rise to a laxly-filamentous, somewhat irregularly-branched plant,
from which the ordinary sexual plants arise at a later stage.
This filamentous structure has been attributed to the genus
Ckoutronsia, which it greatly resembles, especially when, as is
said to be the case in Batrachospermum, it bears similar mono-
spores. The true Chaniransia, however, bears its own sexual
organs as well as monospores. To the specific identity of
Eaplospora globosa and Scaphospora speciosa, and of CuiUria
multifida and A glaotonia reptans, reference has already been made.
Again, many Green Algae— some unicellular, like SphaereUa and
Chlamydomonas; some colonial forms, like Vohox and Hormotila;
some even filamentous forms, like Ulothrix and Stigcochnium—
are known to pass into a condition resembling that of a PalmcUa,
and might escape identification on this account.
It is, on the other hand, a danger in the opposite 'sense to
conclude that all Chaniransia species are stages in the life-cycle
of other plants, and, similarly, that all irregular colonial forms,
like FalmeUa, represent phases in the life of other Green Algae.
Long ago Kutxing went so far as to express the belief that the
lower algae were all capable of transformations into higher forms,
even into moss-protonemata. Later writers have also thought
that in all four groups of algae transformations of a most far-
reaching character occur. Thus Borzi finds that Frotoderma
wide passes through a series of changes so varied that at different
times it presents the characters of twelve different genera.
Chodat does not find so general a polymorphism, but neverthe-
less holds that Rapkidium passes through stages represented by
Protococcus, Characium, Dactylococau and Sciadium. Klebs has,
however, recently canvassed the conclusions of both these in-
vestigators; and as the result of his own observations declares
that algae, so far from being as polymorphic as they have been
described, vary only within relatively narrow limits, and present
on the whole as great fixity as the higher plants. It certainly
supports his view to discover, on subjecting to a careful investiga-
tion Botrydium granulatum, a siphonaceous alga whose varied
forms had been described by J. Rostafinski and M. Woronin,
that these authors had included in the life-cycle stages of a
second alga described previously by Ktttzing, and now described
afresh by Klebs as Frolosiphon botryoides. In Botrydium the
chromatophores are small, without pyrenoids, and oil-drops are
present; in Frotosipkon the chromatophores form a net-work
with pyrenoids, and the contents include starch. Klebs insists
that the only solution of such problems is the subjection of the
algae in question to a rigorous method of pure culture. It is
interesting to learn that G. Senn, pursuing the methods described
by Klebs, has confirmed Chodat's observation of the passage
of Rapkidium into a Dactylococcus-st>, although he was unable
to observe further metamorphosis. He has also seen PUurococeus
viridis dividing so as to form a filament, but has not succeeded
in seeing the formation of zoospores as described by Chodat
While, therefore, there is much evidence of a negative character
against the existence of an extensive polymorphism among algae,
some amount of metamorphosis is known to occur. But until
the conditions under which a particular transformation takes
place have been ascertained and described, so that the observa-
tion may be repeated by other investigators, scant credence is
likely to be given to the more extreme polymorphistic views.
In comparison with the higher plants, algae exhibit so much
simplicity of structure, while the conditions under which they
grow are so much more readily controlled, that they PhraJam
have frequently been the subject of physiological JJ*
investigation with a view chiefly to the application
of the results to the study of the higher plants. (See Plants:
Physiology of.) In the literature of vegetable physiology there
has thus accumulated a great body of facts relating not only to
the phenomena of reproduction, but also to the nutrition of algae.
With reference to their chemical physiology, the gelatiniza-
tion of the cell-wall, which is so marked a feature, is doubtless
attributable to the occurrence along with cellulose of pectic
compounds. There is, however, considerable variation in the
nature of the membrane in different spedes; thus the cell-wall
of Oedogonium, treated with sulphuric acid and iodine, turns a
bright blue, while the colour is very faint in the case of Spirogyro,
the wall of which is said to consist for the most part of pectose.
While starch occurs commonly as a cell-content in the majority
of the Green Algae no trace of it occurs in Vaucheria and some of
59^
ALGAE
its allies, nor is it known in the whole of the Phaeophyceae and
Rhodophyceae, In certain Euphaeophyceae bodies built up of
concentric layers, and attached to the chromatophores, were
described by Schmitz as phaeophycean-starch; they do not,
however, give the ordinary starch reaction. Other granules,
easily mistaken for the " starch " granules, are also found in
the cells of Phaeophyceae; these possess a power of movement
apart from the protoplasm, and are considered to be vesicles and
to contain phloroghidn.- The colourless granules of Florideae,
which are supposed to constitute the carbohydrate reserve
material, have been called fioridean-starch. A white efflores-
cence which appears on certain Brown Algae (Saccarkiza bvlbosa,
Laminoria saccharine), when they are dried in the air, is found
to consist of mannite. Mudn is known in the cell-sap of
Acdabularia, Some Siphonales (Codium) give rise to proteid
crystalloids, and they are of constant occurrence among
Florideae. The presence of tannin has been established in
the case of a great number of freshwater algae.
By virtue of the possession of chlorophyll all algae are capable
of utilizing carbonic add gas as a source of carbon in the presence
of sunlight The presence of phycocyanin, phyco-
phaein and phycoerythrin considerably modifies the
absorption spectra for the plants in which they occur.
Thus in the case of phycoerythrin the maximum absorption,
apart from the great absorption at the blue end of the spec-
trum, is not, as in the case where chlorophyll occurs alone,
near the Fraunhofer line B, but farther to the right beyond
the line D. By an ingenious method devised by Engelmann,
it may be shown that the greatest liberation of oxygen, and
consequently the greatest assimilation of carbon, occurs in that
region of the spectrum represented by the absorption bands.
In this connexion Pfeffer points out that the penetrating power
of light into a clear sea varies for light of different colours.
Thus red light is reduced to such an extent as to be insufficient
for growth at a depth of 34 metres, yellow light at a depth of
177 metres and green light at 322 metres. It is thus an obvious
advantage to Red Algae, which flourish at considerable depths,
to be able to utilize yellow light rather than the red, which is
extinguished so much sooner. The experiment of Engelmann
referred to deserves to be mentioned here, if only in illustration
of the use to which algae have been put in the study of physio-
logical problems. Engelmann observed that certain bacteria
were motile only in the presence of oxygen, and that they
retained their motility in a microscopic preparation in the
neighbourhood of an algal filament when they had come to rest
elsewhere on account of the exhaustion of oxygen. After the
bacteria had all been brought to rest by being placed in the
dark, he threw a spectrum upon the filament, and observed in
what region the bacteria first regained their motility, owing to
the liberation of oxygen in the process of carbon-assimilation.
He found that these places corresponded closely with the region
of the absorption band for the algae under experiment.
Although algae generally are able to use carbonic add gas as a
source of carbon, some algae, like certain of the higher plants,
are capable of utilizing organic compounds for this purpose.
Thus Spirogyra filaments, which have been denuded of starch
by being placed in the dark, form starch in one day if they are
placed in a xo to 20% solution of dextrose. According to
T. Bokorny, moreover, it appears that such filaments will yield
starch from formaldehyde when they are supplied with sodium
oxymcthyl sulphonate, a salt which readily decomposes into
formaldehyde and hydrogen sodium sulphite, an observation
which has been taken to mean that formaldehyde is always a
stage in the synthesis of starch. With reference to the assimila-
tion of nitrogen, it would seem that algae, like other green plants,
can best use it when it is presented to them in the form of a
nitrate. Some algae, however, seem to flourish better in the
presence of organic compounds. In the case of Scencdesmus
aculus it is said that the alga is unable to take up nitrogen in
the form of a nitrate or ammoniacal salt, and requires some such
substance as an amide or a peptone. On the other hand, it has
been held by Bernhard Frank and other observers that atmo-
spheric nitrogen* is fixed by the agency of (keen Algae in the sod.
(For the remarkable symbiotism between algae and fungi ace
Fungi and Lichens.)
Most algae, particularly Phaeophyceae and Rhodophyceae,
spend the whole of the life-cyde immersed in water. In the
case of the freshwater algae, however, belonging to jua**
the Chlorophyceae and Cyanophyceae, although they
required to be immersed during the vegetative period, the
reproductive cells are often capable of resisting a considerahk
degree of desiccation, and in this condition are dispersed throafe
great distances by various agendes. Again, as is well knows,
many spedes of marine algae growing in the region between tac
limits of high and low water are so constituted that they asr
exposed to the air twice a day without injury. The occurrence
of characteristic algae at different levels constituting the soots
to which reference has already been made, is probably in pan as.
expression of the fact that different spedes vary in the capacity
to resist desiccation from exposure. Thus Latmrnxria digits
which characterizes the lowest zone, is only occasionally exposed
at all, and then only for short periods of time. On the other
hand, Pclvctia canaliculate, which marks the upper belt, is exposed
for longer periods, and during neap tides may not be reached
by the water for many days. Algae of more delicate textare
than either Fucaceae or Laminariaceae also occur in the regiea
exposed by the ebb of the tide, but these secure their exemptioi
from desiccation either by retaining water in their meshes by
capillary attraction, as in the case of Pilayctta, or by growing
among the tangles of the larger Fucaceae, as in the case at
Polysiphonia fastigiata, or by growing in dense masses on rocks
as in the case of Lourcncia pinnatifida. Such a specks as
DcUsseria sanguinea or CallopkyUis laciniata would on the
contrary run great risk by exposure for even a short period
A few algae approach the ordinary terrestrial plants in their
capadty to live in a sub -aerial habitat subject only to sees
occasional supplies of water as is afforded by the rainfall.
Of this nature are some of the spedes of VauckcH*. A very
few species,. like CkrocUpus, which grows on rock surfaces,
are comparable with the land plants which have been termed
xerophilous.
The great majority of the aquatic algae, both freshwater and
marine, are attached plants. Some, however, are wanderers,
either swimming actively with the aid of cilia, or
floating inertly as the result of a specific wdght closely flawta*
approaching that of the medium. To the aggregate
of such forms, both animal and vegetable, the term ptanhtsm
has been applied, and the investigation of the vegetable planktoa,
both freshwater and marine, has been pursued in recent times
with energy and success. The German Plankton Expedition of
1889 added greatly to our knowledge of the floating vegetable
life of the North Atlantic Ocean, while many laboratories estab-
lished on the shores of inland seas and lakes have rendered a
similar service in the case of our freshwater phyto-plankioa.
The quantitative estimate of the amount of this flora has revealed
its enormous aggregate amount and therefore its great import-
ance in the economy of oceanic and lacustrine animal life. The
organisms constituting this plankton are mostly unicellular,
often aggregated together in colonies, and the remarkable
structure which they exhibit has added a new chapter to the
story of adaptation to environment. The families Dutomaceae.
Peridiniaceae and Protococcaceae are best represented in the
pelagic plankton, while in addition the Volvocaceae are aa
important element in freshwater plankton.
The great majority of algae, however, grow like land-plants
attached to a substratum, and to these the term amtftar is do*
generally applied. While the root of land-plants B§mkm
serves for the double purpose of attachment and the
supply of water, it is attachment only that is usually sought
in the case of algae. Immersed as they usually are in a medium
containing in solution the inorganic substances which they
require for their nutrition, the absorption of these takes place
throughout their whole extent. The elaborate provision for the
conduct of water from part to part which has played so important
ALGAE
597
a r61e in the morphological development of land plants is entirely
wanting in algae, such conducting tissues as do exist in the larger
Phaeophyceae and Rbodophyceae serving rather for the con-
vection of elaborated organic substance, and being thus com-
parable with the phloem of the higher plants. The attachment
organ of algae is thus more properly called a holdfast, and is
found to be of very varied structure. It generally takes the form
of a single flattened disc as in the Fucaceae, or a group of finger-
like processes as in Laminariaceae, or a tuft of filaments as in
many instances. When the attachment is in sand or mud, it
often simulates the appearance of a true root as in Chora or
Caulcrpo. It is clear that where the bottom of a lake or sea
consists of oozy mud or shifting sand, it is impossible for algae
to secure a foothold. Thus a rock emerging from a sandy
beach may often be observed to stand covered with vegetation
like an oasis in a desert. The rapidity with which walls, piles
and pontoons — stone, wood and iron — become covered with
marine plants is well known, while the discovery of some effective
means of preventing the fouling of the bottoms of ships by the
growth of algae would be hailed as a boon by shipowners.
While rocks and boulders are the favoured situation for the
growth of marine algae, those which readily disintegrate, like
the coarser sandstones, are naturally less favoured than the
hard and resistant. A large number of algae again live as
epiphytes or endophytes. In the case of the freshwater species
the host-plants are mostly species of aquatic Graminaceae,
Naiadaceae or Nymphaeaceae. In the case of marine algae,
the hosts are chiefly the larger Phaeophyceae and Rbodo-
phyceae. A bed of Zostera near the level of low water is, how-
ever, on the British coast a favourite collecting ground for the
smaller red and brown epiphytes. Of endophytes a distinction
must be made between those which occupy the cell-wall only
and those which perforate the cells, bringing about their destruc-
tion. There can be little doubt that in some cases the epiphytism
approaches parasitism. In one case described by Kuckuck the
chromaphora of the infesting algae are absent, a circumstance
which points to a complete parasitism. Allusion has already
been made to the peculiar habit of the shell-boring algae.
In many algae certain branches of limited growth bear a
remarkable resemblance to leaves. The Characeae among
freshwater algae and the Sargassaceae among marine algae
might be cited as examples. Surveying the whole range of
f^fr algae life, Oltmanns distinguishes bush-forms, whip-
forms, net-forms, leaf-forms, sack-forms, dorsi-ventral
forms, and cushions, plates and crusts. The similarity of
outline in many species to that of trees and shrubs will strike
any one who examines algae mounted for the herbarium.
Clodophora and Bryopsis among monosiphonous forms, Chora,
Polysiphonio, Cerandum and Cystoseira among larger algae, arc
illustrations of this. The whip-forms are represented by Spiro-
gyra, Chaetomorpha, Scytosiphon, Nemalion, Himanthalia and
Chorda. Net-forms are found in Hydrodidyon and Microdictyon.
The leaf-forms are very varied and owe their existence to the
advantage accruing from the exposure of a large surface to the
influence of the light. In some cases such as Ddtsseria, Neury-
mtnia, Fncus, Alaria, the leaf-like structure is provided with
a strengthening mid-rib, and when as in Ddesseria it is also
richly veined the resemblance to the leaf of a flowering plant
is striking, Laminar io, Padino, Cutleria, Punctaria, Iridaea,
Ulva, Porphyra, are leaf-like with a rigidity varying from a
fleshy lamina to the thin and pliable. Agarum, Claudea and
Slrtnea are leaf -forms which are perforated like Aldrovanda
among flowering plants. EnUromorpha, Asperococau and
Adtnocystis are sack- forms. Dorsi-ventral algae are rare.
Laeillea jungermanneoides bears a remarkable resemblance to
a leafy liverwort. In the next group of forms the simplest are
crusts attached to the substratum throughout their extent, and
growing at the margin. Such are Myrionema, Raljsia, Mdobesia
and Hildebrandiia. Others are attached throughout their ex-
tent, but also grow vertical filaments so as to form a velvety
pile. Such are Colccchaete, OcUochocU, Elachistea, Ascocydus
aw) Rhododermis. Peysonellia sauamario, Mdobesia lichenoides,
Lealhesio dijjormis are forms which are not attached throughout
but grow in plates like the foliaceous lichens.
When it is sought to consider algae with a view to the correla-
tion of the external form to the conditions of life, a subject
the study of which under the name of ecology has f| l>ftuj
been latterly pursued with great success among land
plants, it is difficult as yet to arrive at generalizations which
are trustworthy. Among land plants, as is well known, similarity
of environment has often called forth similar adaptations among
plants of widely separated families. The similarity of certain
xerophilous Euphorbiaceae to Cactaceae is a ready illustration
of this phenomenon. From what has been already said it is
evident that among algae also strikingly similar forms exist in
widely different groups. Instances might be multiplied. Com-
pare, for example, the blue-green Gloeocapsa with the green
Gloeocystis, the red Batrackospermum with the green Dropar-
naldia, the red Corallina with the green Cymo polio, the green
EnUromorpha with the brown Asptrococcus, the green Uha with
the red Porphyra, the red Nemalion with the brown Caslagnea,
and so on. But on the one hand similar forms seem to grow
often under different conditions, while on the other hand different
forms flourish under the same conditions. The conceivable varia-
tions in the conditions which would count in algal life are
variations in the chemical character of the water— whether
fresh, brackish or salt; or in the rate of movement of the
water, whether relatively quiet, or a stream or a surf; or in
the degree of illumination with the depth and transparency of
the water. But the laws which determine the associations of
various algae under one environment are as yet little understood.
The occurrence of a plentiful mucilage in many freshwater
forms is, however, doubtless a provision against desiccation on
exposure. The fine subdivision of filamentous and net-forms
is similarly a provision for easy access of water and light to all
parts. The calcareous deposits in Characeae, Corallinaceae and
Siphonaceae are at once a protection against attack and a
means of support. The whip-forms would seem to be designed
to resist injury from surf or current The vesicles of Fucaceae
and Laminariaceae prevent the sinking of the bulkier forms.
But why certain Fucaceae favour certain zones in the littoral
region, why certain epiphytes are confined to certain hosts, why
Red and Brown Algae are not better represented in fresh water
or Green Algae in salt, — these are problems to which it is difficult
to find a ready answer.
Algae cannot be regarded as directly important in the in-
dustries. On the coasts of Europe marine algae detached by
the autumnal gales are commonly carted on to the Vt0tm
land as a convenient manure. Porphyra laciniata
and Rhodymenia paJmata are locally used as food, the latter
being known as dulse. Agar-agar is a gelatinous substance
derived from an eastern species of GracUaria. The ash of sea-
weeds, known in Scotland as kelp, and in Brittany as varec,
was formerly used as a source of iodine to a greater extent than
is at present the case.
Excepting where the thallus is impregnated with silica, as in
Diatomaceae, or carbonate of lime, as in Corallinaceae.Characeae
and some Siphonales, it is perhaps not surprising that ^_
algae should not have been extensively preserved in {JJJJ* to
the fossil form. Considering, however, that it is tbencu.
generally believed that Bryophyta and vascular
plants are descended from an algal ancestry, it is natural to
suppose that, prior to the luxuriant vegetable growths of the
Carboniferous period, there must have existed an age of algae.
It was doubtless this expectation that has led to the description
of a number of Silurian and Devonian remains as algae upon
what is now regarded as inadequate evidence. The geologic
record is, as perhaps is to be expected, exceedingly poor, except
as regards the calcareous Siphonales, which are well represented
at various horizons, from the Silurian to the Tertiary; even
the Diatomaceae, which are found in great quantities in the
Tertiary deposits, do not occur at all earlier than the chalk.
It is believed, however, that the Devonian fossil, Nemalophycus,
is a Laminarian alga, but it is not until the late Secondary and
598
ALGARDI— ALGAROTTI
the Tertiary formations that fossil remains of algae become
frequent. (See Paleobotany.)
The subjoined list includes the larger standard works on algae,
together with a number of papers to which reference is made in this
article. For a detailed catalogue of Algological literature, see the
" Bibliothcca Phycologica " in de Tonfs SyUop* Algarum, vol. L
(1889), with the addendum thereto in voj. iv. (1897) of the same
work.
General.— J. G. Agardh, Species, genera el ordines Algarum (vols,
i.-iii., Lund, 1848-1898), Analecta Algologica (Lund, 1892-1896);
Till Algernes Systemattk (Lund, 1872-1899); J. E. Areschoug,
" Observationes Phycologicae," Nova Acta reg. soc sci. Ufisaliensts
(Upsala, 1866-1875); F. F. Blackman. "The Primitive Algae and
the Flagellata," Ann. of Botany (vol. xiv., Oxford, 1900); E. Bornet
and G. Thuret, Notes agologtques (fasc L-ii., Parts, 1 876-1 880);
P. A. Dangeard, " Recherche* sur les algues infeneures," Ann, des
Falkenberg, " Die Algen im weitesten Sinne," Schenk s Handbuch
derBotanik (vol ii., 1882): W. G. Fariow. Marine Algae of New
England (Washington, 1881); W. H. Harvey, Pkycologia BritanHica
(4 vols., London, 1846-185$); Nereis Boreali- Americana (3 pts.,
Washington, 1851-1858); Pkycologia Australica (5 vols., London,
1858-1863); F. Hauck, " Die Meeresalgen Deutschlands und Oster-
Leipzig. 1897-1899); G. Murray, Pkycological Memoirs (London*
1892-1895): An introduction to the Study of Seaweeds (London,
1895); C. Naegeli, Die neueren Algensysleme (Zurich, 1847); F.
Oltmanns, Morphologic und Biologic der Algen (Jena, Band 1. 1904,
Band ii. 1905) ; N. Pringsheim. " Beitrage sur Morphologie der
Meeresalgen. 4 Ma*/. Konigl. Akad. der Wissensck. (Berlin, 1862);
J. ReinkeMtfa* deutscker Meeresalgen (Berlin, 1889-1892) ; F.SchQtt,
Pas Pfiansenleben der Hocksee (Leipzig, 1893); J* Stackhouse,
Nereis Britannica (ed. i., Bath, 1801 ; ed. ii.. Oxford. 1816) : G. Thuret
and E. Bornet, Etudes pkycologioues (Paris, 1878): D. Turner,
Historia Fucorum (4 vols., London, 1808-1819); G. Zanardini,
Uonograpkia Pkycologia Adriatica (Venice, 1860-1876).
1. Cyanophycbae.— E. Bornet and Ch. Flahault, '* Revision des
Nostocacees b&erocystees," Ann. des sc. naturelles, Bo/, (vols, iii.-vii..
Paris, 1 887-1 888); M. Gomont, " Monographic des Oscillariees,'
Ann. des sc natureUes, Bot. (vols, xv.-xvi., Paris, 1893); Heeler,
" Uber Kerntheilungserscheinungen," Ref. Botan. Centralbl. (vol.
Ixiv., Cassel, 1895) ; O. Kirchner, " Schuophyceae," in Engler and
Prantl's Pflantenfamilien (Leipzig, 1900).
2. Chlorophycbab. — A. Borzi, "Studi anamorfici di alcune
alghe verdi," BulL Soc Bot. ItaL in N. Ciom. Bot. ltd. (vol. xxii.,
Pisa, 1890); F. F. Blackman and A. G. Tansley. A Revision of the
Classification of the Green Algae, reprinted from the New Phytologist
(vol. 1., London, 1903); K. Bohlin, "Studier Ofver nagra slaeten
af alggruppen confervales Borzi," Bihang till K. Soenska vel. akad.
HandRnger (Bd. xxiii. afd. 3, 1897);— Utkasttill r De grona algernas
ock arkegomtaternas brfogent (Upsala, 1901); R. Chodat, "On the
Polymorphism of the Green Algae," Ann. of Botany (vol. xi., Oxford,
I897) ; M. C. Cooke, British Freshwater Altai (2 vols., London, 1882-
1884). British Desmids (London, 1887); G. Klebs, Die Bedingungen
der Fortpflansung bei einigen Algen und Pilzen (Jena, 1896); A.
Luther, "Uber Chlorosaccus, n.g. ' Bihang till K. Soenska vel. akad.
Handlinger (Bd. xxiv. afd. 3, 1899); H. Graf zu Solms-Laubach,
*' Monograph of the Acetabulariaceae," Trans. Linn. Soc (Land.)
Bot. (London, 1895); N. Wille, " Chlorophyceae," in Engler and
Prantl's Pflantenfamtlien (Leipzig, 1897).
3. Ph aeoph yceab.— E. A. L. Batters, "
atters, "OnEctocarpussecundus,"
Grevillea (vol. xxi., London. 1893); G. Berthold, " Die geschlecht-
Hche Fortpflanzung der eigentlicnen Phaeosporeen," Mittk. Z00L
Stat. NeaPel (vol. 11., Leipzig, 1881); G. Brebner, "On the Classi-
fication of the Tilopteridaceae," Proc Bristol Nat. Soc. (vol. viii.,
Bristol, 1 896-1897) ; A. H. Church, " On the Polymorphy of Cutlcria
multifida, Ann. of* Botany (vol. xii., Oxford, 1898); J. B. Fanner
and J. LI. Williams, " Contributions to our Knowledge of the Life-
history and Cytology of Fucaceae," Pkil. Trans. Roy. Soc (vol. exc,
London, 1898); E. Janczewski, "Observations sur raccroissement
du thalle des Phaeosporees," Mhn. soc not. de sc (Cherbourg, 1895);
F. R. Kjellmann, " Phaeophyceae," in Engler and Prantl's P/lanten-
familien (Leipzig, 1897); F. Oltmanns, " Beitrage sur Kenntniss der
Fucaceen," Bibfiotheca botanica, xiv. (Cassel, 1889) ; C. Sauvageau,
" Observations relatives k la sexualite des Phaeosporees," Journal
de botanique (vol. x., Paris, 1896) ; E. Strasburger, " Kerntheilung
und Befruchtung bei Fucus," Cytologiscke Stuiien (Berlin, 1897);
F. Schutt. Die Peridinien der Plankton-Expedition (Kiel and Leipzig,
1895); R. Valiante, Le Cystoseirae del Golfo di NaPpU (Leipzig.
1883); J. LI. Williams, "On the Antherozoids of Dictyota and
Taonia, Ann. of Botany (vol xi., Oxford, 1897).
4. Rhodofhyceae.— G. Berthold> " Die Bangiacen des Golfes
von Neapcl." Mittk. Zool. Stat. Neapel (Naples, 1882); F. Oh
Botanixte Zeth*t
(1898); R. W. Philips, "The Development of the Cysbxarr a
i. and ii., Annals of Botany (vols. xi. xii.. CMjtA
Zur Entwickelungsgeschichte der Florideen."
1898); R. W. F "~ ~
Khodymeniales,"
1897-1898); F. Schmitz, " Untersuchungen Qber die BefnKhjxr^
der Flondeen," SiUungsber. der konigl. Aiaa\der W ts s ru s ck (Beris.
1883); " Kleinere Beitrage zur Kenntniss der Flondeen,** La Ak«
Notarisia, 1892- 1894; F. Schmitz, P. Falkenberg. P. HauptfirixX
cae," in Engler and Prantl's PftanxenJamHieu (iSc-
, " Die Befruchtung, Keimung und Haarinsertion ua
mum," Bot. Ztstonr (1899); Sirodot. La Astirce*
Batrachospermum," Bot. Z*t/««r (1899);
spermes (ParU, 1884); N. Wille. "Uber die Befruchtunrl
multifidum," Ber. d. deutschen boL Gescllsc. Band :
beiXetsa&M
(Berfis.
1804); J* J. Wolfe, " Cytological Studies on Nemalkm.** Annas tf
Botany (vol. xviii., Oxford, 1904): S. Yamanouchi, "TV Lfc-
History of Polysiphonia violacea/' Botanical Gazette (voL xL.
Chicago, 1906). <R- W. P.;
ALGARDI, ALE88ANDRO (1602-1654). Italian sculptor, was
born at Bologna in 1602. While he was attending the schsd
of the Caracci his preference for the plastic art became evidctt
and he placed himself under the instruction of the sculptor
Conventi. At the age of twenty he was brought under the notice
of Duke Ferdinand of Mantua, who gave him several commis&HK&
He was also much employed about the same period by jewellers
and others in modelling in gold, silver and ivory. After a short
residence in Venice he went to Rome in 1625 with an mtroductica
from the duke of Mantua to the pope's nephew, Cardinal Lodovis,
who employed him for a time in the restoration of ancie:
statues. The death of the duke of Mantua left him to his o^m
resources, and for several years he earned a precarious maicte>
ance from these restorations and the commissions of goldsmith
and jewellers. In 1640 he executed for Pietro Buonoompagni fcs
first work in marble, a colossal statue Of San Filippo Neri, vita
kneeling angels. Immediately after, he produced a similar green,
representing the execution of St Paul, for the church of lie
Barnabite Fathers in Bologna. These works, displaying great
technical skill, though with considerable exaggeration of ex-
pression and attitude, at once established Algardi's reputaoca.
and other commissions followed in rapid succession. The turner,
point in Algardi's fortune was the accession of Innocent X. of
the Bolognese house of Panfili, to the papal throne in 1644. He
was employed by Camillo Panfili, nephew of the pontiff, to design
the Villa Doria Panfili outside the San Pancrazio gate. The
most important of Algardi's other works were the momuaeat
of Leo XL, a bronze statue of Innocent X. for the capital
and, above all, La Puega d'Attilo, the largest alto-relievo in tit
world, the two principal figures being about 10 ft. high. In 1650
Algardi met Velasquez, who obtained some interesting orders
for his Italian companion in Spain. Thus there are four chimneys
by Algardi in the palace of Aranjuex, where also the figures on the
fountain of Neptune were executed by him. The Augustbr
monastery at Salamanca contains the tomb of the count arJ
countess de Monterey, which was also the work of Algardi
From an artistic point of view, he was most successful in his
portrait-statues and groups of children, where he was obliged to
follow nature most closely. In his later years he became very
avaricious and amassed a great fortune. He died in Rome oa
the 10th of June 1654.
See Le art* di Bologna disegnate da A. Caracci ad imtrngtiati 4c
S. Giulini, con* assistenta <f Atessandro A. Algardi (1740).
ALGAROTH, POWDER OF. a basic chloride of antimony.
It was known to Basil Valentine, and was used medicinally by the
Veronese physician Victor Algarotus about the end of the 16th
century. Its composition is probably SUOiCU, and it may be
prepared by the addition of much water to a solution of antimony
chloride; a bulky amorphous precipitate being formed, which,
on standing, gradually becomes crystalline. It is soluble m
hydrochloric acid and tartaric acid, but insoluble in alcohol
On its composition and preparation see E. Peligot. Annate*. 1847.
Ixiv. 280; L. Schaffer, AnnaUn, 1869. diL 314; and R. W. £.
Maclvor, Chem. News, 1875, xxxii. **9*
ALGAROTTI, FRANCESCO, Coukt (17 12-1764), Italian ph3o-
sopher and writer on art, was born on the nth of December
171a at Venice, and died at Pisa in 1764. He studied at Rome
and Bologna, and at the age of twenty went to Paris, where
he enjoyed the friendship of Voltaire and produced his great
ALGARVE— ALGEBRA
599
work Neutonianismo per U dome, a work on optics. Voltaire
called him his cher cygne de Padeuc. Returning from a journey
to Russia, he met Frederick the Great who made him a count
of Prussia (1740) and court chamberlain (1747)* Augustus III.
of Poland honoured him with the title of councillor. In 1754,
after seven years' residence partly in Berlin and partly in Dresden,
he returned to Italy, living at Venice and then at Pisa, where
he died on the 3rd of May 1764. Frederick the Great erected
to his memory a monument on the Campo Santo at Pisa. He
was a man of wide knowledge, a connoisseur in art and music,
and the friend of most of the leading authors of his time. His
chief work on art is the Saggi sopra le belle arti (" Essays on the
Fine Arts "). Among his other works may be mentioned Poems,
Travels in Russia, Essay on Painting, Correspondence.
The best complete edition with biography was published by
D. Micheksw 079I-I794)-
ALGARVE, or Algarves, an ancient kingdom and province
in the extreme S. of Portugal, corresponding with the modern
administrative district of Faro, and bounded on the {1. by
Alcmtejo, E. by the Spanish province of Huclva, and S. and W.
by the Atlantic Ocean. Pop. (1000) 255,101; area, 1937 sq. m.
The greatest length of the province is about 85 m. from E. to W. ;
its average breadth is about 22 m. from N. to S. The Serra de
Malhio and the Serra de Monchique extend in the form of a
crescent across the northern part of the province, and, sweeping
to the south-west, terminate in the lofty promontory of Cape
St Vincent, the south-west extremity of Europe. This headland
is famous as the scene of many sea-fights, notably the defeat
inflicted on the Spanish fleet in February 1797 by the British
under Admiral Jervis, afterwards Earl St Vincent. Between
the mountainous tracts in the north and the southern coast
stretches a narrow plain, watered by numerous rivers flowing
southward from the hills. The coast is fringed for 30 m. from
Quartcira to Tavira, with long sandy islands, through which
there are six passages, the most important being the Barra Nova,
between Faro and Olhao. The navigable estuary of the Guadiana
divides Algarve from Huclva, and its tributaries water the
western districts. From the Serra de Malhio flow two streams,
the Silves and Odelouca, which unite and enter the Atlantic
below the town of Silves. In the hilly districts the roads are
bad, the soil unsuited for cultivation, and the inhabitants few.
Flocks of goats are reared on the mountain-sides. The level
country along the southern coast is more fertile, and produces
in abundance grapes, figs, oranges, lemons, olives, almonds, aloes,
and even plantains and dates. The land is, however, not well
suited for the production of cereals, which ire mostly imported
from Spain. On the coast the people gain their living in great
measure from the fisheries, tunny and sardines being caught
in considerable quantities. Salt is also made from sea-water.
There is no manufacturing or mining industry of any importance.
The harbours are bad, and almost the whole foreign trade is
carried on by ships of other nations, although the inhabitants
of Algarve are reputed to be the best seamen and fishermen of
Portugal. The chief exports are dried fruit, wine, salt, tunny,
sardines and anchovies. The only railway is the Lisbon-Faro
main line, which passes north-eastward from Faro, between the
Monchique and Malhio ranges. Faro (11,789), Lagos (8291),
Louie" (22,478), Monchique (7345). Olhao (10,009), Silves (9687)
and Tavira (12,175), the chief towns, are described in separate
articles.
The name of Algarve is derived from the Arabic, and signifies
a land lying to the west. The title " king of Algarve," held by
the kings of Portugal, was first assumed by Alphonso III., who
captured Algarve from the Moors in 1253.
ALOAU, or AllcXu, the name now given to a comparatively
small district forming the south-western corner of Bavaria,
and belonging to the province of Swabia and Neuburg, but
formerly applied to a much larger territory, which extended
as far as the Danube on the N., the Inn on the S. and the
Lech on the W. The Algau Alps contain several lofty peaks,
the highest of which is Madelcgabel (8681 ft.). The district is
celebrated for its cattle, milk, butter and cheese.
ALGEBRA (from the Arab, aljebr wa'l-nuq&bola, transposition
and removal [of terms of an equation], the name-of a treatise by
Mahommed ben Musa al-Khwarizmi), a branch of mathematics
which may be defined as the generalization and extension of
arithmetic.
The subject-matter of algebra will be treated in the following
article under three divisions. — A. Principles of ordinary algebra;
B. Special kinds of algebra; C. History. Special phases of the
subject are treated under their own headings, e.g. Algebraic
Forms; Binomial; Combinatorial Analysis; Determin-
ants; Equation; Continued Fraction; Function; Groups,
Theory of; Logarithm; Number; Probability; Series.
A. Principles of Ordinary Algebra
1. The above definition gives only a partial view of the scope
of algebra. It may be regarded as based on arithmetic, or as
dealing in the first instance with formal results of the laws of
arithmetical number; and in this sense Sir Isaac Newton gave
the title Universal Arithmetic to a work on algebra. Any defini-
tion, however, must have reference to the state of development
of the subject at the time when the definition is given.
2. The earliest algebra consists in the solution of equations.
The distinction between algebraical and arithmetical reasoning
then lies mainly in the fact that the former is in a more condensed
form than the latter; an unknown quantity being represented
by a special symbol, and other symbols being used as a kind of
shorthand for verbal expressions. This form of algebra was
extensively studied in ancient Egypt; but, in accordance with
the practical tendency of the Egyptian mind, the study consisted
largely in the treatment of particular cases, very few general
rules being obtained.
3. For many centuries algebra was confined almost entirely
to the solution of equations; one of the most important steps
being the enunciation by Diophantus of Alexandria of the laws
governing the use of the minus sign. The knowledge of these
laws, however, does not imply the existence of a conception of
negative quantities. The development of symbolic algebra by
the use of general symbols to denote numbers is due to Franciscus
Vieta (Francois Vitte, x 540-1603). This led to the idea of algebra
as generalized arithmetic
4. The principal step in the modern development of algebra
was the recognition of the meaning of negative quantities.
This appears to have been due in the first instance to Albert
Girard (1595-1632), who extended Vieta's results in various
branches of mathematics. His work, however, was little known
at the time, and later was overshadowed by the greater work of
Descartes (1506-1650).
5. The main work of Descartes, so far as algebra was concerned,
was the establishment of a relation between arithmetical and
geometrical measurement. This involved not only the geo-
metrical interpretation of negative quantities, but also the idea
of continuity; this latter, which is the basis of modern analysis,
leading to two separate but allied developments, viz. the theory
of the function and the theory of limits.
6. The great development of all branches of mathematics in
the two centuries following Descartes has led to the term algebra
being used to cover a great variety of subjects, many of which
are really only ramifications of arithmetic, dealt with by alge-
braical methods, while others, such as the theory of numbers
and the general theory of series, are outgrowths of the application
of algebra to arithmetic, which involve such special ideas that
they must properly be regarded as distinct subjects. Some
writers have attempted unification by treating algebra as con-
cerned with functions, and Comte accordingly defined algebra
as the calculus of functions, arithmetic being regarded as the
calculus of values.
7. These attempts at the unification of algebra, and its
separation from other branches of mathematics, have usually
been accompanied by an attempt to base it, as a deductive
science, on certain fundamental laws or general rules; and
this has tended to increase its difficulty. In reality, the variety
of algebra corresponds to the variety of phenomena. Neither
6oo
ALGEBRA
mathematics itself, nor any branch or set of branches of mathe-
matics, can be regarded as an isolated science. While, therefore,
the logical development of algebraic reasoning must depend on
certain fundamental relations, it is important that in the early
study of the subject these relations should be introduced grad-
ually, and not until there is some empirical acquaintance with the
phenomena with which they are concerned.
8. The extension of the range of subjects to which mathe-
matical methods can be applied, accompanied as it is by an
extension of the range of study which is useful to the ordinary
worker, has led in the latter part of the 19th century to an
important reaction against the specialization mentioned in the
preceding paragraph. This reaction has taken the form of a
return to the alliance between algebra and geometry (§5), on
which modern analytical geometry is based; the alliance,
however, being concerned with the application of graphical
methods to particular cases rather than to general expressions.
These applications are sometimes treated under arithmetic,
sometimes under algebra; but it is more convenient to regard
graphics as a separate subject, closely allied to arithmetic,
algebra, mensuration and analytical geometry.
9. The association of algebra with arithmetic on the one
hand, and with geometry on the other, presents difficulties, in
that geometrical measurement is based essentially on the idea
of continuity, while arithmetical measurement is based essentially
on the idea of discontinuity; both ideas being equally matters
of intuition. The difficulty first arises in elementary mensura-
tion, where it is partly met by associating arithmetical and
geometrical measurement with the cardinal and the ordinal
aspects of number respectively (see Arithmetic). Later, the
difficulty recurs in an acute form in reference to the continuous
variation of a function. Reference to a geometrical interpreta-
tion seems at first sight to throw light on the meaning of a
differential coefficient; but closer analysis reveals new difficulties,
due to the geometrical interpretation itself. One of the most
recent developments of algebra is the algebraic theory of number,
which is devised with the view of removing these difficulties.
The harmony between arithmetical and geometrical measure-
ment, which was disturbed by the Greek geometers on the
discovery of irrational numbers, is restored by an unlimited
supply of the causes of disturbance.
xo. Two other developments of algebra are of special import-
ance. The theory of sequences and series is sometimes treated
as a part of elementary algebra; but it is more convenient to
regard the simpler cases as isolated examples, leading up to the
general theory. The treatment of equations of the second and
higher degrees introduces imaginary and complex numbers, the
theory of which is a special subject.
11. One of the most difficult questions for the teacher of
algebra is the stage at which, and the extent to which, the
ideas of a negative number and of continuity may be introduced.
On the one hand, the modern developments of algebra began
with these ideas, and particularly with the idea of a negative
number. On the other hand, the lateness of occurrence of any
particular mathematical idea is usually closely correlated with
its intrinsic difficulty. Moreover, the ideas which are usually
formed on these points at an early stage are incomplete; and,
if the incompleteness of an idea is not realized, operations in
which it is implied are apt to be purely formal and mechanical.
What are called negative numbers in arithmetic, for instance, are
not really negative numbers but negative quantities ($ 27 (i.));
and the difficulties incident to the ideas of continuity have
already been pointed out
12. In the present article, therefore, the main portions of
elementary algebra are treated in one section, without reference
to these ideas, which are considered generally in two separate
sections. These three sections may therefore be regarded as to
a certain extent concurrent. They are preceded by two sections
dealing with the introduction to algebra from the arithmetical
and the graphical sides, and are followed by a section dealing
briefly with the developments mentioned in ff 9 and 10
above.
I. Arithmetical Introduction to Algebrn.
13. Order of Arithmetical Operations. — It is important, betszs
beginning the study of algebra, to have a dear idem as to the
meanings of the symbols used to denote arithmetical operatiess.
(i.) Additions and subtractions are performed from left is
right Thus 3 lb + 5 tt>- 7 lb + 2 tb means that 5 lb is s
be added to 3 lb, 7 lb subtracted from the result, and 2 £
added to the new result
(ii.) The above operation is performed with 1 lb as the est
of counting, and the process would be the same with any otto
unit; e.g. we should perform the same process to see 1
3S.+5S.— 7S.+2S. Hence we can separate the numbers fna
the common unit, and replace 3 lb+5 lb — 7 Ib+a tt> fcf
(3+5—7+2) lb, the additions and subtractions being tha
performed by means of an addition-table.
(Hi.) Multiplications, represented by X, are performed fraa
right to left Thus 5X3X7X1 lb means 5 times 3 times 7 time
z lb; i.e. it means that 1 lb is to be multiplied by 7, the rest!*
by 3, and the new result by 5. We may regard this as mesas*
the same as 5X3X7 lb, since 7 lb itself means 7X1 lb, aai
the lb is the unit in each case. But it does not mean the saw
as 5X21 lb, though the two are equal, i.e. give the same res-':
(see § 23).
This rule as to the meaning of X is important If it is intended
that the first number is to be multiplied by the second, a spedd
sign such as X should be used.
(iv.) The sign + means that the quantity or number preccxSei
it is to be divided by the quantity or number following it
(v.) The use of the solidus / separating two numbers is kr
convenience of printing fractions or fractional numbers. Ten
16/4 does not mean 16+ 4t but V-
(vi.) Any compound operation not coming under the abow
descriptions is to have its meaning made dear by brackets, tbe
use of a pair of brackets indicating that the expression betraa
them is to be treated as a whole. Thus we should not wice
8X7+6, but (8X7R6, or 8X(7+6). The sign X ceas*
immediately before, or immediately after, a bracket may be
omitted; e.g. 8X(7+6) may be written 8(7+6).
This rule as to using brackets is not always observed, the
convention sometimes adopted being that multiplications a
divisions are to be performed before additions or subtraction
The convention is even pushed to such an extent as to sale
"4i+3l of 7+5 M mean " 4 i+(jl of 7)+S w ; though it :•
not dear what "Find the value of 4J+3! times 7+5 '* woofc
then mean. There are grave objections to an arbitrary rde *
this kind, the chief being the usdess waste of mental enerc
in remembering it
(vii.) The only exception that may be made to the above rat-
is that an expression involving multiplication-dots only, or »
simple fraction written with the solidus, may have the bracket
omitted for additions or subtractions, provided the figures are v
spaced as to prevent misunderstanding. Thus 8+ (7 X 6) +3 nn
be written 8+7.6+3, and 8+J+3 may be written 8+7/6+ j
But f-^J should be written (3-5)/(m). not 3-s/*-4-
14. Latent Equations.— -The equation exists, without bare
shown as an equation, in all those elementary arithmetic*,
processes which come under the head of inters* operations; » r
processes which consist in obtaining an answer to the quesue:
" Upon what has a given operation to be performed in order fe
produce a given result?" or to the question " What operatioa «
a given kind has to be performed on a given quantity or number
in order to produce a given result?"
(i.) In the case of subtraction the second of these two qnestiecs
is perhaps the simpler. Suppose, for instance, that we wish to
know how much will be left out of xos. after spending ss. t or ho»
much has been spent out of xos. if 3s. is left In either case «t
may put the question in two ways: — (a) What must be added 10
3s. in order to produce xos., or (b) To what must 3s. be added ia
order to produce 10s. If the answer to the question is X, *t
have either (a) ios.-3s.+X, .*.X-io*.-3s.
IOS.-X+JS., .°.X-tos.-3s.
8
ALGEBRA
60 1
(fi.) In the above case the two different kinds of statement lead
d arithmetical formulae of the same kind. In the case of division
re get two kinds of arithmetical formula, which, however, may be
eg&rded as requiring a single kind of numerical process in order
o determine the final result.
(a) If 24d. is divided into 4 equal portions, how much will
ach portion be ?
Let the answer be X; then
24d.-4XX,.\ X-l of »4d.
(o) Into how many equal portions of od. each may aad. be
livided ?
Let the answer be x; then
24d. -xX6d., .*. x-J4d.+6d.
(Hi.) Where the direct operation is evolution, for which there is
no commutative law, the two inverse operations are different
n kind.
(a) What would be the dimensions of a cubical vessel which
would exactly hold 125 litres; a litre being a cubic decimetre ?
Let the answer be X; then
125 cdm. ■■X', .*. X - ? 125 cdm. - {125 dm.
(6) To what power must 5 be raised to produce 125 ?
Let the answer be x; then
i25-5 s ,.\x-Iog» "5-
15. With regard to the above, the following points should be
noted.
( 1) When what we require to know is a quantity, it is simplest
to deal with this quantity as a whole. In (i.), for instance, we
want to find the amount by which xos. exceeds 3s., not the
number of shillings in this amount It is true that we obtain
this result by subtracting 3 from zo by means of a subtraction-
table (concrete or ideal); but this table merely gives the
generalized results of a number of operations of addition or
subtraction performed with concrete units. We must count
with something; and the successive somethings obtained by
the addition of successive units are in fact numerical quantities,
not numbers.
Whether this principle may legitimately be extended to the
notation adopted in (hi.) (a) of § 14 is a moot point. But the
present tendency is to regard the early association of arithmetic
with linear measurement as important; and it seems to follow
that we may properly (at any rate at an early stage of the subject)
multiply a length by a length, and the product again by another
length, the practice being dropped when it becomes necessary
to give a strict definition of multiplication.
(2) The results may be stated briefly as follows, the more
usual form being adopted under (iii.) (a):—
a) If A-B+X.or-X+B.thenX-A-B.
QL) (a) If A -m times X, then X - £ of A.
(ft) If A-x times M, then x-A-i-M.
(HI.) (a) Ifn-x*. thenx-#».
(ft) If 11 -a*, then x - log* n.
The important thing to notice is that where, in any of these
five cases, one statement is followed by another, the second is
not to be regarded as obtained from the first by logical reasoning
involving such general axioms as that " if equals arc taken from
equals the remainders are equal "; the fact being that the two
statements are merely different ways of expressing the same
relation. To say, for instance, that X is equal to A - B, is the
same thing as to say that X is a quantity such that X and
B, when added, make up A; and the above five statements
of necessary connexion between two statements of equality
are in fact nothing more than definitions of the symbols-,
^of.+^andlog..
An apparent difficulty is that we use a single symbol - to
denote the result of the two different statements in (i.) (a) and
(i.) (ft) of f 14. This is due to the fact that there are really two
kinds of subtraction, respectively involving counting forwards
(complementary addition) and counting backwards (ordinary
subtraction); and it suggests that it may be wise not to use the
one symbol -to represent the result of both operations until
the commutative law for addition has been fully grasped.
16. In the same way, a statement is to the result of an inverse
operation is really, by the definition of the operation, a statement
as to the result of a direct operation. If, for infiance, we
state that A-X-B, this is really a statement that X- A+B.
Thus, corresponding to the results under | 15 (2), we have the
following: —
(1) Where the inverse operation is performed on the unknown
quantity or number: —
(i.) If A-X-B, then X-A+B.
(ii.) (a) HM-£ of X. then X-» times M.
(ft) If m-X+M, then X-m times M.
(Hi.) (a) Ifa-v'x, thenx-a*.
(ft) If p-IogftX, then x-a*.
(2) Where the inverse operation is performed with the un-
known quantity or number: —
(1.) If B-A-X. thenA-B+X.
(ii.) (a) If w-A+X, then A-m times X.
(ft) If M -; of A, then A -x dines M,
(iii.) (a) Iff -log,*, then »-*>.
(ft) If a - y/ n, then 11 -a*.
In each of these cases, however, the reasoning which enables
us to replace one statement by another is of a different kind
from the reasoning in the corresponding cases of § 15. There we
proceeded from the direct to the inverse operations; i.e. so far
as the nature of arithmetical operations is concerned, we launched
out on the unknown. In the present section, however, we return
from the inverse operation to the direct; i*. we rearrange our
statement in its simplest form. The statement, for instance,
that 32-X-25, is really a statement that 32 is the sum of x
and 25.
17. The five equalities which stand first in the five pairs of
equalities in 1 1 5 (2) may therefore be taken as the main types of a
simple statement of equality. When we are familiar with the treat-
ment of quantities by equations, we may ignore the units and deal
solely with numbers; and (ii.) (a) and (ii.) (ft) may then, by the
commutative law for multiplication, be regarded as identical.
The five processes of deduction then reduce to four, which may
be described as (i.) subtraction, (ii.) division, (iii.) (a) taking a
root, (iii.) (ft) taking logarithms. It will be found that these
(and particularly the first three) cover practically all the pro-
cesses legitimately adopted in the elementary theory of the
solution of equations; other processes being sometimes liable
to introduce roots which do not satisfy the original equation.
18. It should be noticed that we are still dealing with the
elementary processes of arithmetic, and that all the numbers
contemplated in §} 14-17 are supposed to be positive integers.
If, for instance, we are told that 15 - f of (x- 3), what is meant
is that (1) there is a number u such that x-«-fa, (2) there
is a number v such that «-4 times v, and (3) 15— 3 times «.
From these statements, working backwards, we find successively
that 9*5, tt—20, x-22. The deductions follow directly
from the definitions, and such mechanical processes as "clearing
of fractions " find no place (§21 (ii.)). The extension of the
methods to fractional numbers is part of the establishment of
the laws governing these numbers (§ 27 (ii.)).
19. Expressed Equations. — The simplest forms of arithmetical
equation arise out of abbreviated solutions of particular prob-
lems. In accordance with § 15, it is desirable that our state-
ments should be statements of equality of quantities rather
than of numbers; and it is convenient in the early stages to
have a distinctive notation, e.g. to represent the former by capital
letters and the latter by small letters.
As an example, take the following. I buy 2 lb of tea, and
have 6s. 8d. left out of xos.; how much per tt> did tea cost?
(1) In ordinary language we should say: Since 6s. 8d. was
left, the amount spent was xos. — 6s. 8d., i.e. was 3s. 4d. There-
fore 2 lb of tea cost 3s. 4d. Therefore x lb of tea cost xs. 8d.
(2) The first step towards arithmetical reasoning in such a
case is the introduction of the sign of equality. Thus we say:—
Cost of 2 lb tea -f 6s. 8d. * 10s.
•\ Cost of 2 lb tea ■ 10s. —6s. 8d. -3s. 4d.
.*. Cost of 1 lb tea ■ is. 8d
602
ALGEBRA
(3) The next step is to show more distinctly the unit we are
dealing with (in addition to the money unit),, vis. the cost of 1 lb
tea. We write :—
(a Xcost of 1 lb tea) +6*. 8d. - 10s.
.'. 2 Xcost of 1 thteaBios.-6B.8d.-3ft.4d.
.'. Cost of 1 lb tea - is. 8d.
(4) The stage which is introductory to algebra consists merely
in replacing the unit " cost of 1 lb tea " by a symbol, which
may be a letter or a mark such as the mark of interrogation, the
asterisk, to. If we denote this unit by X, we have
(aXX)+6s.8d.-xos.
.-.2XX-104.-6t.8d.-3a.4d.
,\X-xs.8d.
so. Notation of Multiples.— The above is arithmetic. The
only thing which it is necessary to import from algebra is the
notation by which we write aX instead of 2 X X or 2 . X. This is
rendered possible by the fact that we can use a single letter to
represent a single number or numerical quantity, however many
digits are contained in the number.
It must be remembered that, if o is a number, 3a means 3
times a, not o times 3; the latter must be represented by 0X3
or a . 3.
The number by which an algebraical expression is to be
multiplied is called its coefficient. Thus in 3a the coefficient of a
is 3. But in 3. 4a the coefficient of 4a is 3, while the coefficient of
is 3 . 4.
ax. Equations with Fractional Coefficients.— to an example of a
special form of equation we may take
ir+ix-10.
(i.) There are two ways of proceeding.
(a) The statement is that (1) there is a number u such that
*- 2tf,(a) there is a number v such that x«3», and (3) «+t- xo.
We may therefore conveniently take as our unit, in place of *, a
number y such that x-6y.
We then have $y + *y - xo,
whence 5y-io, y«a,x-6y-ia.
(b) We can collect coefficients, i.e. combine the separate
quantities or numbers expressed in terms of x as unit into a
single quantity or number so expressed, obtaining
|r-io.
By successive stages we obtain (5 18) |*-a, 2-12; or we
may write at once x-?v of 10 -- of 10-12. The latter
b the more advanced process, implying some knowledge of the
laws of fractional numbers, as well as an application of the
associative law (5 26 (i.)).
(ii.) Perhaps the worst thing we can do, from the point of view
of intelligibility, is to " clear of fractions " by multiplying both
sides by 6. It is no doubt true that, if |x+|x-io, then yc+
ax -60 (and similarly if \x+ Jx+Jx-io, then 3*+ 2*+*- 60);
but the fact, however interesting it may be, is of no importance
for our present purpose. In the method (a) above there is
indeed a multiplication by 6; but it is a multiplication arising
out of subdivision, not out of repetition (see Arithmetic), so
that the total (via. 10) is unaltered.
as. Arithmetical and Algebraical Treatment of Equations.— The
following will illustrate the passage from arithmetical to alge-
braical reasoning. " Coal costs 3s. a ton more this year than
last year. If 4 tons last year cost 104a., how much does a ton
cost this year?"
If we write X for the cost per ton this year, we have
4(X-3i.)-i©4s.
From this we can deduce successively X- 3s. -26s., X-aos.
But, if we transform the equation into
4X- 12s. -104s.,
we make an essential alteration. The original statement was
with regard to X- 3s. as the unit; and from this, by the applica-
tion of the distributive law (5 26 (i.)), we have passed to a state-
ment with regard to X as the unit. This is an algebraical process.
In the same way, the transition from (x*+4*+4)-4-ax
to « 1 +4x+4- 25, or from (x+2)*-as to x+2-j2S t » arith-
metical; but the transition from x»-f 4x4-4- 25 to (x+a)*"a5
is algebraical, since it involves a change of the number we are
thinking about |
Generally, we may say that algebraic reasoning in reference te
equations consists in the alteration of the form of a statesiest
rather than in the deduction of a new statement; iu. it cans*
be said that "If A-B, then E-F " is arithmetic, while "I:
C-D, then E-F " is algebra. Algebraic treatment consists is
replacing either of the terms A or B by an expression which «e
know from the laws of arithmetic to be equivalent to it. Tie
subsequent reasoning is arithmetical.
23. Sign of Equality.— -The various meanings of the sfea of
equality (-) must be distinguished.
(L) 4X3 tt>- lath.
This states that the result of the operation of multiplying 3 h
by 4 is 12 lb. (ii.) 4X3 lb -3X4 lb.
This states that the two operations give the same result; U
that they are equivalent.
(iii.) A's share -5s., or
3 times A's share - 15s.
Either of these is a statement of fact with regard to a particuhr
quantity; it is usually called an equation, but sometimes s
conditional equation, the term " equation " being then extended
to cover (i.) and (ii.). (iv.) x*-*XxXx.
This is a definition of x»; the sign «■ is in such cases nseaB;
replaced by =. (v.) aad. -as.
This is usually regarded as being, like (ii.), a statement el
equivalence. It is, however, only true if is. is equivalent to i*d ,
and the correct statement is then
E|;Xa4d. -as.
If the operator -j^rX is omitted, the statement is reafly u
equation, giving is. in terms of id. or vice terse.
The following statements should be compared.—
X-A'sshare-I of /jo-iX/s-OS
X-A's share -I of £io-| of £30 -£15.
In each case, the first sign of equality comes under (xv.) above,
the second under (iii.), and the fourth under (i.); but the thed
sign comes under (i.) in the first case (the statement being that
4 of £10- £5) and under (ii.) in the second.
It will be seen from $ 22 that the application of algebra te
equations consists in the interchange of equivalent expressfcss,
and therefore comes under (i.) and (ii.). We replace a(x- 3) , foe
instance, by 4*- 4- 3. because we know that, whatever the value
of x may be, the result of subtracting 3 from it and multiphisi
the remainder by 4 is the same as the result of finding ax and'4 3
separately and subtracting the latter from the former.
A statement such as (i.) or (ii.) is sometimes called an identity.
The two expressions whose equality is stated by an equation
or an identity are its members.
24. Use of Letters in General Reasoning. — It may be ■«nq»rf
that the use of letters to denote quantities or numbers wiH hat
arise in dealing with equations, so that the letter used wiH in
each case represent a definite quantity or number; such geseol
statements as those of §§ x 5 and 16 being deferred to a later stafr
In addition to these, there are cases in which letters can use-
fully be employed for general arithmetical reasoning.
(i.) There are statements, such as A+B-B+A, which ait
particular cases of the laws of arithmetic, but need not be ex-
pressed as such. For multiplication, for instance, we have the
statement that, if P and Q are two quantities, containing respec-
tively p and q of a particular unit, then pXQ—qXP; or tk
more abstract statement that PXq—qXp.
(ii.) The general theory of ratio and proportion requires tk
use of general symbols.
(iii.) The general statement of the laws of operation of fractions
is perhaps best deferred until we come to fractional nusabm,
when letters can be used to express the laws of nraltipticatica
and division of such numbers.
(iv.) Variation is generally included in text-books on algebo.
but apparently only because the reasoning is general It is
part of the general theory of quantitative relation, and is its
elementary stages is a suitable subject for graphical treatment
(1 30-
ALGEBRA
603
25. Preparation for Algebra. — The calculation of the values
of simple algebraical expressions for particular values of letters
involved is a useful exercise, but its tediousness is apt to make
the subject repulsive.
What is more important is to verify particular examples of
general formulae. These formulae are of two kinds:— (a) the
general properties, such as m(a+b)-ma+mb, on which algebra
is based, and (b) particular formulae such as (x-a)(x+a)
«x*-o». Such verifications are of value for two reasons. In
the first place, they lead to an understanding of what is meant
by the use of brackets and by such a statement as 3(7+2)
—3 • 7+3 • 2. This does not mean (cf. | 23) that the algebraic
result of performing the operation 3(7+2) is 3 . 7+3 . 2 ; it means
that if we convert 7+2 into the single number 9 and then
multiply by 3 we get the same result as if we converted 3 . 7
and 3.2 into 21 and 6 respectively and added the results. In
the second place, particular cases lay the foundation for the
genera] formula.
Exercises in the collection of coefficients of various letters
occurring in a complicated expression are usually performed
mechanically, and are probably of very little value.
16. General Arithmetical Theorems.
(i.) The fundamental laws of arithmetic (q.v.) should be con-
stantly borne in mind, though not necessarily stated. The
following are some special points.
(a) The commutative law and the associative law are closely
related, and it is best to establish each law for the case of two
numbers before proceeding to the general case. In the case of
addition, for instance, suppose that we are satisfied that in
o+b+c+d+e we may take any two, as b and c, together
(association) and interchange them (commutation). Then we
have fl+ft+c+i+«-a+c+6+i+«. Thus any pair of adjoin-
ing numbers can be interchanged, so that the numbers can be
arranged in any order.
(b) The important form of the distributive law is m(A+B)
•• m A +mB. The form (m +«) A - *A+« A follows at once from
the fact that A is the unit with which we are dealing.
(c) The fundamental properties of subtraction and of division
are that A-B+B-A and *x£ of A- A, since in each case the
second operation restores the original quantity with which we
started.
(ii.) The elements of the theory of numbers belong to arith-
metic. In particular, the theorem that if n is a factor of a and
of * it is also a factor of Pa+qb, where p and q are any integers,
is important in reference to the determination of greatest common
divisor and to the elementary treatment of continued fractions.
Graphic methods are useful here (( 34 (iv.)). The law of relation
of successive convergents to a continued fraction involves more
advanced methods (see § 42 (Hi.) and Continued Fraction).
(iii.) There are important theorems as to the relative value of
fractions; e.g.
( fl )IfJ-£theneach-*£g
<W J^5 «• nearer to I than j is; and, generally, if J* J, then
?JS§ lies between the two. (All the numbers are, of course,
supposed to be positive.)
27. Negative Quantities and Fractional Numbers.— (i.) What are
usually called " negative numbers " in arithmetic are in reality
not negative numbers but negative quantities. If a person has to
receive 7s. and pay 5s., with a net result of +as., the order of
the operations is immaterial. If he pays first, he then has -5s.
This is sometimes treated as a debt of 5s.; an alternative method
is to recognize that our zero is really arbitrary, and that in fact
we shift it with every operation of addition or subtraction. But
when we say "-5s." we mean "-(5s.)," not "(-5)$."; the
idea of (-5) as a number with which we can perform such
operations as multiplication comes later (§ 49).
(ii.) On the other hand, the conception of a fractional number
follows directly from the use of fractions, involving the sub-
division of a unit. We find that fractions follow certain laws
corresponding exactly with those of integral multipliers, and we
are therefore able to deal with the fractional numbers as if they
were integers.
28. Miscellaneous Developments in Arithmetic. — The following
are matters which really belong to arithmetic; they are usually
placed under algebra, since the general formulae involve the use
of letters.
(i.) Arithmetical Progressions such as 2, 5, 8, . . .—The formula
for the rth term is easily obtained. The problem of finding the
sum of r terms is aided by graphic representation, which shows
that the terms may be taken in pairs, working from the outside
to the middle; the two cases of an odd number of terms and an
even number of terms may be treated separately at first, and
then combined by the ordinary method, viz. writing the series
backwards.
In this, as in almost all other cases, particular examples should
be worked before obtaining a general formula.
(ii.) The law of indices (positive integral indices only) follows
at once from the definition of a", a*, a*, ... as abbreviations
of o.o, o.o.o, a.a.a.a, . . ., or (by analogy with the definitions of
2, 3, 4, . . . themselves) of a.a, a.a*, 0.0*, . . . successively.
The treatment of roots and of logarithms (all being positive
integers) belongs to this subject; a—tyn and ^-log.n being the
inverses of »-a» (cf. §§ 15, 16). The theory may be extended to
the cases of p** 1 and ^-o; so that a* means o.a.0.1, a* means
a.a. i, a 1 means a.i, and o° means 1 (there being then none of the
multipliers a).
The terminology is sometimes confused. In n—a*, a is the
root or base f p is the index or logarithm, and n is the power or
antUogarithm. Thus a, a 1 , a*, . . . are the first, second, third,
. . . powers of a. But a 9 is sometimes incorrectly described as
" a to the power p "; the power being thus confused with the
index or logarithm.
(iii.) Scales of Notation lead, by considering, e.g. , how to express
in the scale of 10 a number whose expression in the scale of 8 is
2233222, tO
(iv.) Geometrical Progressions.— It should be observed that
the radix of the scale is exactly the same thing as the root
mentioned under (ii.) above; and it is better to use the term
" root " throughout. Denoting the root by a, and the number
2222222 in this scale by N, we have
N- 2222222,
«N "22222220.
Thus by adding 2 to aS we can subtract N from aN+ 2, obtaining
20000000, which is =*2 . a 7 ; and from this we easily pass to the
general formula for the sum of a geometrical progression having
a given number of terms.
(v.) Permutations and Combinations may be regarded as
arithmetical recreations; they become important algebraically
in reference to the binomial theorem (§§ 41, 44).
(vi.) Surds and Approximate Logarithms. — From the arith-
metical point of view, surds. present a greater difficulty than
negative quantities and fractional numbers. We cannot solve the
equation 7S.+X-43.; but we are accustomed to transactions of
lending and borrowing, and we can therefore invent a negative
quantity -3s. such that -3s. +35.-0. We cannot solve the
equation 7X-4S.; but we are accustomed to subdivision of
units, and we can therefore give a meaning to X by inventing
a unit |s. such that 7X}s- is., and can thence pass to the idea
of fractional numbers. When, however, we come to the equation
**-5, where we are dealing with numbers, not with quantities,
we have no concrete facts to assist us. We can, however, find
a number whose square shall be as nearly equal to 5 as we please,
and it is this number that we treat arithmetically as V5. We
may take it to (say) 4 places of decimals; or we may suppose
it to be taken to 1000 places. In actual practice, surds mainly
arise out of mensuration; and we can then give an exact defini-
tion by graphical methods.
When, by practice with logarithms, we become familiar with
the correspondence between additions of length on the log-
arithmic scale (on a slide-rule) and multiplication -of numbers
in the natural scale (including fractional numbers), V5 acquires
604
ALGEBRA
a definite meaning as the number corresponding to the ex-
tremity of a length x, on the logarithmic scale, such that 5
corresponds to the extremity of 2*. Thus the concrete fact
required to enable us to pass arithmetically from the concep-
tion of a fractional number to the conception of a surd is the
fact of performing calculations by means, of logarithms.
In the same way we regard log»2, not as a new kind of number,
but as an approximation.
(vii.) The use of fractional indices follows directly from this
parallelism. We find that the product a m Xa m Xa m is equal to
a*"; and, by definition, the product -yfaX-yfaX to is equal
to a, which is a 1 . This suggests that we should write -fa as a" 3 ;
and. we find that the use of fractional indices in this way satisfies
the laws of integral indices. It should be observed that, by
analogy with the definition of a fraction, a* I* mean (a 1 ' 4 )*,
not (a') 1 /*.
II. Graphical Introduction to Algebra,
29. The science of graphics is closely related to that of mensura-
tion. While mensuration is concerned with the representation
of geometrical magnitudes by numbers, graphics is concerned
with the representation of numerical quantities by geometrical
figures, and particularly by lengths. An important development,
covering such diverse matters as the equilibrium of forces and
the algebraic theory of complex numbers (§ 66), has relation to
cases where the numerical quantity has direction as well as
magnitude. There are also cases in which graphics and mensura-
tion are used jointly; a variable numerical quantity is repre-
sented by a graph, and the principles of mensuration are then
applied to determine related numerical quantities. General
aspects of the subject are considered under Mensuration;
Vector Analysis; Infinitesimal Calculus.
30. The elementary use of graphic methods is qualitative
rather than quantitative; i.e. it is for purposes of illustration
and suggestion rather than for purposes of deduction and exact
calculation. We start with related facts, and adopt a particular
method of visualizing the relation. One of the relations most
commonly illustrated in this way is the time-relation; the
passage of time being associated with the passage of a point
along a straight line, so that equal intervals of time are repre-
sented by equal lengths.
31. It is important to begin the study of graphics with concrete
cases rather than with tracing values of an algebraic function.
Simple examples of the time-relation are — the number of
scholars present in a class, the height of the barometer, and the
reading of the thermometer, on successive days. Another useful
set of graphs comprises those which give the relation between
the expressions of a length, volume, &c, on different systems
of measurement. Mechanical, commercial, economic and statis-
tical facts (the latter usually involving the time-relation) afford
numerous examples.
32. The ordinary method of representation is as follows.
Let X and Y be the related quantities, their expressions in
terms of selected units A and B being x and y, so that X-*.A,
Y - y . B. For graphical representation we select units of length
L and M, not necessarily identical. We take a fixed line OX,
usually drawn horizontally; for each value of X we measure a
length or abscissa ON equal to x.L, and draw an ordinate NP
at right angles to OX and equal to the corresponding value of
y . M. The assemblage of ordinates NP is then the graph of Y.
The series of values of X will in general be discontinuous,
and the graph will then be made up of a succession of parallel and
(usually) equidistant ordinates. When the series is theoretically
continuous, the theoretical graph will be a continuous figure
of which the lines actually drawn are ordinates. The upper
boundary of this figure will be a line of some sort; it is this line,
rather than the figure, that is sometimes called the " graph."
It is better, however, to treat this as a secondary meaning. In
particular, the equality or inequality of values of two functions
is more readily grasped by comparison of the lengths of the
ordinates of the graphs than by inspection of the relative positions
of their bounding lines.
33. The importance of the bounding line of the graph bo m
the fact that we can keep it unaltered while we alter the grant
as a whole by moving OX up or down. We might, for instance,
read temperature from 6o° instead of from o°. Thus «e
form the conception, not only of a zero, but also of the arbitrari-
ness of position of this zero (cf. ( 27 (i.)); and we are assisted
to the conception of negative quantities, On the other nasi
the alteration in the direction of the bounding line, due te
alteration in the unit of measurement of Y, is useful in rditxa
to geometrical projection.
This, however, applies mainly to the representation of valves
of Y. Y is represented by the length of the ordinate NP. »
that the representation is cardinal; but this ordinate reaS?
corresponds to the point N, so that the representation of X is
ordinal. It is therefore only in certain special cases, such as
those of simple time-relations (e.g. " J is aged 40, and K is aped
26; when will J be twice as old as K?"), that the grap&c
method leads without arithmetical reasoning to the pr oper ti e s
of negative values. In other cases the continuation of the graph
may constitute a dangerous extrapolation.
34. Graphic representation thus rests on the principle that
equal numerical quantities may be represented by equal lengiks,
and that a quantity i»A may be represented by a length «L
where A and L are the respective units; and the science of
graphics rests on the converse property that the quantify
represented by ph is pA, i.e. that pK is determined by fiadisg
the number of times that L is contained in pL. The graphic
method may therefore be used in arithmetic for comparing r*9
particular magnitudes of the same kind by comparing the cent-
sponding lengths P and Q measured along a single line OX fwa
the same point O.
(i.) To divide P by Q, we cut off from P successive portiass
each equal to Q, till we have a piece R left which is less thaa Q.
Thus P=JrQ+R, where A is an integer.
(ii.) To continue the division we may take as our new sail
a submultiple of Q, such as Q/r, where r is an integer, and repeat
the process. We thus get P-AQ+ ».Q/r+S-(«+**/r)Q^S.
where S is less than Q/r. Proceeding in this way, we may be
able to express P+Q as the sum of a finite number of terns
k+mfr+nfr*+ ... ; or, if r is not suitably chosen, we rtay
not. If, e.g. r=io, we get the ordinary expression of P 1 ^
as an integer and a decimal; but, if P/Q were equal to 1.3*
we could not express it as a decimal with a finite number of
figures.
(iii.) In the above method the choice of r is arbitrary. W<
can avoid this arbitrariness by a different procedure. Haviss
obtained R, which is less than Q, we now repeat with Q mad K
the process that we adopted with P and Q; i.e. we rut of
from Q successive portions each equal to R. Suppose we fisd
Q-rR+T, then we repeat the process with R and T; and »
pn. We thus express P+Q in the form of a continued frartim,
Je+jqr; — .which is usualIywritten,forconciseness,*-r~y^4c.,
tT&c.
or*+I + i + &c
(iv.) If P and Q can be expressed in the forms pL and eL.
where p and q are integers, R will be equal to (p-kq)L, wfcki
is both less than pL and less than qh. Hence the successive
remainders are successively smaller multiples of L, but sii2
integral multiples, so that the series of quotients k, s, I, . .
will ultimately come to an end. Moreover, if the last divisor is
«L, then it follows from the theory of numbers (f 26 (ii.)) that <e)
u is a factor of p and of 9, and (b) any number which is a factor
of p and q is also a factor of u. Hence u is the greatest conucea
measure of p and q.
35. In relation to algebra, (he graphic method is mainly
useful in connexion with the theory of limits (§| 58, 61) and the
functional treatment of equations (§ 60). As regards the latter,
there are two classes of cases. In the first class come equations
in a single unknown; here the function which is equated »
zero is the Y whose values for different values of X are traced.
ALGEBRA
605
«»d the solution of the equation is the determination of the
points where the ordinate* of the graph are zero. The second
class of esses comprises equations involving two unknowns;
here we have to deal with two graphs, and the solution of the
equation is the determination of their common ordinate*.
Graphic methods also enter into the consideration of irrational
numbers (ft 65).
III. Elementary Algebra of Positive Numbers.
36. Monomials.— (i.) An expression such as a.i.a.a.bx.ya.ax,
denoting that a series of multiplications is to be performed, is
called a monomial; the numbers (arithmetical or algebraical)
which are multiplied together being its factors. An expression
denoting that two or more monomials are to be added or sub-
tracted is a multinomial or polynomial, each of the monomials
being a term of it. A multinomial consisting of two or of three
terms is a binomial or a trinomial.
(ii.) By means of the commutative law we can collect like
terms of a monomial, numbers being regarded as like terms.
Thus the above expression is equal to oa'Ac", which is, of course,
equal to other expressions, such as 6AaM. The numerical factor
6 is called the coefficient of a*bc* (§20); and, generally, the
coefficient of any factor or of the product of any factors is the
product of the remaining factors.
(iii.) The multiplication and division of monomials is effected
by means of the law of indices. Thus 6a h bc*+sa t bc—iaH t
since 6*- 1. It must, of course, be remembered (§ 23) that this
is a statement of arithmetical equality; we call the statement
sn " identity," but we do not mean that the expressions are
the same, but that, whatever the numerical values of a, b and c
may be, the expressions give the same numerical result.
In order that a monomial containing a* as a factor may be
divisible by a monomial containing a' as a factor, it is necessary
that p should be not greater than m.
(iv.) In algebra we have a theory of highest common factor and
lowest common multiple, but it is different from the arithmetical
theory of greatest common divisor and least common multiple.
We disregard numerical coefficients, so that by the H.C.F. or
L.C.M. of oa'fc'and iiaWcd we mean the H.C.F. or L.C.M.
of o'to 1 and aWcd. The H.C.F. is then an expression of the
form a»b*c'd% where P, q, r, s have the greatest possible values
consistent with the condition that each of the given expressions
shall be divisible by a*b*c<d\ Similarly the L.C.M. is of the
form a'b'c'd; where p, q, r, s have the least possible values
consistent with the condition that a 9 b*cd* shall be divisible by
each of the given expressions. In the particular case it is clear
that the H.C.F. is a*bc and the L.C.M. is aWd.
The extension to multinomials forms part of the theory of
factors (f 51).
37. Products of Multinomials. — (1.) Special arithmetical results
may often be used to lead up to algebraical formulae. Thus a
comparison of numbers occurring in a table of squares
i f -1 n'-iai
21-4 ,2 !- , il
-3* -9 13* -169
suggests the formula (A+aJ'-AM-aAtf+a*. Similarly the
equalities
99X101 -9999-10000— 1
98x102-9996-10000-4
97 X 103 -9991 - 10000-9
lead up to (A-a) (A+a)-A*-o». These, with (A-a)«-
A'-jAa+a*, are the most important in elementary work.
(ii.) These algebraical formulae involve not only the distributive
law and the law of signs, but also the commutative law. Thus
(A+«)»-(A+o)(A+a)-A(A+a)+fl(A+a)-AA+Aa+aA+<Hi;
and the grouping of the second and third terms as aAa involves
treating ha and <jA as identical. This is important when we
come to the binomial theorem (§ 41, and cf. § 54 (M).
(iii.) By writing (A+«)»- A*+aA*+o» in the form (A+o)«-
A*+ (aA+a)a, we obtain the rule for extracting the square root
in arithmetic
(iv.) When the terms of a multinomial contain various powers
of x, and we are specially concerned with x, the terms are usually
arranged in descending (or ascending) order of the indices;
terms which contain the same power being grouped so as to
give a single coefficient. Thus 36x-4**+ 606+30* would be
written -4x*+(sa+2b)x+6ob. It is not necessary to regard
-4 here as a negative number; all that is meant is that ax*
has to be subtracted.
(v.) When we have to multiply two multinomials arranged
according to powers of x, the method of detached coefficients
enables us to omit the powers of x during the multiplication. If
any power is absent, we treat it as present, but with coefficient o.
Thus, to multiply x*-2x+ 1 by i*»+4, we write the process
+1+0-2+1
+2+0+4
+2+0-4+*
+0+0-0+0
+4+0-8+4
+3+0+0+2-8+4
giving ax»+2x t -8x+4 as the result.
38. Construction and Transformation of Equations.— (i.) The
statement of problems in equations! form should precede the
solution of equations.
(ii.) The solution of equations is effected by transformation,
which may be either arithmetical or algebraical. The principles
of arithmetical transformation follow from those stated in
§§ 15-18 by replacing X, A, B, m, M, x, n, a and p by any ex-
pressions involving or not involving the unknown quantity or
number and representing positive numbers or (in the case of
X, A, B and M) positive quantities. The principle of algebraic
transformation has been stated in §22; it is that, if A- B is
an equation (i.e. if either or both of the expressions A and B
involves x, and A is arithmetically equal to B for the particular
value of x which we require), and if B-C is an identity (i.e. if
B and C are expressions involving x which are different in form
but are arithmetically equal for all values of x), then the state-
ment A- C is an equation which is true for the same value of x
for which A-B is true.
(iii.) A special rule of transformation is that any expression
may be transposed from one side of an equation to the other,
provided its sign is changed. This is the rule of transposition.
Suppose, for instance, that P+Q-R+S-T. This may be
written (P+Q-R)+S-T; and this statement, by definition
of the sign -, is the same as the statement that (P+Q- R)-
T-S. Similarly the statements P+Q-R-S-T snd P+
Q-R-T+S are the same. These transpositions are purely
arithmetical. To transpose a term which is not the last term on
either side we must first use the commutative law, which
involves an algebraical transformation. Thus from the equation
P+Q-R+S-T and the identity P+Q-R+S-P-R+S+Q
we have the equation P-R+S+Q-T, which is the same
statement as P-R+S-T-Q.
(iv.) The procedure is sometimes stated differently, the
transposition being regarded as a corollary from a general
theorem that the roots of an equation are not altered if the
same expression is added to or subtracted from both members
of the equation. The objection to this (cf. ( 21 (ii.)) is that
we do not need the general theorem, and that it is unwise to
cultivate the habit of laying down a general law as a justification
for an isolated action.
(v.) An alternative method of obtaining the rule of trans-
position is to change the aero from which we measure. Thus
from P+Q-R+S-T we deduce P+(Q-R+S)-P+(T-P).
If instead of measuring from sero we measure from P, we find
Q-R+S-T-P. The difference between this and (iii.) is
that we transpose the first term instead of the last; the
two methods corresponding to the two cases under (i.) of
5 isO). , ,
(vi.) In the same way, we do not lay down a general rule
6o6
ALGEBRA
that an equation is not altered by multiplying both members by
the same number. Suppose, for instance, that f(*+ 1) - t(*-a).
Here each member is a number, and the equation may, by the
commutative law for multiplication, be written ^~^ m 7^ '
This means that, whatever unit A we take, ? 1 ^ A and
*'*"*) A are equal We therefore take A to be 15, and find
that 6(x+i)-ao(*-a). Thus, if we have an equation P-Q,
where P and Q are numbers involving fractions, we can clear of
fractions, not by multiplying P and Q by a number m, but by
applying the equal multiples P and Q to a number m as unit.
If the P and Q of our equation were quantities expressed in
terms of a unit A, we should restate the equation in terms of a
unit A/m, as explained in (§ 18 and ai (i.) (a).
(vii.) One result of the rule of transposition is that we can
transpose all the terms in x to one side of equation, and all the
terms not containing x to the other. An equation of the form
ax- ft, where a and b do not contain x, is the standard form of
simple equation*
(viii.) The quadratic equation Is the equation of two expres-
sions, monomial or multinomial, none of the terms involving
any power of x except x and x*. The standard form is usually
taken to be
axt+bx+e-o,
from which we find, by transformation,
(20X+W-P
and thence
VI*-4«cl-»_
This only gives one root As to the other root, see 1 47 (iii.).
30. Fractional Expressions. — An equation may involve a
fraction of the form £, where Q involves x.
(i.) If P and Q can (algebraically) be written in the forms
RA and SA respectively, where A may or may not involve x,
then £-fx "f ' provided A is net -o.
(ii.) In an equation of the form §-y» the expressions P, Q,
U, V are usually numerical. We then have £. QV. - y. QV, or
PV- UQ, as in \ 38 (vi.). This is the rule of cross-multiplication.
(iii.) The restriction in (i.) is important. Thus JaTL* —
fcli'lStal fa "I"* 1 to f+3' exce P l when *" x - For *"»
latter value it becomes f , which has no direct meaning, and
requires interpretation (§ 61).
40. Powers of a Binomial.— We know that (A+a)»-A»+
aAa+a 1 . Continuing to develop the successive powers of A+a
into multinomials, we find that (A+a) , -A , +3A^a+3Ao*+o\
&c.; each power containing one more term than the preced-
ing power, and the coefficients, when the terms are arranged
in descending powers of A, being given by the following
table.—
1
1 1
121
1 3 3 *
14641
1 5 10 10 3 1
I 6 13 ao 15 6 t
Ac,
where the first line stands for (A+a)'" ». A'a*. and the suc-
cessive numbers in the (a+i)th line are the coefficients of
A»o°, A--V, . . . A°a" in the «+ x terms of the multinomial
equivalent to (A+a)*.
In the same way we have (A-o^-A^aAa+o 1 , (A-o) 1
— A*-3A^tf+3Ao t na > , . .., so that the multinomial equivalent
to (A-o)" has the same coefficients as the multinomial equivalent
to (A+a)", but with signs alternately + and -.
The multinomial which is equivalent to (A«*a)", and has its
terms arranged in ascending powers of a, Is called the expansion
Of (A-a)-.
41. Tte binomial tikeorem&T^ 1 iotmulA tot wril^Aon ike
coefficient of any stated term in the expansion of any states
power of a given binomial
(i.) For the general formula, we need only consider (A+a)*.
It is clear that, since the numerical coefficients of A and of « ace
each 1, the coefficients in the expansions arise from the giwqjut
and addition of like terms (§ 37 (ii.)). We therefore detcraeae
the coefficients by counting* the grouped terms iacfividsaST,
instead of adding them. To individualize the terms* we replace
(A+a) (A+a) (A+a) . . . by (A+a) (B+ft) (C+c) . . ..so that
no two terms are the same; the " like " -ness which determines
the placing of two terms in one group being the fact that tkr
become equal (by the commutative law) when B, C, ... and
6, «,...: are each replaced by A and a respectively.
Suppose, for instance, that 11-5, so that we take five factaa
(A+a) (B+4) (C+c) (D+<Q (E+t) and find their prodaa
The coefficient of AV in the expansion of (A+a)* is then the
number of terms such as ABcoV, AbcDe, AfrCoV, . . . , m eacs
of which there are two large and three small letters. The fint
term is ABCDE, in which all the letters are large; and the
coefficient of AW is therefore the number of terms which can be
obtained from ABCDE by changing three, and three only, of tat
large letters into small ones.
We can begin with any one of the s letters, so that the first
change can be made in 5 ways. There are then 4 letters left, axd
we can change any one of these. Then 3 letters are left, axd
we can change any one of these. Hence the change can be made
in 3.4.5 ways.
If, however, the 3-4- S results of making changes like this as
written down, It will be seen that any one term in the reqwred
product is written down several times. Consider, for s«»i«»«*~
the term AbcDe, in which the small letters are bee. Any one of
these 3 might have appeared first, any one of the remaining a
second, and the remaining x last. The term therefore ocoas
1. a. 3 times. This applies to each of the terms in which there ate
two large and three small letters. The total number of sack
terms in the multinomial equivalent to (A+a) (B+A) (C-K)
(D+tf) (E+e) is therefore (3. 4. s)+(i. a. 3); and this is therefore
the coefficient of AW in the expansion of (A+a)*.
The reasoning is quite general; and, in the same way, the
coefficient of A"~ p a p in the expansion of (A+a)" is f(»-r+i)
(rt-r+a) . . . (*-i)«| + (1.2.3 *. . r). It is usual to write
this as a fraction, inverting the order of the factors in the
numerator. Then, if we denote it by *<,), so that
mn i.a.3~.r W#
we have
(A+o)*«s»A«+iia^a+...+»<^~aM%..+t*M** jfc) f
where »*<*), introduced for consistency of notation, is defined by
«taSI (j).
This is the binomial theorem for a positive integral index.
(ii.) To verify this, let us denote the true coefficient of A*-V
by C), so that we have to prove that C) - «(,), where »m is denned
by (1); and let us inspect the actual process of multiplying the
expansion of (A+a) •"* by A+a in order to obtain that of (A+a)".
Using detached coefficients (§ 37 (v.)), the multiplication isrepte-
sented by the following:—
« +(-7 , )+-+fcj)+~+(::i;
:)+«
-** C)-("7')+fc;)-
Now suppose that the formula (a) has been — »»M8fi>-i for
every power of A+a up to the (n-i)th inclusive, so that
(V) - ( "- x) <'>»(r",) -C«-0(^).T1ien(^,thecoeficieat
of A"-V in the expansion of (A+a)", is equal to (»-t)c)+
(«-i)(r-o. But it may be shown that (r being >o)
ALGEBRA
607
«< r )-(»-l)(r)+(»-l)(^l) (4),
and therefore (") -*»>•
Hence the formula (2) is also true for the nth power of A+a.
But it is true for the 1st and the 2nd powers; therefore it b
true for the 3rd; therefore for the 4th; and so on. Hence it
is true for all positive integral powers of n.
(iii.) The product 1. 2. 3 ... r is denoted by Ll or rl, and is
called factorial r. The form r\ is better for printing, but the
form Ll is more convenient for ordinary use. If we denote
ft(»-i) . . . (n-r+x) (r factors) by it'\ then n^-i^K
(rv.) We can write n<r> in the more symmetrical form
■w-(«_!Vlrl (s) '
which shows that
»(,)-*<»_,) (6).
"We should have arrived at this form in (I.) by considering the
selection of terms in which there are to be two large and three
small letters, the large letters being written down first. The
terms can be built up in 5I ways; but each will appear a! 3I
times.
(v.) Since «<r> is an integer, n (r> is divisible by ft; U. the
product of any r consecutive integers is divisible by rl (see 1 42 (ii.)).
(vi.) The product rl arose in (i.) by the successive multiplica-
tion of r, r-i,r-2, . . . 1. In practice the successive factorials
il, a I, 3! ... are supposed to be obtained successively by
introduction of new factors, so that
rf-r. (f-i)! ( 7 ).
Thus in defining rlas 1. 2. 3 . . . r we regard the multiplications
as taking place from left to right; and similarly in n^\ A
product in which multiplications are taken in this order is called
a continued product.
(vii.) In order to make the formula (5) hold for the extreme
T&lues up) and «<•) we must adopt the convention that
ol-i (8).
This is consistent with (7), which gives 1I-1.0I. It should be
observed that, for r-o, (4) is replaced by
*•>-(»-»)»> (9),
and similarly, for the final terms, we should note that
ft,)-Oifg>/> ( 10 ).
(viii.) If «, denotes the term involving a' in the expansion of
(A+a)», then *r/Kr-»- l(»-r+i)/r).a/A. This decreases as r
increases; its value ranging from no/ A to a/(»A). If *a<A,
the terms will decrease from the beginning; if n A<a, the terms
will increase up to the end; if no > A and fiA > a, the terms will
first increase up to a greatest term (or two consecutive equal
greatest terms) and then decrease.
(ix.) The position of the greatest term will depend on the
relative values of A and 0; ii a/A is small, it will be near the
beginning. Advantage can be taken of this, when n is large,
to make approximate calculations, by omitting terms that are
(a) Let S r denote the sum n»+«i+ . . . +u r , this sum being
taken so as to include the greatest term (or terms); and let
u r +ilur~0, so that 0< 1. Then the sum of the remaining terms
«N.i+«*t+ . . .+«. b less than (i+0+*+ . . . +0- r - | )« M .i,
which is less than «,+i/(i-0); and therefore (A+a)" lies
between Sr and S,+*rW(i -•)• We can therefore stop as soon
as Uf+if (i-tf) becomes negligible.
(b) In the same way, for the expansion of (A - a)", let a, denote
«%-«i+ ...**,. Then, provided a r includes the greatest term,
it will be found that (A -a)* lies between a, and ev+i*
For actual calculation it is most convenient to write the
theorem in the form
(A*«)«-A-(i *x)--A-*2 x .A«+5^i* "*. A«*...
where x«a/A; thus the successive terms are obtained bysuc-
cessive multiplication. To apply the method to the calculation
of N", it is necessary that we should be able to express N in the
form A+a or A- a, where a is small in comparison with A, A" is,
easy to calculate and a/A is convenient as a multiplier.
42. The reasoning adopted in 1 41 (ii.) illustrates two general
methods of procedure. We know that (A+a) - is equal to a
multinomial of fi+i terms with unknown coefficients, and we
require to find these coefficients. We therefore represent them
by separate symbols, in the same way that we represent the
unknown quantity in an equation by a symbol. This is the
method of undetermined coefficients. Wc then obtain a set of
equations, and by means of these equations we establish the
required result by a process known as mathematical induction.
This process consists in proving that a property involving p b
true when p b any positive integer by proving (1) that it b true
when p»i, and (2) that if it b true when P—n, where n b any
positive integer, then it b true when p ■■ »+ 1 . The following are
some further examples of mathematical induction.
(i.) By adding successively 1,3, 5 . . . we obtain 1,4,9, • • •
Thb suggests that, if u m b the sum of the first n odd numbers,
then «,-»'. Assume thb true for u u *»,..., u m . Then
«M.,-ii,+(2n+i)-iiH-(2»+x)-0i+i)«, so that it b true
for *»+i. But it b true for u t . Therefore it b true generally.
(ii.) We cari prove the theorem of § 41 (v.) by a double applica-
tion of the method.
(a) It b clear that every integer b divisible by 1 1.
(b) Let us assume that the product of every set of p consecutive
integers b divisible by pi, and let us try to prove that the product
of every set of l+i consecutive integers b divisible by (j>+ 1)..
Denote the product «(«+x) . . . («+r-i) by n lr] . Then the
assumption b that, whatever positive integral value n may
have, n 1 ' 1 b divisible by pi
(i)n l *rt-(n-i)W-n(n+i)...(n+p-i)(n+p)-{n-i)n
. . . («+f-i)~(f+i). iM But, by bypothesb, n 1 * 1 b
divisible by pf. Therefore tr^Ms-x) 1 ** 1 b divbible by pi
Therefore, if (s-i) 1 ** 1 b divbible by (p+i)l, a 1 ** 1 ' b divbible
by (#+i)l. ,
(2) But i 1 ^"- (/»+!)!, which b divbible by (p+i)l
(3) Therefore n*** 11 is divbible by (*+i)I, whatever positive
integral value n may have.
(c) Thus, if the theorem of § 41 (v.) b true for r—p, it b true
for r-|>+i. But it b true for r-i. Therefore it b true
generally.
(iii.) Another application of the method b to proving the law
of formation of consecutive convergent* to a continued fraction
(see Continued Fractions).
43. Binomial Coefficients. — The numbers denoted by «<,> in
§ 41 are the binomial coefficients shown in the table in | 40;
Mr P ) being the (r+ i)th number in the (n+ i)th row. They have
arisen as the coefficients in the expansion of (A+a)*; but
they may be considered independently as a system of numbers
defined by (1) of { 41. The individual numbers are connected
by various relations, some of which are considered in thb
section.
(i.) From (4) of § 41 we have
«w -(«- 0<o -(•- Oc^i)- (ix).
Changing n into «— x, *— 2, . . ., and adding the results,
»<r)-(«-*)(r>-(ll-j)(P-l)+(«-S)(r-l)+... + («-*)(^|) fc,).
In particular,
«(r)-(«-l)(r-l)+(«-2)(»-|)+... + (r-l)(^-|) ( X3 ).
Similarly, by writing (4) in the form
«(r)-(«-l)(^|)-(«-l)(r) ( X4 ) f
changing n and r into n- x and r-x, repeating the process, and
adding, we find, taking account of (9),
«(r)-(ll-X) ( r)+(»-S(cr-l)+... + («-r-l), ( IS ).
(ii.) It b therefore more convenient to rearrange the table
of § 40 as shown below, on the left; the table on the right giving
the key to the arrangement.
» 00
» i iu)
« 1 !(•> »(D
a « »o> 3c«)
1 3 * *(•) 3c» 4m>
3 4 1 3<D 4t« 5<»>
1 ° 5 1 3»> 4<« 3<« ©w)
4 10 o I 4(i) 3d) 60) 7o) .
1 10 15 7 x 4<«) 5u> 6(4, 7»> «(D
Ac Ac.
6o8
ALGEBRA
Here wc have introduced a number oto> given by
<*<»- i (i6),
which is consistent with the relations in (i.). In this table any
number is equal to the sum of the numbers which lie horizontally
above it in the preceding column, and the difference of any two
numbers in a column is equal to the sum of the numbers hori-
zontally between them in the preceding column.
The coefficients in the expansion of (A+o)» for any particular
value of » are obtained by reading diagonally upwards from
left to right from the (»+i)th number in the first column.
(iii.) The table might be regarded as constructed by successive
applications of (9) and (4); the initial data being (16) and (10).
Alternatively, we might consider that we start with the first
diagonal row (downwards from the left) and construct the
remaining diagonal rows by successive applications of (15).
Constructed in this way, the successive diagonal rows, com-
mencing with the first, give the figurate numbers of the first,
second, third, . . . order. The (r+x)th figurate number of
the nth order, i.e. the (r+i)th number in the nth diagonal row,
is i*(»+i) . . . (a+r-O/rl-n 1 ' 1 /'!; this may, by analogy
with the notation of §41, be denoted by rtfrx. We then have
(»+i)lr]-(H-i)[.]-<»+')!/0»! '9 -(»+0<r>-(»+r)e) (i 7 ).
(iv.) By means of (17) the relations between the binomial
coefficients in the form ft«> may be replaced by others with the
coefficients expressed in the form ft t v The table in (ii.) may be
written
am ir»
3i») 2 ui *t«i
3(1] 2 C |] Ift)
4{#J 3(t] 2l«l iftl
4u) 3i» *(»] I(f1
Sit) 4ui a 3i«] 2 t ,j ip]
&c.
The most important relations are
lllrJ-»lP-l] + (n-l)<r> (18);
•M-0 (, 9 );
«<r]-(»-j)[r]-»lr-l] + (»-l){r-l)+... + (»-*+l)[r-ll (20);
»|,J-»(r-l]+(»-l)lr-l]+... + Ifr_|J ( 2 l).
(v.) It should be mentioned that the notation of the binomial
coefficients, and of the continued products such as n(n-i) . . .
(n-r+i), is not settled. Some writers, for instance, use the
symbol n, in place, in some cases, of r^ty, and, in other cases,
of n { '\ It is convenient to retain x, to denote Jf/rl, so that we
have the consistent notation
av-jc/rl, «<,>-»<'>//!, >i[rj-»t'Vr!.
The binomial theorem for positive integral index may then be
written
(*+y). - *•* +r—iy, +... +x_y,+... +**,.
This must not be confused with the use of suffixes to denote
particular terms of a series or a progression (as in § 41 (viii.)
and (ix.)).
44. Permutations and Combinations.— The discussion, in § 41
(i.), of the number of terms of a particular kind in a particular
product, forms part of the theory of combinatorial analysis
\q.v.), which deals with the grouping and arrangement of indi-
viduals taken from a defined stock. The following are some
particular cases; the proof usually follows the lines already
indicated. Certain of the individuals may be distinguishable
from the remainder of the stock, but not from each other; these
may be called a type.
(i.) A permutation is a linear arrangement, read in a definite
direction of the line. The number (»P r ) of permutations of r
individuals out of a stock of n, all being distinguishable, is n Kr \
In particular, the number of permutations of the whole stock
isnl.
If a of the stock are of one type, b of another, c of another,
... the number of distinguishable permutations of the whole
stock is n!+(aU>!d . . .).
(ii.) A combination is a group of individuals without regard
to arrangement. The number UC) of combinations of r indi-
viduals out of a stock of n has in effect been proved in | 41 &)
to be «<,). This property enables us to establish, by simple
reasoning, certain relations between binomial forftriena.
Thus (4) of § 41 (ii.) follows from the fact that, if A is any oar ¥
the n individuals, the „C, groups of r consist of » iC, , whks
contain A and «-iC which do not contain A. Suaflariy, can-
sideling the various ways in which a group of r may be "h*«-d
from two stocks, one containing m and the other """'^ a
we find that
•+«Cr "••Cf B Cp +.Cr-|- B Ci +•• +«0'«C«»
which gives
(m+(i) ( ,)-i»i(,).)i(t)+«(M)-H(i)+...+m(i).» w ( M y
This may also be written
(m+»)W-m('>.«w>+ r(l) . w (r-i). ll <i) + ... +fCr) . w »i. J g l o ,^
If r is greater than m or h (though of course not greater thai
M+n), some of the terms in (22) and (33) will be sera.
(iii.) If there are n types, the number of individuals in race
type being unlimited (or at any rate not less than r), the masher
(«H,) of distinguishable groups of r individuals out of the toul
stock is % ,). This is sometimes called the number of ken*
geneous products of r dimensions formed out of ft letters; U
the number of products such as x*, x r ~*y* t x*~V, . . . thit
can be formed with positive integral indices out of n ktten
x, y, s, . . ., the sum of the indices in each product being r.
(iv.) Other developments of the theory deal with distribmtiems,
partitions, &c. (see Combinatorial Analysis).
(v.) The theory of probability (q.t.) also comes under this
head. Suppose that there are a number of arrangements of r
terms or elements, the first of which a is always either A or
not-A, the second b is B or not-B, the third c is C or nd-C
and so on. If, out of every N cases, where N may be a very
large number, o is A in pN cases and not- A in (1 — a)N cases.
where p is a fraction such that pH is an integer, then p is the
probability or frequency of occurrence of A. We may consider
that we are dealing always with a single arrangement aU . . .
and that the number of times that a is made A bears to the
number of times that a is made not-A the ratio of p to t-f,
or we may consider that there are N individuals, for ^N of wfckfc
the attribute a is A, while for (i-/>)N it is not-A. If, in ths
latter case, the proportion of cases in which b is B to cases a
which b is not-B is the same for the group of pN individuals a
which a is A as for the group of (i-f)N in which a is not-A.
then the frequencies of A and of B are said to be indtpndtwt,
if this is not the case they are said to be correlated. The possi-
bilities of a, instead of being A and not-A, may be A ( , At, . . ..
each of these having its own frequency; and similarly for
b, c, . . . If the frequency of each A is independent of the
frequency of each B, then the attributes a and b are independent;
otherwise they are correlated.
45. Application of Binomial Theorem to Rational /afcpaf
Functions. — An expression of the form <fcx*+Cix*~ , -r- . . . +*»
where c*,C\,. . .do not involve x, and the indices of the %
of x are all positive integers, is called a rational integral ffm
of x of degree n.
If we represent this expression by/(x), the expression obtained
by changing x into x+h is flx+A); and each term of this nay
be expanded by the binomial theorem. Thus wc have
/(x+)* «<*xM-n*x--'yi+n(« - 1)***-^+...
+r,x-«+(»-l) < : l x-^+(ii-i)(ii-a)crf-^+-.
+^x^+(»-2)c^f-»p+(i«-a)(»-3)ctf^-^+-.
+ &c.
- |cx- +CX"-' +f ,x--» +...|
+ J »**"- | + (»-i)or*-*+(«-3)c,r«-«+... |^
+ j »(»-x)c W r^+(«-!)(«-a)c,x~-«+... ( jj
It will be seen that the expression in curled brackets in each
line after the first is obtained from the corresponding exprrssw*
in the preceding line by a definite process; viz, x' is replaced by
ALGEBRA
609
w^_*r"\ except for r-o, when x* ts replaced by a The expres-
sions obtained in this way are called the first, second, . . .
*£*rived functions ol f(x). If we denote these by /i(x),/ t (x), . . .,
so that f.{x) is obtained from /.-i(x) by the above process, we
have
/(*+*) -/(*) +/i(x).*+/i(x)*»/x!+... +/,(x) W+«.
This is a particular case of Taylor's theorem (see Infinitesimal
Calculus).
46. Relation of Binomial Coefficients to Summation of Series. —
O-) The sum of the first n terms of an ordinary arithmetical
progression (a+6), (a+26), . . . (o+nb) is ($ 28 (i.)) i» l(a+6)+
<<j-hn6)| - w<j+J«(n+i)6- Ktn.a+nnj.i. Comparing this
•with the table in §43 (iv.), and with formula (21), we see that
the series expressing the sum may be regarded as consisting of
two, viz. a+a+ . . . and 6+26+36+ . . . ; for the first series
we multiply the table (i.e. each number in the table) by a, and
for the second series we multiply it by b, and the terms and
their successive sums are given for the first series by the first
and the second columns, and for the second series by the second
and the third columns.
(ii.) In the same way, if we multiply the table by c, the sum
of the first n numbers in any column is equal to the nth number
in the next following column. Thus we get a formula for the
sum of n terms of a series such as
2.4.6+4.6.8+..., or 6.8. 10. ix +8. io. 12. 14 +.~
(iii.) Suppose we have such a scries as 2.5+5.8+8.1*+...
This cannot be summed directly by the above method. But
the nth term is fon— i)(3n+2)-i8n( 8 ]— 6«(i]— 2. The sum of
a terms is therefore (§ 43 (iv.))
I8n|»i-6ff(s]-2»[i]-3ff'+6n f +n.
(iv.) Generally, let N be any rational integral function of n
of degree r. Then, since >vi is also a rational integral function
of n of degree r, we can find a coefficient c„ not containing n,
and such as to make N— c,n[,y contain no power of n higher
than n*~K Proceeding in this way, we can express N in the form
£r.ff|r]*c»-i.K[r-ii+ . . ., where c, c T ~i, Cr-i, . . . do not con-
tain n; and thence we can obtain the sum of the numbers
found by putting n-i, 2, 3, . . . n successively in N. These
numbers constitute an arithmetical progression of the rth order.
(v.) A particular case is that of the sum x r +2'+3 r + . . . +»*,
where r is a positive integer. It can be shown by the above
reasoning that this can be expressed as a series of terms con-
taining descending powers of n, the first term being jir w /(f+ 1)«
The most important cases are
i+a+3+...+*-in(«+i).
i«+a t +3 , +...+it , -in(*+i)(2n+i),
i , +2>+3 , +...+n , -I»»(»+i) , -(i+2+...+n)«.
The general formula (which is established by more advanced
methods) is
J.C+i'+2'+...+(n-i)'+§n'
m 7Ti \ l » r * , + B »( f + I )cJ)«^-B,(f +!),«,*-«+ . . . } •
where Bi, B«, ... are certain numbers known as Bernoulli? s
numbers, and the terms within the bracket, after the first, have
signs alternately + and — . The values of the first ten of
Bernoulli's numbers are
B.-,. ft- A . B.- A . B.-.V vjfeftifSiftrt-w^
IV. Negative Numbers and Formal Algebra.
47. Negative quantities will have arisen in various ways, e.g.
(i.) The logical result of the commutative law, applied to a
succession of additions and subtractions, is to produce a negative
quantity -35. such that — 3S.+3S.S- o(§ 28 (vi.)).
(ii.) Simple equations, especially equations in which the
unknown quantity is an interval of time, can often only be
satisfied by a negative solution (( 33).
(iii.) In solving a quadratic equation by the method of ft 38
(viii.) we may be led to a result which is apparently absurd.
If, for instance, we inquire as to the time taken to reach a given
height by a body thrown upwards with a 'given velocity, we
find that the time increases as the height decreases. Graphical
representation shows that there are two solutions, and that an
equation X'*»oa a may be taken to be satisfied not only by
X—sa but also by X»~3fl.
48. The occurrence of negative quantities does not, however,
involve the conception of negative numbers. In (iii.) of $ 47,
for instance, " — $0" does not mean that a is to be taken (—3-)
times, but that a is to be taken 3 times, and the result treated
as sub tractive; i.e.—sa means —(3a), not (— j)a (cf. $ 27 (i.)).
In the graphic method of representation the sign — may be
taken as denoting a reversal of direction, so that, if + 3 repre-
sents a length of 3 units measured in one direction,— 3 represents
a length of 3 units measured in the other direction. But even
so there are two distinct operations concerned in the— 3, via,
the multiplication by 3 and the reversal of direction. The
graphic method, therefore, does not give any direct assistance
towards the conception of negative numbers as operators,
though it is useful for interpreting negative quantities as results.
40. In algebraical transformations, however, such as (x— a) 9
■x 8 — 2<ix+a*, the arithmetical rule of signs enables us to
combine the sign— with a number and to treat the result as a
whole, subject to its own laws of operation. We see first that
any operation with 40—36 can be regarded as an operation
with (+)4fl+(— )36, subject to the conditions (1) that the signs
(+) and (-) obey the laws (+)(+)-(+),(+)(-)-(-)(+)-
(— ), (— ) (—)=■(+), and (2) that, when processes of multiplica-
tion are completed, a quantity is to be added or subtracted accord-
ing as it has the sign (+) or (— ) prefixed. We are then able to
combine any number with the + or the — sign inside the
bracket, and to deal with this constructed symbol according to
special laws; i.e. we can replace pr or —pr by (+^)r or (—p)r,
subject to the conditions that (+l) (+<?)-(-^) (-?)-(+tt),
(+/>) (-*)-(- P) (+«) = (->?), and that + (-*) means that
* is to be subtracted.
These constructed symbols may be called positive and negative
coefficients', or a symbol such as (— p) may be called a negative
number, in the same way that we call f a fractional number.
This increases the extent of the numbers with which we have
to deal; but it enables us to reduce the number of formulae.
The binomial theorem may, for instance, be stated for (x+a)"
alone; the formula for (x— a) m being obtained by writing it as
|x+(-)a}- or |x+(-o)|", so that
(x-o)"-x«-n< 1 )X^»a+...+(-)'« { ,)X^a r +... i
where + (— ) r means — or + according as r is odd or even*
The result of the extension is that the number or quantity
tepresented by any symbol, such as P, may be either positive
or negative. The numerical value is then represented by
I P|; thus " |x|< 1 " means that x is between — 1 and +i»
50. The use of negative coefficients leads to a difference
between arithmetical division and algebraical division (by a
multinomial) in that the latter may give rise to a quotient- con-
taining subtractive terms. The most important case is division
by a binomial, as illustrated by the following examples: —
(0 (a)
2.10+1)6.100+5.10+1(3.10+1 2.10+1)6.100+1.10-1(3.10-1
6.100+3.10 6. 100+3. 10
2.10+1 -2.10-x
2.10+1 - 2.1Q-I
In (x) the division is both arithmetical and algebraical, while in
(2) it is algebraical, the quotient for arithmetical division being
2.10+9.
It may be necessary to introduce terms with zero coefficients.
Thus, to divide x by x+x algebraically, we may write it in
the form i+o.x+o.x , +o.x , +o.x\ and we then obtain
x x+o.x+o.x»+o.x»+o.x« . . . . x*
iTx m 1+5 -i-i+^-^+rT?
where the successive terms of the quotient are obtained by a
process which is purely formal
51. If we divide the sum of x* and a 4 by the sum of * and a,
we get a quotient x-a and remainder 2a 9 , or a quotient «— x
and remainder 2X 1 , according to the order in which we work.
Algebraical division therefore has no definite meaning unless
6io
ALGEBRA
dividend and divisor are rational integral functions of some
expression such as x which we regard as the root of the notation
(§ 28 (iv.)), and are arranged in descending or ascending powers
of x. If P and M are rational integral functions of x, arranged
in descending powers of x, the division of P by M is complete
when we obtain a remainder R whose degree (§ 45) is less than
that of M. If R-o, then M is said to be a factor of P.
The highest common factor (or common factor of highest degree)
of two rational integral functions of * is therefore found in the
same way as the G.C.M. in arithmetic; numerical coefficients
of the (actor as a whole being ignored (cf. § 36 (iv.)).
52. Relation between Roots and Factors.— (L) If we divide the
multinomial
P5fr*»+frx*-M-...+*.
by x—o, according to algebraical division, the remainder is
This is the remainder-theorem; it may be proved by induction.
(ii.) If x-o satisfies the equation P-o, then fra*+fta"~ 1 +
. . . +p m —o; and therefore the remainder when P is divided
by x— a is o, i.e. x— a is a factor of P.
(iii.) Conversely, if x— a is a factor of P, then p& m +P\a*~ x
+• • • +/W™o; *•*• *"<» satisfies the equation P»o.
(iv.) Thus the problems of determining the roots of an equation
P - o and of finding the factors of P, when P is a rational integral
function of x, are the same.
(v.) In particular, the equation P-o, where P has the value
in (i.), cannot have more than n different roots.
The consideration of cases where two roots are equal belongs
to the theory of equations (see Equation).
(vi.) It follows that, if two multinomials of the nth degree
in x have equal values for more than n values of x, the corre-
sponding coefficients are equal, so that the multinomials are
equal for all values of x.
53. Negative Indices and Logarithms.— <i.) Applying the general
principles of §§ 47-49 to indices, we find that wc can interpret
X"" as being such that
X-. X~- -X» - 1 ; i.e. X-» - i/X-».
In the same way we interpret X~»'« as meaning i/X>'*.
(ii.) This leads to negative logarithms (see Logarithm).
54. Laws of Algebraic Form. — (i.) The results of the addition,
subtraction and multiplication of multinomials (including
monomials as a particular case) are subject to certain laws
which correspond with the laws of arithmetic (( 26 (i.)) but differ
from them in relating, not to arithmetical value, but to algebraic
form. The commutative law in arithmetic, for instance, states
that a+b and b+o, or ab and bo; are equal. The corresponding
law of form regards <i+ b and b+a, or ab and ba, as being not
only equal but identical (cf. 5 37 (ii.)), and then says that A+B
and B+A, or AB and BA, are identical, where A and B are any
multinomials. Thus a(b+c) and (b+e)o give the same result,
though it may be written in various ways, such as ab+ec,
co+ab, &c. In the same way the associative law is that A(BC)
and (AB)C give the same formal result.
These laws can be established either by tracing the individual
terms in a sum or a product or by means of the general theorem
Ms*(vi.).
(ii.) One result of these laws is that, when we have obtained
any formula involving a letter a, we can replace a by a multi-
nomial. For instance, having found that (x+«)*-x*+ ***+«*,
we can deduce that (x+&+c) , -{x+(&+c)}*-x»+2(H-c)x+
(iii.) Another result is that we can equate coefficients of like
powers of x in two multinomials obtained from the same expres-
sion by different methods of expansion. For instance, by
equating coefficients of x* in the expansions of (x+x)"** and of
(i+x)-. (x+x)« we obtain (22) of { 44 (ii).
(iv.) On the other hand, the method of equating coefficients
often applies without the assumption of these laws. In | 41
(ii.), for instance, the coefficient of A •""*«' in the expansion of
(A+a) (A+a)- 1 has been called (") ; and it has then been
shown that (*\ - (" 7 ') + (" I J) • This does not involve any
assumption of the identity of results obtained
ways; for the expansions of (A+a) 1 , (A+o)\.,
supposed to be obtained in one way only, via. by :
multiplications by A+a.
55. Algebraical Division. — In order to extend these law* a
as to include division, we need a definition of algebraic*] dinon.
The divisions in §§ 50-52 have been supposed to be p ea bx nwt
by a process similar to the process of arithmetical division. va
by a series of subtractions. This latter process, however, s
itself based on a definition of division in terms of xxrahjpficaua
({{ 1 5, 16). If, moreover, we examine the process of ajgehiaxjl
division as illustrated in | 50, we shall find that, just as aria*
metical division is really the solution of an equation (| 14), avi
involves the tacit use of a symbol to denote an unknown qaastzy
or number, so algebraical division by a multinomial red?
implies the use of undetermined coefficients (| ax). When, far
instance, we find that the quotient, when 6+ 5x-f-7s?+ijx , +^'
is divided by 2+3X+X*, is made up of three tenns+3, -a
and +S**t *e *re really obtaining successively the vanes a
Co, Cu and c% which satisfy the identity 6+5x+7x*+i3x , -rsr*
= (eo+£iX+c»x») (2+3X+X*); and we could equally obua
the result by expanding the right-hand side of this idectz?
and equating coefficients in the first three terms, the coefiocs^
in the remaining terms being then compared to see that there is
no remainder. We therefore define algebraical division by
means of algebraical multiplication, and say that* if P sad II
are multinomials, the statement " P/M-Q " means that Q is a
multinomial such that MQ (or QM) and P are identical In t&»
sense, the laws mentioned in \ 54 apply also to algebraka!
division.
56. Extensions of the Binomial Theorem. — It has been mo-
tioned in ( 41 (ix.) that the binomial theorem can be used tor
obtaining an approximate value for a power of a number, tk
most important terms only being taken into account There aie
extensions of the binomial theorem, by means of which approxi-
mate calculations can be made of fractions, surds, and powers
of fractions and of surds; the main difference being that ike
number of terms which can be taken into account is untinu'ted
so that, although we may approach nearer and nearer to the true
value, we never attain it exactly. The argument involves the
theorem that, if 6 is a positive quantity less than i, a* can be
made as small as we please by taking / large enough; tk*
follows from the fact that Jfogff can be made as large (numeric-
ally) as we please.
(i.) By algebraical division,
i 1 +o.x+o.x*+...+ax rH
_,- x+ *_... + (_ )V+ (_ r tj£ (tf
If, therefore, we take 1/(1 +x) as equal to 1— x+a*— ...+
(— ) r s*, there is an error whose numerical magnitude is Jx****
(i+x)|; and, if I x|< 1, tliis can be made as small as we pirase.
This is the foundation of the use of recurring «<»*4m*li: thss
we can replace tS(-W-tW(i-t*i>I by ^©joC-jo/rtf
+36/io 4 +36/io t ), with an error (in defect) of only 36/(10* 40).
(ii.) Repeated divisions of (24) by x+x, r being replaced by
r+x before each division, will give
(i+x)-"-i-ax+3x»-4x 4 +...+(-)'(H-0* r
+(-rVHJ(r+iUi+x)r«+<i+aH.
(i+x)-«-l-3x+6x»-iox»+...+(-)'.i(f+iV. z
+(-)^x^|l(f+i)(f+a)(i+x)-«+(r+i)(l+x)-«+(i+«n^c
Comparison with the table of binomial c o e ffi ci ents in » 43
that, if m is any positive integer,
(i+x)— S>+R, (,c).
where S*i-*u)x+x* l i)*«...+(-)'s»irix' (rf),
Rs(-r»x^|m ff i(i+x)-«+(»-i)irj(i+x)-«+ w +i f .i<i+x)-|(a 7 ).
This can be verified by induction. The same result wooM (IsS>
be obtained if we divided x+o.x+o. **+... at once by the
expansion of (1 +x) n .
(iii.) From (21) of 1 43 Civ.) we see that |R,| is less than
stlr-M^ar** if x is positive, or than | sii^nsr^d+x)"* I if x is
negative; and it can hence be shown that, if |x| < 1, |R r |ciibe
ALGEBRA
611
made as until as we plcise by taking r large enough, so that we
can make S r approximate as closely as we please to (i +x)~".
(iv.) To assimilate this to the binomial theorem, we extend
the definition of %,> in (i) of J 41 (L) so as to cover negative
integral values of n; and we then have
so that, if »- -*,
Sr Bl I +«Cl)»+ll( l )^+... +»(»)X r ( JO).
(v.) The further extension to fractional values (positive or
negative) of n depends in the first instance on the establishment
of a method of algebraical evolution which bears the same relation
to arithmetical evolution (calculation of a surd) that algebraical
division bears to arithmetical division. In calculating V2, for
instance, we proceed as if 2-0000 . . . were the exact square of
some number of the form <*+*i/io+ct/io*+. . .
In the same way, to find X 1 '*, where X^i+fltX+oixM- . .
and q is a positive integer, we assume that X !/ «- i+Aix+Aax*. . .,
and we then (d. f 55)- determine 61, A* . . . in succession so that
(i+te+teH- ...)• shall be identical with X.
The application of the method to the calculation 0/ (i+x)",
when n-pfq, q being a positive integer and p a positive or
negative integer, involves, as in the case where a is a negative
integer, the separate consideration of the form of the coefficients
fti, b\ . . . and of the numerical value of x+Aix+AasM-. . .
(vL) The definition of «<»>, which has already been extended
in (iv.) above, has to be further extended so as to cover fractional
values of a, positive or negative. Certain relations still hold,
the most important being (aa) of ft 44 (ii.), which holds whatever
the values of m and of a may be; r, of course, being a positive
integer. This may be proved either by induction or by the
method of § 5a (vi.). The relation, when written in the form
(23), is known as Vandermonde's theorem. By means of this
theorem it can be shown that, whatever the value of a may be,
ll+(p/^(l)» + (A/«)jt)^+... + (A/e)(r)^«-l+^l)»+^l)X i +...+Ar)X r
+ terms in a** 1 , a^V-x*.
(vii.) The comparison of the numerical value of x+*o)X
+«mx*+ ...+*,ir, when a is fractional, with that of (x+x)",
involves advanced methods ((64). It is found that this expres-
sion can be used for approximating to the value of (x+x)",
provided that |x|< 1 ; the results are as follows, where u, denotes
«,,, x* and S, denotes aa+at+arr*. . .+nv.
(a) If »> — i, then, provided r>n,
(1) If l>x>o, (!+*)" lies between Sr and S»t;
U) If o>x> - 1, (I +*)• lies between Sr and Sr+KrWO +s).
(A) If n< — 1, the successive terms will either constantly
decrease (numerically) from the beginning or else increase up to
a greatest term (or two equal consecutive greatest terms) and
then constantly decrease. If S r is taken so as to include the
greatest term (or terms), then,
(1) If ■ >x>o. (i+x)" lies between Sr and &«.
(a) If o>x> - 1, (1 +x)» lie* between Sr and Sr+«W(i -*Wi/*)-
The results in (A) apply also if a is a negative integer.
(viii.) In applying the theorem to concrete cases, conversion
of a number into a continued fraction is often useful. Suppose,
for instance, that we require to calculate (33/13)!. We want to
express ( 23/13)' in the form 0*6, where A is nearly equal to x . We
find that | log* ( 13/13) -.37 16767 -log* (2-3533) -log* (40/X7)
nearly; and thence that (33/13)* -(40/17) (1+1063/3515200)*,
which can be calculated without difficulty to a large number of
significant figures.
(ix.) The extension of %,> and therefore of «,,i, to negative
and fractional values of n, enables us to extend the applicability
of the binomial coefficients to the summation of series (§ 46 (ii.)).
Thus the ath term of the series a.s+ 5.8+8. xx+. . . in { 46 (iii.)
is i8(a-iW, formula (20) of § 43 (iv.) holds for the extended
coefficients, and therefore the sum of a terms of this series is
i8.(*-!)m- "8. (-J)ni-3«*+6ii , +n. In this way we get the
general rule that, to find the sum of n terms of a series, the rth
term of which is (o+rA)(a+r+xA) ...(a+r+»-iA). we
divide the product of the *+i factors which occur either in
the ath or in the (a+x)th term by l+x, and by the common
difference of the factors, and add to a constant, whose value
is found by putting w-o.
57. Generating Function*.— The series x-rmmx+m,!)^- . . .
obtained by dividing 1+0. *+ojr*+...by (x+x)», or the
series x+MXijx+MWrM" . ..obtained by taking the 9th
root of x+fti)*+ftt)X'+ ... y is an infinite stria, i.e. a series
whose successive terms correspond to the numbers x, a, 3, . . .
It is often convenient, as in | 56 (ii.) and (vi.), to consider the
mode of development of such a series, without regard to
arithmetical calculation; i.e. to consider the relations between
the coefficients of powers of a, rather than the values of the terms
themselves. From this point of view, the function which, by
algebraical operations on x+o.x+ax*+. . . , produces the
series, is called its generating function. The generating functions
of the two series, mentioned above, for example, are (x+x)"" and
( 1 +x)>/*. In the same way, the generating function of the series
i+a*+*H-o.*H-ojr«+...is (1+*)*.
Considered in this way, the relations between the coefficients
of the powers of a in a series may sometimes be expressed by a
formal equality involving the series as a whole. Thus (4) of J 41
(ii.) may be written in the form
i+a ( ,^f+ri(nx«+«.+a < ris'+...7(i+x)|i4(a-i)(i)X+(fi-i)(.)X«+...
+(«-x) (r ^+...l;
the symbol " 7 " being used to indicate that the equality is only
formal, not arithmetical
This accounts for (he fact that the same table of binomial
coefficients serves for the expansions of positive powers of x+x
and of negative powers of i-x. For (4) may (| 43 (iv.)) be
written
(«-l)(,)-»Jrl-«Cr-|].
and this leads to relations of the form
1 +ax+3* , +...7 (" -x)(i+*r+6x«+iox«+ M .) (30),
each set of coefficients being the numbers in a downward diagonal
of the table. In the same way (ax) of 1 43 (iv.) leads to such
relations as
x+3«+6x«+...7(t+x+x , +«.)(i+ax+3x , +...) (31),
the relation of which to (30) is obvious.
An application of the method is to the summation of a recurring
series, i.e. a series 4+tix+ctx*+. . . whose coefficients are con-
nected by a relation of the form fce r +fi<r-i+...+ftfr-*-o f
where *»,fi, . . .Pu are independent of x and of r.
58. Approach to a Limit. — There are two kinds of approach to
a limit, which may be illustrated by the series forming the ex-
pansion of (x+A)*, where a is a negative integer and x> A/x>o.
(i.) Denote a, r) x ,, - r A' by a„ and ta+ai+. . . +a P by S f .
Then (§ 56 (iii.)) (x+A)" lies between S P and Sr+i; and provided
Sr includes the numerically greatest term, |S, + i— Sj constantly
decreases as r increases, and can be made as small as we please by
taking r large enough. Thus by taking r-o, x, a, ... we have
a sequence S», Si, Si, . . . (i.e. a succession of numbers correspond-
ing to the numbers x, a, 3, . . . ) which possesses the property
that, by starting far enough in the sequence, the range of varia-
tion of all subsequent terms can be made as small as we please,
but (x+A)" always lies between the two values determining the
range. This is expressed by saying that the sequence converges
to (x+A)" as its limit; it may be stated concisely in any of the
three ways,
(x-r*)"-Hm(x«+ii ( ,>t^A+--+rH,)X^A'+.-).(»+*)"-KinSr.
Sr- (x+A)-.
It will be noticed that, although the differences between
successive terms of the sequence will ultimately become in-
definitely small, there will always be intermediate numbers that
do not occur in the sequence. The approach to the limit will
therefore be by a series of jumps, each of which, however small,
will be finite; i.e. the approach will be discontinuous.
(ii.) Instead of examining what happens as r increases, let us
examine what happens as A/x decreases, r .remaining unaltered.
Denote A/x by 9, where i>0>o; and suppose further that
e<\ x/m |, so that the first term of the series at+«i+ifi+. . . is
6l2
ALGEBRA
the greatest (numerically). Then |(x+A)"-S r } /Allies between
iHr+ujc"** -1 and ti(r+ip mr *'*(i+0)*i and the difference between
these can be made as small as we please by taking k small
enough. Thus we can say that the limit of |(x+A)"-S,|/Ar«
is iVr+DX" - ^ 1 ; but the approach to this limit is of a different
kind from that considered in (i.), and its investigation involves
the idea of continuity.
V. Continuity.
50. The idea of continuity must in the first instance be
introduced from the graphical point of view; arithmetical
continuity being impossible without a considerable extension of
the idea of number ((65). The idea is u tilized in the elementary
consideration of a differential coefficient; and its importation
into the treatment of certain functions as continuous is therefore
properly associated with the infinitesimal calculus.
60. The first step consists in the functional treatment of
equations. Thus, to solve the equation <w*+&x+c-o, we
consider, not merely the value of * for which «x*-f tor+c is o,
but the value of ax* +bx+c for every possible value of *. By
graphical treatment we are able, not merely to see why the
equation has usually two roots, and also to understand why there
is in certain cases only one root (i*. two equal roots) and in other
cases no root, but also to see why there cannot be more than two
roots.
Simultaneous equations in two unknowns x and y may be
treated in the same way, except that each equation gives
a functional relation between x and y. ("Indeterminate
equations " belong properly to the theory of numbers.)
61. From treating an expression involving x as a function of
x which may change continuously when x changes continuously,
we are led to regard two functions x and y as changing together,
so that (subject to certain qualifications) to any succession of
values of * or of y there corresponds a succession of values of y or
of x; and thence, if (x, y) and (x+A, y-f k) are pairs of corre-
sponding values, we are led to consider the limit (§ 58 (ii.)) of the
ratio kfk when k and k are made indefinitely small. Thus we
arrive at the differential coefficient of f(x) as the limit of the ratio
of /(x+0)-/(x) to $ when B is made indefinitely small; and this
gives an interpretation of fix*"" 1 as the derived function of x*
(*4S).
This conception of a limit enables us to deal with algebraical
expressions which assume such forms as | for particular values
of the variable ($ 39 (iii.)). We cannot, for instance, say that the
fraction ^| is arithmetically equal to x+x when x- 1, as well
as for other values of x; but we can say that the limit of the
ratio of x»— 1 to x— 1 when x becomes indefinitely nearly equal
to 1 is the same as the limit of x+ 1.
On the other hand, if J(y) has a definite and finite value for
y-x, it must not be supposed that this is necessarily the same
as the limit which/(y) approaches when y approaches the value x,
though this is the case with the functions with which we are
usually concerned.
62. The elementary idea of a differential coefficient is useful
in reference to the logarithmic and exponential scries. We know
that log w N(i+0)-logi«N+logio(!+0), and inspection of a
table of logarithms shows that, when is small, logio(i+0) is
approximately equal to X0, where X is a certain constant, whose
value is '434- • • If we took logarithms to base a, we should
have
log.(i+*)-log,ioXM,
approximately. If therefore we choose a quantity e such that
log.ioXX-J,log w «-X,
which gives (by more accurate calculation)
e-271828... ,
we shall have Urn |1og,(i +«))!/* -1,
and conversely Bm|«^# -#■!/♦-•■.
The deduction of the expansions
loR,(i+*)-x-Jr»+lx»-....
e--i+*+x , /a?+x»/3!+....
is then more simply obtained by the differential <
by ordinary algebraic methods.
63. The theory of inequalities is closely connected with that
of maxima and minima, and therefore seems to come proper!?
under this head. The more simple properties, however, ody
require the use of elementary methods. Thus to show that tie
arithmetic mean of n positive numbers is greater than tkek
geometric mean (i.e. than the nth root of their product) we show
that if any two are unequal their product may be increased,
without altering their sum, by making them equal, mad that £
all the numbers are equal their arithmetic mean is equal to as
geometric mean.
VL Special Developments.
64. One case of convergence of a sequence has already bees
considered in | 58 (i.). The successive terms of the sequence it
that case were formed by successive additions of terms of a sens;
the series is then also said to converge to the limit which ■ tat
limit of the sequence.
Another example of'a sequence is afforded by the s ucc es wn
convergenti to a continued fraction of the form ob+^V — ~r« • • »
where a»,*t,Os, ... are integers. Denoting these convergeats fcj
Po/Qo, Pi/Q, Pt/Qi, . . . they may be regarded as obtained mm
a series §+ (j£_§) + (§_g) +. . . ; the successive tenasrf
this series, after the first, are alternately positive and negative,
and consist of fractions with numerators 1 and dexioauaatso
continually increasing.
Another kind of sequence is that which is formed by intro-
ducing the successive factors of a continued product; eg. the
successive factors on the right-hand side of Wollis's (ktvttm
r 3J 4J &6
3 "1.3* 3-5 '5-7"
A continued product of this kind can, by taking logarithms, be
replaced by an infinite series.
In the particular case considered in $ 58 (i.) we were able to
examine the approach of the sequence So, Si, S* ... to its fcm-t
X by direct examination of the value of X— S r . In most cats
this is not possible; and we have first to consider the convergence
of the sequence or of the series which it represents, and then to
determine its limit by indirect methods. This constitutes the
general theory of convergence of series (see Suns).
The word " sequence," as defined in § 58 (i.), includes pro-
gressions such as the arithmetical and geometrical progi
and, generally, the succession of terms of a series. It i
however, to confine it to those sequences (e.g. the
formed by taking successive sums of a series) which have' to be
considered in respect of their convergence or non-convergence.
In order that numerical results obtained by summing the first
few terms of a series may be of any value, it is usually necessary
that the series should converge to a limit; but there are excep-
tions to this rule. For instance, when n is large, at is approxi-
mately equal to V(wO- (*/*)*; the approximation may be
improved by Stirling's theorem
log* +logd+ ... +log.(» - 1)+ \\o&n m lJog.(2r) + «lofe« -»
. B, B, . (-F'B. .
+13^-3^*+ ~+<*,- 1 ).2r.«*-k+- •
where B,, B,, ... are Bernoulli's numbers (§ 46 (v.)), although
the series is not convergent.
65. Consideration of the binomial theorem for fractional index,
or of the continued fraction representing a surd, or of theorem*
such as Wallis's theorem (§ 64), shows that a sequence, every
term of which is rational, may have a» its limit an imtumJ
number, i.e. a number which cannot be expressed as the rati*
of two integers.
These are isolated cases of irrational numbers. Other cases
arise when we consider the continuity of a function. Suppose,
for instance, that y=x»; then to every rational value of x there
corresponds a rational value of y, but the converse dees not
hold. Thus there appear to be discontinuities in the values of 7
The difficulty is due to the fact that number 2s naturally not
ALGEBRA
613
continuous, so that continuity can only be achieved by an
artificial development. The development is based on the
necessity of being able to represent geometrical magnitude by
arithmetical magnitude; and it may be regarded as consisting
of three stages. Taking any number n to be represented by a
point on a line at distance nL from a fixed point O, where L is
a unit of length, we start with a series of points representing the
integers 1,2,3,... Thi* series is of course discontinuous. The
next step is to suppose that fractional numbers are repre-
sented in the same way. This extension produces a change of
character in the series of numbers. In the original integral
series each number had a definite number next to it, on each
side, except 1, which began the series. But in the new series
there is no first number, and no number can be said to be next
to any other number, since, whatever two numbers we take,
others can be inserted between them. On the other band, this
new series is not continuous; for we know that there are some
points on the line which represent surds and other irrational
numbers, and these numbers are not contained in our series.
We therefore take a third step, and obtain theoretical continuity
by considering that every point on the line, if it does not represent
a rational number, represents something which may be called an
irrational number.
This insertion of irrational numbers (with corresponding
negative numbers) requires for its exact treatment certain
special methods, which form part of the algebraic theory of
number, and are dealt with under Number.
66. The development of the theory of equations leads to the
amplification of real numbers, rational and irrational, positive
and negative, by imaginary and complex numbers. The quadrat ic
equation jH+P-o, for instance, has no real root; but we may
treat the roots as being +&V — i, and — &V— 1, if V— 1 is
treated as something which obeys the laws of arithmetic and
emerges into reality under the condition V — i.V— i" — »•
Expressions of the form *V — 1 and a+ A V — x, where a and b
are real numbers, are then described as imaginary and complex
numbers respectively; the former being a particular case of the
latter.
Complex numbers are conveniently treated in connexion not
only with the theory of equations but also with analytical trigono-
metry, which suggests the graphic representation of a+ftV — x
by a line of length (a'+fr*)* drawn in a direction different from
that of the line along which real numbers are represented.
References.— W. K. Clifford, The Common Seme of the Exact
Sciences (1885), chapters i. and iii., forms a good introduction to
algebra. As to the teaching of algebra, see references under
Arithmetic to works on the teaching of elementary mathematics.
Among school-books may be mentioned those of W. M. Baker and
A. A. Bourne. W. G. Borchardt. W. D. Eggar, F. Gone, H. S. Hall
and S. R. Knight. A. E, F. Layne, R. B. Morgan. G. Chrysul,
Introduction to Algebra (1898); H. B. Fine, A College Algebra (1905);
C. Smith. A Treatise on Algebra (ist ed. 1888, 3rd ed. 1892), are more
suitable for revision purposes; the second of these deals rather fully
with irrational numbers. For the algebraic theory of number, and
the convergence of sequences and of series, see T. f. i'A. Bromwich,
Introduction to the Theory of Infinite Series (1908); H. S. Carslaw,
Introduction to the Theory of Fourier's Series (1906) ; H. B. Fine.
The Number-System of Algebra (1891); H. P. Manning, Irrational
Numbers (1906); f. Pierpont, Lectures on the Theory of Functions
of Real Variables (1905). For general reference, G. Chrystal, Text-
Rook of Algebra (pt. i. 5th ed. 1904. pt. ii. 2nd ed. 1900) is
indispensable; unfortunately, like many of the works here men-
tioned, it lacks a proper index. Reference may also be made to the
special articles mentioned at the commencement of the present
article, as well as to the articles on Differences. Calculus of;
Infinitesimal Calculus; Interpolation; Vector Analysis.
The following may also be consulted :— E. Bore! and I. Drach,
Introduction i I'itude de la thiorie des nombres el de I'algtbre supi-
rieure (1893); C de Comberousse, Cours de mathbnatieues, vols. i.
and iii. (1884-1887): H. Laurent, Traiti d'analyse, vol. i. (1885);
E. Netto, Vorlesungen uber Algebra (vol. i. 1896, vol. ii. 1900): S.
Pincherle, Algebra compUmentare (1893); G. Salmon, Lessons intra*
ductory to the Modern Hither Ahebra (4th ed.. 1885); J. A. Serret,
Cours d'algibre supirieure (4th ed.. 2 vols., 1877); O. Stolz and J. A.
Gmeiner, Theorelische Arithmetik (pt. i. 1900, pt. ii. 1902) and
Einleiiung in die Funbtionen-theorie (pt. i. 1904, pt. ii. 1905)—
these being developments from O. Stolz, Vorlesungen Uber olltemeine
Arithmetik (pt. i. 1885. pt. ii. 1866); J. Tannery, Introduction a la
Iheorie des fonctions i'une variable (ist ed. 1886, 2nd ed. 1904);
H. Weber, Lehrbuch der Algebra. 2 vols, (ist ed. 1895-1896. 2nd ed.
1898-1899; vol. i. of 2nd cd. transl. by Griess as Trail* d'algcbre
supirieure, 1898). For a fuller bibliography, see Bncyclepadie der
math. rVissenuhaften (vol. i.. 1898). A list of early works on algebra
1. 318.
(W.l
F. Sh.)
is given in Encyclopaedia Britannica, 9th ed., vol. i. p.
B. Special Kinds of Algebra
1. A special algebra is one which differs from ordinary algebra
in the laws of equivalence which its symbols obey. Theoretically,
no limit can be assigned to the number of possible algebras;
the varieties actually known use, for the most part, the same
signs of operation, and differ among themselves principally by
their rules of multiplication.
2. Ordinary algebra developed very gradually as a kind of
shorthand, devised to abbreviate the discussion of arithmetical
problems and the statement of arithmetical facts. Although
the distinction is one which cannot be ultimately maintained, it
is convenient to classify the signs of algebra into symbols of
quantity (usually figures or letters), symbols of operation, such
as +, V, and symbols of distinction, such as brackets. Even
when the formal evolution of the science was fairly complete,
it was taken for granted that its symbols of quantity invariably
stood for numbers, and that its symbols of operation were re-
stricted to their ordinary arithmetical meanings. It could not
escape notice that one and the same symbol, such as V («—*)•
or even (a— 6), sometimes did and sometimes did not admit of
arithmetical interpretation, according to the values attributed
to the letters involved. This led to a prolonged controversy on
the nature of negative and imaginary quantities, which was
ultimately settled in a very curious way. The progress of
analytical geometry led to a geometrical interpretation both of
negative and also of imaginary quantities; and when a " mean-
ing " or, more properly, an interpretation, had thus been found
for the symbols in question, a reconsideration of the old algebraic
problem became inevitable, and the true solution, now so
obvious, was eventually obtained. It was at last realized that
the laws of algebra do not depend for their validity upon any
particular interpretation, whether arithmetical, geometrical or
other; the only question is whether these laws do or do not
involve any logical contradiction. When this fundamental
truth had been fully grasped, mathematicians began to inquire
whether algebras might not be discovered which obeyed laws
different from those obtained by the generalization of arithmetic.
The answer to this question has been so manifold as to be almost
embarrassing. All that can be done here is to give a sketch of
the more important and independent special algebras at present
known to exist.
3. Although the results of ordinary algebra will be taken for
granted, it is convenient to give the principal rules upon which
it is based. They are
(a+*)+«-a+(&+c) (a) (oXb)Xc-aX(bXc) <A r )
" " (c) oXb-bXa (c')
aj-b-b+a
a{b+c) -ab+ac (d)
(o-6)+6-a (1) (a+6)X6«a
(O
These formulae express the associative and commutative laws
of the operations + and X, the distributive law of X, and the
definitions of the inverse symbols — and -1- , which are assumed
to be unambiguous. The special symbols o and 1 are used to
denote a— a and a+a. They behave exactly like the corre-
sponding symbols in arithmetic; and tt follows from this that
whatever " meaning " is attached to the symbols of quantity,
ordinary algebra includes arithmetic, or at least an image of it.
Every ordinary algebraic quantity may be regarded as of the
form- a+0 V — I* where a, arc " real "; that is to say, every
algebraic equivalence remains valid when its symbols of quantity
are interpreted as complex numbers of the type a+0V— 1
(d . Number). But the symbols of ordinary algebra do not neces-
sarily denote numbers; they may, for instance, be interpreted
as coplanar points or vectors. Evolution and involution are
usually regarded as operations of ordinary algebra; this leads
to a notation for powers and roots, and a theory of irrational
algebraic quantities analogous to that of irrational numbers.
614
ALGEBRA
4. The only known type of algebra which does not contain
arithmetical elements is substantially due to George Boole.
Although originally suggested by formal logic, it is
most simply interpreted as an algebra of regions in
space. Let i denote a definite region of space; and
let a, b, &c, stand for definite parts of t. Let a+b
denote the region made up of a and b together (the common
part, if any, being reckoned only once), and let aXb or ab mean
the region common to a and b. Then a-fa=<w— a; hence
numerical coefficients and indices are not required. The inverse
symbols — , + are ambiguous, and in fact are rarely used.
Each symbol a is associated with its supplement & which satisfies
the equivalences <*+*■■#, od-o, the latter of which means that
a and & have no region in common. Finally, there is a law of
abso ption expressed by o+ab-a. From every proposition in
this algebra a reciprocal one may be deduced by interchang-
ing + and X, and also the symbols o and *. For instance,
s+y.x+fy and *y-*(*+y) are reciprocal The operations
+ and X obey all the ordinary laws a, c, d (§ 3).
5. A point A in space may be associated with a (real, positive,
or negative) numerical quantity a, called its weight, and denoted
by the symbol aA. The sum of two weighted points
aA, 0B is, by definition, the point («+0)G, where G
divides AB so that AG: GB -0 :«. It can be proved
by geometry that
(.A+M+TC-aA+feB+TP -U+0+ir)P.
where P is in fact the centroid of masses a, 0, y placed at A, B, C
respectively. So, in general, if we put
«A+*B+tC +... +XL - (a+fi +7+... +*)X.
X is, in general, a determinate point, the barycentre of «A,
0B, &c. (or of A, B, &c. for the weights a, 0, &c). If
(a+0+. . . +X) happens to be xero, X lies at infinity in
a determinate direction; unless — aA is the barycentre of
0B, yC, . . . XL, in which case oA+0B+ . . . +AL vanishes
identically, and X is indeterminate. If ABCD is a tetrahedron
of reference, any point P in space is determined by an equation
of the form
(a+0+7+»)P-«A+0B+7C+*D:
a, 0, y, ft are, an fact, equivalent to a set of homogeneous co-
ordinates of P. For constructions in a fixed plane three points
of reference are sufficient It is remarkable that Msbius employs
the symbols AB, ABC, ABCD in their ordinary geometrical
sense as lengths, areas and volumes, except that he distinguishes
their sign; thus AB--BA, ABC-- ACB, and so on. If be
had happened to think of them as " products," he might have
anticipated GrassmamVs discovery of the extensive calculus.
From a merely formal point of view, we have in the barycentric
calculus a set of "special symbols of quantity" or "extra-
ordinaries " A, B, C, &c, which combine with each other by
means of operations + and — which obey the ordinary rules,
and with ordinary algebraic quantities by operations X and +,
also according to the ordinary rules, except that division by an
extraordinary is not used.
6. A quaternion is best defined as a symbol of the type
q - 2*61 - «•«• +tti«i - «!*+ a*i,
jjjjjjjfc"'* where e«, . . . e» are independent extraordinaries and
mtm ma e*, . . . a* ordinary algebraic quantities, which may
be called the co-ordinates of q. The sum and product
of two quaternions are defined by the formulae
Z**XZAc.-Z«,A*«.,
where the products e,c, are further reduced according to the
following multiplication table, in which, for example, the
* 4 * C|
* t\ «I 'I
ex -* «i -«i
a -«i -* e x
e% «t —ex —e%
second line is to be read 44-4, «**- — 4, 44-0, *iei«— e*.
The effect of these definitions is that the sum sad the ps>
duct of two quaternions are also quaternion*; that adcfetiM
is associative and commutative; and that xaaltipficatkn ■
associative and distributive, but not commutative. Tfca
eift** —e*\ t and if q, q* are any two quaternions, ff is geaenjr
different from q*q. The symbol e* behaves exactly like x a
ordinary algebra; Hamilton writes 1, i, j, k fhstrad of 4, *
e», et, and in this notation all the special rules of operation sat
be summed up by the equalities
t-a.tf-fjft — I.
Putting 7-a+/9s+7i+M, Hamilton calls a the senior pert of f.
and denotes it by Sq; he also writes Vq for 01+19+**, waka
is called the vector part of q. Thus every quaternion nay k
written in the form q-Sq+\q, where either Sq or Xq may
separately vanish; so that ordinary algebraic quantities ?cr
scalar*, as we shall call them) and pure vectors may each be
regarded as special cases of quaternions.
The equations rf+x-q and y+rf—q are satisfied by ttr
same quaternion, which is denoted by q—j. On the other baai
the equations qfx~q and ytf—q have, in general, difterc:
solutions. It is the value of y which is generally denoted by
q+q*; a special symbol for x is desirable, but has not ben
established. If we put tf-Sf'-V?', then qi is called the
conjugate of q*, and the scalar rfqi—qif is called the norm of i
and written N/. With this notation the values of x and y as?
be expressed in the forms
x-«fcW. y-«tfW.
which are free from ambiguity, since scalars are commuiatrw
with quaternions. The values of x and y are different, asks
V(w0-o.
In the applications *>t the calculus the co-ordinates of a
quaternion are usually assumed to be numerical; when they an
complex, the quaternion is further distinguished by w*"^
as a biquatemion. Clifford's biquaternions are quantities
iq+V, where q, r are quaternions, and £, i| are symbols (coav
mutative with quaternions) obeying the laws £*••£, **~i
fr-itf-o (cf. Quaternions).
7. In the extensive calculus of the nth category, we have,
first of all, n independent " units," 4, et, . . . *«. From these
are derived symbols of the type
Ai- •1*1+0**+... +««*.-Z«#. - mi-
which we shall call extensive quantities 0/ the just species SbE*
(and, when necessary, of the nth category). The co-
ordinates a u . . . an are scalars, and in particular applications
may be restricted to real or complex numerical values.
If Bi-Z0*, there is a law of addition expressed by
A,+B, -Z(«,+ft)e, -Bi+A,;
this law of addition is associative as well as commutative.
The inverse operation is free from ambiguity, and, in fact,
Ai-Bi-Z(«-A)*.
To multiply Ai by a scalar, we apply the rule
€Ai-Aif-Z(|«<)«.
and similarly for division by a scalar.
All this is analogous to the corresponding formulae in the
barycentric calculus and in quaternions; it remains to co n sider
the multiplication of two or more extensive quantities The
binary products of the units 4 are taken to satisfy the equalities
e^-o, *Q--4*;
this reduces them to $n(n— 1) distinct values, exclusive of aero.
These values are assumed to be independent, so we have |»(«— t)
arrived units of the second species or order. Associated with these
new units there is a system of extensive quantities of the second
species, represented by symbols of the type
At -Z««EV" [i - 1, 2, ...}»(« - 1)]
where Ei'^Et**', &c, are the derived units of the second specks.
If Ai-Zo*,, Bi-20a, the distributive law of multiplication is
preserved by assuming
A,B,-Z(«,il»*,*;
it follows that A»Bi- -B|Ai, and that Ai'-o.
By assuming the truth of the associative law of multiplication,
and taking account of the reducing formulae for binary prodacts.
ALGEBRA
615
we may construct derived units of the third, fourth ... nth
species. Every unit of the rth species which does not vanish
is the product of r different units of the first species; two such
units are independent unless they are permutations of the same
set of primary units 4, in which case they are equal or opposite
according to the usual rule employed in determinants. Thus,
for instance —
«!.«*• "-«!«••«••" «!«*•- -0|Ml-«**i;
and, in general, the number of distinct units of the rth species
in the nth. category (r<») is C.,,. Finally, it is assumed that
(in the nth category) 4^ . . . «,- 1, the suffixes being in their
natural order.
Let Ar-ZeE^and B.-Z/JE^ be two extensive quantities of
species r and *; then if r+s<n, they may be multiplied by the
rule A,B.-Z(.0E<'>E<«>
where the products EJ'V* may be expressed as derived units of
species (r+*). The product B,A, is equal or opposite to ArB a ,
according as rs is even or odd. This process may be extended
to the product of three or more factors such as A r B,Q . . .
provided that r+ *+/+.. . does not exceed ft. The law is
associative; thus, for instance, (AB)C-A(BC). But the com-
mutative law does not always hold; thus, indicating species,
as before, by suffixes, A P B.C,-(-i)"* ,l * |r C,B.A r , with analo-
gous rules for other cases.
If r+i>fi, a product such as E,E„ worked out by the previous
rules, comes out to be scro. A characteristic feature of the
calculus is that a meaning can be attached to a symbol of this
kind by adopting a new rule, called that of regressive multiplica-
tion, as distinguished from the foregoing, which is progressive.
The new rule requires some preliminary explanation. If E is
any extensive unit, there is one other unit E', and only one,
such that the (progressive) product EE'- 1. This unit is called
the supplement of E, and denoted by |E. For example, when
*™*» l«i •>«**«. ki* ■'•*«• k**« ■-"*»•
and so on. Now when r+i>», the product ErE, is defined to
be that unit of which the supplement is the progressive product
(E^E.. For instance, if n - 4, E, - e % e%, E, - e**« t we have
|E,IE. - ( -#*4)( -«i) -«i«*« - k».
consequently, by the rule of regressive multiplication,
e l e>cte**-e».
Applying the distributive law, we obtain, when r+s>n,
A,B. - ZaErZffZ. - Z(«0)E,E..
where the regressive products ErE, are to be reduced to units of
species (r+j-n) by the foregoing rule.
If A-ZoE, then, by definition, |A-ZaJE, and hence
A|(B+C)-A|B+A|C.
Now this b formally analogous to the distributive law of multi-
plication; and in fact we may look upon AIB as a particular way
of multiplying A and B (not A and B). The symbol AB, from
this point of view, b called the inner product of A and B, as
distinguished from the outer product IAB. An inner product may
be either progressive or regressive. In the course of reducing
such expressions as (AB)C, (AB)|C(DE)| and the like, where a
chain of multiplications has to be performed in a certain order,
the multiplications may be all progressive, or all regressive, or
partly, one, partly the other. In the first two cases the product
is said to be pure, in the third case mixed. A pure product is
associative; a mixed product, speaking generally, is not.
The outer and inner products of two extensive quantities A, B,
are in many ways analogous to the quaternion symbols Vab and
Sab respectively. As in quaternions, so in the extensive calculus,
there are numerous formulae of transformation which enable us
to deal with extensive quantities without expressing them in
terms of the primary units. Only a few illustrations can be given
here, Let a, b, c t d, e t / be quantities of the first species in the
fourth category; A, B, C . . . quantities of the third species in
the same category. Then
(*)(ate) - lobd*)c+(cad*)b+(bcde)a
■• (abce)d — (abcd)e.
(a*)(AB) - («A)(*B) - (dBKftA)
a* - (*)»- (%)«, (rift) - (ajcKW) - («M)(*).
These may be compared and contrasted with such quaternion
formulae as
SCVabVcd) -SadSbc-SaeSbd
dSabc-aSbcd-bScda+cSadb
where a, 6, c t d denote arbitrary vectors.
8. An ii-tuple linear algebra (also called a complex number
system) deals with quantities of the type A-Zart
derived from n special units 4, «t . . . «•• The sum
and product of two quantities are defined in the first
instance by the formulae
Z«f+Z*-Z(a+0« t Z*ftXZ6*-Z(*A)«*.
so that the laws a, c, d of § 3 are satisfied. The binary products
44, however, are expressible as linear functions of the units e, by
means of a "multiplication table" which defines the special
characteristics of the algebra in question. Multiplication may
or may not be commutative, and in the same way it may or may
not be associative. The types of linear associative algebras, not
assumed to be commutative, have been enumerated (with some
omissions) up to sex tuple algebras inclusive by B . Peirce. Quater-
nions afford an example of a quadruple algebra of this kind;
ordinary algebra is a special case of a duplex linear algebra. If,
in the extensive calculus of the nth category, all the units (in-
cluding 1 and the derived units E) are taken to be homologous
instead of being distributed into species, we may regard it as a
(a»— 1 )- tuple linear algebra, which, however, is not wholly
associative. It should be observed that while the use of special
units, or extraordinaries, in a linear algebra is convenient,
especially in applications, it is not indispensable. Any linear
quantity may be denoted by a symbol (at, at, ... a.) in which
only its scalar coefficients occur; in fact, the special units only
serve, in the algebra proper, as umbrae or regulators of certain
operations on scalars (see Number). This idea finds fuller
expression in the algebra of matrices, as to which it most suffice
to say that a matrix is a symbol consisting of a rectangular array
of scalars, and that matrices may be combined by a rule of addi-
tion which obeys the usual laws, and a rule of multiplication
which is distributive and associative, but not, in general, com-
mutative. Various special algebras (for example, quaternions)
may be expressed in the notation of the algebra of matrices.
9. In ordinary algebra we have the disjunctive law that if
fl6-o, then either a-o or t-o. This applies also to quater-
nions, but not to extensive quantities, nor is it true for linear
algebras in general. One of the most important questions in
investigating a linear algebra is to decide the necessary relations
between a and b in order that this product may be zero.
10. The algebras discussed up to this point -may be considered
as independent in the sense that each of them deals with a class
of symbols of quantity more or less homogeneous,
and a set of operations applying to them all. But when mit9 yru^
an algebra is used with a particular interpretation,
or even in the course of its formal development, it frequently
happens that new symbols of operation are, so to speak, super-
posed upon the algebra, and are found to obey certain formal laws
of combination of their own. For instance, there are the symbols
A, D, E used in the calculus of finite differences; Aronhold's
symbolical method in the calculus Of invariants; and the like.
In most cases these subsidiary algebras, as they may be called,
are inseparable from the applications in which they are used;
but in any attempt at a natural classification of algebra (at
present a hopeless task), they would have to be taken into
account. Even in ordinary algebra the -noU lion for powers
and roots disturbs the symmetry of the rational theory; and
when a schoolboy illegitimately extends the distributive law by
writing V(tt+&)-Va+V&, he is unconsciously emphasizing
this want of complete harmony.
Authorities.— A. de Morgan. " On the Foundation of Algebra,"
Trans. Camb. P.S. (vii., viii., 1839-1844); C. Peacock. Symbolical
~ ">. Boole, Laws of Thought (Londo
Algebra (Cambridge. 1845): G.
1854): E. Schroder, Lehrbuchder Arithmetih n. Algebra (Leipzig. 1873),
Vorlesungen uber die Algebra der Logih (ibid., 1 800-1895); A. T.
Mobius, Der barycetUristhe Cakul (Leipzig, 1827) (reprinted in his col-
lected works, vol. i., Leipzig. 1885) ;.WT R. Hamilton, Lectures t
of Thought (London.
' tbra (Leipzig, 187,'
1890-1895); A.
Quaternions (Dublin. 1853), Elements of Quaternions (ibid., 1866);
6i6
ALGEBRA
H. Grassmann, Die lineale Ausdeknungslekre (Leipzig. 1844),
Die Ausdehnungslehrt (Berlin. 1862) (these are reprinted with
valuable emendations and notes in his Cesammetu math. «.
ihys. Werke, vol. i., Leipzig (2 parts), 1894, 1896), and papers in
Crunert's Arch, vi., Crelle, xlix. Ixxxiv., Math. Ann. vii. xii.; B.
and C. S. Peirce, "Linear Associative Algebra," Amer. Journ,
Math. iv. (privately circulated, 1871); A. Cayley, on Matrices, Phil.
Trans, cxlviU., on Multiple Algebra. Quart. M. Journ. xxii.; J. J.
Sylvester, on Universal Algebra (1.*. Matrices), Amer. Journ. Math.
vt.; H. J. S. Smith, on Linear Indeterminate Equations, Phil.
Trans, cfi.; R. S. Ball, Theory of Screws (Dublin, 1876); and papers
in Phil. Trans, clxiv., and Trans. R. Jr. Ac. xxv.; W. K. Clifford,
on Biquaternions, Proc. L. M. S. iv.: A. Buchheim, on Extensive
Calculus and its Applications. Proc. L. M. S. xv.-xvii.: H. Taber,
on Matrices, Amer. J. M. xii.; K. Weierstrass, ' Zur Theorie der
aus n Haupteinheiten gebildeten complexen GrDssen," Gating.
Jfachr. (1884) ; G. Frobemus, on Bilinear Forms, Crelle, Ixxxiv.. and
Bert. Ber. (1896); L. Kronecker.on Complex Numbers and Modular
Systems. Berl. Ber. (1888) ; G. Scheffers, ''Complexe Zahlensysteme,"
Math. Ann. xxxix. (this contains a bibliography up to 1890); S. Lie,
Voriesungen Hber continuirliche Cruppen (Leipzig, 1803), ch. xxi.; A.
M'Aulay, " Algebra after Hamilton, or Multenions, Proc.R.S. £.,
1908, 28, p. 503. For a more complete account see H. Hankel
Theorie der complexen Zahlensysteme (Leipzig, 1867); O. Stoiz. Vor-
iesungen itber all gem fine Arithmetik (ibid. T 1883): A. N. Whitehead,
A Treatise on Universal Algebra, with Applications (vol. i., Cambridge,
1898) (a very comprehensive work, to which the writer of this article
is in many ways indebted) : and the Encyclopddie d. math. Wissen-
schaflen (vol. i.. Leipzig. 1808). &c, |( A I (H. Schubert). A 4 (E.
Study), and B 1 c (G. Landsberg). For the history of the develop-
ment of ordinary algebra M. Cantor's Voriesungen uaer Ceschiehte der
Matkematih is the standard authority. (G. B. M.)
C. History
Various derivations of the word "algebra/' which is of
Arabian origin, have been given by different writers. The
first mention of the word is to be found in the title
of a work by Mahommed ben Musa al-Khwarizmi
(Hovarezmi), who flourished about the beginning of
the 9th century. The full title is Urn al-jebr wo'l-muqdbala,
which contains the ideas of restitution and comparison, or
opposition and comparison, or resolution and equation, jebr
being derived from the verb jabara, to reunite, and muqObala,
from gabala, to make equal. (The root jabara is also met with
in the word algebrista, which means a " bone-setter," and is still
in common use in Spain.) The same derivation is given by
Lucas Paciolus (Luca Padoli), who reproduces the phrase in
the transliterated form algktbra e almucabala, and ascribes the
invention of the art to the Arabians.
Other writers have derived the word from the Arabic particle
al (the definite article), and geber, meaning " man." Since, how-
ever, Geber happened to be the name of a celebrated Moorish
philosopher who flourished in about the nth or 12th century, it
has been supposed that he was the founder of algebra, which
has since perpetuated his name. The evidence of Peter Ramus
(151 5-1572) on this point is interesting, but he gives no authority
for his singular statements. In the preface to his Arithmetical
libri duo et toiidem Algebrae (1560) he says: " The name Algebra
is Syriac, signifying .the art or doctrine of an excellent man.
For Cebcr, in Syriac, is a name applied to men, and is sometimes
a term of honour, as master or doctor among us. There was a
certain learned mathematician who sent his algebra, written in
the Syriac language, to Alexander the Great, and he named it
almucabala, that is, the book of dark or mysterious things,
which others would rather call the doctrine of algebra. To this
day the same book is in great estimation among the learned in
the oriental nations, and by the Indians, who cultivate this art,
it is called aljabra and alboret\ though the name of the author
himself is not known." The uncertain authority of these state-
ments, and the plausibility of the preceding explanation, have
caused philologists to accept the derivation from al zxtdjabarcu
Robert Recordc in his Whetstone of%Vitte (1557) uses the variant
algcbcr, while John Dec (1 527-1608) affirms that algicbar, and
not algebra, is the correct form, and appeals to the authority
of the Arabian Aviccnna.
Although the term " algebra " is now in universal use, various
other appellations were used by the Italian mathematicians
during the Renaissance. Thus we find Paciolus calling it I'Arle
Magiore; ditto dot ntlgo la Regula da la Com emv Aighthrs t
Almucabala. The name I'arte magiore, the greater art, it dessjaea
to distinguish it from I'arte minore, the lesser art, a term wfcd
he applied to the modern arithmetic. His second variant, k
regula de la cosa, the rule of the thing or unknown qaasurf.
appears to have been in common use in Italy, and the word au
was preserved for several centuries in the forms cats or algebra.
cossic or algebraic, cossist or algebraist, &c Other Italia*
writers termed it the Regula rei et census, the rule of the tfci&f
and the product, or the root and the square. The priacpk
underlying this expression is probably to be found in the fact
that it measured the limits of their attainments in algebra, far
they were unable to solve equations of a higher degree thai
the quadratic or square.
Frandscus Vieta (Francois Viete) named it Sped—* Arith-
metic, on account of the species of the quantities involved, whkk
he represented symbolically by the various letters of the alphahct
Sir Isaac Newton introduced the term Universal Arithmetic,
since it is concerned with the doctrine of operations, not affected
on numbers, but on general symbols.
Notwithstanding these and other idiosyncratic appeOaboav
European mathematicians have adhered to the older name, by
which the subject is now universally known.
It is difficult to assign the invention of any art or sdenct
definitely to any particular age or race. The few fragmentary
records, which have come down to us from past oviKaafwca,
must not be regarded as representing the totality of their know-
ledge, and the omission of a science or art does not necessarily
imply that the science or art was unknown. It was formerly the
custom to assign the invention of algebra to the Greeks, but
since the decipherment of the Rhind papyrus by F.i^entohx this
view has changed, for in this work there are distinct signs of aa
algebraic analysis. The particular problem— a heap {ham) and
its seventh makes 19 — is solved as we should now solve a
simple equation; but Ahmes varies his methods in other sunihr
problems. This discovery carries the invention of algebra back
to about 1700 B.C., if not earlier.
It is probable that the algebra of the Egyptians was of a saost
rudimentary nature, for otherwise we should expect to find
traces of it in the works of the Greek geometers, of _ ^
whom Thales of Miletus (640-546 B.C.) was the first. JS*
Notwithstanding the prolixity of writers and the
number of the writings, all attempts at extracting an algebraic
analysis from their geometrical theorems and problems have
been fruitless, and it is generally conceded that their anaryss
was geometrical and had little or no affinity to algebra. The
first extant work which approaches to a treatise on algebra
is by Diophantus (a.r.), an Alexandrian mathematician, who
flourished about ad. 350. The original, which consisted of a
preface and thirteen books, is now lost, but we have a Laos
translation of the first six books and a fragment of another oa
polygonal numbers by Xylandcr of Augsburg (1575), and Lata
and Greek translations by Caspar Bachet de Merizac (i6ai-
1670). Other editions have been published, of which we may
mention Pierre Fermat's (1670), T. L. Heath's (188s) and
P. Tannery's (1893- 189s). In the preface to this work, which
is dedicated to one Dionysius, Diophantus explains bis notation,
naming the square, cube and fourth powers, dynamis, cumu,
dynamodinimus, and so on, according to the sum in the indices.
The unknown he terms arithmos, the number, and in solutions
he marks it by the final s; he explains the generation of powers,
the rules for multiplication and division of simple quantities,
but he docs not treat of the addition, subtraction, multiplication
and division of compound quantities. He then proceeds to
discuss various artifices for the simplification of equations, giving
methods which are still in common use. In the body of the work
he displays considerable ingenuity in reducing his problems to
simple equations, which admit either of direct solution, or (all
into the class known as indeterminate equations. This latter
class he discussed so assiduously that they are often known
as Diophontine problems, and the methods of resolving them as
the Diophontine analysis (see Equation, Indeterminate). It is
ALGEBRA
617
difficult to believe that this work of Diophantus arose spontane-
ously in a period of general stagnation. It is more than likely
that he was indebted to earlier writers, whom he omits to
mention, and whose works are now lost; nevertheless, but for
this work, we should be led to assume that algebra was almost,
if not entirely, unknown to the Greeks.
The Romans, who succeeded the Greeks as the chief civilised
power in Europe, failed to set store on their literary and
scientific treasures; mathematics was all but neglected; and
beyond a few improvements in arithmetical computations, there
axe no material advances to be recorded.
In the chronological development of our subject we have now
to turn to the Orient Investigation of the writings of Indian
mathematicians has exhibited a fundamental dis-
tinction between the Greek and Indian mind, the
former being pre-eminently geometrical and specula-
tive, the latter arithmetical and mainly practical. We find that
gedtnetry was neglected except in so far as it was of service to
astronomy; trigonometry was advanced, and algebra improved
far beyond the attainments of Diophantus.
The earliest Indian mathematician of whom we have certain
knowledge is Aryabhatta, who flourished about the beginning
of tbe 6th century of our era. The fame of this astronomer and
mathematician rests on his work, the Aryabkattiyam, the third
chapter of which is devoted to mathematics. Ganessa, an
eminent astronomer, mathematician and scholiast of Bhaskara,
quotes this work and makes separate mention of the cutlaca
(" pulveriser "), a device for effecting the solution of indeter-
minate equations. Henry Thomas Colebrooke, one of the earliest
modern investigators of Hindu science, presumes that the
treatise of Aryabhatta extended to determinate quadratic
equations, indeterminate equations of the first degree, and
probably of the second. An astronomical work, called the
Surya-siddhania (" knowledge of the Sun "), of uncertain
authorship and probably belonging to the 4th or 5th century,
was considered of great merit by the Hindus, who ranked it
only second to the work of Brahmagupta, who flourished about
a century later. It is of great interest to the historical student,
for it exhibits the influence of Greek science upon Indian mathe-
matics at a period prior to Aryabhatta. After an interval of
about a century, during which mathematics attained its highest
level, there flourished Brahmagupta (b. a.d. 598), whose work
entitled Brahma-sphuta-siddhanta ("The revised system of
Brahma ") contains several chapters devoted to mathematics.
Of other Indian writers mention may be made of Cridhara, the
author of a Ganiia-sara (" Quintessence of Calculation "), and
Padmanabha, the author of an algebra.
A period of mathematical stagnation then appears to have
possessed the Indian mind for an interval of several centuries,
for the works of the next author of any moment stand but little
in advance of Brahmagupta. We refer to Bhaskara Acarya,
whose work the Siddhanta-ciromani (" Diadem of an Astronomical
System ")» written in n 50, contains two important chapters,
the LUavati (" the beautiful [science or art] ") and Viga-ganito
(" root-extraction "), which are given up to arithmetic and algebra.
English translations of the mathematical chapters of the
Brahmasiddkanta and Siddhanta-ciromani by H. T. Colebrooke
(18x7), and of the Surya-siddhanta by £. Burgess, with annota-
tions by W. D. Whitney (i860), may be consulted for details.
Tbe question as to whether the Greeks borrowed their algebra
from the Hindus or vice versa has been the subject of much
discussion. There is no doubt that there was a constant traffic
between Greece and India, and it is more than probable that an
exchange of produce would be accompanied by a transference of
ideas. Moriu Cantor suspects the influence of Diophantine
methods, more particularly in the Hindu solutions of indeter-
minate equations, where certain technical terms are, in all
probability, of Greek origin. However this may be, it is certain
that the Hindu algebraists were far in advance of Diophantus.
The deficiencies of the Greek symbolism were partially remedied ;
subtraction was denoted by placing a dot over the subtrahend;
multiplication, by placing bha (an abbreviation of bhavita, the
" product ") after the factors; division, by placing the divisor
under the dividend; and square root, by inserting ha (an
abbreviation of karana, irrational) before the quantity. The
unknown was called ydvaUdvat, and if there were several, the
first took this appellation, and the others were designated by the
names of colours; for instance, x was denoted by yd and y by kd
(from kdlaka, black).
A notable improvement on the ideas of Diophantus is to be
found in the fact that the Hindus recognized the existence
of two roots of a quadratic equation, but the negative
roots were considered to be inadequate, since no interpreta-
tion could be found for them. It is also supposed that they
anticipated discoveries of the solutions of higher equations.
Great advances were made in the study of indeterminate equa-
tions, a branch of analysis in which Diophantus excelled. But
whereas Diophantus aimed at obtaining a single solution, the
Hindus strove for a general method by which any indeterminate
problem could be resolved. In this they were completely
successful, for they obtained general solutions for the equations
ax+by—c, xy—ax+by+c (since rediscovered by Leonhard
Euler) and cy*— a**+6. A particular case of the last equation,
namely, y'-axH-x, sorely taxed the resources of modern alge-
braists. It was proposed by Pierre de Fermat to Bernhard
Frenide de Bessy, and in 1657 to all mathematicians. John
Wallis and Lord Brounker jointly obtained a tedious solution
which was published in 1658, and afterwards in 1668 by John
Pell in his Algebra, A solution was also given by Fermat in his
Relation. Although Pell had nothing to do with the solution,
posterity has termed the equation Pell's Equation, or Problem,
when more rightly it should be the Hindu Problem, in recognition
of the mathematical attainments of the Brahmans.
Hermann Hankel has pointed out the readiness with which the
Hindus passed from number to magnitude and vice versa.
Although this transition from the discontinuous to continuous
is not truly scientific, yet it materially augmented the develop-
ment of algebra, and Hankel affirms that if we define algebra
as the application of arithmetical operations to both rational
and irrational numbers or magnitudes, then the Brahmans are
the real inventors of algebra.
The integration of the scattered tribes of Arabia in the 7th
century by the stirring religious propaganda of Mahomet was
accompanied by a meteoric rise in the intellectual
powers of a hitherto obscure race. The Arabs became
the custodians of Indian and Greek science, whilst
Europe was rent by internal dissensions. Under the rule of the
Abbasids, Bagdad became the centre of scientific thought;
physicians and astronomers from India and Syria flocked to
their court; Greek and Indian manuscripts were translated
(a work commenced by the Caliph Mamun (813-333) and ably
continued by his successors); and in about a century the Arabs
were placed in possession of the vast stores of Greek and Indian
learning. Euclid's Elements were first translated in the reign
of Harun-al-Rashid (786-809), and revised by the order of
Mamun. But these translations were regarded as imperfect,
and it remained for Tobit ben Korra (836-001) to produce a
satisfactory edition. Ptolemy's Almagest, the works of Apol-
lonius, Archimedes, Diophantus and portions of the Brahma-
siddhanta, were also translated. The first notable Arabian
mathematician was Mahommed ben Musa al-Khwarixmi, who
flourished in the reign of Mamun. His treatise on algebra and
arithmetic (the latter part of which is only extant in the form
of a Latin translation, discovered in 1857) contains nothing that
was unknown to the Greeks and Hindus; it exhibits methods
allied to those of both races, with the Greek element predominat-
ing. The part devoted to algebra has the title al-jebr wa'l-
muqdbala, and the arithmetic begins with "Spoken has
Algoritmi," the name Khwarixmi or Hovarczmi having passed
into the word Algoritmi, which has been further transformed
into the more modern words algorism and algorithm, signifying
a method of computing.
Tobit ben Korra (836-001), born at Harran in Mesopotamia',
an accomplished linguist, mathematician and astronomer,
6i8
ALGEBRA
rendered conspicuous service by his translations of various Greek
authors. His investigation of the properties of amicable numbers
(q.v.) and of the problem of trisecting an angle, are of importance.
The A rabians more closely resembled the Hindus than the Greeks
in the choice of studies; their philosophers blended speculative
dissertations with the more progressive study of medicine;
their mathematicians neglected the subtleties of the conic sections
and Diophantine analysis, and applied themselves more particu-
larly to perfect the system of numerals (see Numeral), arithmetic
and astronomy (q.v.). It thus came about that while some
progress was made in algebra, the talents of the race were
bestowed on astronomy and trigonometry (q.v.). Fahri des al
Karhi, who flourished about the beginning of the i ith century,
is the author of the most important Arabian work on algebra.
He follows the methods of Diophantus; his work on indeter-
minate equations has no resemblance to the Indian methods,
and contains nothing that cannot be gathered from Diophantus.
He solved quadratic equations both geometrically and algebraic-
ally, and also equations of the form **■+«*•+&■■ o; he also
proved certain relations between the sum of the first n natural
numbers, and the sums of their squares and cubes.
Cubic equations were solved geometrically by determining
the intersections of conic sections. Archimedes' problem of
dividing a sphere by a plane into two segments having a pre-
scribed ratio, was first expressed as a cubic equation by Al Mahani,
and the first solution was given by Abu Gafar al Haxin. The
determination of the side of a regular heptagon which can be
inscribed or circumscribed to a given circle was reduced to a more
complicated equation which was first successfully resolved by
Abul Gud. The method of solving equations geometrically was
considerably developed by Omar Khayyam of Khorassan, who
flourished in the nth century. This author questioned the
possibility of solving cubics by pure algebra, and biquadratics by
geometry. His first contention was not disproved until the x 5th
century, but his second was disposed of by Abul Wefa (940-998),
who succeeded in solving the forms x*-a and «<+«•- b.
Although the foundations of the geometrical resolution of
cubic equations are to be ascribed to the Greeks (for Eutocius
assigns to Menaechmus two methods of solving the equation
** ■ a and *• - 20*), yet the subsequent development by the Arabs
must be regarded as one of their most important achievements.
The Greeks had succeeded in solving an isolated example; the
Arabs accomplished the general solution of numerical equations.
Considerable attention has been directed to the different styles
in which the Arabian authors have treated their subject. Moritz
Cantor has suggested that at one time there existed two schools,
one in sympathy with the Greeks, the other with the Hindus;
and that, although the writings of the latter were first studied,
they were rapidly discarded for the more perspicuous Grecian
methods, so that, among the later Arabian writers, the Indian
methods were practically forgotten and their mathematics became
essentially Greek in character.
Turning to the Arabs in the West we find the same enlightened
spirit; Cordova, the capital of the Moorish empire in Spain, was
as much a centre of learning as Bagdad. The earliest known
Spanish mathematician is Al Madshrittf (d. 1007), whose fame
rests on a dissertation on amicable numbers, and on the schools
which were founded by his pupils at Cordova, Dania and Granada.
Gabir ben Aflah of Sevilla, commonly called Geber, was a cele-
brated astronomer and apparently skilled in algebra, for it has
been supposed that the word " algebra " is compounded from his
When the Moorish empire began to wane the brilliant in-
tellectual gifts which they had so abundantly nourished during
three or four centuries became enfeebled, and after that period
they failed to produce an author comparable with those of the
7th to the nth centuries.
In Europe the decline of Rome was succeeded by a period,
lasting several centuries, during which the sciences and arts
were all but neglected. Political and ecclesiastical dissensions
occupied the greatest intellects, and the only progress to be
recorded is in the art of computing or arithmetic, and the trans-
lation of Arabic manuscripts. The first successful attesept a
revive the study of algebra in Christendom was due to Leeaara>
of Pisa, an Italian merchant trading in the Mediter- _. ._ ^
ranean. His travels and mercantile experience had led 2JJ
him to conclude that the Hindu methods of computing
were in advance of those then in general use, and in isk k
published his Liber Abaci, which treats of both algebra vc
arithmetic. In this work, which is of great historical iaiaesL
since it was published about two centuries before the an i
printing was discovered, he adopts the Arabic notatioa a
numbers, and solves many problems, both arithmetical &£
algebraical. But it contains little that is original, and alihx£
the work created a great sensation when it was first puhhshd
the effect soon passed away, and the book was prartkxh
forgotten. Mathematics was more or less ousted from tk
academic curricula by the philosophical inquiries of the school-
men, and it was only after an interval of nearly three ceptue
that a worthy successor to Leonardo appeared. This was Leas
Padolus (Lucas de Burgo), a Minorite friar, who, having pre-
viously written works on algebra, arithmetic and gtomttsy,
published, in 1494, his principal work, entitled Smmmi &
Ar'Ukmetica, Geometria, Proportion* et ProportionafUs, la :
he mentions many earlier writers from whom he had leant the
science, and although it contains very little that cannot be loud
in Leonardo's work, yet it is especially noteworthy for cfae
systematic employment of symbols, and the manner in wind it
reflects the state of mathematics in Europe during Uus peood
These works are the earliest printed books on mathematics.
The renaissance of mathematics was thus effected hi Iuuy.
and it is to that country that the leading developments of :*t
following century were due. The first difficulty to be o mtua*
was the algebraical solution of cubic equations, the
pons osinorum of the earlier mathematicians. The 2U*«.
first step in this direction was made by Sdpio
Ferro <d. 1526), who solved the equation **+«*■■ 6. Oi hs
discovery we know nothing except that he declared it u
his pupil Antonio Marie Florida*. An imperfect sotatm <s
the equation xH-£**~tf was discovered by Nicholas Tartala
(Tartaglia) in 1530, and his pride in this achievement led hi?
into conflict with floridas, who proclaimed his own knowkdjc
of the form resolved by Ferro. Mutual recriminations led to x
public discussion in 1535, when Tartalea completely vindkatei
the general applicability of his methods and exhibited the
inefficiencies of that of Floridas. This contest over, Tartala
redoubled his attempts to generalize his methods, and by 154:
he possessed the means for solving any form of cubic equation,
His discoveries had made him famous all over Italy, and he was
earnestly solicited to publish his methods; but be ********
from doing so, saying that he intended to embody thcsi is
a treatise on algebra which he was preparing. At last he
succumbed to the repeated requests of Girolamo or Ge m ni s se
Cardano, who swore that he would regard them as an inviol-
able secret. Cardan or Cardano, who was at that time mnriricf
his great work, the Art Magna, could not restrain the temptaties
of crowning his treatise with such important discoveries, and m
1545 he broke his oath and gave to the world Tartaka's rsks
for solving cubic equations. Tartalea, thus robbed of his ssest
cherished possession, was in despair. Recriminations ensued
until his death in 1557, and although he sustained his dans for
priority, posterity has not conceded to him the honour of lb
discovery, for his solution is now known as Cardan's Jbfe.
Cubic equations having been solved, biquadratic* sosa
followed suit- As early as 1539 Cardan had solved certaia
particular cases, but it remained for his pupil, Lewis ^.
(Ludovici) Ferrari, to devise a general method. His f^ff*
solution, which is sometimes erroneously ascribed to ««msbm.
Rafael Bombelli, was published in the Ars Magna.
In this work, which is one of the most valuable contributioas
to the literature of algebra, Cardan shows that he was famihar
with both real positive and negative roots of equations whether
rational or irrational, but of imaginary roots he was qtrite
ignorant, aud he admits his inability to resolve the so-calkd
ALGEBRA
619
«• irreducible case " (fee Equation). Fundamental theorems
in the theory of equations are to be found in the same work.
Clearer ideas of imaginary quantities and the "irreducible
case " were subsequently published by Bombelli, In a work of
which the dedication is dated 1572, though the book was not
published until 1579.
Contemporaneously with the remarkable discoveries of the
Italian mathematicians, algebra was increasing in popularity
in Germany, France and England. Michael Stifel and Johann
Scheubelius (Scheybl) (1494-1570) flourished in Germany, and
although unacquainted with the work of Cardan and Tartalea,
their writings are noteworthy for their perspicuity and the
introduction of a more complete symbolism for quantities and
operations. Stifel introduced the sign (+) for addition or a
positive quantity, which was previously denoted by plus, pit,
or the letter p. Subtraction, previously written as minus, merit
or the letter m, was symbolized by the sign (-) which is still
in use. The square root he denoted by (V), whereas Padolus,
Cardan and others used the letter R.
The first treatise on algebra written in English was by Robert
Recorde, who published his arithmetic in 1552, and his algebra
entitled The Whetstone of Witte, vhick is the second pari 0/ Arith-
metik, in 1557; This work, which is written in the form of a
dialogue, closely resembles the works of Stifel and Scheubelius,
the latter of whom he often quotes. It includes the properties
of numbers; extraction of roots of arithmetical and algebraical
quantities, solutions of simple and quadratic equations, and a
fairly complete account of surds. He introduced the sign (-)
for equality, and the terms binomial and residual. Of other
writers who published works about the end of the 16th century,
we may mention Jacques Peletier, or Jacobus Peletarius (De
occulta parte Numerorum, quam Algebram vacant, 1558); Petrus
Ramus (Arithmeticac Libri duo el totidem Algebrae, 1560), and
Christoph Clavius, who wrote on algebra in 1580, though it was
not published until 1608. At this time also flourished Simon
Stevinus (Stevin) of Bruges, who published an arithmetic in
1585 and an algebra shortly afterwards. These works possess
considerable originality, and contain many new improvements
in algebraic notation; the unknown (res) is denoted by a small
circle, in which he places an integer corresponding to the power.
He introduced the terms multinomial, trinomial, quadrinomial,
&c, and considerably simplified the notation for decimals.
About the beginning of the 17th century various mathematical
works by Franciscus Vieta were published, which were after-
wards collected by Franz van Schooten and republished in 1646
at Leiden. These works exhibit great originality and mark an
important epoch in the history of algebra. Vieta, who does not
avail himself of the discoveries of his predecessors— the negative
roots of Cardan, the revised notation of Stifel and Stevin, &c. —
introduced or popularized many new terms and symbols, some
of which are still in use. He denotes quantities by the letters
of the alphabet, retaining the vowels for the unknown and the
consonants for theknowns; he introduced the vinculum and
among others the terms coefficient, affirmative, negative, pure
and adjected equations. He improved the methods for solving
equations, and devised geometrical constructions with the aid
of the conic sections. His method for determining approximate
values of the roots of equations is far in advance of the Hindu
method as applied by Cardan, and is identical in principle
with the methods of Sir Isaac Newton and W. G. Horner.
We have next to consider the works of Albert Girard, a Flemish
mathematician. This writer, after having published an edition
of Stevin's works in 1625, published in 1629 at Amsterdam a
small tract on algebra which shows a considerable advance on
the work of Vieta. Girard is inconsistent in his notation, some-
times following Vieta, sometimes Stevin; he introduced the new
symbols ff for greater than and \ for less than ; he follows Vieta in
using the plus (+) for addition, he denotes subtraction by
Recorde 's symbol for equality (-), and he had no sign for
equality but wrote the word out. He possessed clear ideas of
indices and the generation of powers, of the negative roots of
equations and their geometrical interpretation, and was the
first to use the term imaginary roots. He also discovered how to
sum the powers of the roots of an equation.
Passing over the invention of logarithms (q.v.) by John Napier,
and their development by Henry Briggs and others, the next
author of moment was an Englishman, Thomas Harriot, whose
algebra (Artis analyticae praxis) was published posthumously
by Walter Warner in 1631. Its great merit consists in the
complete notation and symbolism, which avoided the cumber-
some expressions of the earlier algebraists, and reduced the art
to a form closely resembling that of to-day. He follows Vieta
in assigning the vowels to the unknown quantities and the
consonants to the knowns, but instead of using capitals, as with
Vieta, he employed the small letters; equality he denoted by
Recorders symbol, and he introduced the signs > and < for
greater than and less than. His principal discovery is concerned
with equations, which he showed to be derived from the continued
multiplication of as many simple factors as the highest power of
the unknown, and he was thus enabled to deduce relations
between the coefficients and various functions of the roots.
Mention may also be made of his chapter on inequalities, in
which he proves that the arithmetic mean is always greater
than the geometric mean.
William Oughtred, a contemporary of Harriot, published an
algebra, Clavis mathematicae, simultaneously with Harriot's
treatise. His notation is based on that of Vieta, but he introduced
the sign X for multiplication, -ff for continued proportion,
: : for proportion, and denoted ratio by one dot. This last
character has since been entirely restricted to multiplication,
and ratio is now denoted by two dots (:). His symbols for
greater than and less than ("Hand 3 have been completely
superseded by Harriot's signs.
So far the development of algebra and geometry had been
mutually independent, except for a few isolated applications of
geometrical constructions to the solution of algebraical problems.
Certain minds had long suspected the advantages which would
accrue from the unrestricted application of algebra to geometry,
but it was not until the advent of the philosopher Rene Descartes
that the co-ordination was effected. In his famous Ceometria
(1637), which is really a treatise on the algebraic representation
of geometric theorems, he founded the modern theory of
analytical geometry (see Geometry), and at the same time he
rendered signal service to algebra, more especially in the theory
of equations. His notation is based primarily on that of Harriot ,
but he differs from that writer in retaining the first letters of the
alphabet for the known quantities and the final letters for the
unknowns.
The 17th century is a famous epoch in the progress of science,
and the mathematics in no way lagged behind. The discoveries
of Johann Kepler and Bonaventura Cavalicri were the foundation
upon which Sir Isaac Newton and Gottfried Wilhclm Leibnitz
erected that wonderful edifice, the Infinitesimal Calculus (17.tr.).
Many new fields were opened up, but there was still continual
progress in pure algebra. Continued fractions, one of the earliest
examples of which is Lord Brouncker's expression for the ratio
of the circumference to the diameter of a circle (see Circle),
were elaborately discussed by John Wallis and Leonhard Euler;
the convergency of series treated by Newton, Euler and the
BernouQis; the binomial theorem, due originally to Newton and
subsequently expanded by Euler and others, was used by Joseph
Louis Lagrange as the basis of his Calcul des F auctions. Diophan-
tine problems were revived by Gaspar Bachet, Pierre Fermat
and Euler; the modern theory of numbers was founded by
Fermat and developed by Euler, Lagrange and others; and the
theory of probability was attacked by Blaise Pascal and Fermat,
their work being subsequently expanded by James Bernoulli,
Abraham de Moivre, Pierre Simon Laplace and others. The
germs of the theory of determinants are to be found in the works
of Leibnitz; £tienne Bezout utilized them in 1764 for expressing
the result obtained by the process of elimination known by Ins
name, and since restated by Arthur Cayley.
In recent times many mathematicians have formulated other
kinds of algebras, in which the operators do not obey the laws of
620
ALGEBRAIC FORMS
ordinary algebra. This study was inaugurated by George Peacock,
who was one of the earliest mathematicians to recognize the
symbolic character of the fundamental principles of algebra.
About the same time, D. F. Gregory published a paper " on
the real nature of symbolical algebra." In Germany the work
of Martin Ohm (System der Malhematik, 1822) marks a step
forward. Notable service was also rendered by Augustus de
Morgan, who applied logical analysis to the laws of mathematics.
The geometrical interpretation of imaginary quantities had
a far-reaching influence on the development of symbolic
algebras. The attempts to elucidate this question by H. Ktthn
(1750-1751) and Jean Robert Argand (1806) were completed
by Karl Fricdrich Gauss, and the formulation of various systems
of vector analysis by Sir William Rowan Hamilton, Hermann
Grassmann and others; followed. These algebras were essentially
geometrical, and it remained, more or less, for the American
mathematician Benjamin Pcirce to devise systems of pure
symbolic algebras; in this work he was ably seconded by his
son Charles S. Peirce. In England, multiple algebra was
developed by James Joseph Sylvester, who, in company with
Arthur Cayley, expanded the theory of matrices, the germs of
which are to be found in the writings of Hamilton (see above,
under (B); and Quaternions).
The preceding summary shows the specialized nature which
algebra has assumed since the 17th century. To attempt a
history of the development of the various topics in this article
is inappropriate, and we refer the reader to the separate articles.
References. — The history of algebra is treated in all historical
works on mathematics in general (see Mathematics. References).
tonary (181 5) t
* Algebra." (C. E. # )
ALGEBRAIC FORMS. The subject-matter of algebraic forms
is to a large extent connected with the linear transformation of
algebraical polynomials which involve two or more variables.
The theories of determinants and of symmetric functions and of
the algebra of differential operations have an important bearing
upon this comparatively new branch of mathematics. They
are the chief instruments of research, and have themselves much
benefited by being so employed. When a homogeneous poly-
nomial is transformed by general linear substitutions as hereafter
explained, and is then expressed in the original form with new
coefficients affecting the new variables, certain functions of the
new coefficients and variables are numerical multiples of the
same functions of the original coefficients and variables. The
investigation of the properties of these functions, as well for a
single form as for a simultaneous set of forms, and as well for
one as for many series of variables, is included in the theory of
invariants. As far back as 1 773 Joseph Louis Lagrange, and later
Carl Fried rich Gauss, had met with simple cases of such functions,
George Boole, in 1841 (Camb. Math. J own. iii. pp. 1-20), made
important steps, but it was not till 1845 that Arthur Cayley
(CM. Math. Papers, i. pp. 80-94, 95-1 12) showed by his calculus
of hyper-determinants that an infinite series of such functions
might be obtained systematically. The subject was carried on
over a long series of years by himself, J. J. Sylvester, G. Salmon,
L. 0. Hesse, S. H. Aronhold, C. Hermite, Francesco Brioschi,
R.F. A. Clebsch, P. Gordon, &c The year 1868 saw a considerable
enlargement of the field of operations. This arose from the study
by Felix Klein and Sophus Lie of a new theory of groups of sub-
stitutions; it was shown that there exists an invariant theory
connected with every group of linear substitutions. The invariant
theory then existing was classified by them as appertaining to
" finite continuous groups." Other " Galois " groups were
defined whose substitution coefficients have fixed numerical
values, and are particularly associated with the theory of equa-
tions. Arithmetical groups, connected with the theory of
quadratic forms and other branches of the theory of numbers,
which are termed "discontinuous," and infinite groups connected
with differential forms and equations, came into existence, and
also particular linear and higher transformations connected with
analysis and geometry. The effect of this was to co-ordinate
many branches of mathematics and greatly to increase n*
number of workers. The subject of transformation in geata.
has been treated by Sophus Lie in the classical work Tmwx
der Transjormalionsgruppen. The present article is merely cav
cerned with algebraical linear transformation. Two method; a
treatment have been carried on in parallel lines, the unsyshax
and the symbolic; both of these originated with Cayky. b^
he with Sylvester and the English school have in the main de-
fined themselves to the former, whilst Aronhold, CT*r**r^ Gorki
and the continental schoolsJiave principally restricted fhemsrha
to the latter. The two methods have been conducted so a* e
be in constant touch, though the nature of the results obtaiaer
by the one differs much from those which flow naturally frc*
the other. Each has been singularly successful in discover*^
new lines of advance and in encouraging the other to ream*
efforts. P. Gordan first proved that for any system of feras
there exists a finite number of covariants, in terms of whka aB
others arc expressible as rational and integral functions. TLs
enabled David Hilbcrt to produce a very simple unsymbojc
proof of the same theorem. So the theory of the forms apper-
taining to a binary form of unrestricted order was first worses
out by Cayley and P. A. MacMahon by unsymboUc method*.
and later G. E. Stroh, from a knowledge of the results, was abk
to verify and extend the results by the symbolic method, lac
partition method of treating symmetrical algebra is one which hs
been singularly successful in indicating new paths of advance a
the theory of invariants; the important theorem of expressft^T
is, directly we exclude unity from the partitions, a theorem cos-
cerriing the expressibility of covariants, and involves the theory
of the reducible forms and of the syrygies. The theory brought
forward has not yet found a place in any systematic treatise a
any language, so that it has been judged proper to give a facij
complete account of it. 1
I. The Theory op Determinants, 1
Let there be given n* quantities
flu *u an. ..aim
On an flsi ... fli»
an an aw. ..a*
Ami Omi Sal ••• &m
and form from them a product of n quantities
«l« «»0 a*y ••• a Br .
where the first suffixes are the natural numbers 1, a. 3. . • .» okn
in order, and «, 0, y, . . .r is some permutation of these • nunsbrrs.
This permutation by a transposition of two numbers, say «. S
becomes 0, «, y, . . . r. and by successively transposing pair* of lettr-s
the permutation can be reduced to the form 1, 2, 3. ...it. Lee I
such transpositions be necessary; then the expression
the summation being for all permutations of the n numbers, is
called the determinant of the n* quantities. The qoaarnir*
o ia , a,0... are called the elements of the determinant; the tarn
(-) k (i, a <h$arY—Cnp is called a member of the dctermiaaat. aad
there are evidently »! members corresponding to the a! perrarj-
tions of the n numbers 1, a, 3, ... ». The determinant is ussalr
written
an a it flu ... at*
tin an au ••• «t»
a» an On ••• flu
o»i o*sa«s~' t
the square array being termed the matrix of the
A matrix has in many parts of mathematics a signification apart
from irs evaluation as a determinant. A theory of matrices has
been constructed by Cayley in connexion particularly with the
theory of linear transformation. The matrix consists of n rows aai
ft columns. Each row as well as each column supplies one acd or)?
one clement to each member of the determinant. Consideration c'
the definition of the determinant shows that the value is unaltered
when the suffixes in each element are transposed.
Theorem. — If the determinant is transformed so as to read by
columns as it formerly did by rows its value is unchanged. Tae
leading member of the determinant is auflaai».ui n> and oorrespocis
to the principal diagonal of the matrix.
We write frequently
A -2 *fluflnfii»...<U. * (auOnau..-***).
If the first two columns of the determinant be transposed tat
1 The elementary theory is given in the article DSTRRMiftA»T.
ALGEBRAIC FORMS
621
expression for the determinant become* T(-) k a l fa**ai y ...a+w t viz.
m. and are transposed, and it is clear that the number of trans-
position* necessary to convert the permutation 0%y...» of the second
»ufnxes to the natural order is changed by unity. Hence the trans-
position of columns merely changes the sign of the determinant.
Similarly it is shown that the transposition of any two columns or
of any two rows merely changes the sign of the determinant.
Theorem. — Interchange of any two rows or of any two columns
merely changes the sign of the determinant.
Corollary.— U any two rows or any two columns of a determinant
be identical the value of the determinant is zero.
Minors of a Determinant. — From the value of A we may separate
those members which contain a particular element 0a as a factor,
And write the portion o*» A,*; A*, the cofactor of a*, is called a
minor of order * - 1 of the determinant.
Now a n Aji-2*au0afli»".a«,. wherein flu is not to be changed,
but the second suffixes in the product Onan..ja mm assume all per-
mutations, the number of transpositions necessary determining the
sign to be affixed to the member.
HenceoiiAii-OnZ^floau..^—, where thecofactorof On is dearly
the determinant obtained by erasing the first row and the first
column.
10a *u — *w* I
Similarly Am, the cofactor of a**, is shown to be the product of
( — )'** and the determinant obtained by erasing from A the «**
row and k A column. No member of a determinant can involve
more than one element from the first row. Hence we have the
development
A "fluA4i+fluAu+aj»Au+~-+fluAta,
proceeding according to the elements of the first row and the corre-
sponding minors.
Similarly we have a development proceeding according to the
elements contained in any row or in any column, viz.
A-o<iA<i+a<iAn+a<sA < )-f...-fa< l »A6 t ) .^
A -fluAu+ajfcAtt-r- a*A*-f.
This theory enables the evaluation of a determinant by successive
reduction of the orders of the determinants involved.
Ex. gr.
:j;i)--4lo- 5 l +3 - 3 '- 6, - 3 - 1|0 »
Since the determinant
On On On — 0*1
On a& an ... <hm
an Am Am — <*«■
having two identical rows,
Oal <*■> 0*1
vanishes identically; we have by development according to the
elements of the first row
attAii+a«la+as»A*i+.- +fl*A ta -0;
and, in general, since
o i iLn+aaA*+a i iAn+...+ouA im -A,
if we suppose the i* and k* rows identical
and proceeding by columns instead of rows,
ai<Au+a«Aii+a«Att+...+a,<A ll »-0 (k%i)
identical relations always satisfied by these minors.
If in the first relation of (A) we write au-b i .+c it +d i ,+... we
find that ZouAu - ZbuAu + ZtuAi, + Zduki, +... so that A breaks u p into
a sum of determinants, and we also obtain a theorem for the addition
of determinants which have »— 1 rows in common. If we multiply
the elements of the second row by an arbitrary magnitude X, and
add to the corresponding elements of the first row, A becomes
ZouAta+XZOteAu-ZauAu-A, showing that the value of the deter-
minant is unchanged. Jn general we can prove in the same way
the—
Theorem.— The value of a determinant is unchanged if we add
to the elements of any row or column the corresponding elements
of the other rows or other columns respectively each multiplied
by an arbitrary magnitude, such magnitude remaining constant in
respect of the elements in a particular row or a particular column.
Observation. — Every factor common to all the elements of a row
or of a column is obviously a factor of the determinant, and may
be taken outside the determinant brackets.
£*• *'. I «* P 7»| I a' 0»-*» y*-4
a y - a -• y -«
|l 1 1 I |l
U-a y-a\
-W-a)(T-«)|"+^+*|-(/l- 7 )( 7 -.)J^-^ + -|
dA
The minor Aa is 3^, and is itself a determinant of order ■— 1.
We may therefore differentiate again in regard to any element On
where r^i, s%k; we will thus obtain a minor of A,*, which is a
minor also of A of order »-a. It wHI be Aa-|~-T7^T
and will be obtained by erasing from the determinant A,* the row
and column containing the element a»; this was originally the
r* row and i* column of A; the r 1 * row of A is the r* or (r— 1)*
row of Aa according as r $ i and the s* column of A is the ** or (* - 1 )•
column of A.* according as s%k. Hence, if T* denote the number
of transpositions necessary to bring the succession ri into ascending
order of magnitude, the sign to oe attached to the determinant
arrived at by erasing the i a and r rt rows and the k a and s A columns
from A in order produce Aa will be —1 raised to the power of
Tw+T»,+t+«+r+*. "
Similarly proceeding to the minors of order 11—3, we find that
*»-*& ^"3o^^-55rob«^ A fc obtained from A by eras-
Ml
ing the i A , r*, t* rows, the * A , **, «* columns, and multiplying
the resulting determinant by —I raised to the power Tm+Tms
+«+*+r+J+J+» and the general law is dear.
Corresponding Minors. — In obtaining the minor Aa in the form
n
of a determinant we erased certain rows and columns, and we would
have erased in an exactly similar manner had we been forming
the determinant associated with A*, since the deleting lines intersect
in two pairs of points. In the latter case the sign is determined by
— 1 raised to the same power as before, with the exception that To.
replaces T«a; but if one of these numbers be even the other must
be uneven; hence
Moreover
m it llaflnl n
where the determinant factor is given by the four points in which
the deleting lines intersect. This determinant and that associated
with Aa are termed corresponding determinants. Similarly p lines
of deletion intersecting in p* points yield corresponding determinants
of orders p and n-p respectively. .Recalling the formula
A-auAu+flitAit+Oi»Aii+—+fli»Ai at
it will be seen that au and Aa involve corresponding determinants.
Since Aa is a determinant we similarly obtain
Aa -a«Aa+...+ai>^A^^A f iAuHh...+fl»,JlL»,
and thence
A«ZauOssAii
srnd as before
'am
aaoskl
an important expansion of A.
Similarly
|«u o« au I
flitOttOtt Aw i>k>r,
a„o*.a*| g
and the general theorem is manifest, and yields a development
in a sum c' * ' " ' "" '
column be i
cally; hence if j be not equal to t, k, or r,
I au ati an I
aik au Oj* I Ai,-.
Similarly, by putting one or more of the deleted rows or columns
equal to rows or columns which are not deleted, we obtain, with
Laplace, a number of identities between products of determinants
of complementary orders.
Multiplication. — From the theorem given above for the expansion
of a determinant as a sum of products of pairs of corresponding
determinants it will be plain that the product of A — (au, On, ... oj
and D-(fru, bu, 6 M ) may be written as a determinant of orders*,
viz.
an an an*..<Ui —1 ...
au On au.'.a.t 0—1 ...
ait ati «»i ... a«i -1 ...
A-Z
where »^«;
A« <>*,
of products of corresponding determinants. If the j*
t identical with the « rt the, determinant A vanishes identi-
oi. au. a*. ... 4m ...-1
...0 b\i bit ftu... bi m
...0 bn bn btt... bu
...0 b n b u *•«... 6*.
rlcSI
for brevity.
...0 b« b* *.,... b m .
Multiply the !••, 2**, ... «* rows by b n , b a , ... bu respectively, and
622
ALGEBRAIC FORMS
add to the (»+l) A row; by bit, bn ... &>•, and add to the (»+2) rt row;
by bu, ba, — **■ and add to the (s +3)* row, fix. C then becomes
flu&u+flu&u+— +fli«fru. au6ii+aa6ii+...+ai l ,6| llt
flu&ii +Citki+— +<Zu6i». flti&u +««*«+•.. +fli.6u,
...fl.iki +a.t&H+... +<*»■&*.
flu&n +flu&« + ••• +0i«&u» Aji&m +*»6jj +••• +flt«&»»,
-a»ibu +a ma b a +••• +fl».*»»
flu^«i +«!•&■«+••' +«i»^mi «ti&»i+a»6iii+. • +**»•&■».
...a»i6»i +a*i6 n a +••• *f aAt
and all the elements of D become zero. Now by the expansion
theorem the determinant becomes
(_)H*H*...4*..B.C - (- i)«*»+»*«C -C
We thus obtain for the product a determinant of order n. We
may say that, in the resulting determinant, the element in the **
row ana k* column is obtained by multiplying the elements in the
k A row of the first determinant severally by the elements in the r*
row of the second, and has the expression
aiubn +a*jA,i +c*i&, i... +Ok*bi H ,
and we obtain other expressions by transforming either or both
determinants so as to read by columns as they formerly did by rows.
Remark.— \n particular the square of a determinant is a deter-
minant of the same order (bnbnbu—b^) such that 6u**fa; it is
for this reason termed symmetrical.
The Adjoint or Reciprocal Determinant arises from A-(a,|Ooa„
. .a,,) by substituting for each element A a the corresponding minor
Aik so as to form D»(AjiA«Aii ... A mm ). If we form the product
A.D by the theorem for the multiplication of determinants we
find that the element in the «* row and A** column of the product is
om Aii +a« A„ + ... +a»« A,.,
the value of which is zero when k is different from », whilst it has
the value A when fc— «. Hence the product determinant has the
principal diagonal elements each equal to A and the remaining
elements zero, its value is therefore A* and we have the identity
D-A-A-otD-A"" 1 .
It can now be proved that the first minor of the adjoint determinant,
say Br. is equal to A*"*flw.
hrom the equations
flii*i+flux«+fli»x» +... -|i ,
auxi + flnxt-f aux, +... - b ,
a«*i+a»xi+a«iafj+-. -f Jf
we derive . .
Ax, - A„fc+ A*{,+ A»«,+... ,
Ax 8 -A,rf, + A»&+ A«fc+... ,
Ax,-Ai«e»-|-A.rf,+A,rf,-f... ,
and thence
*THi -BnAx,+ B„Ax,+ B„Ax,+... ,
Ar»fe - B M Ax, + B«,A* t + B ti Ax,+... ,
A^t»-B M Ax l +BnArt+B„Ax,+,.. ,
and comparison of the first and third systems yields
Br.-A~*lr*
In general it can be proved that any minor of order p of the adjoint
is equal to the complementary of the corresponding minor of the
original multiplied by the (p— ij^power of the original determinant.
Theorem. — The adjoint determinant is the (n— i) 1 * power of the
original determinant. The adjoint determinant will Se seen sub-
sequently to present itself in the theory of linear equations and in
the theory of linear transformation.
Determinants of Special Forms.— It was observed above that the
square of a determinant when expressed as a determinant of the
same order is such that its elements have the property expressed
by Ott-OM* Such determinants are called symmetrical. It is easy
to see that the adjoint determinant is also symmetrical, viz. such
that A.* •Am. for tne determinant got by suppressing the s* row
and * n column differs only by an interchange of rows and columns
from that got by suppressing the k A row and » tt column. If any
symmetrical determinant vanish and be bordered as shown below
flu flu flu Xi
flu On flu Xi
an an a%i X|
X, X. X, .
it is a perfect square when considered as a function of Xi, X*. X* For
since AhAm— A?t-Aa»j, with similar relations, we have a number
of relations similar to AuAm«A1i, and either A,, - + V ( A„A„) or
— V (AwA,,) for all different values of r and s. Now the determinant
has the value
-MAti+X!A«+XiAM+2X,X J Ai,+2X l X I A M +2X,XaAiil
— — ZXrAfr— 2ZX r X t Art in general, and hence by substitution
HX.VA„+X,VA B +...+X.VA..J».
A skew symmetric determinant has two and flr«- — <w for all
values of r and s. Such a determinant when of uneven degree
vanishes, for if we multiply each row by — t we multiply the deter-
minant by (— i)*-— i, and the effect of this is otherwise merely
to transpose the determinant so that it reads by rows at it formerly
did by columns, an operation which we know leaves the deters***
unaltered. Hence A -—A or A-o. When a skew s>H M u r ~t
determinant is of even degree it is a perfect square. Tibs near:
is due to Cayley, and reference may be made to Salmon's £>*r
Algebra, 4th ed. Art. 39. In the case of the determinant of onte4
the square root is
AuAm — AiiAm+ AuAts.
A skew determinant is one which is skew symmetric ia afi e .
except that the elements of the leading diagonal are aot afl 1
Such a determinant is of importance in the theory of orthofen.
substitution. In the theory of surfaces we transform from oae ■*
of three rectangular axes to another by the substitutions
X- ar-f- by+ ex,
Y-c'x+6'y+c'x,
Z-tf'x+6'j+c'z.
of tent
where X»+Y»4-Z» -«•+>•+«». This relation implies 1
between the coefficients, so that only three of them are i
Further we find
jc-aX+fl'Y+fl'Z.
y-*X+6T+6'Z.
«-cX+c'Y+c'Z,
and the problem is to express the nine coefficients ia te
independent quantities.
> In general in space of n dimensions we have n
similar to
Xi «flu*i+fliiXt+...+a,.x.,
and we have to express the n' coefficients in terms of J*(«-ii
independent quantities; which must be possible, because
x;+xi+.-.+x2-*}+*8+*J+...+*t
Let there be 2s equations
xi -Mi+&»6+&ii$i+...,
xt-*a(i+ft»«i+*w««+....
X,-Mi+A»i«i+Mi+...,
X,-Mt+*»fe+&!i«i+...,
where flw-i and &»-■—&» for all values of r and *» .
then *«(»-!) quantities bn- Let the determinant of the *s be
,j p .._- _• ...... _ .
A* and Bn, the minor corresponding to bn-
quantities &,«,... £• and obtain a relations
We can efia
A»X,-(2B„-
A»X,-
A*)x, +2B M x,+2Bu*i+.-.
2B»x, + (2B„ - A»)x,+2B»x,+._
and from these another equivalent set
Asx> - (2B„- A»)X, +2B tt X.+2Bi»X«+. M ,
Asx,- 2B M X,+(2B n -A»)X,+2BttX.+-^
and now writing
2B.<-A» ^ 2Ba_ -
Z5 — "*«.-3 i -"«*
we have a transformation which is orthogonal, became ZJP-Zi*
and the elements o„, oa are functions of tne i»(«— 1) badepeadea?
quantities b. We may therefore form an orthogonal tnastonss-
tion in association with every skew determinant which has io
leading diagonal elements unity, for the |n(s— 1) quantities a an?
clearly arbitrary.
For the second order we may take
1.X I
A»-
-x.il
•1+X».
and the adjoint determinant is the same; hence
(l+X«)x,-(l-X«)X,+ 2XX*
(1+X»)x 8 - -2XXi+(l-X«)Xg.
Similarly, for the order 3, we take
A»- -r 1 X I -l+x'+^+s 1 .
1 *-X 1 I
and the adjoint is
1+X« ,+X* - M +X» I
M +X»-X+m» l+»« I
leading to the orthogonal substitution
Asx.-O+X'-m'-^X, +2(»+Xm)X, +2(-^+a,)X,
A»x,- 2JXm-^ X,+a+^-X«-^X, +20»r-rX)X,
A»x,- 2(X»+ / i)X 1 +2( M f-X)X,+(1+^-X»-V)X >
Functional determinants were first investigated by Jacobi ia a
work De Determinantibus Functionalibus. Suppose
variables yj, yi,...y m , each of which u a function of «
variables x,. x,....x„ so that y, -f.(x u x»,...x«). From the .
coefficients of the y'% with regard to the * "■ we form the
determinant
ALGEBRAIC FORMS
623
OXl CXt ex.
3? a? ••" a?
CX| CXj ex.
m /yi.*....y.\
V*i, *«....*»/
for brevity.
If we have new variables a such that s. -+,(*, *,...*.), we have
also *-*.(xt, *•,—*»), and we may consider the three determinants
/yi,y«,...y-\ /*i. *,..-«• \ /*w»i....«-\
Vxi, x*...x J ' Vyi, *....>■/ \*u *•..••*■/*
Forming the product of the first two by the product theorem,
we obtain for the element in the •* row and ** column
which is gjj , the partial differential coefficient of 4 with regard
to x*. Hence the product theorem
/«,, h„.j-\ (yu yi...y.\ . (*u si,...a.\ .
Vjftt *.»•*•/ V*i. *«»•••*»/ v x »» **•••*■/ '
and as a particular case
• 1.
Theorem.— It the functions *, ft,...y. be not independent of
one another the functional determinant vanishes, and conversely
if the determinant vanishes, y\, *,...?• are not independent functions
of x u *....«.. .
Linear Equations.— It is of importance to study the application
of the theory of determinants to the solution of a system of linear
equations. Suppose given the n equations
/i - aii*i +ai»x,+... +a t «x fl - 0,
ft -atixi+onx* +... +0t»x» -0,
/» -4uA +o - *»+...+awr. -Ol
Denote by A the determinant (auOn...a M ).
Multiplying the equations by the minors At*, A«*,...A«* respec-
tively, and adding, we obtain
x«(fl„.Ai*+<Ji*A«*+... +0,^1*0 -x»A -o,
since from results already given the remaining coefficients of
x,, x,....x ^_i, x fM>) ,...x. vanish identically.
Hence if A does not vanish xi -x* - ... -x. -o is the only solution :
but if A vanishes the equations can be satisfied by a system of values
other than seros. For in this case the n equations are not independ-
ent since identically
A«»/,+ W,+...+ W. -0.
and assuming that the minors do not all vanish the satisfaction of
a — 1 of the equations implies the satisfaction of the »*.
Consider then the system of n-i equations
«n*i+a«*i+...+Ct.x.-0
ff««i+ai»xt+... +«»■*• -0
««i*i+««s*i+... +<wc -0,
•«yi +««>i +••• +a«t»-iy— 1 +«*.
-0
-0
«rtyi+«ayi+».+«i..»-iy»-i+«M -0.
We can solve these, assuming them independent, for the ft— 1
ratios y». ^ ( ...y«-i.
Now
««,Au+a«A M +... -f-«s»A,. -0
•aiAu +a»Ait+... +c* t A u -
«.iAii+a«»Au+...+«^Ai.-0,
and therefore, by comparison with the given equations, xt-pAw,
where p is an arbitrary factor which remains constant as « varies.
Hence #"j^ where Ah and At. are minors of the complete
determinant (antft»..^»»)
•.*-(-H2si
Bti On —«»u-i fli,<+i ...0*, I
>a 6m '"flM-i ni>*4i •••«!• I
tnl ** •>*..i-l an,i+l ..*•!
an an .ai._J
Cm a n ...a«,„-i|
art o«i ...a,,»J
or, in words. y< is the quotient of the determinant obtained by
erasing the 1* column by that obtained by erasing the n* column,
multiplied by (—.)'*•• For further information concerning the
compatibility and independence of a system of linear equations, see
Gordon, Vorksunten iiber Invariantentkeorie, Bd. 1 , % 8.
Resultants. — When we are given k homogeneous equations in h
variables or * non-homogeneous equations in A-i variables, the
equations being independent, it is always possible to derive from
them a single equation R— o, where in R the variables do not
appear. R is a function of the coefficients which is called the " re-
sultant " or " eliminant " of the k equations, and the process by
which it is obtained is termed " elimination." We cannot combine
the equations so as to eliminate the variables unless on the supposi-
tion that the equations are simultaneous, i.e. each of them satisfied
by a common system of values; hence the equation R — o is derived
on this supposition, and the vanishing of R expresses the condition
that the equations can be satisfied by a common system of values
assigned to the variables.
Consider two binary equations of orders m and n respectively
expressed in non-homogeneous form, via.
/(x) -/-cx»-a,x— «+a,x— »-... -Ol
♦(x) -♦-6*--6 1 x-»+fcr»-«-...-0.
If a,, a,. ...«„ be the roots of/-o. 0,, fit, ...A, the roots of *-o,
the condition thai some root of 4 -o may cause/ to vanish is clearly
R/.#-M)/(A)..-/(A0-O;
so that R/* is the resultant of / and +, and expressed as a function
of the roots, it is of degree m in each root fi, and of degree n in each
root a, and also a symmetric function alike of the roots a and of the
roots 0; hence, expressed in terms of the coefficients. It is homo*
geneous and of degree n in the coefficients of /, and homogeneous
and of degree m in the coefficients of +.
Ex. gr.
/-o^-aiac+aj-O, ♦-&*.■• -&,*+&*
We have to multiply «#*•— a^i+at by a«0|-ai0i+ai and we
obtain
a\0\0\ -a#i(fi\ &+ Aft) +asOs(ft +ft) +a«Aft
-ai«»(A+A)+o| t
and clearing of fractions
R/*-(flA-cA)--K«ifc-*M«ife-«iM.
We may equally express the result as
«X«iW«i)...*(a«)«.0.
or as
II(a.-A)-0.
«,i
This expression of R shows that, as will afterwards appear* the
resultant is a simultaneous invariant of the two forms.
The resultant being a product of mn root differences, is of degree
mn in the roots, and hence is of weight mn in the coefficients of the
forms; *jt. the sum of the suffixes in each term of the resultant is
equal to -mn.
Resultant Expressible as a Determinant. — From the theory of
linear equations it can be gathered that the condition that p linear
equations in p variables (homogeneous and independent) may be
simultaneously satisfied is expressible as a determinant, via. if
anxi +aii*-r>...+ai,x, -0,
aii*i+anxs+...+a tF x, -0,
a,iXi-f-a*x f +...-f-a„x, -0,
be the system the condition is, in determinant form,
(a n <hi:-o„)-0;
in fact the determinant is the resultant of the equations.
Now, suppose /and * to have a common factor x— y,
/(*) -/i(*)(*-y); ♦(*) -*(*)(*-Y).
/i and 4i being of degrees m — x and n— 1 respectively; we have
the identity *i(x)/(x) -/ t (x)*(x) of degree m+n-i.
Assuming then +1 to nave the coefficients Bi, Bj.-.B,
and /1 the coefficients Ai, Ai,...A«,
we may equate coefficients of like powers of x in the identity, and
obtain m+n homogeneous linear equations satisfied by the m+n
quantities Bi, Bj,...B„, At, A»,...A«. Forming the resultant of these
equations we evidently obtain the resultant of / and 0.
Thus to obtain the resultant of
/-a x > +ai*»+o > x+a», i-btf+btx+bi
we assume the identity
(B^-r-B,)(a f x«+a 1 x-+o^-fa l )-(A^HA|X+A«)(6sx«+6 1 x+i»).
and derive the linear equations
B,* -AA -0,
B«a t + B,a. - A**i - Aifc - 0,
Bcfl, + B.a, - AA - A,6, - AA - 0,
Brfi+B.a, -A|6,-A,6,-0,
B,a, -A^-O.
624
ALGEBRAIC FORMS
and by elimination we obtain the resultant
a« boO
fli a* bi b,
<h fli *i bi bo a numerical factor
fli at bt bi being disregarded.
a» fr,
This is Euler's method. Sylvester's leads to the same expression,
but in a simpler manner.
He forms » equations from/ by separate multiplication by x" -1 ,
X*-*,...x, 1, in succession, ana similarly treats 4 with m multipliers
x*"" 1 , x*~*,..Jt, 1. F ro m the se m+» equations he eliminates the
m+n powers x***" 1 , X*** -1 ,...*, I, treating them as independent
unknowns. Taking the same example as before the process leads
to the system of equations
fl^c 4 +aix , +« l x t +ai« -0,
fl•r , -i-<^lX , ■^•a»x+a , -0,
btx*+bix*+btx* -0,
kr>+&,x»+fcx -0,
whence by elimination the resultant
<h «i as at
a» ai fli a»
*• 61 *>
NU0
60 61 ih
which reads by columns as the former determinant reads by rows,
and is therefore identical with the former. E. Bezout's method gives
the resultant in the form of a determinant of order m or n, according
as m is % n. As modified by Cayley it takes a very simple form.
He forms the equation
/(*)*(*0-/(*0*(x)-o,
which can be satisfied when / and 4 possess a common factor. He
first divides by the factor x— x', reducing it to the degree m - 1 in both
x and x' where m>n; he then forms m equations by equating to
zero the coefficients of the various powers of x'; these equations
involve the m powers x*. x, x , ,...x* _l of x, and regarding these as the
unknowns of a system of linear equations the resultant is reached in
the form of a determinant of order m. Ex. gr. Put
(<Wf>+fl,x'+o^+a l )(6^+6ix'+6 I ) - (a*'»+c,x''+a,x'+o,)
(6»r*+d,x+6,)-0;
after division by x— x* the three equations are formed
a*AiX , -f(a«i>i+aA-a,&,)x+a I &,-fli&o-0,
a«kx , +(ai&i-aA)x+a 1 6|-o,&i -0
and thence the resultant
IaJh <hbi flo&t I
a^bi oA+fliti-aA flies— a»M
(hbi aibt-Gib, Ct*j-0»*i|
which is a symmetrical determinant.
Case of Three Variables.— In the next place we consider the
resultants of three homogeneous polynomials in three variables.
We ran prove that if the three equations be satisfied by a system
of values of the variable, the same system will also satisfy the
Jacobian or functional determinant. For if «, v, w be the poly-
nomials of orders m, n, p respectively, the Jacobian is (»i Pi ten),
and by Euler's theorem of homogeneous functions
xui+yut +tu»~mu
xvi +yvj +»i ■»«*
xwit ywj+swi m pw\
denoting now the reciprocal determinant by fUi V 8 W f ) we obtain
Jx«mi«Ui + m>Vi+£wWi; Jy-».i J*"—, and it appears that the
vanishing of u, v, and 10 implies the vanishing of J. Further, if
m-n—p, we obtain by differentiation
1+4— («^+4&+«TT+".U.+'.V.+».VV,) •
Hence the system of values also causes «£ to vanish in this case;
and by symmetry g* and ■£ also vanish.
The proof being of general application we may state that a system
of values which causes the vanishing of k polynomials in k variables
causes also the vanishing of the lacobian, and in particular, when
the forms are of the same degree, the vanishing also of the differential
coefficients of the Jacobian in regard to each of the variables.
There is no difficulty in expressing the resultant by the method
of symmetric functions. Taking two of the equations
ax-+(oy+«)x— »+...-0,
o'x-+ \b f y +c's)x- 1 +... -0,
we find that, eliminating x, the resultant is a homogeneous function
of y and s of degree mn\ equating this to zero and solving for the
ratio of y to s we obtain mn solutions; if values of y and s, given
by any solution, be substituted in each of the two equations, they
will possess a common factor which gives a value of x which, com-
bined with the chosen values of y and s, yields a syste&'.of ma
which satisfies both equations. Hence in all their art « so.
systems. If, therefore, we have a third equation, and «« »b*t.a
each system of values in it successively and form the product -M
mn expressions thus formed, we obtain a function which was
if any one system ol values, common to the first two eqiatioeiak
satisfies the third. Hence this product is the required rcss&zft i
the three equations.
Now by the theory of symmetric functions, any syrsrrt
functions of the mn values which satisfy the two equations, a
be expressed in terms of the coefficient 01 those equations Km
finally, the resultant is expressed in terms of toe coefcrirah a
the three equations, and since it is at once seen to be ai &cw
mn in the coefficient of the third equation, by symmetry it sx
be of degrees np and pm in the coefficients of the first sod «corf
equations respectively. Its weight will be mnp (sec Saisat*
Higher Algebra, 4th ed. § 77). The general theory of the rendue
of k homogeneous equations in k variables presents no iahe
difficulties when viewed in this manner.
The expression in form of a determinant presents is gmv 1
considerable difficulties. If three equations, each of the wra*
degree, in three variables be given, we have merely to efca>
ate the six products x*. y», •*, yt, sx, xy from the six r—
«- r - w -^=U-^i-0; if we apply the tame protest to tie*
equations each of degree three, we obtain similarly a <
ol order 21, but thereafter the process fails. Cayley, bovmr.tu
shown that, whatever be the degrees of the three equation it i
possible to represent the resultant as the quotient of r*o dear-
minants (Salmon, I.e. p. 89).
Discriminants. — The discriminant of a homogeneous poly**'*
in k variables is the resultant of the k polynomial* lorora ir
differentiations in regard to each of the variables.
It is the resultant of k polynomials each of degree «-i. *^
thus contains the coefficients of each form to the decree (m-i*"
hence t he total degrees in the coefficients of the * forms is. by ad& a
kim — l)*" 1 ; it may further be shown that the weight of eschtcs
of the resultant is constant and equal to m(m— l)* - * (Salmon ''i
p. 100).
A binary form which has a square factor has its discris?*-!?*
equal to zero. This can be seen at once because the factor to cw**"
being once repeated in both differentials, the resultant of the te»
must vanish.
Similarly, if a form in k variables be expressible as a qta&is
function of «-i, linear functions X,. X t . ...X*_i. the axfoiea
being any polynomials, it is clear that the k differentials ha«, a
common, the system of roots derived from Xi=X»-~.«X»j - &
and have in consequence a vanishing resultant. This implies »
vanishing of the discriminant of the original form.
Expression in Terms of Roots.— Since *£+?§£"■»/. ■* ** ^
any root x,, y lt of *£, and substitute in mf we must cbm
>» W) tmMl ; hence the resultant of £ and / is, disregti*?
numerical factors, yiyj...y_jX discriminant of /-a»Xdisct of/
Now
/ - (xyi - xiy) (xyi -xty)... (xy m -x*y),
£ - zjito* -x*y)-(*y- -xmy).
and substituting in the latter any root of /and forming the prodA
yiyj...y-.(*iy» -x,yO*(xiyi -xiYi)»... (x w yi-x&Y~
and, dividing by yiVj...y», the discriminant of / is seen to be «QS»
to the product of the squares of alt the differences of any twwoo
of the equation. The discriminant of the product of twoforw"
egual to the product of their discriminants multiplied by thesqfHff
01 their resultant. This follows at once from the fact that two*
criminant is
II(sv-a t ) f IW-A) i |"v>-A)l».
References for theTheory of Determinants.— T.MtwV'l*
of Writings on Determinants," Quarterly Journal of iiaikemiixi
vol. xviii. pp. 110-149. October l83l,is the most important W*
graphical article on the subject in any language; it contains 5*9
entries, arranged in chronological order, the first date beiog >*«
and the last 1880. The bibliography has been continued, •«« fj"
lished at various dates (vol. xxi. pp. 299-330; vol. xxxvi. PP* '"'.,
in the same periodical. These lists contain 1740 entries. T. M<-f
History of the Theory of Determinants (2nd ed., London. »*>^
School treatises are those of Thomson, Mansion. Bartl. MolUw*
English, French, German and Italian respectively.— A***"
treatises are those of William Spottiswoode (1851). Ftwf*"
BrioschL (1854). Richard Baltzer (1857). Georj-e Saunos , (WSJ*
N. Trudi (1862), Giovanni Garbieri (1874), Segmund Cttfltw
(1875). Georges J. Dostor (1877). Baraniecki (the most eUtat**
of all) (1879). R. F. Scott (2nd ed., 1904). T. Muir (1881).
ALGEBRAIC FORMS
625
II. Thb Thsoey or Symmxtuc Functions
^_j«nuner ft quantities a%, sg, ••,»••••.
Every rational integral function of these quantities, which does
not niter its vmlue however the n suffixes I, 2, 3, ... n be permuted,
in a> rational integral symmetric function of the quantities. If we
write (I +a,x)(i +«^r)...(i +«.*) - 1 +fli*+ot*"+...+«wr\«i f o+^m*
t called the elementary symmetric functions.
•1 -•*+«•+...+•» -2«i
•1 - a,«t+ si«j+ *■«•+... ■ 2ci«t
The general monomial symmetric function b
the summation being for all permutations of the indices which
result in different terms. The function is written
for brevity, and repetitions of numbers in the bracket are indicated
by exponents, so that (pipipi) i* written (f ?*>). The weight of the
function is the sum of the numbers in the bracket, and the degree
the highest of those numbers.
ELx. it. The elementary functions are denoted by
(1), (1«). (1"). ... (I*),
are all of the first degree, and are of weights 1, 2, 3,...* respectively.
Remark.— In this notation (0)-Z^-(T);((F)«Z^-( t *)^.(0»)
— (T)> &c The binomial coefficients appear, in fact, as symmetric
functions, and this is frequently of importance.
The order of the numbers in the bracket (PiP*».Pn) b immaterial;
we may therefore always place them, as is most convenient, in
descending order of magnitude; the numbers then constitute an
ordered partition of the weight w, and the leading number denotes
the degree.
The sum of the monomial functions of a given weight b called
the komottnecus-product-ium or complete symmetric function of
that weight ; it b denoted by h»; it b connected with the elementary
functions by the formula
which remains true when the symbols a and ft are interchanged,
as is at once evident by writing — * for x. Thb proves, also, that
in any formula connecting d ( , <h, a§,... with fti, At, *«,... the symbols
a and A may be interchanged.
Ex. gr. from At -of — a% we derive Ot-Af — At.
The function Z«f l « a n ...sf* being as above denoted by a partition
of the weight, viz. (p*pt--P*)> it is necessary to bring under view
other functions associated with the same series of numbers: such,
for example, as
(PiP»)(ptP-..p—)-
The expression just written is in fact a partition of a partition,
and to avoid confusion of language will be termed a separation
of a partition. A partition is separated into separates so as to pro-
duce a separation of the partition by writing down a set of partitions,
each separate partition in its own brackets, so that when all the
parts of these partitions are reassembled in a single bracket the
partition which is separated b reproduced. It b convenient to write
the distinct partitions or separates in descending order as regards
weight. If the successive weights of the separate* vi. 1*1, w«,... be
enclosed in a bracket we obtain a partition of the weight w which
appertains to the separated partition. Thb partition b termed the
specification of the separation. The degree of the separation b the
sum of the degrees of the component separates. A separation is
the symbolic representation of a product of monomial symmetric
functions. A partition, [hhPxPifaPi) » (PlplP*), can be separated in
the manner (**)(**) frift)-(pi*)'(*?i). and we may take the
general form of a partition to be (p' l P?p'*...) and that of a separa-
tion (JO'iUt^Cs)''..* when Ji, Ji, js... denote the distinct separates
involved.
Theorem. — The function symbolised by (n), viz. the sum of the
fi* powers of the quantities b expressible in terms of functions
which are symbolized by separations of any partition (n Pl n*n P *^
of the number n. The expression is—
(JiV«(Ji) /, (J») y »- being a separation of (n'aJV 1 ...) and the summa-
tion being in regard to all such separations. For the particular case
(«;w\..)-(i-)
^1)M1W>'«."
To establish thb 1
l+*X,-rVX.+jrtC,+.-.
II(l+,-U&-rVaI*,+jM*s+...>.
the product on the right involving a factor for each of the quantities
«i» at, a*..., and m being arbitrary.
Multiplying out the right-hand tide and comparing coefficients
A|-(l)«l»
X.-fflx.+fWatf.
X, - (3)r,+(2l)*»n+(l«)*f ,
X«-(4)*4+(Sl)w+W*J+(?l^f+(lW.
the summation being for all partitions of nu
Auxiliary Theorem.— The co effi c ient of x^xj**.. In the product
Mil Mil M*l—
ation of 0jVY\ ..) of specification (nfW^), and the sum b for
all such separations.
To establish thb observe the result.
P\ S Zmt S-lliVs-ll *»**"*!
and remark that (j)"i(ai)"»fi , )*» b a separation of (3I2"! !"*«*•)
of specification (y). A similar remark may be made in respect of
1 v"! 1 v M 1 y"*
Mrr*"!* "SIP*** Mil"*"*"
and therefore of the product of those expressions. Hence the theorem.
Now
lc«<lf«X l +M«X,+jrtC.+..0
-jVg (l+M«*+M , af*i+*i , «l*.+".>
whence, expanding by the exponentbl and multinomial theorems,
a comparison of the coefficients of m* gives
and, by the auxiliary theorem, any term X^X^JxTJ... on the
right-hand side b such that the coefficient of afoS'K"' m
1 v *»i v .* , s v <'»» .
3Mirr. A -i J ww- »
1. ii*
where since(mrX «»•••) b the specification of (Ji)'»(Ji)*(Ji)'»...,
Mi+i"s+M»+...-/i+ji+,/i-h... Comparison of the co effi ci en ts of
*,l*li*I r .. therefore yields the result
for the expression of 2a* in terms of products of symmetric functions
symbolized by separations of (n[ l « 1 ' , »i'*...).
Let (»)■, (»)., (»)« denote the sums of the n* powers of quantities
whose elementary symmetric functions are a it a%, a tt ... ; *,, x», x»,.. ;
X t , Xt, Xs,... respectively: then the result arrived at above from
the logarithmic expansion may be written
(!•)•'«)«- (*)x,
exhibiting (rVu an Invariant of the transformation given by the
expressions of Xi, Xt, Xa... in terms of *i, *», «»,....
The inverse question is the expression of any monomial symmetric
function by means of the power functions (r) -Jr.
Theorem of Reciprocity.— It
where Iba numerical coefficient, then also
We have found above that the coefficient of (*£*£*£-.) in the
product Xl'XlIXl!... b
the sum being for all separations of M^V.) which have the
specification (m^m^rn^*...). We can multiply out thb expression so
as to obtain a series of monomiab of the form »(jpJp**'...). It
can be shown that the number 9 enumerates distributions of a
certain nature defined by the partitions (mJ>*..), (ifip...).
la
626
ALGEBRAIC FORMS
1
(£'**}...) and it is seen intuitively that the number 9 remains
unaltered when the first two of these partitions are interchanged
(see Combinatorial Analysis). Hence the theorem is established.
Putting xj-i and x»-af l -x 4 -...-'o, we find a particular law of
reciprocity given by Cayley and Betti,
(l-i)«(l-«)«(l-«)«...-.«+*(i^;»...)+....
(ln)«(ln)rt(i.i)r n .:-...+^i lll H lll J»...)+...;
and another by putting xi->*i-xi-...— i, for then Xn becomes K,,
and we have
V ExpresstbilUy. — " If a symmetric f
boilized by (Xjtr...) and (X,X»X»...), (mimm*...), (**»»..,)... be any
....... ~ v. yjj^
Theorem of Expressibility.—" If a symmetric function be sym«
oiliied by (Xjtr...) and (X,X»X»...), (mipiMj-.), (**»»..,)... be a
partitions of X, m, »»... respectively, the function (X#* ...) isexpresai!
by means of functions symbolized by separation of.
(XjX^i-..MU^»...r l »ir|...).
For, writing as before,
-ZP*t#«*f»...,
P is a linear function of separations of (fNJ^*...) of specification
(m>^«i; , ...),and if Xj^XT/...- ZFajJxJ**}, 1 ..., F is a linear
function of separations of a* 1 **/*..) of specification («X , *i' a ...).
Suppose the separations of (/J'^/J 1 ...) to involve ft different specifica-
tions and form the ft identities
x^x^x^.-zp'X'^v-C'-i. 2, j),
where (**[*!''*%'»*'£— ) " one of *■* * «pccifications.
The law of reciprocity shows that
via.: a linear function of symmetric functions symbolized by the
ft specifications ; and that 9 ti - $ u . A table may be formed expressing
the ft expressions P 1 >, P">,...P<*> as linear functions of the ft expressions
(M^'M^m^"...), s m l, 2, ...ft, and the numbers 9 lt occurring therein
possess row and column symmetry. By solving ft linear equations
we similarly express the latter functions as linear functions of the
former, and this table will also be symmetrical.
Theorem.— "The symmetric function {***?*£'*£' •••) whose
partition b a specification of a separation of the function sym-
bolized by djvj**'...) 2s expressible as a linear function of sym-
metric functions symbolized by separations of (^7^*...) and a
symmetrical table may be thus formed." It is now to be remarked
that the partition (^/J*...) can. be derived from (m^m^m^.)
by substituting for the numbers m.,, m*, m^,... certain partitions of
those numbers (vide the definition ofthe specification of a separation).
Hence the theorem of expressibility enunciated above. A new
statement of the law of reciprocity can be arrived at as follows: —
where (Ji)'i(J t )''(Ji)'*". is a separation of (fj 1 ^*...) of specification
(ntj' i t *m**m^ a ...). placing s under the summation sign to denote the
specification involved, ^
where *.,-#„. * r " 1
Theorem of Symmetry.— If we form the separation function
appertaining to the function (/^Jjvj'...), each separation having a
specification (m*) g m'£m'£...), multiply by mu! m»! *«.!... and take
therein the coefficient of Uie function (*** l ,l **!J , »** l "'«)i we ODta » n tha
same result as if we formed the separation function in regard to the
specification 0»*' WJ'm*''...). multiplied by m |( ! m,«! n»l... and took
therein the coefficient of the function (ar^Ha^*^'...).
Ex.gr., take(^...)-(21«);(iii^'m^...)- (321);(m7»ifs^«...)-(31a) ;
we find
<21)(1«)(1)+(1»)(2)(1) -...+13f31«)+...,
(21)(l)»-...+13(321)+...
The Differential Operators.— Starting with the relation
(1 +a 1 *)(l +*,x)...(l +«.*) - 1 +«,jr+« f x«+-.+«^
multiply each aide by 1+**, thus introducing a new qsasrfri *
we obtain
(l+a 1 x)(l+« l x)...(l+«.z)(l+Mx)-l+(fl I +-i.)x+(« t +^ 1 )i^-
so that /(tfi, fl«, a»,...a») -/, a rational integral function of the se*
mentary functions, is converted into
/(«,+*», fl l +**,,...a.+** i _ l ) -/+rf,/+||5y+£55f+_
and ^ denotes, not s successive operations of o*i. bat the apassr
of order s obtained by raising d x to the «* power symbofiofl? a
in Taylor's theorem in the Differential Calculus.
Write also jjrfj - D, so that
/(«i+* <h+Ma„ ...c+*ftv.) -/+mD,/+m , IV+* 1 IV+~
' The introduction of the quantity n converts the srwtaccnc
function (XiXaX*...) into
(X,X,X,+...) +M* (X*,...) +^t(X l \ > ...) +j**(XaV~) +_
Hence, if /(«i, a%, ...«0 -(XiX**..),
(X,X,X,...) +m a »(XiX^..) +#i*t(X,X,...) +f*f>iV»~.) +_
- (1 +mDi+j*>0,+ m , D,+...)(X 1 X**-).
Comparing coefficients of like powers of * we obtain
DXiCXiXaXt-.O-CXaX,...),
while D,(X|X|X»...) -o unless the partition (X,X*Xi~.) co n ta d naa parti
Further, if Da,Da, denote successive operations of Dj^ avad D*»
DX,DX,(X,X,X,...)-(X,...),
and the operations are evidently commutative.
Also D2DZD' p \...(p?p?p?...) - 1, and the law of <
operators D upon a monomial symmetric function is
We have obtained the equivalent operations
1 +mDi+*»D,+m«D,+... -expp& x
where exp denotes (by the rule over exp) that the moltipficaaDe
of operators is symbolic as in Taylor's theorem. d\ denotes, i» hA
an operator of order s, but we may transform the right-haad si
so that we are only concerned with the successive pcrforsnaace 4
linear operations. For this purpose write
a. -a > ,+oA H . 1 +o f a.^ rt +.^.
It has been shown (vide " Memoir on Symmetric Functions of
the Roots of Systems of Equations," Phil. Trans. 1890, p. 490) that
«x7(and,+wA+mA+...) -«tf(M l di+MA+MA+~).
where now the multiplications on the dexter denote imisiini
operations, provided that
«xp(M,(+M^+Mrf*+...) -l+*rf+ai t P+aMf«+_,
{ being an undetermined algebraic quantity.
Hence we derive the particular cases
expdi -exp(d\ -g^+grf*---) 5
exjvdt -expUdx -yAfe+J,**, -.»)>
and we can express D, in terms of d u a\, d»...., p rod u c ts duiuuji
successive operations, by the same law which cx p ress e a the ele-
mentary function a. in terms of the sums of powers «u a> iw
Further, we can express d, in terms of D t , D* D», ~. by the saaw
law which expresses the power function s, in terms of the '
functions at, a* a,,...
Operation of X) t upon a Product of Symmetric ^
/ to be a product 01 symmetric functions fift...fm- If in the idefrirr
* 'ftfu..fm we introduce a new root* we change a, into a,+MS*-u«ai
we obtain
fl + M D,+^D,+„.+M'D.+...)/
-?1+mD i +m i D,+...+m'D.+...J/ i
X (1 +mDi+^D,+...+|i'D.+...)/.
X (1 + M Di+|i«D,+.'..+M'D.+...)/.,
and now expanding and equating coefficients of hhe powers of *
D l f-Z(D i f l )M$...f m ,
D^jT-ZI
1 +X(D^0(DJO/^../-+X(1>^OA/i^Am
the summation in a term covering every distribution of the operator*
of the type presenting itself in the term.
Writing these results
Di/-D (a /,
D«/-D(,^+D(,ix/,
D«/-Dc»^+D< M )/+D(it)/,
ALGEBRAIC FORMS
627
we may write in general
the summation being for every partition CptPiyt*-) of *t and
Dfap*,...)/ being -Z(Dp,/,)(DMtWM»)/*./--
Ex. jr. To operate with D, upon (21»)(21 4 )(1»), we have
D ( f)/-(1«)(21«)(1»)+(21»)(1«)(1»).
Da«,>-(12«)(21')(1«)+(21»)(21»)(1*)+(21«)C21«)(1«).
and hence
Application to Symmetric Function Multiplication.— An example
will explain this. Suppose we wish to find the coefficient of (52U 1 )
in the product (2 V) (21 «)(i»).
Write
OZHK^tf*) -~+A(52<)(l«)+..,;
then
DJ>[DJ(21«)(21«)(1 I )-A;
every other term disappearing by the fundamental property of D«.
Since
D.(21«)(21«)(1»)-(1«X1')(1 4 ).
we have: —
DJD|(l<)(l 4 )(l a )-A
DID? (1 , )(1»)(1 , )+2(1«)(1«)(1«)|«A
DID} 5a«)(l«)(l»)+2(l*Kl»)(l)+2(l , )(l , )(l)l-A m
where ultimately disappearing terms have been struck out. Finally
A-612-72.
The operator *\ *-asdai+ai6\it+aidat+... which is satisfied by every
symmetric fraction whose partition contains no unit (called by
Cayley non-unitary symmetric functions), is of particular importance
in algebraic theories. This arises from the circumstance that the
general operator
k, agdaf+X,a,da,+X,o*9a,+...
is transformed into the operator d x by the substitution
(a* a,, at, -a,. •••) - (a* Xoai, X«A,a,, ..., XoX,...X»_a,...),
so that the theory of the general operator is coincident with that
of the particular operator eY For example, the theory of invariants
may be regarded as depending upon the consideration of the sym-
metric functions of the differences of the roots of the equation
fl»x*- (flat* - - 1 + ("Jajx*-* -... -0 ;
and such functions satisfy the differential equation
(htoi +2a,fti,+3flrfa, +... + no^iba* - a
For such functions remain unaltered when each root receives the
same infinitesimal increment A; but writing x— k lot x causes a* ai,
as a»,... to become respectively a* ai+Aa* at+2ka u 01+3*0,, ... ana
f(a» a t , a,, a«,...) becomes
/+A(aA»+2a,a. t +3aA,+...)/.
and hence the functions satisfy the differential equation. The
important result is that the theory of invariants is from a certain
point of view coincident with the theory of non-unitary symmetric
functions. On the one hand we may state that non-unitary sym-
metric functions of the roots of OoX"— Cix^+ojx*-*— ...-o, are
symmetric functions of differences of the roots of
a**- l!(?)a,x«'- 1 +2!(:)<wr*-»-... -0:
and on the other hand that symmetric functions of the differences
of the roots of
flfxMflaix*- 1 + (•)«*•-• -... -0,
are non-unitary symmetric functions of the roots of
An important notion in the theory of linear operators in general
is that of MacMahon's multilinear operator (" Theory of a Multi-
linear partial Differential Operator with Applications to the Theories
of Invariants and Reciprocants," Proc. Lend. Math. Soc. t. xviii.
(1896). pp. 61-88). It is defined as having four elements, and is
(m, *; m, n)
the coefficient of a^a^aj 1 ... being ■ t . * ! , . The operators
oAi+aiA«+...,'ad,i+2ai9U,+... are seen to be (1,0; I, 1) and
(1,1; x, I) respectively. Also the operator of the Theory of Pure
Reciprocants (see Sylvester Lectures on Ike New Theory of Reciprocants,
Oxford, 1888) is
(4.1;2,l)-j { 4o& l +10a*A t +6<frfi>+ol)d. i +... } •
It will be noticed that
fa r; m, ») -m(1, 0; m, n) +*(0, 1 ; m, n).
The importance of the operator consists in the fact that taking
any two operators of the system
far; «,*);(»*. *»,-»', si 1 ),
the operator equivalent to
fa r; m, n)(ji*. *»; m\ n 1 )-^ »»; *«, »«)fa >: M, *),
known as the " alternant " of the two operators, is also an operator
of the same system. We have the theorem
(ji,r;m J n)(jt i y;m 1 ,n l )—(ji i y;m l ,n l )(ji,r\m,n)^(jti,ri\mi,nOl
where
^„( W ! +M _1) j £u+ll«r)-£fy+»ri) { .
n m( H *-n)*p+-
#*tt —sss'-f-fft— I,
nj-n'+u,
and we conclude that c*4 "alternation" the operators of the
system form a " group. It is thus possible to study simultane-
ously all the theories which depend upon operations of the group.
Symbolic Representation of Symmetric Functions. — Denote the
elementary symmetric function a, by Jj , J] , jj, ...at pleasure ; then,
taking n equal to •, we may write
1 +« 1 *+o*»+ r .. - (1 +/n*)(l +**)-. -«1« -«■»■ -«f-~.
where
Further, let
1 +6»*+6st»+...+6b*-« (1 +**) (1 +**)...(1 +*.*) ;
so that
1 +«,*, +0,*? +... - (1 +m) (1 +twn)... - e*»i,
1 +fli<r>+o^! +... - (1 +***) (1 +*n)... -•*»•».
1 +c,». +«**+... - (1 +*».) (1 +p«c«)..
and, by multiplication,
n(l+OiH-ato l +...) -n(l+6u»+6«>»+...+6»p-),
a. gsPrMjrYK .+*•«• .
Denote by brackets ( ) and II ] symmetric functions of the quan-
tities p and 9 respectively. Then
l+«ill]+c!tl , ]+ot[21+c?ll , l+aia,I21]+a,[3]+...
+op l opfi Pt ...a 0m [p l p i p v ..p J +...
-1 +6,(1) +6? (I 1 ) +6,(2) +»{(I«) +6,6,(21) +6,(3) +_
+6*6 t »6*..6^m^m-l fl, "~ , ...2 fl, l*)+...
Expanding the right-hand side by the exponential theorem, and
then expressing the symmetric functions of n, #», ...«b, which
arise, in terms of 61, 6t, v.. 6b, we obtain by comparison with the
middle series the symbolical representation of all symmetric functions
in brackets ( ) appertaining to the quantities p,, p«, p„... To obtain
particular theorems the quantities #,, ? a , # a . ...#« are auxiliaries
which are at our entire disposal. Thus to obtain Stroh's theory of
seminvariants put
6, -*,+**+... +#«-[ll-0;
we then obtain the expression of non-unitary symmetric functions
of the quantities p as functions of differences of the symbols oj, a*
«i, —
Ex. gr. 62(2*) with m -2 must be a term in
«*iV*i«« ««*id-«i> -...+j|atfa-«») l +- •
and since 6 J «»t we must have
(2»)-y i («,-«,) 4 - 2 i(«l+«|)-J(«!«,+« 1 «,)+3«!«:
-2a 4 -2o,ai+aJ
as is well known.
Again, if r„ r,, <r,...<r«bethe sji, m a roots of — 1, 6i">6i«...»iw-a
"■0 and 6b — 1, leading to
1 +(*•) +(«")+(»•) +... -e*»«« 4 *«^ f » +<r -»*«
and
•"• c* , )-i f |n(»i«i+^*i+...+c»-«) i ".
628
ALGEBRAIC FORMS
and we see further that fooi +*»*+... +0»a»)* vanishes identically
unless kmo (mod m). If m be infinite and
l+te+6*»+...-a+*x)(l+*ix)...-s*— •*■--.
we have the symbolic identity
fWtvHf+W*- ■ -«*A+«*rV*«i+ •••
and
Instead of the above symbols we may use equivalent differential
operators. Thus let
and let a, b, c, ... be equivalent quantities. Any function of differ-
ences of <•, ft», *#,.•• being formed, the expansion being carried out,
an operand Oo or &o or 4 ••• being taken and 6, c,... being subsequently
put equal to a, a non-unitary symmetric function will be produced.
Ex. gr. («.-«♦)"(*.-««) - («! -MA+«D (* -«.)
-t>-2W»+Ml-a:*«+2<.M,-Jlt.
- 6oi - W>, +2<i ifri - 2«ki +2aisV I e l - 2 Vi
-2(o}-3fl,o,+3a0-2(3).
The whole theory of these forms is consequently contained implicitly
in the operation 0.
Symmetric Functions of Several Systems of Quantities. — It will
suffice to consider two systems of quantities as the corresponding
theory for three or more systems is obtainable by an obvious enlarge-
ment of the nomenclature and notation.
Taking the systems of quantities to be
•1, as, «i,...
fix, fin, 0i,...
we start with the fundamental relation
(l+ai*+Ay)vl+«t*+M04«*+fo)-..
- 1 - r ^i»x+a«o'+o»x t +auxy +Ouy > +-" +<h**»y« +...
As shown by L. Schlafli » this equation may be directly formed and
exhibited as the resultant of two given equations, and an arbitrary
linear non-homogeneous equation in two variables. The right-hand
side may be also written
1 +Xa,x+Ifty+Za,«*x»+Z«iAxy +ZftAy*+...
The most general symmetric function to be considered is
conveniently written in the symbolic form
Observe that the summation is in regard to the expressions obtained
by permuting the n suffixes 1, 2, 3, ...n. The weight of the function
is bipartite and consists of the two numbers Zp and lq\ the sym-
bolic expression of the symmetric function is a partiti on into biparts
(multipart*) of the bipartite (multipartite) number Zp, Iq. Each
part 01 the partition is a bipartite number, and in representing the
partition it is convenient to indicate repetitions of parts by power
symbols. In this notation the fundamental relation is written
(l+ajx+A;
•1+©*
+(ltf)x»+C
where in general a* - (TO>uT«),
All symmetric functions are
, in a rational integral form
-AvKi +«*+Ay)(i +ajX+/t«yL;.
+ (ft)y±(Iu«)*»+(Io^xy+jOT«)y»
c»+(I(POl)x*y+(ID(5I«)x>»+(0l«)y«-»
•)/•+"
All symmetric functions are expressible in terms of the quantities
ttm in a rational integral form ; from this property they are termed
elementary functions; further they are said to be single-unitary
since each part of the partition denoting Op, involves but a single
unit.
The number of partitions of a biweight pq into exactly u biparts
is given (after Euler) by the coefficient of oaxfy* in the expansion
of the generating function
1 -ax. 1 -ay. 1 -0*1. 1 -«xjr. 1 - ay*. 1 - a**. 1 - ax»y. 1 -a*yt. 1 -ay*..
The partitions with one bipart correspond to the sums of powers
in the single system or unipartite theory; they are readily expressed
in terms of the elementary functions. For write (pq) -*« and take
logarithms of both sides of the fundamental relation; we obtain
*M* +*«y - Zfox +fty)
^l^«•+a*l^xy+J*r»-Z(«,x+0oO^ *c,
and
fuS+Smy-sihtf+Tsuxy+i*?) +~
-log (l+«isx+o«y+...+tf Ft x»y«+-).
From this formula we obtain by elementary algebra
w
corresponding to Thomas Waring's formula for the single system.
The analogous formula appertaining to n systems of quantities which
1 Vienna Transactions, t. iv. 185a.
v _. in terms of elementary functions can be at eats
written down.
Ex, jr. We can verify the relations
*si - a !. a «-«iAi-«ii«i.+«*i •
The formula actually gives the expression of (R) by means at
separations of
(IW5P5,
which is one of the partitions of (fq). This is the true s
from which the theorem should be regarded. It is but a j
case of a general theory of expressibihty.
To invert the formula we may write
1 +OMX+otiy+...+«W+~.
-exp {(*»x+j«oO ~2*is^+2*ii*y +*«$■) +~J.
and thence derive the formula—
which expresses the elementary functions in terms of the sssgk
bipart functions. The similar theorem for n systems of qasabcn
can be at once written down.
It will be shown later that every rational integral
function is similarly expressible.
The Function ft* .—As the definition of ft* we take
l+«is*+»«y+...+ii, t x*y«+...
1
"(l-a,x-^ 1 y)(l-« i x-Ay)... ;
and now expanding the right-hand side
the summation being for all partitions of the biweight.
writing
1 +ft - x+*«y-r-..-+ft«x»r«+...
1
Farther
"l-a»x-auy+...+(-)»*«a #t x*y«+... t
we find that the effect of changing the signs of both x and y is menfe
to interchange the symbols a and ft; hence in any relation connect-
ing the quantities ft„ with the quantities a M we are at liberty to
interchange the symbols a and ft. By the exponential and match
nomial theorems we obtain the results —
wrx-Sc-rsSSbi
m*f* ~
and in this a and ft are interchangeable.
*■ Z* \ Pxiqil J J /*!*!... J "V»! «»!... W
Differential Operations.— If, in the identity
(l+«ix+Ay)(l+a^-r-Ay)...(l+arf+fcy)
- 1 +a M x+fl^+o»x t +a M xy +aay* +... ,
we multiply each side by (1 +MX+py), the right-hand side I
1 +(<»»+*)x+ (a«+i')y-r-...+(a ff +*o>-i.t +"***-*)*>•+--• :
hence any rational integral function of the coefficients o» a*. -
a m , ... say /(a* a*, ...) ■/ is converted into
where d*-^^^,**-^**,**^
The rule over exp will serve to denote that pa\*+*dm b to be
raised to the various powers symbolically as in Taylor's t
•-JTJfW'
Writing
«50^ M + nU) - (I +nD»+ »D»i+... +s**D„+-.)/;
now, since the introduction of the new quantities * r 1
the addition to the function (ftfcAfcfrft...) of the new t
we find
D*i«i(/>ifli/Wi*ig....) - 5SSE-) J
and thence ^^
VMVpHxDpM^tprtip&p**..) - 1 ;
while IW- o unless the part rs is involved in f. We may then sate
that D„ is an operation which obliterates one part pq when sset
part is present, but in the contrary case causes the fancbss te
ALGEBRAIC FORMS
629
From the above D„ is an operator of order fq, but it is
convenient for some purposes to obtain its expression in the form
of a number of terms, each of which denotes pq successive linear
operations; to accomplish this write
jL* <Ww
and note the general result '
exp (m M o , „+imAi+...+*i«a , «+...)
-exp (M^ M +RU^+...+WW».+^);
where the multiplications on the left- and right-hand sides of the
equation are symbolic and unsymbolic respectively, provided that
***mi M « *** quantities which satisfy the relation
exb (M K «+M«,+...+M, f «V+.~)
where {, *. are undetermined algebraic quantities. In the present
particular case putting «!•-* m«-r and m M -o otherwise
Mrf+M«i+...+M„«V+...«log (l+s*+*0
or
auid the result is thus m _ m
-1+jiD w +»D h +. m +jA<«D m +~.;
jrf»+«*n -jGM«+ Wu+»»««) +~
-' log(l+MD„+rD M -r_-ri^D«+...).
From these formulae we derive two important relations, vis.
the last written relation having, in regard to each term on the
right-hand side, to do with Zr successive linear operations. Recall-
ing the formulae above which connect s„ and a M , we see that d*.
and D M are in co-relation with these quantities respectively, and
rnay_be said to be operations which correspond to the partitions (pq),
(10*01*) respectively. We might conjecture from this observation
that every partition is in correspondence with some operation;
this is found to be the case, and it nas been shown {Ice. ctL p. 493)
Chat the operation
TbwThQ&r- (multiplication symbolic)
corresponds to the partition (piql w i piQt't--.)- The partitions being
taken as denoting symmetric functions we have complete correspond-
ence between the algebras of quantity and operation, and from
any algebraic formula we can at once write down an operation
formula. This fact is of extreme importance in the theory of alge-
braic forms, and is easily representable whatever be the number of
the systems of quantities.
We may remark the particular result
dp« causes every other single part function to vanish, and must
cause any monomial function to vanish which does not comprise
one of the partitions of the biweight pq amongst its parts.
the solutions of the partial differential equation d^-o are the
single bipart forms, omitting s M , and we have seen that the solutions
of D„ »o are those monomial functions in which the part pq is absent.
.One more relation is easily obtained, viz.
References foe Symmetric Functions.— Albert Guard, In-
tention neurits en Calgcbre (Amsterdam, 1639); Thomas Waring,
Meditation** Alrebraicae (London, 1782) ; Lagrange, Mint, do Facad.
dt Berlin (1766) ; Meyer-Hirsch, Sammlung von Aufgaben ans der
Tkeorie der algebraischen Gleichungen (Berlin, 1809); S e n e t , Cows
faltebre superieure, t. iii. (Paris, 1885): Unferdinger, SUtuntsber.
d. Acad. d. Wisunsck. i. Wien. Bd. Ix. (Vienna. 1869); L. Schlafli,
"Ueber die Resultante eines Systemes mehrerer algebraischen
Gleichungen," Vienna Transactions, t. iv. 1852; MacMahon,
" Memoirs on a New Theory of Symmetric Functions," American
1 Phil. Trans., 1690, p. 490.
Journal of Mathematics, Baltimore. Md. 1888-180/); " Memoir on
Symmetric Functions of Roots of Systems of Equations," PhiL
Trans. 1890.
III. Tub Thkoey or Binary Forms
A binary form of order n is a homogeneous polynomial of the
nth degree in two variables. It may be written in the form
ax t +bx t xi+cx, *,+...;
or in the form
«x'+(r)o*"" I «i+(l)orpx| +.-.
which Cayley denotes by
(a, 6, c, ...)(x,, *0"
(*)»(i) •• I** ** a ™** tion for the successive binomial coefficients
a, )*(* — l) _~ Other forms are
ax t +nbx t x t +n(n-l)cx i x f +....
the binomial coefficients (") being replaced by *!(•), and
. 1. ■-« 1 *-• «
«;+T!»*, Vhfo *,+••••
the special convenience of which will appear later. For present
purposes the form will be written
^+(;)^- , x i +(;)s»r- , ':+ .+«,-.
the notation adopted by German writers; the literal coefficients
have a rule placed over them to distinguish them from umbral
coefficients which are introduced almost at once. The coefficients
o». a u a*,...**, n -f 1 in number are arbitrary. If the form, some-
times termed a quantic, be equated to zero the ■+! coefficients
are equivalent to but n, since one can be made unity by division
and the equation is to be regarded as one for the determination
of the ratio of the variables.
If the variables of the quantic f(x u xO be subjected to the linear
transformation
Xi-«ii(i-r-«u6»
xt-ctiit+onEt,
(1. 6 being new variables replacing x u x» and the coefficients «n, on,
•«, on, termed the coefficients of substitution (or of transformation),
being constants, we arrive at a transformed quantic
si*.*) - v"+(r)« I '^ s +e)^pf t +...+X6
in the new variables which is of the same order as the original
quantic; the new coefficients a, a, a ..a are linear functions
of the original coefficients, and also linear functions of products,
of the coefficients of substitution, of the nth degree.
By solving the equations of transformation we obtain -
ri\ ■ ooxi — aitxs,
rfe«-asixi+«uxi,
■*«'- 1 ZZ I —-»-«■«
r is termed the determinant of substitution or modulus of trans-
formation; we assure xi, x f to be independents, so that r must
differ from zero.
In the theory of forms we seek functions of the coefficients and
variables of the original quantic which, save as to a power of the
modulus of transformation, are equal to the like functions of the
coefficients and variables of the transformed quantic. We may
have such a* function which does not involve the variables,- via.
F(a 9 , S , •^.••■O -r A F(fl*. ai, a.,..^),
the function T(al £7, <£...^T) is then said to be an invariant of the
quantic qud linear transformation, if, however, F involve as well
the variables, viz.
F(a if • , fl |f ...*, fe) -r*F&.ai, a*...: xi, xO.
the function F(at, a t . a,,... xi. xi) is said to be a coearianl of the
quantic. The expression " invariantive forms " includes both invari-
ants and covariants, and frequently also other analogous forms which
will be met with. Occasionally the word " invariants " includes
covariants; when this is so it will be implied by the text. In-
variantive foams will be found to be homogeneous functions alike
of the coefficients and of the variables. Instead of a single quantic
we may have several
/(£, a u £...; xi, x»), *x£ £T. £.-~; n. *0. •-
which have different coefficients, the same variables, and are of
the same or different degrees in the variables; we may transform
them all by the same substitution, so that they become .
If then we find
J(a 9 , • , a $ ....; fc, *). ♦(*.. *,. *,. •; fc. «*)m~
F(a § , a % , a^.b $ , 6 jt |f ; {,, fc).
-rM^J, flu i,...i, lu 61........; xi, xt),
630
ALGEBRAIC FORMS
the function F, on the right which multiplies r, is said to be a
simultaneous invariant or covariant of the system of quantics.
This notion is fundamental in the present theory because we will
find that one of the most valuable artifices for finding invariants
of a single quantic is first to find simultaneous invariants of several
different quantics, and subsequently to make all the quantks
identical. Moreover, instead of having one pair of variables x u x%
we may have several pairs yi, yj; t\, *;... in addition, and transform
each pair to a new pair by substitutions, having the same coefficients
«». «u, on, an and arrive at functions of the original coefficients
and variables (of one or more quantics) which possess the above-
defined invariant property. A particular quantic of the system
may be of the same or different degrees in the pairs of variables
which it involves, and these degrees may vary from quantic to
quantic of the system. Such quantics have been termed by Cayley
multipartite.
Symbolic Form. — Restricting consideration, for the present, to
binary forms in a single pair of variables, we must introduce the
symbolic form of Aronhold, Clebsch and Cordan; they write the
form
U*,+<wc,) -aW+QarWr'xi+.'.+aW-fl;
wherein a u a* arc umbrae, such that
Of a 4 Oi l ..^2ia s , a 9
are symbolical representations of the real coefficients a\, it,...
«V»_i, a„ and in general a*~V is the symbol for a*. If we restrict
ourselves to this set of symbols we can uniquely pass from a product
of real coefficients to the symbolic representations of such product,
but we cannot, uniquely, from the symbols recover the real form
This is dear because we can write
while the same product of umbrae arises from
OtfOi-a^ aj-^ a\.
Hence it becomes necessary to have more than one set of umbrae,
so that we may have more than one symbolical representation of
the same real coefficients. We consider the quantic to have any
number of equivalent representations a"«t"«c"».... So that
<£"*«,■ fc, fr| B ti £]*...« £*; and if we wish to denote, by
umbrae, a product of coefficients of degree % we employ s sets of
umbrae.
Ex. gr. We write 0,0, -arVC**
and so on whenever we require to represent a product of real co-
efficients symbolically; we then have a one-to-one correspondence
between the products of real coefficients and their symbolic forms.
If we have a function of degree 1 in the coefficients, we may select
any s sets of umbrae for use, and having made a selection we may
when only one quantic is under consideration at any time permute
the sets of umbrae in any manner without altering the real signi-
ficance of the symbolism. Ex. gr. To express the function a«a t —a J,
which is the discriminant of the binary quadratic a\x\ +2a\xix*-r-asx3
-0* -&J, in a symbolic form we have
2(o*t-a;) -£ai+fl»3i-2ai . a» -a?6J+«l*I -2a i aJ> i b,
-(a^-at*,) 1 -
Such an expression as ai6r-ai6it which is
da t dbg do t dbg
dxi dxi"*5xi dxi*
is usually written (ab) for brevity; in the same notation the deter-
minant, whose rows are fl«, a,, at; b u 6,, b t ; c u c%, c% respectively,
is written (abc) and so on. It should be noticed that the real function
denoted by (ab)* is not the square of a real function denoted by (ab).
For a single quantic of the first order (ab) is the symbol of a function
of the coefficients which vanishes identicallyj thus
(ab) -a,6t -«A -a«ii -aA -0
and. indeed, from a remark made above we see that (ab) remains
unchanged by interchange of a and b; but (ab) - — (ba), and these
two facts necessitate (ab) -o.
To find the effect of linear transformation on the symbolic form
of quantic we will disuse the coefficients an, flu, an, <ht, and employ
Xi, »• X*, j* For the substitution
Xi - Mi +Mlb. X| - Xtfc + Pitt,
'of modulus^ Jj| - (X, W -X*,)«(X*).
the quadratic form o&\+ia x x\x x +a&\ -,-/(x),
becomes
Xrf?+2X,(,ei+Arfi -Ai -*(0,
A f -a*f-f*a,X,X.+o t XI f _
Ai -<kXun+ai(Xa*4>M0 +***+
.. Ai-a^J4-2aiMUH+aiMj.
We pass to the symbolic forms
«J-(«i*i+W. A|-<A||,+A«&)».
by writing for
a^ a\, as the symbols af , a,a*,a\
'a* XL Ai „ A?,A,A,,Al
and then
Z - a\\\ +aa,a r X,X l +«!Xl - foAi+W -«L
M - (aiX» +a»>«) (ami +aw*) -a^
Ai-Catfu+aiwi'-aJ;
so that
whence Ax, A* become a v a M respectively and
The practical result of the transformation is to change the nmbne
at, at into the umbrae
a A -aiX|+a»>«, a M -au«i+ai*i
respectively.
Oy similarly transforming the binary n 4 form a" we find
A;-(a,X4+a,X < )"-«r+Ar,
A. - (a 1 X,+a 1 X0~ l (o 1 jn+Oi») -Ov - A^A*
A. - (aiXi+fl,>«)"^(a,Mi +<H**)* -aj^oj - Ar*4.
so that the umbrae Aj, Ai are a K , a M respectively.
Theorem, — When the binary form
o;-(ai*i+«»r«)"
is transformed to
Aj-fAife+AA)*
by the substitutions
Xi - Ml +*fe, X t » X«(| +Mrf|,
the umbrae Ai, Aa are expressed in terms of the umbrae ft, ft by tk
formulae
Ai-XiOi+Mt, A,-miO»+^Oi.
We gather that Ai, As are transformed to a u a, in audi wise that
the determinant of transformation reads by rows as the arieiaal
determinant reads by columns, and that the modulus of the toss-
formation is, as before, (X#»). For this reason the umbrae Aa, As «
said to be coniragredient to xi, x». If we solve the c
ing the original and transformed unbrae we find
(XM)(-oO-X,(-At)+mA,.
(Xm)o, -X,(-aT)-|
. ., . .. ,+mAu
and we find that, except for the factor (Xm). —a, and +ft«retnu»
formed to -Ai and + Ai by the same substitutions as X4 and xt sr
transformed to |i and {*. For this reason the umbrae -at. at sr
said to be cogredient to Xi and x%. We frequently meet who w
gradient and contragedient quantities, and we have in general the
following definitions: — (1) " if two equally numerous sets of qats*
titles x, y, »,... s*, y\ i*,... are such that whenever one set x. y. u-
is expressed in terms of new quantities X, Y, Z, ... the second art
x*, y. i\ ... is expressed in terms of other new quantities X', Y', T. .- ,
by the same scheme of linear substitution the two seta are said ts
be cogredient quantities." (a) ' Two sets of quantities *, y, s, - *
f , n, f, ... are said to be contragredient when the linear f— »— *-
for the first set are
x-X,X+^Y+r,Z+.~,
y-X,X+MjY+»,Z+...,
«-X,X+m>Y+„Z+...,
4 ■ ■
and these are associated with the following formulae
to the second set,
E-X,«+Xt,+X,r+... t
H-Mi«+M*+*.ir+....
Z - nt+ nf + rjf+..^
wherein it should oe noticed that hew quantities ere t ■|wissi<l ia
terms of the old, as regards the latter set, and not via scras.**
Ex. gr. The symbols 21c* fa & '" *" eo,ltra * t *di*nt with tk
variables x, y, s, ... for when
(x, y, t, ...) -fX,, », *, ...)(X, Y, Z^..).
|X,, M ,n....|
ALGEBRAIC FORMS
631
we find
(21c zr *r A
)-(Xt,V
I Ml, Mi, Mi. .
If ru »it •
fera^E""*)-
Observe the notation, -which is that introduced by Cayley into the
theory of matrices which he himself created.
Just as cogrediency leads to a theory of covariants, so contra-
grediency leads to a theory of contravariants. If «, a quantic in
ar, y, s, .... be expressed in terms of new variables X, Y, 2 ... ; and
if €. *» f. •••» be quantities contragredient to x. y, s, ...; there are
found to txut functions of (, n. f . •••, and of the coefficients in ss,
which need, at most, be multiplied by powers of the modulus to be
made equal to the same functions of E, H, Z, ... of the transformed
coefficient* of it; such functions are called contraoariants of *. There
also exist functions, which involve both sets of variables as well as
the coefficients of u. possessing a like property; such have been
termed mixed concomitants, and they, like contravariants, may
appertain as well to a system of forms as to a single form.
As between the original and transformed quantic we have the
umbral relations
A»-X,*,+M* At -««!+«•*
and for a second form
B 4 -XA+XA, B,-mA+mA.
The original forms are «*, b*, and we may regard them either as
different term* or as equivalent representations of the same form.
In other words, B, b may be regarded aa different or alternative
symbols to A, a. In either case
<AB)-A|B.-A,B 1 -(Xm)(o6)
may be the case each form must be linear; and if the forms be
different (aft) is an invariant (simultaneous) of the two forms, its
teal expression being a& —<hb\. This will be recognized as the re-
sultant of the two linear forms. If the two linear forms be identical,
the umbral sets fli, or, b%, b% are alternative, are ultimately put equal
to one another and (ab) vanishes. A single linear form has, in fact,
no invariant. When either of the forms is of an order higher than
the first (ab), as not being expressible in terms of the actual co-
efficients of the forms, is not an invariant and has no significance.
Introducing now other sets of symbols C, D, .-; c, d, ... we may
mt * <AB)«(AC)'(BC)»... - (Xm)*^ • W(«>W*~.
so that the symbolic product
(o*)«(oOW»... f
possesses the invariant property. If the forms be all linear and
different, the function is an invariant, viz. the •* power of that
appertaining to a m and b, multiplied by the j" power of that apper-
taining to a m and c m multiplied by Ac If any two of the linear forms,
say Pm. ?•« be supposed identical, any symbolic expression involving
the factor (pa) is zero. Notice, therefore, that the symbolic product
(abYiacyUk)*... may be always viewed as a simultaneous invariant
of a number of different linear forms o„ b„ c, In order that
(ab)*{aey(bcP.~ may be a simultaneous invariant of a number of
different forms a?, £*. &,..., where *i, «■. »i. -. may be the same
or different, h is necessary that every product of umbrae which
arises in the expansion of the symbolic product be of degree »i in a,, a, ;
in the case of b%, 61 of degree *%; in the case of c,, c, of degree *»;
and so on. For these only will the symbolic product be replaceable
by a linear function of products of real coefficients. Hence the
"' lis
« +J+~.-ni.
If the forms o», £, &...be identical the symbols are alternative,
and provided that the form does not vanish it denotes an invariant
of the single form <&
There may be a number of forma «IC£— And we may suppose
such identities between the symbols that on the whole only two,
three, or more of the sets of umbrae are not equivalent; we will
then obtain invariants of two, three, or more sets of binary forms.
The symbolic expression of a covariant is equally simple, because
e that since A|, B(, C&~. are equal to o», b m . c m , ...
respectively, the linear forms a*, b* t <■,
p r operty, and we may write
<AB)'(AO'(BCy\..AfBjq.-
tad assert that the symbolic product
(ab)\ac) t {U) k ..JtlbY r ^
the invariant property. It is always an invariant or co-
variant appertaining to a number of different linear forms, and as
before it may vanish if two such linear forms be identical. In
general it will be simultaneous covariant of the different forma
«?,*?.#.- if
••+J+...+P-*.
•+•+...+»-■*
j+k+... +•-«.,
It will also be a covariant if the symbolic product be factorizable
into portions each of which satisfies these conditions. If the forms
be identical the sets of symbols are ultimately equated, and the form,
provided it does not vanish, is a covariant of the form a*.
The expression (ab)* properly appertains to a quartic; for a
quadratic it may also be wntten (ab)' (cd)*, and would denote the
square of the discriminant to a factor fires. For the quartic
(oo) 4 - (a A-flA)* -«1otrJ«f <M>1 +toW»!»J
-4a L ajfr;6|+o|6f -arf 4 -4«iOi+6aI -4aiC»+aeSi
-2(<m«-4aiai+3a!) l
one of the well-known invariants of the quartic.
For the cubic (obPaJbm is a covariant because each symbol a,
occurs three times: we can first of all find its real expression as a
simultaneous covariant of two cubics,and then, by supposing the
two cubics to merge into identity, find the expression of the quad-
ratic covariant, of the single cubic, commonly known as the Hessian.
By simple multiplication
*aJ>*b*4-a,alb1)x1
I*!)'*
+
+(«!
and transforming to the real form,
(o«S-2ai0i+«tft»)xi +(«i«-oA-«A+«A)xiXs
+(a t 6,-2oA+Oi6i)xJ,
the simultaneous covariant; and now, putting 6 -a, we obtain
twice the Hessian
(o«oi-tfJ)x}+(a*«-aiaOxix»+(aia,-fl!)xt.
It will be shown later that all invariants, single or simultaneous,
are expressible in terms of symbolic products. The degree of the
covariant in the coefficients is equal to the number of different
symbols a, b, c, ... that occur in the symbolic expression; the degree
in the variables (i*. the order of the covariant.) is p+» + r + ... and
the weight 1 of the coefficient of the leading term xf* rtT * " is equal
to »+./+*+.... It will be apparent that there are four numbers
associated with a covariant, viz. the orders of the quantic and
covariant, and the degree and weight of the leading coefficient;
calling these w, «, 8, w respectively we can see that they are not
independent integers, but that they are_ invariably connected by
a certain relation n8-2w-: For, if *(a»,...xi, Xt) be a covariant
of order « appertaining to a quantic of order *,
«X*»~t*> -(XM)^(i,...X»|,+Mi«i,Xrfi+MA);
we find that the left- and right-hand sides are of degrees n§ and
2w+« respectively in Xt, mi. Xt, mi. and thence mJ"2w+*.
Symbolic Identities. — For the purpose of manipulating symbolic
expressions it is necessary to be in possession of certain simple
identities which connect certain symbolic products. From the
three equations
tf.-fliXi+o»Xi, fti-Mi+hri, C-f|Xi+Ci**i
we find by eliminating x ( and x, the relation
o.(*e)+Mca)+c.(o*)-0 . . . (I.)
Introduce now new umbrae d\, a\ and recall that +rf«— d t are
cogredicnt with *i and x%. We may in any relation substitute f r
any pair of quantities any other cogredicnt pair so that writii.g
+«i, —d% for xi and X|. and noting that f then becomes (gd), tl.e
above-written identity becomes
(*0<ftO+(W)(ca)+(«f)(<i*)-0 . . . (II.)
Similarly in (I.), writing for c u c% the cogredicnt pair -y».+yi. wc
obtain
al>,-ajb.-(ab)(xy) (III.)
Again in (I.) transposing a, (6c) to the other side and squaring, wc
2(oi)(bc)oJb.-(bc)*o\+(*<)'b.- («*)»<» . (IV.)
and herein writing dt,— </i for x u x%,
2(ac)(bc)(od)(bd) - (fc)»(fld)' +(«)•(«)* -eWM 1 . (V.)
As an illustration multiply (IV.) throughout by •TVC* so
that each term may denote a covariant of an » w .
2(o<)(6c)a^ , C I «^ ,
-(*t) , «>r'<r+(«) , «r^r , -(a*) , ar*r , c
1 The weight of a term ££..£ is defined as being *,-r2*»+~
632
ALGEBRAIC FORMS
Each term on the right-hand side may be ahown by permutation
of «, b, c to be the symbolical representation of the samecovariant;
they are equivalent symbolic products, and we may accordingly
write
2(ao(k)«rc^-<a*) , «r , c**:.
a relation which shows that the form on the left is the product of
the two covariants
(ab) t a? , b? 9 *ndc!
The identities are, in particular, of service in reducing symbolic
products to standard forms. A symbolical expression may be always
so transformed that the power of any determinant factor (oft) is
even. For we may in any product interchange a and ft without
altering its signification; therefore
. (aw-?* - - W**.
where * becomes 4* by the interchange, and hence
(aA)™*-^)"-^*-*);
and identity (I.) will always result in transforming *i— *i so as to
make it divisible by (oft).
(ab)Mb*c m --{abXbc)* g c.
-J(a«c.|(«)».-(k)a.| -2(a*)«c;;
so that the covariant of the quadratic on the left b half the product
of the quadratic itself and its only invariant. To obtain the corre-
sponding theorem concerning the general form of even order we
multiply throughout by (ab) tm ~*c?~' and obtain
Paying attention merely to the determinant factors there is no
form with one factor since (as) vanishes identically. For two factors
the standard form is (oA)"; for three factors (ab)*(ac) ; for four factors
(ab)* and (o*)*(af)»; for five factors (ab)*(ac) and (ab)Hac)(de)' , for
six factors (o6)«. <aft)«<6c)*(ca)". and (oft)*(a/)*(</)». It will be a useful
exercise for the reader to interpret the corresponding covariants of
the general quantic, to show that some of them are simple powers
or products of other covariants of lower degrees and order.
The Polar Process.— The ** polar of a* with regard to y is
«T'«t.
i.e. m of the symbolic factors of the form are replaced by * others
in which new variables jn, yt replace the old variables *i. x* The
operation of taking the polar results in a symbolic product, and the
repetition of the process in regard to new cogredient sets of variables
results in symbolic forms. It is therefore an invariant process.
All the forms obtained are invariants in regard to linear trans-
formations, in accordance with the same scheme of substitutions,
of the several sets of variables.
An important associated operation is
*» _*»
**I^J»"■^xj3yl•
which, operating upon any polar, causes it to vanish. Moreover,
its operation upon any invariant form produces an invariant form.
Every symbolic product, involving several sets of cogredient
variables, can be exhibited as a sum of terms, each of which is a
polar multiplied by a product of powers of the determinant factors
(xy).<»).(y*)....
Transaction. — We have seen that (oft) is a simultaneous invariant
of the two different linear forms a M , b„ and we observe that {ab) is
equivalent to
dxi "SxZTtxt Sx\
where /-«#,*-&*.
If /«a7. 4-bl be any two binary forms, we generalise by forming
the function
This is called the ft* transvectant of / over *; it may be con-
veniently denoted by
™„. c <?•**
Observing that
<£.*:>»-(«*)*<»--**;-*
it is clear that the ft* transvectant b a simultaneous covariant of
the two forms.
It has been shown by Gordan that every symbolic product b
expressible as a sum of transvectants.
If mjfc.ii there arc «+l transvectants corresponding to the values
o, 1, a.... n of ft; if *»o we have the product of the two forms, and
for all values of * > n the transvectant* vanish. 1 n general we may
have any two forms
*?-(*i*i+*»*)'. *5-0tei+**«>«.
(♦r.*)*-(*)VrVr*.
a simultaneous covariant of the two forma. We cm.
+?* 1$ to be any two covariants appertaining to a system, ad
.the process of transvection supplies a means of proceeding fata
them to other covariants.
The two forms a?, b n „ or *f. ** may be identical; we then am
the ft* transvectant of a form over itself which may. or may an.
vanish identically; and, in the latter case, b a covariant of tie
single form. It is obvious that, when ft b uneven, the a* tx»
vectant of a form over itself does vanish. We have seen that tn»
vection b equivalent to the performance of partial difierrajJ
operations upon the two forms, but, practically, we may regard tie
process as merely substituting (aft)*, (4*)* for o& «£*£ reap*
tively in the symbolic product subjected to transvectaoau It a
essentblly an operation performed upon the product of -two farm.
If, then, we require the transvectantsof the two forma /+*f, *+*',
we take their product
/*+xr*+*/*'+x*/v.
and the ft* transvectant b simply obtained by operating upon eaca
term separately, vis.
(/. *)*+X(T. *)*+*(/. ♦?+MT, *V!
and, moreover, if we require to find the ft* transvectant of cat
linear system of forms over another we have merely to makiftj
the two systems, and take the ft* transvectant 0/ the arpaott
products.
The process of transvection b connected with the operations fi;
so also b the polar process, for since
if we take the ft* transvectant of /J over *J, regarding yt, jhsstte
variables,
or the ft* transvectant of the ft* polars, in regard to y. » eqal
to the ft* transvectant of the forms. Moreover, the ft* txansvectast
(o&/er**r* b derivable from the ft* polar of *T, via. aT**!
by substituting for yi, yt the cogredient quantities ft»,-fti. aad
multiplying by bf*
First and Second Transvectants. — A few words must be said aboet
the first two transvectants as they are of exceptional intoe*.
Since, if /-oT.*-ft:,
the first transvectant differs but by a numerical factor Irani tk
Jacobian or functional determinant, of the two forma. We ess
find an expression for the first transvectant of (/. *)* over aootkr
forme*.
For
o»+«)a.*)i-«/.*l+«/'r*
and
/.*;-/».*- (aA-o^o«rftr - wc/.*) 1 :
•••a.*) 1 -/r♦+sT5(«3')(/^)^
Put m-i for m, »-i for n, and multiply through by (ml); tha
ic/.*)ii - w«r^c+j^L^to)(/.*>\
Multiply by cf* and for ji, y, write c*-c,; then the right-htad
side becomes
(oft)(ftc)flrftr«^ i + 5 f== 3 «f(/^)^
of which the first term, writing cf-f, b
— ic*v j w , «;+(«ft«-(o,) , ai[
- -J \ * m Abc)X-*<r +^«ft) , a^ , Jr-ft:(~) , •^ , 4 r, J
- -j j <*.*) , ./+(A*)W-(/.« f .*} ;
«nd.if(/,*) l -ftr^,
la^f^-ftT^ft^r;
ALGEBRAIC FORMS
633
and this, on writing c% -t\ fat y\, yt, beco m es.
and thence it appears that the first transvectant of (/, #)» over *
is always expressible by means of forms of lower degree in the
coefficient* wherever each of the forms/, +, + is of higher degree than
the first in x u x*.
The second transvectant of a form over itself is called the Hessian
of the form. It is
unsymbolically it is a numerical multiple of the determinant
^|jjp (—£-)'• It is also the first transvectant of the differ-
ential coefficients of the form with regard to the variables, viz.
(j^-.-§^Y* For the quadratic it is the discriminant (fity and for
the cubic the quadratic covariant (oft)* o*b*
In general for a form in n variables the Hessian la
I ft*; S^xT"SxtZ
• I I
ft*! dxjxtdxm"* axt
-H«-«-H;
and there is a remarkable theorem which states that If H-o and
n-a, *, or 4 the original form can be exhibited as a form in I, 2, 3
variables respectively.
Th* Perm /+X#.— An important method for the formation of
covariants is connected with the form /+*+, where/ and + are of
the same order in the variables and A b an arbitrary constant.
If the invariants and covariants of this composite quantic be formed
we obtain functions of X such that the coefficients of the various
powers of X are simultaneous invariants off and +. In particular,
when 4 is a covariant of /, we obtain in this manner covariants of/.
The Partial Differential Equations.— \t will be shown later that
covariants may be studied by restricting attention to the leading
coefficient, via. that affecting x\ where « is the order of the covariant.
ways; the method here given is due to Gordan. Xi, X* *o» p% being
as usual the coefficients of substitution, let
be linear operators. Then if /, J be the original and transformed
forms of an invariant
_ . . . , . f J-CW.
w being the weight of the invariant.
Operation upon J results as follows:—
DaJ-wJjD^-O;
D^-OjD^-wJ.
The first and fourth of these indicate that (M* » a homogeneous
function of -X t , Xt, and of mi, th separately, and the second and third
arise from the fact that (X#i) is caused to vanish by both D^ and
Since J -F(A^i,..X....). whereX -a;- 1 **'
we find that the results are equivalent to
According to the well-known law for the changes of independent
variables. Now
so we obtain
D M A A -(sj-*)A JbH * l D |MI X A -AA A ;
equations which are valid when Xi, Xt, «i> m have arbitrary values*
and therefore when the values are such that J -/, Xi -i*.
«wt+«wt«st + --*
--•J.
the complete system of equations satisfied by an invariant. The
fourth shows that every term of the invariant is of the same weight.
Moreover, if we add the first to the fourth we obtain
where 9 is the degree of the invariant; this shows, as we have before
observed, that for an invariant
The second and third are those upon the solution of which the theory
of the invariant may be said to depend. An instantaneous deduction
from the relation v-|a* is that forms of uneven orders possess only
invariants of even degree in the coefficients. The two operators
have been much studied by Sylvester, Hammond, Hilbert and
Elliott (Elliott, Altebra of Qualities, ch. vi). An important refer-
ence b " The Differential Equations satisfied by Concomitants of
Quantics," by A. R. Forsyth, Proc. Lend. Math. Soc vol. xix.
The Eoectant Process. — If we have a symbolic product, which
contains the symbol a only in determinant factors such as (aft), we
may write *,.-*i for o v a v and thus obtain a product in which
(oft) is replaced by 6,, (at) by c m and so on. In particular, when the
product denotes an invariant we may transform each of the symbols
a, 6,...to x in succession, and take the sum of the resultant products;
we thus obtain a covariant which b called the first evectant of the
original invariant. The second evectant is obtained by similarly
operating upon all the symbob remaining which only occur in deter-
minant factors, and so on for the higher evectant*.
Ex. gr. From (oc)*(M)'(ad)(fe) we obtain
MKbc)cld 9 +(acWad)cJl
-(W)»(«0o;6.-(«)»(^)a.6:
-4(W)"(k)#. the first evectant;
and thence Ac\d\ the second evectant; in fact the two evectants
are to numerical factors pris, the cubic covariant Q, and the square
of the original cubic.
If 9 be the degree of an invariant/
and, herein transforming from a to x, we obtain the first evectant
Combinants.— An important class of invariants, of several binary
forms of the same order, wasdbcovered by Sylvester. Theinvariants
In question are invariants mid linear transformation of the forms
themselves as well as qud linear transformation of the variables.
If the forms be cj, 6»,cJ,.« the Aronhold process, given by the
operation I as between any two of the forms, causes such an in-
variant to vanish. Thus it has annihitators of the forms
and Gordan, in fact, takes the satisfaction of these conditions as
defining those invariants which Sylvester termed "combinants."
The existence of such forms seems to have been brought toSylvester's
notice by observation of the fact that the resultant of oj and b*
must be a factor of the resultant of XoJ-MJ and XbJ+m&Z
for a common factor of the first pair must be also a common factor
&34-
ALGEBRAIC FORMS
of the second pair; to that the condition for the existence of such
common factor mint be the tame in the two case*. A leading pro-
position itatea that, if an invariant of XnJ and jiftj be considered
as a form in the variables X and u, and an invariant of the latter be
taken, the result will be a combinant of a* and ft*. The idea can be
generalized so as to have regard to ternary and higher forms each
of the same order and of the same number of variables.
For further information see Gordan, Vorksun&n sifter InvarionUn-
tkeoru, Bd. ii. f 6 (Leipzig, 1887) ; £. B. Elliott, Algsbra o/Quantics,
Art. 264 (Oxford, 1895).
Associated Forms. — A system of forms, such that every form
appertaining to the binary form is expressible as a rational and
integral function of the members of the system, is difficult to obtain.
If, however, we specify that all forms are to be rational, but not
necessarily integral functions, a new system of forms arises which
is easily obtainable. A binary form of order n contains * independ-
ent constants, three of which by linear transformation can be given
determinate values; the remaining »— 3 coefficients, together with
the determinant of transformation, give us »— 2 parameters, and in
consequence one relation must exist be t ween any *— 1 invariants
of the form, and fixing upon »— a invariants every other invariant
is a rational function of its members. Similarly regarding xi, x» as
additional parameters, we see that every covanant is expressible as
a rational function of » fixed covariants. We can so determine these
n covariants that every other covanant is expressed in terms of them
by a fraction whose denominator is a power of the binary form.
First observe that with / < -<-*«-.../i~'iC*/i a "'i a r l *
/.-M+/»*i. wefind
(g&) ,(«/)»'-(»/)«'.
/■
and that thence every symbolic product is equal to a .rational
function of covariants in the form of a fraction whose denominator
is a power of/.. Making the substitution in any symbolic product
the only determinant factors that present themselves in the numera-
tor are of the form («/), (ft/), (cf),..Md every symbol a finally appears
in the form.
th has / as a factor, and may be written /. at; for observing that
*-/• ■/• «•; *i-o-/.Hi; where Mo-i, tt a -o,
assume that *. - {affc£* -/. u, -<£.«Jf , " l> .
Taking the first polar with regard to y
(»-*)(fl/) 4 «r^«»+*(«/)^r*(«*)(«-i)ftr'».
and, writing /■ and — /1 for y» and y%,
(«-*)(fl/) M a^ Ul +A(l•-l)(a*)(a/) fc - | (V)ar»*r ,
-A<»-2)/.(«/)*^-' l - , .
Moreover the second term on the left contains
if h be uneven, and
if * be even; in either case the factor
(«/)*.- (•/)■■- <«W.
and therefore
(»-*)*Vi+M./-*(» -VfWfr***
and ***< i» seen to be of the form/, mm*
We may write therefore
These forms, n in number, are called " associated forms " of /
(" Schwesterfonnen." M formes assodees ").
Every covanant is rationally expressible by means of the forms
/, tit. mi,— m* since, as we have seen «•- 1, sh-o. It is easy to find
the relations
••-((/./ovr)
••-Jc/./'w-Ik/jw.
and so on.
To exhibit any covanant as a function of «* Mi, *%,... take
«J-(«0*+*iyi)**nd transform it by the substitution
/iM*i*-twhe«/ l -o P sr\/i-«s«»'\
*»Ti-x,*-» /"/At/A 5
/.a. -a*f («/)», *
Now a covariant of a"-/ is obtained from the
of cj by writing therein xi, «*, tar y\, y», and, since y%, y» have bsa
linearly transformed to | and f, it is merely necessary to fora da
covariants in respect of the form («^4-»»f)",
the proper power of/, gives the covariant in question as a fsocooi
Of/, Mf-I, Mt, Mfc...tt».
Summary of iterate.— We will now give a short accosst of tat
results to which the foregoing processes lead. Of any form «£ tarn
exists a finite number of invariants and covariants, in terms of vfci£
all other covariants are rational and integral functions (ef . Gonial
Bd. ii. I 21). This finite number of forms is said to cxwriua
the complete system. Of two or more binary forms there are sk
complete systems containing a finite number of forms. The*
are also algebraic systems, as above mentioned, involving frsw
covariants which are such that all other covariants are ratiosaty
expressible in terms of them: but these smaller systems do sst
possess the same mathematical interest as those first m enti o n ed.
The Binary Quadratic. — The complete system consists of the fara
itself, aj, and the discriminant, which is the second transvecamd
the form upon itself, viz.: (/, /)* -(**)*; or, in real ootmoesa.
2(a # fl J -oJ). The first transvectant, iff) 1 " (oft) a^.vanishes idcay
cally. Calling the discriminate D, the solution of the qaadraor
a* -o is given by the formula
If the form aj be written as the product of its linear factors v»
the discriminant takes the form -£(ft) a . The vanishing of thJ
invariant is the condition for equal roots. The simultaneous sysan
of two quadratic forms a", a*, say/ and s\ consists of six forms, rit
the two quadratic forms /, 4; the two discriminants (/, / r )*.(*>-
and the first and second transvectant s of/ upon +, (/, +) 1 and (/, • '.
which may be written (oa)a,«« and (oa) a . These foi
ground forms are connected by the relation
-2|(/.*)M l -/ , (*.*0 , -2/*(/,*)«+4*(/J0 t .
If the covariant (/.+) 1 vanishes / and 4 are clearly jxoporriassL
and if the second transvectant of (/, +) 1 upon hsea vanisha, /
and d> possess a common linear factor; and the condition a bod
necessary and sufficient. In this case (f, ♦)* b a perfect squsn,
since its discriminant vanishes. If (/,+)' be not a perfect snout
/asds
and r«, s m be its linear factors, it is possible to express / ssa ♦
in the canonical forms X,(r.)«+X,(j,)«, m{r m }*+m(*»r respecth-rfy.
In fact, if / and * have these forms. It is easy to verify tfc«
(J, *) l -(\M)(rs)r,s,. The fundamental system connected vhJ: ■
quadratic forms consists of (i.) the n forms themselves ft. f*~U
(ii.) the (!) functional determinants (/i/*)», (Si.) the C* 1 ) i*
variants (/.. /*)», (iv.) the C) forms (ft, (/». /«))•. each such fora
remaining unaltered for any permutations of 1, *, s*. Between tbea
forms various relations exist (cf. Gordan, ( 134).
Tho Binary Cubic.— The complete system consists of
/-••.(/^-(••AA-^. (/.«)-(■*)■(«>.*•-«.
and
To prove that this system is complete we have to consid e r
(/.A)», (A^O 1 . (/.Q) 1 , (/.Q) f . </,Q)«. (A.Q)». (A,Q)« f
and each of these can be shown either to be zero or to be a ratkos)
integral function of/, A Q and R. These forms are connected by tk
relation
2Q«+A«+Ri , -0.
The discriminant of / is equal to the discriminant of A, sad s
therefore (A, A')*-R; if it vanishes both / and A have two roan
equal, A is a rational factor of / and Q is a perfect cube; the csbt
root being equal, to a numerical factor prts, to the square root d
A. The Hessian A -A* is such that (/, A)*-o, and if /bexpresribk
in the form X(*,)'+ji(g,)', that is as the sum of two perfect cube*
we find that A a must be equal to Pjtjot then
|X(^.)»+h(«.) , »M.) , -0l
Hence, if fa, q, be the linear factors of the Hessian Aj, the cot*
can be put into the form X(*,)'+»(f a )' and immediately soKd.
This method of solution fails when the discriminant R ranisVi
for then the Hessian has equal roots, as also the cubic /. TV
Hessian in that cast is a factor of /, and Q is the third pciwfcJ
ALGEBRAIC FORMS
635
the $near factor which occurs to the second power in /. If,
over, A vanishes identically / is a perfect cube.
The Binary Quartic.— The fundamental system consists of five
feen* ai-/; C/,/0' -(«*)■*# -4> (A/T-M - -* (A *)'-
(aA)oft- W(«*KsVi -l; CM) - - (aA) # - (a6) , (ftc) t («i) , -i. vix.
two invariant*, two quartics and a sextic. They are connected
by the relation
The discriminant, whose vanishing is the condition that / may
possess two equal roots, has the expression /-a*", it is nine
times the discriminant of the cubic resolvent k*-kk-h, and has
also the expression a(*. fO*. The quartic has four equal roots, that
is to say. Is a perfect fourth power, when the Hessian vanishes
identically; and conversely. This can be verified by equating to
aero the five coefficients of the Hessian (oft) 'a a b\. Gordan has also
shown that the vanishing of the Hessian of the binary »*■ is the
necessary and sufficient condition to ensure the form being a perfect
»* power. The vanishing of the invariants 1 and 3 is the necessary
and sufficient condition to ensure the quartic having three equal
moots. On the one hand, assuming the quartic to have the form
4*!*,. i>e find i-j-o, and on the other band, assuming *-j-o, we
find that the quartic must have the form fl^xj+^xjx, which proves
the proposition. The quartic win have two pairs of equal roots, that
is, wQl De a perfect square, if it and its Hessian merely differ by a
numerical factor. For it is easy to establish the formula ()«)^-
3A/J-2 (/J)' connecting the Hessian with the quartic and its first
and second polars; now s, a root of/, is also a root of A*, and con-
sequently the first polar /J "?>$ X "+J^i must also vanish for the
root a, and thence g£- and jk must also vanish for the same root;
which proves that « b a double root of/, and / therefore a perfect
square. When/-6*J*J it will be found that A- -/. The simplest
form to which the quartic is in general reducible b/-*j+8*mxjxj+**,
involving one parameter m; then A m \-2m(x\+x*)+2(l-Zm*)x t l x t t ;
«-2(i+3m") ;i-fl»(l -»)•;*- (l-r9»V) (a}-*} OrJ+xJayv The
sextic covariant i is seen to be factorixable into three quadratic
factors^-x^f-jrj+xj.f-xj-xj, which ■*• •** that the three
mutual second transvectants vanish identically; they are for this
reason termed conjugate quadratic factors. It is on a consideration
of these factors of I that Cayley bases his solution of the quartic
equation. For, since -^-A^jiPA-jK-JJ't he compares the
right-hand side with the cubic resolvent JH-jiW-l/V, of /-0,
and notices that they become identical on substituting A for A,
and -/for X; hence, if fti, h, «■ be the roots of the resolvent
and now, if all the roots of / be different, so also are those of the
resolvent, since the latter, and /. have practically the same dis-
criminant; consequently each of the three factors, of —2/*, must be
perfect squares and taking the square root
and it can be shown that *\ x. + are the three conjugate quadratic
factors of I above mentioned. We have A+*i/-s*. A+JfcJ-x*.
A+ktf-f, and Cayley shows that a root of the quartic can be
exp r ess ed in the determinant form
l.*i.*!
l,k r J
1.*,.*]
the quartic to a quadratic.
,- -. The new variables
7i-0 are the linear factors of +. If ♦-r.J«, the
yt"l normal form of a*, can be shown to be given by
+ is any one of the conj ugate q uadratic factoss of J, so that, in
determining r«, t* from V &+kif m O, *i is any root of the resolvent.
The transformation to the normal form, by the solution of a cubic
and a quadratic, therefore, supplies a solution of the quartic. If
(XjO is the modulus of the transformation by which a m is reduced to
the normal form, i becomes (X*)*», and /, (Xji)*/; hence a is
absolutely unaltered by transformation, and is termed the absolute
invariant. Since therefore a -§ w^l-w*) 1 we **** a ai ^ c w l uat * on
for determining *» as a function of the absolute invariapl
Remark.-
- « A
"3T
-Hermite has shown (CreOe, Bd. Ui.) that the substitution.
hy-i'
Tie Binary QuinUc.—Tht complete system consists of 23 forms, of
which the simplest are-/-oJ;the Hessian H -(/,/*)' - W«#;
the quadratic covariant i-(ftf)*»(ab) 4 a m b 9 ; and the nonic co-
variant T- (j,{f t r)V- C/.H) 1 - (oH)o^- (ah) •(«)«»;; the
remaining 19 are expressible as transvectants of compounds of
these four.
There are four invariants «,«■; (««, H)«; (/*, «»; (ft, i»)««
four linear forms (/•»)«; (/,«>)•; (t«,T)»; («»,T)»
three quadratic forms i; (ft, i*)«; (H, «•
three cubic forms (/,i)>; If, •"»)»; (t\T/
two quartic forms (H, i)»; (H, %*)*.
three quintic forms/: (/,«)*; («*,T)«
two sextic forms H ; (H,i) £
one septic form (1, T) 1
one nonk form T.
We will write the cubic covariant (/, A*-/, and then remark that
the result, (/,/)» - o, can be readily established. The form / is com-
pletely defined by the relation (/,/)» -o as no other covariant possesses
this property.
Certain convariants of the quintic involve the same determinant
factors as appeared in the system of the quartic; these are
/, H, t, T and i, and are of special importance. Further, it is
convenient to have before us two other quadratic covariants,
via. r-y, jW,;.j *-(*-)*>.; four other linear covariants, via.
• - - 009» ; $ m (•«)«• ; y - (*■>» : • - (r0)r B . Further, in the case
of invariants, we write A -(*,*")* and take three new forms
B-(«,r)*; C-(r | r , )«: R ■»{£?). Hermite expresses the quintic
in a forme-type in which the constants are invariants and the
variables linear covariants. If «, be the linear forms, above
defined, he raises the identity e,(«£) -«.(«« -0.(o«) to the fifth
(and in general to the power n) obtaining
and then expresses the coefficients, on the right, in terms of the
fundamental invariants. On this principle the covariant / is ex-
pressible in the form
RV-l»-f|B«»a+|ACAa»+|c(3AB-4Qa«
when a, o are the above defined linear forms.
Hence, solving the cubic,
RV-<«-*ie><*-«t«)<«-m,e)
wherein m t m% m t are invariants.
Sylvester showed that the quintic might, in general, be es
the sum of three fifth powers, vis. in the canonical form „ „„ r .,
+kt(q,)*+k m (r m )K Now, evidently, the third transvectant of /, ex-
i m tjjj, fa — -J.U *w Ci- m. - - : — j 1. *
Jf*£
r iorm, with the cubic P*q,r, is aero, and hence from
a property of the covariant/ we must have/-/>w.r,; showing that
the linear forms involved are the linear factors of j. We may there-
fore write
/-fc(*-«i«)HJWl-m*)»+*,(l-iii,a)»s
h. hi. To
and we have* merely to determine the constants k\,
determine them notice that R-(«*) and then
(/,•■)• --R»(* r +« l +* l ),
(/,. 4 «) f --5R B (sjA+flBA-HBg*i).
(/.•'O'- -lOR t (»> 1 +mJk I +s»Jk | ),
three equations for determining k\, kt. k*. This canonical form
depends upon / having three unequal linear factors. When C
vanishes / has the form j - p\q m , and (/,/)' - (ap)\aq)a\ - a Hence,
from the identity o,(pq)-p.(aq)-q,(ap), we obuin (/>?)*/- (aq) *p\
-5(ap)(aq)*p i m q a "(ap) t g* t , the required canonical form. Now, when
C-o, dearly (see ante) R 1 / - Pp where p-«+jBo; and Gordan then
proves the relation
6RV-B« , +5B«V-4AV.
which is Bring's form of quintic at which we can always arrive, by
linear transformation, whenever the invariant C vanishes.
Remark.— The invariant C is a numerical multiple of the resultant
of the covariants i and /.and if C-o,/> is the common factor of tand/.
The discriminant b the resultant of jfc and |£ and of degree
8 in the coefficients; since it is a rational and integral function
of the fundamental invariants it is expressible as a linear function
of A' and B; it is independent of C. and is therefore unaltered
when C vanishes; we may therefore take / in the canonical form
oR«/-Bi»+5B4V-4AV
636
ALGEBRAIC FORMS
The two equations
g-5B««+4B«V)-0.
|£-5(Ba«-4Ay)-0.
yield by elimination of 3 and p the discriminant
D-64B-A*.
The general equation of degree 5 cannot be solved algebraically,
but the roots can be expressed by means of elliptic modular functions.
For an algebraic solution the invariants must fulfil certain condi-
tions. When R -o, and neither of the expressions AC - B 1 , 2AB - xC
vanishes, the covariant a, is a linear factor of /: but, when R-AC
- B» - 2AB -3C -o, tt. also vanishes, and then / is the product of the
form j\ and of the Hessian of j\. When a, and the invariants B and
C all vanish, either A or j must vanish; in the former case i is a
perfect cube, its Hessian vanishing, and further / contains / as a
factor ; in the latter case, if p., <r. be the linear factors of »,/ can be
expressed as (p»)y-Cip!+e*J; if both A and j vanish t' also vanishes
identically, and so also does /. If, however, the condition be the
vanishing of i, /contains a linear factor to the fourth power.
The Binary Sextic.— The complete system consists of 26 forms,
of which the simplest are /-<; the Hessian H-(o*)*a#; the
quartic «-(o*)««>;; the covariants /-(ai)^; T-(a*)»(<o)«>#;
and the invariants A- (a*)*; B -(&)•. There are
5 invariants: (o.W. tf.m CUV. (/.«•. (Cf.0./ 4 ) i ;
6 of order 2: /, «,/)», (f,fr. <*«». <J,fo\ <(/.«). h.
5 of order 4: i, (>,/)«, (I,/). (J. /»)*. (&,0, hi
5 of order *f,p-1&a*A (/.0. <(/.0, 0*. (*.0;
3oforder8:H, (/,0, (H,0;
lof order 10: (H,»);
1 of order 12: T.
For a further discussion of the binary sextic see Gordan, Ice. cil.,
Clebsch, he. cil. The complete systems of the quintic and sextic
were first obtained by Gordan in 1868 (Journ. f. Math. lxix. 323*
354). August von Gall in 1880 obtained the complete system ofthe
binary octavic (Math. Ann. xvii. 31-52, 139-152* 456); and, in
1888, that of the binary septimic, which proved to be much more
complicated (Math. Ann. xxxi. 318-336). Single binary forms
of higher and finite order have not been studied with complete
success, but the system of the binary form of infinite order has been
completely determined by Sylvester, Cayley, MacMahon and Stroh,
each of whom contributed to the theory.
As regards simultaneous binary forms, the system of two quad-
ratics, and of any number of quadratics, is •alluded to above and
has long been known. The system of the quadratic and cubic, con-
sisting of 15 forms, and that of two cubics, consisting of 26 forms,
were obtained by Salmon and Clebsch ; that of the cubic and quartic
we owe to Sigmund Gundclfinger (Programm Stutizart, 1869, 1-43);
that of the quadratic and quintic to Winter (Programm Darmstadt,
1880); that of the quadratic and sextic to von Gall (Programm
Lemgo, 1873); that of two quartics to Gordan (Math. Ann. ii.
227-281, 1870); and to Eugenio Bertini (BatL Giorn. xiv. 1-14, 1876:
also Math. Ann. xi. 30-41, 1877). The system of four forms, of
which two are linear and two quadratic, has been investigated by
Perrin (S. M. F. Bull. xv. 45-*i. i**7).
Ternary and Hither Forms.— The ternary form qf order n is
represented symbolically by
(a,x, +Otx»+Oi*i)" -aj ;
and, as usual, b t c, a*,... are alternative symbols, so that
•:-*:-«:-•:--•
To form an invariant or covariant we have merely to form a
product of factors of two kinds, viz. determinant factors (abc),
(abd), (bee), etc...., and other factors a., b m , c„... in such manner,
that each of the symbols a, b, c,... occur* n times. Such a symbolic
product, if it does not vanish identically, denotes an invariant or
a covariant, according as factors a„ b„ c„... do not or do appear.
To obtain the real form we multiply out, and, in the result, sub-
stitute for the products of symbols the real coefficients which they
denote.
For example, take the ternary quadratic
(aiXi+otx-+a»xt)- -aj,
or in real form ax t +bx* t +cx\+2fxtxt+2gx&i+2kxvo*. We can
see that (abc)a,b*, is not a covariant, because it vanishes iden-
tically, the interchange of a and b changing its sign instead of
leaving it unchanged ; but (abc)* is an invariant. If a*, b\, c\ be
different forms we obtain, after development of the squared deter-
minant and conversion to the real form (employing single and
double dashes to distinguish the real coefficients of 0* and cj,
«(6'e'+fcV-2yr)+*(c'fl'+eV-2f'f')
+€(a , b'+a'b'-2h'h')+2J(t'h'+t'h'^ar-*'r)
a simultaneous invariant of the three forms, and 1
the dashes we obtain
6(ek+2/f*-«^/--*f--cA , ).
the expression in brackets being the -well-known invariant of t\,
the vanishing of which exp re ss es the condition that the form =*;
break up into two linear factors, or, geometrically, that the case
may represent two right lines. The complete system consists gf
the form itself and this invariant.
The ternary cubic has been investigated by Cayley, Aroabatd.
Hermite, Bnoschi and Gordan. The principal reference is ta
Gordan (Math. Ann. L 90-128, i860, and vi. 4367512. 1873). Tse
complete covariant ana contravanant system includes no fever
than 34 forms; from its complexity it is desirable to consider tie
cubic in a simple canonical form: that chosen by Cayley -ns
ax*+by*+ca*+6dxy* (Amer. J. Math. to. 1-16, 1881). Aaaba
form, associated with the theory of elliptic functions, has bees
considered by Dingeldey (Math. Ann. xxxu 157-176, 1888), vit
xy*-4s , +fix*y+g»t l l and also the special form oxs"— 4*/ of tb«
cuspidal cubic. An investigation, by non-symbolic methods, is
due to F. C. J. Mertens (Wien. Ber. xcv. 042-901. 1887). Hem
showed independently that the general ternary cubic can be reduced,
by linear transformation, to the form
**+v»+«»+6!ii*3*,
a form which involves 9 independent constants, as should be the
case; it must, however, be remarked that the counting of con-
stants is not a sure guide to the existence of a conjectured caikoaksf
form. Thus the ternary quartic is not, in general, expressibk as
a sum of five 4th powers as the counting of constants might have
... ... ._ ~ y fc ...
led one to expect, a theorem due to Sylvester. _
form shows at once that there cannot be more than two indepesd'
ent invariants; for if there were three we could, by Himtmfkw
of the modulus of transformation, obtain two functions of tat
coefficients equal to functions of m, and thus, by diminatioa of m,
obtain a relation between the coefficients, showing them not to
be independent, which is contrary to the hypothesis.
The simplest invariant is S>-(abc)(obd)(acd)(bcd) cf degree 4.
which for the canonical form of Hesse is m(l—m 9 ); ha vaaishng
indicates that the form is expressible as a sum of three cubes. The
Hessian is symbolically (abcfaJfgCt - H», and for the canonical fora
(l+2m')xys-fR*(;r>+v'+f a ). By the process of AronhoW we ess
form the invariant S for the cubic a*+XH*. and then the coemdest
of X is the second invariant T. Its symbolic ftpmsioii, to a
numerical factor prte, is
(Hte)(HM)(Hcrf)(feO.
and it is clearly of degree 6.
One more covariant is requisite to make an algebraically complete
set. This is of degree 8 in the coefficients, and degree 6 in the
variables, and, for the canonical form, has the fTprrmon
-9f^(x , +y , +s*)*-(2st+5m«+20m')(x«+y«+s»)xj«
-(15wH78m l -12iir')x*ys«+Cl+8m')*(yV+sV-T-*y).
Passing on to the ternary quartic we find that the number of
ground forms is apparently very great. Gordan (Math, Ann, jcvb.
217-233), limiting himself to a particular case of the form, has
determined 54 ground forms, and G. Maisano (BatL C y m. 198-237.
1 880 has determined all up to and including the 5th degree in the
coefficients.
The system of two ternary quadratics consists of 20 forms: a
has been investigated by Gordan (Clebsch-Lindemann's VcHesvnga
i. 288, also Math. Ann. xix. 529-552); Perrin (S. M. F. Bull, xt*L
1-80, 1890); Rosanes (Math. Ann. vi. 264); and Gerbaldi (Ara&h
(2), xvii. 161-196).
Ciamberlini has found a system of 127 forms appertaining to tkfte
ternary quadratics (BatL G. xxiv. 141-157).
A. R. Forsyth has discussed the algebraically complete sets of
ground forms of ternary and quaternary forms (see Amer. J. xii. 1-60,
115-160, and Comb. Phil. Trans, xiv. 409-466, 1889). He proves,
by means of the six linear partial differential equations satisfied
-e'fcO;
by the concomitants, that, if any concomitant be expam
powers of *i, x t , x». the point variables— and of n u an, ■•, the contra-
gradient line variables— it is completely determinate if its leadinf
coefficient be known. For the unipartite ternary quantk of order
n he finds that the fundamental system contains j(n+4)(»-i)
individuals. He successfully considers the systems of two sad
three simultaneous ternary quadratics. In Part HI. of the Memoir
he discusses bi-ternary quantics, and in particular those whirs
are lineo-linear, quadrato-linear, cubo-ltnear, quadrato-onadrstk.
cubo-cubic, and the system of two lineo-linear quantics, He show
that the system of the bi-ternary n*m u comprises
}(»+l)(»+2)(m+1)(mH2)-3 Individuals.
Bibliographical references to ternary forms are given by Forsyth
(AmerTJ. xii. p. 16) and by Cayley (Amer. J. to., 1881). Clebsch.
in 1872, in papers in Abh. d. K. A had. d. U. an GHtingwn. x. *«.
and Math. Ann. t. v., established the important result that ia the
case of a form in n variables, the concomitants of the form, or of
a system of such forms, involve in the aggregate «— I dsssei ef
ALGEBRAIC FORMS
637
variables. For instance, those of a ternary form involve two classes
which may be geometrically interpreted as point and line co-ordinates
in a plane; those of a quaternary form involve three classes which
may be geometrically interpreted as point, line and plane co-
ordinates in space.
IV. Enumerating Generating Functions
Professor Michael Roberts (Quart Math. J. iv.) was the first to
remark that the study of covariants may be reduced to the study
of their leading coefficients, and that from any relations connect-
ing the latter are immediately derivable the relations connecting
the former. It has been shown above that a covariant, in general,
satisfies four partial differential equations. Two of these show
that the leading coefficient of any covariant is an isobaric and homo-
geneous function of the coefficients of the form; the remaining two
may be regarded as operators which cause the vanishing of the
covariant. These may be written, for the binary »*,
* t d d A
or in the form
O-^CJ-O.O-x^-O;
where
0-»a,£+(»-l)«.J;+...+a.^ M .
Let a covariant of degree « in the variables,' and of degree 9 in the
coefficients (the weight of the leading coefficient bang « and
tsf— aw-«), be
Operating with 0— *»3j"we find Qd-0; that is to say, C» satisfies
one of the two partial differential equations satisfied by an in-
variant. It is for this reason called a seminvariant, and every
feeminvariant is the leading coefficient of a covariant. The whole
theory of invariants of a binary form depends upon the solutions
of the equation Q— o. Before discussing these it is best to trans-
form the binary form by substituting I \a u 2\a%, 3!ei,...»!a» l for
at, «t. *...«• respectively;
it then becomes
a#\+tia i x^ H +n(n-\)arf*x\+„.+n\a l fi,
and Q takes the simpler form
d . d r d ^ , d
One advantage we have obtained is that, if we now write «#-o,
and substitute 0*4 for a» when *>o, we obtain
d . d , d , , d
which is the form of Q for a binary (a- 1)*.
Hence by merely diminishing each suffix in a seminvariant by
unity, we obtain another seminvariant of the same degree, and of
weight w— 9, appertaining to the (n - 1)*. Also, if we increase each
suffix in a seminvariant, we obtain terms, free from a* of some
seminvariant of degree 9 and weight u>+0. Ex. gr. from the in-
variant a| —2Q\ai+204it of the quartic the diminishing process yields
a\-2<uh, the leading coefficient of the Hessian of the cubic, and the
increasing process leads to of— 2ay>4+2<iiat which only requires the
additional term— aOfff* to become a seminvariant of the sextic. A
more important advantage, springing from the new form of Q, arises
from the fact that if
x--fl,x-*-ra»x*^-...(-)-a.-(x-a,)(x-o,)...(x-a,),
the sums of powers Za», Za 1 , Z«\ ...Za" all satisfy the equation Q-o.
Hence, excluding a* we may, in partition notation, wnte down the
fundamental solutions of the equation, viz. —
t - # (2). (3), (4),...(«),
and say that with a* we have an algebraically complete system.
Every symmetric function denoted by partitions, not involving
the figure unity (say a non-unitary symmetric function), which
remains unchanged by any increase of n, is also a seminvariant,
and we may take if we please another fundamental system, viz.—
*.p), (3). (22), (32),...(2»") or W"*).
Observe that, if we subject any symmetric function (AiPtf»-) to
the diminishing process, it becomes a*** iPipt-..).
Next consider the solutions of Q-o which are of degree 9 and
weight w. The general term in a solution involves the product
ojV^aj*. .^wherein Z*»#, Zfi».-w;the number of such products
that may appear depends upon the number of partitions of w into
9 or fewer parts limited not to exceed n in magnitude. Let this
number be denoted by (v ; 9, «). In order to obtain the seroinvari-
ants we would write down the (»: 9, n) terms each associated with
a literal coefficient; if we now operate with Q we obtain a linear
function of («— 1; 0, n) products, for the vanishing of which the
literal coefficients must satisfy (w-lj 9, n) linear equations; hence
(v; 9, »)-(v-i; 9, n) of these coefficients may be assumed arbi-
trarily, and the number of linearly independent solutions of Q-o. of
the given degree and weight, is precisely (w; 9, n)-(u»-i; 0, n).
This theory is due to Cay ley ; its validity depends upon showing that
the (u»- i;$,n) linear equations satisfied by the literal coefficients
are independent ; this has only recently been established by E. B.
Elliott. These seminvariants are said to form an asyzygetic system.
It is shown in the article on Combinatorial Analysis that (10; 9, n)
is the coefficient of a*r in the ascending expansion of the fraction
1 — c. 1 — oa. 1 —os 1 . ...1 — 01**
Hence (w; #, »)-(»-!; 9, n) is given by the coefficient of a%"
in the fraction
1-s
1 —a. I —os. 1 —os". ...1 —os".'
the enumerating generating function of asyzygetic seminvariants.
We may, by a well-known theorem, write the result as a coefficient
of *» in the expansion of
l-s»«*,l-t»*...l -*»♦* .
1 -sM -»*... .1 -a* '
and since this expression is unaltered by the interchange of n and
9 we prove Hermite's Law of Reciprocity, which states that the
asyzygetic forms of degree 9 for the «*• are equinumerous with those
of degree n for the $**.
The degree of the covariant in the variables is <-fs9-2w; conse-
quently we are only concerned with positive terms in the develop-
ments and (v, 9, w)-(v-i ; 9, n) will be negative unless nS-awno.
It is convenient to enumerate the seminvariants of degree 9 and
order s-itf-aw by a generating function; so, in the first written
generating function for seminvarianu, write p f or a and at" for a;
we obtain
1-r*
1 -as*. 1 -as*- 1 . 1 -«•-«. ... 1 -a«-«*«. 1 -a*-***. 1 -or*
in which we have to take the coefficient of ah P * — , the expansion
being in ascending powers of a. As we have to do only with that
part of the expansion which involves positive powers of s, we must
try to isolate that portion, say A n (s). For « -2 we can prove that
the complete function may be written
where
^- l-asM-o* *
and this is the reduced generating function which tefts us, by Its
denominator factors, that the complete system of the quadratic
is composed of the form itself of degree order 1, 2 shown by a&, and
of the Hessian of degree order 2. o shown by a*.
Again, for the cubic, we can find
Aa(,) " l-os».l-oV.l-oV.l-o^
where the ground forms are indicated by the denominator factors,
viz.: these are the cubic itself of degree order 1, 3; the Hessian
of degree order 2, 2 ; the cubi-covanant G of degree order 3, 3,
and the quartic invariant of degree order 4, o. Further, the numera-
tor factor establishes that these are not all algebraically independent,
but are connected by a syzygy of degree order 6, 6,
Similarly for the quartic
A4W-
i-a»<.i-a».l-aV.i-aU-oV*
establishing the 5 ground forms and the syzygy which connects
them.
The process is not applicable with complete success to quinttc
and higher ordered binary forms. This arises from the circum-
stance that the simple syzygies between the ground forms are
not all independent, but are connected by second syzygies, and these
again by third syzygies, and so on; this introduces new difficulties
which have not been completely overcome. As regards invariants
a little further progress has been made by Cayley, who established
the two generating functions for the quintk
and for the sextic
l-q»
1 -a". 1 -o«. 1 -a«. 1 -o". 1 -o 11 '
Accounts of further attempts in this direction will be found in
Cayley 'b Memoirs on Quantici (Collected Papers), in the papers of
Sylvester and Franklin {Amer. J. i.-iv.), and in Elliott's Algebra
of Quantics, chap. viii.
Perfetuants.— Many difficulties, connected with binary fonrow
of finite order, disappear altogether when we come to consider sfsfV
6 3 8
ALGEBRAIC FORMS
form of infinite order. In this case the ground forms, called also
perpetuants, have been enumerated and actual representative
seminvariant forms established. Putting n equal to • , in a generat-
ing function obtained above, we find that the function, which
enumerates the asyzygetic seminvariants of degree 9 t is
l-*M-s*.l-s<...l-x*
that is to say, of the weight m, we have one form corresponding to
each non-unitary partition of w into the parts 2, 3, 4,...*. < The
extraordinary advantage of the transformation of Q to association
with non-unitary symmetric functions is now apparent; for we
may take, as representative forms, the symmetric functions which
are symbolically denoted by the partitions referred to. Ex. gr., of
degree 3 weight 8. we have the two forms (3*2), a(2 4 ). If we wish
merely to enumerate those whose partitions contain the figure 0,
and do not therefore contain eny power of a as a factor, we have
the generator
1 -s«.i-sU -»«... .1-s* '
If 0-2, every form is obviously a ground form or perpetuant,
and the series of forms is denoted by (2), (2 1 ), (2«) t ...(2***)....
Similarly, if 9 -3, every form (3*+*2 A ) is a perpetuant. For these
two cases the perpetuants are enumerated by
when 9 "A it is clear that no form, whose partition contains a
part 3, can be reduced; but every form, whose partition is com-
posed of the parts 4 and 2, is by elementary algebra reducible by
means of perpetuants of degree 2. These latter forms are enumer-
ated by |__^ .I-s« ; hencc tta generator of quartic perpetuants
must be
1-si.l-sU-s* l-/l--aCl-aM-iU-g' 8
and the general form of perpetuants is (4*+* 3"* 2»).
When 9±S, the reducible forms are connected by syzygies
which there is some difficulty in enumerating. Sylvester, Cayley
and MacMahon succeeded, by a laborious process, in establishing
the generators for 0-5, and 9 -6, viz. 1
1-sU-sTl-sU-s* ' l-sU-aM-sU-sU-sP *
but the true method of procedure is that of Stroh which we are
about to explain.
Method of Strok.— In the section on " Symmetric Functions,"
it was noted that Stroh considers
< < <
where •*+•»+... +»#-0 and ^-jj-...-^- a. symbolically, tol*
the fundamental form of seminvariant of degree 9 and weight «;
he observes that every form of this degree and weight is a linear
function of such symbolic expressions. We may write
(l+*it)(l +<*«...(1 +'*) -1 +Arf«+Arf«+...+A # |*.
If we expand the symbolic expression by the multinomial theorem,
and remember that any symbolic product «p«JVJ\.. retains the
same value, however the suffixes be permuted, we shall obtain a
sum of terms, such as w! ^ t £. a *L-2*7*?*V-..> which in real
form is v! a in «.^„...2*fV;X , ...;and, tf we express 2^7^...
in terms of At, A«,..., and arrange the whole as a linear function
of products of At. A* each coefficient will be a seminvariant,
and the aggregate of the coefficients will give us the complete
asyzygetk system of the given degree and weight.
When the proper degree • is < w a factor a, must be of course
understood.
Ex.gr.
2^(*»•l+*^a|+*l•rf•»4a4) , "^p*? +«ieilsvi
-o«(-2A,) +0 JA, - (oj -2o,)A, - (2)A,aoJ(2)A,.
In general the coefficient, of any product A^A^A,,,..., will have, as
coefficient, a seminvariant which, when expressed by partitions,
will have as leading partition (preceding in dictionary order all
others) the partition hnnri...)* Now the symbolic expression of
the seminvariant can be expanded by the binomial theorem so as
to be exhibited as a sum of products of seminvariants, of lower
degrees if *»«*+ •*«• +...-}-*•«• can be broken up into any two
portions
(•",«! +#*«i+... +**.) +(*»+l«*U +»»4««#«-h« +*•«•)•
such that *i +#>+... +ff.-0, for then
*•*!+»•♦« -h.. +*#■(>;
and each portion raised to any power denotes a seminvariant.
Stroh assumes that every reducible seminvariant can ta tks nj
be reduced. The existence of such a relation t as «t+«i+.-*«r»~
necessitates the vanishing of a certain function of the coeftoers
At, A»,...A«, and as a consequence one product of these cason
can be eliminated from the expanding form and no seuriswnmt
which appears as a coefficient to such a product (which by? k
the whole or only a part of the complete product, with wkka tk
seminvariant is associated), will be capable of reduction.
Ex. gr. for 0-2, (^i«i-f «**•)"; either 1 or #> will vamm I
Wi-Aa-o; but every term, in the deve l opment, is of the fan
(222...) A}" and therefore vanishes; so that none are left to owter:
reduction. Therefore every form of degree 2, except of count not
o.ne whose weight is zero, is a perpetuant. The generating fascia
For —3, (*iOff*i*t+*fai) l ';the condition u clearly «wr>*Ai><L
and since every seminvariant, of proper degree 3* u associated. *
coefficient, with a product containing A*, all suca Mn perpenass
The general form is (3*2* and the generating function i -n _,l
For 0-4, (*ioi+#t««+*i«i+*4a4)*; the condition is
<fl*t4ra*4(<ri+*i)(<ri-r-<r0(*i+*4)-A4As~0l
Hence every product of Ai, At, A«, A* which contains the pro-
duct A«A, disappears before reduction; this means that trey
seminvariant, whose partition contains the parts 4, 3. ba perpetuus.
The general form of perpetuant is (4*3 V) and thegeneratiagfaacas
i-sU-*sU~«*
In general when 9 is even and -2«>, the condition is
*- lV .^II(^+tT I )II(^+^+^...II( < r | + < r t +...+^-0;
and we can determine the lowest weight of a pe r pe tu ant; the deem
in the quantities <r is
2*+( , f)+( 1 S*)+...+|(*/) -2*" 1 -! -2~-l.
Again, if 9 is uneven -2++ 1, the condition is
Vr'J I ^.+»i) II >.+'.+'i)-"('i+',+--+'»)' <l:
and the degree, in the quantities <r, is
2*+i+(^)+(*r>+...+cv>
Hence the lowest weight of a perpetuant is 2*-*— 1, wheats
>2. The generating function is thus
s^-1
(1 -•*)<! -«*)u -*)... a -.*y
The actual form of a perpetuant of degree has been ikon by
MacMahon to be
(a«• +I 7rl-^ +1 Jr2•^ + *^3••-^^3•' 41 ^ , ^).
*#»**_i'—'S being given any zero or positive integer values.
Simultaneous Seminvariants of two Binary Forms. — Taknf tk?
two forms to be
a^+pa.xpx, +rt>-l)a,*p*;+... +«,**
every leading coefficient of a simultaneous covariant vanishes by
the operation of
Observe that we may employ the principle of suffix duwwiaoa
to obtain from any seminvariant one appertaining to a (^- , )"**
in each case remaining unaitertd
higher seminvariant, the degree in each case remaining unatterto.
Remark, too, that we are in association with non-unitary *y*
metric functions of two systems of quantities which will be desotd
a «7— I**, and that suffix augmentation produces a portioe of •
higher seminvariant, the degree in
rk, too, that we are in ass
: functions of two systems of quantities 1
by partitions in brackets ( )., ( )» respectively. Solving theegsat**
(Q.+r4)«-0,
by the ordinary theory of linear partial differential equation *
obtain p+q+l independent solutions, of which p appertain to
Q.K - 0, q to Q** - 0; the remaining one is J«* -a*&i — Ota* the k*di»f
coefficient of the Jacobian of the two forms. This constitutes as
algebraically complete system, and, in terms of its members."
seminvariants can be rationally expressed. A similar theorem W*
in the case of any number of binary forms, the mixed semuivariuu
being derived from the Jacobians of the several pairs of ft***
If the seminvariant be of degree 9, V in the coefficients, the for**
of orders p, q respectively, and the weight w, the degree of tse
covariant in the variables will be ft+qf-awt. aaeasy genenlsa*
tion of the theorem connected with a single form.
ALGEBRAIC FORMS
639
The general term of a seminvariant of degree 0, ¥ and weight
m will be
where Z*»9 , Z*.-f and Zsp,+Zso t -w,
11 11
The number of such terms U the number of partitions of w into
#+? parts, the part magnitudes, in the two portions, being limited
not to exceed p and q respectively. Denote this number by
tw;$, p* t f. q). The number of linearly independent seminvariants
of the given type will then be denoted by
(v;9.p'.f.i)-(*-i:i.P'.r.t);
and will be given by the coefficient of o*o*x» in
1 -a. 1 -oi.i -01V ... 1 -os^'l -b. 1 -fa. 1 -faP... 1 -tf
that is, by the coefficient of f in
1 -»»*i, | -v*. ... 1 _,»♦# 1 -,f»l. i -g^H. ... | -,«♦«'
t-fcl-A l-»*. ... t-a#. l-Al-1'....l-i* 1 '
which preserves its expression when and p and ? and q are separ-
ately or simultaneously interchanged.
Taking the first generating function, and writing a**, bx •, ^ for
a. b and s respectively, we obtain the coefficient of
a •&*»*>*.. that is of <Wr, in
l-r-t ,
l-«».l-«*-i...l-«r^t.l-«->.l-k4.1-kt-l... l-J«-r»t.i_i I -t«
the unreduced generating function which enumerates the covenants
of degrees 9, f in the coefficients and order < in the variables. Thus,
for two linear forms, P—q m 1, we find
1-oz.l-of-*. 1-fa.i-fa-l*
the positive part of which is
1 -os. 1- fa. l-oo ;
establishing the ground forms of degrees-order (l, o; 1), (o, t; 1),
(1, 1 ; o), via:— the linear forms themselves and their jacobian J«».
Similarly, for a linear and a quadratic, p— 1, j -a, and the reduced
form is found to be
i -oa. 1 -fa". 1 -ofa. i -*•. i -o»o'
where the denominator factors indicate the forms themselves,
their Jacobian, the invariant of the quadratic and their tesultant;
connected, as shown by the numerator, by a sycygy of degrees-
order (a, a; a).
The complete theory of the perpetuants appertaining to two
or more forms of infinite order has not yet been established. For
two forms the seminvariants of degrees i, 1 are enumerated by
—2-, and the only one which is reducible is aj> t of weight aero;
hence the perpetuantsof degrees i, I are enumerated by
r^i- 1 -^
and the aeries is evidently
«A- fl A+«A
a <A-«A+ fl A -«•*.,
one for each of the weights 1, a. 3. ..ad* infin.
For the degrees 1, a, the asyzygetic forms are enumerated by
1 '
1-,. i-J> and tne actual forms for the first three weights are
oft*
<«A -*i*A,
W.-«A+^X
o,(6»-a6 t *,) t
< fl A-°A+ fl A- fl A>*..
«t(»A-3ftM-a,(«;-a6A):
amongst these forms are included all the asyzygetic forms of degrees
1. 1. multiplied by o*. and also all the perpetuants of the second
binary form multiplied by o»; hence we have to subtract from the
generating function j^ and j-^p, and obtain the generating
function of perpetuants of degrees 1, a.
l-i. l-i*-l^i-r=?''i-s , i-«*'
The first perpetuant is the last seminvariant written, viz.:—
«.<*A-3*A)-<M*;-2*A).
or. in partition notation,
(tf21)»-(l).(2)»;
and. in this form, it is at once seen to satisfy the partial differential
equation. It is important to notice that the expression
(»).(* v l')s-(#lM*'l'- , ).+(*l , M« , l'- , )»-... *(*1«).(T)»
denotes a seminvariant. if 9. 9, be neither of them unity, for, after
operation, the terras destroy one another in pairs: when #-o, (*)•
must be taken to denote a% and so for a*. In general it is a semin-
variant of degrees 9, f, and weight 0+f+j; to this there is an
exception, viz., when 0-o, or when ¥ -o, the corresponding partial
degrees are t and 1. When ••s v -o, we have the general per-
petuant of degrees 1, t. There is a still more general form of
seminvariant; we may have instead of #, •* any collections of non-
unitary integers not exceeding f, ¥ in magnitude respectively,
Ex.gr,
-(l2*«3 A ».y«).(l- , 2«3''»..^ r )»
(-)'d , aH3 A «..y«).cyv..^ # o».
is a seminvariant; and since these forms are clearly enumerated
* 1
r-t, 1 -a ... 1 -a*. i -««. 1 -,*. ... 1 -a* '
an expression which also enumerates the asyzygetic seminvariants.
we may regard the form, written, as denoting the general form of
asyzygetic seminvariant; a very important conclusion. For the
case in hand, from the simplest perpetuant of degrees I, a, we
derive the perpetuants of weight w,
ao(2l-^)»-o,(21-«) » +o,(21-«)» -... *a^(2)»,
o^2»lM»-o»(2«l-«)»+fl,(2»l--»)»-...-»fl^ < (2«)»,
o t (2U-"»)»-fl l <2'l^)*+fl,<2«l--»)* *a»*(2').,
of j(w-a) or of £(w-i) forms according as w is even or
uneven. Their number for any weight w is the number of ways
of composing w-t with the parts l, a, and thus the generating
function is verified. We cannot, by this method, easily discuss
the perpetuants of degrees a, a, because a syzygy presents itself
as early aa weight a. It is better now to proceed by the method of
Stroh.
We have the symbolic expression of a seminvariant.
J](»»«i+ VS+ ... +»>e # +r J 1 +r | A+ ... +>*•»)•
where
.; .; « *
j 1 -j 1 -...-a i ; J - 1 -j,-...-6.;
and «' 1 +» f +...+e#+r 1 +r,+...+r i -a
Proceeding as we did in the case of the single binary form we
find that for a given total degree 9+8*. the condition which expresses
reducibility is of total degree a* 4 *'" 1 — 1 in the coefficients 9 and r ;
combining this with the Knowledge of the generating function of
asyzygetic forms of degrees 9. 9*. we find that the perpetuants of
these degrees are enumerated by
1 ,,. 1 -,1, 1 _,1. ... 1 .,*. i -,1. 1 .,1. ... 1 _,#"
and this is true for 9+f - a as well as for other values of 0+? (com-
pare the case of the single binary form).
Observe that, if there be more than two binary forms, the
weight of the simplest perpetuant of degrees 9. ?, #*,... is
a #*l , «-#*+..-i — I. as C an be seen by reasoning of a similar kind.
To obtain information concerning the actual forms of the per-
petuants, write
(1 +*,x)(l +s*r)...(l +,,x) - 1 +A 1 x+A l x*+...+A # x#
(1 +r,x)(l +r,x)...(l +r # or) - 1 +B,x+B»x»+...+B # '**'
where A1 + B1-O.
For the case #« 1, f m i, the condition is
»iri-AjBi-0,
which since A1+B1-0. is really a condition of weight unity. For
to- 1 the form is Aia, + B,*,. which we may write a^i-aA*
a«(i )»-(«)•*•; the remaining perpetuants, enumerated by -—,
have been set forth above.
For the case #-i. a* -a. the condition is »rriri-A|Bt»0, and
the simplest perpetuant. derived directly from the product
AiB a . is (1 }.(?)» -(2 1 )»; the remainder of those enumerated by
I _ fc t | ^ t t may be represented by the form
<1^ I ).<2*»* , )»-(1 A «).(2 I, « M 1)»+.. «(2^* , 1V1) |;
X ( and nt each assuming all integer (including zero) values. For
the case a-f-a. the condition is
e|ffjT|ri(»i + »i)(«r, + r 1 )(», + r,)--A!B,B,-A,A,BJ-0.
To represent the simplest perpetuant. of weight 7. we may take
as base either AgB ( B| or AiAsBJ. and since A, + B ( -o the former is
equivalent to AiAgBiand the latter to AiB.BJ; so that we have.
1
640
ALGEBRAIC FORMS
gives (*% (ai)»-
- two merely differ
iW nd - th "
due to AiAsB! merely differs from it in sign. We will choose from
the forms in such manner that the product of letters A is either a
power of Ai, or does not contain Ai; this rule leaves us with
AiBiBtand A|B|B|; of these forms we will choose that one which
in letters B is earliest in ascending dictionary order; this is
AgBiBt, and our earliest perpetuant is
<2»).(21)»-(2n).(2) fc ,
and thence the general form enumerated by the generating function
s* U
(i-s)d-s»;»
^(aVV** 1 ).^* 1 )!.
For the case tf-i, f- 3, the condition is
ViVsK+'i)('i+'«)K+'i)- A i B HASB I B t -0.
By the rules adopted we take A?B,B,, which gives
(l»).(32)»-(l).(321)»+a ( (321%
the simplest perpetuant of weight 7; and thence the general form
enumerated by the generating function
l-U-sU-s' '-
viz:- (i*i*«).(3^3« 41 ) fc -.«-'flb(3^2^ +1 l*t*«)» f
For the case 0-a, f-3, the condition is
X(r 1 +r,)(r l +r | )(r | +r 1 )-a
The calculation results in
-ASB,B,B«+2AlB,B!BJ-AiB,BIB?+ASBSB,-2AJBJB,B 1
-AfBJB > BHA|B8BiB,+A|BlB!B:+AjBSB!-2A,B}B,BJ
+A.BJB.-0.
By the rules we select the product AJBiBtBf , giving the simplest
perpetuant of weight 15, viz: —
(2«).(321»)»-(2«l).(321)»+(2n«).(32) fc ;
and thence the general form
(2 A « + *).(3»» 4I 2« 4I l^ 4 -...-*(2^1' 1 » 4t )o(3' l »* , 2^ +1 )s,
due to the generating function
<l-s}(l-*W-^
For the case •■I, f-4, the condition is
ViVj r 4^i+ r i)(*i+ r t)( <r i+ T »)< <r i+ T «) II ( r + T «> -° :
the calculation gives
A,B,(AJB,-rA,B,+Bi)(-Bl-A,B,B,-AlB,)-0.
Selecting the product Aff^BjBg, we find the simplest perpetuant
(l«).(432>H-(P).(432«l) t +(l«).(432«P)»-(l).(432«l»)»
+o.(432n«)».
and thence the general form
( 1 V4 )-(4 ^*i3-i*i 2 ii + «) > -...*ap(4''« 4| 3^ , 2^* 2 l A » +4 )».
due to the generating function
l-i,i-Al-i».i-i»
The series may be continued, but the calculations soon become
very laborious.
V. Restricted Substitutions
We may regard the factors of a binary n* equated to aero as
denoting n straight lines through the origin, the co-ordinates being
Cartesian and the axes inclined at any angle. Taking the variables
to be x, y and effecting the linear transformation
x-X,X+m,Y.
y-*tX+*Y,
so that
y _ *+»$ ¥ u *$-\
* X,+Mlj[ X Ml-Mij'
it is seen that the two lines, on which lie (x. y). (X. Y), have a
definite projective correspondence. The linear transformation
replaces points on lines through the origin by corresponding points
on projectivcly corresponding lines through the origin; it therefore
replaces a pencil of lines by another pencil, which corresponds pro-
jectivcly, and harmonic and other properties of pencils which are
unaltered by linear transformation we may expect to find indicated
in the invariant system. Or, instead of looking upon a linear sub-
stitution as replacing a pencil of lines by a projectivcly correspond-
ing pencil retaining the same axes of co-ordinates, we may look upon
the substitution as changing the axes of co-ordinates retaining the
same pencil. Then a binary n M , equated to aero, represents *
As new axes of co-ordinates we may take any other pair of k*w
through the origin, and for the X, Y corresponding to x, y any new
constant multiples of the sines of the angles which the line snata
with the new axes. The substitution for x, y in terms of X. Y is tat
most general linear substitution in virtue of the four degrees d
arbitrariness introduced, viz. two by the choice of axes, two U
the choice of multiples. If now the »*• denote a given pewrO d
lines, an invariant is the criterion of the pencil pnrrwiag scar
particular property which is independent alike of the axes asd d
the multiples, and a covariant expresses that the pencil of Bus
which it denotes is a fixed pencil whatever be the axes or the
multiples.
Besides the invariants and covariants, hitherto studied, there
are others which appertain to particular cases of the general lixesr
substitution. Thus what have been called seminvanaats are occ
all of them invariants for the general substitution, but are invariaati
for the particular substitution
*l-X,{|+Mi*l.
*- Mtf>
Again, in plane geome tr y, the most general. equations of substire-
tion which change from old axes inclined at m to new axes tadtacd
at «»'-0— a, and inclined at angles a, to the old axis of x. without
change of origin, are
sin(at — a) v , si
*" sin « A+ ~
ua m *
sin •.. . sin fl y
7 »m~M A "I'iinL**
a transformation of modulus
sin «'
sin w'
The theory of invariants originated in the discussion, by Gec*f*
Boole, of this system so important in geometry. Of the quadratic
ox«+26xy+c>»,
he discovered the two invariants
oc-6*. a— 2ecosw+c,
and it may be verified that, if the transformed of the quadratic be
AX»+2BXY+CY»,
A-2Bcos«'+0 (S n r ^ , ( c -2ftcos«.+c).
The fundamental fact that he discovered was the invariaacc of
x* +2 cos w xy+y*. viz. —
x»+a cos « xy+/-X'+2cos n'XY+Y*.
from which it appears that the Boolian invariants of mx*+2kry-f
are nothing more than the full invariants of the
quadratics
cx*+2o*y +y», x»+2 cos «xy+y»,
the word invariant including here covariant. In general the I
system, of the general n", is coincident with the simultaneous systea
of the n" and the quadratic x'+a cos * xy+y*.
Orthogonal System. — In particular, if we consider the traasfornu-
tion from one pair of rectangular axes to another pair of rect-
angular axes we obtain an orthogonal system which we will no*
briefly inquire into. We have cos «*' — cos » ■ o and the substitvuos
xi -cos »X I —sin #X t
xj - sin 0X| +cos ax»,
with modulus unity. This is called the direct orthogonal subsm*-
tion. because the sense of rotation from the axis of JCi to the sxa
of Xi is the same as that from that of Xi to that of x*. If the stuns
of rotation be opposite we have the skew orthogonal substitution
x\ «cos'Xi +sin0Xi (
Xt - sin 8X1 -cos»X,,
of modulus* 1. In both cases jj and 3- are cogredieat with n
and *»; for, in the case of direct substitution,
d d d
3x- 1 - c «•i%- ,In •«% ,
* • -d ..._-d .
^-.sin^+coss^.
and for skew substitution
«4rco.^+«°« i nb
^-rin^-cos*^
Hence, in both cases, contragrediency and cogrediency are »
and contravariants are included in covariants.
ALGECIRAS
641
Consider the binary »". (toi +**))* -a?, and the direct sub-
stitution
where X*+*»-l; X, * replacing cot •. tin • respectively. In the
notation
o*-aixi+o»*i,
obeervethat
«•■**! +4,
Suppose that
a, -6, -<,-...
is transformed into
Ax-Bx-Cx-..
then of course (AB)-(aft) the fundamental fact which appertains
to the theory of the general linear substitution; now here we have
additional and equally fundamental facts; for since
A, - Xtf, +04, At - -vat +X*!,
AA-A?+A!-(X«+^)(af+o!)«o.;
A B - A,B, + A,B,-fX»+M , )(fli6i-hii*i) -«»;
(XA)-X,A,-X,A,-(Xx,+M*i)(-#«li+Xfl.)
-(-MX|+Xx,)(Aa,+i*0 «(tf +J*)(«i*-*sfti) -(xa) ;
showing that, in the present theory, a., a*, and (xa) possess the
i nvariant property. Since x? +xf - x, we have six types of symbolic
factors which may be used to form invariants and covariants, via. —
(ab), <u, a», (xo), a„ *..
The general form of covariant is therefore
xM*(*»)*(«)^»^-»?
-(AB)' 1 (AC)*«(BC)^..AiBSci , ...ASAJB' c , •.•
x (xa)*»(xb)*»(xc)*»...a' x bSc2...x;.
If this be of order « and appertain to an »*•
Z*+Z/+2m-«,
*i+*f+...+2i,+ji+it+...+*i+/.-»,
*i+*i+... +2s'a+ii +/s+.« +*t+*s - ».
Ai+*>+... +2ii+j,+/,+...+* l +/ l -ii;
viz., the symbols a, b t £,... must each occur n times. It may denote
a simultaneous orthogonal invariant of forms of orders i»i, n%, *»,...;
the symbols must then present theniselves n t . Us, ft*. .times re*
spectively. The number of different symbols a, b, c,...denotes the
degree # of the covariant in the coefficients. The coefficients of
the covariants are homogeneous, but not in general isobaric functions,
of the coefficients of the original form or forms. Of the above
general form of covariant there are important transformations due
to the symbolic identities. —
W-aA-oi; (xaV-aA-oJ;
as a consequence any even power of a determinant factor may be
expressed in terms of the other symbolic factors, and any uneven
power may be expressed as the product of its first power and a
function of the other symbolic factors. Hence in the above general
form of covariant we may suppose the exponents
Ait At, hi,...k\, k», *i,...
if the determinant factors to be, each of them, either zero or unity.
Or, if we please, we may leave the determinant factors untouched
and consider the exponents j u it, jt,-.Ji, k, t>,... to be, each of them,
either zero or unity. Or, lastly, we may leave the exponents k, k,j, /,
untouched and consider the product
to be reduced either to the form i\ where g is a symbol of the series
a, b, c... or to a power of x K . To assist us in handling the symbolic
products we have not only the identity
L , (n*)*.+(6c)o.+(a»)6.-0,
but also
(ab)x.+(bx)a.+mb m -0,
(a*)a.+(6c)a.+(a»)«»-0,
and many others which may be derived from these in the manner
which will be familiar to students of the works of Aronhold, Clebsch
and Gordan. Previous to continuing the general discussion it is
useful to have before us the orthogonal invariants and covariants
of the binary linear and quadratic forma.
For the linear forms <hx t +o~|Xi -a, - fr a there are four fundamental
forms
G-) «#-»aVfi4-«iXi of degree-order (1,1),
<li.)x.-*J+xi _ „ (0,2),
(Hi.)(xa)-aIx,-oVft m (!• 1)#
(iv.)a»-a«+fl* „ (2,0),
(ill) and (iv.) being the linear covariant and the quadrinvariant
respectively. Every other concomitant is a rational integral function
of these four forms. The linear covariant. obviously the Jacobian
of a. and x. is the line perpendicular to a., and the vanishing of the
quadrinvariant a* is the condition that a, passes through one of the
circular points at infinity. In general anv pencil of lines, connected
with the line a. by descriptive or metrical properties, has for its
equation a rational integral function of the four forms equated to
zero.
For the quadratic a>5+2o l xix t +otx5. we have
CO «i-«i*i+2wi+Oixi
(ii.) x.-xS+xf.
<iii.) (o*)«j-2(oe3 l -a!),
(iv.)a.-a,+at,
(v.) {xa)a» - aixj + (fit -«t)xix« -aixf.
This is the fundamental system; we may, if we choose, replace
(ab)* by fll-aJ+2aJ+S} since the identity a»&»-al-(a*)- shows the
syzygetic relation
&+%'-(»l+&i+«l) -2<o£-o?).
There is no linear covariant, since It is impossible to form a
symbolic product which will contain x once and at the same time
appertain to a quadratic (v.) is the Jacobian; geometrically it
denotes the bisectors of the angles between the lines a* , or, as we
may say, the common harmonic conjugates of the lines o* and the
lines x«. The linear invariant a. is such that, when equated to zero,
it determines the lines a* m as harmonically conjugate to the lines x.;
or. in other words, it is the condition that oj may denote lines at
right angles.
References.— Cayley. ,l Memoirs on Qiwntka." in the OfUaM
Mathematical Paben (Cambridge* ttoA}; Salmon. Litsoni Intra-
d uttety to the Modern Higher A htbt a (Dublin, iB*s); E, B. Elliott,
At&bra of Quanticj (Oxford, 1*95): F* Brioachf, Ttoria dti Cowri-
vnti I Rome. i&U\)\ W. Fiedler. Pit HJtmente der neveren Gtvmtttu
und dtr Aitebw der bindren Formtn iLeiptJe, iS6:J; A. Clebsch,
Thtorit dtr bin&rtn Ahebraiichirt Fvrmcn (Leipzig, 1871)5 Var-
leiunfjm ubtt Gtemttrit (Leiaiig, 1875k FaA tjv Bruno h Thiorie its
formes bixairts (Turin* 1876); P. Gordan T Vorleiunten liter ia-
wianttnlHuri*, BtL i. "Determinant en" (Ldprig t 1&8*) ; Ed. fit,
" Binare Formen H (Lripiig, JSS?): C. Rubin I I'eona deUe forme 1*
*€n*mt*, e ipe£ialmenUdttU aiuarie (Leue, iS66h E. Study, Mtthedtn
imt TJitaritdtr Trmbrcn Fsr^fn (Lcipiig. iftSg): Lie. Thtorie dtr
Traniformciionsirupptn (Leipzig, JS&S-1S90) ; Frant Meyer t Berithl
ibrr deri f^ntsdriteen Stand dtr Jm/arianttntheQrit; Jakietbttiikt
dtr Drutsthtn Afatktmatiktr^Vtreinifuiti, Bd. L (Bertin H tfi^Ji;
Eittykk'pddit dtr mathemniiukfr* Wiiwnxkafttn, Bd. i-, Heft 3, i,
by Hcirrich Bufkhardt and Tmnt Meyer (Leipzig, 1099) t ]L H,
Qfaa and A. Ycung, The Algtitra of invariants {Cambridge,
I9A3). (F ■ A, M.)
ALGECIRAS, or Alceziias, a seaport of southern Spain in
the province of Cadiz, 6 m. VV. of Gibraltar, on the opposite
side of the Bay of Algedras. Pop. (1000) 13,30a. Algedrai
stands at the head of a railway from Granada, but its only
means of access to Gibraltar is by water. Its name, which
signifies in Arabic the island, is derived from a small islet on
one side of the harbour. It is supplied with water by means
of a beautiful aqueduct The fine winter climate of Algedras
attracts many invalid visitors, on whom the town largely
depends for its prosperity. The harbour is bad, but at the
beginning of the 20th century it became important as a fishing-
station. Whiting, soles, bream, bass and other fish are caught
in great quantities by the Algedras stcam-trawlcrs, which visit
the Moroccan coast, as well as Spanish and neutral waters.
There is also some trade in farm produce and building materials
which supplies a fleet of small coasters with cargo.
Algedras was perhaps the Partus Albus of the Romans, but
it was probably refounded in 713 by the Moors, who retained
possession of it until 1344. It was then taken by Alphonso XI.
of Castile after a celebrated siege of twenty months, which
attracted crusaders from all parts of Europe; among them
being the English earl of Derby, grandson of Edward III. It is
said that during this siege gunpowder was first used by the Moors
in the wars of Europe. The Moorish city was destroyed by
Alphonso; it was first reoccupicd by Spanish colonists from
Gibraltar in 1704; and the modern town was erected in 1760
by King Charles III. During the siege of Gibraltar in 1780-
178a, Algedras was the station of the Spanish fleet and floating
batteries. On the 6th of July 1801 the English admiral Sir
James Saumarcz attacked a Franco-Spanish fleet off Algeciras,
6+2
ALGER OF LIEGE— ALGERIA
and sustained a reverse; but on the 12th be again attacked tbe
enemy, whose fleet was double his own strength, and inflicted
on them a complete defeat. The important international con-
ference on Moroccan affairs, which resulted in an agreement
between France and Germany, was held at Algedras from the
16th of January to the 7th of April 1006. (See Morocco).
ALGER OP UxtGE (d c. 1131), known also as Alger or
Cluny and Alcerus Magistee, a learned French priest who
lived in the first half of the x 2th century. He was first a deacon
of the church of St Bartholomewat Liege, his native town, and was
then appointed (c. ixoo) to the cathedral church of St Lambert.
He declined many offers from German bishops and finally retired
to the monastery of Cluny, where he died about 1131 at a great
age and leaving a good reputation for piety and intelligence.
His History of the Church of Liige, and many of bis other works,
are lost. The most important of those still extant are: 1. De
Misericordia et Justitia, a collection of biblical and patristic
extracts with a commentary (an important work for the history
of church law and discipline), which is to be found in the Anecdola
of Martene, vol v. 2. De Sacramentis Corporis et Sanguinis
Domini\ a treatise, in three books, against the Berengarian
heresy, highly commended by Peter of Cluny and Erasmus.
3. De Gratia et Libero Arbitrio; given in B. Pez's Anecdota,
vol. iv. 4/ De Sacrificio Missae; given in the CoUeclio Scriptor.
Vet. of Angelo Mai, vol ix. p. 371.
See Migne, Patrol Ser. Lai. vol. clxxx. pp. 739-972: Herzog-
Hauck, Realencyk. fir prof. Thiol., art. by S. M. Deutsch.
ALGER, RUSSELL ALEXANDER (1 836-1007), American
soldier and politician, was born in Lafayette township, Medina
county, Ohio, on the 27th of February 1836. Left an orphan
at an early age, he worked on a farm to pay his expenses at
Richfield (Ohio) Academy, was a schoolmaster for two winters,
and, having studied law in the meantime, was admitted to the
bar in 1859. He began practice at Cleveland, Ohio, but early in
i860 he removed to Michigan, where he abandoned his profes-
sion and engaged in the lumber business. Enlisting in a Michigan
cavalry regiment in September i86x, he rose from captain to
colonel, distinguished himself in the Gettysburg campaign and
under Sheridan in the Shenandoah Valley, and in 1864 and
1865 respectively received the brevets of brigadier-general and
major-general of volunteers. After the war he invested exten-
sively in pine lands in Michigan, and accumulated a large
fortune in the lumber business. In 1884 he was elected governor
of Michigan on the Republican ticket, serving from 1885 to
1887. In 1889-1800 he was commander-in-chief of the Grand
Army of the Republic. From 1897 to 1809 he was secretary of
war in President McKinley's cabinet. His administration of
the war department during the Spanish-American War was
severely criticized for extravagance in army contracts, for
unpreparedness, and for general inefficiency, charges which he
answered in his The Spanish- American War (1901). The extent
of his personal responsibility is at least uncertain. In 1902 he
was appointed by the governor of Michigan, and in 1903 was
elected by the state legislature, as United States senator to
complete the unexpired term of James McMillan (1838-1902).
He died at Washington, D.C., on the 24th of January 1907.
ALGERIA (Algfrie), a country of North Africa belonging to
France, bounded N. by the Mediterranean, W. by Morocco,
S. by the Sahara and E. by Tunisia. The boundaries, however,
are in part not accurately determined. Algeria extends for
about 650 m. along the coast, and stretches inland from 320
to 380 m., lying between 2 io' W. and 8° 50' E., and 32 and
37 N. It is divided, politically, into three departments, —
Oran in the west, Algiers in the centre and Constantine in the
east. Its area is 184,474 sq. m., exclusive of the dependent
Saharan regions, which have an area of some 750,000 sq. m.
(see Sahara, Tuat, &c).
Physical Features. — The character of the Algerian coast is
severe and inhospitable. The western half is bordered by a hilly
rampart, broken only here and there, in the bays where the larger
streams find their outlet, by flat and sandy plains. Between
Dellys and PhilippeviUe high mountains rise almost sheer from
the sea, leaving only a narrow strip of beach. East of Ptufippe-
ville the mountains recede from the coast, and the rampart si
hills reappears. Only between Bona and La CaJie is tbe gestai
character of the sea-board low and sandy. Save near the teas
and in the cultivated district of Kabylia, tbe coast b bare ui
uninhabited; and in spite of numerous indentations, cf wb±
the most important going from west to east are tbe Gtiii s
Oran, the Gulf of Arzeu, the Bay of Algiers, and the gs£s £
Bougie, Stora and Bona, there are few good harbours, Fr»
time immemorial, indeed, this coast has had an evil repmrja
among mariners, quite apart from the pirates who fox cemcrja
made it the base of their depredations. A violent carrcrL
starting from the Straits of Gibraltar, rushes eastward akag &
shore, and, hurled back from the headlands, is deflected to the
west. In summer the east wind brings dense and sadden top:
while in winter the northerly gales blow straight into the m&d*
of the harbours. In these circumstances navigation is esptasZy
perilous for sailing craft. The terrors of this "savage sea ari
inhospitable shore," once described by Sallust, have, however,
been greatly mitigated by the introduction of steam, the ss-
provement of the harbours, and the establishment by the Freza
government of an excellent system of lighthouses.
Southward from the sea the country falls naturally into tkse
divisions, clearly -distinguished by their broad physical characur-
istics. The healthy, and on the whole fertile coast region, fraa
50 to 100 m. in width, is known, as in Morocco and TusiaL
as the Tell (Arabic for " hill "). It is a mountainous co&uj
intersected with rocky canons and fertile valleys, which occaska*
ally broaden out into alluvial plains like that of the Sbewf, ar
the Metija near Algiers, or those in the neighbourhood of Ore
and Bona. Behind the Tell is a lofty table-land with an averas
elevation of 3000 ft., consisting of vast plains, for the most pan
arid or covered with esparto grass, in the depressions of whki
are great salt lakes and swamps (Arabic, shots) fed by stress
which can find no outlet to the sea through the encircling L&
To the south this region is divided by the Great Atlas from the
deserts of the Sahara, with its oases, in which the boundary «£
Algeria is lost.
The country is traversed by lofty*ranges of the Atlas systes,
which run nearly parallel to the coast, and rise in places ever
7000 ft. These are commonly divided into two leading duias,
distinguished as the Great 1 and Little Atlas. The Great, «
Saharan Atlas contains some of the highest points in tbe cosatrj.
The chief ranges are Ksur and Amur in the west and the Acos
in the east. The peak of Shellia, the highest point in Algtna,
in the Aures range, has a height of 76x1 ft. In the Amur tie
Jebel Ksel (6504 ft.) and Tuila Makna (6561 ft.). The littk
Atlas, otherwise the Tell or Maritime Atlas, lies between the sa
and the Saharan Atlas, and is composed of many distinct ranges,
generally of no great elevation and connected by ntuneraes
transverse chains forming extensive table-lands and devatei
valleys. The principal ranges of the Little Atlas— from west to
east— are the Tlemcen (5500 ft.); the Warsenis (with Kef Sfi
Omar, 6500 ft.) ; the Titeri (4000 ft.) ; the Jurjura, with lie
peak of Lalla Kedija (7542 ft.) and Mount Babor (6447 ft.);
and the Mejerda (3700 ft.), which extends into Tunisia. The
Jurjura range, forming the background of the plains betwees
Algiers and Bougie, extends through the district of Kabjfia,
with which for grandeur of scenery no other part of Algeria cat
compare. South of the Jurjura and separated from it by ik
valley of the Sahel, is the Biban range with a famous double pin
of the same name, through which alone access is gained to tat
highlands beyond. The Bibans or Partes de for (Iron Gates)
consist of two defiles with stupendous walls of rock, which fc>
erosion have assumed the most fantastic shapes. In the case tf
the Petite parte the walls in some places are not more than twehr
feet apart. The Dahra range (see Mostaganem) overlooks the
sea, and is separated from the Warsenis by the valley of the
Shelif (see Atlas Mountains, Sahara and Tuat).
The rivers are numerous but the majority are short. Most
1 The name "Great" Atlas Is more correctly applied to tat
main range in Morocco.
ALGERIA
643
ALGERIA AND
TUNISIA
wf fl»rfff«'*£><* *[ f A
M,
ikLsUMA,.
of them rise in the mountains near the coast, and rush down
through deep and rocky channels. During the rainy season
they render communication between different parts of the country
extremely difficult. The most important river, both from its
length and volume, is the Shelif. It rises on the northern slopes
of the Amur mountains and flows N.E. across the high plateau,
piercing the little Atlas between the Warsenis and Titeri ranges.
It then turns W. and reaches the Mediterranean at the eastern
end of the Gulf of Arzeu. The Shelif, which has many tributaries,
is about 430 m. long. The Seybuse (about 150 m. long), formed
by the union of several small streams in the department of
Constantine, runs through a fertile valley and reaches the
Mediterranean near Bona. The Sahel (about 100 m. long) , which
contains the greatest body of water after the Shelif, rises in the
department of Algiers near Aumale, and flows for the most part
N.E. to its mouth near Bougie. The Kebir or Rummel— the
river is known by both names— is formed by the union of several
small streams south of Constantine, and flows past that town
N. W. 140 m. to the sea. Among the less important rivers which
empty into the Mediterranean are the Macta, the Tafna, the
Harrach and the Mazafran. The Macta, but 3 m. long, enters
the sea in the Gulf of Arzeu, some 25 m. W. of the mouth
of the Shelif. It is formed by the Habra (140 m.) and the Sig
(130 m.), which rise in the Amur mountains and flowing north
uni te in \ marshy plain, whence issues the Macta. On the lower
courses of the Habra and the Sig, barrages have been built for
irrigation purposes. * The Habra barrage holds 38,000,000 cubic
metres; that on the Sig 18,000,000. The Tafna (about 100 m.)
rises in a large cavern in the mountains south of Tlemcen and
flows N.E. to the sea at Rachgun. It has many affluents; the
largest, the Isser (70 m.), joins it on the east bank about 30 m.
above its mouth. The Harrach (40 m.), a picturesque stream,
enters the Mediterranean in the Bay of Algiers. The Mazafran
(50 m.) crosses the plains S.W of Algiers, reaching the sea N of
Kola. The Mejerda and its affluent the Mellegue, rivers of
Tunisia (q.v.), have their rise in Algeria, in the mountainous
country east of Constantine. None of these rivers is navigable.
Besides these there are a number of streams in the interior, but
they are usually dry except in the rainy season.
Algeria abounds in extensive salt lakes and marshes. Of the
lakes in the northern part of the country near the coast the
principal are, — the Fezara, 14 m. S.W. of Bona ; Sebkha and
El Melah, south of Oran; and three small lakes in the immediate
vicinity of La Calle. In the high plateaus are the Shat-el-Gharbi
or Western Shat, the Shat-el-Shergui or Eastern Shat, the Zarhez-
Gharbi and the Zarhez-Shergui, the Shat-el-Hodna and a number
of others. South of the Jebel Aures is another series of salt lakes
closely connected with the Shat-el-Jerid (of Tunisia). The chief
of these is the Shat Melrir. There are a number of warm mineral
springs, containing principally salts of lime,' used with success
by both Arabs and Europeans in several kinds of disease.
One of the most remarkable groups of springs is near Guelma,
in the department of Constantine. There are two principal
sources. Their waters unite in one stream whose course is marked
by gigantic limestone cones, some of which are 36 ft. high. The
water, which is at boiling point, falls into natural basins of a
creamy white colour, formed by the deposit of carbonate of lime.
The springs are known to the Arabs as Hammam Meskutin (the
" accursed baths "). The name and the cones are accounted
for by a legend which represents that at this spot lived a sheikh
who, finding his sister too beautiful to be married to anyone else,
determined to espouse her himself. Whilst the marriage fes-
tivities were being celebrated the judgment of Heaven descended
on the guilty pair; fire came from below; the water became hot
and the sheikh and his sister were turned into stone. Within a
mile of Hammam Meskutin are ferruginous and sulphureous
springs.
[Geology.— The geology of Algeria has been worked out in con
siderable detail by French geologists. Rocks of Archean and
Palaeozoic ages contribute only a small share, but there is a
6+4
ALGERIA
very complete sequence of formations from the lias to those of
recent date. An interesting and orderly penological sequence of
Tertiary igneous rocks has been determined.
Archean rocks form the cores of the ancient crystalline masses
within the littoral zone from Algiers to Bona. They consist
of gneiss, mica-schist, quartzites, crystalline limestones and
conglomerates. Primary deposits are doubtfully represented
by the detached fragments of unfossiliferous strata of Traras,
Blida and east of Orleansville. Carboniferous and Permian
strata are possibly represented by some black and grey micaceous
shales with beds of coal in the Jurjura. At Jebel-kahar and
west of Traras, Pomel attributes certain conglomerates, red
sandstones and purple and green shales to the Permian. The
rocks of Secondary and Tertiary ages have been profoundly
affected by the Alpine movements, and are thrown into a series
of complex folds, so that in numerous instances their strati-
graphy is imperfectly understood. The gypsiferous and sali-
ferous marls of Shellata, Suk Ahras and Ain Nussi have yielded
Triassic fossils. Triassic rocks are considered to be present in
Constantine and in the Jurjura. Rhaetic beds (Infra Lias),
consisting of dolomites and siliceous limestones, have been
recognised at Saida. The lower and middle divisions of the
Jurassic, composed of massive limestones more or less siliceous
and overlain by the marls amd highly fossiliferous limestones
of the Upper Lias, play an important part in the constitution
of the chief mountains of the Tell. In south Oran they determine
the principal axes of the mountain ranges. The Inferior Cre-
taceous rocks include the Neocomian and Gault (Albian and
Aptian) subdivisions, and form the flanks of the mountains in
the Tell. In the south the Albian subdivision of the Gault is
alone represented. Rocks of Upper Cretaceous age are repre-
sented in all their stages. The Cenomanian presents two distinct
facies. North of the Atlas it belongs to the European type, in
the south it contains a fauna of oysters and sea-urchins belonging
to the facies " africano-syrian " of ZitteL There h a continuous
transition between the Senonian and Danian, proving that the
Algerian region did not participate in the immersion which
occurred in Provence and in the Corbidres of southern France
during the Danian epoch. The Lower Eocene rocks contain
the chief phosphatic deposits of Algeria, those of the Tebcssa
region being the best known. Certain species of nummulites,
which are very common, distinguish the various subdivisions of
the Eocene. The highest beds, consisting of quartzites, shales,
marls and sandstones with the remains of fucoids, are found in
the Jurjura and Shellata. The Oligocene period consists of a
marine phase confined to the littoral cone of Kabylia, and of
a continental phase occupying vast areas composed of lacustrine,
alluvial, gypsiferous marls, sandstones and conglomerates.
The Miocene formation obtains its greatest development in
Oran and is much expanded in the Tell. At the close of the
Lower Miocene period (beds with Ostrea crassissima) great
modifications in the relief and limits of the Algerian formations
took place. Hitherto marine conditions were confined to the
littoral; in Middle Miocene times (Helvetian) the sea broke in
and spread in a south-east direction in the form of long ramified
fjords but did not extend as far as the Sahara. To the Pliocene
period the marine deposits of the Sahel of Algiers and of the
Sahel Jijclli must be attributed; also the lacustrine marls and
limestone of the basin of Constantine, and the ancient alluviums
of the basins and depressions which bear no relation to the
existing valleys. Among the Tertiary volcanic rocks those of
acid types (granites, granulites) were the first to appear and are
developed lathudinally; rocks of intermediate type (dacites,
andesites) characterize the Miocene and early Pliocene periods;
while the basic rocks (ophites, elaeolite syenites and basalts)
attained their maximum in later Pliocene and Quaternary
times. Their development, feeble as compared with the acid
rocks, is meridional. The Quaternary period includes an older
stage containing fragments of fossils from the underlying forma-
tions; a later stage containing the bones of Hippopotamus,
Elephas, Rhinoceros, Camel us, Equus; and finally the vast
accumulations of sand which began to be formed in prehistoric
times. The broad platforms of the hamada are covered «sl
Quaternary deposits. (W. G.*)J
Climate— Although Algeria enjoys a warm climate, &
temperature varies considerably in different parts, accordk^ &
the elevation and configuration of the country. Along the art:
the weather is very mild, the thermometer rarely falfcg u
freezing-point even in winter. The coldest month is Jacean
the hottest August The mean annual temperature in tst
coast plains is 66° F. Heavy rains prevail from December --•
March, and rain is not uncommon during other months ate
excepting June, July, August and September, which are vs)
hot and rainless. The average annual fall is 29 in. On ik
mountains and the high plateaus the winter is often very sever
snow lies for six months on the higher peaks of the Eatat
mountains. On the plateaus the temperature passes from vu
extreme to the other, and rain seldom falls. (For the diau3
of the Saharan region see Sahara.) Throughout Algeria, especi-
ally in the summer, there is a great difference between day aad
night temperature, notably in the inland districts. Bctves
May and September the sirocco, or hot wind of the desert
sweeps at intervals over the country, impregnating the airwti
fine sand; but in general, with the exception of the vkicity d
the marshes, the climate is healthy. Its salubrity has bee;
increased by the draining of many marshes in the ne$ghbourhax2
of the larger towns.
Fauna and Flora.— -The fauna of Algeria resembles that of tie
Mediterranean system generally, though many animaK axx
'common to South Europe and North Africa — such as the lice
panther, hyena and jackal— are now extinct in Europe. Lx*s
formerly plentiful, have disappeared, and leopards and pantten
are rare; but jackals, hyenas and Algerian apes are not ca-
common. Wild boars are found in the oak forests, and brers
bears in the uplands. In the south are various species of *r?r
lope and wild goat. Red deer (Certus eJapkus barberus)* *Hri
differ from the typical European species only in the fact that tbr
second tine is absent from their antlers, a peculiarity which lb*
share with the red deer of Spain and Corsica, are still foo&d *
the forest of Beni Saleh in the department of Constantine. b*
are being exterminated by forest fires and poaching Arabs.
domestic animals the camel and sheep are the most imports::.
The chief wealth of the Arab tribes of the plateaus consists a
their immense flocks of sheep. The horses and mules of Algcm
are noted; and the native cattle are an excellent stock on wfcjd
to graft the better European varieties. Of birds, eagles, vulture,
hawks, owls and quails are common; snipe, curlews, pk>vev
storks and herons frequent the marshy parts; and the ostrici
the desert. Partridges and woodcocks are fairly comma
Among the reptiles are various species of serpents, tortocft
turtles, lizards, &c. Locusts are common and sometimes de
great damage. Scorpions are numerous in the arid refices.
Algerian prawns, especially those of Bona, are large and cfi
delicate flavour. Of the twenty-one species of freshwater aU
five are peculiar to the country, but none is of much eccBocir
value save the barbel and eel. A species of trout is found e
the streams near Collo, but in none of the other rivers.
The flora of Algeria consists of about 3000 species, of wfckk
some 450 are indigenous to the country, 100 being peculiar »
the Sahara. The flora of the Tell is South European in character
The agave and prickly pear, the myrtle, the olive and the dvari
palm grow luxuriantly; and the fields are covered with otf-
cissus, iris and other flowers of every hue. Roses, geranicE&
and the like, bloom throughout the winter. The flora of tk
high plateaus consists chiefly of grasses, notably various kiadi
of alfa or esparto, and aromatic herbs. In the Saharan otf*
the characteristic tree is the date palm—" the king oftk
desert." Over n,ooo sq. m. of the mountainous country vai
the coast are covered with forests of various species of oak. pa*
fir, cedar, elm, ash, maple, olive, many of them of gigantic i#<
and other trees; and on the slopes of the mountains up to jfeo
ft. above the sea the fig is common. Its fruit forms one of the
staple articles of food among the Rabyles. Cork and caret
trees are also very common. A magnificent conifer, the A Uisi*
ALGERIA
645
ptasapo (Abies Pituapo), is found on the heights round Bougie.
The forest, suffer great damage from fires, occasioned in part
by the custom of burning up the grass every autumn, and in
part by incendiarism. In 1002 alone, according to the British
consular report, M at a moderate estimate the number of trees
damaged or destroyed might be put down at 6,000,000."
Forestry is a state-protected industry, the government owning
over 500,000 acres of forest. The chief tree which has commercial
value is the cork, and the stripping of the bark is under official
supervision. The first cork harvest was gathered in 1800,
when 1474 cwt. were sold for £1361. Since that date the yield
has been very great. Another tree of great commercial value
is the soap tree (Sopindus uiilis), introduced ipto the country in
1845 and grown extensively in low-lying lands near the coast.
Inhabitants. — Algeria had in 1906 a population of 5,231,850,
consisting of a medley of European, Eastern and African races.
The census showed that in addition to French settlers and their
descendants (278,976) there were 117,475 Spaniards (most of
whom are found in the department of Oran), 33,153 Italians
(chiefly in the department of Constantine), 64,645 Jews, 6217
Maltese, and smaller communities of British, Germans, Levan-
tines and Greeks. There were, moreover, 170,444 naturalized
French citizens, mainly of Spanish and Italian origin. (These
figures are exclusive of 73,799 persons counted apart, as not
enjoying municipal rights. In the 73,709 the troops, French
and native, are included). The total European population, in
which category are reckoned the Jews, other than those of Mzab,
was 680,263. Compared with the census of 1901 the figures of
1006 showed a decrease of 14,000 French, 36,000 Spaniards
and 5000 Italians, but an increase of nearly 100,000 in the
foreigners naturalized. Of other races: (1) The Berbers (q.v.)
constitute 75 % of the entire population. The Kabyles (q.v.), a
division of the Berbers, occupy chiefly the more mountainous
parts of the Tell, but some live in the plains and valleys. (2)
Arabs, a numerous class, are found principally in the south.
(3) The so-called " Moors," generally of mixed blood, inhabit
the towns and villages near the sea-coast. (4 ) Negroes, originally
brought from the interior and sold as slaves, are now found
chiefly in the towns, where they serve as labourers and domestic
servants. (5)-Mzabites (q.v.) or Beni-Mzab, a distinct branch
of the Berber race, are for the most part engaged in petty trade,
and are distinguished by their sleeveless coats of many colours.
(6) A few Tuareg (q.v.), another division of the Berbers, are
among the nomads found in the Algerian Sahara. The Kabyles,
Mza bites, Tuareg, Arabs and Moors all profess Mahommedanism,
though it is only among the Arabs that its tenets are held in
any purity. The census of 1906 gave the number of the native
population at 4,447,149. There were also 28,639 non-European
foreigners in the country.
The Turks, though for a considerable period the dominant
race, were never very numerous in Algeria. The majority of
them were repatriated by the French. The Kuluglis,descendants
of Turks by native women — once a distinct race noted for their
energy, bravery and pride — have almost ceased to exist as a
separate people, being merged in the Moors. Jews have long
been settled in Algeria. Some are supposed to have fled thither
when expelled from Cyrenaica in the reign of the emperor
Hadrian, and others on their banishment from Italy in 1342.
The purely " African " Jew is now found only in the oases in
the extreme south of the country. In the towns the " native "
Jews have intermarried with later arrivals from Europe. A
remarkable feast is kept annually by the Algerian Jews to com-
memorate the defeat by the Turks of the emperor Charles V.'s
attempt to capture Algiers (1541). The Jews, who enjoyed
religious freedom under the Mahommedans, believed that the
success of the Spaniards would but lead to their own persecution.
Chief Towns.— The chief towns are Algiers, the capital and
principal seaport, with a population (1906), including Mustapha
and other suburbs,. of 154.049; Oran (100,499)/ » western
1 The figures given are not those of the communes, but of the
towni proper, certain classes of persons (such as troops, lunatics,
convicts) excluded from the municipal franchise not being counted.
seaport and capital of the department of the same name, and
Constantine (46,806), an inland town, capital of the department
of Constantine. Besides Algiers and Oran the principal seaports
are Bona (36,004), Mostaganem (19,528), Philippeville (16,539),
Bougie (10,419), Cherchel (4733) and La Calle (2774)- Inland,
besides Constantine, are the important towns of Tlemcen (24,060) ,
Sidi-bel-Abbes (24,404), Mascara (18,989) and Blida (16,866).
In the Sahara are Biskra (4218), El Wad (7586), Tuggurt (2073)
and Wargla (3579). All these places are separately noticed.
Nemours (1229) is a seaport near the Moroccan frontier,
which formerly bore an Arabic name pregnant with its history
— Jamaa-cl-Ghazuat (" rendezvous of the pirates ")• The
surrounding country is rich in mineral wealth. Arzeu (3085)
occupies a site on the western side of the gulf of the same name.
It has a good harbour, is the outlet for the produce of several
fertile valleys, and the starting-point of a railway which pene-
trates into the Sahara. This railway passes Saida (6256), 106
m. south of Arzeu, one of the capitals of Abd-el-Kader, and
serves to bring down from the high plateaus their 'rich crops
of esparto grass. Four miles S.E. of Arzeu is a Berber village,
where are interesting ruins of a Roman settlement, identified by
some authorities as the Portus Magnus of Pliny ; other authorities
claim Oran as occupying the site of Portus Magnus. In the
vidnity are the famous quarries of Nuroidian marbles. Tenes
(3176) is a seaport situated about 100 m. east of Arzeu on the
site of the Phoenician town, afterwards the Roman colony, of
Cartenna. Outside the town to the west is. a public garden in
which are several Roman tombs with inscriptions. Between
Tenes and Algiers are Tipasa (q.v.) and Castiglione (1634),
formerly called Bu-Ismail, both pleasant watering-places.
Five miles inland west of Castiglione is Kolea (2932), a town
dating from 1550 and originally peopled by Moslem refugees
from Spain. It was destroyed by earthquake in 1825 and has
been rebuilt largely in European style. It contains the kubba
of a celebrated marabout, Sidi Embarek, who lived in the 17th
century. Dcllys (3275), 50 m. by sea E. of Algiers, has a small
harbour sheltered from the W. and N.W. winds only. It is a
walled town regularly laid out, built by the French on the site
of the Roman Ruscurium, the western ramparts of which may
still be seen. Jijelli (4878), on the eastern side of the Gulf of
Bougie, occupies the site of the Roman colony of Igilgilis. The
old town, built on a rocky peninsula, was completely destroyed
by earthquake in 1 8 56. A new town arose eastward of the former
site, which is now restored as a citadel. Twenty miles by sea
west of Philippeville is Collo (2258), a city of considerable
importance during the Roman occupation. It was the Kollops
Magnus of Ptolemy.
Twenty-three miles S.W. by rail from Algiers is Bufarik
(the " hanging well "); pop. 5980. A thoroughly French town,
it dates from 1835, when General Drouet d'Erlon established
there an entrenched camp on a hillock in the midst of a pesti-
lential swamp. Soon afterwards Marshal Clausel began to build
a regular city, which was at first called Medina Clausel in his
honour. The draining of the site and neighbourhood was a costly
undertaking, and was only accomplished by the sacrifice of many
lives. The town, surrounded by vast orchards and farms, is
now one of the most flourishing in the country; and the most
important market in the colony for the sale of cattle and agri-
cultural produce is held there. Sixty-three miles S.W. of Algiers
is Medea (4030) — supposed to stand on the site of a Roman
town— finely situated on a plateau 3000 ft. above the sea. It is
surrounded by a wall pierced by five gates. An ancient aqueduct
is built into the eastern side of the wall. The town, which was
chosen by the Turks as capital of the beylik of Titeri, is now
French in character. Miliana (3091), which occupies the site
of the Roman Milliana, lies about midway between Blida and
Orleansville, is 2400 ft. above the sea, and is built on a plateau
of the Zakkar mountains, commanding magnificent views of
the valley of the Shelif. It possesses few remains of antiquity.
An old Moorish minaret has been turned I
The town, which is walled, has been rebuilt t
chief streets are bordered by trees and have *.
remains of antiquity. 1
d into a clock tower,
t by the French. The
6+6
ALGERIA
running down either tide. Harnmam Rlrha to the N.E. of
MUiana, noted from the time of the Romans for its thermal
springs, occupies a picturesque position 1800 ft. above the sea.
Being the only place within easy distance of western Europe
where patients can take with safety a course of baths during the
winter months, it has become a resort of invalids. Orleansville
(3510), on the extensive plain of the Shclif, 130 m. S.W. by rail
from Algiers, and 132 m. N.E. fromOran, ban important military
station. The basilica of St Reparatus, discovered in 1843, was
allowed to be used as a public stable and has been completely
destroyed. There was in it a beautiful mosaic of which, fortu-
nately, drawings exist. From this it appears that the church
was built in a.d. 324, and that St Reparatus, bishop of the
diocese, was buried in it in 475. Orleansville occupies the site
of the Roman Castellum Tingitanum.
Ninety miles S.W. of Bougie is Aumale (2350)', a town and
military post established by the French in 1846 on the site of the
ancient Auzia. The Roman town was founded in the reign of
Augustus, and it flourished for two centuries before it disappeared
from history. Out of the materials of the ancient city the Turks
built a fort, which at the time of the French occupation was
itself a heap of ruins. Setif (12,261), the Sitifis Colonia of the
Romans, is 50 m. S.E. of Bougie and 97 m. by rail W. of Con-
stantine. It stands 3573 ft above the sea, and is the junction of
several 'great lines of communication. Its market is attended
by Kabyles, Arabs of the plateaus and people from the Sahara.
The town has been entirely rebuilt in the French style. Most of
the Roman ruins, even those existing at the time of the French
occupation (1839), have disappeared. The walls of the Roman
city, restored probably by the Byzantines, have been incorporated
in the French walls, which are pierced by four gates. Batna
(5279), a walled town 3350 ft above the sea, 50 m. S. of Con-
stantine by the railway to Biskra, commands the passage of
the Aures mountains by which the nomads of the Sahara were
wont to enter the TelL Its importance rests on its strategic
position. On the railway between Constantino and Bona and
76 m. from the latter, is Guelma (6584)1 the Roman Kalama,
finely situated on the right bank of the Seybuse. The French
occupied the place in 1836 and built their town out of the Roman
ruins. Thirty miles S.E. of Guelma is Suk Ahras (7602), a
station on the railway to Tunis, identified with the Roman dty
Tagaste, the birthplace of St Augustine.
Towns in the Sahara. — On the southern slopes of the Great
Atlas, 2437 ft. above the sea, looking out on the Saharan desert,
and 200 m. in a straight line S.W. of Algiers, fa the ancient town
of El Aghuat (erroneously written Laghouat); pop. 5660. It
formerly belonged to Morocco, by whom it was ceded to the
Turks towards the close of the 1 7th century. It was stormed on
the 4th of December 1852 by the French, who almost entirely
destroyed the Arab town. The modern town contains little of
interest, but is an important military station. One hundred
and twelve miles S. of El Aghuat, and 36 m. W.N.W. of Wargla,
is Ghardaia (pop. 7868), the capital of the Mzab country, annexed
by France in 1882. This country consists of seven oases, five
in dose proximity and two isolated. The town of Ghardaia (in
the local documents Taghardeit) is situated on a mosque-crowned
hill in the middle of the Wadi Mzab, 1755 ft above the sea
Ghardaia, which is divided by walls into three quarters, is built
of limestone and the houses are in terraces one above the other.
The central quarter is the home of the ruling tribe, the Bcni-Mzab.
The eastern quarter belongs to the Jews, of whom there are about
300 families; the western is occupied by the Medabia, Arabs
from the Jcbel Amur. The gardens belong exdusivcly to the
Beni-Mzab. According to native accounts the town was founded
about the middle of the x6th century. Aghrem Baba Saad, a
small ruined town to the west of Ghardaia, is the fortified post
in which the Beni-Mzab took refuge when the Turks under Salah
Rais (about 1555) attempted unsuccessfully to subjugate the
country. Next to Ghardaia the most important Mzabite town
is Bcni-Isguen (pop. 4916), an active trading centre. Guerrara,
one of the two isolated oases, 37 m. N.E. of Ghardaia, contains
a flourishing commercial town with 1912 inhabitants.
The caravan route south from Ghardaia brings the ttavels,
after a journey of 130 m., to the oasis and town of Q Goes
(pop. about 2500). The town consists of three portions— tk
dtadd on a limestone hill, the upper and the fewer tow-
separated by irregular plantations of date trees. The pita i
an important station for the caravan trade between Algeria r*
the countries to the south. It was occupied by the French *z&
General Galtifet in 1873. El Golea was originally a setlkae:
of the Zenata Berbers, by whom it was known as Taorcrt ui
there is still a considerable Berber element in its popentx
The full Arab name is El Golea'a d Menia'a, or the "i^r
fortress well defended."
Archaeology.— Algeria is rich in prehistoric memorials of max
especially in megalithic remains, of which nearly every kaoi
kind has been found in the country. Numerous flints of ptlao
lithic type have been discovered, notably at Hemcen and Kflfca
Near Jelfa, in the Great Atlas, and at Mechera-Sfa (" ford of ue
flat stones") , a peninsula in the valley of the river Minn not far tsa
Tiaret in the department of Oran, are vast numbers of ■y^-'
monuments. In the Kubr-er-Rumia—" grave of the Rossi
lady " (Roman being used by the Arabs to designate staages
of Christian origin)— the Medrassen and the Jedars, Alfem
possesses a remarkable series of sepulchral monuments. Tat
Kubr-er-Rumia— best known by its French name, Tomicz*
de la Chrttienne, tradition making it the burial-place of tk
beautiful and unfortunate daughter of Count Julian— is near
Kolea, and is known to be the tomb of the Mauretaaiaa fcrf
Juba II. and of his wife Cleopatra Sdene, daughter of Oeopam,
queen of Egypt, and Mark Antony. It is built on a hul 75* fc.
above the sea. Resting on a lower platform, 209 ft sqaatc,
is a circular stone building surmounted by a pyramid. OrigmiSf
the monument was about 130 ft in height, but it has bea
wantonly damaged. Its height is now 100 ft 8 in. : the cyfiado-
cal portion 36 ft 6 in., the pyramid 64 ft a in. The base, xoS It
in diameter, is ornamented with 60 engaged Ionic colaaa.
The capitals of the columns have disappeared, but their desjp
is preserved among the drawings of James Bruce, the Africa
traveller. In the centre of the tomb are two vaulted chastherv
reached by a spiral passage or gallery 6) ft broad, about the
same height and 489 ft long. The sepulchral chambers m
separated by a short passage, and are cut off from the gaSer?
by stone doors made of a single slab which can be moved up aoi
down by levers, like a portcullis. The larger of the two chambes
is 14) ft long by 1 1 ft broad and 1 1 ft high. The other chamber
is somewhat smaller. The tomb was early violated, peobahj
in search of treasure. In 1555 Salah Rais, pasha of Algiers, at
men to work to pull it down, but the records say that the attest^
was given up because big black wasps came from under the stoaa
and stung them to death. At the end of the 18th century Bik
Mahommed tried in vain to batter down the tomb with artiBerjr.
In 1866 it was explored by order of the emperor Napoleon III
the work being carried out by Adrian Berbrugger and Char
MacCarthy.
The Medrassen is a monument similar to the Kubr^r-Runat,
but older. It was built about 150 B.C. as the burial-place of
the Numidian kings, and is situated 35 m. S.W. of Constantise.
The form is that of a truncated cone, placed on a cylindrical hue,
x 06 ft. in diameter. It is 60 ft. high. The columns endrding the
cylindrical portion are stunted and much broader at the hue
than the top; the capitals are Doric Many of the calama,
60 in number, have been much damaged. When the scpukfanl
chamber was opened in 1873 by Bauchetet, a French engineer
officer, clear evidence was found that at some remote period tk
tomb had been rifled and an attempt made to destroy it by ate.
The Jedars (Arab. " walls " or " buildings ") are in the depar>
ment of Oran. The name is given to a number of sepuichn.'
monuments placed on hill-tops. A rectangular or square pedica
is in each case surmounted by a pyramid. The tombs date
from the 5th to the 7th century of the Christian era, and fie ia
two distinct groups between Tiaret and Frenda, a distance of
35 m. Tiaret (pop. 5778)1 *n andent town moderaued by tk
French, can be reached by railway from Mattagaaem. Near
ALGERIA
647
Fxenda (2063), which has largely preserved its old Berber char-
acter, are numerous dolmens and prehistoric rock sculptures.
Algeria contains many Roman remains besides those mentioned
and is also rich in monuments of Saracenic art. For a description
of the chief antiquities see the separate town articles, including,
besides those already cited, Lambessa, Tebessa, Tipasa and
Timgad.
Agriculture— Ever since the time of the Romans Algeria has
been noted for the fertility of its soil. Over two-thirds of the
inhabitants are engaged in agricultural pursuits. More than
7,500,000 acres are devoted to the cultivation of cereals. The
Tell is the grain-growing land. Under French rule its productive-
ness has been largely increased by the sinking of artesian wells
in districts which only required water to make them fertile. Of
the crops raised, wheat, barley and oats are the principal cereals.
A great variety of vegetables and of fruits, especially the orange,
is exported. A considerable amount of cotton was grown during
the American Civil War, but the industry afterwards declined.
In the early years of the 20th century efforts to extend the
cultivation of the plant were renewed. A small amount of cotton
is also grown in the southern oases. Large quantities of crin
vigital (vegetable horse-hair) an excellent fibre, are made from
the leaves of the dwarf palm. The olive (both for its fruit and
oil) and tobacco are cultivated with great success. The soil of
Algeria everywhere favours the growth of the vine. The country,
in the words of an expert sent to report on the subject by the
French government, " can produce an infinite variety of wines
suitable to every constitution and to every caprice of taste."
The culture of the vine was early undertaken by the colonists,
but it was not until vineyards in France were attacked by
phylloxera that the export of wine from Algeria became con-
siderable. Algerian vineyards were also attacked (1883) despite
precautionary measures, but in the meantime the worth of their
wines had been proved. # In 1850 less than 2000 acres were
devoted to the grape, but in 1878 this had increased to over
42,000 acres, which yielded 7,436,000 gallons of wine. Despite
bad seasons and ravages of insects, cultivation extended, and in
1895 the vineyards covered 300,000 acres, the produce being
88,000,000 gallons. The area of cultivation in 1905 exceeded
400,000 acres, and in that year the amount of wine produced
was 157,000,000 gallons. By that time the limits of profitable
production had been reached in many parts of the country.
Practically the only foreign market for Algerian wine is France,
which in 1905 imported about 1 10,000,000 gallons.
Fishery is a flourishing but not a large industry. The fish
caught are principally sardines, bonito, smelts and sprats. Fresh
fish are exported to France, dried and preserved fish to Spain
and Italy. Coral fisheries exist along the coast from Bona to
Tunis.
Minerals.— Algeria is rich in minerals, found chiefly in the
department of Constantine, where iron, lead and zinc, copper,
calamine, antimony and mercury mines are worked. The most
productive are those of iron and zinc. Lignite is found in the
department of Algiers and petroleum in that of Oran. Immense
phosphate beds were discovered near Tebessa in 1891. They
yielded 313,500 tons in 1005. Phosphate beds are also worked
near Setif, Guelma and Ain Beida. There are more than 300
quarries which produce, amongst other stones, onyx and beautiful
white and red marbles. Algerian onyx from Ain Tekbalet was
used by the Romans, and many ancient quarries have been found
near Kleber in the department of Oran, some being certainly
those from which the long-lost Numidian marbles were taken.
Salt is collected on the margins of the shots.
Skipping and Commerce.— The carrying trade between Algeria
and France is confined, by a law passed in 1889, to French
bottoms. The largest port is Algiers, after which follow Oran,
Philippevflle and Bona. There is a considerable coasting trade.
The average number of vessels entering and clearing Algerian
ports each year has been, since 1000, about 4000, with a total
tonnage of some 6,500,000. In the coasting trade some 12,000
small vessels are engaged.
Under French administration the commerce of Algeria has
greatly developed. The total imports and exports at the time
of the French occupation (1830) did not exceed £175.000. In
1850 the figures had reached £5,000,000; in x868, £12,000,000; in
1880, £17,000,000; and in 1800, £30,000,000. From this point
progress was slower and the figures varied considerably year by
year. In 1005 the total value of the foreign trade was £24,500,000.
About five-sixths of the trade is with or via France, into which
country several Algerian goods have been admitted duty-free
since 1851, and all since 1867. French goods, except sugar, have
been admitted into Algeria without payment of duty since 1835.
After the increase, in 1893, of the French minimum tariff, which
applied to Algeria also, foreign trade greatly diminished.
The chief exports are sheep and oxen, most of which are raised
in Morocco and Tunisia, and horses; animal products, such as
wool and skins; wine, cereals (rye, barley, oats), vegetables,
fruits (chiefly figs and grapes for the tabic) and seeds, esparto
grass, oils and vegetable extracts (chiefly olive oil), iron ore, zinc,
natural phosphates, timber, cork, crin vigital and tobacco. Of
these France takes fully three-quarters. The import of wool
exceeds the export. Sugar, coffee, machinery, metal work of all
kinds, clothing and pottery are largely imported. Of these by far
the greater part comes from France. The British imports consist
chiefly of coal, cotton fabrics and machinery.
Communications.— Algeria possesses a railway system covering
over 2000 m. A decree of 1857 granted to the Paris-Lyons
Company the right to construct a line linking Algiers with Oran
(266 m.) and Constantine (290 m.) and shorter lines joining the
seaports to the trunk line, notably Philippeville to Constantine
(54 m.). These lines were opened between 1862 and 1871, but it
was not until 1879 that a general scheme for railway construction
was adopted. A trunk line runs from the frontier of Morocco at
Lalla Maghnia, 44 m. W. of Tlemcen, across the Tell to the
Tunisian frontier, whence it is continued to the city of Tunis;
while traverse railways connect the seaports with the trunk line
and with towns to the south, the Philippeville line being continued
to Biskra. From Arzeu a line goes south across the plateaus and
crossing the Ksur range at a height of 421 1 ft. enters the Sahara.
Passing Ain Sefra and Figig (372 m. from Arzeu) the line is
continued towards Tuat. The normal gauge of the railways is
4ft. 8} in.; a few "light lines" have a gauge of 3 ft. 3 in.
Algeria is also traversed by a network of roads constructed by
the French, of which the routes ndtionales alone are 2000 m. in
length. There arc complete postal and telegraphic facilities in
all parts of the colony save the Saharan Territories, and cable
communication with France.
Central Government. — By the Turks the country was divided
into four provinces — Algiers and Titeri in the centre and south,
Constantine in the east and Mascara or Oran in the west. 1 The
last three were governed by beys dependent upon the repre-
sentative of the Porte resident at Algiers. The Turkish governors
were in the 17th century replaced by dcys (sec below, History)
The French rule was at first (1830) purely military. In 1834 the
post of governor-general was created. Under the direction of the
ministry of war that official exercised nearly all the executive
power. At the same time a civil administration and consultative
council were formed. The principle of unity of authority was set
aside by the second republic in 1848, when many of the public
services were attached to the corresponding ministries in Paris,
and the departments organized on the metropolitan model by
division into arrondissements and communes and by placing
a prefect. at their head. Under Napoleon III. the governor-
generalship was abolished, a minister of Algeria and the colonics
created (24th of June 1858), and the whole administration
conducted from Paris. At the same time the powers of the
prefects were augmented and each department given a general
council. This arrangement was not of long duration. By decree
of the 24th of November i860, the ministry of Algeria and the
colonies was abolished and the office of governor-general re-
established with increased powers. This regime, strongly military
in its type, ended with the fall of the second empire. After a
•This western beylik corresponded roughly with the former
sultanate of Tlemcen (f.s.).
6 4 8
ALGERIA
brief transitional period, a decree of the 20th of March 1871
placed at the head of Algeria a civil governor-general and. gave
the control in Paris to the ministry of the interior. In 1876, on
the initiative of General Chanzy, then governor-general, that
official was accorded the right to correspond direct with all the
ministers in Paris. This concession led, however, to the diminu-
tion of the authority of the governor-general, whose powers were,
step by step, absorbed by the various ministries in France. It
had its logical end in the system adopted in 1881 and known as
the rattackement. Under this system the plan of 1848 was carried
out more completely, every department of state being placed
under one or other of the ministries in Paris, whilst the governor-
general became little more than an ornamental personage. After
lasting fifteen years the rattackement was, with the approval of the
legislature, abrogated by decree dated the3istof December 1896.
The opposing principle, that of concentrating power in the hands
of the governor-general, was re-affirmed, but in practice was
modified by the retention of the direction from Paris of a few
of the public services. The decree of 1896, which was of a
provisional character, was replaced by another, dated the 23rd of
August 1808, defining the powers of the governor-general under
the new scheme. By a law of the 19th of December z 000, Algeria
was constituted a legal personality, with power to own goods,
contract loans, &c, and a decree of 1901 placed the customs
department, until then directed from Paris, under the control of
the governor-general, whose hands were also strengthened in
various minor matters.
It will be seen that the form of government is entirely dependent
on the will of France. The French chambers alone possess the
legislative power, though in the absence of express legislation
decrees of the head of the state have the force of law. To the
legislature in Paris Algeria elects three senators and six deputies
(one senator and two deputies for each department). The
franchise is confined to " citizens," in which category the native
Jews are included by decree of the 24th of October 1870. The
Mahommedans, who number nearly eight-ninths of the popula-
tion, are not, however, "citizens" but "subjects," and con-
sequently have not the vote. They can, however, acquire
"citizenship" at their own request, by placing themselves
absolutely under the civil and political laws of France (decree of
1865, confirmed in 1870). The number of Mahommedans who
avail themselves of this rule is 4 very small; naturalizations do not
exceed an average of thirty persons a year. For certain specified
objects, financial and municipal, Mahommedans are, however,
permitted to exercise the franchise.
The actual form of government may be summarized thus: —
At the head of the administration in Algeria is a governor-
general, who exercises control overall branches, civil and military,
of the administration, except the services of justice, public
instruction and worship (as far as concerns Europeans) and the
treasury. He corresponds directly with the other Barbary
states; draws up the budget, and contracts loans on behalf of the
colony. The governor-general is assisted by: —
(1) The Council of Government, a purely advisory body,
composed entirely of high officials;
(2) A Superior Council, composed partly of elected and partly
of nominated members, including representatives of the
Mahommedans. Its duty is to deliberate upon all ad-
ministrative matters, including the budget, and it possesses
certain powers over the finances;
(3) The Financial Delegations (created by decree in 1898), an
elective body whose duty is to investigate all matters
affecting taxation and to vote the budget. The delega-
tions consist of representatives of (a) " colonists," i.e. the
rural community; (6) taxpayers, being citizens other than
" colonists," i.e. the urban community; (c) the Mahom-
medan population. The last section is partly elective and
partly nominated. A proportion of the members of the
delegations arc elected to the superior council.
Local Government. — The departments, presided over by pre-
fects, are divided into territoires chils and territoires du com-
mandant. In the regions under civil administration the local
organization closely resembles that of France. The coesay a
divided into arrondissements and communes, with nana of dr
apparatus of self-government enjoyed by the mu c sj—fe j
units in France. The canton (in France a judicial area) ie.
however, no existence in Algeria. In the territoires do ex
mandant, which are the districts farthest from the coast, ar-d 3
which the European population is small, the prefect is rcp&xd
by a high military officer, who exercises all the functions d 1
prefect.
The prefect of each department is assisted by a general cocsd.
consisting of members elected by the citizens and of aomaeaic.
representatives of the Mahommedan population. The powes a
the council correspond to those of the councils in Frua
Communes are of three kinds: (x) those with full powers. !:.
mixed, (3) native. In those of the first kind, modelled ea at
French communes, the Mahommedans possess the aaiunc^e.
franchise. The " mixed " communes are under am admioistret*
nominated by the governor-general and assisted by a nrox&ci^i
council composed of Europeans and natives. These comssaa
are large areas, each containing several towns or villages, lata
territoires du commandant the mixed commune is presided *c
by a military officer who fulfils the duties of mayor. Native cce-
munes are organized on the same plan as those last mentkeed
It will be seen that communes do not correspond with any natial
unit. The unit among the Mahommedans is the deuar, a trSii
division administered by a cadi. The communes with full pems
have each for centre a town with a considerable Eoropesa
population.
By decree of the 14th of August 1005, the frontier betaet
Saharan territory dependent on Algeria and that attached e
French West Africa was laid down. The Algerian Sahara «*
divided into four territories, officially named Tuggurt, Ghaxdia,
Ain Sefra and the Saharan Oases C^uat, Gurara and Tidike*
The governor-general represents the territories in tivfl afus,
the budget is distinct from that of Algeria and an annual $J>
vention is provided by France.
Finance. — Revenue is derived chiefly from direct taxabof,
customs and monopolies. The heaviest item of expecdite?
chargeable on the Algerian budget is on public works* port
and telegraphs and agriculture. Algeria has had a bmipi
distinct from that of France since 1901. This budget indda
all the expenses of Algeria save the cost of the army (estisitd
at £2,000,000 yearly) and the guarantee of interest 00 tit
railways open before 1001. Both these items are bom by
France. The Algerian budget for 1006 showed revenoe v'
expenditure balancing at £3,820,000. The country has a drfe
(1905), including capital, annuities and interest, of sect
£3,400,000.
Defence.— The military force constitutes the XIX. inrt
corps of the French army. There are in addition a territon)
army reserve and a special body of troops, largely Arab, for t*t
defence of the Saharan territory. The troops quartered £
Algeria exceed 50,000. The defence of the coast is provided b
the French navy.
Land Tenure. — The colonization of Algeria by the Freed
has been greatly hampered by the system of land tenure vfad
they found in force. Except among the Kabyles, private
property in land was unknown. Amongst the Arabs, h*k
were either held in common by a whole tribe, under a testft
known as the arch or sabegka, or sometimes, especially is t k c
towns, under a modified form of freehold (mdk) by the family
At the same time the boundaries of property were ill defied
and difficult to determine. This system made it impossible fc
French immigrants to obtain land by lawful transfer. Tltf
only lands at the outset available for settlement were, ia fact
the confiscated domains of the dey. The obvious solution d
the difficulty was to encourage the free movement of real estate
by substituting private ownership for the traditional systes
Before doing this, however, it was necessary to define tbf
limits of tribal properties already existing — a work of peal
difficulty— with a view to their ultimate division, and at the
same time to guard against any premature traffic in the nffits
ALGERIA
649
of Arabs in the lands about to be divided. A Unatus-consulte
of 1863 laid the basis for the change in the land system by
providing (x) for the delimitation of the territory of each tribe,
Ca) for the repartition of the territory thus delimited among
newly formed tribal divisions (douars or communes), and (3)
for the recognition of private ownership by the issue of title
deeds for such individual or family property (mdk) as already
existed. The purpose of this excellent law, which would have
laid firmly the basis for gradual change, was defeated by the
impatience of the French colonists. At the instance of their
representatives in the chambers it was abandoned in 1870, and
was not revived till seventeen years later. A law was passed
in 1873, and amended in 1887, legalizing the immediate con-
version of tribal and family property into private freehold.
The result has been disappointing. For the most part, the
Arab tribes have been reluctant to avail themselves of their new
powers, and where they have done so the hasty reversal of the
traditions of centuries has proved demoralizing to the natives,
without any sufficient equivalent in the way of healthy French
colonization. The main profit has been reaped by Jewish
usurers.
The state domains were exhausted by 1870, but were again
replenished by the large confiscations which followed the Arab
revolt of 1 87 1. Government lands were originally given free to
applicants, but with a provisional and insecure title, which
made it impossible for poor colonists to borrow money on their
land. This was modified by a law of 185 z . But ultimately, the
results not being satisfactory, the precedent of Australia was
followed, and by a law of i860 domain lands were sold publicly
at a fixed price. This had the effect of attracting more and a
better class of immigrants,, but was none the less reversed in
1881.
In September 1004. a new scheme, intended to attract more
European settlers, was adopted. The lands of the state —
other than woods and forests— but especially the barren lands
and brushwoods situated in the plains, were offered for coloniza-
tion, to be disposed of (1) by sale at a fixed price, (a) by auction,
and (3), in certain cases, by agreement. Purchasers were to be
Frenchmen, or Europeans naturalized as French citizens, who
had never held " colonization lands "; and they were obliged,
under pain of forfeiture, either to take up residence themselves
on their property within six months and to live on it and exploit
it for a period of ten years, or else to place on the land another
family fulfilling the same conditions. If the purchaser farmed
the land himself and made satisfactory progress, the period
of obligatory residence was reduced to five years. When
the interests of colonization required it, free gifts of land
might be made; in which case the grantee must himself
exploit his concession. In no case might land acquired
under this scheme be let to natives until after the expiration
of ten years.
For the purpose of creating villages, land was put at the
disposition of societies or individuals, who undertook to people
them with immigrants fulfilling the same conditions as inde-
pendent settlers. Two-thirds of the villagers were to be French
immigrants, the other third Frenchmen or naturalized French-
men already settled in Algeria. To favour the establishment of
special industries, the governor-general was given power to
authorize the introduction of foreign instead of French immi-
grants. The societies or individuals undertaking village settle-
ments must do so from philanthropic motives, inasmuch as
within two years of the founding of a village, the land, under
pain of forfeiture to the state, must be transferred gratuitously
to the villagers. As will be seen, settlement on the land by
Europeans is hampered by official restrictions, especially by
the stringent regulations as to residence.
Justice.— Two judicial systems exist in Algeria— native and
French. Native courts decide suits between Mahommedans.
From the decision of the cadis appeal lies to the French courts.
The French system provides, for civil cases, a court of first
instance in each of the sixteen arrondissements into which the
country is divided. A court of appeal sits at Algiers. There are
also tribunals of commerce and justices of the peace with
extensive jurisdiction. The criminal courts are organized as in
France. Trial by jury has been introduced; but as natives are
not allowed to act as jurymen this has often led to serious
miscarriages of justice and to excessive severities.
Whilst modifications of the law require special legislation or
decree, it has been legally decided that all laws in force in
France before the conquest of the country (i.e. those anterior
to the sand of July 1834) are in force in Algeria. In
practice the courts allow themselves wide latitude in applying
this principle.
Education.— The system of education is complicated by the
co-existence of Mahommedan and Christian communities.
Before the arrival of the French two kinds of instruction
were given, reading and writing being taught in the ordinary
schools and higher education— largely theological— in medressas
(colleges), usually attached to the chief mosques. Attempts
by the French to improve the education of the natives were at
first marked by hesitation and long periods in which little or
nothing was done. The provision for the instruction of the
European and Jewish population was also inadequate. In
1883 a law was passed for the reorganization of the systems in
force, and primary instruction was made compulsory for Euro-
peans and Jews, whilst in the case of Mahommedans discretion
in the establishment of schools was vested in the governor-
general.
Attempts are made to assimilate the Mahommedan population
by means of Franco-Arab primary and secondary schools, which
supplement the purely French and purely Arab establishments
of the same character. These attempts meet with little success,
owing in part to racial prejudice and in part to the indifference
of the Arabs to education. Few Moslems attend the secondary
schools. Purely Mahommedan higher schools exist at Algiers,
Tlemcen and Constantine. From these establishments the ranks
of native officials are recruited. There is one secondary school
for Moslem girls. The education provided for Europeans
resembles in most respects that given in France. (The lyctcs at
Algiers, Oran and Constantine are open to Mahommedans, but
few take advantage of them.) Besides the government schools
there are establishments conducted by clerics and laymen. The
best girls' schools are generally those kept by nuns. At Algiers
there is an establishment with faculties of law, medicine and
pharmacy, science and letters. At Oran is a college for European
girls. The scholars attending primary schools number about
150,000 (over 100,000 being Europeans and some 15,000 Jewish)
and those at secondary schools about 6000. (F. R. C.)
Histoky
From a geographical point of view Algeria, together with
Morocco and Tunisia, from which it is separated only by artificial
and purely political frontiers, forms a distinct country,
which it is convenient to designate by the name of miaor.
Africa Minor. Both historically and geographically,
Africa Minor belongs much more to the Mediterranean world
than to the African. All the foreign invaders who successively
established their dominion over this country either crossed
the Mediterranean or followed its shores. The Phoenicians,
the Romans, the Vandals, the Byzantines, the Arabs, the Turks
and the French, all came from the east or from the north. The
history of Africa Minor is the history of all those foreigners
who have successively endeavoured to exploit this land, the
history of their divers civilizations struggling against an ever-
renascent barbarism.
The political divisions of Africa Minor have changed many
times, for, as the country has no natural centre, many towns
have aspired to play the role of capital. The rivalry of these
towns is intimately connected with the struggles and insurrections
which have stained the land with blood. The existing division —
viz. Morocco, Algeria and Tunisia— dates back to the time of the
Turkish dominion. It is since that time only that the expression
Algeria has been in use.
At the beginning of the i6th century the native dynasties
650
ALGERIA
which divided Africa Minor between them— the Marinides at Fez,
the Abd-el- Wahid at Tlemccn, and the Hafsides at Tunis— were
without strength and without authority. Two nations,
then at the height of their power, Spain and Turkey,
disputed the empire of the Mediterranean. The
Spaniards took Mers-el-Kebir (1505), Oran (1509), and
Bougie and Tripoli (1510). Two Turkish corsairs, Arouj and his
brother, Khair-ed-Din (otherwise known as Barbarossa), at first
established in the island of Jerba and afterwards at Jijelli,
disputed with the Spaniards the dominion of the country. Arouj
seized Algiers (1516); Khair-ed-Din, succeeding him in 1518,
did homage for his conquest to the sultan at Constantinople, who
named him beylcrbey and sent him soldiers (1519). Then began
the struggle of the Turks with Spain. In 1 541 the emperor
Charles V. undertook a great expedition against Algiers. He
succeeded in landing, and proceeded to attack the town. But
during the night of the 26th of October a violent storm destroyed
a great part of his fleet. His provisions and his ammunition were
lost, his army was compelled to retreat with considerable loss,
and the emperor had to re-embark with the remnant of his troops.
This check completely discouraged the Spaniards and assured
success to the Turks. The Spanish garrisons established in the
coast towns, badly paid and left without reinforcements, had
difficulty in defending themselves. In the end, the only towns
the Spaniards retained on the Algerian coast were Oran and
Mers-el-Kebir. These two towns, taken by the Turks m 1708
and retaken by the Spaniards in 1732,. were finally abandoned in
1791.
Under the Turkish dominion Algeria had originally at its head
a beylerbey resident at Algiers. He controlled three beys: —
the bey of Titeri in the south, the bey of the east at
Constantine, and the bey of the west who resided at
Mascara and afterwards at Oran. These three beys
existed till 1 830. The beylerbeys were replaced in x 587 by pashas
sent triennially by the Porte. But the authority of these pashas,
strangers to the country, was always precarious. They found
themselves, in fact, in conflict with two forces, which in principle
were in their service, but which in reality held the power — the
talfle des reu, otherwise called the corporation of the corsairs
(see Barbary Pirates), and the janissaries, a kind of military
democracy in which each member was promoted according to
seniority. In 1669 the corsairs drove out the pasha, and put into
his place a dey elected by themselves. After some fruitless
attempts Turkey ceased to send pashas to Algiers — where they
were not allowed even to land — and thus recognized the de facto
independence of this singular republic. The authority of the
deys, moreover, was scarcely more solid than that of the pashas.
They trembled before the janissaries, who from the 18th century
elected and deposed them at their pleasure.
The relations which the European powers were able to maintain
with northern Africa were at that time difficult and uncertain.
Ships trading in the Mediterranean were seized by the corsairs,
who pillaged the coasts of Europe, carried off their captives to
Algiers, and destroyed the fishing and commercial settlements
founded by the Marseillais on the shores of Africa. The Christian
governments either uttered useless and impotent complaints
at Constantinople, or endeavoured to negotiate directly with
Algiers, as in the case of the negotiations of Sanson Napollon
during the ministry of Richelieu. More rarely their patience
became exhausted, and ships were sent to bombard this nest
of pirates. Two naval demonstrations were made by France
during the reign of Louis XIV., one by Abraham Duquesne
in 1682, and the other by Marshal' Jean d'Estrees in 1688, but
these repressive measures were too intermittent to produce a
durable effect.
In 181 5 at the congress of Vienna, and in 1818 at the congress
of Aix-la-Chapelle, the powers endeavoured to concert measures
to put an end to the Barbary piracy. Nevertheless the naval
demonstrations made by Lord Exmouth in 1816, and by a com-
bined English and French squadron in 1819, remained equally
fruitless. But the result which the European powers in concert
had been unable to achieve, was brought about by the accidental
circumstances which led France to undertake alone aa epd
lion against Algiers.
Some difficulties had arisen between France and the ds? 1
Algiers with reference to the debts contracted to Bas^
Busnach, two Algerine Jews who had supplied corn to ^^
the French government under the Directory. This ^^
question of interest would not have been sufficient in o»
itself to bring about a rupture, but the situation became
acute when the dry, Hussein, struck the French consel. Dpx
on the face with his fly-flap (April 30, 1827). Tbereupca ~
port of Algiers was blockaded. The minister of war. the &: :
Germont-Tonnerre, would have gone further, but the dkejc
of the council, the comte de Villele, opposed the sen&sg af a
expedition, while in the Martignac ministry M. de la FeirocsA
minister of foreign affairs, was bent upon negotiating. It bsbsz
a second insult — the firing on " La Provence," a vesad arrvz;
a flag of truce, in the harbour of Algiers (August 3, iSjs—
to spur the French government to further acrjoo thaa u in-
effectual blockade. An expedition against Algiers was tic
decided upon, and Marshal de Bounnont, the minHfrr d «r
himself took the command. On the 14th of June x 830 the F:r~
troops landed at Sidi-Ferruch. On the 19th of June tbej ^
the enemy at Staoueli. On the 4th of July Xhtfert dt TEmfev
was blown up. On the 5th of July Algiers capitulated. »
days later the dey was deported, as well as the greater part « At
janissaries. Those who were not married were conveyed -jzs*
diatcly to Asia Minor; the rest had permission to remain, bat a
fact they left the country soon afterwards.
Meanwhile the revolution of July 1830 had broken ed e
France. The new government found itself very much em-
barrassed by the situation bequeathed by the Restoration- !*»
more serious section in parliament were frankly opposed u 1*
idea of conquering or of colonizing Algeria; on the other fern
popular sentiment was hostile to evacuation. The Fm£
government— fearing to displease the other powers by fo£a«3
up its conquest, and hampered in particular by its engagtar*
towards England, yet conscious that the only means of pstt'j
an end to the piracy was to remain— decided provtsiona&f s
favour of that intermediate system, called restricted occuneo*
which consisted in occupying merely the principal seaports aad
awaiting events. The Algerians extricated the government i&
its difficulty by attacking the French troops, who were ob^-
to defend themselves. The natives gained some successes, *£
it became necessary to avenge the honour of the nag. In *•**
gradual manner were the French led to conquer Algeria.
General Bertrand Clausel, who succeeded Marshal dcBounrx-
was one of the few men who at that period dreamed of concoct
and colonizing Algeria. His enthusiastic confidence tar* ~
obstacles. If the dey had left, the three beys remained. *>*
the feeble resources at his disposal Clausel undertook an esprc
tion against Bu-Meyrag, the bey of Titeri, took from hin S.-J
and Medea, dismissed him, replaced him by a successor dnx*-
to France, and returned to Algiers after having left a gar^s*
in Medea. Then, not having the means of directly extemhsx '■*
rule of France to the east or west, Clausel devised a systea -
protectorates. He negotiated directly with the bey of T-»
with a view to installing as beys at Oran and Constantine Tuaiȣ
princes who recognized the authority of France. But the errs*
which were taking place in Europe made it imperative to sts!
home a part of the army of Africa, and Medea had to *
evacuated. At the same time the negotiations set on foot w -
the bey of Tunis were censured by the government, and Gener-
Clausel was recalled (February 1831).
The period of uncertainty was prolonged under his success**
General Pierre Berthezene (February to December i5;i'
A. J. M. R. Savary, due de Rovigo (December 1831 to Miri
1833), General A vizard (March to April 1833), and General Varol
(April 1833 to September 1834). The French, not yet crrtiis
whether or not they would retain Algeria, remained oa tk
defensive. At the time they occupied only the three tows d
Algiers, Bona and Oran, with their suburbs, where their stuitwc
was moreover singularly precarious. The Arabs would pittaft
ALGERIA
6 S i
he suburbs and run away. Sometimes they cut off supplies by
e&aing to bring provisions to the market, but the French were
tot to be turned aside by such tactics.
At Algiers the energies of the French were devoted to protect-
og themselves against the incursions of the Hajutas. This was
sufficient to absorb the attention of the general-in-chief, who left
J*e guardianship of the east and west to the initiative of the
generals established at Bona and Oram At Bona, where General
Monk d'Uzer was in command till 1836, things went fairly well.
Kt. once firm and conciliatory, he had been able to attach to the
French cause the natives whom the cruelty of Ahmed, bey of
ConsUntine, had alienated. The occupation of Bougie by
General Camille Alphonse Trezel in October 1833 gave theFrench
bv footing at another point of this eastern province. But at Oran,
wrnere General Desmichels had succeeded General P. F.X. Boyer
in the spring of 1833, their situation was much less favourable.
There the French had found a redoubtable adversary in the
young Abd-el-Kader, who had been proclaimed amir at Mascara
in 1833.
A man of rare intelligence, a fearless horseman and an eloquent
orator. Abd-el-Kader had acquired a great reputation by his
piety. He reuni ted under his sway the tribes that had
hitherto been divided, and infused a unique spirit into
their resistance. For fifteen years he held the French
In check, treating on terms of equality with their government.
Moreover, the treaty which General Desmichels had the weakness
to sign with him on the 24th of February 1834 greatly improved
bis position. In pursuance of this treaty, French officers were to
represent their country at the court of the amir; while the amir
on his part was represented in the three French coast towns,
Oran, Arzeu and Mostaganem, by vakils who immediately
began to act as masters of the natives. Such was the situation
at the period when, the French having at last resolved to keep
Algeria, the ordinance of the 22nd of July 1834 laid down the
bases of the political and administrative organization of the
" French possessions in the north of Africa," at the head of
-which was placed a governor-general But this date (July
23, 1834), very important from a judicial point of view, U
much less so from a historical point of view. The position of
the first governor-general, Jean Baptiste Drouet d'Erlon (1765-
1844), remained fully as precarious as that of his predecessor.
During this time the power of Abd-el-Kader increased. Master
of the province of Oran, he crossed the Shelif at the appeal of
the natives, the people flocking to witness his progress as that of
an emperor. He entered Miliana and Medea, where be installed
beys of his own choice. All the western part of Algeria belonged
to him. General Trezel, who had succeeded General Desmichels
at Oran, resolved to march against the amir, but was defeated
on the banks of the Macta (June 1835). This defeat shook
public opinion. Drouet d'Erlon was recalled and replaced by
Marshal Clausel.
In short, five years after the capitulation of Algiers, the French
dominion extended as yet over only sis coast towns. Clausel,
who returned with the same colonial ambitions as in 1830,
resolved to conquer the interior of the country. He marched
against the amir, defeated him and entered Mascara. Then he
proceeded to deliver the inhabitants of Tlemcen, who had been
attacked by Abd-el-Kader, and there be left a garrison. Turning
towards the east, Clausel organized at Bona the first expedition
against Constantine. This failed, and the only result of it was
the occupation of Guelma. Clausel was recalled and replaced
by General C. M. D. Damremont (February 1837). The task of
maintaining the position of France was then divided between
Thomas Robert Bugeaud (1784-1840), acting independently
in the west, and Damremont, who directed all his efforts towards
the east By the signature of the celebrated treaty of the
Tafna (June 1, 1837). Bugeaud made peace with Abd-el-
Kader In return for a vague recognition of the sovereignty of
France in Africa, this treaty gave up to the amir the whole of
western Algeria France reserved to herself only Oran and its
environs, Mazagran. Algiers and the Metija; she gave up
Tlemcen and the Uteri beylik. This was a triumph for Abd-el-
Kader, who regarded the peace as but a truce which would allow
him time to gain strength to resume the war under more favour-
able conditions.
Damrlmont, on his part, directed a second expedition on
Constantine. The town was taken, but Damrlmont was killed
(October 1837). Marshal Sylvain Charles Valee (1773-1846),
who replaced him, founded Philippeville to serve as a seaport
for the region of Constantine, occupied Jijelli, and at the head
of the expeditionary column returned from Constantine to
Algiers by the interior, passing through Setif and les Portes
de fer. Abd-el-Kader maintained that the French had thus
violated the treaty of the Tafna, and began the war again.
For two years his power had been increasing. A whole hierarchy
of khalifas, aghas and caids obeyed him. He had a regular
army of 8000 infantry and aooo cavalry, without counting
50,000 gaums (bodies of Arab horsemen) brought by the khalifas.
He was well furnished with war material, possessing magazines
and arsenals in the heart of the Tell. He had attacked and
subjugated all who were not willing to recognize his authority.
Under his influence old rivalries were effaced; at his voice all
the tribes joined in the holy war. On the 18th of November
1839 he sent his declaration of war to Marshal Val£e, but the
impatient Hajutas had already devastated the Metija. Marshal
Val6e marched against Abd-el-Kader, and at first gained some
successes: the French occupied Cherchel, Medea and Miliana.
But at the end of 1840 Valee was recalled and replaced by
Bugeaud, who adopted totally different tactics. The system of
Marshal Valee had been the defensive: he multiplied the forti-
fied posts in order to draw the enemy to *spot chosen beforehand.
Bugeaud resolutely adopted the offensive, reduced the weight
carried by the soldiers in order to increase the mobility of his
troops, and carried the war into the province of Oran, from
which Abd-el-Kader drew his principal resources. One after
the other all the magazines of the amir— those at Takdempt,
Boghar, Taza, Saida and Sebdu— were taken and destroyed.
In the spring of 1843 the due d'Aumale had an opportunity
of surprising the smda (camp) of Abd-el-Kader near Taguin.
This was a serious blow for the amir, whose determination to
continue the contest was, however, as strong as ever. He took
refuge in Morocco, and induced that power to declare war on
the French on the pretext that they would not give up the
frontier post of Lalla-Maghnia. Morocco was soon vanquished.
While Francois, prince de Joinville, was bombarding Tangier and
Mogador, Bugeaud gained the victory of the Isly (August 1844).
Morocco signed a treaty of peace at Tangier on the 10th of
September 1844.
The struggle, however, was not ended. Islam made a supreme
effort in Algeria. The Dahra and the Warsenis rose at the voice
of a fanatic called Bu-Maza (" the goat man "), a Kkuon of
the order of the Mouley-Taleb. Elsewhere other " masters of
the hour," false Bu-Mazas, rose. Abd-el-Kader reappeared in
Algeria, which he overran with a rapidity which baffled all
pursuit. He beat the French at Sidi Brahim, raided the tribes
of the Tell Oranais which had abandoned him, penetrated as
far as the borders of the Metija, and reached the Jurjura, where
he endeavoured to rouse the Kabyles. But his eloquence
offended the narrow and cramped particularism of those little
democratic cities, deaf to the sentiment of the common interest.
From that time he played a losing game. He returned toward
the west, penetrating farther and farther to the south. Badly
received by the great aristocratic family of the Walid-sidi-
Sheikh, he re-entered Morocco, but the emperor of that country,
dreading his influence and fearing difficulties with the French,
drove him out. This was the end. On the 23rd of December
1847 Abd-el-Kader surrendered to General Lamoricie're in the
plains of Sidi-Brahim. His adversary, Bugeaud, was there no
longer. Having failed to persuade the French government to
adopt his plans of military colonization, he had retired in June
1847 and had been replaced by the due d'Aumale.
The surrender of Abd-el-Kader marks the end of the period
of the conquest It is true that Great Kabylia had to be subdued
only ten years later, and that terrible insurrections still had to
6 5 2
ALGERIA
be quelled. But at the end of the reign of Louis Philippe the
essential work was accomplished. All that remained was to
complete and to secure it.
Under the second republic Algeria was governed successively
by Generals L. E. Cavaignac (February to April 1848), N. A. T.
Changarnier (April to September ia48),V.Charon( Sep-
tember 1848 to October 1850), and A. H. d'Hautppul
(October 1850 to December 1851). The policy followed
at this period consisted in assimilating Algeria to France. Im-
portant efforts were made to attract French colonists to the
country, the colonization of Algeria appearing as a means
towards the extinction of pauperism in the mother-country.
This point of view suggested numerous projects, as chimerical
as they were generous; two millions sterling (50 million francs)
were expended with a view to installing Parisian unemployed
workmen as colonists, but this attempt failed miserably. The
most remarkable military events of this period were (1) the siege
and destruction of the oasis of Zaatcha, where the inhabitants,
displeased by an alteration in the tax on palms, rose at the voice
of a fanatic named Bu-Zian; (2) the ineffectual campaign of
Marshal Saint Arnaud in Little Kabylia, where the tribes rose
at the instigation of Bu-Magla (" the mule man ") in 1851.
Marshal J. L. C. A. Randon (1 705-1871), named governor-
general of Algeria after the coup d'itat, had at first to repress
in the south a rising of a new " master of the hour," Mahomet
ben Abdallah, the sherif of Wargla. A column seized Laghouat
(El Aghuat) in December 1852. Si-Hamza, leader of the Walid-
sidi- Sheikh, an ally of France, indignant at the growing influence
of a base-born agitator, pursued him and seized Wargla (1853).
In 1854 General Desvaux entered Tuggurt. Henceforth matters
remained quiet in the region of the Sahara, and Marshal Randon
turned his efforts towards Kabylia. Neither the Romans nor
the Turks had been able to subdue this square mountainous
tract, of which Bougie, Setif, Aumale and Dellys form the four
corners. But in two months (May to June 1857) Marshal Randon
made himself master of it, and built in the heart of this country
Fort Napoleon (now Fort National), " the thorn in the side of
Kabylia," whose batteries commanded all the Kabyle villages
of the region.
In 1858 the creation of a " ministry of Algeria and of the
colonics " brought about the resignation of Marshal Randon.
The administrative headquarters of Algeria was then transferred
from Algiers to Paris. The ministry of Algeria was entrusted
first to Prince Napoleon, and afterwards to the marquis J. N. S. P.
de Chasseloup-Laubat (1805-1873). But this office, created at
the least prematurely, soon disappeared without causing any
regrets. This ephemeral regime lasted from the 24th of June
1858 to the 24th of November i860. The decree of the 24th
of November i860 transferred the services from Paris back to
Algiers, and re-established the functions of governor-general,
which were exercised at the end of the second empire first by
Marshal Pelissier, due de Malakoff (December i860 to September
1864) and then by Marshal MacMahon, due de Magenta (Sep-
tember 1864 to July 1870). At this period the conception of
the Arab kingdom was prevalent. The emperor Napoleon III.,
in a celebrated letter, wrote that he was as much the emperor of
the Arabs as the emperor of the French. Algeria was considered
as a kind of great military fief, and the officers who ruled there
commonly took the side of the native chieftains against the civil
population. European colonization, hampered by the ill-will
of the Arab bureaux, then made little progress.
It was at this period that the great insurrection of the Walid-
sidi-Sheikh broke out in the Sud Oranais. This powerful family
itevaft 0/ ***<* *' ve< * up lo tftat ** mt on * g00( * understanding w ' tn
1864-1871. France; Si-Hamza, chief of the elder branch, had re-
mained until his death (1861) a faithful ally of France.
Thanks to him, the security of the southern frontier was
assured. But after his death his son, Si-Sliman, imbued with
anti-French sentiments, revolted in 1864 and massacred the
Beauprelre column. Several years were occupied in quelling the
insurrection. Compelled to guard themselves on the south
against the Walid-sidi-Sheikh.the French realized how much they
lost by not having the support of these great chiefuim. TV-
then accepted the services offered to them by Si-SKa»»-Sr>
Kadour, chief of the younger branch of the Walid-sdi-Sbeii
who maintained tranquillity in the Sud Oranais during the pa:
insurrection of Kabylia U11871.
The causes of this insurrection were manifold, and, more?*:
interdependent: the injury done to the military pre&it J
France by its defeats in Europe; the fall of the imperial frag-
ment, in which, in the eyes of the natives, the authority of Frus
was incarnate; and the insults offered with impunity is ir
streets by the civil population to the officers, who were loved a:
respected by the Arabs, at the same time that the decree 1
Adolpbe Cremieux accorded to the Algcrine Jews the rigks a
French citizens. The great native chiefs, bewildered and <hr
quieted, thought themselves menaced. The insurrectios «u
inevitable. Mokrani, bach-agha of the Mejana, whos v*
imperial government had loaded with honours, gave the sgsii
He had an interview with El Haddad, the sheikh of the Ki^r»-
the religious confraternity of Sidi-Abd-er-Rahnmn, whose j-
fluence was great, and having secured his support in April iS-
Mokrani proclaimed the holy war At the bidding of E3 Had hi
the whole of Kabylia rose, and numbers of French colonists »r:
massacred; the columns of Colonel Ceres and General F. G
Saussier had to engage in numerous fights. The death oi i>*
bach-agha at the battle of Suflat, the submission of the Sheikh C
Haddad, and finally the arrest of Bu-Meyrag. brother of Motas*
mark the declining stages of the insurrection, which was cms-
pletely suppressed by August 1871. A heavy wax contribute
was imposed upon the rebels and their lands were sequestrated.
The Beni-Manassir, who rose almost at the same time ia the
Dahra, were subdued soon after. Subsequently the ml*
population of the Algerine Tell remained quiet, the massacre :.
the colonists at Margueritte many years later being a local tr-
isolated movement.
Under the third republic Algeria was governed successive!) i;<
Admiral L. H. de Gueydon (March 1871 to June 1873). Genr-
A. E. A. Chanzy (June 1873 to February 1879),
J. P. L. Albert Grevy (March 1879 to November 1881), s*
Tirman (November 1881 to April 1801), Jules Cambon
(April 1 89 1 to September 1897), Louis Lepine (September i*v
to August 1808), E. J. Laferrttre (August 1808 to October to»
Charles Jonnart (October 1000 to June 1001), A. J. P. Rem
(June 1 00 1 to April 1903), and again Jonnart. During the £0:
years of the new regime a keen reaction was produced against the
political system of the imperial government in Africa. Thro-
territory was considerably enlarged at the expense of the miliurv
An effort was made to attract French colonists to Algeria t>
gratuitous concessions of land. Some lands were granted £
particular to natives of Alsace-Lorraine, who preferred 10 rex-
French nationality after the war. Peasants from the soutk <*
France, whose vines had been destroyed by the phyilcien
crossed the Mediterranean and established in Algeria an <"
portant vineyard. This double current of immigration notati}
increased the French population of North Africa. The teadero
then was to treat Algeria as a piece of France. This assimtUii"
policy attained its culminating point in the so-called decree* *
ratlackement (1881), in pursuance of which each ministeraJ
department in France was made responsible for Algerine afrto
which came by their nature within its jurisdiction
After a great inquiry held in 1892 by a senatorial coouniiw*
reaction was produced in France against this excessive assior>
tion. The system of raUackcmcnt was in great part abandott--
and decentralization was obtained by augmenting the poven d
the governor-genera), and by granting to Algeria legal persoiak*
and a special budget (see above, Central Covemmtnl). The*
reforms appear to have given satisfaction to Algerian opioioc
Profoundly troubled as Algeria was in the last years of the »oti
century by the anti-Semitic agitation, which occasioned freqnesi
changes of governors, it appears to-day to have turned aside fan
sterile political struggles to interest itself exclusively is uk
economic development of the country.
The movement of expansion towards the south wis continued
ALGHERO— ALGIERS
653
nder the third republic. In 1873 General G. A. A. Gallifet
ntered El Golea. In 1882 the oasis of Mzab was annexed. In
he Sud Oranais an insurrection, fomented by a marabout named
tu-Amama, broke out in 1881, and the insurgents massacred the
European labourers engaged in the collection of alfa (or esparto)
rass. But soon the French columns re-established peace, and
tu-Amama had to take refuge in Morocco. In 1883 Si-Hamza,
hief of the elder branch of the Walid-sidi-Sheikh, made his
ubmission, and since then that family has remained devoted to
: rance.
The attempts at penetration into the extreme south, abandoned
fter the massacre by Tuareg of a mission sent in 1881, under
Colonel Paul Flatters, to study the question of railway com-
lunication with Senegal, were begun again in 1800, in which
car the British government recognized the western Sahara as
rithin the French sphere. Since then military stations and
cientific and commercial exploration have increased. But the
esults of these efforts remained inconsiderable until the spring
f 1900, when the French authorities decided to occupy the oases
f Gurara, Tuat and Tidikelt. This being accomplished by
rlarch 1901, the conquest of the Algerine Sahara was from that
imc completed, and nothing any longer hindered the attempts to
oin Algeria and the Sudan across the Sahara. (A. Gir.)
Bibliography. — For a general account of Algeria, se* Maurice
Vahl, L'AlghU (<th ed., Paris, 1908J; P. Leroy-Beau A
t TunisU (2nd ed., Paris, 1897); I. A. Battandier and L "I r . . 1 - ■ 1 ■ t
VAlghU; U sol et Us habitants (Paris, 1898), specialty valuable
or agriculture and fauna; Arthur Girault, Principes de tipfi
ion et de legislation coloniale, Tome Hi. ch. i-Viii. '{3rd ■&, Paris,
908). containing valuable bibliographies of works n-Uiifte co
egislation, jurisprudence, &c; Jules Duval, L'Alghie et U\ trf&hiss
rancaises (Paris, 1877). The Statistique ginhaU de FAlahU ls
mbhshed periodically by the Algerian government. The Bmi-h
•"oreign Office publishes annual Reports on the Trade of Altr*ta;
>ir R. Lambert Playfair's Handbook for Travellers tn Algeria
Murray's Handbooks), corrected to 1002, is a capital gunk 10 the
ountry. as is also Algirie et TunisU (Paris, 1900), in "the < iui.les-
oanne Series; the Bibliography of Algeria (London, 18 88). ami the
supplement to the Bibliography of Algeria (London, \<^a„ L, Sir
.ambert Playfair, contain thousands of entries and many notes.
. A. Battandier and L. Trabut, Flore de VAlghU (Algiers and
'ari*. 1884 and onwards), contains a scientific and descriptive
atalogue, in several volumes, of the indigenous flora. For the
;cology * »•-—•- " * - * -
inirale
*. Gentil, _ _ _ _
he Bull. Soe. Ciol. France, and Comtt. Rend. Acad. Set. The
rolumes of the International Geological Congress review Algerian
:eology. The French government publication, Exploration scUn-
ifique de VAlgtrU (20 vols., 1844-1853), gives the results of in-
. . - - q rjepont • « ~ ■ •
of Algeria, sec M. A. Pomel, Description stratigraphique
de V Algirie (1889), and numerous papers by E. Ftcheur,
il. G. Rolland, P. Thomas, and J. Webch will be found in
estimations made in 1840-1842.
jes ConfrhUs rdigUuses musulmanes (Algiers, 1897), and CarU de
Algirie . . . domaine geographioue des confrhUs (Algiers, 1898),
lave special reference to the Islamic sects in Algeria. Stephane
Ssell's Les monuments antiques de V Algirie (2 vols., Paris, 1901). one
»f the publications of the Service des monuments historiques of the
olony. is an authoritative and finely illustrated work on the an-
iquities of Algeria. For archaeology see also the bibliography in
Vfrica, Roman.
The best elementary work on the history of Algeria is that of Cat,
9 etite histoire de VAlghU (Algiers, 1889). For more profound re-
carches consult: (a) for the Turkish period: H. D. de Gramont,
Itstoirc d' Alger sous la domination torque (1887): Mercier, Histoire
>e I'Afrtque sepUntrionaU (1888-1891); Eugene Plantet, Correspon-
dence des deys d' Alger avec la cour de France (1889-1892); Paul
t1a«son, Histoire des itablissements et du commerce franeais dans
Afrique barbaresque (1903); General Faure-Biguet, Histoire de
'Afrtque septentrumale sous la domination musulmane (1905);
b) for the French period: Camillc Rousset, La Conquiie d' Alger
8th ed., 1899), Les Commencements d'une conquiU: VAlghU de
Sjo d 1840, with atlas (1887). and La Conquite de VAlghU, 1841-
857. with atlas (1889): Pehssier. Annates alghUnnes (1854); Leon
toches, Trenle-deux ans a trovers V Islam (1884-1887): Colonel
Trumclet, Histoire de r insurrection des OuUd-Stdi-Cheik (1887);
<inn. Histoire de V insurrection de 1871 (1801).
The best general maps are those of the CarU de VAlghU, in
lumcrous sheets, on the scale of 1 : 50,000 (published by the Service
iographique de VAmUe, Paris). (F. R. C.)
ALGHERO, a seaport and episcopal see on the W. coast of
Sardinia, in the province of Sassari, 21 m. S.S.W. by rail from
he town of Sassari. Pop. (1001) 10,779. The see was founded
n 1503, but the cathedral itself dates from the 12th century,
though it has been reconstructed. The town was strongly
fortified by medieval walls, which have to some extent been
demolished. It was originally founded by the Doria family of
Genoa about 1x02, but was occupied by the house of Aragon in
1354, who held it successfully against various attacks until it
fell to the house of Savoy with the rest of Sardinia in 1720.
Catalonian is still spoken here. Charles- V. visited Alghero on his
way to Africa in 1541. The coral and fishing industries are the
most important in Alghero, but agriculture has made some
progress in the district, which produces good wine. There is a
large penal establishment containing over 700 convicts. Seven
miles to the W.N.W. is the fine natural harbour of Porto Conte,
secure in all weather, and on the W. of this harbour is the Capo
Caccia, with two stalactite grottos, the finest of which, the
Grotta di Nettuno, is accessible only from the sea. The important
prehistoric necropolis of Anghelu Ruju was excavated in 1004
6i m. N. of Alghero (NotizU degli Scavi, 1904, 301 seq.).
ALGIDUS MONS, a portion of the ridge forming the rim of the
larger crater of the Alban volcano (see Albanus Mons) and more
especially the eastern portion, traversed by a narrow opening
(now called the Cava d'Aglio) of which the Via Latins took
advantage, and which frequently appears in the early military
history of Rome. That a distinct town existed (Dion. Halic,
x. 2i, xi. 3) on the mountain is improbable; there must have
been a fortified post, but the extensive castle on the hill (Maschio
d'Ariano) to the south of the Via Latina is entirely medieval,
a fact which has not been recognised by some topographers.
ALGIERS (Fr. Alger, Arab. Jaair, i.e. The Islands), capital
and largest city of Algeria, North Africa, seat of the governor*
general, of a court of appeal, and of an archbishop, and station
of the French XIX. corps d'armie. It is situated on the west
side of a bay of the Mediterranean, to which it gives its name,
in 36 47' N., 3 4' E., and is built on the slopes of the Sahel, a
chain of bills parallel to the coast The view of the city from the
sea is one of great beauty. Seen from a distance it appears like
a succession of dazzling white terraces rising from the water's
edge. The houses being seemingly embowered in the luxuriant
verdure of the Sahel, the effect is imposing and picturesque,
and has given rise to the Arab comparison of the town to a
diamond set in an emerald frame. The city consists of two
parts; the modern French town, built on the level ground by
the seashore, and the ancient crty of the deys, which climbs the
steep hill behind the modern town and is crowned by the kasbah
or citadel, 400 ft. above the sea. The kasbah forms the apex of
a triangle of which the quays form the base.
Extending along the front of the town is the boulevard de la>
Republique, a fine road built by Sir Morton Peto on a series of
arches, with a frontage of 3700 ft, and bordered on one side by
handsome buildings, whilst a wide promenade overlooking thie
harbour runs along the other. Two inclined roads lead from
the centre of the boulevard to the quay 40 ft. below. On the
quay are the landing-stages, the custom-house and the railway
station. At the southern end of the boulevard de la Republique
is the square de la Republique, formerly the place Bresson, in
which is the municipal theatre; at the other extremity of the
boulevard is the place du Gouvernement, which is planted on
three sides with a double row of plane trees and is the fashionable
resort for evening promenade. The principal streets of the city
meet in the place du Gouvernement: the rue Bab Azoun (Gate
of Grief) which runs parallel to the boulevard de la Republique;
the rue Bab-el-Oued (River Gate) which goes north to the site
of the old arsenal demolished in 1000; the rue de la Marine which
leads to the ancient harbour, and in which are the two principal
mosques. A large part of the modern town lies south of the
square de la Republique; in this quarter are the law courts,
hdtel de villc, post office and other public buildings. The streets
in the modern town are regularly laid out; several are arcaded
on both sides.
The old town presents a strong contrast to the new town.
The streets are narrow, tortuous and inaccessible to carriages.
They often end in a cul-de-sac. The principal street is the
rue de la Kasbah, which leads up to the citadel by 497 steps. The
65+
ALGIERS
streets'are Joined by alleys just wide enough to pass through.
The houses, built of stone and whitewashed, are square, sub-
stantial, flat-topped buildings, presenting to the street bare walls,
with a few slits protected by iron gratings in place of windows.
Each house has a quadrangle in the centre, into which it looks,
and which is entered by a low, narrow doorway. Shops in the
native quarter are simply chambers in the walls of the houses,
and open at the front In these shops the few Moorish industries
are carried on, such as embroidery in gold and silver thread, the
making of kid slippers of every kind and colour, the manufacture
of gold and silver ornaments. To European eyes the native city,
with its motley throng of Moors, Arabs, Jews and negroes, is the
most interesting sight in Algiers. Various squares are set apart
for markets, and here are to be witnessed scenes of the greatest
animation.
The public buildings of chief interest are the kasbah, the
government offices (formerly the British consulate), the palaces
of the governor-general and the archbishop— all these are fine
Moorish houses; the " Grand " and the " New " Mosques,, the
Roman Catholic cathedral of St Philippe, the church of the Holy
Trinity (Church of England), and the Bibliotheque Nationale
d'Alger— a Turkish palace built in 1799-1800. The kasbah was
begun in 15 16 on the site of an older building, and served as the
palace of the deys until the French conquest A road has been
cut through the centre of the building, the mosque turned into
barracks, and the hall of audience allowed to fall into ruin.
There still remain a minaret and some marble arches and columns.
Traces exist of the vaults in which were stored the treasures
of the dey. The Grand Mosque (Jamaa-el-Kebir) is traditionally
said to be the oldest mosque in Algiers. The pulpit (mimbpr)
bears an inscription showing that the building existed in 1018.
The minaret was built by Abu Tachfin, sultan of Tlemcen,
in 1324. The interior of the mosque is square and is
divided into aisles by columns joined by Moorish arches.
The principal facade, in the rue de la Marine, consists of
a row of white marble columns supporting an- arcade. The
New Mosque (Jamaa-el-Jedid), dating from the 17th century,
is in the form of a Greek cross, surmounted by a. large white
cupola, with four small cupolas at the corners. The minaret is
90 ft high. The interior resembles that of the Grand Mosque.
The church of the Holy Trinity (built in 1870) stands at the
southern end of the rue d'Isly near the site of the demolished
Fort Bab Azoun. The interior is richly decorated with various
coloured marbles. Many of these marbles contain memorial
inscriptions relating to the English residents (voluntary and
involuntary) of Algiers from the time of John Tipton, Britsh
consul in 1580. One tablet records that in 1631 two Algerine
pirate crews landed in Ireland, sacked Baltimore, and carried
off its. inhabitants to slavery; another recalls the romantic
escape of Ida M'Donnell, daughter of Admiral Ulric, consul-
general of Denmark, and wife of the British consul. When Lord
Exmouth was about to bombard the dty in 1 816, the British
consul was thrown into prison and loaded with chains. Mrs.
M'Donnell— who was but sixteen— escaped to the British fleet
disguised as a midshipman, carrying' a basket of vegetables
in which her baby was hidden. (Mrs. M'Donnell subsequently
married the due de Talleyrand- Perigord and died at Florence
in 1880). Among later residents commemorated is Edward
Lloyd, who was the first person to show the value of esparto
grass for the manufacture of paper, and thus started an industry
which is one of the most important in Algeria.
The cathedral of St Philippe, built on the site of a mosque, is
in the place Malakoff, next to the governor-general's palace.
In its construction an attempt has been made to produce a build-
ing suitable for Christian worship whilst the architecture is
Moorish in style. The principal entrance, reached by a flight
of 23 steps, is ornamented with a portico supported by four
black-veined marble columns. The roof of the nave is of Moorish
plaster work. It rests on a series of arcades supported by white
marble columns. Several of these columns belonged to the former
mosque.. In one of the chapels is a tomb containing the bones of
San Geronimo. The finding of the remains of the saint in 1853
afforded striking confirmation of an incident recorded by 1
Spanish Benedictine named Haedo, who published a topogram j
of Algeria in 161 2. Haedo sets forth that a young Arab vfao
bad embraced Christianity and had been baptized with the cane
of Geronimo was captured by a Moorish corsair in 1569 and taka
to Algiers. The Arabs endeavoured to induce G«roai»o a
renounce Christianity, but as he steadfastly refused to do m he
was condemned to death. Bound hand and foot he was thrsva
alive into a mould in which a block of concrete was about tc be
made. The block containing his body was built into an ac^e a
the Fort of the Twenty-four Hours, then under constiuctiea.
In 1853 the Fort of the Twenty-four Hours was dcnwfahri
and in the angle specified by Haedo the skeleton of Geronimo to
found. The bones were interred at St Philippe. Into the aazd
left by the saint's body liquid plaster of Paris was ran, and 1
perfect model obtained, showing the features of the youth, tie
cords which bound him, and even the texture of his dot&st
This model is now in the museum at Mustapha (see befoul.
Algiers possesses a college with schools of law, med »ra »,
science and letters. The college buildings are large and ksafr
some. There is also a lycee in which the instruction is sfeiir
to that given in France, and in which Christians, Jews sad
Mahommedans are. educated together. The museum (a suit
institution), formerly housed in the same building as the henry,
was transferred in 1897 to a new building in the suburb «
Mustapha Supeneur. In the museum are some of the ande*
sculptures and mosaics discovered in Algeria, together w$ti
medals and Algerian money. New buildings, to contain speci-
mens of Moslem art, were added in 1003.
The port of Algiers is sheltered from all winds. There are m
harbours, both artificial — the old or northern harbour and tk
southern or Agha harbour. The northern harbour coven u
area of 235 acres. The depth at the entrance is 71 to 108 ft,
and in port from 36 to 66 ft Two government dry docks ra
available for merchant vessels. The quays cover 18,000 sq yds
There are three jetties, north, east and south. Within this he-
hour is the small harbour of the deys, now transformed into 1
wet dock. An opening in the south jetty affords an entire
into Agha harbour, constructed in Agha Bay. This harbos
is formed by the projection of a mole, 2500 ft. in length, free
the eastern jetty of the old harbour. It provides extensta
quayage with a minimum depth of water of 28 ft Agha haxbosr
has also an independent entrance on its southern side. Algies
is the chief coaling station in the Mediterranean, having becont
so largely at the expense of Gibraltar. In other respects the trad:
resembles that of other Algerian ports. (For trade statistics s»
Algeria.) The inner harbour was begun in 15x8 by Khairei*
Din (see History, below), who, to accommodate his pirate vessels,
caused the island on which was Fort Penon to be connected
with the mainland by a mole. The lighthouse which occupies
the site of Fort Penon was built in x $44* Work on the northern
harbour was begun in 1836, on the southern in 1904. Algies
maintains communication with Marseilles by a quick service d
steamers, which run the 497 miles across the Mediterranean la
twenty-eight to thirty hours. The journey between Algiers and
Paris, from which it is distant 1031 miles, is accomplished ia
about forty-five hours.
. Algiers was a walled dty from the time of the deys until tbe
close of the 19th century. The French, after their occupatioa of
the city (1830), built a rampart, parapet and ditch, with tw
terminal forts, Bab Azoun to the south and Bab-el-Oued to tbe
north. The forts and part of the ramparts were demolished st
the beginning of the 20th century, when a line of forts occupying
the heights of Bu Zarea (at an elevation of 1300 ft above tk
sea) took their place.
Owing to the mildness of its climate Algiers has become s
favourite resort for those seeking to escape the rigours of a
European winter. The city is well supplied with water and iti
sanitary state is good. The mistral of the Riviera is entirely
absent from Algiers, but in summer the city occasionally suffers
from the sirocco or desert wind. The environs of Algiers are
noted for their beauty and healthiness. _ Of the suburbs the oust
ALGOA BAY— ALGOL
655
picturesque Is Mustapha Superieur, about 2 m. from the centre
of the city on the slopes of the hills to the south. Here arc the
summer palace of the governor-general, many fine Moorish and
French villas and luxurious hotels, all surrounded by beautiful
gardens. A numerous British colony resides at Mustapha,
where there is an English club. Mustapha Inferieur is built on
the lower slopes of the hills. Farther to the south is the large
Jardin d'Essai, containing five avenues of palms, planes, bamboos
&nd magnolias. Notre-Dame d'Afrique, a church built (1858-
X872) in a mixture of the Roman and Byzantine styles, is con-
spicuously situated, overlooking the sea, on the shoulder of the
Bu Zarea hills, 2 m. to the north of the city. Above the altar
is a statue of the Virgin depicted as a black woman. The church
also contains a solid silver statue of the archangel Michael,
belonging to the confraternity of Neapolitan fishermen. Beyond
Notre-Dame d'Afrique is the beautiful Valley of the Consuls,
very little changed since the time of the deys. (The valley was
in those days the favourite residence of the consuls.) At the
Petit Seminaire, on the site of the old French consulate, Cardinal
Lavigerie died (1892).
In 1906 depopulation of the commune of Algiers was 154,049;
the population municipal*, which excludes the garrison, prisoners,
&c, was 145,280. Of this total 138,240 were living in the city
proper or in Mustapha. Of the inhabitants 105,908 were Euro-
peans. French residents numbered 50,996, naturalized French-
men 23,305, Spaniards 12,354, Italians 7368, Maltese 865, and
other Europeans (chiefly British and Germans) 1652, besides
12,490 Jews. The remainder of the population— all Mahom-
medans— are Moors, Arabs, Berbers, Negroes, with a few Turks.
The vast majority of Jthe Europeans are Roman Catholics.
Most of the naturalized French citizens are of Spanish or Italian
origin.
History.— -In Roman times a small town called Icosium
existed on what is now the marine quarter of the city. The rue
de la Marine follows the lines of a Roman street. Roman
cemeteries existed near the rues Bab-el-Oued and Bab Azoun.
Bishops of Icosium — which was created a Latin dty by Vespasian
••-are mentioned as late as the 5th century. The present city
was founded in 944 by Bulukkin b. Zeiri, the founder of the
Zeirid-Sanhaja dynasty, which was overthrown by Roger II..
of Sicily in 1 148 (see Fatimites). The Zeirids had before that
date lost Algiers, which in 1159 was occupied by the Almohades,
and in the 13th century came under the dominion of the Abd-el-
Wahid, sultans of Tlemcen. Nominally part, of the sultanate
of Tlemcen, Algiers had a large measure of independence under
amirs of its own, Oran being the chief seaport of the Abd-el-
Wahid. The islet in front of the harbour, subsequently known
as the Penon, had been occupied by the Spaniards as early as
1302. Thereafter a considerable trade grew up between Algiers
and Spain. Algiers, however, continued of comparatively little
importance until after the. expulsion from Spain of the Moors,
many of whom sought an asylum in the city. In 1 510, following
their occupation of Oran and other towns on the coast of Africa,
the Spaniards fortified the Penon. In 1516 the amir of Algiers,
Selim b. Teumi, invited the brothers Arouj and Khair-ed-Din
(Barbarossa) to expel the Spaniards. Arouj came to Algiers,
caused Selim to be assassinated, and seized the town. Khair-
ed-Din, succeeding Arouj, drove the Spaniards from the Penon
(1530) and was the founder of the pashalik, afterwards deylik,
of Algeria. Algiers from this time became the chief seat of the
Barbary pirates. In October 1541 the emperor Charles V.
sought to capture the city, but a storm destroyed a great number
of his ships, and his army of some 30,000, chiefly Spaniards,
was defeated by the Algerians under their pasha, Hassan.
Repeated attempts were made by various European nations
to subdue the pirates, and in 1816 the city was bombarded by
a British squadron under Lord Exmouth, assisted by Dutch
men-of-war, and the 'corsair fleet burned. The piracy of the
Algerians was renewed and continued until 1830. On the 4th
of July in that year a French army under General de Bourmont
attacked the city, which capitulated on the following day (see
AxCEUA, History).
ALGOA BAY, a wide, shallow bay of South Africa, 436 m.
E. from the Cape of Good Hope, bounded W. by Cape Recife,
E. by Cape Padrone. St Croix Island in the bay is in 33° 47'
S. 25° 46' E. On this island Bartholomew Diaz made his second
landing in South Africa some time after the 3rd of February 1488,
and from the cross which he is thought to have erected on it
the island gets its name. Algoa Bay was the first landing-place
of the British emigrants to the eastern province of Cape Colony
in 1820. At a spot 6 m. N.E. of Cape Recife these emigrants
founded a town, Port Elizabeth (q. *.), its harbour being sheltered
from all winds save the S.E. By seafarers " Algoa Bay " is used
as synonymous with Port Elizabeth.
ALGOL, the Arabic name (signifying " the Demon ") of
Persei, a star of the second magnitude, noticed by G. Montanari
in 1669 to fluctuate in brightness. John Goodricke established
in 1782 the periodicity of its change in about 2* 21*, and sug-
gested their cause in recurring eclipses by a large dark satellite.
Their intermittent character prompted the supposition. The
light of Algol remains constant during close upon 56 hours;
then declines in 6} hours (approximately) to nearly one-fourth
its normal amount, and is restored by sensibly the same grada-
tions. The amplitude of the phase is w magnitude; and the
absence of any stationary interval at minimum proves the eclipse
to be partial, not annular. Its conditions were investigated
from photometric data, by Professor E. C. Pickering in 1880; 1
and their realization was finally demonstrated by Dr H. C.
Vogel's spectroscopic measures in 1889.* Previously to each
obscuration, the star was found to be moving rapidly away from
the earth; its velocity then diminished to zero pari passu with
the loss of light, and reversed its direction during the process of
recovery. Algol, in fact, travels at the rate of 26*3 miles a second
round the centre of gravity of the system which it forms with an
invisible companion, while the two together approach the sun
with an unvarying speed of 2*3 miles per second. The elements
of this disparate pair, calculated by Dr Voge] on the somewhat
precarious assumption that its dark and bright members are of
equal mean density, are as follows: —
Diameter of Algol .... 1,061,000 English miles.
„ Satellite . . . 834,300 „ „
Distance from centre to centos . 3,230,000 „ M
Mass of Algol . I solar mass,
„ Satellite . . . . | „ „
Mean density .... about | solar.
The plane of the joint orbit, in which no deviation from
circularity has yet been detected, nearly coincides with the
line of sight. The period of Algol, as measured by its eclipses,
is subject to complex irregularities. It shortened fitfully by
eight seconds between 1790 and 1879; soon afterwards, restora-
tion set in, and its exact length in 1903 was 2* 20* 48" 56*,
being only two seconds short of its original value. By an ex-
haustive discussion, Dr S. Chandler ascertained in 1888 the
compensatory nature of these disturbances; 1 and he afterwards
found the most important among several which probably
conspire to produce the observed effects, to be comprised in a
period o( 15,000 light-cycles, equivalent to 118 years. 4 An
explanatory hypothesis, propounded by him in 1892/ is still on
its trial. The system of Algol, according to this view, is triple;
it includes a large, obscure primary, round which the eclipsing
pair revolves in an orbit somewhat smaller than that of Uranus,
very slightly elliptical, and inclined 20 to the line of sight, the
periodic time being 1 1 8 years. The alternate delay and accelera-
tion of the eclipses arc then merely apparent; they represent
the changes in the length of the light-journey as the stars perform
their wide circuit. If these suppositions have a basis of reality,
the proper motion of Algol should be disturbed by a small, but
measurable undulation, corresponding to the projection of its
orbit upon the sky; and although certainty on the point cannot
be attained for some years to come, Lewis Boss regarded the
evidence available in 1895 as tending to confirm Dr Chandler's
theory. -
1 Proceodings Amor. Acad. vol. xvi. p. 27.
1 A dr. Nock. No. 2947. • Aslr. Journal, No. 165.
* Ibid. No. 509. • Ibid. No*. 255-256. • Ibid. No. 343.
J
6 5 6
ALGONQUIN— ALHAMBRA
A rival interpretation of the phenomena it dealt with was put
forward by F. Tisserand in 1805. 1 It involved the action of no
third mass, but depended solely upon the progression of the
line of apsides in a moderately elliptical orbit due to the spheroidal
shape of the globes traversing it. Inequalities of the required
sort in the returns of the eclipses would ensue; moreover, their
duration should concomitantly vary with the varying distance
from periastron at the times of their occurrence. It is a moot
question whether changes of the Utter kind actually occur.
When they are proved to doso,Tisseran4's hypothesis will hold
the field.
Algol gives a helium-spectrum which undergoes no alteration
at minimum. Hence the light from the marginal and central
portions of the disc is identical in quality, and the limb can be
little, if at all, darkened by the "smoke- veil" absorption
conspicuous in the sun. The rays of this star spend dose upon
a century in travelling hither. Dr Chase's measures with the
Yale heliometer indicated for it, in 1804, a parallax of about
o" -035 ; » and it must, accordingly, be of nearly four times the
total brightness of Sirius, while its aerial lustre exceeds seventy-
fold that of the solar photosphere. Variables of the Algol class
are rendered difficult to discover by the incidental character of
their fluctuations. At the end of 1005, however, about 37 had
been certainly recognized, besides some outlying cases of in-
determinate type, in which continuous occupations by two
bright stars, revolving in virtual contact, are doubtfully supposed
to be in progress. (A. M. C.)
ALGONQUIN, or Algonkin (a word formerly regarded as a
French contraction of Algomequin, " those on the other side "
of the river, viz. the St Lawrence, but now believed to be from
the Micmac algoomaking—" at the place of spearing fish "), a
collective term for a number of tribes of North American Indians
dwelling in the valley of the Ottawa river and around the
northern tributaries of the St Lawrence. The Algonquins allied
themselves with the French against the Iroquois. , Many were
driven west by the latter and later became known /as Ottawa.
The French missionaries at work among the Algonquins early
in the 17th century found their language to be the key to the
many Indian dialects now included by philologists under the
general term tl Algonquian stock." The chief tribes included
in this stock were the Algonquin, Malecite, Micmac, Nascapi,
Pennacook, Fox, Kickapoo, Delaware, Cheyenne, Conoy, Cree,
Mohican, Massachuset, Menominee, Miami, Misisaga, Mohegan,
Nanticoke, Narraganset, Nipmuc, Ojibway, Ottawa, Pequot,
Potawatami, Sac, Shawnee and Wampanoag. The Indians of
Algonquian stock number between 80,000 and 00,000, of whom
rather more than half are in the United States, the rest being in
Canada. Of the Algonquins proper there remain about 1500
settled in the provinces of Quebec and Ontario.
For details see Handbook of American Indians, ed* F. W. Hodge,
Washington, 1907.
ALGUAZIL, a Spanish title often to be met in stories and
plays, derived from the Arabic " visir " and the article " al."
The alguazil among the early Spaniards was a judge, and some-
times the governor of a town or fortress. In later times he has
gradually sunk down to the rank of an officer of the court, who
is trusted with the service of writs and certain police duties,
but he is still of higher rank than the mere corchele or catch-poll.
The title has also been given to inspectors of weights and measures
in market-places, and similar officials.
ALQUM, or Almuc Tree. The Hebrew words Algummim or
Almuggim are translated Algum or Almug trees in the authorized
version of the Bible (see x Kings x. xi, 12; 2 Chron. ii. 8, and ix.
jo, 11); almug is an erroneous form (see Max Muller, Science of
Language, vol. i.). The wood of the tree was very precious,
and was brought from Ophir (probably some part of India),
along with gold and precious stones, by Hiram, and was used
in the formation of pillars for the temple at Jerusalem, and for
the king's house; also for the inlaying of stairs, as well as for
harps and psalteries. It is probably the red sandcrs or red
» Comptes Rendu*. t. cxx. p. 1 25- * ^ **• <?•**' No. 318.
sandal-wood of India ( Pier ocar pus santalinwi). This tree befcep
to the natural order Leguminosae, sub-order Parwlinoi-^.
The wood is hard, heavy, close-grained and of a fine wed cafe-.'
It is different from the white fragrant sandal-wood, which u : v
produce of Santalum album, a tree belonging to a c
order Sint*l*ff*c.
ALHAMA DB GRANADA, a town of southern J .
province of Granada, 24 m. S.W. of Granada. Pop. (iooo> ;
Alhama is finely situated on a ledge of rock which overiooir 1
deep gorge traversed by the river Marchan or Alhama; wfcEt "•
rugged peaks of the Sierra de Alhama rise behind it t*ahei£i: •♦
6800 ft. The town is largely modern; for over one thousan-
its picturesque old Moorish houses, which formerly nw 7
terraces up the mountain side, were destroyed, together with =>i
churches, the hospital, the theatre, the prison, and 800 of "ja-
inhabitants, in an earthquake which took place in 1884. S*J.
scriptions were received from all parts of Spain, and the prcsc=:
town was built at a little distance from its predecessor. Fc»
vestiges of antiquity survived, except the baths from wh:i
Alhama (in Arabic " the Bath ") derives its name. These a-:
situated near the river, and appear to have been used co&lxz-
ously since Roman times (c. 1 9 B.C. — a.d. 400). The tempera «r
of the hot sulphurous springs is about 112* F.; and, as i x <
waters are considered beneficial in cases of rheumatism --_•
dyspepsia, many visitors come to Alhama in spring and autur-
attracted also by the fine scenery of the district. In the ijtf
century Alhama, and the neighbouring fortress of Loja if ? ...
Were generally regarded as the keys of the kingdom of Graudi.
and their capture went far to insure the overthrow of the Mooni
power. Alhama was taken by the Spanish marquis of Gidii a
1482; and its fall is celebrated in an ancient ballad, Ay & «f
Alhama, which Byron translated into English.
ALHAMBRA, THE, an ancient palace and fortress of tk
Moorish monarchs of Granada, in southern Spain, occupying x
hilly terrace on the south-eastern border of the city of Graucs.
This terrace or plateau, which measures about 2430 ft. in lcr^i
by 674 ft. at its greatest width, extends from W.N.W. to EjSS^
and coveraan area of about 3s acres. Itisendosedbyastrorxy
fortified wall, which is flanked by thirteen towers. The ri-.tr
Dano, which foams through a deep ravine on the north, divide
the plateau from the Albaidn district of Granada; the Assaba
valley, containing the Alhambra Park, on the west and south, ind
beyond this valley the almost parallel ridge of Monte Mawec,
separate it from the Antequeruela district.
The name Alhambra, signifying in Arabic " the red," is probably
derived from the colour of the sun-dried tapia, or bricks made of
fine gravel and clay, of which the outer walls are built. Soae
authorities, however, hold that it commemorates the red nan
of the torches by whose light the work of construction «u
carried on nightly for many years; others associate it with t!*
name of the founder, Mahomet Ibn Al Ahmar; and ©the*
derive it from the Arabic Dor al Amra, " House of the Master."
(For an account of the period to which the Alhambra belongs, sec
Granada (city).) The palace was built chiefly between 1246 asd
1354, in the reigns of Al Ahmar and his successors; but even the
names of the principal artists employed are either unknown or
doubtful. The splendid decorations of the interior are ascribed
to Yusef I., who died in 1354. Immediately after the cxpuhtK
of the Moors in 1492. their conquerors began, by successive acts
of vandalism, to spoil the marvellous beauty of the Alhambra.
The open work was filled up with whitewash, the painting and
gilding effaced, the furniture soiled, torn or removed. Charles V.
(1516-1556) rebuilt portions in the modern style of the period, and
destroyed the greater part of the winter palace to make room for
a modern structure which has never been completed. Philip V.
( 1 700-1 746) Italianised the rooms, and completed the degrada-
tion by running up partitions which blocked up whole apartments,
gems of taste and patient ingenuity. In subsequent centuries U*
carelessness of the Spanish authorities permitted this masterpiece
of Moorish art to be still further defaced; and in i8ts some of
the towers were blown up by the French under Count Sebastiani,
while the whole buildings narrowly escaped the same fate. la
THE COURT OF THE MYRTLBa
h Aihntrthf.).
Plate II.
ALHAMBRA
Capital In the Court
of the Lions.
PRAYER NICHE.
CAPITAL IN THE COURT
OF THE MYRTLES,
{ <
y
■/i-r-c-.v.i';'
■«!•:
■
■ft y/-^ - -ft ^ :-r=sar^-
W
FOUNTAIN IN THE COURT OP THE LIONS.
)|j
u ■ )
a^€^#»r-'
^
^ , \
■& ! i'xw;f\
DETAIL FROM THE FOUNTAIN (QUARTER-SIZE).
From GayanRos and Owen Jones. The Alk*mivi
ALHAMBRA
657
1821 an earthquake caused further damage. The work of
restoration undertaken in 1828 by the architect Jose" Contreras
was endowed in 1830 by Ferdinand VII.; and after the death of
Contreras in 1847, it was continued with fair success by his son
Rafael (d. 1800), and his grandson Mariano.
The situation of the AJhambra is one of rare natural beauty;
the plateau commands a wide view of the dty and plain of
Granada, towards the west and north, and of the heights of the
Sierra Nevada, towards the east and south. Moorish poets
describe it as " a pearl set in emeralds," in allusion to the brilliant
colour of its buildings, and the luxuriant woods round them.
The park (Alameda de la Alhambra), which in spring is overgrown
with wild-flowers and grass, was planted by the Moors with roses,
oranges and myrtles; its most characteristic feature, however,
is the dense wood of English elms brought hither in 181 2 by the
duke of Wellington. The park is celebrated for the multitude of
its nightingales, and is usually filled with the sound of running
water' from several fountains and cascades. These are supplied
through a conduit 5 m. long, which is connected with the Darro
at the monastery of Jesus del Valle, above Granada.
The Moorish portion of the Alhambra resembles many medieval
Christian strongholds in its threefold arrangement as a castle, a
palace and a residential annexe for subordinates. The Alcazaba
or citadel, its oldest part, is built on the isolated and precipitous
foreland which terminates the plateau on the north-west. Only
its massive outer walls, towers and ramparts are left. On its
watch-tower, the Torre de la Vela, 85 ft high, the flag of
Ferdinand and Isabella was first raised, in token of the Spanish
conquest of Granada, on the 2nd of January 1492. A turret
containing a huge bell was added in the 18th century, and restored
after being injured by lightning in 1 881. Beyond the Alcazaba
1. is
is the palace of the Moorish kings, or Alhambra properly so-called ;
and beyond this, again, is the Alhambra Alta (Upper Alhambra),
originally tenanted by officials and courtiers.
In spite of the long neglect, wilful vandalism and ill-judged
restoration which the Alhambra has endured, it remains the most
perfect example of Moorish art in its final European development,
—freed from the direct Byzantine influences which can be
traced in the cathedral of Cordova, more elaborate and fantastic
than the Giralda at Seville. The majority of the palace buildings
are, in ground-plan, quadrangular, with all the rooms opening on
to a central court; and the whole reached its present size simply
by the gradual addition of new quadrangles, designed on the same
principle, though varying in dimensions, and connected with each
other by smaller rooms and passages. In every case the exterior
is left plain and austere, as if the architect intended thus to
heighten by contrast the splendour of the interior. Within, the
palace is unsurpassed for the exquisite detail of its marble pillars
and arches, its fretted ceilings and the veil-like transparency of
its filigree work in stucco. Sun and wind are freely admitted, and
the whole effect is one of the most airy lightness and grace. Blue,
red, and a golden yellow, all somewhat faded through lapse of
time, and exposure, are the colours chiefly employed. The
decoration consists, as a rule, of stiff, conventional foliage, Arabic
inscriptions, and geometrical patterns wrought into arabesques
of almost incredible intricacy and ingenuity. Painted tiles are
largely used as panelling for the walls.
Access from the city to the Alhambra Park is afforded by the
Puerta de las Granadas (Gate of Pomegranates), a massive
triumphal arch dating from the 1 5th century. A steep ascent leads
past the Pillar of Charles V., a fountain erected in 1554, to the
main entrance of the Alhambra. This is the Puerta Judiciaria
J
658
ALHAZEN— ALI
(Gate of Judgment), a massive horseshoe archway, surmounted
by a square tower, and used by the Moors as an informal court of
justice. A hand, with fingers outstretched as a talisman against
the evil eye, is carved above this gate on the exterior; a key,
the symbol of authority, occupies the corresponding place on
the interior. A narrow passage leads inward to the Plaza de
los Al jibes (Place of the Cisterns), a broad open space which
divides the Alcazaba from the Moorish palace. To the left of the
passage rises the Torre del Vino (Wine Tower), built in 1345, and
used in the 16th century as a cellar. On the right is the palace of
Charles V., a cold-looking but majestic Renaissance building, out
of harmony with its surroundings, which it tends somewhat to
dwarf by its superior sue. Its construction, begun in 1526, was
abandoned about 1650.
The present entrance to the Palado Arabe, or Casa Real
(Moorish palace), is by a small door from which a corridor
conducts to the Patio de los Arra vanes (Court of the Myrtles),
also called the Patio de la Alberca (Court of the Blessing or Court
of the Pond), from the Moorish birka, " pond," or berka, " bless-
ing.*' This court is 140 ft. long by 74 ft. broad ; and in the centre
there is a large pond set in the marble pavement, full of goldfish,
and with myrtles growing along its sides. There are galleries on
the north and south sides; that on the south 27 ft. high, and
supported by a marble colonnade. Underneath it, to the right,
was the principal entrance, and over it are three elegant windows
with arches and miniature pillars. From this court the walls of
the Torre de Comares are seen rising over the roof to the north,
and reflected in the pond.
The Sala de los Ambajadores (Hall of the Ambassadors) is the
largest in the Alhambra, and occupies all the Torre de Comares.
It is a square room, the sides being 37 ft. in length, while the
centre of the dome is 75 ft. high. This was the grand reception
room, and the throne of the sultan was placed opposite the
entrance. The tiles are nearly 4 ft high all round, and the colours
vary at intervals. Over them is a series of oval medallions with
inscriptions, interwoven with flowers and leaves. There are nine
windows, three on each facade, and the ceiling is admirably
diversified with inlaid-work of white, blue and gold, in the shape
of circles, crowns and stars— a kind of imitation of the vault of
heaven. The walls are covered with varied stucco-work of most
delicate pattern, surrounding many ancient escutcheons.
The celebrated Patio de los Leones (Court of the Lions) is an
oblong court, 1 16 ft. in length by 66 ft. in breadth, surrounded by
a low gallery supported on 1 24- white marble columns. A pavilion
projects into the court at each extremity, with filigree walls and
light domed roof, elaborately ornamented. The square is paved
with coloured tiles, and the colonnade with white marble, while
the walls are covered 5 ft. up from the ground with blue and
yellow tiles, with a border above and below enamelled blue and
gold. The columns supporting the roof and gallery are irregularly
placed, with a view to artistic effect; and the general form of
the piers, arches and pillars is most graceful. They are adorned
by varieties of foliage, &c; about each arch there is a large
square of arabesques; and over the pillars is another square
of exquisite filigree work. In the centre of the court is the
celebrated Fountain of Lions, a magnificent alabaster basin
supported by the figures of twelve lions in white marble, not
designed with sculptural accuracy, but as emblems of strength
and courage.
The Sala de los Abencerrajes (Hall of the Abencerrages) derives
its name from a legend according to which Boabdil, the last king
of Granada, having invited the chiefs of that illustrious line to
a banquet, massacred them here. This room is a perfect square,
with a lofty dome and trellised windows at its base. The roof is
exquisitely decorated in blue, brown, red and gold, and the
columns supporting it spring out into the arch form in a re-
markably beautiful manner. Opposite to this hall is the Sala de
las dos Hermanas (Hall of the two Sisters), so-called from two
very beautiful white marble slabs laid as part of the pavement.
These slabs measure 1 5 ft. by 7 J ft., and are without flaw or stain.
There is a fountain in the middle of this hall, and the roof— a
dome honeycombed with tiny cells, all different, and said to
number 5000— is a magnificent example of the so-called * sols*
tite vaulting" of the Moors.
Among the other wonders of the Alhambra axe the Sala de k
Justida (Hall of Justice), the Patio del Mexuar (Court of ae
Council Chamber), the Patio de Daraxa (Court of the VesdteJei.
and the Peinador de la Reina (Queen's Robing Room), in wiii
are to be seen the same delicate and beautiful architecture. *Jk
same costly and elegant decorations. The palace and the Ipntt
Alhambra also contain baths, ranges of bedrooms and susa0>
rooms, a whispering gallery and labyrinth, and vaulted sefjukfcm.
The original furniture of the palace is represented by the odt»
brated vase of the Alhambra, a splendid specimen of Mooaas
ceramic art, dating from 1320, and belonging to the first period
of Moorish porcelain. It is 4 ft. 3 in. high; the ground is wkitt.
and the enamelling is blue, white and gold.
Of the outlying buildings in connexion with the Alhaebn
the foremost in interest is the Palado de Gencralif e or Gineral e
(the Moorish Jennet al Arif, " Garden of Arif," or " Carder d
the Architect "). This villa probably dates from the end 4
the 13th century, but has been several times restored. la
gardens, however, with, their dipped hedges, grottos, foaatacs,
and cypress avenues, are said to retain their original Moors*
character. The Villa de los Martires (Martyrs' Villa). 00 the
summit of Monte Mauror,commcmoratesbyits name the Chmfa.-:
slaves who were employed to build the Alhambra, and confi=ed
here in subterranean cells. The Torres Bermejas (VenmSea
Towers), also on Monte Mauror, are a well-preserved Moorish
fortification, with underground cisterns, stables, and accommoda-
tion for a garrison of 200 men. Several Roman tombs vee
discovered in 1829 and 1857 at the base of Monte Mauror.
See Plans. Elevations, Sections and Details of the Alhawahrc; hm
drawint* taken on the spot by J. Gouty and Owen Jones; wck *
complete translation of the Arabic inscriptions and a historical noha
of the Kings of Granada, by P. de Gayangos. These two mapdin:
folios, though first published in London between 1842 and 1341 rr.v
the best pictorial representation of the Alhambra. See afan Kauri
Contreras, La Alhambra, El Alcdtar, v la gran Uetquita de Ocadrua
(Madrid, 1885); The Alhambra, by Washington Irving, was wriraa
in 1832, and rewritten in 1857, when it had already become widrfcr
celebrated for its picturesque and humorous descriptions. A well-
illustrated edition was published in London in 1896.
ALHAZEN (Abu Ali Al-Hasan Irn Albasan), Arabtas
mathematician of the nth century, was born at Basra and died
at Cairo in 103*8. He is to be distinguished from another Allures
who translated Ptolemy's Almagest in the 10th century. Having
boasted that he could construct a machine for regulating the
inundations of the Nile, he was summoned to Egypt by the caliph
Hakim i but, aware of the impracticability of his scheme, aac 1
fearing the caliph's anger, he feigned madness until Haiku
death in 1021 . Alhazen was, nevertheless, a diligent and success-
ful student, being the first great discoverer in optics after the
time of Ptolemy. According to Giovanni Battista deUa Pons,
he first explained the apparent increase of heavenly bodies near
the horizon, although Bacon gives the credit of this discovery
to Ptolemy. He taught, previous to the Polish physicist Witek,
that vision does not result from the emission of rays from the eye.
and wrote also on the refraction of light, especially on atmospheric
refraction, showing, e.g. the cause of morning and evening twilight
He solved the problem of finding the point in a convex mirror
at which a ray coming from one given point shall be reflected to
another given point. His treatise on optics was translated tat*
Latin by Witelo (1270), and afterwards published by F. Risaer
in 1572, with the title Opticae thesaurus Alhasemi lihri VJK
cum ejusdem libro de crepusculis et nubium ascensionibus. This
work enjoyed a great reputation during the middle ages. Works
on geometrical subjects were found in the Bibliotkbque ueHemle
de Paris in 1834 by E. A. SeoJllot; other manuscripts are pre-
served in the Bodleian library at Oxford and in the library of
Leiden.
See Casiri. Btbl. Arab. His*. Bscur.;]. E. Montuda. Bistort da
mathimatiques (1738); and E. A. SedilJot, Matenaux pour Miste**
dei sciences mathematiques,
AU, in full, 'Ali ben AbO Talib (c. 600-661), the fourth of
the caliphs or successors of Mahomet, was born at Mecca about
ALI
659
the year a.d. 600. His father, Aba Talib, was an uncle of the
prophet, and Ali himself was adopted by Mahomet and educated
under his care. As a mere boy he distinguished himself by being
one of the first to declare his adhesion to the cause of Mahomet,
who some years afterwards gave him his daughter Fatima in
marriage. Ali proved himself to be a brave and faithful soldier,
and when Mahomet died without male issue, a few emigrants
thought him to have the best claim to succeed him. Abu Bekr,
Omar and Othman, however, occupied this position before
him, and it was not until 656, after the murder of Othman, that
he assumed the title of caliph. The fact that he took no steps
to prevent this murder is, perhaps, the only real blot upon his
character. Almost the first act of his reign was the suppression
of a rebellion under Talha and Zobair, who were instigated by
Ayesha, Mahomet's widow, a bitter enemy of Ali, and one of the
chief hindrances to his advancement to the caliphate. The rebel
army was defeated at the " Battle of the Camel," near Bassorah
(Basra), the two generals being killed, and Ayesha taken prisoner.
Ali soon afterwards made Kufa his capital. His next care was
to get rid of the opposition of Moawiya, who had established
himself in Syria at the head of a numerous army. A prolonged
battle took place in July 657 in the plain of Siffin (Suffein),
near the Euphrates; the fighting was at first, it is said, in favour
of Ali, when suddenly a number of the enemy, fixing copies of
the Koran to the points of their spears, exclaimed that " the
matter ought to be settled by reference to this book, which
forbids Moslems to shed each other's blood." The superstitious
soldiers of Ali refused to fight any longer, and demanded that
the issue be referred to arbitration (see further Caliphate,
section B. 1). Abu Musa was appointed umpire on the part of
Ali, and 'Amr-ibn-el-Ass, a veteran diplomatist, on the part of
Moawiya. It is said that 'Amr persuaded Abu Musa that it
would be for the advantage of Islam that neither candidate
should reign, and asked him to give his decision first. Abu Musa
having proclaimed that he deposed both Ali and Moawiya, 'Amr
declared that he also deposed Ali, and announced further that
he invested Moawiya with the caliphate. This treacherous
decision (but see Caliphate, ib.) greatly injured the cause of
Ali, which was still further weakened by the loss of Egypt
After much indecisive fighting, Ali found his position so unsatis-
factory that according to some historians he made an agreement
with Moawiya by which each retained his own dominions un-
molested. It chanced, however— according to a legend, the
details of which are quite uncertain— that three of the fanatic
sect of the Kharijites had made an agreement to assassinate Ali.
Moawiya and 'Amr, as the authors of disastrous feuds among
the faithful. The only victim of this plot was Ali. who died
at Kufa in 661. of the wound inflicted by a poisoned weapon.
A splendid mosque called Meshed Ali was afterwards erected
near the city, but the place of his burial is unknown. He had
eight wives after Fatima 's death, and in all. it is said, thirty-
three children, one of whom, Hassan, a son of Fatima. succeeded
him in the caliphate. His descendants by Fatima are known as
the Fatimites (?.».; see also Egypt: History. Mahommedan
period). The question of Ali's right to succeed to the caliphate
is an article of faith which divided the Mahommedan world into
two great sects, the Sunnites and the Shiites, the former denying,
and the latter affirming, his right The Turks, consequently,
hold his memory in abhorrence; whereas the Persians, who
are generally Shi'as. venerate him as second only to the prophet,
call him the " Lion of God " {Sher-i-Kkudd), and celebrate the
anniversary of his martyrdom. Ali is described as a bold, noble
and generous man, " the last and worthiest of the primitive
Moslems, who imbibed his religious enthusiasm from companion-
ship with the prophet himself, and who followed to the last the
simplicity of his example." It is maintained, on the other
hand, that his motives were throughout those of ambition rather
than piety, and that, apart from the tragedy of his death, he
would have been an insignificant figure in history (See further
Caliphate.)
In the eyes of the later Moslems he was remarkable for learning
and wisdom, and there are extant collections (almost all certainly
spurious) of proverbs and verses which bear his name : the Sentences
of Ali (Eng. trans.. William Yule, Edinburgh. 1832); H. L.
Fleischer, Alts kundert Spruche (Leipa. 1837); the Divan, by
G. Kuypert (Leiden, 1745. and at Bulak, 1835); C. Brockelmann,
Cesck. diarabisck. Lit. (vol I, Weimar, 1899).
ALI, known as Ali Bey (1 766-181 8), the assumed name of
Domingo Badia y Lebuch, a Spanish traveller, born in 1766.
After receiving a liberal education he devoted particular attention
to the Arabic language, and made a special study of the manners
and customs of the East. Pretending to be a descendant of the
Abbasids, Badia in 1803 set out on his travels. Under the name
of Ah' Bey el Abbassi, and in Mussulman costume, he visited
Morocco, Tripoli, Egypt, Arabia and Syria, and was received
as a person of high rank wherever he appeared. He made the
pilgrimage to Mecca, at that time in the possession of the Waha-
bites. On his return to Spain in 1807 he declared himself a
Bonapartist, and was made intendant first of Segovia and
afterwards of Cordova. When the French were driven from
Spain, Badia was compelled to take refuge in France, and there
in 1814, published an account of his travels under the title of
Voyage a" Ali Bey en Asieeten AJrique, &c. A few years later
he set out again for Syria, under the assumed name of Ali Othman,
and, it is said, accredited as a political agent bv the French
government. He reached Aleppo, and there died on the 30th
of August 1818, not without suspicion of having been poisoned.
An account of his Eastern adventures was published in London
in 1816. in two volumes, entitled Travels in Morocco, Tripoli, Cyprus,
Egypt, Arabia, Syria and Turkey, between the years 180J and 1807.
ALI, known as Au Pasha (1741-1822), Turkish pasha of
Iannina, surnamed Arslan, " the Lion," was born at Tepeleni, a
village in Albania at the foot of the Klissura mountains. He was
one of the Toske tribe, and his ancestors had for some time
held the hereditary office of bey of Tepeleni. His father, a
man of mild and peaceful disposition, was killed when Ali was
fourteen years old by neighbouring chiefs who seised his terri-
tories. His mother Khamko, a woman of extraordinary character,
thereupon herself formed and led a brigand band, and studied to
inspire the boy with her own fierce and indomitable temper,
with a view to revenge and the recovery of the lost property.
In this wild school Ali proved an apt pupil. A hundred tales, for
the most part probably mythical, aje told of his powers and
cunning during the years he spent among the mountains as a
brigand leader. At last, by a picturesque stratagem, he gained
possession of Tepeleni and took vengeance on his enemies. To
secure himself from rivals in his own family, he is said to have
murdered his brother and imprisoned his mother on a charge of
attempting to poison him. With a view to establishing his
authority he now made overtures to the Porte and was com-
missioned to chastise the rebellious pasha of Scutari, whom he
defeated and killed. He also, on pretext of his disloyalty, put to
death Selim, pasha of Delvinon. Ali was now confirmed in the
possession of all his father's territory and was also appointed
lieutenant to the derwend-pasha of Rumelia, whose duty.it was
to suppress brigandage and highway robbery. This gave him an
opportunity for amassing wealth by sharing the booty of the
robbers in return fqr leaving them alone. The disgrace that fell
in consequence on his superior, Ali escaped by the use of lavish
bribes at Constantinople. In 1787 he took part in the war with
Russia, and was rewarded by being made pasha of Trikala in
Thessaly and derwend-pasha of Rumelia. It now suited his
policy to suppress the brigands, which he did by enlisting most of
them under his own banner. His power was now already
considerable; and in 1788 he added to it by securing his nomina-
tion to the pashalik of Iannina by a characteristic trick.
The illiterate brigand, whose boyish ambition had not looked
beyond the recovery of his father's beylick, was now established
as one of the most powerful viziers under the Ottoman govern-
ment. Success only stimulated his insatiable ambition. He
earned the confidence of the Porte by the cruel discipline he «
maintained in his own sanjak, and the regular flow of tribute and
bribes which he directed to Constantinople; while he bent all his
energies to extending his territories at the expense of his neigh-
bours. The methods he adopted would have done credit to
66o
ALI
Cesare Borgia; they may be studied in detail in the lurid pages
of Pouqueville. Soon, by one means or another, his power was
supreme in all central Albania. Two main barriers still obstructed
the realization of his ambition,which now embraced Greece and
Thessaly, as well as Albania, and the establishment in the
Mediterranean of a sea-power which should rival that of the dey
of Algiers. The first of these was the resistance of the little
Christian hill community of Suli; the second the Venetian
occupation of the coast, within a mile of which — by convention
with the Porte— no Ottoman soldier might penetrate. It needed
three several attacks before, in 1803, Ali conquered the Suliot
stronghold. Events in western Europe gave him an earlier
opportunity of becoming master of most of the coast towns. Ali
had watched with interest the career of Bonaparte in Italy, and
the treaty of Campo Formio (1797), which blotted the Venetian
republic from the map of Europe, gave him the opportunity he
desired. In response to his advances commissaries of the French
republic visited him at Iannina and, affecting a sudden seal for
republican principles, he easily obtained permission to suppress
the " aristocratic " tribes on the coast. His p|ans in Albania
were interrupted by the war against Pasvan Oglu, the rebellious
pasha of Widdin, in which Ali once more did good service.
Meanwhile international politics had developed in a way that
necessitated a change in Ali's attitude. Napoleon's occupation
of the Ionian Islands and his relations with Ali had alarmed
Russia, which feared that French influence would be substituted
for her own in the Balkan peninsula; and on the 5th of September
1 708 a formal alliance, to which Great Britain soon after acceded,
was signed on behalf of the emperor Paul and the sultan. Once
more Ali turned Turk and fought against his recent friends with
such success that in the end he remained in possession of Butrinto,
Prevesa and Vonitza on the coast, was created pasha " of three
tails" by the sultan, and received the congratulations of Nelson.
But the campaign of Austerlitz followed, then the peace of
Pressburg which guaranteed to Napoleon the former dominions
of Venice, and finally the treaty of Tilsit, which involved, among
other things, the withdrawal of the Russians from the Ionian
Islands and the Albanian coast.
Amid all the momentous changes the part of Ali was a difficult
one. He had, moreover, to contend with domestic enemies, and
with difficulty defeated a league formed against him by some
Mussulman tribes, under Ibrahim of Berat and Mustapha of
Delvinon, and the Suliots. He knew, however, how to retain the
confidence of the sultan, who not only confirmed him in the
possession of the whole of Albania from Epirus to Montenegro,
but even in 1709 appointed him vali of Rumelia, an office which
he held just long enough to enable him to return to Iannina laden
with the spoils of Thessaly. He was now at the height of his
power. In 1803 the Suliot stronghold fell; and he was undis-
puted master of Epirus, Albania and Thessaly, while the pashalik
of the Morea was held by his son Veli, and that of Lepanto by his
son Mukhtar. Only the little town of Parga held out against him
on the coast; and in order to obtain this he once more in 1807
entered into an alliance with Napoleon. The French emperor,
however, preferred to keep Parga, as a convenient gate into the
Balkan peninsula, and it remained in French occupation until
March 1814, when the Pargiots rose against the garrison and
handed the fortress over to the British to save it from falling into
the hands of Ali, who had bought the town from the French
commander, Cozi Nikolo, and was closely investing it. The
cordial relations between Napoleon and the pasha of Iannina had
not long continued. Ali was angered by the refusal to surrender
Parga and justly suspicious of the ambitions which this refusal
implied; he could not feel himself secure with the Ionian Islands
and the Dalmatian coast in the hands of a power whose plans in
the East were notorious, and he was glad enough to avail himself
of Napoleon's reverses in 181 a to help to rid himself of so danger-
i ous a neighbor. His services to the allies received their reward.
Still bent on obtaining Parga, he sent a special mission to London,
backed by a letter from Sir Robert Liston, the British ambassador
at Constantinople, calling the attention of the government to the
pasha's supercmincnt qualities " and his services Against the
French. After some hesitation It was decided to evacuate Pup
and hand it over to the Ottoman government, Le. Ah* 7
The convention by which this was effected was ultimately s _
on the 17th of May 1817, being ratified by the sultan 00 the 24:1
of April 1 8 19. By its terms the Pargiots were to receive as
asylum in the islands, the Ottoman government undertakiag tt
pay compensation fortheir property. Ah* had no difficulty a
finding the money; the garrison, as soon as it was received.
marched out with the bulk of the inhabitants; and the but
citadel of freedom in the Balkans fell to the tyrant of Iannina *
Ali's authority in the great part of the peninsula subject to am
now overshadowed that of the sultan; and Mahnrad IX, wan*
whole policy had been directed to destroying the omgjwwi
power of the provincial pashas, began to seek a pretext (or
overthrowing the Lion of Iannina, whose all-devouring ********
seemed to threaten his own throne. The occasion came in iSjc
when Ali, emboldened by impunity, violated the sanctity d
Stamboul itself by attempting to procure the murder of as
enemy Pacho Bey in the very precincts of the palace. A deem
of disposition was now issued against the sacrilegious vali. whs
had dared " to fire shots in Constantinople, the residence of thr
caliph, and the centre of security." Its execution was entrusted
to Khurshid Pasha, with the bulk of the Ottoman forces.
For two years Ali, now over eighty years of age, held his ova,
in spite of the defection of his vassals and even of his sons. At
last, in the spring of 1822, after a prolonged siege in his islaad
fortress at Iannina, which even the outbreak of the Greek rewk
had not served to raise, the intrepid old man was forced to sue far
terms. He asked and received an interview with Khurshid, was
received courteously and dismissed with the most friendly
assurances. As he turned to leave the grand visier's tent be
was stabbed in the back; his head was cut off and sent to
Constantinople. Notwithstanding their treason to their fatso,
his sons met with the same fate.
In spite of the ferocious characteristics which have been sn>
gested in the above sketch, Ali Pasha is undoubtedly one of the
most remarkable, as he is one of the most picturesque, figuns
in modern history; and as such he was recognized in ms ova
day. His court at Iannina was the centre of a sort of barbaiocs
culture, in which astrologers, alchemists and Greek poets played
their part, and was often visited by travellers. Amongst others,
Byron came, and has left a record of his impressions in " Quale
Harold's Pilgrimage," less interesting and vivid than the prosr
accounts of Pouqueville, T. S. Hughes snd William M. Leake
Leake (iii. 259) reports a reproof addressed by Ali to the Freacs
renegade Ibrahim Effendi, who had ventured to remonstrate
against some particular act of ferocity: " At present you ate
too young at my court to know how to comport yourself. .
You are not yet acquainted with the Greeks and Albaniaia
when I hang up one of these wretches on the plane-tree, brother
robs brother under the very branches: if I burn one of then
alive, the son is ready to steal his father's ashes to sell them far
money. They are destined to be ruled by me; and no one b«t
Ali is able to restrain their evil propensities." This is perkip
as good an apology as could be made for his character and
1 In his report on the Ionian Treaty presented to Lord Castlercnri
at the congress of Vienna in December 1814. Sir Richard Cbcrob
strongly advocated, not only the retention of Parga, bat tkat
Vonitza, Prevesa and Butrinto also should be taken from Ali Pass*
and placed under British protection, a measure be co mion w l
necessary for the safety of the Ionian Islands. " Ali Pasha." ts?
wrote, " is now busy building forts along his coast and strength***^
his castles in the interior, in January 1814 he had 14.000 peasaats
at work on the castle of Argiro Castro, and about 1500 erecting 1
fort at Porto Palermo, nearfy opposite Corfu." In iSto he at*
erected a fort directly opposite Santa Maura commanding tat
harbour.
The fate of Parga created intense feeling at the time in England
and was cited by Liberals as a crowning instance of the ptrfcfr
of the government and of Castlereagh's subservience to reactiooan
tendencies abroad. The step, however, was not lightly takes. Is
occupying the town the British general had expressly refrained Itxm
pledging Great Britain to remain there; and the government held
that any permanent occupation of a post on the mainland carried
with it risks of complications out of all proportion to any i^rr-Fr
benefit.
ALIAGA— ALICE, PRINCESS
66 1
ethods. To the wild people over whom he ruled none was
seded. He had their respect, if not their love; he is the hero
a thousand ballads; and his portrait still hangs among the
ons in the cottages of the Greek mountaineers. All accounts
gree in describing him in later life as a man of handsome
resence, with a venerable white beard, piercing black eyes
id a benevolent cast of countenance, the effect of which was
tightened in conversation by a voice of singular sweetness.
Authorities.— Apart from the icattered references in the pub-
ihed and unpublished diplomatic correspondence of the period,
>n temporary journals and books of travel contain much interesting
taterial for the life of AIL Of these may especially be mentioned
rancois C. H. L. Pouqueville, Voyage en Marie, d Constantinople,
i All--'- *- '-—'- «*—■- " a ~" % *' - U1U ~ r ~ ,J - u
y A
| vols. v __ , .......
rench resident at lannina, had special facilities for obtaining fir st-
and information, though his emotionalism make* hi* olr^rvaiioiis
nd deductions at times somewhat suspect. Very interring atw
re Thomas Smart Hughes. Travels in Greece and Albania (3 volt.,
nd ed., Lond. 1850); John Cam Hobhouse (Lord firoughtt
Albanie, fite. (3 vols., Paris, 1805), of which an English version
A. Plumptre was published in 1815; ib. Vo: cfd«j la GrUo
/©Is., Pans, 1820, 1821). Pouqueville, who spent «>me time ss
Journey through Albania, fire. . . . during the y)-.:r,i iXoq nd 1S10
ond., 4to, 1813, a new ed., 2 vols., 1855): Willi ,11 M -n in Leake,
'ravels in Northern Greece (4 vols., Lond. 1845). pp jIm Pouque-
ille's Hist. de la righUration de la Grece, 1740-1^4 (4 vela,, Paris,
824, 3rd ed., Brussels, 1825); R. A. Davenport, Life of AH Pmha,
isur if Epirus (1861). (IV. A- P.)
ALIAGA, a town of the province of Nueva Ecija, Luzon,
Philippine Islands, about 70 m. N. by W. of Manila. Pop.
1903) 11,950. It has a comparatively cool and healthful
limate, and is pleasantly situated about midway between the
'ampanga Grande and the Pampanga Chico rivers, and in a
srge and fertile valley of which the principal products are Indian
orn, rice, sugar and tobacco. Tagalog is the most important
inguage; Ilocano, Pampango and Pangasinan are also used.
ALIAS (Lat. for " at another time "), a term used to connect
he different names of a person who has passed under more
ban one, in order to conceal his identity, or for other reasons;
•r, compendiously, to describe the adopted name. The expres-
ion alias dictus was formerly used in legal indictments, and
(leadings where absolute precision was necessary in identifying
he person to be charged, as "John Jones, alias dictus James
Imith." The adoption of a name other than a man's baptismal
»r surname need not necessarily be for the purpose of deception
r fraud; pseudonyms or nicknames fall thus under the descrip-
ion of an alias. Where a person is married under an alias, the
narriage is void when both parties have knowingly and wilfully
onnived at the adoption of the alias, with a fraudulent intention.
Jut if one of the parties to a marriage has acquired a new name
»y use and reputation, or if the true name of any one of the
tarties is not known to the other, the use of an alias in these cases
rill not affect the validity of the marriage.
ALIBI (Lat. for "elsewhere"), in law, the defence resorted
in criminal prosecutions, where the person charged alleges
hat he was so far distant at the time from the place where the
rime was committed that he could not have been guilty. An
iibi, if substantiated, is the most conclusive proof of innocence.
ALICANTE, a province of south-eastern Spain; bounded on
he N. by Valencia, W. by Albacete and Murda, S. by Murcia,
nd S.E. and E. by the Mediterranean Sea. .Pop. (1900) 470,149;
rea, 2006 sq. m. Alicante was formed in 1833 of districts taken
rom the ancient provinces of Valencia and Murda, Valencia
ontributing by far the larger portion. The surface of the
province is extremely diversified. In the north and west there
re extensive mountain ranges of calcareous formation, inter-
ected by deep ravines; while farther south the land is more
evel, and there arc many fertile valleys. On the Mediterranean
oast, unhealthy salt marshes alternate with rich plains of
feasant and productive huerlas or gardens, such as those of
Uicante and Denia. Apart from Segura, which flows from
he highlands of Albacete through Murcia and Orihuela to the
ea, there is no considerable river, but a few rivulets flow east
Dto the Mediterranean. The climate is temperate, and the
ainfall very slight. Despite the want of rivers and of rain,
igriculture is in a nourishing condition. Many tracts, originally
rocky and sterile, have been irrigated and converted into vine-
yards and plantations. Cereals are grown, but the inhabitants
prefer to raise such artides of produce as are in demand for
export, and consequently part of the grain supply has to be
imported. Esparto grass, rice, olives, the sugarcane, and
tropical fruits and vegetables are largdy produced. Great
attention is given to the rearing of bees and silk-worms; and
the wine of the province is bdd in high repute throughout Spain,
while some inferior kinds are sent to France to be mixed with
claret. There are iron and lignite mines, but the output is
small. Mineral springs are found at various places. The manu-
factures consist of fine doths, silk, cotton, woollen and linen
fabrics, girdles and lace, paper, hats, leather, earthenware
and soap. There are numerous oil mills and brandy distilleries.
Many of the inhabitants are engaged in the carrying trade,
while the fisheries on the coast are also actively prosecuted,
tunny and anchovies being caught in great numbers. Barilla
is obtained from the sea-weed on the shores, and some of the
saline marshes, notably those near Torrevieja, yidd large
supplies of salt. The principal towns, which are separatdy
described, include Alicante, the capital (pop. 1000, 50,142),
Crevillente (10,726), Denia (12,431), Elche (27,308), Novdda
(1 1,388), Orihuela (28,530), and Villena (14.099). Other towns,
of less importance, are Aspe (7927), Cocentaina (7093), Mon6var
(10,601), Pinoso (7946), and Villajoyosa (8902).
ALICANTE, the capital of the Spanish province described
above, and one of the prindpal seaports of the country. Pop.
(1900) 50,142. It is situated in 38° 21' N. and o° 26' W., on the
Bay of Alicante, an inlet of the Mediterranean Sea. It b the
termini of railways from Madrid and Murcia. From its harbour,
the town presents a striking picture. Along the shore extends
the Paseo de los Martires, a double avenue of palms; behind
this, the white fiat-roofed houses rise in the form of a crescent
towards the low hills which surround the dty, and terminate,
on the right, in a bare rock, 400 ft. high, surmounted by an andent
citadel. Its dry and equable climate renders Alicante a popular
health-resort. The dty is an episcopal see, and contains a modern
cathedral.
The bay affords good anchorage, but only small vessels can
come up to the two moles. The harbour is fortified, and there
is a small lighthouse on the eastern mole; important engineering
works, subsidized by the state, were undertaken in 1902 to
provide better accomodation. In the same year 1737 vessels
of 939,789 tons entered the port The trade of Alicante consists
chiefly in the manufacture of cotton, linen and woollen goods,
cigars and confectionery; the importation of coal, iron,
machinery, manures, timber, oak staves and fish; and the
exportation of lead, fruit, farm produce and red wines, which
are sent to France for blending with better vintages. Fine
marble is procured in the island of Plana near the coast
Alicante was the Roman Lucentum; but, despite its antiquity,
it has few Roman or Moorish remains. In 718, it was occupied
by the Moors, who were only expelled in 1304, and made an
unsuccessful attempt to recapture the dty in 1331. Alicante
was besieged by the French in 1709, and by the Federalists of
Cartagena in 1873. For an account of the events which led up
to these two sieges, see Spain..
For further details of the local history, see J. Pastor de la Roca,
Historia general de la ciudad y Castillo de Ahcanle, fife. (Alicante, 1 854);
and the Ensayo biogrdfico btUiogrdfico de escritores de Alicante ydesu
provincia, by M. R. Garda and A. Montero y Perez (Alicante, 1890).
ALICE MAUD MART, Grand-Duchess of Hesse-Darmstadt
(1843-1878), second daughter and third child of Queen Victoria,
was born at Buckingham Palace, on the 25th of April 1843. A
pretty, delicate-featured child—" cheerful, merry, full of fun and
mischief," as her elder sister described her— fond of gymnastics,
a good skater and an excellent horsewoman, she was a general
favourite from her earliest days. Her first years were passed
without particular inddent in the home drde, where the training
of thdr children was a matter of the greatest concern to the queen
and the prince consort Among other things, the royal children
were encouraged to visit the poor, and the effect of this training
662
ALIDADE— ALIEN
was very noticeable in the later life of Princess Alice. After
the marriage of the Princess Royal in 1858, the new responsi-
bilities devolving upon Princess Alice, as the eldest daughter at
home, called forth the higher traits of her character, and brought
her into still closer relationship with her parents, and especially
with her father. In the summer of i860, at Windsor Castle,
Princess Alice first met her future husband, Prince Louis of
Hesse. An attachment quickly sprang up, and on the prince's
second visit in November they were formally engaged. In the
following year, on the announcement of the contemplated
marriage, the House of Commons unanimously voted a dowry
of £30,000 and an annuity of £6000 to the princess. In December
1 86 1, while preparations were being made for the marriage, the
prince consort was struck down with typhoid fever, and died
on the 14th. Princess Alice nursed her father during his short
illness with the utmost care, and after his death devoted herself
to comforting her mother under this terrible blow. Her marriage
took place at Osborne, on the xst of July 1862. The princess
unconsciously wrote her own biography from this period in her
constant letters to Queen Victoria, a selection of which, edited
by Dr. Carl Sell, were allowed to be printed in 1 883. These letters
give a complete picture of the daily life of the duke and duchess,
and they also show the intense love of the latter for her husband,
her mother and her native land. She managed to visit England
every year, and it was at her special request that when she died
her husband laid an English flag upon her coffin.
In the war between Austria and Prussia in x866, Hesse-
Darmstadt was upon the side of the A us t nans; Prince Louis
accompanied his troops to the front, and was duly appointed by
the grand-duke to the command of the Hessian division. This
was a time of intense trial to the princess, whose husband and
brother-in-law, the crown prince of Prussia, were necessarily
fighting upon opposite sides. The duke of Hesse also took part
in the principal battles of the Franco-Prussian war, while the
duchess was actively engaged in organizing hospitals for the
relief of the sick and wounded. The death of the duke's father,
Prince Charles of Hesse, on the 20th of March 1877, was followed
by that of the grand-duke on the 13th of June, and Prince Louis
succeeded to the throne as Grand Duke Louis IV. In the summer
of 1878 the grand-duke and duchess, with their family, came
again to England, and went to Eastbourne, where the duchess
remained for some time. She returned to Darmstadt in the
autumn, and on the 8th of November 1 878 her daughter, Princess
Victoria, was attacked by diphtheria. Three more of her
children, as well as her husband, quickly caught the disease, and
the youngest, " May," succumbed on the 16th. On the 7th of
December the princess was herself attacked, and, being weakened
by nursing and anxiety, had not strength to resist the disease,
which proved fatal on the 14th of December, the seventeenth
anniversary of her father's death. She left one son and four
daughters.
See Carl Sell, Alice: Mittheilunten aus ikrtm Leben und Brief en,
fire. (Darmstadt, 1883), with English translation by the Princess
Christian, Alice: biopaphical sketch and letters (1884). (G. F. B.)
ALIDADE (from the Arab.), the movable index of a graduated
arc, used in the measurement of angles. The word b used also
to designate the supporting frame or arms carrying the micro-
scopes or verniers of a graduated circle.
ALIEN (Lat. alienus), the technical term applied by British
constitutional law to anyone who does not enjoy the character of
a British subject; in general, a foreigner who for the purposes of
any state comes into certain domestic relations with it, other
than those applying to native-born or naturalized citizens, but
owns allegiance to a foreign sovereign.
English law, save with the special exceptions mentioned,
admits to the character of subjects all who are born within the
king's allegiance, that is, speaking generally, within the British
dominions. In the celebrated question of the post-nati in the
reign of James I. of England, it was found, after solemn trial,
that natives of Scotland born before the union of the crowns were
aliens in England, but that, since allegiance is to the person of the
king, those born subsequently were English subjects. A child
born abroad, whose father or whose grandfather on the father**
side was a British subject, may claim the same character roles
at the time of his birth his father was an attainted traitor, aria
the service of a state engaged in war against the British 1
(4th Geo. II. c. 21). Owing to this exceptional provision s
sons of Jacobite refugees born abroad, who joined in the rebdbat
of 1 745, were admitted to the privilege of prisoners of war.
It has been enacted in the United Kingdom with regard to the
national status of women and children that a married woinaa s
to be deemed a subject of the state of which her husband is for the
time being a subject; that a natural-born British woman, bar«g
become an alien by marriage, and thereafter being a widow, ma;
be rehabilitated under conditions slightly more favourable thai
are required for naturalization; that where a father or a wide*
becomes an alien, the children in infancy becoming resident is the
country where the parent is naturalized, and being naturalized by
the local law, are held to be subjects of that country, that those
of a father or of a widow readmitted to British nationality or wac
obtains a certificate of naturalization, becoming during infancy
resident with such parent in the British dominions in the forcer
case or in the United Kingdom in the latter, become readmitted
or naturalized (Naturalization Act 1870, s. 10). The nationaExr
of children not covered by these enactments is not affected by the
change of their parents' nationality. The same statute provides
that a declaration of alienage before a justice of peace or other
competent judge, having the effect of divesting the declarant of
the character of a British subject, may be made by a nararafard
British subject desiring to resume the nationality of the country
to which he originally belonged, if there be a convention to that
effect with that country; by natural-born subjects who were abo
born subjects of another state according to its law; or by person
born abroad having British fathers.
Naturalization, which means conferring the character of a
subject, may now, under the act of 1870, be obtained by appJyiag
to the home secretary and producing evidence of having resided
for not less than five years in the United Kingdom, or of having
been in the service of the crown for not less than five years, and
of intention to reside in the United Kingdom or serve under the
crown. Such a certificate may be granted by the secretary ef
state to one naturalized previously to the passing of the act, or to
a British subject as to whose nationality a doubt exists, or in a
statutory alien, i.e. one who has become an alien by dedaratxta m
pursuance of the act of 1870.
In the United States the separate state laws largely determine
the status of an alien, but subject to Federal treaties. (For
further particulars see Allegiance and Naturalization.)
Many of the disabilities to which aliens were subject in tat
United Kingdom, either by the common law or under various acta
of parliament, have been repealed by the Naturalization Act
1870. It enables aliens to take, acquire, hoTd and dispose of real
and personal property of every description, and to transmit a
title to it, in all respects as natural-born British subjects. Bat
the act expressly declares that this relaxation of the law does not
qualify aliens for any office or any municipal, parliamentary or
other franchise, or confer any right of a British subject other than
those above expressed in regard to property, nor does it affect
interests vested in possession or expectancy under di spositi ons
made before the act, or by devolution of law on the death of an;
one dying before the act. A ship, any share in which is owned by
an alien, shall hot be deemed a British ship (Merchant Shipping
Act 1804, s. 1). By the Juries Act 1870, s. 8, aliens who have
been domiciled for ten years in England or Wales, if in other
respects duly qualified, are liable to serve on juries or inquests i»
England or Wales; and by the Naturalization Act 1870, s> 5, the
aliens' old privilege of being tried by a jury de medieta U iawgwjr
(that is, of which half were foreigners), was abolished.
It seems to be a rule of general public law that an alien can be
sent out of the realm by exercise of the crown's prerogative ; bet
in modern English practice, whenever it seems necessary to cspe)
foreigners (see Expulsion), a special act of parliament has to
be obtained for the purpose, unless the case falls within the
extradition acts or the Aliens Act 1 905. The latter prohibits the
ALIENATION— ALIMENTARY CANAL
663
anding in the United Kingdom of undesirable alien steerage
ossengers, called in the act " immigrants/' from ships carrying
nore than twenty alien steerage passengers, called in the act
1 immigrant ships "; nor can alien immigrants be landed except
t certain ports at which there is an " immigrant officer," to
rhom power of prohibiting the landing is given, subject to a
ight of appeal to the immigration board of the port. The act
ontains a number of qualifications, and among these empowers
he secretary of state to exempt any immigrant ship from its
(revisions if he is satisfied that a proper system is maintained to
irevent the immigration of undesirable persons. The principal
est of undesirableness is not having or being in a position to
obtain the means of supporting one's self and one's dependents,
•r appearing likely from disease or infirmity to become a charge
•n the rates, provided that the immigrant is not seeking to avoid
irosecution or punishment on religious or political grounds, or
persecution, involving danger of imprisonment or danger to life
»r limb, on account of religious belief. Lunatics, idiots, persons
trho from disease or infirmity appear likely to become a detriment
the public otherwise than through the rates, and persons
entenced in a foreign country for crimes for which they could
* surrendered to that country, are also enumerated as undesir-
able. Power is also given to the secretary of state to expel
wrsons sentenced as just mentioned, or, if recommended by the
xmrt in which they have been convicted, persons convicted of
elony or some offence for which the court has power to impose
mprisonment without the option of a fine, or of certain offences
igainst the police laws; and persons in receipt of any such
Mxochial relief as disqualifies for the parliamentary franchise, or
randering without ostensible means of subsistence, or living under
nsanitary conditions due to overcrowding. (J no. W.)
ALIENATION (from Lat. alienus, belonging to another),
he act or fact of being estranged, set apart or separated. In
aw the word is used for the act of transfer of property by
voluntary deed and not by inheritance. In regard to church
>roperty the word has come to mean, since the Reformation,
1 transfer from religious to secular ownership. " Alienation "
s also used to denote a state of insanity (q.v.).
ALIEN-HOUSES, religious houses in England belonging to
oreign ecclesiastics, or under their control. They generally
vere built where property had been left by the donors to foreign
>rders to pray for their souls. They were frequently regular
' priories," but sometimes only " cells," and even " granges,"
vith small chapels attached. Some, particularly in cities, seem
o have been a sort of mission-houses. There were more than
loo in England. Many alien-houses were suppressed by Henry
V. and the rest by Henry VIII.
ALIENIST (Lat. alienus, that which belongs to another, i.e. is
external to one's self), one who specializes in the study of mental
liseases, which are often included in the generic name " Aliena-
jon." (See Insanity.)
ALIGARH, a city and district of British India in the Meerut
iivision of the United Provinces. The city, also known as Koil,
*as a station on the East Indian railway, 876 m. from Calcutta.
>ir Sayad Ahmad Khan, K.C.S.I., who died in 1898, founded in
1864 the Aligarh Institute and Scientific Society for the transla-
ion into the vernacular of western literature; and afterwards
he Mahommedan Anglo-Oriental college, under English pro-
cssors, with an English school attached. The college meets
with strong support from the enlightened portion of the Mussul-
man community, whose aim is to raise it to the status of a
jnivcrsity, with the power of conferring degrees. The population
[100O 70r434, showed an increase of 14% in the decade,
rhere are several flour-mills, cotton-presses and a dairy farm.
Aligarh Fort, situated on the Grand Trunk road, consists of a
regular polygon, surrounded by a very broad and deep ditch.
It became a fortress of great importance under Sindhia in 1759,
and was the depot where he drilled and organized his battalions
in the European fashion with the aid of De Boigne. It was
captured from the Mahrattas under the leadership of Perron,
another French officer, by Lord Lake's army, in September
i8q3. since which time it has been much strengthened and
improved. In the rebellion of 1857 the troops stationed at
Aligarh mutinied, but abstained from murdering their officers,
who, with the other residents and ladies and children; succeeded
in reaching Hathras.
The district of Aligarh has an area of 19S7 sq. m. It is nearly
a level plain, but with a slight elevation in the centre, between
the two great rivers the Ganges and Jumna. The only other
important river is the Kali Nadi, which traverses the entire
length of the district from north-east to south-west The
district is traversed by several railways and also by the Ganges
canal, which is navigable. The chief trading centre is Hathras.
In xoox the population was 1,200,822, showing an increase of
IS % in the decade, due to the extension of irrigation. There
are several factories for ginning and pressing cotton.
ALIGNMENT (from Fr. a and ligne, the Lat. linea, a line),
a setting in line, generally straight, or the way in which the
line runs; an expression used in surveying, drawing, and in
military arrangements, the alignment of a regiment or a camp
meaning the situation when drawn up in line or the relative
position of the tents. The alignment of a rifle has reference to
the way of getting the sights into line with the object, so as to
aim correctly.
ALIMENT (from Lat aliment-urn, from alert to nourish), a
synonym for "food," literally or metaphorically. The word
has also been used in the same legal sense as Alimony (q.v.).
Aliment, in Scots law, is the sum paid or allowance given in
respect of the- reciprocal obligation of parents and children,
husband and wife, grandparents and grandchildren, to contribute
to each other's maintenance. The term is also used in regard
to a similar obligation of other parties, as of creditors to im-
prisoned debtors, the payments by parishes to paupers, &c.
Alimentary funds, whether of the kind above mentioned, or set
apart as such by the deed of -a testator, are intended for the
mere support of the recipient, and are not attachable by
creditors.
ALIMENTARY CANAL, in anatomy. The alimentary canal,
strictly speaking, is the whole digestive tract from the mouth
to the anus. From the one orifice to the other the tube is
some 25 to 30 ft long, and the food, in its passage, passes
through the following parts one after the other:— mouth,
pharynx, oesophagus, stomach, small intestines, caecum, large
intestines, rectum and anus. Into this tube at various points
the salivary glands, liver and pancreas pour their secretions
by special ducts. As the mouth (q.v.) and pharynx (q.v.) are
separately described, the detailed description will here begin
with the oesophagus or gullet.
The oesophagus (Gr. otcru, I will carry, and tfurytti', to eat), a
muscular tube lined with mucous membrane, stretches from the
lower limit of the pharynx, at the level of the cricoid cartilage,
to the cardiac orifice of the stomach. It is about 10 in. long
(25 cm.) and half to one inch in diameter. At first it lies
in the lower part of the neck, then in the thorax, and lastly, for
about an inch, in the abdomen. As far as the level of the fourth
or fifth thoracic vertebra it lies behind the trachea, but when
that tube ends, it is in close contact with the pericardium, and,
at the level of the tenth thoracic vertebra, passes through the
oesophageal opening of the diaphragm (q.v.), accompanied by
the two vagi nerves, the left being in front of it and the right
behind. In the abdomen it lies just behind the left lobe of the
liver. Both in the upper and lower parts of its course it lies a
little to the left of the mid line. Its mucous membrane is thrown
into a number of longitudinal pleats to allow stretching.
The stomach (Gr. erbnaxoi) » *n irregularly pear-shaped
bag, situated in the upper and left part of the abdomen. It is
somewhat flattened from before backward and so has an anterior
and posterior surface and an upper and lower border. When
moderately distended the thick end of the pear or fundus bulges
upward and to the left, while the narrow end is constricted to
form the pylorus, by means of which the stomach communicates
with the small intestine. The cardiac orifice, where the oeso-
phagus enters, is placed about a third of the way along the upper
border from the left end of the fundus, and, between it and the
66 4
ALIMENTARY CANAL
pylorus, the upper border is concave and is known as the lesser
curvature. From the cardiac to the pyloric orifice, round the
lower border, is the greater curvature. The stomach has in front
of it the liver (see fig. i), the diaphragm and the anterior
abdominal wall, while behind it are the pancreas, left kidney,
left adrenal, spleen, colon and mesocolon. These structures form
what is known as the stomach chamber. When the stomach is
empty it contracts into a tubular organ which is frequently
sharply bent, and the transverse colon ascends to occupy the
vacant part of the stomach chamber.
The last inch of the stomach before reaching the pylorus is
SCMlftflCNC*
•eAUMCIITMfTtfS
Pram A Birmingham; CuimhgTum't Ttxt-Book */ A tutm m y .
FIG. I.— The Abdominal Viscera in situ, as seen when the abdomen is laid open and the grot
omentum removed (drawn to scale from a photograph of a male body aged 56, hardened uy
formalin injections).
The ribs on the right side are Indicated by Roman numerals; it will be observed that the
eighth costal cartilage articulated with the sternum on both sides. The subcostal, intertuber-
cular, and right and left Poupart lines are drawn in black, and the mesial plane is indicated
by a dotted line. The intercostal muscles and part of the diaphragm have been removed,
to show the liver and stomach extending up beneath the ribs. The stomach is moderately
distended, and the Intestines are particularly regular in their arrangement.
usually tubular and is known as the pyloric canoe. Before reach-
ing this there is a bulging known as the pyloric vestibule (see
D. J. Cunningham, Tr. R. Soc. of Eiinb. vol. xlv. pt. 1, No. a).
The pylorus is an oval opening, averaging half an inch in its long
am but capable of considerable distension; it is formed by a
special development of the circular muscle layer of the stomach,
and during life is probably tightly closed. The mucous membrane
of the stomach is thrown into pleats or rugae when the organ is
not fully distended, while between these it has a mammillated
appearance.
Superficial to the mucous coat is a sub-mucous, consisting of
loose connective tissue, while superficial to this are three coats
of unstriped muscle, the inner oblique, the middle circular and the
outer longitudinal. The peritoneal coat is described in the stick
on the coelom and serous "membranes.
The small intestine is a tube, from a a to 15 ft. long, begixaac.
at the pylorus and ending at the ileo-caecai value; it is divided
into duodenum, jejunum and ileum.
The duodenum is from 9 to zx in. long and forms a horseshoe
or C-shaped curve, encircling the head of the pancreas. It&lei
from the rest of the gut in being retroperitoneaL Its first pan
is horizontal and lies behind the fundus of the gaQ-bladda,
passing backward and to the right from the pylorus. The uecaei
part runs vertically downward in front of the hilum of the rigli
kidney, and into this part the pancreatic
and bile ducts open. The third part rcas
horizontally to the left in front of the
aorta and vena cava, while the foens
part ascends to the left side of the second
lumbar vertebra, after which it bends
sharply downward and forward to fbra
the duodenojejunal flexure.
The jejunum forms the upper two-fifths
of the rest of the small intestine; it, like
the ileum, is thrown into nu m ero us cos-
volutions and is attached by the mesen-
tery to the posterior abdominal w»lL (See
Coelom and Serous Membranes.)
The ileum is the remaining three-fifths
of the small intestine, though there b so
absolute point at which the one ends and
the other begins. Speaking broadly, the
jejunum occupies the upper and left part
of the abdomen below the subcostal
plane (see Anatomy: Superficial end
Artistic), the ileum the lower and right
part. About 3 ft. from its termination
a small pouch, known as iieckefs diverti-
culum, is very occasionally found. At its
termination the ileum opens into the
large intestine at the ileo-caecal valve.
The caecum is a blind sac occupying the
right iliac fossa and extending dam*
some two or three inches below the flco-
caecal junction. From its posterior and
left surface the vermiform appendix pro-
trudes, and usually is directed upward aai
to the left, though it not infrequently
hangs down into the true pelvis. Ths
worm-like tube is blind at its end and
is usually 3 or 4 in. long, though it has
been seen as long as 10. in. Its internal
opening into the caecum is about 1 is.
below that of the ileum. On transverse
section it is seen to be composed of (i)
ant external muscular coat, (a) a sub-
mucous coat, (3) a mass of lymphoid
tissue, which appears aftet birth, and (4)
mucous membrane. In many cases its
lumen is wholly or partly obliterated,
though this is probably due to disease
(see R. Berry and L. Lack, Jomm. AneLtr
247). Guarding the opening of the flewa
Grnl tinentum (cut)
] r-> niT?<W mesocolon
»nh jejunum ,
btitfiib it
Turn!* of transversa
.oblique
Pun Use colon
■ wriKiid flexure)
Phys. vol. xL p.
into the caecum is the ileo-caecal valve, which consists of two
cusps projecting into the caecum; of these the upper forms
a horizontal shelf, while the lower slopes up to it obfiqttdy.
Complete absence of the valve has been noticed, and in one
such case the writer found that no abdominal inconvenience
had been recorded during life. The caecum is usually com-
pletely covered by peritoneum, three special pouches of whack
are often found in its neighbourhood; of these the Ueo-coUc a
just above the point of junction of the ileum and caecum, the fleo-
caecal just below that point, while the retro-caecal is behind the
caecum. At birth the caecum is a cone, the apex of which a
the appendix*, it is bent upon itself to form a U, and 1
ALIMENTARY CANAL
665
peritoneal coat has already been described wherever it is present
The muscular coat consists of unstriped fibres arranged in two
layers, the outer longitudinal and the inner circular (see fig. a).
In the large intestine the longitudinal fibres, instead of being
arranged evenly round the tube as they are in the small, are
gathered into three longitudinal bands called taeniae (see fig. 1);
by the contraction of these the large intestine is thrown into a
series of sacculi or slight pouches. The taeniae in the caecum
aO lead to the vermiform appendix, and form a useful guide
to this structure. In the rectum the three taeniae once more
become evenly arranged over the whole surface of the bowel,
but more thickly on the anterior and posterior parts. The
circular layer is. always thicker than the longitudinal; in the
small intestine it decreases in thickness from the duodenum to
the ileum, but in the large it gradually increases again, so that
it is thickest in the duodenum and rectum.
this arrangement persists throughout Hfe (see C. Toldt, '< Die
Formbildung d. menschL Blinddarmes," Si*, der Wiener Akad.
Bd. dfl. AbteiL 3, p. ax).
The ascending colon runs up from the caecum at the level
of the fleo-caecal valve to the hepatic flexure beneath and
behind the right lobe of the liver; it is about 8 in. long and
posteriorly is in contact with the abdominal wall and right
kidney. It is covered by peritoneum except on its posterior
surface (see fig. 1).
The transverse colon is variable in position, depending largely
on the distension of the stomach, but usually corresponding to
the subcostal plane (see Anatomy: Superficial and Artistic).
On the left side of the abdomen it ascends to the splenic flexure,
which may make an impression on the spleen (see Ductless
Glands), and is bound to the diaphragm opposite the eleventh
rib by a fold of peritoneum called the phrtnico-colic ligament.
The peritoneal relations of this part are dis cu ssed in the
article on the coelom and serous membranes.
The descending colon passes down in front of the left
kidney and left side of the posterior abdominal wall to the
crest of the ilium; it fa about 6 in. long and is usually
empty and contracted while the rest of the colon is dis-
tended with gas; its peritoneal relations are the same as
those of the ascending colon, but it Is more likely to be __
completely surrounded.
The iliac colon stretches from the crest of the ilium to
the inner border of the psoas muscle, lying in the left iliac
fossa, just above and parallel to Poupart's ligament like
the descending, it is usually uncovered by peritoneum
on its posterior surface. It fa about 6 in. in length.
The fehic colon' lies in the true pelvis and forms a loop,
the two Hmbs of which are superior and inferior while the
convexity reaches across to the right side of the pelvis. In
the foetus this loop occupies the right iliac fossa, but, as
the caecum descends and enlarges and the pelvis widens,
it is usually driven out of this region. The distal end of
the loop turns sharply downward to reach the third piece
of the sacrum, where it becomes the rectum. To this
pelvic colon Sir F. Treves {Anatomy of the Intestinal
Canal, London, 1885) has given the name of the omega
leaf. Formerly the iliac and pelvic colons were spoken of
as the sigmoid JUxure, but Treves and T. Jonnesco (Le
pointed out the inapplicability of the term, and to the ^ and the duodenum.
latter author the modern description is due.
twu WTIITWC
The rectum, according to modern ideas, begins in front of the
third piece of the sacrum; formerly the last part of the Q (or
omega) loop was described ss its first part It ends in a dilata-
tion or rectal ampulla, which is in contact with the back of the
prostate in the male and of the vagina in the female and is in
front of the tip of the coccyx. The rectum is not straight, as
its name would imply, but has a concavity forward corresponding
to that of the sacrum and coccyx:
When viewed from in front three bends are usually seen, the
upper and lower of which are sharply concave to the left, the
middle one to the right At the end of the pelvic colon the
mesocolon ceases, and the rectum is then only covered by peri-
toneum at its sides and in front; lower down the lateral covering
is gradually reflected off and then only the front is covered.
About the junction of the middle and lower thirds of the tube
the anterior peritoneal covering is also, reflected off on to the
bladder or vagina, forming the rccto-vcsical pouch in the male
and the pouch bf Douglas in the female. This reflexion is usually
about 3 in. above the anal aperture, but may be a good deal lower.
The anal canal is the termination of the alimentary tract, and
runs downward and backward from the lower surface of the
rectal ampulla between the levatores ani muscles. It is about
an inch long and its lateral walls are in contact, so that in
section it appears as an antero-posterior slit (see J. Symington,
Jour*. Anal, and Pkys. voL 23, 1888;.
Structure of the Intestine. — The intestine has four coats:
submucous and mucous. The serous or
The submucous coat is very strong and consists of loose
areolar tissue in which the vessels break up.
The mucous coat is thick and vascular (see fig. 2); it consists
of an epithelial layer most internally which forms the intestinal
glands (see Epithelial, Endothelial and Glandulak Tissues).
External to this is the basement membrane, outside which is a
layer of retiform tissue, and this is separated from the submucous
coat by a very thin layer of unstriped muscle called the muscu-
laris mucosae. In. the duodenum and jejunum the mucous
membrane is thrown into a series of transverse pleats called
valtulae commentes (see fig. 3); these begin about an inch from
the pylorus and gradually fade away as the ileum is reached.
About 4 in. from the pylorus the common bfle and pan-
creatic ducts form a papilla, above which one of the valvulae
conniventes makes a hood and below which a vertical fold, the
frenulum, runs downward. The surface of the mucous membrane
of the whole of the small intestine has a velvety appearance,
due to the presence of closely-set, minute P thread-like elevations
called villi (see fig. 2). Throughout the whole length of the
intestinal tract are minute masses of lymphoid tissue called
solitary gfands (see fig. a); these are especially numerous in the
caecum and appendix, while in the ileum they are collected
into- large oval patches, known as agminated glands or Peyer's
patches, the long axes of which, from half an inch to 4 in.
Jong, lie in the long axis of the bowel They are always found
in that part of the intestine which is farthest from the mesenteric
attachment. In the interior of the rectum three shelf-like folds,
666
ALIMENTARY CANAL
one above the other, project into the cavity and correspond
to the lateral concavities or kinks of the tube. They are not in
the same line and the largest is usually on the right side. They
are known as the plicae recti or valves of Houston. In the anal
canal are four or five longitudinal folds called the columns of
Morgagni. (For further details, see Quain's Anatomy , London,
1806; Gray's Anatomy, London, 1005; Cunningham's Anatomy,
Edinburgh, 1906.)
Embryology.— The greater part of the alimentary canal is
formed by the dosing-in of the entoderm to make a longitudinal
tube, ventral and parallel to the notochord. This tube is blind
in front and behind (cephalad and caudad), but the middle part
of its ventral wall is for some distance continuous with the wall
of the yolk-sac, and this part of the canal, which at first opens
into the yolk-sac by a very wide aperture, is called the mid gut.
The part in front of it, which lies dorsal to the heart, is the fore
gut, while the part behind the aperture of the yolk-sac is the
kind gut.
The pharynx, oesophagus, stomach and part of the duodenum
are developed from the fore gut, a good deal of the colon and the
Fran A Birmincluin; Cunningham's Tea-Book •/ Amttamy.
Fic. $.— •Volvuta* Conniventes.
A t As seen in a bit of jejunum which has been filled with alcohol
and hardened.
B, A portion of fresh intestine spread out under water.
rectum from the hind gut, while the mid gut is responsible for
the rest. The cephalic part of the fore gut forms the pharynx
(q.v.), and about the fourth week the stomach appears as a
fusiform dilatation in the straight tube. Between the two the
oesophagus gradually forms as the embryo elongates. The
opening into the yolk-sac, which at first is very wide, gradually
narrows, as the ventral abdominal walls dose in, until in the
adult the only indication of the connexion between the gut and
the yolk-sac is the very rare presence (about 2 %) of Meckel's
diverticulum already referred to. The stomach soon shows
signs of the greater and lesser curvatures, the latter being
ventral, but maintains its straight position. About the sixth
week the caecum appears as a lateral diverticulum, and, until
the third month, is of uniform calibre; after this period the
terminal part ceases to grow at the same rate as the proximal,
and so the vermiform appendix is formed. The mid gut forms a
loop with its convexity toward the diminishing vitelline duct,
or remains of the yolk-sac, and until the third month it protrudes
into the umbilical cord. The greater curvature of the stomach
grows more rapidly than the lesser, and the whole stomach turns
over and becomes bent at right angles, so that what was its left
surface becomes ventral This turning over of the stomach
throws the succeeding part of the intestine into a duodenal loop,
which at first has a dorsal and ventral mesentery (see Coelom
amd Sxeoos Membranes). The intestine
rapidly and is thrown into a series of coils; the caecum ascesta
and passes to the right ventral to the duodenum, and press
it against the dorsal wall of the abdomen; Chen it desresd*
toward its permanent position in the right iliac fossa.
From the ventral surface on the hinder (caudal) cloned end sf
the intestinal tube the aUantois grows to form the placenta sad
bladder (see Urinary System, Reproductive System aad
Placenta) , and this region is the cloaca into which the n lintftir y,
urinary and generative canals or ducts all open, but later two
lateral folds appear which, by their union, divide the cloaca case
a ventral and a dorsal part, the former being geni to-urinary and
the latter alimentary or intestinal In this way the rectaai or
dorsal compartment b shut off from the genito-urinaxy. Laos
an ectodermal invagination at the hind end of the esnhryt
develops and forms the anal canal; this b the proctodmcum, as*
for some time it b separated from the hind (caudal) end of the
rectal part of the mesodaeum (or part of the intestinal casa!
formed from the mesoderm) by a membrane called the *md
membrane. Thb b eventually absorbed and the 1
now communicates with the surface by the anus.
F. Wood Jones (British Medical Journal, 17th of 3
1004) has given a somewhat different description of the <
ment of the cloaca and anus, which better explains the varum
abnormalities met with jn thb region but requires further
confirmation before it b generally accepted. For the develop-
ment of the mouth, pharynx, lungs, liver and pancreas frost
the primitive alimentary canal, the reader b re f erred to the
special articles on those structures. (For further details, see
W. His, Anatomic menschlicher Embryonen (Leipzig, 1880-1885);
C. S. Minot's Embryology (New York, 1807) ; and J. P. M'Murrka,
Development of the Human Body (London, 1006). (F. C P4
Comparative Anatomy. — The, primitive condition of the verte-
brate alimentary canal may be described as a straight, simpk
tube, consisting of an anterior portion, the stomodaeutm, foamed
by an ectodermal invagination, the mesenteron, a long median
portion lined by endoderm, and a short posterior portion, the
proctodatum, formed by ectodermal invagination. In the lover
vertebrates the primitive tube subserved also the fjurpose of
respiration, and traces of the double function remain in the
adult structure of all vertebrates (see Mouth, Phaxyvx)
In fish, the pharynx, or branchial region, suddenly Deceases
narrower, posterior to the gill-slits, to form the oesophagus; is
higher animals the oesophagus, in the adult, b separated from
the primitive pharyngeal region and lies dorsal to it. Probably,
in the primitive vertebrata, the entire alimentary canal was fined
with ciliated cells. Traces of thb dilation persist in many living
forms. In the Ammocoete, the larval form of Pctromyum (sre
Cyclostouata), the whole canal b ciliated except the pharynx
and the rectum; in the Dipnoi the epithelium of the stomach and
the intestines b ciliated; in Selachii that of the posterior part at
the* gullet, and the spiral valve, b ciliated; extensive dhatioa
may occur in almost any region of the gut of the lower teseos-
lomes, but in the higher forms (Teleostei) i| b generally absent.
In the latter, however, and in higher groups of vertebrates, a
peculiar striated border on the columnar ceUs lining the intes-
tinal tract has been held to be a final trace of ancestral
ciliation.
The alimentary canal may be conveniently described in three
divisions, the oesophagus or gullet, the passage, by which food
reaches the stomach, the stomach, typically an expanded region
in which the food remains for a considerable time and b mechani-
cally pulped, mixed with mucus and certain digestive juices (see
Nutrition) and partly macerated, the intestinal tract or gut,
extending from the distal end of the stomach to the cloaca or
anus, in which the food is subjected to further digestive actio*,
but which b above all the region in which absorption of the
products of digestion takes place, the refuse material together
with quantities of waste matter entering the gut from the blood
and liver being gradually passed towards the anus for dbcharge
from the body.
The oesophagus b essentially merely a passage, as straight as
ALIMENTARY CANAL
667
may be, from the pharynx to the stomach, varying in length
nth the length of the neck and thoracic regions in different
animals, and in calibre with the nature of the food. It is almost
invariably lined with a many-layered epithelium, forming a
tough coating, readily repaired and not easily damaged by hard
food masses. It is occasionally separated from the stomach by a
ilight constriction which may be capable of contraction so as to
prevent regurgitation. There are few exceptions to this
ttructural and functional simplicity. In fishes (see Ichthyology,
Anatomy) thevwira-bladder tk developed as a dorsal outgrowth
of the oesophagus and may remain in open connexion with it
in certain TdeostHs fag. Lutodcira) it is longer than the length
t has to tiaveije and b thrown into convolutions. In many other
Eish, particularly Selackm, a set of processes of the lining wall
project into the cavity near the stomach and have been supposed
U> aid in preventing food particks, or living creatures swallowed
without injury, escaping backwards into the mouth. In some
sgg-eating snakes the sharp tips of the ventral spines (hypapo-
physes) of the posterior cervical vertebrae penetrate the wall of
the oesophagus and are used for breaking the shells of the eggs
taken as food. In tome aquatic Ckehmans, the food of which
consists chiefly of seaweeds, the lining membrane is produced
into pointed processes, backwardly directed.. In birds this
negion frequently presents peculiarities. In Opistkocomus it
forms an enormously wide double loop, hanging down over the
sreast-bone, which is peculiarly flattened and devoid of a keel in
the anterior portion. In many birds part of the oesophagus may
x temporarily dilated, forming a " crop," as for instance in birds
rf prey and humming birds. In the flamingo, many ducks, storks,
md the cormorant the crop b a permanent although not a highly
ipedalized enlargement. Finally, in the vast majority of. seed-
sating birds, in gallinaceous birds, pigeons, sandgrouse, parrots
ind many Passera, particularly the finches, the crop is a
permanent globular dilatation, in which the food is retained for
1 considerable time, mixed with a slight mucous secretion; and
of tened and partly macerated by the heat of the body. Many
>irds feed their young from the soft contents of the crop, and in
rfgeons, at the breeding season, the cells lining the crop pro-
iferate raptuly and are discharged as a soft cheesy mass into the
avity, forming the substance known as pigeon's milk. Amongst
Mammalia, in RodenUa, Carnivoro, elephants and ruminants,
he wall of the oesophagus contains a layer of voluntary muscle,
>y the contraction of which, these^ animals induce anti-
peristaltic movements and can so regurgitate food into the
nouth.
Sumach,— When the oesophagus passes into the stomach, the
ining wall of the alimentary tract changes from a many-layered
•pithelium to a mucous epithelium, consisting of a single layer
4 endodermal cells, frequently thrown Into pits or projecting; as
processes; from being chiefly protective, it has become secretory
ind absorbing, and maintains this character to the distal
xtremity where it passes into the epiblast of the riroctodaeum.
n moat cases the course of the alimentary canal from the distal
snd of the oesophagus to the cloaca or anus is longer than the
nrresponding region of the body, and the canal is therefore
iirown into folds. The fundamental form of the stomach is a
ac-like enlargement of the canal, the proximal portion of which
s continuous with the line of the oesophagus, but the distal
>ortion of which is bent in the proximal portion, the-whole
orming an enlarged bent tube. At the distal end of the tube the
ntestinal tract proper begins, and the two regions are separated
>y a muscular constriction. In fishes the stomach is generally
n one of two forms; it may be a simple bent tube, the proximal
imb of which Is almost invariably much wider than the distal,
interiorly directed limb; or the oesophagus may pass directly
nto an expanded, globular or elongated sac, from the anterior
ateral wall of which, not far from the oesophageal opening, the
luodenum arises. In Batrackia and RcptUia the stomach is in
nost cases a simple sac, marked off from the oesophagus only by
ncreased calibre. In the CrocadUia, however, the anterior
wrrJon of the stomach b much enlarged and very highly muscular,
[be muscles radiating from a central tendinous area on each of
the flattened sides. The cavity is lined by a hardened secretion
and contains a quantity of pebbles and gravel which are used in
the mechanical trituration of the food, so that the resemblance to
the gizzard of birds is well marked. This muscular chamber
leads by a small aperture into a distal, smaller and more glandular
chamber. In birds the stomach exhibits two regions, an anterior
glandular region, the proventriculus, the walls of which are
relatively soft and- contain enlarged digestive glands aggregated
in patches (e.g. some SUganopodcs), in rows (e.g. most birds of
prey) or in a more or leaa regular band. The distal region is
larger and is lined in most cases by a more or less permanent
lining which is thick and tough in birds with a muscular gizzard,
very alight in the others. In many birds ? specially those
feeding on fish* the two regions of the stomach are of equal
width, and are indistinguishable until, on opening the cavity, the
difference in the character of the lining membrane becomes
visible. In other birds the proventriculus is separated by a well-
marked constriction from the posterior and larger region. In
graminiferous forms the latter becomes a thick-walled muscular
gizzard, the muscles radiating from tendinous areas and the
cavity containing pebbles or gravel.
In mammals, the primitive form of the stomach consists of
a more or less globular or elongated expansion of the oesophageal
region, forming the cardiac portion, and a fOrwardly curved,
narrower pyloric portion, from which the duodenum arises.
The whole wall is muscular, and the lining membrane is richly
glandular. In the Insectbora, Carmmra, Perissodactyla, and
in most Edentata, Ckiroptera, Rodentia and Primates, this
primitive disposition is retained, the difference consisting chiefly
in the degrees of elongation of the stomach and the sharpness
of the distal curvature. In other cases the cardiac portion may
be prolonged into a caecal sac, a condition most highly differenti-
ated in the blood-sucking bat, tksmodeus, where it is longer
than the entire length of the body. There are two cardiac
extensions in the hippopotamus and in the peccary. In many
other mammals one, two or three protrusions of the cardiac
region occur, whilst in the manatee and in some rodents the
cardiac region is constricted off from the pyloric portion. In
the ArHodactyla the stomach is always complex, the complexity
reaching a maximum in ruminating forms. In the Suidae a
cardiac diverticulum is* partly constricted from the general
cavity, forming an incipient condition of the rumen of true
ruminants; the general cavity of the stomach shows an approach
to the ruminant condition by the different characters of the
lining wall in different areas. In the chevrotains, which in many
other respects show conditions intermediate between non-
ruminant artiodactyles and true ruminants, the oesophagus
opens into a wide cardiac portion, incompletely divided into
four chambers. Three of these, towards the cardiac extremity,
are lined with villi and correspond to the rumen or paunch;
the fourth, which lies between the opening of the oesophagus
and the pyloric portion of the stomach, is the ruminant reticulum
and its wall is lined with very shallow " cells." A groove runs
along its dorsal wall from the oesophageal aperture to a very
small cavity lined with low, longitudinally disposed folds, and
forming a narrow passage between the cardiac and pyloric
divisions; this is an early stage in the development of the
omasum, psalierium or manyplies of the ruminant stomach.
The fourth or true pyloric chamber is an elongated sac with
smooth glandular walls and is the abomasum, or rennet sack.
In the camel the rumen forms an enormous globular paunch
with villous walls and internally showing a trace of division
into two regions. It is well marked off from the reticulum,
the "cells" of which are .extremely deep, forming the well-known
water-chambers. The psalterium is sharply constricted off from
the reticulum and is an elongated chamber showing little trace
of the longitudinal ridges characteristic of this region; it opens
directly into the relatively small abomasum. In the true
ruminants, the rumen forms a capacious, villous reservoir,
nearly always partly sacculated, into which the food is passed
rapidly as the animal grazes. The food is subjected to a rotary
movement in the paunch, and is thus repeatedly subjected to
668
ALIMENTARY CANAL
moistening with the fluids secreted by the reticulum, as it is
passed over the aperture of that cavity, and is formed into a
rounded bolus. Most ruminants swallow masses of haiis, and
these, by the rotary action of the paunch, are aggregated into
peculiar dense, rounded balls which are occasionally discharged
from the mouth and are known as " hair-balls " or " bezoars."
The food bolus, when the animal is lying down after grazing, is
passed into the oesophagus and reaches the mouth by anti-
peristaltic contractions of the oesophagus. After prolonged,
mastication and mixing with saliva, it is again swallowed, but
is now passed into the psalterium, which, in true ruminants, is a
small chamber with conspicuous longitudinal folds. Finally
it reaches the large abomasum where the last stages of gastric
digestion occur.
In the Cefacea the stomach is different from that found in
any other group of mammals. The oesophagus opens directly
Into a very large cardiac sac the distal extremity of which
forms a long caecal pouch. At nearly the first third of its
length this communicates by a narrow aperture into the elongated,
relatively narrow pyloric portion. The latter is convoluted and
constricted into a series of chambers that differ in different groups
of Cetacea. In the Sirenia the stomach is divided by a constric-
tion into a cardiac and a pyloric portion, and the latter has a pair
of caeca. In most of the Marsupialia the stomach is relatively
simple, forming a globular sac with the oesophageal and pyloric
apertures closely approximated; in the kangaroos, on the other
hand, the stomach is divided into a relatively small, caecal cardiac
portion and an enormously long sacculated and convoluted
pyloric region,- the general arrangement of which closely recalls
the large caecum of many mammals.
Intestinal Tract. — If is not yet possible to discuss the general
morphology of this region in vertebrates as a group, as, whilst the
modifications displayed in birds and mammals have been com-
pared and studied in detail, those in the lower groups have not
yet been systematically co-ordinated.
Fishes.— In the Cyclostonata, Holocepkali and a few TeleosUi
the course of the gut is practically straight from the pyloric end
of the stomach to the exterior, and there is no marked differentia-
tion into regions. In the Dipnoi, a contracted sigmoid curve
between the stomach and the dilated intestine is a simple
beginning of the complexity found in other groups. In very
many of the more specialized tdeosteans, the gut is much
convoluted, exhibiting a series of watchspring-like coils. In. a
number of different groups, increased surface for absorption is
given, not by increase in length of the whole gut, but by the
development of an internal fold known as the spiral valve.
This was probably originally a longitudinal fold similar to the
typhlosole of chaetopods. It forms a simple fold in the larval
Ammocoele, and in its anterior region remains straight in some
adult fish, e.g. Pdypterus, but in the majority of cases it forms
a complex spiral, wound round the inner wall of the expanded
large intestine, the internal edge of the. fold sometimes meeting
to form a central column. It occurs in Cyclostomata, Selackii,
Holocepkali, Ckondroslel, Crossopterygii, Amiidae, Lepidosteidae
and Dipnoi. A set of organs peculiar to fish and known as
the pyloric caeca are absent in Cyclostomata and Dipnoi, in most
Selackii and in Amia, but present, in numbers ranging from one
to nearly two hundred, in the vast majority of fish. These are
outgrowths of the intestinal tract near the pyloric extremity
of the stomach, and their function is partly glandular, partly
absorbing. In a few TeUostei there is a single caecal diverticulum
at the beginning of the " rectum/' and in the same region a
solid rectal gland occurs in most elasmobranchs, whilst, again,
in the Dipnoi a similar structure opens into the cloaca. These
caeca have been compared with the colic caeca of higher verte-
brates, but there is yet no exact evidence for the homology.
In the Batrackia the course of the intestinal tract is nearly
straight from the pyloric end of the stomach to the cloaca, in the
case of the perennibranchiates there being no more than a few
simple loops between the expanded " rectum " and the straight
portion that leaves the stomach. In the Caducibranckiata the
anterior end of the enlarged rectum lies very dose to the distal
extremity of the stomach, and the gut, between these two fens*
is greatly lengthened, forming a loop with many minor ion
borne at the periphery of an expanse of mesentery, recsQias ±
Meckelian tract of birds and mammals. In the tadpok da
region is spirally coiled and is still longer relatively to the k*0
of the whole tract. In Hyla and Pipa there is a small caeca
comparable with the colic caecum of birds and mammaH
In Reptilia the configuration of the intestinal tract does aa
differ much from that in Batrackia, the length and completfj
of the minor coils apparently varying with the general caabpa-
tion of the body, that is to say, in reptiles with a long, aarrc»,
and snake-like body the minor loops of the gut are rdamefr
short and unimportant, whilst in those with a more spacica
cavity, such as chelonians, many lizards and crocodiles, tatga
may be relatively long and disposed in many minor coils. TV»
is comparatively little differentiation between the mid-pit vd
the gut in cases where the whole gut is long; in the otarn rk
hind-gut is generally marked by an increase of calibre. A sfeart
caecal diverticulum, comparable with the colic caecum of te4
and mammals, is present in many snakes and lizards and msw
chelonians.
In fishes, batrachians and reptiles the intestinal tract bswej
from the dorsal wall of the abdominal cavity by a mesentery wiai
is incomplete on account of secondary absorption in places, nrf
which grows out with the minor loops of the gut. There are is*
traces, more abundant in the lower forms, of the srJl aw
primitive ventral mesentery.
Intestinal Tract in Birds and Mammals.— There is do dee*
but that the similarity of the modes of disposition of the afca*
tary tract in birds and mammals points to the probability of tk
chief morphological features of this region in these sasib
having been laid down in sonic common a ncest or, aUht-HS*
f;
Fig. 4.— Intestinal Tract of <
ex. Colic caeca. p*. Cut root of portal vda>
d. Duodenum. r.». Rectal vein.
(Glandular patch. s. Proventriculua.
J. Meckel's tract. y. Meckel's diwertictima, or
J.*. Hind-gut. Yolk-sac vestige.
have not yet sufficient exact knowledge of the gut in Pi* a
Batrackia and Reptilia to find amongst these with any certify
the most probable survival from the ancestral conditioe. Tat
primitive gut must be supposed to have run backwards from tk
stomach to the cloaca suspended from the dorsal wall of tv
body-cavity by a dorsal mesentery. This tract, in the cotf*
of phylogeny of the common ancestors of birds and mnmaA
became longer than the straight length between its extreme poto*
and, consequently, was thrown into a series of folds T»
ALIMENTARY CANAL
669
mesentery grew out with these folds, but the presence of adjacent
organs, the disturbance due to the outgrowth of the liver, and
else secondary relations brought about between different portions
off the gut, as the out-growing loops invaded each other's localities,
disturbed the primitive simplicity. Three definite regions of
outgrowth, however, became conspicuous and are to be recognized
in the actual disposition of the gut in existing birds and mammals.
The first of these is the duodenum. In the vast majority of birds,
and In some of the
simpler mammals, the
portion of the gut im-
mediately distal of the
stomach grows out into
a long and narrow loop
(fig. 4, d), the proximal
and distal ends of which
are close together, whilst
the loop itself may re-
main long and narrow,
or may develop minor
loops on its course. In
mammals generally, how-
ever, the duodenum is
complex and is not so
sharply marked off from
the distal portion of the
gut as in birds. The
second portion is Meckel's
tract* It consists of the
part generally known as
« . . . « , „ , the small intestines, the
caecum; R\ cut end of rectum. ***** anatomy, and
stretches from the distal
end of the duodenum to the caecum or caeca. It is the chief
absorbing portion of the gut, and in nearly all birds and
mammals is the longest portion. It represents, however, only
a very small part of the primitive straight gut, corresponding
to not more than two or three somites of the embryo. This
narrow portion grows out to form the greater part of what is
called the pendent loop in mammalian embryology. Its
anterior or proximal end lies close to the approximated
f £L
S, out end of
PlO. 6. — Intestinal Tract of Macropus
duodenum: R, cut end of rectum; C,
caecum; &L, colic loop of hind-gut.
proximal and distal ends of the duodenal loop, whilst its distal
end passes into the hind-gut at the colic caecum or caeca. In
the embryos of all birds and mammals, the median point of
Meckel's tract, the part of the loop which has grown out farthest
from the dorsal edge of the mesentery, is marked by the diverti-
culum caecum vUclU, the primitive connexion of the cavity of the
gut with the narrowing stalk of the yolk-sac (fig. 4, y). Natur-
ally, in birds where the yolk-sac is of great functional importance
this diverticulum is large, and in a majority of the families of
birds persists throughout life, forming a convenient point of
orientation. In mammals, no doubt in association with the
functional reduction of the yolk-sac, this diverticulum, which is
known as Meckel's diverticulum, has less importance, and whilst
it has been observed in a small percentage of adult human subjects
has not been recognized in the adult condition of any lower
In birds, Meckel's tract falls into minor folds or loops, the
disposition of which forms a series of patterns remarkably
different in appearance
and characteristic of
different groups. In
fig. 4 an extremely
primitive type is repre-
sented. In mammals
Meckel's tract remains
much more uniform; it
may be short, or in-
crease enormously in
length, but in either
case it falls into a fairly
symmetrical shape, sus-
pended at the circum-
ference of a nearly
circular expanse of
mesentery. Where it
is short it is thrown
into very simple minor
loops (figs, 5, 6 and 7);
where it is long, these
minor loops form a con-
voluted mass (figs. 8
and 9).
The third portion of
the gut should be termed the kind-gut and lies between the
caecum or caeca and the anus, corresponding to the large
intestines, colon and rectum of human anatomy. It is
formed from a much larger portion of the primitive straight
gut than the duodenum and Meckel's tract together, and its
proximal portion, in consequence, lies very close to the origin
of the duodenum. In the vast majority of birds, the hind-gut
in the adult is relatively extremely short, often being only from
FIG. 7.— Intestinal Tract of Tapir. S.
cut end of duodenum; R, cut end of
rectum; C, caecum; CL, colon.
Fio. 8. — Intestinal Tract of Giraffe. S, cut end of duodenum;
R, cut end of rectum; C, caecum; P.CJL, post-caecal loop; SJ>,
spiral loop; SF, third loop of hind-gut.
one-eighth to one-thirtieth of the whole length of the gut. A
certain number of primitive birds, however, have retained a
relatively long condition of the hind-gut (fig. 4), the greatest
relative length occurring in struthious birds, and particularly
in the ostrich, where the hind-gut exceeds in length the duodenum
and Meckel's tract together. Mammals may be contrasted with
birds as a group in which the hind-gut is always relatively long,
sometimes extremely long, and in which, moreover, there is a
strong tendency to differentiation of the hind -gut into regions
670
ALIMONY
FIG. p.— Intestinal Tract of Gorilla. S,
cut end of duodenum ; R, cut end of rec-
the characters of which are of systematic importance. The first
region is the colon, which forms a very simple expansion in
mammals such as Camivora (fig. 5), where the whole hind-gut
is relatively short, or a series of simple loops in mammals in which
the whole gut has a primitive disposition (e.g. Marsupialio, fig. 6).
In the odd-toed Ungulate, the colon (fig. 7) forms an enormously
long loop, the two limbs of which are closely approximated and
the calibre of which is very large. In Ruminantia (fig. 8) the
colon is still more highly differentiated, displaying first a simple
wide loop, then a complicated watchspring-likc coil, and finally
a very long, irregular
portion. In the higher
Primates (fig. 9) it
forms one enormous
very wide loop, corre-
sponding to the ascend-
ing, transverse and
descending colons of
human anatomy, and a
shorter distal loop, the
omega loop of human
anatomy. Other strik-
ing patterns are dis-
played in other mam-
malian groups.
The second region of
the* hind-gut is usually
known as the rectum,
and although it is some-
times lengthened it is
^•rC vermifo™ ap>e^ Bl * *»**
X. &X,, cut ends of factor, of the portol than the portion of the
vein. primitive straight gut
that it represents.
Adaptations of Ike Intestinal Trad to Function.— The chief
business of the gut is to provide a vascular surface to which the
prepared food is applied so that the nutritive material may be
absorbed into the system. Overlying and sometimes obscuring
the morphological patterns of the gut, are many modifications
correlated with the nature of the food and producing homoplastic
resemblances independent of genetic affinity. Thus in birds and
mammals alike there is a direct association of herbivorous habit
with great relative length of gut. The explanation of this, no
doubt, is simply, that the vegetable matter which such creatures
devour is in a form which requires not only prolonged digestive
action, but, from the intimate admixture of indigestible material,
a very large absorbing surface. In piscivorous birds and
mamm a ls , the gut is very long, with a thick wall and a relatively
small calibre, whilst there is a general tendency for the regions of
the gut to be slightly or not at all defined. Fish, as it is eaten by
wild animals, contains a large bulk of indigestible matter, and so
requires an extended absorbing surface; the thick wall and
relatively small calibre are protections against wounding by fish
bones. In frugivorous birds the gut is strikingly short, wide and
simple, whilst a similar change has not taken place in frugivorous
mammals. Carnivorous birds and mammals have a relatively
short gut. In birds, generally, the relation of the length and
calibre of the gut to the size of the whole creature is striking. If
two birds of similar habit and of the same group be compared, it
will be found that the gut of the larger bird is relatively longer
rather than relatively wider. The same general rule applies to
Meckel's tract in mammals, whereas in the case of the hind-gut
increase of capacity is given by increase of calibre rather than by
increased length.
The Colic Caeca.— These organs lie at the junction of the hind-
gut with Meckel's tract and are homologous in birds and m«mm»fr
although it happens that their apparent position differs in the
majority of cases in the two groups. In most birds, the hind-gut
b relatively very short, and the caecal position, accordingly, is
at a very short distance from the posterior end of the body,
whereas in most mammals the hind-gut is very long and the
position of the caecum or caeca is relatively very much farther
from the anus. Next, in moat birds, the caeca when present aw.
paired, whereas in most mammals there is only a single caecum
On the other hand, in certain birds (herons) as a normal occcr
rence, and in many birds as an individual variation, only a sagle
caecum occurs. In some mammals, e.g. many armadillos, a
Hyrax and the manatee, the caeca are normally paired; in macy
other (e.g. some rodents and' marsupials) in addition to lie
normal caecum there is a reduced second caecum, whilst in qsHe
a number of forms the relation of the caecum, ileum and colon at
their junction is readily intelligible on the assumption that the
caeca were originally paired. The origin and many of tk
peculiarities of the ileo-caecal valve find their best explanation at
this hypothesis.
The caeca are hollow outgrowths of (he wall of the gut, the
blind ends being directed forwards. The caecal wall is in most
cases highly glandular and contains masses of lymphoid tissue.
In birds and in mammals this tissue may be so greatly increased
as to transform the caecum into a solid or nearly solid sac the
calibre of which is for the most part smaller than that of the
unmodified caecum. In some birds, the whole area of the caecum
may be modified in this way; in mammals, it is generally the
terminal portion, which then becomes the vermiform appendix,
familiar in the anthropoid apes, in man and in some rodents.
It is difficult to see in this modification merely a degeneration;
not improbably it is the formation of a new glandular organ.
The caeca exhibit almost every gradation of de^elopniea^
from relatively enormous size to complete absence, and there a
no definite, invariable connexion between the nature of the food
and the degree of their development. In the case of birds, it may
be said that on the whole the caeca are generally large in herbi-
vorous forms and generally small in insectivorous, frugivorosa,
carnivorous and piscivorous forms, but there are many excep-
tions. Thus, owls and falcons have a diet that is closely similar,
and yet owls have a pair of very long caeca, whilst in the
Falconidae these organs are much reduced and apparently
f unctionless. The insectivorous and omnivorous rollers^notmots
and bee-eaters have a pair of large caeca, whilst in passerine
birds of similar habit the caeca are vestigial glandular nipples.
It is impossible to doubt that family history dominates in tins
matter. Certain families tend to retain the caeca, others to
lose them, and direct adaptation to diet appears only to accelerate
or retard these. inherited tendencies. So also in mammals, no
more than a general relation between diet and caecal develop-
ment can be shown to exist, although the large size of the single
caecum of mammals is more closely associated with a herbivorous
as opposed to a carnivorous, frugivorous, piscivorous or omni-
vorous diet than is the case in birds. There is no relationship
between diet and the complete or partial presence of both
members of the primi -pair of caeca in mammals, the occurrence
of the pair being rather an " accident " of inheritance than in any
direct relation to function.
Literature.— T. W. Bridge, in The Cambridge Natural History
(vol. vii).; D. S. Jordan, A Guide to the Study «f Fishes; JL Oven.
Anatomy of Vertebrates; M. Weber. Die Sdugethtere: W. H. Flow.
The Organs of Digestion in Mammalia; R. Wiedenheim, Lehrbmck
der vergleichenden Anatomie der Wirbelthiere; A. OppeL Lekrmtth
der vergleichenden mikroshopischen Anatomie der Wtrhdtkiert:
Chalmers Mitchell. " The Intestinal Tract of Birds," Trantttrtimt
of the Linn. Soc. of London (yd. viii., 1001); and "On the In-
testinal Tract of Mammals," Transactions of the ZoeL Soc of Lomdm
(vol. xvit., 1905). (In the two latter memoirs a fuller list of litera-
ture is given.) (P. C M.)
ALIMONY (from Lat alere $ to nourish), in law the allowance
for maintenance to which a wife is entitled out of her husband's
estate for her support on a decree for judicial separation or far
the dissolution of the marriage. Though, as a rule, payable to a
wife, it may, if the circumstances of the case warrant it, be
payable by the wife to the husband. Alimony is of two kinds,
(a) temporary (pendente liU), and (b) permanent Temporary
alimony, or alimony pending suit, is the provision made by the
husband for the wife in causes between them to enable her to live
during the progress of the suit, and is allowed whether the suit is
by or against the husband and whatever the nature of the suit
may be. The usual English practice is to allot as temporary
ALIN— ALISMACEAE
671
Alimony about one-fifth of the hatband's net income; where it
appeals that the husband has no means or is in insolvent circum-
stances, the court will refuse to allot temporary alimony. So
where the wife is supporting herself by her own earnings, this fact
will be taken into consideration. And where the wife and
husband have lived apart for many years before the institution
of the suit, and she has supported herself during the separation,
no alimony win be allotted. Nor will the wife be entitled to
alimony where she has sufficient means of support independent
of her husband. Permanent alimony is that which is allotted to
the wife after final decree. By the Matrimonial Causes Act 1007,
the court may, if it think fit, on any decree for dissolution or
nullity of marriage, order that the husband shall, to the satisf ac-
tion of the court, secure to the wife such a gross sum of money or
such annual sum of money for any term not exceeding her life,
as having regard to her fortune (if any), to the ability of her
husband, and to the conduct of the parties, it may deem reason-
able. The court may suspend the pronouncing of its decree until
a proper deed or instrument has been executed by all necessary
parties. The court may also make an order on the husband for
payment to the wife during their joint lives of a reasonable
monthly or weekly sum for her maintenance; the court may also
at any time discharge, modify, suspend or increase the order
according to the altered means of the husband; the court has
also power to make provision for children. Alimony is paid
direct to the wife or to a trustee or trustees on her behalf, but the
court may impose any restrictions which seem expedient. We
may also describe as a kind of alimony the allowance of a reason-
able weekly sum not exceeding £2 which in England, under the
Summary Jurisdiction (Married Women) Act 1895, may be
given to a married woman on applying to a court of summary
jurisdiction if she has been forced by cruelty to leave her husband
or has been deserted by him.
United States.— Alimony is granted by the courts of the several
states on much the same principle as in England, though in many
states the courts of equity as such may grant alimony without
divorce or separation proceedings independently of any statute,
on the ground that it is just that the husband should support his
wife when she lives apart from him for his fault, and since the
courts of common law provide no remedy the courts of equity
will. This is so in Alabama (Brady v. Brady, 1905, 39 So. Rep.
237), Kentucky, North Carolina, Iowa, California, Ohio, Virginia,
South Dakota and the District of Columbia. In other states
alimony without such proceedings is allowed by statute, and
such alimony is now very general throughout the United States.
The usual grounds for the allowance of it are desertion and such
conduct as would amount to legal cruelty. After divorce a
vinculo, alimony or separate maintenance is sometimes granted
on good reason. The marriage must be proven as a fact, but a
" common law " marriage, ix. one established by cohabitation
and repute, is sufficient. In several states alimony or mainten-
ance is by statute allowed to the husband in certain cases out of
the wife's property. This is so in Massachusetts, Virginia,
Rhode Island and Iowa. In Oregon he is entitled to one-third of
his wife's real estate in addition to maintenance on divorce for
her fault The amount of alimony depends upon the circumstances
of each case as in England. Permanent alimony is generally
more than when pendente lite, and usually one- third the husband's
income. It may generally be changed from time to time as the
circumstances of the parties change. Judgment for alimony is
considered a judgment in personam and not in rem, and can only
be enforced outside the state where rendered in case the husband
has been personally served with process within that state. The
remarriage of the man is not sufficient ground for reducing the
alimony (Smith v. Smith, 1905, 102 N.W. Rep. 631), but on
remarriage of a woman to one able to support her, her former
husband being in poor circumstances, it will be reduced (Kiralfy
v. Kiralfy, 1 001, 36 Wise N.S. 407).
ALIN, OSCAR JOSBF (1846-1900), Swedish historian and
politician, was born at Falun on the 22nd of December 1846.
In 1872 he became decent, and in 1882 professor of political
economy at Upsala, of which university he was afterwards
rector. In September 1888 he was elected a member of the first
chamber of the Riksdag, where he attached himself to the con-
servative protectionist party, over which, from the first, he
exercised great authority. But it is as a historian that Alin is
most remarkable. Among his numerous works the following are
especially worthy of note: Bidrag till svensha radets historia under
meddtiden (Upsala, 1872); Sveriges Historia, 1311-1611 (Stock-
holm, 1878); Bidrag till svensha statsrickets historia (Stockholm,
1884-1887); Den svensk-norsh Unionen (Stockholm, 1880-1891),
the best book on the Norwego-SVedish Union question from the
Swedish point of view; Fjerde ArtiUen af Fredstraktaten i Kiel
(Stockholm, 1809); Car* Johan och Sveriges yltre politih, 1810-
1815 (Stockholm, 1899); Carl XIV. och Rikets SUlnder, 1840-
1841 (Stockholm, 1893). He also edited Svensha Rihsdogsahler,
1 $21-1554 (Stockholm, 1887), in conjunction with E. Hilde-
brand, and Sveriges Grundlagar (Stockholm, 1892). He died at
Upsala on the 31st of December xooo.
Obituary notice in Sv. Hist. Tidssh. (1901). (R. N. B.)
ALIPUR, a suburb of Calcutta, containing Belvedere House,
the official residence of the lieutenant-governor of Bengal, and a
number of handsome mansions. It lies within the limits of the
south suburban municipality, and is a cantonment of native
troops. On the Calcutta maidan, opposite Alipur Bridge, stood
two trees under which duels were fought It was here that the
meeting in 1780 between Warren Hastings and Sir Philip Francis
took place.
ALIQUOT (a Lat word meaning " some," " so many "), a
term generally occurring in the phrase "aliquot part," and
meaning that one quantity is exactly divisible into another;
thus 3 is an aliquot part of 6.
AURAJPUR, a native state of India, under the Bhopawar
agency in Central India. It lies in Malwa, near the frontier of
Bombay. It has an area of 836 sq. m.; and a population
(xooi) of 50,185. The country is hilly, and many of the in-
habitants are aboriginal Bhils. It has from time to time been
under British administration. The chief, whose title is Rana,
is a Rahtor Rajput He has an estimated revenue of £8700,
and pays a tribute of £700. The Victoria bridge at Alirajpur
was built to commemorate the Diamond Jubilee of 1897.
ALISMACEAE (from the Gr. oXtapa, a water-plant mentioned
by Dioscorides), in botany, a natural order of monocotyledons
belonging to the series Helobieae, and represented in Britain
by the water plantain, Alisma Plontago, the arrow-head, Sagit-
taria, the star-fruit, Damasonium, and flowering oish, Bu~
tomus (from the Gr. 0bOi, ox, ripLvtur, to cut, in affusion to
leaves cutting the tongues of oxen feeding on them). They
are marsh- or water-plants with generally a stout stem (rhizome)
creeping in the mud, radical leaves and a large, much branched
inflorescence. The leaves show a great variety in shape, often
Fie. l.— Flowering Rush (Butomms mmbeUatus). 1, Flower in
vertical section; a, horizontal plan of arrangement of flower.
on the same plant, according to their position in, on or
above the water. The submerged leaves are long and grass-
like, the floating leaves oblong or rounded, while the aerial
leaves are borne on long, thin stalks above the water, and are
often heart- or arrow-shaped at the base. The flower-bearing
stem is tall; the flowers are borne in whorls on the axis as in
arrow-head, on whorled branchlets as in water plantain or in
an umbel as in Butomus (fig. 1). The flowers are regular and
rather showy, generally with three greenish sepals, followed in
regular succession by three white or purplish petals, six to
indefinite stamens and six to indefinite free carpels. The floral
672
ALISON
arrangement thus recalls that of a buttercup, a resemblance
which extends to the fruit, which is a head of achenes or follicles.
The flowers contain honey, and attract flies, short-lipped bees or
other small insects by the agency of which pollination is effected.
The fruit of Butomus is of interest in having the seeds borne
over the inner face of the wall of the leathery pod (follicle).
Damasoniumderivts its popular name, star-fruit, from the fruits
spreading when ripe in the form of a star. It is a western
FlO. 2.— Water Plantain {Alisma Plantago). Plant about 3 ft. high,
l, Flower; 2, same in vertical section; 3, horizontal plan of flower;
4, mature fruit.
Mediterranean plant which spreads to the south of England,
where it is sometimes found in gravelly ditches and pools. The
order contains about fifty species in fourteen genera, and is
widely distributed in temperate and warm zones. Alisma
Plantago (fig. a), a common plant in Britain (except in the north)
in ditches and edges of streams, is widely distributed in the north
temperate zone, and is found in the Himalayas, on the mountains
of tropical Africa and in Australia.
ALISON, ARCHIBALD (1757-1839)1 Scottish author, son of
Patrick Alison, provost of Edinburgh, was born on the 13th of
November x 757 at Edinburgh. After studying at the university
of Glasgow and at Bailiol College, Oxford, he took orders in the
Church of England, and was appointed in 1778 to the curacy of
Brancepeth, near Durham. In 1784 he married Dorothea,
youngest daughter of Professor Gregory of Edinburgh. The
next twenty years of his life were spent in Shropshire, where he
held in succession the livings of High Ercall, Roddington and
Kenley. In 1800 he removed to Edinburgh, having been
appointed senior incumbent of St. Paul's Chapel in the Cowgate.
For thirty-four years he filled this position with much ability,
his preaching attracting so many hearers that a new and larger
church was built for him. His last years were spent at Colinton,
near Edinburgh, where he died on the 1 7th of May 1839.
published, besides a Life of Lord Woodkousetet, a vohmw d
sermons, which passed through several editions, and a «oei
entitled Essays on Ike Nature and Principles of Taste Ur&
based on the principle of association (see under A xsuu.ua .
p. a88). His elder son, Dr William Pulteney Alison (1 700-1 $5^.
was a distinguished Edinburgh medical professor.
Sim Archibald Alison, Bart. (1793-1867), the hastoriaa.
was the younger son, and was born at Kenley, Shropshire, a
the 39th of December 1792. He studied at the uzuverstr d
Edinburgh, distinguishing himself especially in Greek aad
mathematics. In 1814 he passed at the Scottish bar. bat he cUd
not at once practise. The dose of the war had opened op the
continent, and Alison set out in the autumn of 1814 far a
lengthened tour in France. It was during this period that tie
idea of writing his history first occurred to him. A more im-
mediate result of the tour was his first literary work of asy
importance, Travels in Prance during the Years ifij-jfiy
written in collaboration with his brother and A. F. Tytie*,
which appeared in the latter year. On his return to Edtnbcrgfc
he practised at the bar for some years with very fair swore*.
In 182a he became one of the four advocates-depute for Scotland,
As a result of the experience gained in this office, which he hek
until 1830, he wrote his Principles of the Criminal Lam of Scat-
land (1832) and Practice of the Criminal Law of Scotland (iSjjl
which in 1834 led to his appointment by Sir Robert rVel us
the office of sheriff of Lanarkshire, which ranks next to a jodge-
ship in the supreme court. The office, though by no means a
sinecure, gave him time not only to make frequent contribctwes
to periodical literature, but also to write the long-projected
History of Europe, for which he had been collecting materaa
for more than fifteen years. The history of the period from the
beginning of the French Revolution till the restoration of the
Bourbons in 181 5 was completed in ten volumes in 1842, and met
with a success almost unexampled in works of its class. Wit&a
a few years it ran through ten editions, and was translated mm
many of the languages of Europe, as well as into Arabic aad
Hindustani. At the time of the author's death it was stated
that 108,000 volumes of the library edition and 439,000 votaam
of the popular edition had been sold. A popularity so widespread
must have had some basis of merit, and the good qualities d
Alison's work lie upon the surface. It brought together, theagk
not always in a well-arranged form, an immense amount of in-
formation that had before been practically inaccessible to the
general public It at least made an attempt to show the orgaak
connexion in the policy and progress of the different nations d
Europe; and its descriptions of what may be called external
history — of battles, sieges and state pageants— are spirited aad
interesting. On the other hand the faults of the work ait
numerous and glaring. The general style is prolix, involved and
vicious; mistakes of fact and false deductions are to be found
in almost every page; and the constant repetition of trite moral
reflections and egotistical references seriously detracts from io
dignity. A more grave defect resulted from the author's Strang
political partisanship, which entirely unfitted him for deafing
with the problems of history in a philosophical spirit. Hb
unbending Toryism made it impossible for him to give any
satisfactory explanation of so complex a fact as the Frenca
Revolution, or accurately to estimate the forces that were to shape
the Europe of the 19th century. A continuation of the History,
embracing the period from 181 5 to 1852, which was completed
in four volumes in 1856, did not meet with the same success
as the earlier work. The period being so near as to be almost
contemporary, there was a stronger temptation, which he seems
to have found it impossible to resist, to yield to political pre-
judice, while the materials necessary for a clear knowledge of the
influences shaping European affairs were not as yet accessible
The book is now almost wholly out of date. In 1845 Alison was
chosen rector of Marischal College, Aberdeen, and in 1851 of
Glasgow University. In 1852 a baronetcy was conferred upon
him, and in the following year he was made a D.C.L. of Oxford
His literary activity continued till within .a short time of hit
ALIWAI^-ALIZARIN
673
temth, the chief works he published In addition to his History
»eing the Principles of Population (1840), in answer to Malthus;
1 Life of Marlborough (1847, and edition greatly enlarged, 185s);
nd the Lives of Lord Castlereagh and Sir C. Stewart (1861.) This
alter, based on MS. material preserved at Wynyard Park, is still
»ff value, not only as the only available biography, but more
specially because Alison's Tory sympathies enabled him to give
1 juster appreciation of the character and work of Castlereagh
Lh&n the Liberal writers by whom for many years he was mis-
judged and condemned (see Londondbuy, Robert Stewart, and
marquess of). Three volumes of Alison's political, historical and
miscellaneous essays were reprinted in 1850, He died at Fossil
House, Glasgow, on the 23rd of May 1867. His autobiography,
Some Account of my Life and Writings, edited by his daughter-
in-law, J-ady Alison, was published In 1883 at Edinburgh.
Sir Archibald Alison married in 1815 Elizabeth Glencairn,
daughter of Colonel Tytler, by whom he had three children,
Archibald, Frederick and Elian Frances Catherine. Both sons
became distinguished officers.
Sn Akcbtbaio Alison, Bart (1826-1907), the elder of the
sons, entered the 72nd Highlanders in 1846. He served at the
siege of Sevastopol; and during the Indian Mutiny he was
military secretary to Sir Colin Campbell and was severely
wounded at the relief of Lucknow, losing an arm. From 1862
to 1873 he was assistant adjutant-general at headquarters,
Portsmouth and Aldershot He was second in command of the
Ashanti expedition 1873-1874, and was made a K.OB. For
three years Alison was deputy adjutant-general in Ireland, and
then, for a few months, commandant of the Staff College. He
was promoted to be major-general in 1877, and was head of the
intelligence branch of the war office (1878-1882). He com-
manded the troops at Alexandria in 1882 until the arrival of Sir
Garnet Wolseley, led the Highland brigade at the battle of
Tel-el-Kebir, and remained in command of the army of occupa-
tion until 1883. He commanded at Aldershot 1883-1888,
was for some months adjutant-general to the forces during
Lord Wolseley's absence in Egypt, was made G.C.B. in
1887, was promoted general, and became a military member
of the Council of India in 1889. He retired in 1893 and died
in 1007.
AUWAL, a village of British India, in the Ludhiana district
of the Punjab, situated on the left bank of the Sutlej, and famous
as the scene of one of the great battles "of the 1st Sikh War. Late
in January 1846 it was held by Ranjur Singh, who had crossed
the river in force and threatened Ludhiana. On the 28th Sir
Harry Smith, with a view to clearing the left or British bank,
attacked him, and after a desperate struggle thrice pierced the
Sikh troops with his cavalry, and pushed them into the river,
where large numbers perished, leaving 67 guns to the victors.
The consequence of the victory was the submission of the whole
territory east of the Sutlej to the British.
AUWAL NORTH, a town of South Africa, on the south bank
of the Orange River, 4300 ft above the sea, and 282 m. by rail
N.W. by N. of the port of East London. Pop. (1004) 5566, of
whom 1758 were whites. The town, a trading and agricultural
centre for the N.E. part of the Cape and the neighbouring
regions of Basutoland and Orange Free State, presents a
pleasing appearance. It contains many fine stone buildings.
The streets are lined with trees, and water from the neighbouring
sulphur springs flows along them in open channels The river,
here the boundary between the Cape province and Orange Free
State, is crossed by a stone bridge 860 ft long. The sulphur
springs, 1 m. from the town, which yield over 500,000 gallons
daily, are resorted to for the cure of rheumatism and skin diseases.
By reason of its dry and bracing climate, Aliwal North is also
a favourite residence of sufferers from chest complaints. In the
neigbbourhood are stone quarries. Aliwal North is the capital
of a division of the province of the same name, with an area of
1330 sq. m. and a pop. (1904) of 14,857, of whom 40% are
whites.
Aliwal North was so called to distinguish it from Aliwal South,
bow Mossel Bay, the seaport of the pastoral Grasveld district.
on the west side of Mossel Bay. Both places were named in
honour of Sir Harry Smith, governor of Cape Colony 1847-1852,
Aliwal (see above) being the village in the Punjab where in 1846
he gained a great victory over the' Sikhs. Crossing the Orange
River at this spot in September 1848, Sir Harry noted that
k was M a beautiful site for a town," and in the May following
the town was founded. In the early months of the Boer War
of 1800-100* Aliwal North was held by the Boers. It was
reoccupied by the British in March 1900.
ALIZARIN, or 12 Dioxyamthxaquikomb,
^<co> c » H »< OH W I *l
a vegetable dyestuff formerly prepared from madder root (Rubia
tinctorum) which contains a glucoside ruberythric add (C*H*Om).
This glucoside is readily hydrolysed by acids or fennents,breaking
up into alizarin and glucose:
C.H a Oi4+2HK>-2C.H H 0b+CurUO«
Ruberythric add - Glucose+ Alizarin.
Alizarin was known to the andents, and until 1868 was obtained
entirely from madder, root The first step in the synthetical
production of alizarin was the discovery in 1868 of C. Graebe
and C. Liebermann that on heating with sine dust, alizarin was
converted into anthracene. In order to synthesize alizarin,
they converted anthracene into snthraquinone and then bromi-
nated the quinone. The dibrominated product so obtained was
then fused with caustic potash, the mdt dissolved in water, and
on the addition of hydrochloric add to the solution, alizarin
was predpitated. This process, owing to its expensive nature,
was not in use very long, being superseded by another, discovered
simultaneously by the above-named chemists and by Sir W. H.
Perkin; the method being to sulphonate anthraquinone, and
then to convert the sulphonic add into its sodium salt and fuse
this with caustic soda.
In practice, the crude anthracene is purified by solution in
the higher pyridine bases, after which treatment it is frequently
sublimed. It is then oxidized to anthraquinone by means of
sodium dichromate and sulphuric add in leaden vats, steam
heated so that the mixture can be brought to the boil. When
oxidation is complete the crude anthraquinone is separated in
filter presses and heated with an excess of commercial oil of
vitriol to i2o* C, the various impurities present in the crude
material being sulphonated and rendered soluble in water,
whilst the anthraquinone is unaffected; it is then washed, to
remove impurities, and dried. The anthraquinone so obtained
is then heated for some hours at about 1 50-160° C with fuming
sulphuric add (containing about 40-50 % SO*), and by this
treatment is converted into snthraquinone-/S-monosulphonic
add.. The solution is poured into water and sodium carbonate
is added to neutralize the excess of add, when the sodium salt
of the monosulphonic add (known as silver salt) separates out
This is filtered, washed, and then fused with caustic soda, when
the sulpho-group is replaced by a hydroxyl group, and a second
hydroxyl group is simultaneously formed; in order to render
the formation of this second group easier, a Kttle potassium
chlorate or sodium nitrate is added to the reaction mixture.
The mdt is dissolved in water and the dyestuff is liberated from
the sodium salt by hydrochloric or sulphuric add, or is con-
verted into the caldum salt by digestion with hot milk of lime,
then filtered and* the caldum salt decomposed by add. The
predpitated alizarin is then well washed and made into a paste
with water, in which form it is put on to the market
K. Lagodxinaki (Berickte, 1895, 28, p. 1427) has synthesized
alizarin by condensing bemipinic add [(CH.O)«OHt(COOH)J
with benzene in the presence of aluminium chloride. The
product on addificatkra gives a compound CuHuXVH/) which
is probably an oxy-methoxy-benzoyl benzoic add. This is
dissolved in cold concentrated sulphuric add, in which it forms
a yellowish red solution, but on heating to ioo° C the colour
changes to red and violet, and on pouring out upon ice, the
monomethyl ether of alizarin is predpitated. This compound
is hydrolysed by hydriodic add and alizarin is obtained. It
67+
ALKAHEST— ALKALI MANUFACTURE
can also be synthesized by heating catechol with phthalk
anhydride and sulphuric acid at 150° C.
QHi<(gg^>0+C,H4(OH)rfi.2l-HiO+C;H^gg^C.H,eOH)»
Pure alizarin crystallizes in red prisms melting at 200° C. It
b insoluble in water, and not very soluble in alcohol. It dissolves
readily in caustic alkalis on account of its phenolic character,
and it forms a yellow-coloured di-acetate. Its value as a dyestuff
depends on its power of forming insoluble compounds (lakes)
with metallic oxides. It has no affinity for vegetable fibres,
and consequently cotton goods must be mordanted before dyeing
with it (see Dyeing).
Numerous derivatives of alizarin are known. On solution in
glacial aceGc add and addition of nitric add, /S-nitroalizarin
OH
(alizarin orange)
yyCOyvOH
'JnCO/^'NOi
b produced, and this on heating
with sulphuric add and glycerin is converted into alizarin bine,'
The triozyanthraquinonesr-purpurin, anthrapurpurin, anthra-
gallol and flavopurpurin—are also very valuable dyestufis.
These compounds may be represented by the following formulae:
HOOOJOH VACOA/OH
Aattafillal.
Purpurin (1*2*4 triozyanthraquinone) is found with alizarin in
madder, root; it is now prepared synthetically by oxidizing
alizarin with manganese dioxide and sulphuric add. After the
separation of the silver salt (see above) obtained on sulphonating
anthraquinone, the remaining add liquid gives on treatment
with caldum carbonate the calcium salt of anthraquinone 2*6
disulphonic add (anthraquinone-a-disulphonic acid). This is
converted into the sodium salt by means of sodium carbonate,
and on alkali fusion yields Aavopurpwin. In a similar manner
antkrapurpurin js prepared by alkali fusion of anthraquinone
2*8 disulphonic acid. Anthra%aUol is synthetically prepared by
the condensation of benzoic and gallic adds with sulphuric add
OH OH
COOH + ..„A o !Wi
or from pyrogallol and phthalic anhydride/in the presence of
sulphuric add or zinc chloride.
A. Baeyer in 1800, by heating alizarin with fuming sulphuric
add for 24-48 hours at 35-40° C, obtained a product, which
after treatment with caustic soda gave a sulphuric add ester
of quinalizarin, and this after addification and boiling was
converted into quinalizarin (Alizarin Bordeaux) or i* 2-6-0
tetra-oxyanthraquinone. Penta-oxyanthraquinones have been
obtained from purpurin and anthrapurpurin, while a hexa-
oxyanthraquinone has been obtained from 1-5 dinitro-anthra-
quinone.
ALKAHEST (a pseudo-Arabic word believed to have been
invented by Paracelsus), a liquid, much sought after by the
alchemists, having the power of dissolving gold and every
other substance, which it was supposed would possess invaluable
medicinal qualities.
ALKALI, an Arabic term originally applied to the ashes of
plants, from which by Uxiviation carbonate of soda was obtained
in the case of sea-plants and carbonate of potash in that of land-
plants. The method of making these " mild " alkalis into
" caustic " alkalis by treatment with lime was practised in the
time of Pliny in connexion with the manufacture of soap, and it
was also known that the ashes of shore-plants yielded a hard
soap and those of land-plants a soft one. But the two substances
were generally confounded as " fixed alkali " (carbonate of
ammonia being " volatile alkali "), till Duhamd du Monceau in
1736 established the fact that common salt and the ashes of sea-
plants contain the same base as is found in natural deposits of
soda salts (" mineral alkali "), and that this body is different
from the " vegetable alkali " obtained by incinerating land-
plants or wood (pot-ashes). Later, Martin Hdnrich Daped,
finding vegetable alkali in certain minerals, such as incfe
proposed to distinguish it as potash, and at the sue tae
assigned to the mineral alkali the name noire*, whkk anna
in the symbol, Na, now used for sodium. The word alkali n-xfe
the symbol for potassium, K {kaliwm). In modem dnac?
alkali is a genera] term used for compounds which havt tie
property of neutralizing adds, and is applied more ptrfaUr?
to the highly soluble hydrates of sodium said potasshm ik i
the three rarer "alkali metals," caesium, rubidium and tnb-z
also to aqueous ammonia. In a smaller degree these lOaEs*
properties are shared by the less soluble hydrates of the "two*
of the alkaline earths," caldum, barium and strontium, sod !?
thallium hydrate. An alkali is /<if*ft»g»Hw»n from an add c
neutral substance by its action on litmus, turmeric and otto
indicators.
ALKALI MAMUPAGTiraB. The word "alkali - dear**
both soda and potash, but by "alkali manufacture " «e s&fc
stand merely the manufacture of sodium sulphate, carbonate aai
hydrate. The corresp o nding potash compounds are not sua*
factured in the United Kingdom, but exclusively m Genus?
(from potassium chloride and from .the xnother-liqaor of tk
strontia process in the manufacture of beetroot sugar) and *
France (from winasu). The term alkali is employed m a tectaai
sense for the carbonate and hydrate (of sodium), but smoe tath
Leblanc process the manufacture of sodium sulphate urcoor>
precedes that of the carbonate, we indude this as wtfl as ^
manufacture of hydrochloric add which is inseparable from £
We also treat of the utilization of hydrochloric acid far tk
manufacture of chlorine and its derivatives, which are asoil?
comprised within the meaning of the term M alkali maniifactat *
A great many processes have been proposed for the inaadactas
of alkali from various materials, but none of these has bee*
of any practical importance except those which start fw=
sodium chloride (common salt); and among the latter apa
only three classes of processes are actually employed for sua-
facturing purposes, viz. the Leblanc, the a mmonia-soda, and fr
electrolytic processes.
L The Lkbiamc Peocess
The Leblanc process, which was invented by Nicolas Leak*
(9.9.) about 1700, begins with the decomposition of **drs3
chloride by sulphuric add, by which sodium sulphate ci
hydrochloric add are produced. The sodium sulphate is afte>
wards fluxed with caldum carbonate and coal, and a mirror*
thus obtained from which sodium carbonate can be extnetei
by exhausting it with water.
Leblanc himself for a time carried out his process on a otz>
facturing scale, but he was ruined in the political troubles of tie
time and died by his own hand in 1806. His invention *»*>
however, at once utilized by others in France; and in Grti-
Britain, after a few previous attempts on a small scale, it «
definitely introduced by James Muspratt (*/.*•.) in 1823. fr*
that time onward the Leblanc process spread more and note, c-
for a considerable period nearly all the alkali of commerct **
made by it. The rise of the ammonia-soda process (since 1$?
gradually told upon the Leblanc process,, which in conseq***
has been greatly restricted in Great Britain and Germany, a*
has become practically extinct in all other countries, except u
far as its first part, the manufacture of sodium sulphate a*rf
hydrochloric add, is concerned.
The production of alkali in Great Britain, soon after '*
introduction of the Leblanc process, became the most ottos.-"
in the world, and outstripped that of all other countries r*
together. With the rise of the ammonia-soda process, for «iv-
the economic conditions are nearly as favourable in oik-'
countries, the predominance of Great Britain in that domain h*
become less, but even now that country produces more aX*
than any other single country. Most of the British aJUii wrts
are situated in South Lancashire and the adjoining pert <•
Cheshire, near the mouth of the Tyne and in the West »
Scotland.
ALKALI MANUFACTURE
675
Various industries are carried on in Leblanc alkali works, as
follows:—
1. Manufacture of sodium sulphate.
a. Manufacture of hydrochloric add.
3. Preparation of chlorine.
4. Employment of chlorine for the manufacture of bleaching-
powder and of chlorates.
5. Manufacture of ordinary alkali from sulphate of soda.
6. Manufacture of caustic soda.
7. Manufacture of soda crystals.
8. Recovery of sulphur from alkali waste.
1. Manufacture of Sodium Sulphate. — This is commercially
known as salt-cake, and is made by decomposing common
salt with sulphuric add of about 80%, the reaction being
aNaCl+HtSQi-Na*SQi+2HCl. This reaction proceeds in two
stages. At first principally
acid sodium sulphate,
NaHSQi, is formed together
with some normal sulphate;
later, when the temperature
has risen, the NaHSO* acts
with more NaCl so that
nearly all of it is converted
into Na s SO«. The gaseous
hydrochloric add evolved
during all this time must be
absorbed in water, unless it
is directly converted into
chlorine (see below, 2 and 3).
The process is carried out
dther in -hand-wrought fur-
naccs,or mechanical furnaces,
both called " decomposing "
or " salt-cake furnaces." In
the former case, the first re-
action is produced in cast-
iron pans or "pots," very
heavy castings of circular
section, fired from below,
dther directly or by the
waste heat from the muffle-
furnace. The reaction is
completed in a "roasting-
furnace." The latter was
formerly often constructed
as a reverheratory furnace,
which is easy to build and to
work, but the hydrochloric
add given off here, being
mixed with the ^products of
the combustion of the fuel,
cannot be condensed to
strong add and b partly,
If not entirely, wasted. It is, therefore,, deddedly prefer- 1
able to employ " muffle-furnaces " in which the heating is
performed from without, the fire-gases passing first over the arch
and then under the bottom of the muffle. This requires more
time and fuel than the work in " open " furnaces, but in the
muffles the gaseous hydrochloric add is separated from the
fire-gases, just like that evolved in the pot, and can therefore
be condensed into strong hydrochloric add, like the pot-acid.
This roaster-add is, however, of less value than the pot-add, as
it contains more impurities.
It is not easy to keep the muffles permanently tight, and as
soon as any leakages occur, dther hydrochloric add must escape
into the fire-flue, or some fire-gases must enter into the muffle.
The former is decidedly more objectionable than the latter, as it
means that uncondensed hydrochloric add is sent into the air.
This drawback has been overcome by the construction of " plus-
pressure " furnaces (figs. 1 and 2), where the fire-grate is
placed xi ft bdow the top of the muffle. In consequence the
fire-gases, when arriving there by the chimney shaft (a), have
already a good upward draught, and when circulating round the
muffle are at a lower pressure than the gases within the muffle,
so that in case of any cracks being formed, no hydrochloric add
escapes into the fire-flues, but vice versa.
Since the work with ordinary hand-wrought salt-cake furnaces
is disagreeable and costly, many attempts have been made to
construct mechanical salt-cake furnaces. Of these J. Mactcara
furnaces (fig. 3) have met with the greatest success. They
consist of a horizontal pan, 17 ft, wide, which is made up
of a central pan (*), and a series of concentric compartments
(«*)» («•)» («*)» and which is supported on a frame (dd), revolving
round a perpendicular axis on the wheels (* *). It is covered
with an arch and heated on the top from one side (/), dthet
by an ordinary coal-grate or by a gas-producer. A set of
stirring blades carried m the frame (0 6), and driven by gearing,
Figs. 1 and 2.— Salt-cake Furnace. (Sectional Elevation and Plan.)
Tip. 1-9 Iron Lump's Hmtbmh lm StoWWasfrw, by pcrafewioa of Friedr. Vieweg tu Sofia.
passes through a gap in the arch in such a manner that the
gases cannot escape outwards. The salt is conveyed to the
furnace by a chain of buckets running on the pulley (f), and
passing into the hopper (A), and through the pipe (t) is mixed
with the proper amount of add supplied by the pipe (/). The
mixture is fed in continuously to the central pan (*), whence
it overflows into the compartments (c 1 ), (c*), (c*) successively
until it reaches the drcumference, where it is discharged con-
tinously by and p into the collecting-box (q), being now con-
verted into salt-cake. This furnace acts very well, and has been
widely introduced both in Great Britain and in other countries,
but it has one great drawback, apart from its high cost, viz. that
all the hydrochloric acid gas gets mixed with fire-gases, and
consequently is condensed in a weaker and less pure form than
from ordinary pots and muffles. This has led some factories
which had introduced such furnaces to revert to hand-wrought
muffle-furnaces.
Much was expected at one time from the " direct salt-cake
process " of Hargreaves and Robinson, in which common salt is
676
ALKALI MANUFACTURE
subjected in a series of large cast-iron cylinders to the action of
pyrites-burner gases and steam at a low red heat The reaction
going on here is: 2NaCl+SOi+0+H s O-Na s S0 4 +2HCL
This means that the previous manufacture of sulphuric acid in
the vitriol«hambers is done away with, but this apparently
great simplification is balanced by the great cost of the Hargreaves
plant, and by the fact that the whole of the hydrochloric add is
mixed with nine or ten times its volume of inert gases. Owing
to this, it is practically impossible to condense the gaseous
hydrochloric add into the commercial add, although this add
may be obtained sufficiently strong to be worked up in the
Weldon chlorine process (see below, 3). Therefore the Hargreaves
process has been introduced only in a few places.
Although the consumption of salt-cake for the manufacture 0/
alkali is now much less than formerly, since the Leblanc alkali
process has been greatly restricted, yet it is largely made and
wOl continue to be made for the use of gkssmakers, who use it
for the ordinary description of glass in the place of soda-ash.
Nor must it be overlooked that salt-cake must be made as long
Fig. 3.— Mechanical Salt-cake Furnace. (Sectional Elevation.)
as there 2s a sale for hydrochloric add, or a consumption of the
latter for the manufacture of chlorine.
a. Manufacture of Hydrochloric Acid (commercially also known
as " muriatic add "). This unavoidable gaseous bye-product of
the manufacture of salt-cake was, during the first part of the 19th
century, simply sent into the air. When its deleterious effects
upon vegetation, building materials, &c, became better known,
and when at the same time an outlet had been found for moderate
quantities of hydrochloric add, most factories made more or
less successful attempts to " condense " the gas by absorption
in water. But this was hardly anywhere done to the fullest
possible extent, and in those districts where a number of alkali
works were located at no great distance from one another, their
aggregate escapes of hydrochloric and other adds created an
intolerable nuisance. This was most notably the case in South
Lancashire, and it led to the passing of Lord Derby's " Alkali
Act," in 1863, supplemented by further legislation in 2874,
1881 and later. There is hardly another example in the annals
of legislative efforts equal to this, in respect of the real
benefit conferred by it both on the general public and on the
manufacturers themselves. This is prindpally the consequence
of the exemplary way in which the duties of inspector under
these acts were carried out by Dr R. Angus Smith (18 17-1884)
and his successors, who directed their efforts not merely to their
primary duty of preventing nuisance, but quite as sad a
showing manufacturers how to make the most oftku:
formerly wasted in one shape or another. Not merely Gre
Britain but all mankind has been immensely benefited by i
labours of the British alkali inspectors, which were, of cool
supplemented by the work of technical men in all the coanna
concerned. The scientific and technical prindples of the »
densation of hydrochloric add are now thoroughly wefl wta-
stood, and it is possible to recover nearly the whole of it is &
state of strong commercial add, containing from 32 to ;t\-
of pure hydrochloric add, although probably the majori^ a
the manufacturers are still content to obtain part of tte aoi
in a weaker state, merdy to satisfy the requirements of tkx>
prescribing the prevention of nuisance. The prindples of &
condensation, that is of converting the gaseous hydxo&x:
add given off during the decomposition of common alt ou 1
strong solution of this gas in water, can be summarized is 1 kt
words. The hydrochloric add gas, which is always dilated wfik
air, sometimes to a very great extent, must be brought into a
most intimate contact pose*
with water, which greetfy^
sorbs it, forming ante
hydrochloric acid, sod £a
process must be carried 90 tr
that scarcely any hydnxta
add remains in the escapes
gases. The maximum aa?
allowed by the Alkali Acs.
viz. 5 % of the total ferfr-
chloric add, is far above £&
which is now practically t-
tained. For a proper titra-
tion of the condensed sod i
is nearly always imperii
that it should be as atrocg a
possible, and this fores 1
second important cossto
tion in the constrocttoa af
the condensing apparjts
Since the solubility of hyto*
chloric add in water decrease
with- the increase of lit
temperature, it is necessary n>
keep the latter down-* tii
which is rendered soic?*&
difficult both by the oript*
heat retained by the gases a
their escape from the decca-
posing apparatus, and by the heat given off through the reacts*
of hydrochloric add upon water. •
Very different methods have been employed to effect all *
above purposes. In Great Britain Gay-Lussac's coke-tosto,
adapted by W. Gossage to the condensation of hydroehknt
add, are still nearly everywhere in use, frequently coohia^
with a number of stone tanks through which the gas froo tbf
furnaces travels before entering the towers, meeting on its «7
the add condensed in the tower. This process is excefleat tx
effecting a complete condensation of the hydrochloric acid *
prescribed by the Alkali Acts, and for recovering the bull a
the add in a tolerably strong state, but less so for recoverst
nearly the whole of it in the most concentrated state, altbocck
even this is occasionally attained. On the continent of Europe.
where the last-named requirement has been for a long tine &x
urgent than in Great Britain, another system has been geoenST
preferred, namely, passing the gas through a long series at
stoneware receivers, and ultimately through a small J&*f
packed with stoneware or coke, making the acid flow in tk
opposite direction to the gas. Great success has also befl
obtained by " plate-towers " made of stoneware, which aDc*
both the coke-towers and most of the stoneware receivers to k
dispensed with.
3. Preparation of Chlorine.— In this place we speak only *
ALKALI MANUFACTURE
677
tthe preparation of chlorine from hydrochloric add by chemical
processes; the electrolytic processes will be treated hereafter.
It is clear that free chlorine must be prepared from hydrochloric
mckl by oxidizing the hydrogen. This can be done most easily
by " active " oxygen, such as is present in the peroxides, in
chromic or permanganic add. Practically the only agent
employed in this way, and that already by C. W. Scheele, the
discoverer of chlorine, in 1774, is the peroxide of manganese
< manganese dioxide), found in considerable quantities in nature
avs " manganese ore " (the purest of which b called pyrolusite),
and also artificially regenerated from the waste liquors of a former
operation. Even now, where chlorine b required for immediate
use in some other chemical operations on a comparatively small
scale, it is obtained by the action of hydrochloric acid on native
manganese dioxide, according to the equation: MnO,+4HCl-
MnCli+Ot+2HiO. This action must be promoted by heating
the mixture, but even then nothing like all of the hydrochloric
acid employed is made to act as above, because the attack on
the manganese ore requires a certain minimum concentration
of the acid. Formerly, instead of free hydrochloric add a mixture
of common salt and sulphuric add was sometimes employed,
but this is never done on a manufacturing scale now. Owing
to the impossibility of employing any metal in contact with the
acid, the " chlorine stills," where the above reaction is carried
out, must be made of acid-proof stones or " chemical " stone-
ware. This process is very costly, as much of the add and all of
the manganese is wasted. Moreover it is of a most disagreeable
kind, as the waste "still-liquor," containing very much free
hydrochloric add and even some free chlorine, forms a most
deleterious impurity when finding its way into drains or water-
courses, apart from the intolerable nuisance caused by the
escapes of chlorine from the stills and otherwise, which cannot
be at all times avoided.
Many endeavours were made to avoid the loss of the manganese
in this operation, but with only partial or no success. The
difficulty was only overcome by the Weldon process, being the in-
ventions of Walter Weldon from 1866 onwards, and his process
up to this day furnishes the greater proportion of chlorine
manufactured in the world. It begins with "still-liquor,"
obtained in the old way from native manganese ore and hydro-
chloric add. This liquor is first treated with carbonate of lime
(ground chalk or limestone) in a " neutralizing-well," made of
acid-proof material and provided with wooden stirring-gear.
Here the free hydrochloric add is converted into calcium chloride,
and at the same time any ferric chloride present b converted
into insoluble ferric hydroxide: 2FeOa+3CaCO»+3HtO-
2Fe(OH),+3CaCli+3COj. The sulphuric add present is mostly
precipitated as calcium sulphate. The mud thus formed is
settled out, and the dear liquor, which is now quite neutral and
contains both manganese and calcium chlorides, is mixed with
cream of lime and treated by a strong current of air, produced
by a blowing-engine. This is done in a tall iron cylinder, say
o ft. wide and 30 ft. high, called the " oxidizer.?' The air-pipe
goes right to the bottom of the cylinder and there branches
out into perforated side-pipes, so that the mass is thoroughly
stirred up all the time. The first action of the lime is to convert
the manganese chloride into manganous hydrate (Mn(OH)j) and
calcium chloride; then more lime is added which greatly pro-
motes and hastens the oxidizing process. The object of the
latter fa to convert the manganous hydroxide by the atmospheric
oxygen into manganese dioxide, but this would take place much
too slowly if there was not an excess of lime present ready
to combine with the manganese dioxide to form a calcium
manganite. Only so much lime is used that an add manganite
is formed corresponding to one molecule of calcium oxide to
two of manganous oxide. This additional lime, which is called
the " basis," certainly takes up hydrochloric acid in the next
stage of the process, but that causes no more waste of acid than
the incomplete action on native manganese ore, mentioned before.
The product obtained, called " Weldon mud," is of such fine
texture that it acts immediately with hydrochloric acid when
mixed with it in the " Wddon stills " (fig. 4), and that this add
can be almost entirely neutralised thereby. The new still-
liquor formed in this manner is treated as above, so that the
manganese does its work over and over again. There is only a
slight mechanical loss, which is reduced in the best managed
works to about 2 parts of manganese dioxide to 100 of bleaching-
powder. There are also other advantages of this process which
explain its wide extension, in spite of the fact that only from
30 to 35 parts of the hydrochloric acid employed is converted
into chlorine, the remainder ultimately leaving the factory in
the shape of a harmless but useless solution of calcium chloride.
Wddon's later attempts at superseding his classical process by
other inventions which utilize a larger proportion of the chlorine,
introduced as hydrochloric acid, have not been successful in the
long run, although some of them were aided by the great technical
skill of A. R. Pechiney. But the Deacon process, the invention
of Henry Deacon (who was greatly aided by his chemist Dr
Ferdinand Hurter), carried out since 1868, has attained to better,
although nothing like complete, success in that direction.
The Deacon process, like the Weldon process, effects its
object by the oxidizing action of atmospheric air, but in a very
different manner. Wddon retained the prindple of the Scheele
Fig. 4.— Weldon Chlorine Still. (Sectional Elevation.)
C, Stone steam column resting in stone socket K.
process, by employing the active oxygen of manganese dioxide
to convert hydrochloric acid into free chlorine, and he employed
the atmospheric oxygen only indirectly, for the recovery of
manganese dioxide from the manganese chloride formed. But
Deacon worked on the direct reaction: 2HCl+0-HiO+Cb.
This reaction in ordinary circumstances is so slow as to be
practically useless. If, however, a "contact-substance" is
employed and that at the proper temperature, the process goes
on at an immensely quickened rate and can even be carried out
as a continuous operation. The only substance which possesses
sufhdently strong catalytic properties for the reaction is cupric
chloride. If pieces of porous day are soaked in a solution of
this salt and dried and kept at a temperature of 450° C. (in
practice it is necessary to go to a rather higher temperature), it
is possible continuously to convert a united stream of hydro-
chloric add and atmospheric air, passed through the contact-
substance in a "decomposer" (fig. 5), to a larger extent into
chlorine and water, of course mixed with the excess of oxygen
and all the nitrogen of the air. On a small scale it is possible to
push the decomposition as far as 00% of the hydrochloric add,
but on the large scale only at most 60 % fa reached. The mixture
of hydrochloric acid and air is taken directly from the " decom-
posing-pan "of an ordinary salt-cake furnace, fa first cooled down
in pipes sufficiently to condense most of the moisture present
678
ALKALI MANUFACTURE
(together with about 8% of the hydrochloric acid), and then
passed through a cast-iron superheater and from this into the
" decomposer." The gaseous mixture, issuing from the latter, Is
washed with water in the usual condensing apparatus, to remove
the 40 or 50 parts of hydrochloric acid left unchanged, and can
then be immediately employed for the manufacture of chlorate
of potash.
Where (as is the more usual case) the chlorine has to serve for
the manufacture of bleaching-powder, it must first be deprived of
the great amount of moisture which it contains, by means of
Fig. 5.— Deacon " Decomposer." (Sectional Elevation.)
sulphuric acid always contained in the roaster gases w
" poisons " the contact-substance and renders it inopea-a
This add must, therefore, be condensed in the ordinary way m
liquid hydrochloric acid and formerly could be worked op oafr
by the Weldon process. R. Hasendever has overcoat tb
drawback by running this impure acid into moderately strut
sulphuric acid (140° Twaddell), blowing in air at the sine tint
This produces a mixed current of pure hydrochloric acid gas ad
air, which is carried into a Deacon decomposer where it acts a
the usual manner. The sulphuric add, of which 6 or 7 parts an
used to one of impure liquid hydrochloric add, s
always reserved for use in the same proa* 17
driving off the excess of water in a lead pa
fired from the top, so that the principal expea
of the process is that of the fuel required for tk
last operation.
4. Applications of Chlorine.— Some of tk
chlorine manufactured (practically only red u s
obtained by the electrolysis of chlorides) is cm-
densed by cold and pressure into liquid cUam
If this is anhydrous, as it must be in any o* k
this purpose, it does not act upon the metal of *
compressors, nor upon the iron bottles in wkki*
is sent out. It may even be sent oat in ua
wagons, similar to those which are employed b
carrying sulphuric add, holding 10 tons ead
Sometimes the chlorine is employed dirrcili
for bleaching purposes, especially for some kindsat
paper. A number of organic chlorinated pnxkn
are also produced on a large scale. Bat nx&d
the chlorine is utilized for the production of Wak-
ing-powder, of bleach-liquor, and of chlontt •*
potash.
Bleaching-powder is a compound obtained by ihe
action of free chlorine on hydra ted lime, tenuis*
a slight excess of water at ordinary tempentoB
or slightly above these. Its composition aporoad*
the formula CaOCl,, and it is regarded as a dew*
salt of calcium chloride and hypochlorite. **d
by the action of water splits up into a mixture a
these salts. It always contains a certain (nuns'-!
of chemically combined water and also an txtts
of lime. Usually this lime is regarded only as t*
chanically mixed with the bleaching-compoai
CaOClj, but some chemists adopt fonank a
which this lime is equally, represented.
For the manufacture of* bleaching-powder, K*
stone of high degree of purity (especially free few
magnesia and iron) is carefully burned so as »
drive out nearly all the carbon dioxide witboc
overheating the lime. The quick-lime is tho
slaked with the requisite quantity of water; tk
product is passed through a fine-meshed •*
sieve and is spread in layers of a or 3 in. at tk
bleachinfpo*deJ
bottom of large boxes, the
. - ,. . ....,-., -a -----—---. . a*. Upright chambers," made of lead, or sometimes of cast ma
caat-ironcylinders ;b,b, bnck jacket ;*,<, flues; o\e, iron pbtes arranged like Venetian protected by paint, of slate or even of l*rred
blinds, between which the contact-substance is contained:/, charging hole; f.dis- F™^"** "/ , K** m » m ■"« w c V "J
charging hole; h, entrance pipe for gas; i, exit pipe for gas. ™ 1 ™ 1 no,c, f ' ™ wood. Chlorine, generated in an ordinary * «
Wddon still, is passed in and is rapidly absorb**
coke-towers fed with moderately strong sulphuric add. As the
gas issuing from these contains only about 5 volumes % of
hydrochloric add, it cannot be made to act upon lime in the
ordinary bleaching-powder chambers, but specially constructed
chambers must be provided (see fig. 4). The movement of the
gases through all this complicated set of apparatus is produced
by a Root's blower placed at the end of it all.
The Deacon process makes cheaper chlorine than the Wddon
process, but the plant is complicated and costly and the working
requires a great deal of attention. In skilled hands it has been
proved to yield excellent results.
The hydrochloric add from the caldning-f urnaces or " roasters"
cannot be employed immediately for the Deacon process, as the
When the absorption becomes slow, the gas is cut off and tk
chamber is left to itself for twdve hours or more, when it m* k
found that all the chlorine has been taken up. Now the door*
the chamber is opened, the powder lying at the bottom is tnnw
over and the treatment with gas is repeated. Sometimes a ikj*
treatment is necessary in order to get the product up w •*
strength required in commerce, via. 35% of "tvailabk
chlorine. The finished product is packed into wooden ca»>
lined with brown paper. The work of packing is a m"^"*
agreeable and unhealthy operation which is best relieved ty
erecting the chambers at a higher levd and placing the cup
underneath, communication being made by means of trap**
the chamber-bottom, so that the packers can do their «rt
ALKALI MANUFACTURE
outside tbe chambers. The bleaching-powder casks must be
kept in a dry place, as cool as possible, and never exposed to the
direct rays of the sun, in order to prevent a decomposition which
now and then has even led to explosions.
The weak chlorine from the Deacon process cannot be treated
in this manner, as chambers of impossibly large dimensions
would be required. Originally the absorption of the Deacon
chlorine took place in a set of chambers, constructed of large
slabs of stone, containing a great many horizontal shelves
superposed over one another. About sixteen such chambers
were combined in such manner that the fresh gas passed into that
chamber which had been the longest time at work and in which
the bleaching-powder was nearly finished, and so forth until the
gas, now all but entirely exhausted, reached the last-filled
chamber in which it met with fresh lime and there gave up the
last of the chlorine. These " Deacon chambers " occupied a
large space, besides being expensive to build and difficult to keep
in repair.
They are now mostly replaced by an apparatus, the invention
of R. Hasenclever, consisting of four horizontal cast-iron cylinders
'with internal stirring-gear. The fresh lime is continually charged
into the top cylinder, is gradually moved towards the other end,
falls down into the next lower cylinder and thus gradually
makes its way to the lowest cylinder. The weak chlorine gas
from the Deacon apparatus travels precisely the opposite way,
from the bottom upwards, the result being that finished bleaching-
powder is continually discharged at the bottom and air free from
chlorine leaves the apparatus at the top.
Bleaching-powder is manufactured to the extent of several
hundred thousands of tons annually, almost entirely for the use
of papermakers and cotton bleachers. Smaller quantities are
used for disinfection and other purposes. It is usually sold in
" tierces," that is, casks containing about 10 cwt.
Bleach-liquors. — If the chlorine is made to act on cream of
lime, care being taken that the temperature does not rise above
35° and that the chlorine is not in excess, a solution is obtained
containing a mixture of calcium chloride and hypochlorite which
is a very convenient agent for bleachers, but which does not bear
the expense of carriage over long distances. Similar liquids are
obtained with a basis of sodium (" eau de Javel "), by passing
chlorine into solutions of sodium carbonate. The former kind
of bleach-liquor is mostly used in the industry of cotton, the latter
in that of linen.
Chlorate of Potash.— Formerly all chlorate of potash, as some
is still, was obtained by passing chlorine into milk of lime,
allowing the temperature to rise almost to the boiling-point, and
continuing until the bleaching-solution, originally formed, is
converted into a mixture of calcium chlorate and chloride, the
final reaction being 6Ca(OH)t+da«-5CaClt+Ca(aOs)t+6HtO.
On adding to this solution, after settling out the mud, a quantity
of potassium chloride equivalent to the calcium chlorate, the
reaction Ca(C10,)i+2KCl-CaClj+2KC10i is produced, the
ultimate proportions thus being theoretically 2KC10, to GCaCl,,
though in reality there is rather more calcium chloride present.
When this solution is concentrated by evaporation and cooled
down, about five-sixths of the chlorate of potash crystallizes out.
It is purified by redissolving and crystallization, and is sold
either in the state of crystals or finely ground. During these
operations care must be taken lest a spark should produce the
inflammation of the chlorate on contact with any organic sub-
stance. Large quantities of potassium chlorate exposed to
strong beat in contact with the wood of casks or the timber
of a roof have produced violent explosions.
Most of the chlorate of potash is now prepared by electrolysis
of potassium chloride (see below). It is employed for fire-works,
for some descriptions of explosives, for safety matches and as an
oxidizer in some operations, especially in dyeing and tissue
printing. For the last-named purpose it is sometimes replaced by
sodium chlorate. The chlorates are usually sold in wooden kegs
containing icwt. each.
5. The Manufacture of Soda-ash from Salt-cahe by the Leblanc
process.— Tbh process consists in beating a mixture of commercial
Fig. 6. — Black*ash Furnace and Boiling-down Pan.
68o
ALKALI MANUFACTURE
sulphate of soda (salt-cake) with about the same weight of crushed
limestone and half its weight of coal, until the materials are
fluxed and a reaction has taken place, the principal phase of
which is expressed by the equation Na*SQ»+CaCO»+2C-
2COi+NaaCO»+CaS. A number of secondary reactions, how-
ever, occur, owing partly to the excess of calcium carbonate and
coal and partly to the impurities present, so that the solid product
of the process, which is called " black-ash," has a somewhat
complicated composition. Its principal constituents are always
sodium carbonate and calcium sulphide, which are separated
by the action of water, the former being soluble and the latter
insoluble.
The furnace in which the reaction takes place is shown in
fig. 6 in a sectional plan. It is called a " black-ash " furnace,
and belongs to the class of reverberatory furnaces. A large
fire-grate (ab), having a cave (c) to facilitate stoking and stepped
back at (d), is bounded on one side by a fire-bridge(e) ; on the other
side of this, separated by an air-channel (g) , there is first the proper
fluxing bed (A), and behind this the " back-bed "(0 for pre-heating
the charge. The flame issuing from the furnace by (0) is always
further utilized for boiling down the liquors obtained in a later
stage, either in a pan (p) fired from the top and supported on
pillars (qq) as shown in the drawing, or in pans heated from below.
The charge of salt-cake (generally 3 cwt.), limestone and coal
Is roughly mixed and put upon the back-bed; when the front-
bed has become empty it is drawn forward and exposed talk
full heat of the fire, with frequent stirring. After about de»
quarters of an hour the substances are so far fluxed or softer.
that the reaction now sets in fully, as shown by the coece
escape of gas. This is at first colourless carbon dioxide, bat hz
on inflammable gases come out of the mass, which at this sup
has turned into a thicker, pasty condition, snowing that tke*.
of the reaction is near. The inflammable gas is carbon moecni
which, however, does not burn with its proper purple fiaax, fee
with a flame tinged bright yellow by the sodium present. lb
carbon monoxide is formed by the action of coal on the 5a
formed at this stage from the original limestone. Whea *J*
" candles " of carbon monoxide appear, the pasty mass is q*kb
drawn out of the furnace into iron * bogies," where it sokdis
into a grey, porous mass, the " black-ash." Care must be tits
to heat it no longer than necessary, as it otherwise turns red ud
yields bad soda.
The hand-wrought black -ash furnace has been mostly sare-
seded in the large factories by the revolving black-ash rctaaa.
shown in fig. 7. These furnaces possess a Urge cylindrical sfcel
(e), lined with fire-bricks, and made to revolve round itsborisaei
axis by means of a toothed wheel fixed on its exterior; if • «*
tire-seats holding tires (ff), which work in friction rollers (A). Tbt
flame of a fixed fireplace (a) enters through an " eye " (fe) iatbe
centre of the front end of the cylinder and issues in the cooed
Fig. 7.— Revolving Black-ash Furnace.
the back end, first into a large dust-chamber (m), and then over
or under boiling-down pans (p). These mechanical furnaces do
the work of from four to ten ordinary furnaces according to their
size, with comparatively very little expense for labour, but they
must be very carefully managed and the black-ash from them
is more difficult to lixiviate than that from hand-wrought
furnaces, because it is less porous. The lixiviation of the black-
ash requires great care, as the calcium sulphide is liable to be
changed into soluble calcium compounds, which immediately
react with sodium carbonate and destroy a corresponding
quantity of the latter, rendering the soda weaker and impure.
This change of the calcium sulphide may be brought about either
by the oxidizing action of the air or by " hydrolysis," produced
by prolonged contact with hot water, the use of which, on the
other hand, cannot be avoided in order to extract the sodium
carbonate itself. The apparatus which has been found most
suitable for the purpose was devised by Professor H. Buff of
Giessen, and first practically carried out by Charles Dunlop at
St Rollox. It consists of a number of tanks or " vats," placed
at the same level and connected by pipes which reach nearly to
the bottom of one tank and open out at the top into the next
tank. The vats are also provided with false bottoms, outlet cocks,
steam pipes and so forth. Tepid water is run in at one end of the
series, where nearly exhausted black-ash is present; the weak
liquor takes up more soda from the intermediate tanks and at
last gets up to full strength in the last tank, charged with fresh
black-ash and kept at a higher temperature, viz. 6o° C. When
the first tank has been quite exhausted, the water is turned on
to the next, the first tank is emptied by discharging the " alkali-
waste," and is filled with fresh black-ash, whereupon it becomes
the last of the series. In spite of all precautions a certain quantity
(Elevation.)
of impurities is always formed, but this should be kept dors n
much as possible by strictly watching the temperature in d*
vats and by taking care that the black-ash in the wet state s
never exposed to the air. The unavoidable contamination *A
muddy particles of vat-waste is removed by allowing the «s-
liquor to rest for some hours in a separate tank and settling est
the mud.
The dear vat-liquor, if allowed to cool down to ©n&ary
temperature, would separate out part of the sodium carbarn*
in the shape of decahydrated crystals. As these do not con* &
sufficiently pure, they would not be marketable and tbatkst
they are not allowed to be formed, but the liquid, while suH hot
is either run into the boiling-down pans, or submitted to one af
the purifying operations to be described below. If it is boSrf
down without further purification, the resulting soda-asb b «*
of the first quality, but it is sufficiently pure for many purpoKi
The boiling down is most economically performed by mess* A
large iron pans covered with a brick arch and heated from the tcs
by the waste flame issuing from the black-ash furnaces (see ip- *
and 7). It is continued until the contents of the pan have beri
converted into a t^ick paste of small crystals of mono-hydrate.,
sodium carbonate, permeated by a mother-liquor which a re-
moved by draining on perforated plates or by a centrifcF
machine, and is always returned to the pans. The dwsti
crystals are dried and heated to redness in a reverberator*
furnace; when " finished," the mass is of an impure white or b&
yellow colour and is sold as ordinary " soda-ash." It is not easy
to make it stronger than 02 % of sodium carbonate, which a
technically expressed as " 5a degrees of available sods " (**
next page). If purer and stronger soda-ash is wanted, the b«h«f
down must be carried out in pans fired from below, sod the
ALKALI MANUFACTURE
68 1
crystals of monohydrated sodium carbonate "fished" out
as they are formed, but this is mostly done after submitting
the liquor to the purifying operations which we shall now-
describe.
The dried or * finished " soda-ash is ground to a pretty fine
powder and is packed into wooden casks or " tierces," holding
from 10 to about 20 cwL each, according to the way of filling
them.
The principal impurities of crude vat-liquor are sodium
hydrate and sulphide, the latter of which always leads to the
formation of soluble double sulphur salts of sodium and iron.
The other impurities are of minor importance. The sulphides
can be removed by " oxidizing " them into thiosulphates by
means of atmospheric air, with or without the assistance of other
agents, such as manganese peroxide; or by " carbonating " them
with lime-kiln or other gases containing carbon dioxide; or by
precipitating them with lead or zinc oxide. The last mentioned
is the best but costliest method, and is employed only in the
manufacture of the highest strengths of caustic soda. The most
usual process, where soda-ash is to be made, is the " carbonating."
This is usually effected either by forcing lime-kiln gas through
the liquor, contained in a closed iron vessel, or by passing the
gases through an iron tower filled with coke or other materials,
suitable for subdividing the stream of the gases and that of the
vat-liquor which trickles 'down in the tower. The same apparatus
is used for " oxidizing " by means of atmospheric air passed
through by means of an injector; sometimes both air and
carbon dioxide are passed in at the same time. The operation
is finished when all the sodium sulphide has been converted into
normal sodium carbonate, partly also into acid sodium car-
bonate (bicarbonate) NaHCCV, at the same time a precipitate
is formed, consisting of ferrous sulphide, alumina and silica,
which is removed by another settling tank, and the clear liquor
is now ready either for boiling down in a "fishing-pan" for the
manufacture of white soda-ash, or for the process of causticizing.
Soda-ash (as well as caustic soda) is sold by degrees of " avail-
able soda." This means that portion which neutralizes the acid
employed for testing, and the degrees mean the percentage of
Na*0 thus found, whether it be present as NajCOs, NaOH, or
sodium aluminate or silicate. The purest soda-ash, equal to
100 % NatCOs, would be 58} degrees of available soda. The
ordinary commercial strength of Leblanc soda-ash is from
5a to 54 degrees (in former times much was sold in the state of
48 %).
6. Manufacture of Caustic Soda. — Most of the Leblanc liquor
is nowadays converted into caustic soda, as white soda-ash is
more easily and cheaply made by the ammonia-soda process.
We shall therefore in this place describe the manufacture of
caustic soda. This is always made from the carbonate by the
action of slaked lime: Na,CO,+Ca(OH),-CaCO»+2NaOH.
The calcium carbonate, being insoluble, is easily separated from
the caustic liquor by nitration. But as this reaction is reversible,
we must observe the conditions necessary for directing it in the
right sense. These are: diluting with water so as not to exceed
16 % of sodium carbonate to 00 % of water; boiling this
mixture; and keeping it well agitated. At the best about 92 %
of the sodium carbonate can be converted into caustic soda, 8 %
remaining unchanged.
The operation is performed in iron cylinders, provided with
an agitating arrangement. This may consist of a steam injector
by means of which air is made to bubble through the liquid,
which produces both the required agitation and the heating,
and at the same time oxidizes at least part of the sulphides;
but this method cf agitation causes a great waste of steam and
at the same time a further dilution of the liquor. Many, there-
fore, prefer mechanical stirring by means of paddles, fixed either
to a vertical or to a horizontal shaft, and inject only sufficient
steam to keep the mass at the proper temperature. Some heat
is also gained by the slaking of the caustic lime within the
liquor. After from half an hour to a whole hour the conversion
of sodium carbonate into sodium hydrate is brought about as
far as is practicable. The whole mass is now run into the
fillers, which are always constructed on the vacuum principle.
They are iron boxes, in which a bed is made of bricks, above
them gravel, and over this sand, covered on the top by iron
grids. The space below the sieve thus formed is connected by
means of an outlet tap with a dosed tank, and this again com-
municates with a vacuum pump. By this means the filtration
is quickened by the atmospheric pressure, and goes on very
rapidly, as also does the subsequent washing. The filtered
caustic liquor passes to the concentration plants; the washings
are employed for diluting fresh vat-Hquor for the next operation,
or for dissolving solid soda-ash for the same purpose. The
washed-out calcium carbonate, which always contains much
calcium hydrate and 2 or 3 % of soda in various forms, usually
goes back to the black-ash furnaces, but it cannot be always
used up in this way, and what remains is thrown upon a
heap outside the works. Attempts have been made to use it
in the manufacture of Portland cement, but without much
The clear caustic soda liquor must be concentrated in such a
way that the caustic soda cannot to any great extent be re-
converted into sodium carbonate, and that the " salts " which
it contains, sodium carbonate, sulphate, chloride, &c, can be
separated during the process. Formerly the most usual con-
centrating apparatus was the " boat-pan " (fig. 8). This is an
-*->—-*«: j>
Fig. 8.— Caustic Soda Concentration Boat-pan.
Elevation.)
(Sectional
oblong iron pan, the bottom of which slopes from both sides to a
narrow channel. The latter rests on a brick pillar; the remaining
part of the sloping bottom is heated, either by the waste fire
from a black-ash furnace or by a special fireplace. This arrange-
ment has the effect that the salts, as they separate out, slide
down the sloping part and arrive in the central channel, which
is not exposed to the fire-gases, so that they quietly settle there,
without caking to the pan, until they are fished out by means of
perforated ladles. These boat-pans were for many years almost
everywhere employed, and did their work quite well, but rather
expensively. At many works they have been replaced by either
TheJen pans or vacuum pans.
The " Thllen pan " (thus named from its inventor, a foreman
at the Rhenania works near Aachen) is a mechanically worked
fishing-pan, which requires considerably less labour and coal
than ordinary boat-pans. It is a long trough, of nearly semi-
circular section, the whole bottom being exposed to the fire-
gases. A horizontal shaft runs length-ways through the trough,
and is provided with stirring blades, arranged in such a manner
that tbey constantly scrape the bottom, so that the salts cannot
burn fast upon it, and are at the same time moved forward
towards one of the ends of the trough where they are auto-
matically removed by means of a chain of buckets.
The most efficient evaporating apparatus, as far as economy
of fuel is concerned, is the vacuum-pan, of which from two to
five are combined to form a set, but it has the drawback that
the removal of the salts is much more difficult than with the
682
ALKALI MANUFACTURE
older pans, described above. In this apparatus only the first of
the pans is heated directly, usually by means of ordinary boiler-
steam circulating round a number of pipes, containing the
liquid to be concentrated. The steam rising from the latter is
passed into a similar pan, in which it circulates round another
set of pipes, but as it could not bring the liquid in the latter to
boil under ordinary conditions, the second pan is connected
with a vacuum-pump so that the boiling-point of the liquid in
this pan is lowered. This pan may be followed by a third pan,
in which a stronger vacuum is maintained, and so forth. By
this means the latent heat of the steam, issuing from all pans
but the last, is utilized for evaporating purposes, and from half
to three-fourths of the fuel b saved.
After being concentrated up to a certain point, and after the
separation of nearly all the salts, the caustic liquor is transferred
to cast-iron " finishing-pots " (fig. 9), holding from ten to twenty
tons. Here it is further boiled down until the greater part or
nearly all of the water has been removed, and until the salts on
cooling would set to a solid mass. This requires ultimately a
good red heat. Before the mass has reached that point the
sulphides still present have been destroyed, either by the addition
of solid nitrate of soda or by blowing air through the red-hot
melt. Before finishing, the molten mass must be kept at a quiet
Dnj % •
» * *
Fig. 9.— Caustic Soda " Finishing-pot." (Sectional Elevation.)
heat for some hours in order to settle out the ferric oxide which
it always contains, and which becomes insoluble (through the
destruction of the sodium fcrrite) only at high temperatures.
When it has completely cleared, the liquid caustic is ladled or
pumped out into sheet-iron drums, holding about 6 cwt. each,
where it solidifies and forms the caustic soda known to commerce.
The best caustic soda tests from 75 to 76 degrees of " available
soda "; this is only a few per cent removed from the composition
of pure NaOH, which would be - 77*5 degrees Na t O. Most of
the caustic soda is sold at a strength of 70 degrees, sometimes as
low as 60 degrees.
Caustic soda is used in very large quantities in the manufacture
of soap, paper, textile fabrics, alizarin and other colouring
matters, and for many other purposes.
7. Soda-Crystals. — Another product made in alkali works is
soda-crystals. Their formula in Na t CO», IOH3O, corresponding
to 37 % of dry sodium carbonate. They are made by dissolving
ordinary soda-ash in hot water, adding a small quantity of
chloride of lime for the destruction of colouring matter and the
oxidation of any ferrous salts present, carefully settling the
solution, without allowing its temperature to fall below the point
of maximum solubility (34° C), and running the clarified liquid
into cast-iron crystallizers or " cones," where, on cooling down,
most of the sodium carbonate is separated in large crystals of the
decahydrated form. This process lasts about a week in winter,
and up to a fortnight in summer. In France the crystallization
of soda is performed not in large tanks but in sheet-iron dishes
holding only about } cwt., and requires only from 27 to 48 bra
in the cool season ; it is not carried on at all in warmer cbaa
during the summer months. The mother-liquor, chained be
the soda-crystals, on boiling down to dryness yields a very *te
but low-strength soda-ash, as the soluble imparities cf ts
original soda-ash are nearly all collected here; it is ok
44 mother-alkali."
Although the soda-crystals contain the alkali crabbed tia
such a large quantity of water, they are made in large qox>
ties, because their form, together with their complete facta
from caustic soda, makes them very suitable for doaoz
purposes. Hence they are best known as " washicg-wi.'
Sometimes they are made, not from soda -ash, but from Leite:
soda -liquor before " finishing " the ash. or from the est
bicarbonate of the ammonia-soda process by prolonged boirj
until nearly half of the carbonic acid has been expelled
Formerly bicarbonate of soda was made from Leblanc seda
crystals by the action of carbonic acid, but this article a »■
almost exclusively made in the ammonia-soda process.
8. The Recovery of Sulphur from Alkali-waste.— For many job
all the sulphur used in the Leblanc process in the shape of »*&>
sulphate, and originally imported into the manufacture ii to
shape of brimstone or pyrites, was wasted in the crude absa
sulphide remaining from the lixiviataon of bbd^
This " alkali-waste," also called tank-waste or at-
waste, was thrown into heaps where the tabss
sulphide was gradually acted upon by the anxt
and the oxygen of the air. The sulphur was by that
converted partly into gaseous sulphuretted bydn$o-
partly into soluble poly sulphides, thkmilpiuto aei
other soluble compounds, and in all shapes caused ;
nuisance which became more and more intoleabk v
the number and size of alkali works increased. Sfd
the air and the water in their neighbourhood t«
contaminated thereby.
Both this nuisance and the toss of the sulphur («fcj*
cost sometimes amounted to more than half of tk
total cost of the soda-ash) led to many attempt* i'
extracting the sulphur from the alkali-waste. Tb
was first done with a certain amount of success by
the processes of M. Schaffner (1861) and L Ha*
• M«t. (1862), but as these required the use of bydrochkn
acid, and as they only recovered about half of *
sulphur, they were superseded by another— a pra«
which had been originally proposed by W. Gosaf
in 1837, but has been made practicable only by tf>< fr
ventions of C. F. Claus, in 1883, and from 1887 onwri *
the technical skill of Messrs Chance Brothers, of OWbtn
The Claus-Chance process, as it is called, comprises the folio***
operations. The wet alkali-waste as it comes from the lixivoiia
vats, is transferred into upright iron cylinders in which it =
systematically treated with Hme-kiln gases until the whole of tir
calcium sulphide has been converted into calcium carbonat?
the carbon dioxide of the lime-kiln gases being entirely exhausted
The sulphur issues as sulphuretted hydrogen, mixed wirh fr
nitrogen of the air. It is mixed with fresh air contaerf
sufficient oxygen for the combustion of the hydrogen, and &
mixture is passed through red-hot iron oxide (burnt pynv' j
which by its catalytic action causes the reaction H»S+0»
HtO+S to take place. By cooling the vapours the sulphur is «*•
densed in a very pure form, and about 85 % of the whole of it »
recovered, the remaining 15% escaping in the shape of sulpte
dioxide (SQi) and H|S. Unfortunately it has been hiibertc
found impossible to deal with these gases in any profitable «j
It should be noted that this " recovered sulphur," whki s
equal in purity to the " refined brimstone " of commerce, has 1
far higher value than the sulphur contained in the origin^
employed pyrites, so that the recovery is a paying process, *
spite of the somewhat considerable cost of the plant and of tl*
working operations. It has been introduced at most \up
Leblanc alkali works, and has, so to say, given then a new kn«
of life.
ALKALI MANUFACTURE
683
II. The Ammonia-Soda Ptoctss
In spite of the great improvements effected daring recent
times the Leblanc process cannot economically compete with the
aaamonia-soda process, principally for two reasons. The sodium
in the latter costs next to nothing, being obtained from natural
or artificial brine in which the sodium chloride possesses an
extremely slight value. The fuel required is less than half the
amount used in the Leblanc process. Moreover, the ammonia
process has been gradually elaborated into a very complicated
but perfectly regularly working scheme, in which the cost of
labour and the loss of ammonia are reduced to a minimum. The
.only way in which the Leblanc process could still hold its own
was by being turned in the direction of making caustic soda, to
-which it lends itself more easily than the ammonia-soda process;
but the latter has invaded even this field. One advantage,
however, still remained to the Leblanc process. All endeavours
to obtain either hydrochloric acid or free chlorine in the ammonia-
soda process have proved commercial failures, all the chlorine of
the sodium chloride being ultimately lost in the shape of worthless
calcium chloride. The Leblanc process thus remained the sole
purveyor of chlorine in its active forms, and in this way the fact
is accounted for that, at least in Great Britain, the Leblanc
process still furnishes nearly half of all the alkali made, though in
other countries its proportional share is very much less. The
profit made upon the chlorine produced has to make up for the
loss on the alkali.
The ammonia-soda process was first patented in 1838 by
H. G. Dyar and J. Hemming, who carried it out on an experi-
mental scale in Whitechapel. Many attempts were soon after
made in the same direction, both in England and on the continent
of Europe, the most remarkable of which was the ingenious
combination of apparatus devised by J. J. T. Schloesing and
E. Rolland. But a really economical solution of the problem was
first definitely found in 1872 by Ernest Solvay, as the result of
investigations begun about ten years previously. The greater
portion of all the soda-ash of commerce is now made by Solvay's
apparatus, which alone we shall describe in this place, although
it should be borne in mind that the principles laid down by Dyar
and Hemming have been and are still successfully carried out in a
number of factories by an entirely different kind of apparatus.
The leading reaction of this process is the mutual decom-
position of ammonium bicarbonate and sodium chloride:
NaQ+NHJICO,- NaHOfc+NrfcCl. It begins, however, not
with ready-made ammonium bicarbonate, but with the sub-
stances from which it is formed — ammonia, water and carbon
dioxide— which are made to act on sodium chloride. In
practice the process is carried out as follows. A nearly
saturated solution of sodium chloride is obtained by pusifyiag
natural or artificial brine, i.e. an impure solution of common
salt, especially removing the alkaline earths and so forth by
addition of sodium or ammonium carbonate and settling out
the precipitate formed. This solution is saturated with ammonia,
produced in the recovery plant (see below), in vessels provided
with mechanical agitators and strongly cooled by coils of pipes
t hrough which cold water is made to flow. These vessels, as well
as all others which are used in the process, are not open to the
ait, but communicate with it through washers in which
fresh salt solution is employed for retaining any escaping vapours
of ammonia. The ammoniacal salt solution is now saturated
with carbon dioxide. This is employed in the shape of
lime-kiln gases, obtained in a comparatively pure and strong
form (up to 33 % CO»), in very large kilns, charged with lime-
stone and coke. The kilns are closed at the top. and the
gases are drawn out by powerful air-pumps, washers being
interposed between the kilns and the pumps for the purpose of
purifying and cooling the gas. The heat evolved by the com-
pression in the air-pumps (which rises to four atmospheres or
upwards) is again removed by cooling, and the gas is now passed
upwards in the " Solvay tower " (fig. 10). This is a tall iron
erection, built up from superposed cylinders, which are separated
from one another by perforated horizontal diaphragms, con-
structed in such a way that the gases are over and over again
subdivided into many smaller streams and are thus thoroughly
brought into contact with the ammoniacal salt solution with which
the tower is about two-thirds filled. There the reaction men-
tioned above takes place, and owing to the concentration of the
liquid the sodium bicarbonate formed is to a great extent
precipitated in the shape of small crystals, forming with the
mother-liquor a thin magma. This takes place wi th considerable
evolution of heat which is removed by internal and external
cooling with water. The temperature must not be allowed
to rise beyond a certain point, for the reaction NaCl+
NH«HCO.= NaHCC+NIfcCl is reversible, and at a tempera-
ture of about 6o° or <r=v
70" C. it is in fact
practically going the
wrong way, viz. from
right to left. On the
other hand the cooling
must not be carried
too far, for in this
case the crystals of
sodrum bicarbonate
become so fine that
the muddy mass is
very difficult to filter.
The best temperature
seems to be about
30* C.
Either at certain
intervals, or continu-
ously, a portion of the
contents of the tower
'is withdrawn and
fresh ammoniacal salt
solution is introduced
higher up. The
muddy liquid running
out is passed on to the
vacuum filters (Z, fig.
10). Here a separa-
tion takes place be-
tween the crystals of
sodium bicarbonate
and the mot her -liquor.
The former are
washed with water
until the chlorides are
nearly removed, and
are then carried into
the drying apparatus.
This must be con-
structed in such a
manner that the bi-
carbonate, which
always contain* some
45*
•0
t teP
Tram Thorpe's Didimtmy •/■ A pUUd Cktmistry, bf
rmiuioii of longmoiw. Green & Co.
Fie. 10. — Ammonia- soda Carbonating
Towers and Filters. (Sectional Elevation.)
A A, Tower; B, ammoniacal
brine main; E, gas-inlet ;Z, vacuum filter;
V, pipe to air-pump.
ammonium salts, is first freed from these by moderate heating (bf
course taking care that the ammonia is completely recovered), and
later on, by raising the temperature, it is decomposed into solid
sodium carbonate and gaseous carbon dioxide. The former
needs only grinding to constitute the final product, ammonia-
soda ash; the latter is again employed in the process of treating
(he ammoniacal salt solution with carbon dioxide. Various
forms of apparatus are employed for this treatment of the crude
bicarbonate — sometimes semi-circular troughs with mechanical
agitators on the principle of the Thelen pan (see above)— all
acting on the principle that the escaping ammonia and carbon
dioxide must be fully utilized over again. The soda-ash obtained
in the end is of a high degree of purity, testing from 08 to 00%
NatCOj, the remaining 1 or 2% consisting principally of NaCI
A very important part of the process has still to be described,
viz. the recovery of the ammonia from the mother-liquor coming
from the vacuum filters and various washing liquors. Unless
684
ALKALI MANUFACTURE
this recovery is carried out in the most efficient manner, the
process cannot possibly pay; but so much progress has been
made in this direction that the loss of ammonia is very slight
indeed, merely a fraction per cent. The ammonia is for the
major part found in the mother-liquor as ammonium chloride.
A smaller but still considerable portion exists here and in the
washings in the shape of ammonium carbonates. These com-
pounds differ in their behaviour to heat. The ammonium
carbonates are driven out from their solutions by mere prolonged
boiling, being thereby decomposed into ammonia, carbon dioxide
and water, but the ammonium chloride Is not volatile under
these conditions, and must be decomposed by milk of lime:
2NH 4 Cl+Ca(OH).-2NH a +CaCli+2H,0. The solution of
calcium chloride is run to waste, the ammonia is re-introduced
into the process.
Both these reactions are carried out in taU cylindrical columns
or "stills," consisting of a number of superposed cylinders,
having perforated horizontal partitions, and provided with a
steam-beating arrangement in the enlarged bottom portion.
The milk of lime is introduced at a certain distance from the
bottom. The steam causes the action of the lime on the
ammonium chloride to take place in this lower portion of the
still, from which the steam, mixed with all the liberated ammonia,
rises into the upper portion of the column where its heat serves
to drive out the volatile ammonium carbonate. Just below the
top there is a cooling arrangement, so that nearly all the water
b condensed and runs back into the column, while the ammonia,
with the carbon dioxide formerly combined with part of it,
passes on first through an outside cooler where the remaining
water is condensed, and afterwards into the vessels, already
described, where the ammonia is absorbed by a solution of salt
and thus again introduced into the process.
The reversible character of the principal reaction has the'
consequence that a considerable portion of the sodium chloride
(up to 33 %) is lost, being contained in the waste calcium chloride
solution which issues from the ammonia stills. This is, however,
not of much importance, as it had been introduced in the shape
of a brine where its value as very slight (6d. per ton of NaCl).
It is true that all the chlorine combined with the sodium is lost
partly as NaCl and partly as CaCIt ; none of the innumerable
attempts at recovering the chlorine from the waste liquor has
been made to pay, and success is less likely than ever since the
perfection of the electrolytic processes. (See Chlorine.) For
all that, especially in consequence of the small amount of fuel
required, and the total absence of the necessity of employing
sulphur compounds as an intermediary, the ammonia-soda
process has supplanted the Leblanc process almost entirely on
the continent of Europe and to a great extent in Great
Britain.
III. Electrolitic Alkali Manutacture
In theory by far the simplest process for making alkalis
together with free chlorine is the electrolysis of sodium (or
potassium) chloride. When this takes place in an aqueous
solution, the alkaline metal at once reacts with the water, so
that a solution of an alkaline hydrate is formed while hydrogen
escapes. The reactions are therefore (we shall in this case
speak only of the sodium compounds): (i) NaCl«Ns+Cl,
(*)Na+H,0-NaOH+H.
The chlorine escapes at the anode, the hydrogen at the cathode.
If the chlorine and the sodiun hydrate can act upon each other
within the liquid, bleach-liquors are formed: 2NaOH+Cli-
NaOCl+NaCl+HrO. The production of these for the use of
papermakers and bleachers of textile fabrics has become an
important industry, but does not enter Into our province.
If, however, the action of the chlorine on the sodium hydrate
is prevented, which can be done in various ways, they can both
be collected in the isolated state and utilised as has been
previously described, vis. the chlorine can be used for the manu-
facture of liquid chlorine, bleaching-powder or other bleaching
compounds, or chlorates, and the solution of sodium hydrate
can be sold as such, or converted into solid caustic soda.
Precisely the same can be done in the electrolysis rf potssasi
chloride.
There is a third way of conducting the action, vis. so that ik
chlorine can act upon the caustic soda or potash at a highe
concentration and temperature, in which case cklmskx a
directly formed in the liquid: KCl+3HsO-KCK\+;&<
This has indeed become the principal, because it is the chops.
process for the manufacture of potassium and sodium chkafc
Perchlorates can also be made in this way.
In all these cases the chlorine, or the products made frco i
really play a greater part than the alkali. From 58.5 F* 8
by weight of NaCl we obtain theoretically 23Na-40NaOH-
53NatCO», together with 35.5 CI, or 100 bleaching-powder %
the weight of bleaching-powder consumed in the worid is fi
most one-fifth of that of alkali, calculated as NatCQ*. it fob*
that only about one-tenth of all the alkali required eoold be
made by electrolysis, even supposing the Leblanc process to*
en tirely abolished. The remaining nine-tenths of alkali arcs be
supplied from other sources, chiefly the ammonia-soda proas*
As long as the operation of the Leblanc process is continwi 1
will supply a certain share of both kinds of products Trust-
worthy statistics on this point cannot be obtained, betas
most firms withhold any information as to the extent of iber
production from the public.
The first patents for the electrolysis of alkaline chtoada
were taken out in 1851 and several others later on; but com-
mercial success was utterly impossible until the invest** d
the dynamo machine allowed the production of the ckctrx
current at a sufficiently cheap rate. The first appficatiaa rf
this machine for the present purpose seems to have been mad* ■
1875 and the number of patents soon rapidly increased, be
although a large amount of capital was invested and many «3
ingenious inventions made their appearance, it took oar.?
another twenty years before the manufacture of alkali ia tk
way was carried out in a continuous way on a large scak ci
with profitable results. A little earlier the manubcUR c f
potassium chlorate (on the large scale since 1800) bid bet:
brought to a definite success by H. Gall and the Vicomte A. &
Montlaur; a few years later the processes worked out at the
Griesheim alkali works (near Frankfort) for the manu/aciarref
caustic potash and chlorine established definitely the suae**'
electrolysis in the field of potash, but even then none of &
various processes working with sodium chloride had emenjd
from the experimental stage. Only more recently the nia>
facture of caustic soda by electrolysis has also been establish**
as a permanent and paying industry, but as the greatest sremj
is maintained in everything belonging to this domain, aod «
neither patent specifications nor the sanguine assertions asi
anticipations of interested persons throw much real light cs
the actual facts of the case, nothing certain can be said cub
in regard to the date at which the profitable manufacture
caustic soda was first carried out by electrolysis, or as to ■&
extent this is the case at the present moment.
We shall here give merely an outline of those more irnportirt
processes which are known to be at present working profit*^
on a large scale.
(1) The Diaphragm process is probably the only one employ**
at present for the decomposition of potassium chloride, and its
also used for sodium chloride. A hot, concentrated solutioacf
the alkaline chloride is treated by the electric current in Urat
iron tanks which at the same time serve as cathodes. The anode
arc made of retort-carbon or other chlorine-resisting mater*
and they are mounted in cells which serve as diaphragms. ft*
material of these cells is usually cement, mixed with ceruos
soluble salts which impart sufficient porosity to the material. T*
.electrolysis is carried on until about a quarter of the ch!on«
has been transformed; it must be stopped at this stage lest ij*
formation of hypochlorite and chlorate should set io. 1*
alkaline liquid is now transferred to vacuum pans, constractM
in such a manner that the unchanged chloride, which "sal
out " during the concentration, can be removed without <&•
turning the vacuum and here at last a concentrated pu*
ALKALINE EARTHS— ALKALOID
685
olution of KOH or NaOH is obtained which Is told in this
tate, or " finished " as solid caustic in the manner described
a the section treating of the Leblanc soda.
(2) The Castner-Kellner process employs no diaphragm, but
l mercurial cathode. The electrolysis takes place in the central
x>mpartment of a tripartite trough which can be made to rock
lightly either to one side or the other. The bottom of the trough
a covered with mercury. The sodium as it is formed at the
athode at once dissolves in the mercury which protects it
Lgainst the action of the water as long as the percentage of
lodiuxn in the mercury does not exceed, say, 0-02%. When this
percentage has been reached, the cell is rocked to the other side,
so that the amalgam flows into one of the outer compartments
where the sodium is converted by water into sodium hydrate.
At the same time fresh mercury, from which the sodium had been
previously extracted, flows from the other outside compartment
into the central one. After a certain time the whole is rocked
towards the other side, and the process is continued until the
outer compartments contain a strong solution of caustic soda,
free from chloride and hypochlorite.
(3) Aussig process. — Here the anode is fixed in a bell, mounted
in a larger iron tank where the cathodes are placed. The whole
is filled with a solution of common salt As the electrolysis goes
on, NaOH is formed at the cathodes and remains at the bottom.
The intermediate layer of the salt solution, floating over the
caustic soda solution, plays the part of a diaphragm, by preventing
the chlorine evolved in the bell from acting on the sodium hydrate
formed outside, and this solution offers much less resistance to
the electric current than the ordinary diaphragms. This process
therefore consumes less power than most others.
(4) The Acker-Douglas process electrolyses sodium chloride
in the molten state, employing a cathode consisting of molten
lead. The latter dissolves the sodium as it is formed and carries
it to an outer compartment where by the action of water the
sodium is converted into caustic soda, while the lead returns to
the inner compartment This process is carried on at Niagara
Falls, but it is uncertain to what extent
(5) The Hargreavcs-Bird process avoids certain drawbacks
attached to other processes, by employing a wire diaphragm and
converting the caustic soda as it issues on the other side of this,
by means of carbon dioxide, into a mixture of sodium carbonate
and bicarbonate, which separates out in the solid state. This
process is but little used.
It stands to reason that the electrolytic processes have been
principally developed in localities where the electric current can
be produced in the cheapest possible manner by means of water
power, but this is not the only condition to be considered, as the
question of freight to a centre of consumption and other circum-
stances may also play an important part Where coal is very
cheap indeed and the other conditions are favourable, it is
possible to establish such an industry with a prospect of com-
mercial success, even when the electric current is produced by
means of steam-engines.
Natural Soda.— Th'a is the term applied to certain deposits of
alkaline salts, or their solutions, which occur, sometimes in very
large quantities, in various parts of the world. The oldest and
best known of these are the Natron lakes in Lower Egypt The
largest occurrence of natural soda hitherto known is that in
Owen's Lake and other salt lakes situated in eastern California.
The soda in all of these is present as " sesquicarbonate," in
reality 4/3 carbonate: NaHtfVNa*COa*sH/), and Is always
mixed with large quantities of chloride and sulphate, which makes
its extraction more difficult than would appear from the outset
Hence, although for many centuries (up to Leblanc's invention)
hardly any soda was available except from this source, and
although we now know that millions of tons of it exist, especially
in the west of the United States, there is as yet very little of it
practically employed, and that only locally.
. Refexbhces.— The principal work on the manufacture of alkali
a G. Lunge's Sulphuric Acid and Alkali (and ed., vols. ii. and iii.,
1^3-1896). This work has also appeared in a German and a French
edition. The same author wrote the articles on the manufacture
of sodium and potassium compounds and on chlorine In Thorpe's
Dictionary of Applied Chemistry (3 vols., 1890-1893). The subject is
also treated, very much more briefly, in SorcTs Industrie chtmioue
minSrale (1902), and of course in every other general treatise on
chemical technology. A special treatise on the manufacture of
ammonia soda ash has been published in German by H. Schreib.
Consult also the official Annual Reports on Alkali, Ac., and, from 1864
onwards, Journal of the Society of Chemical Industry, Fischers Jakres-
Society of Ch
and Zeitschrtfl fur
angewandte
(G.L.)
ALKALINE EARTHS. The so-called alkaline earth-metals
are the elements beryllium, magnesium, calcium, strontium
and barium. By the early chemists, the term earth was used to
denote those non-metallic substances which were insoluble in
water and were unaffected by strong heating; and as some of
these substances (e.g. lime) were found to be very similar in
properties to those of the alkalis, they were called alkaline
earths. The alkaline earths were assumed to be elements until
1807, when Sir H. Davy showed that they were oxides of various
metals. The metals comprising this group are never found in
the uncombined condition, but occur most often in the form of
carbonates and sulphates; they form oxides of the type RO,
and in the case of calcium, strontium and barium, of the type
Rd. The oxides of type RO are soluble in water, the solution
possessing a strongly alkaline reaction and rapidly absorbing
carbon dioxide on exposure; they are basic in character and
dissolve readily in adds with the formation of the corresponding
salts. As the atomic weight of the element increases, it is found
that the solubility of the sulphates in water decreases.
Beryllium to a certain extent stands alone in many of its
chemical properties, resembling to some extent the metal
aluminium. Beryllium and magnesium are permanent in dry
air; calcium, strontium and barium, however, oxidize rapidly
on exposure. The salts of all the metals of this group usually
crystallize well, the chlorides and nitrates dissolve readily in
water, whilst the carbonates, phosphates and sulphates are either
very sparingly soluble or are insoluble in water.
ALKALOID* in chemistry, a term originally applied to any
organic base, i.e. a nitrogenous substance which forms salts
with adds; now, however, it is usual to restrict the term to bases
of vegetable origin and characterized by remarkable toxico-
logical effects. Such bases occur almost exclusively in the
dicotyledons, generally in combination with malic, dtric, tartaric
or similar plant-adds. They may be extracted by exhausting
the plant-tissues with a dilute add, and precipitating the
bases with potash, soda, lime or magnesia. The separation of
the mixed bases so obtained is effected by repeated fractional
crystallization, or by taking advantage of certain properties of
the constituents.
A chemical classification of alkaloids is difficult on account
of their complex constitution. I. A. Wyschnegradsky, and after-
wards W. Konigs, expressed the opinion that the alkaloids were
derivatives of pyridine or quinoline. This view has been fairly
well supported by later discoveries; but, in addition to pyridine
and quinoline nudd, alkaloids derived from isoquinoline are
known. The purely chemical literature on the alkaloids is
especially voluminous; and from the assiduity with which the
constitutions of these substances have been and are still being
attacked, we may condude that their synthesis is but a question
of time. Pipeline, conine, atropine, belladonine, cocaine,
hyoscyamine and nicotine have been already synthesized; the
constitution of several others requires confirmation, while there
remain many important alkaloids— quinine, morphine, strych-
nine, &c. — whose constitution remains unknown.
The following classification is simple and convenient; the
list of alkaloids makes no pretence at being exhaustive.
(1) Pyridine group. Piperine; conine; trigonelline; arecal-
dine; guvadne; pilocarpine; cytisine; nicotine;
sparteine.
(2) Tropine group. Alkaloids characterized by containing
the tropine (?.».) nucleus. Atropine; cocaine; hygrine;
ecgonine; pelletierine.
(3) Quinoline group. The alkaloids of the quina-barks:
686
ALKAN— ALLAH
quinine, &c; the strycknos bases: strychnine, brucine;
and the veratmm alkaloids: vera trine, cevadine, &c
(4) Isoquinoline group. The opium alkaloids: morphine,
codeine, thebaine, papaverine, narcotine, narceine, 8fcc;
and the complicated substances bydrastine and berberine.
In addition to the above series there are a considerable number
of compounds derived from purin which are by some writers
classed with the alkaloids. These are treated in the article Puxin.
There are also reasons for including such compounds as muscarine,
choline, neurine and bctaine in this group.
The greater number of these substances are of considerable
medicinal value; this aspect is treated generally in the article
Pharmacology. Reference should also be made to the articles
oft the individual alkaloids for further details as to their medicinal
and chemical properties.
The chemistry of the alkaloids is treated in detail by Ami Pictet
in his La Constitution chimiaue des alcaloides vigitaux (Paris, 1897);
enlarged and translated by H. C. Biddle with the title The Vegetable
Alkaloids (New York, 1904); and by I. W. Bruhl, E. Hjelt, and
O. Aschan: Die P/lanzen-Alkaloide (1900). A pamphlet, Die
Alkaloidchemie in den Jahrcn 1900-IQ04, by Julius Schmidt, may
also be consulted.
ALKAN, CHARLES HENRI VALENTIN HORHANOE (1813-
1888), French musical composer, was born and died in Paris.
Alkan was his nom de guerre. Admitted to the Conservatoire of
Paris in his sixth year, be had a distinguished career there until
183a He visited London in 1833, after which he settled in
Paris as a pianoforte teacher till bis death. He is important as
the composer of a large number of pianoforte itudes, embodying
the most extravagant technical difficulties. His invention was
not modern enough to secure for these works that attention
which they deserve as representing a pianoforte technique and
sense of effect in some respects more advanced even than that of
Liszt, though lacking Liszt's economy and tact.
ALKANET (dim. from Span. alcaAa, Arab, al-kcnna = henna,
Egyptian privet, or Lavosonia incrmis), a plant, Alkanna or
Anchusa tinctoria, of the order Boraginaceae, also known as
orchanet, dyer's bugloss, Spanish bugloss or bugloss of Langucdoc,
which Is grown in the south of France and on the shores of the
Levant. Its root yields a fine red colouring matter which has
been used to tint tinctures, oils, wines, varnishes, &c
AL KASR AL KEBIR (" the great castle," in Span. Alcazar
Kebir, in Port. Alcacer Quibir), a town of Morocco, on the
river Lekkus, 80 m. N.W. of Fez. Pop. about 10,000. Its mud
and pantile dwellings are here and there relieved by a mosque
tower, but the aspect of the town is far from inviting. It is
frequently flooded in winter and in consequence fever is prcvalcn t.
The weekly market, held on Sundays in the centre of the town,
gives to the place an appearance of bustle. A vice-governor is
appointed for the town by the basha of Laraiche, one for the
country round by the sultan of Morocco, a condition which causes
much confusion on market-days. Al Kasr al Kebir was built,
according to Leo Africanus, by Yakub el Mansur (1184-1109).
Not far from the town, by the banks of the river Makhazan,
is the site of the battle fought in 1578 between Dom Sebastian,
king of Portugal, and the Moors under Abd el Malck, in which the
Moors were victorious, though both kings perished, as well as the
deposed Mahommcd XL, who had called in the Portuguese to his
aid against Abd el Malck.
ALKMAAR, a town in the province of North Holland, kingdom
of Holland, 24! m. by rail N.N.W. of Amsterdam, connected by
steam-tramway with Haarlem and Amsterdam, and on the
North Holland canal. Pop. (1000) 18,373. Alkmaar is a
typical North Holland town, with tree-lined canals and brightly
coloured 17th-century houses. The old city walls have been
replaced by pleasant gardens and walks, and there is a park in
which stands a fine monument (1876) by J. T. Strack6 (1817-
1891), symbolizing Alcmaria victrix, to commemorate the siege
by the Spaniards in 1573. The Groote Kcrk (1470-1498),
dedicated to St Lawrence, is a handsome building and contains
the tomb of Floris V., count of Holland (d. 1 206). a brass of 1 546,
and some paintings (1507). In the town hall (1507) arc the
library and a small museum with two pictures by the 17th-
century artist Caesar van Everdingen, who with his or
celebrated brother Allart van Everdingen (9.9.) was a nati*
the town. The weigh-house ( 1582) is a picturesque build:*! v •
quaint gable and tower. Just outside the town lies the Aifc^
wood, at the entrance to which stands the military cadet u± J
which serves as a preparatory school for the royal mililaryact&-
at Breda. Alkmaar derives its chief importance from teas :*
centre of the flourishing butter and cheese trade of this npm
Holland. It is also a considerable market for horses, cattle j-
grain, and there is a little boat-building and salt and smB-ck"
manufacture. Tramways connect Alkmaar with F c*» «^ v
with the pretty summer resort of Bergen, which lies sheUerd ?
woods and dunes.
The name of Alkmaar, which means '* all sea.*" first ocean is •*■»
10th century, and recalls its former situation in the midst of tori-
lands and lakes. It was probably originally a fisbang-v3U^ L'
with the reclamation of the surrounding morasses, e,g. that d •'■»
Schermer in 1685, and their conversion into rich mcaoW L-.
Alkmaar gradually acquired an important trade. In 1*54 .* -*»
ceived a charter from William II., count of Holland, similar t: •**
of Haarlem, but in the 15th century duke Philip the Good a F-o-
gundy made the impoverishment of the town, due to 31-govwMore.
the excuse for establishing an oligarchical regime, by cfcarttn r
1436 and 1437. As the capital of the ancient district of Ktracnr-
land between den Helder and Haarlem, Alkmaar frequently w?«-rr
in the early wars between the Hollander! and the Frisian*, ani «•
1517 was captured by the united Celderlanders and Ft
1573 it successfully sustained a seven- weeks' siege by 16.000 Sp»-J- -
under the duke of Alva. In 1799 Alkmaar gave its name to a as
vention signed by the duke of York and the French general Brt-r
in accordance with which the Russo-Brittsh army of 23,000 -*-.
which was defeated at Bergen, evacuated Holland. A mouses
was erected in 1901 to commemorate the Russians who r»"
ALLACCI. LEONE [Leo Allatjus] (1586-1669), Greek scsdr
and theologian, was born in the island of Chios. His early yxzx
were passed in Calabria and at Rome, where he finally settled is
teacher of Greek at the Greek college, at the same time dcTobtj
himself to the study of classics and theology. In 1622, after tar
capture of Heidelberg by Tilly, the elector Maximilian of Barn*
presented its splendid library composed of 196 cases of M5i
(bibliolhcea Palatina) to Pope Gregory XV. AUacci was sett *s
superintend its removal to Rome, where it was incorporate
with the Vatican library. On the death of Gregory, ARacc
became librarian to Cardinal Berbcrini, and subsequently i t«e:i
librarian of the Vatican, which post he held till his death or tht
18th (or 10th) of January 1669. It is noteworthy that, ahhoesi
a Greek by birth, he became an ardent Roman Catholic and lit
bitter enemy of all heretics, including his own conntrysrs
AUacci was a very industrious and voluminous writer, but i*
works, although they bear ample testimony to his irr.nwr*
learning, show an absence of the true critical faculty, and an? r—
of intolerance, especially on religious subjects. For a list of the*
J. A. Fabricius's Bibliotheca Craeca (xi. 437) should be conssitad.
where they are divided into four classes: editions. translaiki*
and commentaries on ancient authors; works relating to tbc
dogmas and institutions of the Greek and Roman Churcha.
historical works; miscellaneous works. The number of rj
unpublished writings is also very large; the majority of these art
included in the MSS. of the Vallicellian library.
The main source of our knowledge of Allatius is the incemrVt
life by Stcphanus Gradi, Leonis Auatii vita, published by CanJiaal
Mai, in Nova BMiotkeoa PoJrum. A complete enumeration of *j
works- is contained in E. Legrand, BibHotraphie hdUntcm i\
XVII' m ' siide (Paris, 1895. "i- 435-471)- The accounts of C Y
Sathas in NexXAqn** *XoW« (Athens. 1868). and of the porta- *>
prince Demetrius Rhodokanakis. Leonis AUatii Hellas (Aibr**
1872). are inaccurate and untrustworthy. For a special actaf*
of his share in the foundation of the Vatican Library, see Cvtx
Mazzi, Leone AUacci e la Palatina di Heidelberg (Bologna. ts%i'
The theological aspect of his works is best treated by the Asscirr-
tionist Father L. Petit in A. Vacant'* Dictionnatre it t±£x*-m
(Paris, 1900, cols. 830-833).
ALLAH, the Arabic name used by Moslems of all nationalities
for the one true God. 1 1 is compounded of of, the definite article,
and Uah, mea ning a god. The same word is found in Hebrew asd
Aramaic as well as in ancient Arabic (Saba can). The meaning of
the root from which it is derived is very doubtful; of. Lasts
ALLAHABAD— ALLAN
687
Arabic- English Lexicon, p. 82, and the Oxford Hebrew and
English Lexicon, pp. 61 fl.
ALLAHABAD, a city of British India, the capital of the
United Provinces of Agra and Oudh, giving its name to a district
and a division. The city is situated at the confluence of the
Ganges and the Jumna in 25*26' N. lat. and 81*50' E. long., 564
m. from Calcutta by rail. Its most conspicuous feature is the
fort, which rises directly from the banks of the confluent rivers
and completely commands the navigation of both streams.
Within the fort are the remains of a splendid palace, erected by
the Emperor Akbar, and once a favourite residence of his. A
great portion of it has been destroyed, and its hall is converted
into an arsenal. Outside the fort the places of most importance
are the sarai and gardens of Khasru, the son of the Emperor
Jehangir, and the Jama Masjid or Great Mosque. When the
town first came into the hands of the English this mosque was
used as a residence by the military officer commanding the
station, and afterwards as an assembly room. Ultimately it
was returned to its former owners,*but the Mahommedans con-
sidered it desecrated, and it has never since been used as a place
of worship. Allahabad (IUahabad) was the name given to the
city when Akbar built the great fort. To the Hindus it is still
known by its ancient name of Prag or Prayag (" place of sacri-
fice "), and it remains one of the most noted resorts of Hindu
pilgrimage. It owes its sanctity to its being the reputed
confluence of three sacred streams— the Ganges, the Jumna
and the SaraswatL This last stream, however, actually
loses itself in the sands of Sirhind, 400 m. north-west of
Allahabad. The Hindus assert that the stream joins the other
two rivers underground, and in a subterraneous temple below
the fort a little moisture trickling from the rocky walls is pointed
out as the waters of the Saraswati. An annual fair is held at
Allahabad at the confluence of the streams on the occasion of
the great bathing festival at the full moon of the Hindu month
of Magh. It is known as the Magh-mela, lasts for a whole month,
and is attended by as many as 250,000 persons in ordinary years,
either for religious or commercial purposes. Every twelfth year
there is a special occasion called the Kumbh-mela, which is
attended by a million of devotees at one time. Allahabad was
taken by the British in 1 765 from the wazir of Oudh, and assigned
as a residence to Shah Alam, the titular emperor of Delhi. Upon
that prince throwing himself into the hands of the Mahrattas,
the place was resumed by the British in 1771 and again trans-
ferred to the nawab of Oudh, by whom it was finally ceded
together with the district to the British in 1 801, in commutation
of the subsidy which the wazir had agreed to pay for British
protection. During the Mutiny of 1857, Allahabad became the
scene of one of the most serious outbreaks and massacres which
occurred in the North- Western Provinces. The fort was held
by a little garrison of Europeans and loyal Sikhs, until it was
relieved by General Neill on June nth of that year.
The modern buildings of Allahabad include Government House,
the High Court, the Mayo memorial and town hall, the Muir
central college, the Thornhill and Mayne memorial library and
museum, the Nairn* central jail, and the Anglican and Roman
Catholic cathedrals. The Jumna is crossed by a railway bridge
and there arc two bridges of boats over the Ganges. The
military cantonments contain accommodation for all three
arms and are the headquarters of a brigade in the 8th division
of the eastern army corps. At Allahabad is published the Pioneer,
perhaps the best known English paper in India. There is an
American mission college. Here is the junction of the great
railway system which unites Bengal with Central India and
Bombay, and is developing into a great centre of inland and
export trade. The population in 1001 was 172,032.
The district of Allahabad has an area of 281 1 sq. m. In
shape it is an irregular oblong, and it is very difficult to define
its boundaries, as at one extremity it wanders into Oudh, while on
the south the villages of the state of Rewa and those of this
district are hopelessly intermingled. The Jumna and the Ganges
enclose within their angle a fertile tract well irrigated with tanks
and wells. The East Indian railway and the Grand Trunk road
afford the principal means of land communication. In 1001 the
population was 1,480,358, showing a decrease of 4% in the
decade due to famine.
The division of Allahabad has an area of 17,270 sq. m. The
population in 1001 was 5.540,702, showing a decrease of 4%
in the decade due to the famine of 1 896-1897, which was severely
felt throughout the division. It comprises the seven districts
of Cawnpore, Fatehpur, Banda, Hamirpur, Allahabad, Jhansi
and Jalaun.
ALLAMANDA, named after J. N. S. AUamand (1713-1787), of
Leiden, a genus of shrubby, evergreen climbers, belonging to the
natural order Apocynaceae, and a native of tropical America.
Severalspeciesaregrowninhot-housesfor the beauty of theirfoliage
and flowers; the latter, borne in many-flowered panicles, have
a funnel-shaped corolla with a narrow tube, and often yellow in
colour. The plants are of comparatively easy culture, and very
effective when trained to wires beneath the roof of the house.
ALLAN, DAVID (1 744-1 706), Scottish historical painter, was
born at Alloa. On leaving FouhVs academy of painting at
Glasgow (1762), after seven years'successful study, he obtained
the patronage of Lord Cathcart and of Erskine of Mar, on
whose estate he had been born. The latter furnished him with
the means of proceeding to Rome (1764), where he remained
for a number of years engaged principally in copying the old
masters. Among the original works which he then painted
was the "Origin of Portraiture" — representing a Corinthian
maid drawing her lover's shadow — well known through Domenico
Cuncgo's excellent engraving. This gained for him the gold
medal given by the Academy of St Luke in the year 1 773 for the
best specimen of historical composition. Returning from Rome
in 1777, he resided for a time in London, and occupied himself
in portrait-painting. In 1780 he removed to Edinburgh, where,
on the death of Alexander Runciman in 1 786, he was appointed
director and master of the Academy of Arts. There he painted
and etched in aquatint a variety of works, those by which he is
best known— as the " Scotch Wedding," the " Highland Dance,"
the " Repentance Stool," and his " Illustrations of the Gentle
Shepherd "—being remarkable for their comic humour. He
was called the " Scottish Hogarth "; but his drolleries hardly
entitle him to this comparison. Allan died at Edinburgh on
the 6th of August 1706.
ALLAN, SIR HUGH (1810-1882), Canadian financier, was
born on the 29th of September 1810, at Saltcoats, Ayrshire,
Scotland, the son of Captain Alexander Allan, a shipmaster.
He emigrated to Canada in 1826, and in 1831 entered the employ
of the chief shipbuilding and grain-shipping firm of Montreal,
of which he became a junior partner in 1835. In 1853 h* organ-
ized the Allan Line of steamships, plying between Montreal,
Liverpool and Glasgow; till his death he was closely associated
with the commercial growth and prosperity of Canada, and
in 1871 was knighted in recognition of his services. In 1872-
1873 he obtained from the Canadian government a charter for
building the Canadian Pacific railway, but the disclosures made
with reference to his contributions to the funds of the Conserva-
tive party led to the Pacific scandal (sec Canada, History),
and that company was soon afterwards dissolved. He died in
Edinburgh on the, 9th of December 1882.
See J. C. Dent. Canadian Portrait Gallery (1881).
ALLAN, SIR WILLIAM (1782-1850), Scottish painter, was
born at Edinburgh, and at an early age entered as a pupil in
the School of Design established in Edinburgh by the Board of
Trustees for Arts and Manufactures, where he had as companions,
John Wilkie, John Burnet the engraver, and others who afterward
distinguished themselves as artists. Here Allan and Wilkie were
placed at the same table, studied the same designs, and con-
tracted a lifelong friendship. Allan continued his studies for
some time in London; but his attempt to establish himself there
was unsuccessful, and after exhibiting at the Royal Academy
(1805) his first picture, " A Gipsy Boy and Ass," an imitation
in style of Opie, he determined, in spite of his scanty resources,
to seek his fortune abroad. He accordingly set out the same
year for Russia, but was carried by stress of -weather to Memel,
688
ALLAN-DESPREAUX— ALLEGHENY
where he remained for some time, supporting himself by his
pencil. At last, however, he reached St Petersburg, where the
kindness of Sir Alexander Crichton, the court physician, and other
friends procured him abundant employment. By excursions
into southern Russia, Turkey, the Crimea and Circassia, be filled
his portfolio with vivid sketches, of which he made admirable
use in his subsequent pictures. In 1814 be returned to Edinburgh,
and in the two following years exhibited at the Royal Academy
" The Circassian Captives " and " Bashkirs conducting Convicts
to Siberia." The former picture remained so long unsold, that,
thoroughly disheartened, he threatened to retire to Circassia
when, through the kindness of Sir Walter Scott, a subscription
of 1000 guineas was obtained for the picture, which fell by lot
into the possession of the earl of Wemyss. About the same time
the Grand Duke Nicholas, afterwards tsar of Russia, visited
Edinburgh, and purchased his "Siberian Exiles" and "Haslan
Gheray crossing the River Kuban," giving a very favourable turn
to the fortunes of the painter, whose pictures were now sought
for by collectors. From this time to 1 834 he achieved his greatest
success and firmly established his fame by the illustration of
Scottish history. His most important works of this class were
" Archbishop Sharpe on Magus Moor "; " John Knox admonish-
ing Mary Queen of Scots " (1823), engraved by Burnet; "Mary
Queen of Scots signing her Abdication " (1824); and " Regent
Murray shot by Hamil ton of Both wellhaugh." The last procured
his election as an associate of the Royal Academy (1825). Later
Scottish subjects were " Lord Byron " (1831), portraits of Scott
and " The Orphan " (1834), which represented Anne Scott seated
near the chair of her deceased father. In z 830 he was compelled,
on account of an attack of ophthalmia, to seek a milder climate,
and visited Rome, Naples and Constantinople. He returned
with a rich store of materials, of which he made excellent use
in his " Constantinople Slave Market " and other productions.
In 1834 he visited Spain and Morocco, and in 1841 went again to
St Petersburg, when he undertook, at the request of the tsar,
his " Peter the Great teaching his Subjects the Art of Ship-
building," exhibited in London in 1845, an d now in the Winter
Palace of St Petersburg. His " Polish Exiles " and " Moorish
Love-letter," &c, had secured his election as a Royal Acade-
mician in 1835; he was appointed president of the Royal Scottish
Academy (1838), and royal limner for Scotland, after Wilkie's
death (1841); and in 1842 received the honour of knighthood.
His later years were occupied with battle-pieces, the last he
finished being the second of his two companion pictures of the
" Battle of Waterloo." He died on the 22nd of February 1850,
leaving a large unfinished picture — " Bruce at Bannockburn."
ALLAN-DESPRBAUX. LOUISE ROSALIE (1810-1856), French
actress, was " discovered " by Talma at Brussels in 1820, when
she played Joas with him in Atkalie. At his suggestion she
changed her surname, Ross, for her mother's maiden name, and,
as Mile. Despreaux, was engaged for children's parts at the
Comfdie Francaise. At the same time she studied at the Con-
servatoire. By 1825 she had taken the second prize for comedy,
and was engaged to play inginue parts at the Comidie Francaise,
where her first appearance in this capacity was as Jenny in
V Argent on the 8th of December 1826. In 1831 the director of
the Gymnase succeeded in persuading her to join his company.
Her six years at this theatre, during which she married Allan,
an actor in the company, were a succession of triumphs. She
was then engaged at the French theatre at St Petersburg. Re-
turning to Paris, she brought with her, as Legouve* says, a thing
she had unearthed, through a Russian translation, a little comedy
never acted till she took it up, a production half-forgotten, and
esteemed by those who knew it as a pleasing piece of work in the
Marivaux style— Un Caprice by Alfred dc Musset, which she had
played with success in St Petersburg. Her selection of this piece
for her reappearance at the Theatre Francaise (1847) laid the
corner-stone of Musset's lasting fame as a dramatist. In the
following year his comedy // ne faut jurer de rien was acted at the
same theatre, and thus led to the production of his finer plays.
Among plays by other authors in which Mme, Allan won special
laurels at the Theatre Francaise. were Par droit de conquile,
Ptril en la demeure, La joiefait peur, and Lady TarUft. Is &
last, with a part of only fifty lines, and playing by the vm sh
of the great Rachel, she yet held her own as an actress of tk f -t
rank. Mme. Allan died in Paris, in the height of her popeUs:/.
in March 1856. .NH-CH-NH-CO-SH,
ALLAMTOIN,C«rUN«0.orC(K I .*
>NH-CO
diurdde of glyoxylic add. It is found in the allantoic BqvJ 1
the cow, and in the urine of sucking calves. It can be abuse:
by the oxidation of uric add by means of lead dioxide, nuopats
dioxide, ozone or potassium permanganate:
GIWMfc + H,0 + O-GiBVNA ♦ CO*
It has been synthesized by E. Grimaux by heating one put d
glyoxylic acid with two parts of urea for ten hours st toe* C
2CO(NH«),+ CH(OH),CCX)H«3H»0 + CH4N1O1. It fens
glanring prisms of neutral reaction slightly soluble in wr.
On standing with concentrated potassium hydroxide sofews
it gives potassium allantofte CiHjNjOjK. On beating «.i
water it undergoes hydrolysis into urea and albotunc tec
C*H,OiNi. It is reduced by sodium amalgam to elytra
C1H4N4O2, whilst with hydriodic add it yields urea and hydttsc
C*H,NiOj. Hot concentrated sulphuric acid also decospobC
allantoin, with production of ammonia, and carbon monoid
and dioxide. By dry distillation it gives ammonium cyamde.
ALLEGHANY, or THE ALLEOHANIES (a spelling oo» ecrr
common than Allegheny), a name formerly used of ail tk
Appalachian Mountains (qv.), U.S.A., and now someiioe a
all that system lying W. and S. of the Hudson river, being sw;
and narrow-crested in Pennsylvania (1500- 1800 ft), ui •*
Maryland, Virginia and West Virginia higher (3000 it-u;} ::>
and with broader crests. Another usage applies to the ridges ft*
Alleghany Ridges") parallel to the Blue Ridge; the north-»e»i
part of this region is sometimes called the Alleghany FrosJ*
the Front of the Alleghany Plateau. The Alleghany Plata; .s
the north- westernmost division of the Appalachian system. u j
an eroded mass of sedimentary rock sloping north-west«*fd »
the Prairie and Lake Plains and reaching south-west frost*
south-western part of New York state through Tennessee isi
into Alabama.
ALLEGHENY, formerly a city of Allegheny county, Pes2?>
vania, U.S.A., on the N. bank of the Allegheny and Ohk>n>«
opposite Pittsburg; since 1907 a part of Pittsburg. Pop. {ri*
105,287; (1900) 129,806, of whom 30,216 were foreign-boa
and 3315 were negroes; of the foreign-born 12,022 were K*
Germany, 5070 from Ireland, 3929 from Austria, and 2177 -*
England ; ( 1 006, estimate) 145. 240. Allegheny is served b? &
Baltimore & Ohio and the Pittsburg & Western railwayv b?
the Pittsburg, Ft. Wayne & Chicago, the Western Penns>hi».
the Buffalo & Allegheny Valley, the Cleveland & Piltsburg. tk
Erie & Pittsburg, the Pittsburg, Youngstown & Asaubu
and the Chautauqua divisions of the Pennsylvania ruin?
system, and by Ohio river freight and passenger boats. Extft*
ing along the river fronts for about 6} m. are numerous b?
manufactories and the headquarters of the shipping intr* 5 '- 5
farther back are the mercantile quarters and public bixt]dti$
and on the hills beyond are the residence districts, coronal
extensive views of the valley. Two of the principal thoregk-
fares, Federal and Ohio streets, intersect at a central squtf *
which are the city hall, public library, post office and the m*^'
place; and surrounding the main business section on the E- *
and W. is City Park of too acres, with lakes and founiaiss, <^
monuments to the memory of Alexander von Humboldt, Ge*r
Washington and T. A. Armstrong. Farther out is River***
Park (219 acres), in which is the Allegheny Astrooon** 1
Observatory, and elsewhere are a soldiers' monument r4*
monument (erected by Andrew Carnegie) in memory of Cerate
Johnes Anderson. In Allegheny arc the following institut**'
of higher learning:— the Allegheny Theological Seminary (Um:«
Presbyterian), opened in 1825; the Western Theological SenaMO
of the Presbyterian Church, opened in 1827; and the TbeokT' '
Seminary of the Reformed Presbyterians, opened in *&
There is a fine Carnegie library with a music-hall. Among (**"
ALLEGIANCE— ALLEGORY
689
and charitable institutions are the Riverside State Penitentiary,
three hospitals, three homes for orphans, a home for the friendless
and an industrial school. Six bridges spanning the river and
electric lines crossing them have brought Allegheny into close
industrial and social relations with the main part of Pittsburg,
and on the hills of Allegheny are beautiful homes of wealthy men.
As a manufacturing centre Allegheny was outranked in 1005 by
only two cities in the state — Philadelphia and Pittsburg; among
the more important of its large variety of manufactures are the
products of slaughtering and meat-packing establishments, iron
and steel rolling mills, the products of foundries and machine-
shops, pickles, preserves and sauces, the products of railway-
construction and repair shops, locomotives, structural iron and
plumbers' supplies. In 1005 the total value of Allegheny's
factory products was $45,830,272; this showed an apparent
decrease (exceeded by one city only) of $7,365,106, from the
product-value of 1000, but the decrease was partly due to the
more careful census of 1005, in which there were not the duplica-
tions of certain items which occurred in the 1000 census. But in
the five years there was a decrease of 3865 in the average number
of wage-earners, and the iron and steel output was much less. In
1 005 Allegheny ranked first among the cities of the United States
in the manufacture of pickles, preserves and sauces, the product
($6,216,778) being 20*9% of that for the whole country. An
important industry is the shipment of coal, especially on barges
down the Ohio.
Allegheny was laid out in 1 788 on a portion of a tract which the
state had previously reserved opposite Pittsburg, with a view to
bringing some valuable land into the market for the payment of
its soldiers' claims. When ordered by the state to be laid out, it
was also named as the site of the county-seat of the newly erected
county of Allegheny, but the opposition of Pittsburg was so
strong that by a supplementary act in the following year that
town was made the county-seat. In 1828 Allegheny was incor-
porated as a borough and in 1 840 it was chartered as a dty. The
city suffered severely in 1874 from a fire started by a fire-cracker
on the 4th of July and from a flood caused by a great rain-storm
on the 26th of the same month, but these calamities were followed
by years of great prosperity and rapid growth. In 1006 the
question of uniting Allegheny with Pittsburg under one municipal
government was submitted to a joint vote of the electorate of the
two cities, in accordance with an act of the state legislature,
which had been passed in February of that year, and a large
majority voted for the union; but there was determined opposi-
tion in Allegheny, every ward of the city voting in the negative;
the constitutionality of the act was challenged; the supreme
court of the state on the nth of March 1007 declared the act
valid, and on the 18th of November 1007 this decision was
affirmed by the Supreme Court of the United States.
See J. E. Parke, RecoUeciums of Seventy Years and Historical
Cleanings of Allegheny, Pennsylvania (Boston, 1886).
ALLEGIANCE (Mid. Eng. Ugeaunce; med. Lat. ligeantia, &c;
the al- was probably added through confusion with another
legal term, allegiance, an allegation; the Fr. atligeance comes
from the English; the word is formed from "liege," of
which the derivation is given under that heading; the con-
nexion with Lat. Ugare, to bind, is erroneous), the duty which a
subject or a citizen owes to the state or to the sovereign of the
state to which he belongs. It is often used by English legal
commentators in a larger sense, divided by them into natural and
local, the latter applying to the deference which even a foreigner
must pay to the institutions of the country in which he happens to
live; but it is in its proper sense, in which it indicates national
character and the subjection due to that character, that the word
h important. In that sense it represents the feudal liege homage,
which could be due only to one lord, while simple homage might
be due to every lord under whom the person in question held
hind. The English doctrine, which was at one time adopted in
the United States, asserted that allegiance was indelible:—
N em potest etuere patriam. Accordingly, as the law stood before
1R70, ever^ person who by birth or naturalization satisfied the
conditions described in the article Auen, though he should be
I. 12*
removed in infancy to another country where his family resided,
owed an allegiance to the British crown which he could never
resign or lose, except by act of parliament or by the recognition
of the independence or the cession of the portion of British
territory in which he resided. By the Naturalization Act 1870,
it was made possible for British subjects to renounce their
nationality and allegiance, and the ways in which that nationality
is lost are defined. So British subjects voluntarily naturalized
in a foreign state are deemed aliens from the time of such
naturalization, unless, in the case of persons naturalized before
the passing of the act, they have declared their desire to remain
British subjects within two years from the passing of the act.
Persons who from having been born within British territory
arc British subjects, but who at birth became under the law of
any foreign state subjects of such state, and also persons who
though born abroad arc British subjects by reason of parentage,
may by declarations of alienage get rid of British nationality.
Emigration to an uncivilized country leaves British nationality
unaffected: indeed the right claimed by all states to follow with
their authority their subjects so emigrating is one of the usual
and recognized means of colonial expansion.
The doctrine that no man can cast off his native allegiance
without the consent of his sovereign was early abandoned in the
United States, and in 1868 congress declared that " the right of
expatriation is a natural and inherent right of all people, in-
dispensable to the enjoyment of the rights of life, liberty and the
pursuit of happiness," and one of " the fundamental principles of
the republic " ( United States Revised Statutes, sec. 1909). Every
citizen of a foreign state in America owes a double allegiance, one
to it and one to the United States. He may be guilty of treason
against one or both. If the demands of these two sovereigns
upon his duty of allegiance come into conflict, those of the
United States have the paramount authority in American law.
The oath of allegiance is an oath of fidelity to the sovereign
taken by all persons holding important public office, and as a
condition of naturalization. By ancient common law it might be
required of all persons above the age of twelve, and it was
repeatedly used as a test for the disaffected. In England it was
first imposed by statute in the reign of Elizabeth (1558) and its
form has more than once been altered since. Up to the time of
the revolution the promise was, " to be true and faithful to the
king and his heirs, and truth and faith to bear of life and limb and
terrene honour, and not to know or hear of any ill or damage
intended him without defending him therefrom." This was
thought to favour the doctrine of absolute non-resistance, and
accordingly the convention parliament enacted the form that has
been in use since that time — " I do sincerely promise and swear
that I will be faithful and bear true allegiance to His Majesty
. . ." (see Oath).
See also the articles Citizen. Naturalization: and Salmond on
" Citizenship and Allegiance," in the Law Quarterly Review (July
1901, January 1902). Quo. W.)
ALLEGORY (aXXoc, other, and ayoptimw, to speak), a figurative
representation conveying a meaning other than and in addition
to the literal. It is generally treated as a figure of rhetoric,
but the medium of representation is not necessarily language.
An -allegory may be addressed to the eye, and is often embodied
in painting, sculpture or some form of mimetic art. The
etymological meaning of the word » wider than that which it
bears in actual use. An allegory is distinguished from a metaphor
by being longer sustained and more fully carried out in its details,
and from an analogy by the fact that the one appeals to the
imagination and the other to the reason. The fable or parable
is a short allegory with one definite moral. The allegory has
been a favourite form in the literature of nearly every nation.
The Hebrew scriptures present frequent instances of it, one of
the most beautiful being the comparison of the history of Israel
to the growth of a vine in the 80th psalm. In classical literature
one of the best known allegories is the story of the stomach and
its members in the speech of Menenius Agrippa (Livy ii. 32);
and several occur in Ovid's Metamorphoses. Perhaps the most
elaborate and the most successful specimens of allegory arc to
690
ALLEGRI— ALLEINE
be found in the works of English authors. Spenser's Faerie
Queene, Swift's Tale of a Tub, Addison's Vision of Mirza, and,
above all, Bunyan's Pilgrim's Progress, are examples that it
would be impossible to match in elaboration, beauty and fitness,
from the literature of any other nation.
ALLEGRI, GREGORIO, Italian priest and musical composer,
probably of the Correggio family, was born at Rome either in
1560 or in 1585. He studied music under G. Maria Nanini, the
intimate friend of Palestrina. Being intended for the church,
he obtained a benefice in the cathedral of F/ermo. Here he
' composed a large number of motets and sacred pieces, which,
being brought under the notice of Pope Urban VIII., obtained
for him an appointment in the choir of the Sistine Chapel at
Rome. He held this from December 1629 till his death on the
1 8th of February 1652. His character seems to have been
singularly pure and benevolent. Among the musical composi-
tions of AUegri were two volumes of concerti, published in 1618
and 1619; two volumes of motets, published in 1620 and 1621;
besides a number of works still in manuscript. He was one of
the earliest composers for stringed instruments, and Kircher has
given one specimen of this class of his works in the Musurgia.
But the most celebrated composition of Allegri is the Miserere,
still annually performed in the Sistine Chapel at Rome. It is
written for two choirs, the one of five and the other of four
voices, and has obtained a celebrity which, if not entirely
factitious, is certainly not due to its intrinsic merits alone.
The mystery in which the composition was long enshrouded,
no single copy being allowed to reach the public, the place and
circumstances of the performance, and the added embellishments
of the singers, account to a great degree for much of the impres-
sive effect of which all who have heard the music speak. This
view b confirmed by the fact that, when the music was performed
at Venice by permission of the pope, it produced so little effect
that the emperor Leopold I., at whose .request the manuscript
had been sent, thought that something else had been substituted.
In spite of the precautions of the popes, the Miserere has long
been public property. In 1769 Mozart (q.v.) heard it and wrote
it down, and in 177 1 a copy was procured and published in
England by Dr Burney. The entire music performed at Rome
in Holy Week, Allegri's Miserere included, has been issued at
Leipzig by Breitkopf and H&rtel. Interesting accounts of the
impression produced by the performance at Rome may be found
in the first volume of Mendelssohn's letters and in Miss Taylor's
Letters from Italy.
ALLEGRO (an Italian word, meaning "cheerful," as in
Milton's poem), a term in music to indicate quick or lively
time, coming between andante and presto; it is frequently
modified by the addition of qualifying words. It is also used
of a separate piece of music, or of a movement in a sonata,
symphony, &c.
ALLEINE, JOSEPH (1634-1668), English Nonconformist
divine, belonged to a family originally settled in Suffolk. As
early as 1430 some of them — sprung of Alan, lord of Buckenhall
—settled in the neighbourhood of Calne and Devizes, whence
descended the immediate ancestors of "worthy Mr Tobie
Alleine of Devizes," father of Joseph, who, the fourth of a large
family, was born at Devizes early in 1634. 164s is marked in
the title-page of a quaint old tractate, by an eye-witness, as the
year of his setting forth in Ike Christian race. His elder brother
Edward had been a clergyman, but in this year died; and Joseph
entreated his father that he might be educated to succeed his
brother in the ministry. In April 1649 he entered Lincoln
College, Oxford, and on the 3rd of November 1651 he became
scholar of Corpus Christi College. On the 6th of July 1653 he
took the degree of B.D., and became a tutor and chaplain of
Corpus Christi, preferring this to a fellowship. In 1654 he had
offers of high preferment in the state, which he declined; but in
1655 George Newton, of the great church of St Mary Magdalene,
Taunton, sought him for assistant and Alleine accepted the
invitation. Almost coincident with his ordination as associate
pastor came his marriage with Theodosia Alleine, daughter of
Richard Alleine. Friendships among " gentle and simple "—
of the former, with Lady Farewell, grand-daughter <rf tit
protector Somerset— bear witness to the attraction of AEcki
private life. His public life was a model of pastoral devtt.2.
This is all the more remarkable as he found time to c»
tinue his studies, one monument of which was his 71*.;.:
Philosophica (a lost MS.), a learned attempt to tomcat
revelation and nature, which drew forth the wonder of Bir/r
Alleine was no mere scholar or divine, but a man who tsstx 1 £
on equal terms with the founders of the Royal Society. T k <y
scientific studies were, however, kept in subordination u b
proper work. The extent of his influence was, in so yo.-{ »
man, unique, resting on the earnestness and force of his aw*
The year 1662 found senior and junior pastors like-mafci
and both were among the two thousand ejected miQBtffv
Alleine, with John Wesley (grandfather of the celebrated J-r
Wesley), also ejected, then travelled about, preaching «bet>?
opportunity was found. For this he was cast into pro-
indicted at sessions, bullied and fined. His Letters frvn Pnsn
were an earlier Cardiphonia than John Newton's. He «$ *
leased on the 26th of May 1664; and in spite of the Coevr&tsi
or Five Mile Act, he resumed his preaching. He found fcasdl
again in prison, and again and again a sufferer. His rtoue-3
years were full of troubles and persecutions nobly bane. t~ 1:
last, worn out by them, he died on the 17th of November itti.
and the mourners, remembering their beloved minister's "ou
while yet with them, " If I should die fifty miles away, to «
be buried at Taunton," found a grave for him in St Mini
chancel. No Puritan nonconformist name is so affectum
cherished as is that of Joseph Alleine. His chief literary «n
was An Alarm to the Unconverted (1672), otherwise know: a
The Sure Guide to Heaven, which had an enormous tirc&Uti*
His Remains appeared in 1674.
See Life, edited by Baxter: Joseph Alleine: his Cmfemm
and Times, by Charles Stanford (1861); Wood's Athenu, * *«
Palmer's None. Mem. iii. 208.
ALLE7NB. RICHARD (1611-1681), English Puritan din*
was born at Ditcheat, Somerset, where his father was rcctx
He was a younger brother of William Alleine, the saintly «**'
Blandford. Richard was educated at St Alban's Hall. Oi&ri
where he was entered commoner in 1627, and whence, am*
taken the degree of B.A., he transferred himself to Ne* ls>
continuing there until he proceeded M.A. On being onbinrd u
became assistant to his father, and immediately stirred the ecn
county by his burning eloquence. In March 1641 be succttdrt
the many-sided Richard Bernard as rector of Batcomb (Sooenrt.
He declared himself on the side of the Puritans by subscrfct
44 The testimony of the ministers in Somersetshire to the trots*
Jesus Christ " and " The Solemn League and Covenant, ' >**
assisted the commissioners of the parliament in their wrk a
ejecting unsatisfactory ministers. Alleine continued for t«e?
years rector of Batcomb and was one of the two thomas*
ministers ejected in 1 662. The Five Mile Art drove him to Irtex
Seiwood, and in that neighbourhood be preached until his to*
on the 22nd of December 168 1. His works are all of a deeply
spiritual character. His Vindiciae Pietatis (which first append
in 1660) was refused licence by Archbishop Sheldon, asd **
published, in common with other nonconformist books, vitfas*>
it It was rapidly bought up and " did much to mend tfcs btf
world." Roger Norton, the king's printer, caused a Urge psrt «
the first impression to be seized on the ground of its not besf
licensed and to be sent to the royal kitchen. Glancing *«*
pages, however, it seemed to him a sin that a book so bor/-**
so saleable— should be destroyed. He therefore bought back u*
sheets, says Calamy, for an old song, bound them and sold ti*
in his own shop. This in turn was complained of , and be •»
to beg pardon on his knees before the council -table; and *
remaining copies were sentenced to be " bisked." or nibbed 0*
with an inky brush, and sent back to the kitchen for ligkuj
fires. Such "bisked "copies occasionally occur still. The bo*
was not killed. It was often reissued with additions, Tkt &*'
Man's Portion in 1663, Heaven Opened in 1666. T** ***
Conquered in 1668. He also published a book of srnno*
ALLEMANDE— ALLEN
691
Godly Fear, in 1664, and other leas noticeable devotional
compilations.
See Calamy. s.v.\ Palmer's Nonconf. Mem. iil 167-16$; C. Stan-
ford's Joseph AUtnu; Researches at Batcomb and Frame Sehoood;
Wood's Atkenae (Bliss), iv. 13.
ALLEMANDE (Fr. (or danse allemande, or German dance), a
name for two kinds of dance, one a German national dance, in 3-4
time, the other somewhat resembling a waltz. The movement in
a sui te following the prelude, and preceding the courante (q.v.) , with
which it is contrasted in rhythm, is also called an allemande, but
has no connexion with the dance. The name, however, is given
to pieces of music based on the dance movement, examples of
which are found in Beethoven's German dances for the orchestra.
ALLEN, ETHAN (1 730-1789), American soldier, was born at
Litchfield, Connecticut, on the xoth of January 1739. He
removed, probably in 1769, to the " New Hampshire Grants,"
where he took up lands, and eventually became a leader of those
who refused to recognize the jurisdiction of New York, and
contended for the organization of the " Grants " into a separate
province. About 1 77 1 he was placed at the head of the " Green
Mountain Boys," an irregular force organized for resistance to
the " Yorkers." On the 10th of May 1775, soon after the out-
break of the War of American Independence, in command of a
force, which he had assisted some members of the Connecticut
assembly to raise for the purpose, he captured Ticonderoga
from its British garrison, calling upon its commanding officer —
according to the unverified account of Allen himself— to surrender
" in the name of the great Jehovah and the Continental Congress."
Seth Warner being elected colonel of the " Green Mountain
Boys" in July 177$, Allen, piqued, joined General Philip
Schuyler, and later with a small command, but without rank,
accompanied General Richard Montgomery's expedition against
Canada. On the 25th of September 1775 near Montreal he was
captured by the British, and until exchanged on the 6th of May
1778 remained a prisoner at Falmouth, England, at Halifax,
Nova Scotia, and in New York. Upon his release he was
brevetted colonel by the Continental Congress. He then, as
brigadier-general of the militia of Vermont, resumed his opposi-
tion to New York, and from 1779 to 1783, acting with his brother,
Ira Allen, and several others, carried on negotiations, indirectly,
with Governor Frederick Haldimand of Canada, who hoped to
win the Vermonters over to the British cause. He seems to have
assured Haldimand's agent that " I shall do everything in my
power to make this state a British province." In March 1781 he
wrote to Congress, with characteristic bluster, " I am as resolutely
determined to defend the independence of Vermont as congress
that of the United States, and rather than fail will retire with the
hardy Green Mountain Boys into the desolate caverns of the
mountains and wage war with human nature at large." He
removed to Burlington, Vermont, in 1787, and died there on
the nth of February 1789. He was, says Tyler, "a blustering
frontier hero — an able-minded ignoramus of rough and ready
humour, of boundless self-confidence, and of a shrewdness in
thought and action equal to almost any emergency." Allen
wrote a Narrative of Colonel Ethan Allen's Captivity (1779), the
most celebrated book in the " prison literature " of the American
revolution; A Vindication of the Inhabitants of Vermont to the
Government of New York and their Right to form an Independent
State (1779); and Reason, the Only Oracle of Man; or A Com-
pendious System of Natural Religion, Alternately adorned with
Confutations of a Variety of Doctrines incompatible with it (1784).
Ethan's youngest brother, Ira Allen (1751-1814), born on the
* 1st of April 1 75 1 at Cornwall, Connecticut, also removed to
the New Hampshire Grants, where he became one of the most
influential political leaders. In 1775 he took part in the capture
of Ticonderoga and the invasion of Canada. He was a member
of the convention which met at Winchester, Vermont, and in
January 1777 declared the independence of the New Hampshire
Grants; served (1 776-1 786) as a member of the Vermont council
of safety; conducted negotiations, on behalf of Vermont, for a
truce with the British and for an exchange of prisoners, in 1781 ;
served for eight terms in the general assembly, and was state
treasurer from 1778 to 1786 and surveyor-general from 1778
to 1787. In 1789, by a gift of £4000, he made possible the
establishment of the university of Vermont, of which institution,
chartered in 1791 and built at Burlington in deference to his
wishes, he was thus virtually the founder. In 1 795, on behalf of
the state, he purchased from the French government arms for
the Vermont militia, of which he was then the ranking major-
general, but he was captured by a British cruiser west of Ireland
on his return journey, was charged with attempting to furnish
insurrectionary Irish with arms, and after prolonged litigation in
the British courts, the case not being finally decided until 1804,
returned to Vermont in 1801. During his absence he had been
dispossessed of his large holdings of land through the operation
of tax laws, and to escape imprisonment for debt, he removed to
Philadelphia, where on the 4th of January 181 4 he died. He
published a dull and biassed, but useful Natural and Political
History of Vermont (1708), reissued (1870) in vol. i. of the
Collections of the Vermont Historical Society.
There is no adequate biography of Ethan Allen, but Henry Hall's
Ethan Allen (New York, 1892) may be consulted. The best literary
estimate may be found in M. C. Tyler's Literary History of the
American Revolution (2 vols., New York, 1897).
ALLEN, GRANT [Chmu.es Grant Blaibfindie], (1848-1899),
English author, son of a clergyman of Irish descent, was born
at Kingston, Ontario, Canada, on the 24th of February 1848.
He was educated partly in America and France, and in England
at King Edward's School, Birmingham, and afterwards at Mcrton,
Oxford. He was for a few years a schoolmaster in Jamaica,
but then made his home in England, where he became prominent
as a writer. He died at his house on Hindhead, Haslemere,
on the 24th of October 1899. Grant Allen was a voluminous
author. He was full of interesting scientific knowledge and had a
gift for expression both in biological exposition and in fiction.
His more purely scientific books (such as Physiological Aesthetics,
1877; The Evolutionist at Large, 1881; The Evolution of the Idea
of Cod, 1897) contain much original matter, popularly expressed,
and he was a cultured exponent of the evolutionary idea in
various aspects of biology and anthropology. He first attracted
attention as a novelist with a sensational story, The Devil's Die
(1888), though this was by no means his first attempt at fiction;
and The Woman who Did (1895), which had a succis de seandale
on account of its treatment of the sexual problem, had for the
moment a number of cheap imitators. Other volumes flowed
from his pen, and his name became well known in contemporary
literature. But his reputation was essentially contemporary
and characteristic of the vogue peculiar to the journalistic type.
ALLEN, JAMES LANE (1850- ), American novelist, was
born near Lexington, Kentucky, on the 21st of December 1850.
He graduated at Kentucky University, Lexington, in 1872,
taught at Fort Spring, Kentucky, at Richmond and at Lexington,
Missouri, and from 1877 to 1879 at the academy of Kentucky
University, where he was principal and taught modern languages;
in 1880 he was professor of Latin and English at Bethany College,
Bethany, West Virginia; and then became head of a private
school at Lexington, Kentucky. Subsequently he gave up teach-
ing, went to New York City, where he secured commissions for
sketches of the " Blue Grass " region, and thereafter devoted
himself to literature. His Choir Invisible, coming after other
successful stories, made his name well known in England as well
as America. His published works include: With Flute and
Violin (1891), The Blue Crass Region (1892), John Gray (1893),
A Kentucky Cardinal (1894), Aftermath (1895), A Summer in
A ready ( 1 896) , The Choir Invisible ( 1 897) , The Reign of Law ( 1 900),
TheMcttle 0) the Pasture ( 1 903) ,and The Bride of Ike Mistletoe ( 1 909.)
ALLEN, JOHN (14 76- 1534), English divine, after studying
at both Oxford and Cambridge, was sent by Archbishop Warham
on an ecclesiastical mission to Rome. On his return he held a
number of livings in succession, and in 1516 was rector of South
Ockenden, Essex, and prebendary of Lincoln Cathedral. In
the suppression of the minor monasteries in 1524-1525 he gave
Wolaey much assistance, and became prebendary of Nottingham
in 1526 and of St Paul's, London, in 1527. These prebends he
resigned in 1528 on his election as archbishop of Dublin. For
692
ALLEN
four yean he wis chancellor of Ireland but hit career was full
of trouble. In 1531 he was fined under the Statutes of Provisors
and Praemunire, and in 1534 met a violent death at the hands
of Lord Thomas Fitzgerald's followers.
ALLEN, or Alleyn, THOMAS (1 542-1632), English mathe-
matician, was born at Uttoxeter in Staffordshire on the 21st of
December 154a. He was admitted scholar of Trinity College,
Oxford, in 1561; and graduated as M.A. in 1567. In 1580 he
quitted his college and fellowship, retired to Gloucester Hall,
and became famous for his knowledge of antiquity, philosophy
and mathematics. Having received an invitation from Henry
Percy, earl of Northumberland, a great friend and patron of men
of science, he spent some time at the earl's house, where he became
acquainted with Thomas Harriot, John Dee and other famous
mathematicians. He was also intimate with Sir Robert Cotton,
William Camden, and their antiquarian associates. Robert
Dudley, carl of Leicester, had a particular esteem for Allen,
and would have conferred a bishopric upon him, but his love of
solitude made him decline the offer. His great skill in mathe-
matics and astrology earned him the credit oC being a magician;
and the author of Leicester's Commonwealth accuses him of
employing the art of " figuring " to further the earl of Leicester's
unlawful designs, and of endeavouring by the black art to bring
about a match between his patron and Queen Elizabeth. Allen
was indefatigable in collecting scattered manuscripts relating
to history, antiquity, astronomy, philosophy and mathematics.
A considerable part of his collection was presented to the Bodleian
library by Sir Kenelm Digby. He died on the 30th of September
1632 at Gloucester Hall. He published in Latin the second and
third books of Claudius Ptolemy oj Pelusium, Concerning Ike
Judgment of the Stars, or t as it is commonly called, of the Quadri-
partite Construction, with an Exposition. He also wrote notes on
John Bale's De Scriptoribus M. Britannia*.
ALLEN, WILLIAM (1532*1504). English cardinal, born at
Rossall, Lancashire, went in 1547 to Oriel College, Oxford, and in
1 556 became principal of St Mary Hall and proctor. According
to Anthony Wood, he was appointed to a canonry at York in or
about 1558; he therefore had already entered the clerical state
by receiving the tonsure. On the accession of Elizabeth, he was
deprived upon refusing the oath of supremacy, but remained in
the university until 1561. His known opposition to the new
learning in religion giving much offence, he escaped from
England and went to Louvain, where were gathered many
students who had left the English universities for conscience'
sake. Here he continued his theological studies and began to
write controversial treatises. In 1562, on account of health, he
returned secretly to Lancashire and did much, by exhortation and
private meetings, to restrain those Catholics who attended the
new services in order to save their property from confiscation.
His presence being known to the government, he left Lancashire
and retired to the neighbourhood of Oxford, which he frequently
visited, and where he influenced many of the students. After
writing a treatise in defence of the priestly power to remit sins,
he was obliged to leave and retired to Norfolk, leaving England
soon after in 1565. He returned to Flanders, was ordained at
Malines, and began to lecture in theology at the Benedictine
college in that city. In 1 567 he went to Rome for the first time,
and there began his plan for establishing a college where English
students could live together and finish their theological course.
The idea subsequently developed into the establishing of a
missionary college, or seminary, to keep up a supply of priests for
England as long as the country remained separated from the
Holy See. With the help of friends, and notably of the Bene-
dictine abbots of the neighbouring monasteries, a college was
established at Douai (September 29, 1568); and here Allen
was joined by many of the English exiles. This college, the first
of the seminaries ordered by the council of Trent, received the
papa) approval shortly after its establishment; the king of Spain
took it under his protection and assigned it an annual grant.
Allen continued his own theological studies and, after taking his
doctorate, became regius professor at the university. Gregory
XIII. in 1575 granted him a monthly pension of too golden
crowns, and, as the number of students had now risen to «
hundred and twenty, summoned him to Rome to undertake tfc
establishing of a similar college in the papal city. By ASe**
advice, the old English hospice was turned into * seminary xa.
Jesuits were placed there to help Dr Maurice Oennock. the rer:r
The pope appointed Allen to a canonry in Courtrai mod seat kx
back to Douai (July 1576); but here he had to face a sn
difficulty. Besides the reported plots to assassinate br. i*
agents of the English government, the insurgents against Sea?
urged on by Elizabeth's emissaries, expelled the students i^e
Douai as being partisans of the enemy (March 157S). AIt.
moved his establishment to Reims under the protection d M
house of Guise; and it was here that the English translate 31
the Scriptures, known as the Douai Version, was begun under ks
direction (see Bible, English). In 1577 he began acorrespec*
ence with Robert Parsons (q.v.) t the Jesuit, an intimacy thai «a
fraught with disaster. He was summoned again to Roar 2
1579 to quell the first of the many disturbances that befell &
English college under the Jesuit influence. Brought bow b*
personal contact with Parsons, Allen fell completely under - w
dominating personality of the redoubtable Jesuit, and gir
himself up entirely to his influence. He arranged that l*
Society should take over the English college at Rome and sheas
begin the Jesuit mission to England (1580). This short -**Va.
policy was the cause of much grave trouble in the near fotsn
Returning to Reims he began to take a part in all the poLt -3.
intrigues which Parsons' fertile brain had hatched for the :'-
motion of the Spanish interest in England. Allen's pc«to.
career dates from this period. Parsons had already intc*<k-J -
remove Allen from the seminary at Reims, and for this purpn.
as far back as the 6th of April 1581, had recommended hes '.
Philip II. to be promoted to the cardinalate. In furtherance i
the intrigues, Allen and Parsons went to Rome again in 1585*^
there Allen was kept for the rest of his life. Ins 587, during cfe
time that he was being skilfully played with by Philip's agrsn
he wrote, helped by Parsons, a shameless defence of a shairru
deed. Sir William Stanley, an English officer, had surrender*!
Devcnter to the Spaniards; and Allen wrote a book in defence *
Stanley, saying that all Englishmen were bound, under pais J
damnation, to follow the traitorous example, as Elizabeth «a»r;
lawful queen. He shared in all the projects for the auvasn d
England, and was to have been archbishop of Canterbury vd
lord chancellor had they succeeded. Representing in ttLaj
only his own party, Allen had on the continent the position of •**
head of the Roman Catholics of England; and as such, just * f »r
the death of Mary, queen of Scots, he wrote to Philip II. (Mar*
10, 1587) to exhort him to undertake the enterprise aga.=^
England, and declared that the Catholics there were cbir v-
ing for the king to come and punish " this woman, hated by G*
and man." After much negotiation, he was made cardinal fc*
Sixtus V. on the 7th of August 1587, nominally to supply the lat
of the queen of Scotland, but in reality to ensure the sneers «■
the Armada. On his promotion Allen wrote to Reims that hr
owed the hat, under God, to Parsons. One of his first acts »»
to issue, under his own name, two violent works for the purpc*
of inciting the Catholics of England to rise against Etbabe* k
" The Declaration of the Sentence of Sixtus V." a broadsidr.
and a book, An Admonition to the nobility and people 0/ Emgteat
(Antwerp, 1 588) . On the failure of the Armada, Philip, to get ts
of the burthen of supporting Allen as a cardinal, nominated fc -
to the archbishopric of Malines, but the canonical appointcrer
was never made. Gregory XIV. made him librarian »t tk
Vatican, and he served on the commission for the revision of tk
Vulgate. He took part in four conclaves, but never had a~«
real influence after the failure of the Armada. Before his dci>
which took place in Rome on the 16th of October 1504. he fevsz
reasons to change his mind concerning the wisdom of the Jr?. '
politics in Rome and England, and would have tried to curb the'
activities, had he been spared. The rift became so great that tea
years after his death, Agaxaari could write to Parsons: '* So Jar*
as Allen walked in this matter (the scheme for Engtand\ in ur«r
with and fidelity to the Company, as he used to do. God prescrwc'
ALLEN— ALLESTREE
693
him, prospered and exalted him; but when he began to leave
this path, in a manner, the threads of his plans and life were cut
short together." As a cardinal Alien had lived in poverty and
he died in debt
While we cannot withhold a tribute of respect from Allen for his
seal and earnestness, and recognize that his foundation at Douai
survives to-day in the two Catholic colleges at Ushaw and Ware,
it is impossible to deny that he injured the work with which his
name will ever be associated, by his disastrous intercourse with
Father Parsons. Known as a sharer in that plotter's schemes,
he gave a reasonable pretext to Elizabeth's government for
regarding the seminaries as hotbeds of sedition. That they were
not so is abundantly proved. The superiors kept their political
actions secret from the students, and would not allow such matters
even to be talked about or treated as theoretical abstractions in
the schools. Dr Barrett, writing (April 14, 1583) to Parsons,
makes open complaint of Allen's secrecy and refusal to com-
municate. How far Allen was really admitted to the full con-
fidence of Parsons is a question; and his later attitude to the
Society goes to prove that he at last realized that he had been
tricked. Like James n. with Fr. Petre, Allen had been " be-
witched " for a time and only recovered himself when too late.
AUTHOaiTLPs.— T\ F, Kn<n> Letters and Memorials of L rdinal
Alien (London. iBfla): A. Bdletheim, \V\lhtlm Cardinal Ai n und
die engluchen Seminare asj dem Fesilande (Mainr^ 1885); I st and
Second Diaries of the English College, Douai (London. 1 878);
Nicholas Fftahertwtrt, Dt Artiiquitate el continuation* rtti?: lis in
A nglia et de Alani Cardinal ii vita libeUns (Romt, 160K) ; E. la inton,
History ojf the Jesuits in England (London, Ipol ) ; Tculet, vol.
the Spanish Sbite Papers (Sinn* nam), vols, di and iv.- - ,; -
A !!«._'. —--i.. j. ..-...- fc_ 1 r-'it*... cr._, >.lv^^i< m.
ji. v.,
list of
Aliens works U given in L Gjjtow, Biographical Diitvr try of
adcf his
English CaUu:^s f » , ._ name. (£. Tn.)
ALLEN, WILLIAM FRANCIS (1830-1880), American classical
scholar, was born at Northborough, Massachusetts, on the 5th of
September 1830. He graduated at Harvard College in 1851 and
subsequently devoted himself almost entirely to literary work
and teaching. In 1867 he became professor of ancient languages
and history (afterwards Latin language and Roman history) in
the university of Wisconsin. He died in December 1889. His
contributions to classical literature chiefly consist of schoolbooks
published in the Allen (his brother) and Greenough series. The
Collection of Slave Songs (1867), of which he was joint-editor, was
the first work of the kind ever published.
ALLEN, BOO OF, the name given to a congeries of morasses
in Kildare, King's County, Queen's County and Westmeath,
Ireland. Clane Bog, the eastern extremity, is within 17 m. of
Dublin, and the morasses extend westward almost to the Shannon.
Their total area is about 238,500 acres. They do not form one
continuous bog, the tract of the country to which the name is
given being intersected by strips of dry cultivated land. The
rivers Brosna, Barrow and Boyne take their rise in these
morasses, and the Grand and Royal canals cross them. The
Bog of Allen has a general elevation of 250 ft. above sea level,
and the average thickness of the peat of which it consists is
as ft. I t rest s on a subsoil of clay and marl.
ALLENSTEIN, a garrison town of Germany, in the province of
East Prussia, on the river Alle, 100 m. by rail N.E. from Thorn,
and 30 m. from the Russian frontier. Pop. (1000) 24,295. It
has a medieval castle, several churches, a synagogue and various
industries—iron-foundries, saw-mills, brick-works, and breweries;
also an extensive trade in cereals and timber.
ALLENTOWN, a city and the county-seat of Lehigh county,
Pennsylvania, U.S.A., on the Lehigh river, about 62 m. N.N.W.
of Philadelphia. Pop. (x8oo) 25,228; (xooo) 35416, of whom
2994 were foreign-born, 1065 being of German birth; (1910)
51.913. It is served by the Central of New Jersey, the
Lehigh Valley, the Perkiomen (of the Reading system)
and the Philadelphia & Reading railways. The city is situated
on high ground sloping gently towards the river and commanding
diversi6ed views of the surrounding country. Hamilton Street,
the principal business thoroughfare, extends over 2 m. from E.
to W. , and in what was once thecentre of the city is Centre Square,
in which there is a monument to the memory of the soldiers and
sailors who fell in the Civil War. AUentown is the seat of a state
homoeopathic hospital for the insane, of the AUentown College for
Women (Reformed Church, 1867), and of Muhlenberg College
(1867), an Evangelical Lutheran institution which grew out of the
AUentown Seminary (established in 1848 and incorporated as
the " AUentown Collegiate Institute and Military Academy " in
1864); in 1007 the college had 191 students, of whom 109 were
in the AUentown Preparatory School (1904), formerly the
academic department of the college and still closely affiliated
with it. The surrounding country is well adapted to agriculture,
and slate, iron ore, cement rock and limestone are found in the
vicinity. AUentown is an important manufacturing centre,
and the value of its manufactured products increased 90 9 %
from 1800 to 1900, and of its factory product 13*2 % between
1900 and 1905. In 1905 the city ranked sixth among the cities
of the country in the manufacture of silk and silk goods, its most
important industry. Other important manufactures are iron
and steel, slaughtering and meat-packing products, boots and
shoes, cigars, furniture, men's clothing, hosiery and knit goods,
jute and jute goods, linen-thread, malt liquors, brick, cement,
barbed wire, wire nails.and planing-miU products. AUentown's
total factory product in 1905 was valued at $16,966,550, of
which $3,001,249, or 23 %, was the value of silk and silk goods.
The municipality owns and operates its water-works. AUentown
was first settled in 1751; in 1762 it was laid out as a town by
James Allen, the son of a chief -justice of the province, in honour
of whose family the city is named; in 181 1 it was incorporated
as a borough and its name was changed to Northampton; in
1812 it was made the county-seat; in 1838 the present name
was again adopted; and in 1867 the first city charter was secured.
The silk industry was introduced in 188 x.
ALLEPPI, or Aulafalay, a seaport of southern India, in the
state of Travancore, 33 m. south of Cochin, situated on a strip
of coast between the sea and one of those backwaters that here
form the chief means of inland communication. Pop. (1901)
24,918. There is a lighthouse, 85 ft. high, with a revolving white
light visible 18 m. out at sea. Though the third town in the
state in point of population, AUeppi is the first in commercial
importance. It commands a fine harbour, affording safe anchorage
for the greater part of the year. It was opened to foreign trade
towards the latter end of the 18th century. The exports con-
sist of coffee, pepper, cardamoms and coco-nuts. There are
factories for coir-matting. The raja has a palace, and Protestant
missionaries have a church.
ALLESTREE, or Allestby, RICHARD (1619-1681), royalist
divine and provost of Eton College, son of Robert AUestree,
and a descendant of an ancient Derbyshire family, was born at
Uppington in Shropshire. He was educated at Coventry and
later at Christ Church, Oxford, under Richard Busby. He
entered as a commoner in 1636, was made student shortly after-
wards, and took the degree of B.A. in 1640 and of M.A. in 1643.
In 1642 he took up arms for the king under Sir John Biron. On
the arrival of the parliamentary forces soon afterwards in Oxford
he secreted the Christ Church valuables, and the soldiers found
nothing in the treasury " except a single groat and a halter in the
bottom of a large iron chest." He escaped severe punishment
only by the hasty retirement of the army from the town. He
was present at the battle of EdgehiU in October 1642, after which,
wMle hastening to Oxford to prepare for the king's visit to Christ
Church, he was captured by a troop of Lord Say's soldiers from
Broughton House, being soon afterwards set free on the surrender
of the place to the king's forces. In 1643 he was again under
arms, performing " aU duties of a common soldier " and " fre-
quently holding his musket in one hand and his book in the other."
At the close of the Civil War, he returned to his studies, took
holy orders, was made censor and became a " noted tutor."
But he still remained an ardent royalist. He voted for the
university decree against the Covenant, and, refusing submission
to the parliamentary visitors in 1648, he was expeUed. He found
a retreat as chaplain in the house of the Hon. Francis Newport,
afterwards Viscount Newport, in whose interests he undertook
a journey to France. On his return he joined two of his friends,
Dolben and FeU, afterwards respectively archbishop of York
694
ALLEY— ALL FOURS
and bishop of Oxford, then resident tt Oxford, and later joined
the household of Sir Antony Cope of Hanwell, near Banbury.
He was now frequently employed in carrying despatches between
(he king and the royalists in England. In May 1659 he brought
a command from Charles in Brussels, directing the bishop of
Salisbury to summon all those bishops, who were then alive, to
consecrate clergymen to various sees " to secure a continuation
of the order in the Church of England," then in danger of becom-
ing extinct. 1 While returning from one of these missions, in
the winter before the Restoration, he was arrested at Dover
and committed a prisoner to Lambeth Palace, then used as a
gaol for apprehended royalists, but was liberated after confine-
ment of a few weeks at the instance, among others, of Lord
Shaftesbury. At the Restoration he became canon of Christ
Church, D.D. and city lecturer at Oxford. In 1663 he was made
chaplain to the king and regius professor of divinity. In 1665
he was appointed provost of Eton College, and proved himself
a capable administrator. He introduced order into the dis-
organized finances of the college and procured the confirmation
of Laud's decree, which reserved five of the Eton fellowships
for members of King's College. His additions to the college
buildings were less successful; for the " Upper School," con-
structed by him at his own expense, was falling into ruin almost
in his lifetime, and was replaced by the present structure in
1689. Allestrce died on the 28th of January 1681, and was
buried in the chapel at Eton College, where there is a Latin
inscription to his memory. His writings are.' — The Privileges of
Ike University of Oxford in point of Visitation (1647) — * tract
answered by Prynne in the University of Oxford's Plea Rejected;
18 sermons whereof 1$ preached before the king . . . (1669); 40
sermons whereof 21 are now first published ... (2 vols., 1684);
sermons published separately including A Sermon on Acts xiii. 2,
(1660); A Paraphrase and Annotations upon all the Epistles of
St Paid (joint author with Abraham. Woodhead and Obadiah
Walker, 1675, »*e edition of 1853 and preface by W. Jacobson).
In the Cases of Conscience by J. Barlow, Bishop of Lincoln (169a),
Allestree's judgment on Mr Cottington's Case of Divorce is in-
cluded. A share in the composition, if not the sole authorship,
of the books published under the name of the author of the
Whole Duty of Man has been attributed to Ailestree (Nichols's
Anecdotes , ii. 603), and the tendency of modern criticism is to
regard him as the author. His lectures, with which he was
dissatisfied, were not published. Ailestree was a man of extensive
learning, of moderate views and a fine preacher. He was generous
and charitable, of " a. solid and masculine kindness," and of a
temper hot, but completely under control.
Authorities.— Wood's Athenae Oxonienses (edited by Bliss), iii.
1369; Wood's Fasti, i. 480, 514, ii. 57, 241, 370; Richard Ailestree,
40 sermons, with biographical preface by Dr John Fell (2 vols., 1684) :
Sufferings of the Clergy, by John Walker; Architectural History of
Eton and Cambridge, by R. Willis, t. 420; Hist, of Eton College, by
Sir H. C. Maxwell-Lyte; Hist, of Eton College, by Lionel Cust (1899) ;
Egerton M SS., Brit. Mui 3807 f. 197 b. For Allestree's authorship
of the Whole Duty of Man, see Rev. F. Barham, Journal of Sacred
Literature, July 1864, and C. E. Doble'a articles in the Academy,
November 1884. (P. C. Y.)
ALLEY (from the Fr. alUe, a walk), a narrow passage-
way between two buildings available only for foot passengers
or hand-carts, sometimes entered only at one end and known
as a " blind alley," or cul-de-sac. The name is also given to
the long narrow enclosures where bowls or skittles are played.
ALLEYN, EDWARD (1566-1626), English actor and founder
of Dulwich College, was born in London on the 1st of September
1566, the son of an innkeeper. It is not known at what date he
began to act, but he certainly gained distinction in his calling
while a young man, for in 1586 his name was on the list of the
earl of Worcester's players, and he was eventually rated by
common consent as the foremost actor of his time. Ben Jonson,
a critic little prone to exalt the merits of men of mark among
his contemporaries, bestowed unstinted praise on Alleyn's
acting (Epigrams, No. 89). Nash expresses in prose, in Pierce
Penniless, his admiration of him, while- Heywood calls him
1 Egerton MSS., Brit. Mus. 2807 f. 197 b; Life of Dr John
Barmick, ed. by G. F. Barwtck (1903). pp. 107, 129, 134.
"illimitable," " the best of actors," " Proteus (or skips*
Roscius for a tongue." Alleyn inherited house propel? &
Bishopsgate from his father. His marriage on the and ■
October 1592 with Joan Woodward, stepdaughter of P£*
Henslowe, brought him eventually more wealth. He beaa
part owner in Henslowe's ventures, and in the end sok p»
prietor of several play-houses and other profitable pbut
resorts. Among these were the Rose Theatre it Basks*,
the Paris Garden and the Fortune Theatre in St Luke't-t
latter occupied by the earl of Nottingham's company, of »*.i
Alleyn was the head. He filled, too, in conjunctioe » -
Henslowe, the post of " master of the king's games of boi
bulls and dogs." On some occasions he directed the spens
person, and Stow in his Chronicles gives an account 0/ be*
Alleyn baited a lion before James I. at the Tower.
Alleyn's connexion with Dulwich began in 1605, vsa *
bought the manor of Dulwich from Sir Francis Calton. T*
landed property, of which the entire estate had not pissed re
Alleyn's hands earlier than 1614, stretched from the ere: a
that range of Surrey hills on whose summit now stands &
Crystal Palace, to the crest of the parallel ridge, three tjs
nearer London, known in its several portions as Heme EU
Denmark Hill and Champion Hill. Alleyn acquired thd te
property for little more than £10,000. He had barely ga: M
possession, however, before the question how to dispose of s
began to occupy him. He was still childless, after tweaty vets
of wedded life. Then it was that the prosperous player-*
man " so acting to the life that he made any part to becoat
him " (Fuller, Worthies)— began the task of building and cry-
ing in his own lifetime the College of God's Gift at DtM
All was completed in 161 7 except the charter or deed of >
corporation for setting his lands in mortmain. Tedious ddr*
occurred in the Star Chamber, where Lord Chancellor to
was scheming to bring the pressure of kingly authority tc bo:
on Alleyn with the aim of securing a large portion of the prepd
endowment for the maintenance of lectureships at Oxford isd
Cambridge. Alleyn finally carried his point and the CoBep >
God's Gift at Dulwich was founded, and endowed under k:uo
patent of James I., dated the 21st of June 1619. The btuist
had been already begun in 161 3 (see Dulwich). Alleys**
never a member of his own foundation, but he continued to£
close of his life to guide and control its affairs under pc*"
reserved to himself in the letters patent. His diary show*^
he mixed much and intimately in the life of the college Jin
of the jottings in that curious record of daily doings and Judder
favour the inference that he was a genial, kind, amisbk 1^
religious man. His fondness for his old profession is indkirt
by the fact that he engaged the boys in occasional ibntK*
performances. At a festive gathering on the 6th of Jica?
1622 " the boyes play'd a playe."
Alleyn's first wife died in 1623. The same year he mv?*f
Constance, daughter of John Donne, the poet and deafl «' *
Paul's. Alleyn died in November 1626 and was buried in *>
chapel of the college which he had founded. His gravest**
fixes the day of his death as the 21st, but there are growls k'
the belief that it was the 25th. A portrait of the actor is present
at Dulwich. Alleyn was a member of the corporation of *****
of St Saviour's, Southwark, in 1610, and there is a nestf*
window to him in the cathedral.
ALL FOURS, a card game (known also in America as St*»
Up, Old Sledge or Higk-Low-Jock) usually played by 1*
players, though four may play. A full pack is used and a?
player receives seven counters. Four points can be seer?:
one each for high, the highest trump out, for lev, the to**
trump dealt, for Jack, the knave of trumps, and for game, t*
majority of pips in the cards of the tricks that a player has «*
Ace counts 4, King 3, Queen 2, Knave 1, and ten 10 potf&
Low is scored by the person to whom it is dealt; Higk of «tf<
wins a trick; Jack is scored by the player who finally has «•
among his tricks. If Jack is turned up the dealer scores tit
point. A player who plays a high or low trump b entfikd »
ask if they are High or Low. The game is 10 or 1 1 poiats. §a
ALLIA— ALLIER
695
amis are dealt to each, the thirteenth being turned up for trumps.
The non-dealer may propose or beg if he does not like his hand.
if the dealer refuses the elder hand scores a point; if be con-
tents he gives and takes three more cards, the seventh being
turned up for trumps, which must be of a different suit from the
original trump card; otherwise six more cards are dealt out,
and so on till a fresh trump suit appears. The non-dealer then
leads; the other must trump or follow suit, or forfeit a point.
Jack may be played to any trick. Each pair of cards is a trick,
and is collected by the winner. A fresh deal may be claimed if
the dealer exposes one of his adversary's cards, or if he gives
himself or his adversary too few or too many. In that case the
error must be discovered before a card is played (see also
Auction Pitch).
ALLIA (mod. Fotso Bettina), a small tributary of the river
Tiber, joining it on the left (east) bank, about ix m. N. of Rome.
It gave its name to the terrible defeat which the Romans suffered
at the hands of the Gauls on the x8th of July 390 B.C. Livy
(v. 37) and Diodorus (v. 114) differ with regard to the site of
the battle, the former putting it on the left, the latter on the
right bank of the Tiber. Mommsen and others support Diodorus,
but the question still remains open.
See T. Athby in Papers of the British School at Rome, ill 24.
ALLIANCE, a city of Stark county, Ohio, U. S. A., on the
Mahoning river, about 57 m. S.E. of Cleveland, about 1080 ft.
above the sea, and about 505 ft. above the level of Lake Erie.
Pop. (1800) 7607; (1000) 8974, of whom 1029 were foreign-
born: (19x0, census) 15,083. It is served by the Pennsylvania
and the. Lake Erie, Alliance & Wheeling railways, and by an
electric line connecting with Canton and Salem. The city is the
seat of Mount Union College (Methodist Episcopal), opened in
1846 as a preparatory school and having in 1907 a library of
about 10,000 volumes, a collegiate department (opened in 1858),
a normal department (1858), a school of music (1855), a com-
mercial school (x868), a faculty of 39 teachers, and an enrolment
of 534 students, of whom 374 were women. Among the manu-
factures of Alliance are structural iron, steel castings, pressed
sheet steel, gun carriages, boilers, travelling cranes, pipe organs,
street-car indicators, sashes and doors, and account registers and
other material for file and cabinet-bookkeeping. The municipality
owns and operates its water-works. Alliance was first settled in
X838, when it was laid out as a town and was named Freedom;
it was named Alliance in 185.1, was incorporated as a village in
1854, and became a city of the second class in x888.
ALLIANCE, in international law, a league between independent
states, defined by treaty, for the purpose of combined action,
defensive or offensive, or both. Alliances have usually been
directed to specific objects carefully defined in the treaties.
Thus the Triple Alliance of 1688 between Great Britain, Sweden
and the Netherlands, and the Grand Alliance of 1689 between
the emperor, Holland, England, Spain and Saxony, were both
directed against the power of Louis XIV. The Quadruple or
Grand Alliance of 18x4, defined in the treaty of Chaumont,
between Great Britain, Austria, Russia and Prussia, had for its
object the overthrow of Napoleon and his dynasty, and the
confining of France within her traditional boundaries. The
Triple Alliance of 1883 between Germany, Austria and Italy was.
ostensibly directed to the preservation of European peace against
any possible aggressive action of France or Russia; and this led
in turn, some ten years later, to the Dual Alliance between
Russia and France, for mutual support in case of any hostile
action of the other powers. Occasionally, however, attempts
have been made to give alliances a more general character.
Thus the " Holy Alliance " (q.v.) of the 36th of September x8is
was an attempt, inspired by the religious idealism of the emperor
Alexander L of Russia, to find in the " sacred precepts of the
Gospel " a common basis for a general league of the European
governments, its object being, primarily, the preservation of
peace. So, too, by Article VI. of the Quadruple Treaty signed at
Paris on the 20th of November 1815— which renewed that of
Chaumont and was again renewed, in 18x8, at A ix- la -Chape He—
the scope of the Grand Alliance was extended to Objects of
common interest not specifically defined in the treaties. The
article runs:—" In order to consolidate the intimate tie which
unites the four sovereigns for the happiness of the world, the
High Contracting Powers have agreed to renew at fixed intervals,
either under their own auspices or by their respective ministers,
meetings consecrated to great common objects and to the
examination of such measures as at each one of these epochs
shall be judged most salutary for the peace and prosperity of
the nations and the maintenance of the tranquillity of Europe."
It was this article of the treaty of the aoth of November 1815,
rather than the " Holy Alliance," that formed the basis of the
serious effort made by the great powers, between 1815 and 1823,
to govern Europe in concert, which will be found outlined in
the article on the history of Europe. In general it proved that
an alliance, to be effective, must be clearly defined as to its
objects, and that in the long run the treaty in which these objects
are defined must — to quote Bismarck's somewhat cynical dictum
— " be reinforced by the interests " of the parties concerned.
Yet the " moral alliance " of Europe, as Count Nesselrode called
it, though it failed to secure the permanent harmony of the
powers, was an effective instrument for peace during the years
immediately following the downfall of Napoleon; and it set the
precedent for those periodical meetings of the representatives of
the powers, for the discussion and settlement of questions of
international importance, which, though cumbrous and inefficient
for constructive work, have contributed much to the preservation
of the general peace (see Etoofe: History). (W. A. P.)
ALLIARIA OFFICINALIS, also known botanically as Sisym-
brium AUiaria, and popularly as garlic-mustard, Jack-by-the-
hedge, or sauce-alone, a common hedge-bank plant belonging to
the natural order Cruciferae. It is a rankly scented herb, 3 to 3
ft. high, with long-sulked, coarsely-toothed leaves, and small
white flowers which are succeeded by stout long four-sided pods.
It is widely spread through the north temperate region of the
Old World.
ALLIBONB, SAMUEL AUSTIN (1816-1889), American author
and bibliographer, was born in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, on
the 17th of April 1816, of French Huguenot and Quaker ancestry.
He was privately educated and for many years was engaged in
mercantile business in his native city. He, however, devoted
himself chiefly to reading and to bibliographical research;
acquired a very unusual knowledge of English and American
literature, and is remembered as the compiler of the mell-known
Critical Dictionary of English Literature and British and A merican
Authors (3 vols.: voL i. 1854, vols. ii. and iii. 1871). To this,
two supplementary volumes, edited by John Foster Kirk, were
added in 1801. From 1867 to 1873, and again in 1877-1879,
Allibone was book editor and corresponding secretary of the
American Sunday School Union; and from 1879 to 1888 he was
librarian of the Lenox Library, New York City. He died at
Lucerne, Switzerland, on the 2nd of September 1889. In addition
to his Critical Dictionary he published three large anthologies
and several religious tracts.
See the " Memoir " by S. D. M'Connell, an address delivered before
the Historical Society of Philadelphia (Philadelphia, 1890).
ALLIER (anc. Elovcr), a river of central France flowing into
the Loire. It rises in the department of Lozere, among the
Margeride mountains, a few miles east of the town of Mende.
The upper course of the Allier separates the mountains of the
Margeride from those of the Velay and lies for the most part
through deep gorges. The river then traverses the plains of
Langeac and Brioude, and receives the waters of the Alagnon
some miles above the town of Issoire. Swelled by torrents from
the mountains of Dore and Dome, it unites with the river Dore at
its entrance to the department to which it gives its name. It
then flows through a wide but shallow channel, joining the
Sioulesome distance above Moulins, the chief town on its banks.
It soon after becomes the boundary line between the departments
of Cher and Nievre, and reaches the Loire 4 m. west of Nevers,
after a course of 369 m. Its basin has an area of 6755 sq. m.
The Allier is classed as navigable for the last 154 m. of its course,
but there is little traffic on.it.
696
ALLIER— ALLISON
ALLIER, a department of central France, formed in 1790
from the old province of Bourbonnais. Pop. (1906) 417.961.
Area, 2849 sq. m. It is bounded N. by the department of Nfevre,
E. by Saone-et-Loire,from which it is divided by the river Loire,
S.E. by Loire, S. by Puy-de-D6me, S.W. by Creuse and N.W.
by Cher. Situated on the northern border of the Central Plateau,
the department slopes from south to north. Its highest altitudes
are found in the south-east, in the Bois-Noirs, where one point
reaches 4239 ft, and in the Moots de la Madeleine. Plains
alternating with forests occupy the northern zone of the depart-
ment, while the central and western regions form an undulating
and well-watered plateau. Entering the department in the south,
and, like the other chief rivers, flowing almost due north, the
Allier drains the central district, receiving on iU left the Sioule.
East of the Allier b the Bebre, which joins the Loire within the
limits of the department; and on the west the Cher, with its
tributary the Aumance. Rigorous and rainy in the south-east,
the climate elsewhere is milder though subject to sudden varia-
tions. Agriculturally the department is flourishing, the valleys
of the Allier and the Sioule known as the Limagne Bourbonnaise
comprising its most fertile portion. Wheat, oaU, barley and
other cereals are grown and exported, and owing to the abundance
of pasture and forage, sheep and cattle-rearing are actively
carried on. Potatoes and mangels yield good crops. Wines of
fair quality are grown in the valley of the Sioule; walnuts,
chestnuts, plums, apples and pears are principal fruits. Goats,
from the milk of which choice cheese is made, and pigs are plenti-
ful. A large area is under forests, the oak, beech, fir, birch and
hornbeam being the principal trees. The mineral waters at
Vichy (?.».), N6ris, Theneuille, Cusset and Bourbon l'Archam-
bault are in much repute. The mineral wealth of the department
is considerable, including coal as well as manganese and bitu-
minous schist; plaster, building stone and hydraulic lime are
also produced. Manufactories of porcelain, glass and earthen-
ware are numerous. Montlucon and Commentry are iron-
working centres. There are flour mills, breweries and saw-mills;
and paper, chemicals, wooden shoes, wool and woollen goods are
produced. Besides the products of the soil Allier exports coal,
mineral waters and cattle for the Paris market. Building
materials, brandy and coal are among the imports. The railways
belong chiefly to the Orleans and Paris-Lyons-Mediterranean
companies. The lateral canal of the Loire, the Berry Canal and
the canal from Roanne to Digoin together traverse about 57 m.
in the department Allier is divided into the arrondissements of
Moulins, Gannat, Lapalisse and Montlucon (29 cantons, 3"
communes). It forms the diocese of Moulins and part of the
ecclesiastical province of Bourges, and falls within the academe
(educational division) of Clermont-Ferrand and the region of
the XIII. army-corps. Its court of appeal is at Riom. Moulins,
the capital, Montlucon and Vichy, are the principal towns.
Souvigny possesses the church of a famous Cluniac priory dating
from the nth- 12th and 15th centuries, and containing the
splendid tombs (15th century) of Louis II. and Charles I. of
Bourbon. At St Menoux, Ebreuil and Gannat there are fine
Romanesque churches. Huriel has a church of the 1 1 th century
and a well-preserved keep, the chief survival of a medieval castle.
St Pourcain-sur-Sioule has a large church, dating from the nth
to the 1 8th centuries. The castle of Bourbon rArchambault,
which belonged to the dukes of Bourbon, dates from the 13th
and 15th centuries. The Romanesque churches' of Veauce and
Ygrande, and the chateaus of Veauce and Lapalisse, are also of
interest, the latter belonging to the family of Chabannes.
ALUES, THOMAS WILLIAM (18x3-1003), English historical
writer, was born at Midsomer Norton, near Bristol, on the 12th
of February 1813. He was educated at Eton and at Wadham
College, Oxford, of which he became a fellow in 1833. In 1840
Bishop Blomfield of London appointed him his examining chaplain
and presented him to the rectory of Launton, Oxfordshire, which
he resigned in 1850 on becoming a Roman CathoKc. Allies was
appointed secretary to the Catholic poor school committee
in 1853, a position which he occupied till 1800. He died in
London on the 17th of June 1903. Allies was one of the ablest
of the English churchmen who joined the Church of Roaw ta the
early period of the Oxford movement, his chief work, The forma-
tion of Christendom (London, 8 vols., 1865-1895) showing aaa
originality of thought and historical knowledge. His ©tier
writings: St Peter, his Name and Office* (1653); The See ef 5
Peter, the Rock of the Church (1850); Per Cmcem ad L*m
(2 vols., 1879), have gone through many editions and bees bis-
Lated into several languages.
' See his autobiography, A Life's Decision (1880) ; and the sosfe S
his daughter, Mary H. Allies, Thomas Allies, the Story of a Mm
(London, 1906), which contains a full bibliography of his wocfa
ALUFAB (mod. Alife), a town of the Samnites, 15 in. X.Y
of Telesia, and 17 m. E.N.E. of Teanum. The site of the Sacr 2
city, which in the 4th century B.C. had a coinage of its ow=. s
not knowq; the Roman town lay in the valley of the Vulrcrrae,
and its walls (4th century) enclose a circuit of if m_, in whkz ct
preserved remains of large baths ( Thermae Her emits) and a those,
ALLIGATOR (Spanish elfagarto, " the lizard "). *n ane-ais?
closely allied to the crocodile that some naturalists have cbse:
them together as forming one genus. It differs from the trx
crocodile principally in having the head broader and shora?
and the snout more obtuse; in having the fourth, eshzsrc
tooth of the under jaw received, not into an external notd,
but into a pit formed for it within the upper one; in wanting 1
jagged fringe which appears on the hind legs and feet ef at
crocodile; and in having the toes of the hind feet webbed bs
more than half way to the tips. Alligators proper occur ia :k
fluviatile deposits of the age of the Upper Chalk in Eceee.
where they did not die out until the Pliocene age; they are ss*
restricted to two species, A. mississipfiensis or tmcioa m tit
southern states of North America up to 12 ft. in knjtX
and the small i4.j»nrnjw in the Yang-tse-kiang. In Central sad
South America alligators are represented by five species of the
genus Caiman, which differs from Alligator by the absence of 1
bony septum between the nostrils, and the ventral armour &
composed of overlapping bony scutes, each of which is terse:
of two parts united by a suture. C. sclereps, the specuded
alligator, has the widest distribution, from southern Kece
to the northern half of Argentina, and grows to a bulky ss
The largest, attaining an enormous bulk and a length <t
ao ft., is the C. niger; the jacari-assu or large f*»— »i of tat
Amazons. The names " alligator " and " crocodile ** are ti'js.
confounded in popular speech; and the structure and hata
of the two animals are so similar that both are most conveniecilj
considered under the heading Cbocooile.
ALLINGHAM, WILLIAM. (1824-1889), Irish man of lettea
and poet, was born at Ballyshannon, Donegal, on the ictk a*
March 1824 (or 1828, according to some authorities), and «u
the son of the manager of a local bank. He obtained a post is
the custom-house of his native town and filled several siz-.~tr
situations in Ireland and England until 1870, when he asi
retired from the service, and became sub-editor of F*ss*n
Magazine, which he edited from 1 8 74 to 1 879. He had putnisard
a volume of Poems in 1850, followed by Day and JVig&f Step,
a volume containing many charming lyrics, in 1855. Allirgfcia
was on terms of close friendship with D. G. Rossetti, who ccctr
buted to the illustration of the Songs. His Letters to AXKngtjm
(1854-1870) were edited by Dr Birkbeck Hill in 1897. iUrwmi
Bloomfield, a narrative poem illustrative of Irish social qnestuss.
appeared in 1864. Alhngham married in 1874 Helen Patersca.
known under her married name as a water-colour painter. Ms
died at Hampstead on the 18th of November x88o* Tbecct
working on an unostentatious scale, AUingham produced rave*
excellent lyrical and descriptive poetry, and the best of ka
pieces are thoroughly national in spirit and local colouring.
William AUingham: a Diary (1907), edited by Mrs AHni^an
and D. Radford, contains many interesting reminiscences of Tcsaj*
son, Carlyle and other famous contemporaries.
ALLISON, WILLIAM BOYD (1829-1008), American Wgnbtot.
was born at Perry, Ohio, on the and of March 1899. Educated
at Allegheny and Western Reserve Colleges, he studied law. and
practised in Ohio until 1857. In that year he settled in Dnbaque.
Iowa, where he took a prominent part in Republican potties;
ALLITERATION— ALLIX
697
.nd in 1 860 he was a delegate to the national convention at
Thicago which nominated Abraham Lincoln for the presidency.
n 1 86 1 he was appointed a member of the staff of Governor
Samuel J. Kirkwood (1813-1804), and was of great service in
he work of equipping and organizing the Iowa volunteers.
: rom 1863 until 1871 he served with distinction in the House of
Representatives; in 1873 he was elected to the United States
Senate, and re-elected in 1878, 1884, 1890, 1896 and 1002.
lere he became one of the highest authorities on questions
onnected with finance, and from 1877 he was a member of the
>enate committee on finance. In 1881-1893, *od again from 1895,
ic was chairman of the committee on appropriations, in which
>osition he had great influence. He declined offers of the
secretaryship of the treasury made to him by Presidents Garfield
t nd Harrison. He was a prominent candidate for the presidential
nomination in the Republican national conventions of x888 and
1 896. In 1892 he was chairman of the American delegation to
the International Monetary Conference at Brussels. He died
it Dubuque, Iowa, on the 4th of August 1908.
ALLITERATION (from Lat. ad, to, and Httera, letter), the
commencing of two or more words, in close juxtaposition, with
the same sound. As Milton defined rhyme to be " the jingling
sound of like endings," so alliteration is the jingle of like begin-
nings. All language has a tendency to jingle in both ways, even
in prose. Thus in prose we speak of " near and dear," " high
and dry," " health and wealth." But the initial form of jingle
is much more common — " safe and sound," " thick and thin,"
" weal or woe," " fair or foul," " spick and span," " fish, flesh,
or fowl," " kith and kin." The poets of nearly all times and
tongues have not been slow to seize upon the emphasis which
could thus be produced.
Although mainly Germanic in its character, alliteration was
known to the Latins, especially in early times, and Cicero
blames Ennius for writing " O Tite tute, Tati, tibi tanta, tyranne,
tulisti." Lucretius did not disdain to employ it as an ornament
We read in Shakespeare: —
" Full fathom five thy father lies:
Of his bones are corals made."
In Pope: —
" Here files of pins extend their shining rows,
Puffs, powders, patches, bibles, billet-doux."
In Gray. —
" Weave the warp and weave the woof,
The winding-sheet of Edward's race.
In Coleridge:—
" The fair breeze blew, the white foam flew.
The furrow followed free;
We were the first that ever burst
Into that silent sea."
Churchill describes himself, in his Prophecy of Famine, as one
" Who often, but without success, had prayed
For apt alliteration's artful aid," —
an example which is itself a proof of his failure; for alliteration
is never effective unless it runs upon consonants.
As thus far considered, alliteration is a device wholly dependent
on the poet's fancy. He may use it or not, or use it much or
little, at his pleasure. But there is an extensive range of Teutonic
poetry whose metrical laws are entirely based on alliteration.
This, for example, is the principle on which Icelandic verse is
founded; and we have a yet nearer interest in it, because it
furnishes the key to Anglo-Saxon and a large portion of early
English verse. For a specimen take the following lines, the
spelling modernized, from the beginning of Piers the Plowman:—
" But in a May morning I on Jfalvern hills,
Me be/el a/erly | of /airy methought;
I was weary of wandering I and went me to rest
Under a frroad frank I by a tarn-side:
And as I fay and Jeaned I and /ooked on the waters,
I Numbered in a deeping I it sounded so merry."
The rule of this verse is indifferent as to the number of syllables
it may contain, but imperative as to the number of accented
ones. The line is divided in the middle by a pause, and each
half ought to contain two accented syllables. Of the four
accented syllables, the first three should begin with the same
letter; the fourth is free and may start with any letter Those
who wish for a more minute analysis of the laws of alliterative
verse, as practised by the Anglo-Saxon and early English poets,
may consult an exhaustive essay on the subject by Professor
W. W. Skeat, prefixed to vol. ail. of Bishop Percy's Polio Manu-
script; only the reader must be on his guard against an error
which pervades it, and which this able writer seems to have
derived from Rask. The question arises— What is the nature of
the cadence in alliterative verse? Now all metrical movement
is of two kinds, according as the beat or emphasis begins the
movement or ends it. If the beat is initial, we say in classical
language that the movement is trochaic or dactylic, according
to the number of its syllables; and if the beat is final, we in
like manner say that the movement is iambic or anapaestic.
Skeat and many others object with some reason to use the
classical terms, and therefore brushing them aside, let us put the
question in the simplest form—Has the movement of alliterative
verse got the initial or the final beat ? In the middle of the 18th
century Bishop Percy decided this question with sufficient
accuracy, though he mixed up his statement with a blunder
which it is not easy to account for. He points out how the
poets began to introduce rhyme into alliterative verse, until at
length rhyme came to predominate over alliteration, and " thus
was this kind of metre at length swallowed up and lost in the
common burlesque Alexandrine or anapaestic verse, as
" A cobbler there was, and he lived in a stall."
Percy made a serious mistake when he gave the name of Alex-
andrine to anapaestic verse; but he is quite right in his general
statement that alliterative verse became lost in a measure the
movement of which had the final beat Conybeare has stated
the fact still more accurately. " In the Saxon poetry a trochaic
character is predominant. In Piers the Plowman there is a
prevailing tendency to an anapaestic cadence." It is the result
of a change in the language — the loss of inflexion. Take the
word man. The genitive in Saxon would be mannes, a trochee;
in English, of man, an iambus. The tendency of the language
was thus to pass from a metrical movement, in which the beat
was initial, to one in which it was final It may therefore be
quite right to speak of Anglo-Saxon alliterative poetry as
trochaic or dactylic, and quite wrong to apply the same terms
to the cadence of our later alliterative verse. And this is precisely
the error into which Skeat has fallen. He says—" Lines do not
always begin with a loud syllable, but often one or two and
sometimes (in early English especially) even three soft syllables
precede it. These syllables are necessary to the sense, but not
to the scansion of the line." That is just the point at issue.
By leaving out of account the light syllable or syllables at the
beginning of a line, and taking his start from the first syllable
that has the alliterative beat, Skeat may certainly prove that all
the later alliterative poetry has a movement of initial beat.
But English ears will not submit to this rule. It is those light
syllables of no account which have altered the rhythm of English
descant from one of initial to one of final beat.
ALLIUM (Lat. for " garlic "), a genus of plants, natural order
Liliaceae, with about 250 species (seven of which occur in
Britain), found in Central and South Europe, North Africa, the
dry country of West and Central Asia, and North and Central
America. The plants are bulbous herbs, with flat or rounded
radical leaves, and a central naked or leafy stem, bearing a head
or umbel of small flowers, with a spreading or bell-shaped white,
pink, red, yellow or blue perianth. Several species afford useful
foods, such as onion (Allium Cepa) T leek (A. Porrum), shallot or
eschallot (A. ascalonicum), garlic (A. sativum), and chives
(A, schaenoprasum). A few species are cultivated as border
plants; such are A. Moly, an old garden plant with bright
yellow flowers, and A. neapolitanum, the well-known white-
flowered species, both natives of southern Europe.
ALLIX, PIERRE (1641-1717). French Protestant divine,
was born at Alencon. He was pastor first at St Agobile in
Champagne, and then at Charenton, near Paris. The revocation
of the edict of Nantes in 1685 compelled him to take refuge in
London, where, under the sanction of James II., he opened a
698
ALLMAN— ALLON
church for the French exiles. His reputation for learning was
such as to obtain for him, soon after his arrival, the degree of
doctor of divinity from both universities, and in 1690 he received
from Bishop Burnet the more substantial honour of the treasurer-
ship and a canonry in Salisbury Cathedral. He died at London
in March 1717. The works of Allix, which are numerous, are
chiefly of a controversial and apologetic character, and must be
used with caution. In opposition to Bossuet he published Some
Remarks upon the Ecclesiastical History of the Ancient Churches
of Piedmont (1690), and Remarks upon the Ecclesiastical History
of the Ancient Churches of the Albigenses (1692), with the idea
of showing that the Albigenses were not Manichaeans, but
historically identical with the Waldenses.
ALLMAN, GEORGE JAMBS (18x2-1808), British biologist,
was born in Cork, Ireland, in 18x2, and received his early educa-
tion at the Royal Academical Institution, Belfast. For some
time he studied for the Irish bar, but ultimately gave up law in
favour of natural science. In 1843 he graduated in medicine at
Dublin, and in the following year was appointed professor of
botany in that university, succeeding his namesake, William
Allman (1 776-1846). This position he held for about twelve
years until he removed to Edinburgh as regius professor of
natural history. There he remained till 1870, when considera-
tions of health induced him to resign his professorship and retire
to Dorsetshire, where he devoted himself to his favourite pastime
of horticulture. The scientific papers which came from his pen
are very numerous. His most important work was upon the
gymnoblastic hydrosoa, on which he published in 187 x-187 2,
through the Ray Society, an exhaustive monograph, based
largely on his own researches and illustrated with drawings of
remarkable excellence from his own hand. Biological science is
also indebted to him for several convenient terms which have
come into daily use, e.g. entoderm and ectoderm for the two
cellular layers of the body-wall in Coelenterata. He became a
fellow of the Royal Society in 1854, and received a Royal medal
in 1873. For several years he occupied the presidential chair of
the Linnaean society, and in 1879 he presided over the Sheffield
meeting of the British Association. He died on the 24th of
November x8o8 at Parkstone, Dorsetshire.
ALLOA, a municipal and police burgh and seaport of Gack-
mannanshire, Scotland. It is situated on the north bank of the
Forth, 32 m. from Edinburgh by the North British railway
via the Forth Bridge, and 28 m. from Leith by steamer. Pop.
(1891) 12,643; (1001) 14*458* The Caledonian railway enters the
town from the south-west by a bridge across the river, and also
owns a ferry to South Alloa, on the opposite shore, in Stirling-
shire. Between Alloa and Stirling the stream forms the famous
" links," the course being so sinuous that whereas by road the
two towns are but 6} m. apart, the distance between them by
river is nearly ism.
For its size and population the town enjoys unusual prosperity,
in consequence of its several flourishing industries. Its manu-
factures of yarn are on the largest scale, the spinning mills often
working night and day for many months together. There are
also numerous breweries, and Alloa ale has always been famous.
The great distillery at Carsebridge yields an immense supply of
yeast as well as whisky. Other thriving trades include the
glass-works on the shore, pottery-works in the "auld toon,"
dye-works and a factory for the making of electrical appliances.
There is a good deal of shipbuilding, some ironfounding and a
brass foundry. The chief article of export is coal from the
neighbouring collieries, the other leading exports being ale,
whisky, glass and manufactured goods. The imports comprise
timber, grain, iron, linseed and flax. The docks, accessible only
at high water, include a wet basin and a dry dock. Amongst the
principal buildings are the fine Gothic parish church, with a
spire 200 ft high; the town hall, including the free public library,
from designs by Alfred Waterhouse, HA., the gift of Bar J.
Thomson Paton; the county and municipal buildings; hand-
some public baths and gymnasium, presented to the town by
Mr David Thomson; the accident hospital; the fever hospital;
the museum of the Natural Science and Archaeological Society;
the academy, the burgh school and a secondary school wira Ar
finest technical equipment in Scotland, given by Mr A. For» r
Paton. There is a public park, besides bowting-grcra *?
cricket and football fields. The old burying-ground wis tt
kirkyard of the former parish church, the tower of whicfc s-
exists, but a modern cemetery has been formed in Soaaysii
The town owns the water-supply, gas-works and electric -isgkuc
Alloa Park, the seat of the earl of Mar and KeOie. on*
immediate vicinity, and in its grounds stand the ruins of Ala
Tower, an ancient structure 89 ft. high, with wails 11 ft. tkti
which was built about 13x5, and was once the residence <x 2
powerful family of Erskine, descendants of the earl of Mar. TV
earl who promoted the Jacobite rising in 1715 was born set
Many of the Scots princes received their education as wari *
the Lords Erskine and the earls of Mar, the last to be lis
educated being Henry, the eldest son of James VX
ALLOBROGES (in Gr. usually *AXkofifi%y€t) 9 * Celtic tri
in the north of Gallia Narbonensis, inhabiting the low g^s.
called the "island" between the Rhodanus, the Isara a=J -»
Graian Alps, corresponding to the modern Dauphin* and Sr.;j
If the name is rightly interpreted as meaning " aheav~ *J*'
would seem to have driven out the original inhabitants. TVr
chief towns were Vienna (Vienne), Genava (Geneva) and C&l-
(afterwards Gratianopolis, whence Grenoble). The Aflabnes
first occur in history as taking part with Hannibal intheicn&c
of Italy. After the subjugation of the Salluvii (Salves) by nt
Romans in 123 B.C., having given shelter to their king 7-*->
motulus and refused to surrender him, the ADobroges wr
attacked and finally defeated (August 8, xai) nt the 'taaa
of tthe Rhodanus and Isara by Q. Fabius Maximus (aftervca
Allobrogicus). But they still remained hostile to Rome. » >
shown by the conduct of their ambassadors in the Catilcx-??
conspiracy (63; see Catiline); two years later a revolt -zxr
Catugnatus was put down by Gaius Pomptinus at Sole? -a
Under Augustus they were included in Gallia Narbonefisn; bsr
in the Viennensis.
See A. Desjardins, Ceogra^hie historiqut de la CauTt iiimih I
(1 876-1803); E. Hereog, CoJliae Narbonensis tfirtmim fl -^
1864); Mommsen, Hist, of Rome (Eng. trans.), bk. iu. ch. * •»
ch. 5: T. R. Holmes, Caesar's Conquest of Caul (1899); C. L-?
in Smith's Diet, of Creek and Roman Geography; M. Ihot in, Pw\
WiMOwa's Realencydopadie, i. 2 (1894); A. Holder. AU-oH^mt
Sprackschats; and bibliography in La grande encydoptdm (*-*A
ALLOCATUR (from med. Lat allocatur, it is allowed^. -
law, a certificate given by a taxing master, at the trmi-"'
of an action, for the allowance of costs.
ALLOCUTION (Lat allocutio, an address), a name grves ~
the formal addresses made by the pope to the Coueft .1
Cardinals and through them to the church generally. They ir.
usually called forth by ecclesiastical or political «» ■ » »™«f T ^
and aim at safeguarding papal principles and *<«»-nn They «
published by being affixed to the door of St Peter's Church.
ALLODIUM, or Alodium, a legal term for lands which szt £:
absolute property of their owner, and not subject to any ktmt
or acknowledgment to a superior. It is thus the oppose *
fe-odum or fief. The proper derivation of the word has bta
much discussed and is still doubtful, though it is protib-
compounded of all, whole or entire, and odh, property. Alirc*
tenure seems to have been common throughout northern Ecnrc
It exists in Orkney and Shetland, but is unknown in Engird
the feudal system having been made universal by WHnasi ar
Conqueror.
ALL0HEROU8 (Gr. &XXot, other ptpos, part), the cb>>?
of bodies (e.g. mineral) by virtue of which they can *•*»— ig r »y -
elements and proportions while preserving their form.
ALLON, HENRY (1818-1892), English Ncoconforawt <fiv~
was born on the 13th of October 18x8 at Wdton near He c
Yorkshire. Under Methodist influence he decided to enter i>
ministry, but, developing Congregational ideas, was trained r.
Cheshunt College. In 1844 he became co-pastor with the Rr\
Thomas Lewis of Union Chapel, Islington. In 1852, on the dest k
of Lewis, Allon became sole pastor, and this position he bed
with increasing influence till his dearth in 1892. Union ChaneL
ALLONGE— ALLOTMENTS
699
originally founded by. evangelical members of the Church o!
England and Nonconformists acting in harmony, became during
Allon's co-pastorate definitely Congregational in principle and
fellowship, and exercised an ever-expanding influence. His chief
service to Nonconformity was in connexion with the improve-
ment of congregational worship, and especially the service of
praise. In 185a Dr. H. J. Gauntlett became organist at Union
Chapel and conductor of a psalmody class. To meet the wants
of this class, Allon published the original edition of his well-
known Congregational Psalmist, For many years his collection
of hymns, chants and anthems was used in hundreds of churches
throughout England. In i860 Allon began to write, at first
chiefly for the Patriot, then under the editorship of T. C.
Turbeville. In 1864, at the age of forty-five, he was elected
chairman of the Congregational Union, and in 1866 he under-
took the editorship of the British Quarterly Review with H. R.
Reynolds, the principal of Cheshunt. In 1877 he became sole
editor, and in that capacity came into touch with such men as
W. E. Gladstone, Matthew Arnold, F. D. Maurice and Dean
Stanley. The magazine was discontinued in x886. In 187 1 he
received the degree of D.D. from the university of Yale, U.S.A.
In 1874 the congregation at Islington decided to erect new
buildings. The church, which was built at a cost of £50.000,
was specially adapted for congregational worship and was
mentioned by an architectural journal as one of the hundred
remarkable buildings of the century. The church had in its
various departments about 300 teachers in charge of more than
3000 children, and was in its organisation one of the earliest
instances of the type known as the institutional church. In
1881, on the occasion of the jubilee of the Congregational Union
of England and Wales, Allon was again elected chairman. In
March 1892 he died suddenly from heart failure. His books
were A Memoir of James Sherman (2863); the Sermons of
Thomas Binney, with a biographical and critical sketch (1869);
The Vision of Cod and other sermons (1876)', The Indwelling
Christ (1892). Allon was a man of sound judgment, strong will,
great moral courage and personal kindness. His acquaintance
with literature was wide, his own style ludd and decisive. In
social and political affairs he was a convinced individualist.
Both as leader of Union Chapel and in denominational affairs his
courage and discretion, his simple faith, combined with a broad-
minded sympathy with the intellectual movements of the time,
made his ministry a widespread influence for good. (D. Mn.)
ALLONGE (from Fr. aUonger, to draw out), a slip of paper
affixed to a negotiable instrument, as a bill of exchange, for the
purpose of receiving additional indorsements for which there
may not be sufficient space on the bill itself. An indorsement
written on the allonge is deemed to be written on the bill itself.
An allonge is more usually met with in those countries where
the Code Napoleon is in force, as the code requires every indorse-
ment to express the consideration. Under English law, as the
simple signature of the indorser on the bill, without additional
words, is sufficient to operate as a negotiation, an allonge is
seldom necessary.
ALLOPHANB, one of the few minerals known only in the
amorphous state. It is a glassy substance, usually occurring
as thin encrustations with a mammillary surface; occasionally,
however, it is earthy and pulverulent. The colour varies con-
siderably, from colourless to yellow, brown, blue or green.
Specimens of a brilliant sky-blue colour, such as those found
formerly in Wheal Hamblyn, near Bridestowe in Devonshire, and
in Sardinia, are specially attractive in appearance; the colour
is here due to the presence of the copper mineral chrysocolla.
The hardness is 3, and the specific gravity 10. Chemically, it
is a hydrous aluminium silicate, AltSiOt. 5H|0. Allophaneis
always of secondary origin, resulting from the decomposition of
various aluminous silicates, such as felspar. It is often found
encrusting fissures and cavities in mines, especially those of
copper and iron. It was first observed in 1800 in marl at
Grifenthal, near Saalfield in Thuringia; and has been found in
some quantity in the chalk pits at Charlton in Kent, where it
lines fissures and funnel-shaped cavities. The name allophane
was given by F. Stromeyer in. 1816, from the Gr. oXXof,
another, and tWw, to appear, in allusion to the fact
that the mineral crumbles and changes in appearance when
heated before the blowpipe. Other names for the species are
riemannite and elhuyarite, whilst closely allied minerals are
carolathine, samoite and schrotterite (opal-all ophane).
ALLORI, ALB8SANDR0 (1535-1607), Italian painter ol the
Florentine school, was brought up and trained in art by his uncle,
Angelo Bronsino (q.i.) whose name he sometimes assumed in
his pictures. Visiting Rome in his nineteenth year, he carefully
studied the works of Michelangelo; but the influence of that
great master can only be traced in the anatomical correctness
of his drawing of node figures. He was successful as a portrait
painter. His son Cmstoiano Alloei (1577-1621), born at
Florence, received his first lessons in painting from his father,
but becoming dissatisfied with the hard anatomical drawing and
cold colouring of the latter, he entered the studio of Gregorio
Pagani (1558-1605) who was one of the leaders of that later
Florentine school which endeavoured to unite the rich colouring
of the Venetians with the correct drawing of Michelangelo's
disciples. Allori became one of the foremost of this school.
His pictures are distinguished by their close adherence to nature
and the delicacy and technical perfection of their execution.
His technical skill is proved by the fact that several copies he
made after Correggio have been taken to be duplicates by
Correggio himself . His extreme fastidiousness limited his power
of production, though the number of his works is not so small
as is sometimes asserted. Several specimens are to be seen at
Florenceandelsewhere. The finest of all his works is his "Judith
and Holofernes," in the Pitti Palace. The model for the Judith
was his mistress, the beautiful Maxzafirra, who is also represented
in his Magdalene; and the head of Holofernes is generally
supposed to represent himself.
ALLOTMENT (from O.Tr. a and loter, to divide by lot), the
act of allotting; a share or portion assigned. In England, the
term denotes a portion of land assigned on partition or under an
indosure award (see Commons); also a division of land into
small portions for cultivation by a labourer or artisan at a small
rent (see Allotments and Small Holdings). In company
law, " allotment " is the appropriation to an applicant by a reso-
lution of the directors of a certain number of shares in response
to an application. The document sent to such an applicant,
which announces the number of shares assigned and concludes
the contract, is called a letter of allotment or allotment certificate.
A letter of allotment in England requires a sixpenny stamp if
the value of the shares amounts to £5 or over, and a penny
stamp if less than £5. (See Company.)
Allotment note ah writingby aseaman authorizing his employers
to make an allotment of part of his wages, while he is on a voyage,
in favour either of a " near " relative (wife, father, mother,
grandfather, grandmother, child, grandchild, brother or sister
of the seaman), or of a savings bank. Every allotment note
must be in a form sanctioned by the Board of Trade.
ALLOTMENTS AND SMALL HOLDINGS. As the meaning
of these terms in agricultural tenure varies in different localities,
it may be as well to say at once that for the present purpose they
are definable as pieces of land detached from cottages, and hired
or owned by labouring men to supplement their main income.
We do not include any farm, however small, from which the
occupier derives his entire support by dairying, market-gardening,
or other form of la petite culture. So, also, no account is taken of
the tiny garden plot, used for growing vegetables for the table
and simple flowers, which is properly an appurtenance of the
cottage. Gearing awsy what is extraneous, the essential point
round which much controversy has raged is the labourer's share
in the land. The claim advanced depends upon tradition. In
agriculture, the oldest of all industries, a cash payment is not
even now regarded as discharging the obligations between master
and servant. Mr Wilson Fox, in reporting to the Board of Trade
on the earnings of agricultural labourers in Great Britain, gives,
as a typical survival of an old custom, the case of a shepherd
whose total income was calculated at £60 a year, but who got
700
ALLOTMENTS AND SMALL HOLDINGS
only £16 in money, the rest being made up by rights of grazing
live-stock, growing crops on his master's land, and kindred
privileges. That is exactly in the spirit that used to pervade
agriculture, and doubtless had its origin in the manorial system.
If we turn back to the 13th century, from Walter of Henley's
Husbandry it will be seen that practically there were only two
classes engaged in agriculture, and corresponding with them
were two kinds of land. There were, on the one hand, the
employer, the lord, and his demesne land; on the other, the
villeins and the land held in villenage. Putting aside for the
moment any discussion of the exact degree of servitude, it will
be seen that the essence of the bargain was that the villein should
be permitted to cultivate a virgate of land for his own use in
return for service rendered on the home farm. This is not altered
by the fact that the conditions approached those of slavery, that
the villeins were adscripti gkbae, that in some cases their wives
and sons were bequeathed by deed to the service of religious
houses, and that in many other respects their freedom was
limited. Out of this, in the course of centuries, was developed
the system prevailing to-day. Lammas lands arc indeed a sur-
vival from it. There are in the valley of the Lea, and close to
London, to take one example, lands allotted annually in little
strips till the crops are carried, when, the day being fixed by
a reeve, the land becomes a common pasture till the spring closing
takes place once more. Perhaps the feature of this old system
that bears most directly on the question of allotments was the
treatment of the waste of the manor. The lord, like his tenants,
was limited by custom as regards the number of beasts he could
graze on it After the havoc of the Black Death in 1349, many
changes were necessitated by the scarcity and dearness of labour.
It became less unusual for land to be let and for money payment
to be accepted instead of services. There was a great demand
for wool, and to conduct sheep-farming on a large scale necessi-
tated a re-arrangement of the manor and the enclosure of many
common fields under the statute of Merton and the statute of
Westminster the Second. Nevertheless, up to the 18th century,
a vast proportion of agricultural land was technically waste, on
which rights of common were exercised by yeomen, some of whom
had acquired holdings by the ordinary methods of purchase or
inheritance, while others had merely squatted and built a house
on the waste. It is to this period that belongs a certain in justice
to which the peasantry were subject. No reasonable doubt can
be entertained of the necessity of enclosure. Husbandry, after
long stagnation, was making great advance; and among others,
Arthur Young raised his voice against the clumsy inconvenient
common fields that were the first to be enclosed. Between 1709
and 1797 no fewer than 31x0 acts, affecting, as far as can be
calculated, about 3,000,000 acres, were put into operation.
They seem mostly to have been directed to the common fields.
In the first half of the 19th century the movement went on apace.
In a single year, 1801, no fewer than 119 acts were passed; and
between 1801 and 1843 dose on aooo acts were passed — many of
them expressly directed to the enclosure of wastes and commons.
The same thing continued till 1869. It touched the peasant
directly and indirectly. The enclosure of the common fields
proved most hurtful to the small farmer; the enclosure of the
waste injured the labourer by depriving him, without adequate
compensation, of such useful privileges as the right to graze a
cow, a pig, geese or other small animals. It also discouraged him
by tending to the extinction of small tenancies and freeholds
that were no longer workable at a profit when common rights
ceased to go with them. The industrious labourer could pre-
viously nourish a hope of bettering his condition by obtaining a
small holding. Yet though the labourer suffered, Impartial study
does not show any intentional injustice. He held a very weak
position when those interested in a common affixed to the church
door a notice that they intended to petition. As Mr Cowper
(afterwards Lord Mount Temple) said in the House of Commons
on the 13th of March 1844, " the course adopted had been to
compensate the owner of the cottage to whom the common right
belonged, forgetting the claims of the occupier by whom they
were enjoyed "; and in the same debate Sir Robert Peel pointed
out that not only the rights of the tenant, hot those ef hi
successors ought to have been studied. The coarse adoctai
divorced the labourer from the soiL
Parliament, as a matter of fact, had from a very early perurf
recognized the wisdom of contenting the peasant. In the 1411
century the labourer lived in rude abundance. Neat ceatarjr 1
rural exodus began, owing to the practice of enrlnsing oe
holdings and turning them into sheep walks, In 1487 aa ae
was passed enjoining landlords to " keep up houses of husbandry •
and attach convenient land to them. Within the next baadarf
years a number of similar attempts were -made to control vac
we may call the sheep fever of the time. Then we arrive at *Jx
reign of Elizabeth and the famous Small Holdings Act pases
in 1 597 — an anticipation of the three~acres-and--a-cow pete*
advocated towards the end of the 19th century. It recairf
that no person shall " build, convert or ordain any cottage 5*
habitation or dwelling -for persons engaged in hmhamfry*
unless the owner " do assign or lay to the same cottage *
building four acres of ground at the least." It also providrd
against any " inmate or under-sitter " being admitted to vbtf
was sacred to one family, rhis measure was not con c e ive d e
the spirit of modern political economy, but it had the eftcc cf
staying the rural exodus. It was repealed in 1775 on the graac
that it restricted the building of cottages. By that time tit
modern feeling in favour of allotments had begun to ripen, ssd s
was contended that some compensation should be made to tie
labourers for depriving them of the advantages of the nst
Up to then the English labouring rustic had been very weS at
Food was abundant and cheap, so were dothes and boots, k
could graze his cow or pig on the common, and also obtata bd
from it. Now he fell on evil days. Prices rose, wages lei
privileges were lost, and in many cases he had to sell the pates a'
land whose possession made all the difference between hardsa?
and comfort. AU this was seen plainly enough both by statesnee
and private philanthropists. One of the first experiments m
described by Sir John Sinclair in a note to the report of a sdrd
committee of the House of Commons on waste lands in 179$.
About 1772 the lord of the manor of some commonable ksn
near Tewkesbury had with great success set out 25 acres a
allotments for the use of some of the poor. Sir John was wn
much struck with the result, and so heartily applauded 2c
idea that the committee recommended that any general eadosst
bill should have a clause in it providing for "the accommocUua
of land." Sir Thomas Bernard and W. Wilberforce took a
active part in advocating the principle of allotments, 09 the
ground, to summarize their argument in language employed ls»
by a witness before the House of Commons, that " it keeps tk
cottagers buoyant and makes them industrious." In 1806, st
the suggestion of the rector, a clause aligning an ■!Mnr<* af
half an acre to every cottage was inserted in an enclosure hC
then under consideration for the parish of Broad Somer fe H J
Wiltshire. This was done, " and the example was followed fcj
nearly every adjoining parish in that part of Wiltshire." Pane*
over several praiseworthy establishments of allotments by privas
persons, we come to 18x9, when parliament passed an act alio is
spirit to several that came into existence during the later portks
of the Victorian era. It empowered the churchwardens sri
overseers of any parish, with the consent of the vestry, to pw-
chase or hire land not exceeding 25 acres, and to let itinpordaai
to " any poor and industrious inhabitant of the parish." Ths
was amended in 1831 by an act extending the quantity of hot
to 50 acres, and also conveying an important new power is
enable the same authorities to enclose from any waste or comam
land not exceeding 50 acres to be devoted to the same purpose
This was followed next year by an act relating to fuel, and J
1834 the Poor Law Commissioners reported favourably on tat
principle of granting allotments. In 1843 an important tnqurj
into the subject was made by a committee of the House d
Commons, which produced a number of valuable suggesticca
One consequence was the bill of 1845, brought into parhuceat
by Mr Cowper. It passed the House of Commons; and there
Mr Bright made a remark that probably summarised a 1
ALLOTMENTS AND SMALL HOLDINGS
701
opinion, since it never came to a third reading in the House of
Lords. He said that " the voluntary system of arrangement
would do all the good that was expected to accrue from the
illotment system."
At this point in the history of the movement it may be as well
to pause and ask what was the net result of so much legislation
and benevolent action. Messrs Tremenheere and Tufnall, who
prefixed an admirable epitome of what had been done to the
report of the commission " appointed to inquire into the employ-
men t of women, young persons and children in agriculture"
(1867), expressed considerable disappointment. Between 17 10
and 1867, 7,660,413 statute acres were added to the cultivated
area of England and Wales, or about one-third of the area in
cultivation at the latter date; and of this total, 484,893 acres
were enclosed between 1845 and l86 7- Of the latter, only 21 19
acres were assigned as public allotments for gardens to the
labouring poor. It was found to be the case, as it is now, that
land was taken up more readily when offered privately and
voluntarily than when it came through official sources. Mean-
while competent and thoughtful men saw well that the sullen
discontent of the peasantry continued, in Lord Bacon's phrase,
to threaten " the might and manhood of the kingdom." It had
existed since the beginning of the Napoleonic wars, and had
become more articulate with the spread of education. We shall
see a consciousness of its presence reflected in the minds of
statesmen and politicians as we briefly examine the later phase
of the movement. This found expression in the clauses against
enclosure introduced by Lord Beaconsfield in 1876, and gave
force to the three-acres-and-a-cow agitation, of which the more
prominent leaders were* Joseph Arch and Jesse Collings. In
1 88 2 the Allotments Extension Act was passed, the object of
which was to let the parishioners have charity land in allotments,
provided it or the revenue from it was not used for apprentice-
ship, ecclesiastical or educational purposes. A committee of the
House of Commons, appointed in 1885 to inquire into the housing
of the working classes, reported strongly in favour of allotments,
and this was followed in 1887 by the Allotments Act— the first
measure in which the principle of compulsory acquisition was
admitted in regard to other than charity lands. Its administra-
tion was first given to the sanitary authority, but passed to the
district councils when these bodies were established in 1804.
The local body is empowered to hire or purchase suitable land,
and if they do not find any in the market they are to petition
the county council, which after due inquiry may issue a pro-
visional order compelling owners to sell land, and the Local
Government Board may introduce a bill into parliament to
confirm the order. It was found that the sanitary authority
did not carry out the scheme, and in 1800 another act was passed
for the purpose of allowing applicants for allotments', when the
sanitary authority failed to provide land, to appeal to the county
council. Judging from the evidence laid before the commission
on agricultural depression (1804), the act of 1887 was not a
conspicuous success. Most of the witnesses reported in such
terms as these—" the Allotments Act has been quite inoperative
in Cornwall " ; " the act has been a dead letter in the district
(Wigtownshire) " ; " the Allotments Act has not been in opera-
tion in Flintshire " ; " nothing has been done in the district of
Pembrokeshire under the act" No evidence whatever was
adduced to show that in a single district a different state of
things had to be recorded. From a return presented by the
Local Government Board to parliament in 1896 we l earn that
eighty-three rural sanitary authorities had acquired
land for allotment prior to the 28th of December 1 804,
the date at which these authorities ceased to exist
under the provisions of the Local Government Act
1894. Land was acquired by compulsory purchase
in only one parish; by purchase or agreement in
eighteen parishes; by hire by agreement in 13a
parishes. The total acreage dealt with was 1836
acres 1 rood 34 poles, and the total number of
tenants 471 1. The number of county councils that
op to the same date had acquired land was twelve,
and they had done so by compulsory purchase in one parish, by
purchase or agreement in five parishes, by hire by agreement
in twenty-four parishes. The total area dealt with was only
413 acres x rood 5 poles, and the total number of tenants
825. The complete totals affected at the date of the return
(August ax, 1895) by the acts, therefore, were 2249 acres
2 roods 29 poles, and 5536 tenants. A considerable extension
has taken place since.
The Small Holdings Act introduced by Mr Henry Chaplin,
and passed by parliament in 1892 was an attempt to appease
the rural discontent that had been seething for some time past
and was silently but most eloquently expressed in a steady
migration from the villages. The object of this measure was to
help the deserving labouring man to acquire a small holding,
that is to say, a portion of land not less than one acre or more
than fifty acres in extent and of an annual value not exceeding
£50. It is not necessary here to describe the legal steps by
which this was to be accomplished. The essence of the bargain
was that a fifth of the purchase money should be paid down,
and the remainder in half-yearly instalments spread over a
period not exceeding fifty years. But if the local authority
thought fit a portion of the purchase money, not exceeding one-
fourth, might remain unpaid, and be secured by a perpetual rent
charge upon the holding. It cannot be said that this act has
attained the object for which it was drawn up. From a return
made to the House of Commons in 1895 it was shown that eight
county councils had acquired land under the Small Holdings
Act, which amounted in the aggregate to 483 acres. A further
return was made in 1903, which showed that the total quantity
of land acquired from the commencement of the act up to the
end of 1902 was only 652 acres.
It is, however, an English characteristic to prefer private to
public arrangements, and probably a very great majority of the
allotments and small holdings cultivated in 1907 were due to
individual initiative. There are no means of arriving at the
exact figures, but data exist whereby it is at least possible to
form some rough idea of them. It is not the custom to give in
the annual agricultural returns any statement of the manner
in which land is held, and the information is to be found in the
returns presented to parliament from time to time. From the
following table, which indudes both the holdings owned and
tenanted, it will be seen that between 1895 and 1904 the tendency
was for the holdings to decrease in number; while the holdings
of from 50 to 300 acres slightly increased, those from 5 to 50 acres
were almost stationary, and there was a decrease in those between
x and 5 acres.
1895.
1904.
1 to sacra
5 to 50 „
50 to 300 „
Above 300 „
Number.
117.968
235.481
147.870
18,787
Percent.
22-68
4528
Number.
iio,974
232.476
18SC
Percent.
21*69
4544
2933
354
Total
320,106
100
Si 1.584
100
These figures become doubly instructive when considered In
connexion with the decline of the strictly rural population.
It will, therefore, be useful to place beside them a summary
published in a report on the decline of rural population in
Great Britain issued by the Board of Agriculture and Fisheries
in 1906.
Class.
188I.
1891.
1901.
Increase (+) or
Decrease (-).
1881-1891.
1891-1901.
Farmers and
Graziers
Farm Bailiffs
and Foremen
Shepherds
Agricultural La-
bourers
No.
279.126
22,89s
33t>25
983.9X9
No.
277.943
•66.543
No.
277.694
27.317
35.0M
689,392
No.
-1.183
-1442
-".439
-II7.376
No.
-249
+3S36
-177.251
_ ,
702
ALLOTMENTS AND SMALL HOLDINGS
These figures must of course be approximate. The effect of
recent development in methods of travelling and the growing
custom for townsmen either to live wholly in the country or to
take week-end cottages, has made it impossible to draw a strict
line of demarcation between rural and urban populations. Still
they are near enough for practical purposes, and they amply
justify the efforts of those who are trying to stay the rural exodus.
While legislation had not, up to 1008, achieved any noteworthy
result in the creation of small holdings, and still left doubts as
to the practicability of re-creating the English yeoman by act
of parliament, many successful efforts have been made by
individuals. One of the most interesting is that of the earl of
Carrington at Sleaford in Lincolnshire. In this case the most
noteworthy feature is that between the landlord and the tenants
there is a body called the South Lincolnshire Small Holdings
Association, which took 650 acres from Lord Carrington on a
twenty years' lease. These acres used to be let to four or five
tenants. They were in 1005 divided among one hundred and
seventy tenants. The Small Holders' Association guaranteed the
rent, which works out at about 33s. per acre, to Lord Carring-
ton. They let the men on yearly tenancy have it at about
40s. an acre, the difference being used to meet the expenses of
dividing the lands into small holdings, maintaining drains, fences
and roads connected with them, and other unavoidable outlays.
In this way the landlord is assured of his rent, and the association
has lost nothing, as the men were very punctual in their payments.
But very great care was bestowed in choosing the men for the
holdings. They were in a sense picked men, but men must be
picked to work the business satisfactorily. Lincolnshire is pre-
eminently a county of small holdings, and the labouring residents
in it have been accustomed to the management of them from
their infancy onwards. Here as elsewhere the provision of suit-
able houses formed a difficulty, some of the tenants having to
walk several miles to their holdings. Lord Carrington availed
himself as much as possible of the buildings that existed, dividing
the old farm houses so as to make them suitable for the small
tenants. At Cowbit farm, many of the ordinary labourers'
cottages, which were put up at a cost of about £300 a pair, have
by the addition of little dairies and other alterations been made
suitable for the tenants. From facts collected on the spot we
have come to the conclusion that on the small holdings a good
tenant makes an average profit of about £4 an acre, but on an
allotment cultivated by means of the spade it would probably
be at the rate of over £6 an acre. Lord Carrington was also
successful in establishing small holdings on the Humberston
estate in North Lincolnshire and on his Buckinghamshire estate,
near Aylesbury. At Newport Pagnell the attempt failed because
the demand was artificial, the ground arable, and the men not
capable of dealing with it.
Other examples of the establishment of small holdings can only
receive brief reference. The Norfolk Small Holdings Association
acquired three farms at Whissonsett, Watton and Swaffham,
which are broken up into small lots and let mostly to the village
tradespeople. Sir Pearce Edgecumbe established small holdings
at Rew, some of which have been purchased by the occupiers, and
Mr A. B. Markham created similar ownerships at Twyford
(Leicestershire) . At Cud worth in Surrey a group was formed , but
the owners were actuated more by the desire to lead a simple
life than to prove the remunerative value of small holdings.
Mr W. J. Harris created small holdings in Devon, each of which
is let on a life tenancy. There the rural exodus has been more
than arrested. Mr James Tomkinson established in Cheshire a
number of graduated holdings, so contrived as to offer the suc-
cessful holders a chance of stepping upwards.
The earl of Harrowby made an interesting experiment on his
Sandon estate in Staffordshire in the midst of a pretty, broken
and undulating country. The estate consists of about 6000 acres,
one-third of which is laid out in small holdings. These fall
naturally Into three divisions. First, there-are those which belong
to men who have regular employment, and would therefore find
it impossible to cultivate any great quantity of land. Many of
that class are anxious to have a holding of some sort, as it lends
a certain elasticity to their incomes and provides thee viai
never-failing interest. One who may be taken as typical br-
six acres with a good cottage and a large garden, paying a ree &
£20 a year. When this holding was created it had aircao .
suitable cottage, but £100 was needed to provide opt baOd is a .
and Lord Harrowby 's custom is to charge 5% on outlay of :z.
kind. This £5, however, is included in the total rent of £tz ^
for cottage, land and garden. The man was not only csbsk.
but wished to get some more land. The next das* coastss -
those who have not enough land to live on but eke oat &
livelihood by casual labour. Usually a man of this sort rtcuri
from 3 5 to 50 acres of land mostly pasture. He can atteac ~
and yet give a certain number of days to estate work. The lar-
class is that of the small farmer who gains his entire ihreEb*.
from the land. The obstacle to breaking up large fans ai<
small lies of course in the expense of providing the neces^
equipment. It has been found here that a cottage snkakk j
a small farmer costs about £400 to build in a substantial name
and the outbuildings about £200. This makes an addsaa
therefore of about £30 to the rent of the land. The ardour via
which these tenancies were sought when vacant formed the bea
testimony to the soundness of the principle applied by Lad
Harrowby.
A nest of small holdings was created at Winterskrv, an?
Salisbury, by Major R. M. Poore. The holders completed :fc
purchase by 1006, and the work may be pronounced a coaspe--
success. Major Poore originally conceived the idea whea a
was cheap in 1892, owing to the depression in agriculture. Br
purchased an estate that came into the market at the txn-e. la
price came to an average of £10 an acre, and the men tbeanene
made the average for selling it out again £15 00 a printipk x
instalments. His object was not to make any profit frcs or
transaction, and he formed what is termed a Landholders' Coat,
formed of the men themselves, every ten choosing one to repasts
them. This court was found to act welL It collected the issur
ments, which are paid in advance; and of course the membra
of it, down to the minutest detail, knew not only the ctraimsssacs
but the character of every applicant for land. The result spot;
for itself. The owners are, in the true sense of the word, peaoca
They do not depend on the land for a living, but work in rame
callings— many being woodmen— for wages that average abac
1 5s. a week. The holdings vary in size from less than an aoe a
ten acres, and are technically held on a lease of 1009 yes
practically freehold, though by the adoption of a leasehold arc
a saving was effected in the cost of transfer. On the addae
most of the men have erected houses, using for the p q rpost ctai
dug up from their gardens, it lying only a few inches belcv it
surface. It is not rock, but soft chalk, so that they are practia>
mud walls; but being as a rule at least 18 inches thick, tk
houses are very cool in summer and warm in winter. Blaw
Poore calculated that in seven years these poor people — therein
not thirty of them altogether — managed to produce for thrr
houses and land a gross sum of not less than /5000. This *
attributed to the loyal manner in which even distant membesa
the family have helped.
The class of holding which owes its existence to the act of ite
may be illustrated by the history of the Worcestershire ssaJ
holdings. The inception of the scheme was due to the deetst
of the nail-making business, which caused a number of '>
inhabitants to be without occupation. Two candidates far
election to the county council looking out for a popular cry fee*
it in the demand for land. They promised to do their best w tfe
direction, and thanks to the energetic action of Mr Willis Base,
the chairman, the act was put in force. Woodrow Firs,
adjoining the village of Catshill in the neighbourhood &
Birmingham, was purchased on terms that enabled the bsi
to be sold to the peasant cultivator at £40 an acre. They »«t
paying this back at the rate of 4 % on the purchase money, a n't
that included both interest and sinking fund, so that at the
end of forty years they would own the small estates free fracs
encumbrance. The huge population of Birmingham is cksi
to the properties. The men turned their attention mostly to
ALLOTMENTS AND SMALL HOLDINGS
7©3
trmwberries, to which many acres were devoted. Costermongen
rould come oat from Birmingham and buy the fruit on the spot,
elling part of it to the villas on the way back, and part in the
Birmingham market The experience gained in working the act
nabled the committee on small holdings to make a number of
ractical suggestions for future legislation.
It remains to note the passing in 1007 of a new English Small
foldings and Allotments Act, experience of which is too recent
or its provisions to be more than indicated here. The act
ransferred to the Board of Agriculture the duties generally of
he Local Government Board, and transferred to parish councils
w parish meetings the powers and duties of rural district councils;
t required county councils to ascertain the demand for land
rithout previous representation to them, and gave power for
ts compulsory acquisition; and the maximum holding of an
tllotment was raised from one acre to five. Both compulsory
rarchase and compulsory hiring (for not less than 14 nor more
ban 35 years) were authorized, value and compensation being
lecided by a single arbitrator. A coercive authority was applied
the county councils in the form of commissioners appointed
>y the Board of Agriculture, who were to hold inquiries inde-
pendently and to take action themselves in case of a defaulting
xronty council. They were to ascertain the local demand for
mall holdings, and to report to the Board, who might then
equire a county council to prepare a scheme, which, when
ipproved, it was to carry out, the commissioners being em-
x>wered to do so in the alternative.
Foreign Countries. — It remains to give a brief outline of what
small holdings are like outside Great Britain. From the results
>f the Belgian Agricultural Inquiry of 1805 the following table
sas been compiled, assuming that one hectare - 2 J acres: —
Occupied by
Owner.
Occupied by
Tenant.
TotaL
Size of Holding.
Whole.
More
than
half.
More
than
half.
Whole.
1 * acres and under
1 {acres and under
5acres
5 acres and under
10 acres .
10 acres and under
50 acres .
50 or too acres
Over 100 ,,
No.
109,169
27.395
13,089
16,690
3,03 1
903
No.
8.759
19.544
13.873
18,909
M97
470
No.
34.779
58,839
30440
33443
3.315
MI7
No.
3054U
70465
35.006
28487
4.517
2,395
No.
458,120
*76.233
81,308
97429
11.350
5.185
Total
168,267
63,053
163,133
436,183
839,635
It will be seen from this table that Belgium is pre-eminently a
country of small holdings, more than half of the total number
being under 50 acres in extent Of course it is largely a country
of market gardens; but as the holdings are most numerous
in Brabant, East and West Flanders and Hainault, the pro-
vinces showing the largest number of milch cows, it would
seem that dairying and la petite culture go together.
There is a slight tendency for the holdings to
decrease in number. In Germany the number
of small holdings is proportionately much larger
than in Great Britain. The returns collected in
1895 showed that there were 3,235,169, or
58*32 % of the total number of holdings under
5 acres in area; and of these no fewer than
ix % are held by servants as part of their
wages. The table below compiled for the Journal
of the Board of Agriculture enables us to compare
the other holdings with those of Great Britain.
Great Britain, it will be seen, has over 40% of
large farms of between 50 and 500 acres as
compared with Germany's 12 6, while the latter has 86*8 of
small holdings, compared with England's 58*6.
France also has a far larger proportion of small holdings than
Great Britain; its cultivated area of 85,759,000 acres being
divided into 5,618,000 separate holdings, of which the sis*
averages a little over 15 acres as against 63 in Great Britain.
Of the whole number, 4,190,795 are farmed by the owners,
934-338 are in metayage, and 1,078,184 by tenants. The leading
feature is the peasant proprietary. Half of the arable, more than
half of the pasture, six-sevenths of the vineyards and two-thirds
of the garden lands are fanned by their owners. Comparison
with Great Britain is difficult; but it would appear that, whereas
only k k % of British 530,000 agricultural holdings are farmed by
the owners, the proportion in France is 75 %. A further point
to be noted is that the average agricultural tenancy in France
is just one-fourth of what it is in Great Britain, and the average
owner-farmed estate only one-sixth.
Sire of Holdings.
Germany.
Great Britain.
Number.
Percent.
Number.
Per cent.
5 to 50 acres .
50 to 500 „
Over 500 „
3,014,940
393,983
13.809
86-8
13-6
06
335481
161438
5.219
58-6
40-1
1-3
Total
3,331,731
100
403,138
100
In France the tendency is for the very small holdings to
increase in number owing to subdivision, with a consequent
decrease of the size of the average holding. Between the years
1883 and 1892 there was a decrease of 138,237 in the total
number of proprietors, the larger properties moving .towards
consolidation and those of the peasant proprietors towards
subdivision.
Those interested in the formation of small holdings in Great
Britain will find much to interest them in the history of Danish
legislation. British policy for many generations was to preserve
demesne land, and there are many devices for insuring that a
spendthrift life-owner shall not be able to scatter the family
inheritance; but as long ago as 1769 the Danish legislators set
an exactly opposite example. They enacted that peasant land
should not be incorporated or worked with estate land; it must
always remain in the ownership and occupation of peasants.
In this spirit all subsequent legislation was conceived, and the
allotment law that came into force in October 1809 bears some
resemblance to the English Small Holdings Act of 1893. It
provides that labourers able to satisfy certain conditions as to
character may obtain from the state a loan equal to nine-tenths
of the purchase money of the land they wish to acquire. This
land should be from 5 to 7 acres in extent and of medium quality,
but the limits are from sf to xof acres in the case of better or
poorer land. The total value should not exceed 4000 kr. (£222).
The interest payable on the loan received from the state is 3 %.
The loan itself is repayable after the first five years by annual
instalments of 4% until half is paid off; the remainder by
instalments of 3} %, including interest. Provision is, however,
made for cases where the borrower desired to pay off the loan in
larger sums. Regulations are laid down regarding the transfer
of such properties and also their testamentary disposition. The
Treasury was empowered to devote a sum of 2,000,000 kr.
Number and Site of Holdings in Denmark in 1901.
Groups.
Number.
Percentage
of
Number.
Acreage.
Percentage
Area.
Average
•isein
Acres.
Tondeland.
Acres.
Under 1 .
1-3 . .
3-27. .
37-108 .
108-316 .
Over 316 .
Under 1-36
136-4
4-36-7
367-147
147-294
Over 394
68,380
18.777
Ji'S 60
60,873
6,503
2,392
27-3
75
37-2
tt
1-0
23.455
58.553
1408,549
4459.077
1,272,398
I.674-.73©
•3
.5*
501
•34
313
1514
73-25
19569
70014
Total.
249.983
1000
8,896.763
roo-o
3559
(£1 ix, 000) to this purpose for five yean; after that the land is
subject to revision.
Even before this law was passed Denmark was a country of
small holdings, the peasant farms amounting to 66% of the
7°+
ALLOTROPY— ALLOYS
whole.and the number is bound to increase, since the incorporation
of farms is illegal, while there is no obstacle to their division.
Between 1835 and 1885, the number of small holdings of less than
one tondekarthorn increased from 24,800 to 92,856. What gives
point to these remarks is. that Denmark seems in the way to
arrest its rural exodus, and was one of the first countries to escape
from the agricultural depression due to the extraordinary fall
in grain prices. The distribution of land in Denmark may be
gathered from a glance at the preceding table for the compilation
of which we are indebted to Major Craigie.
Authorities.— Walter of Henley's Husbandry; The English
Viltotf Community, by Frtdrric Seebohm; Annals of Agriculture,
by Arthur Youngs Tke A |r; iultural Labourer, by T. E. Kebbel;
Report on ikt Employment at Women and Children in Agriculture,
1S67 (historical skerei? by Mews Tremenheere and Tufnall); A
Siwh &( Small ffoldinei, by W. E. Bear; The Law and tke Labourer.
by C ♦ W 4 Stubbs; " Agricultural Holdings in England and Abroad,
by Major Craigie iSiatiitient Society's Journal, vol. i.); The Return
to the Land \ by Senator J uln, Meline; Land Reform, by the Right
Hun J<.-4*e Collifijffi. M.P.; Report on the Decline in the Agricultural
Population of Great Britain, issued by the Board of Agriculture
and Fnheriw: Rtport of thr Departmental Committee appointed by
tie Board of Airhttliure and Fisheries to enquire into and report upon
thr lubjVcf of Small Holding.* in Great Britain. (P. A. G.)
ALLOTROPY (Gr. ftXXot , other, and rpbwot, manner), a name
applied by J. J. Berxelius to the property possessed by certain
substances of existing in different modifications. Custom has
to some extent restricted its use to inorganic chemistry; the
corresponding property of organic compounds being generally
termed isomerism (q.v.). Conspicuous examples are afforded by
oxygen, carbon, boron, silicon, phosphorus, mercuric oxide and
iodide.
ALLOWANCE (from "allow," derived through O. Fr.
alouer from the two LaL origins adlaudare, to praise, and
allocate, to assign a place; so that the English word combined
the general idea of "assigning with approval"), the action of
allowing, or the- thing allowed; particularly, a certain limited
apportionment of money or food and diet (see Dietary).
In commercial usage "allowance" signifies the deduction
made from the gross weight of goods to make up for the weight
of the box or package, waste, breakages, &c. Allowance, which
is customary in most industries, varies according to the trade,
district or country; e.g. in the coal trade it is customary for the
merchant to receive from the pit 21 cwts. of coal for every ton
purchased by him, the difference of 1 cwt. being the allowance
for the purpose of making good the waste caused through tran-
shipment, screening and cartage (see Take and Tret.)
ALLOXAN, or Mesoxalyl Urea, QH,NA or
C0 ^NH^O^ C0 - ^ delation Product of uric acid, being
obtained from it by the action of cold nitric add,
QHjNiO, + HtO + 0- QHsNA + CO(NH,)s. It crystallises
from water in colourless rhombic prisms, containing four
molecules of water of crystallisation, and possesses a very acid
reaction. It serves as the starting-point for the preparation of
many related substances. Zinc and hydrochloric acid in
the cold convert it into alloxantin (q.v.), hydroxylamine gives
nitroso -barbituric acid, C«H|NsO»:NOH, baryta water gives
alloxanic acid, QILjNtOi, hot dilute nitric add oxidizes it to
parabanic add (q.v.) , hot potassium hydroxide solution hydrolyses
it to urea and mesoxalic add (q.v.) and zinc and not hydrochloric
add convert it into dialuric add, QrLjNiOi* M. Nencki has
shown that alloxan combines with thiourea in alcoholic solu-
tion, in the presence of sulphur dioxide to form pseudothiouric
add, C1H4N4SO1. Methyl and dimethylalloxans are also known,
the former being obtained on oxidation of methyl uric add, and
the latter on oxidation of caffeine (q.v.).
ALLOXANTIN, QH^NASHsO, a product obtained by the
combination of alloxan and dialuric add, probably possessing
the constitution
NH-CO CO-NH
CO C(OH)— O-CH CO
NH-O)
CO-NH
one of the three molecules of water being possibly <
It forms small hard prisms which become red on expos -ir t»
air containing ammonia, owing to the formation of murexA
(ammonium purpiirate),C«IL)(NHi)N»Ob. It may alsobeotecae*
by the action of sulphuretted hydrogen on ■ifn«» The lets-
methyl derivative, amalic add, C*(CHj) 4 N 4 Or, has been p fej ujcl
by oxidizing caffeine (q.v .) with chlorine water, and forms cokv-
less crystals which are only slightly soluble in hot water, lar
formation of murexide is used as a test for the presence of ltk
add, which on evaporation with dilute nitric acid gives sBwim?-!
and by the addition of ammonia to the residue the porpJr rrc
colour of murexide becomes apparent.
ALLOTS (through the Fr. aloyer t from Lat. aUigart, u
combine), a term generally applied to the intimate mixfc^o
obtained by melt ng together two or more metals, and aBroqr.
the mass to so dify. It may conveniently be extended ts
similar mixtures of sulphur and selenium or tellurium, of bisects
and sulpb- %'of copper and cuprous oxide, and of iron and carboe.
in fact ti all cases in which substances can be made to nix is
varying proportions without very marked indication of ches&cti
action. The term "alloy" does not necessarily imply abcehcrx
to the laws of definite and multiple proportion or even uniformly
throughout the material; but some alloys are homogeoeoa
and some are chemical compounds. In what follows we shil
confine our attention prindpally to metallic alloys.
If we melt copper and add to it about 30 % of zinc, or so \
of tin, we obtain uniform liquids which when solidified are be
well-known substances brass and bell-metal. These nhntvr*
are for all practical purposes new metals. The difference is :k
appearance of brass and copper is familiar to everyone; brass 3
also much harder than copper and much more suitable for brt
turned in a lathe. Similarly, bell-metal is harder, more sonens
and more brittle than either of its components. It is alcas:
impossible "by mechanical means to detect the separate av
gredients in such an alloy; we may cut or file or polish it wi&x:
discovering any lack of homogeneousness. But it is not per-
missible to call brass a chemical compound, for we can laijr>
alter its percentage composition without the substance kwxf
the properties characteristic of brass; the properties chase;
more or less continuously, the colour, for example, becoc^g
redder with decrease in the percentage of zinc, and a paier
yellow when there is more zinc. The possibility of contimso^f
varying the percentage composition suggests analogy between ta
alloy and a solution, and A. Matthiessen (Phtl. Trams., iSeei
applied the term " solidified solutions " to alloys. Regarded is
descriptive of the genesis of an alloy from a uniform hows'
containing two or more metals, the term is not incorrect, and it
may have acted as a signpost towards profitable methods cf
research. But modern work has shown that, although alto?*
sometimes contain solid solutions, the solid alloy as a whole a
often far more like a conglomerate rock than a uniform sohitioe.
In fact the uniformity of brass and bell-metal is only superficial,
if we adopt the methods described in the artide Metaixograpst.
and if, after polishing a plane face on a bit of gun-metal, we etc*
away the surface layer and examine the new surface with a lent
or a microscope, we find a complex pattern of at least tm
materials. Fig. 1 (Plate) is from a photograph of a bronze
containing 23-3 % by weight of tin. The add used to etch tke
surface has darkened the parts richest in copper, wiule these
richest in tin remained white. The two ingredients revealed by
this process are not pure copper and pure tin, but each materia]
contains both metals. In this case the white tin-rich portions
are themselves a complex that can be resolved into two sub-
stances by a higher magnification. The majority of alloys,
when examined thus, prove to be complexes of two or more
materials, and the patterns showing the distribution of these
materials throughout the alloy are of a most varied character.
It is certain that the structure existing in the alloy is closely
connected with the mechanical properties, such as hardness,
toughness, rigidity, and so on, that make particular alloys
valuable in the arts, and many efforts have been made to trace
this connexion. These efforts have, in some cases, been xtry
ALLOYS
Plate I.
ALLOYS.
Fig. i. — (Hcycock & Neville. Phil, pans.) Bronx©
containing 23.3% of tin. Slowly cotfTfed. Magnified
18 diameters. Dark parts are rich in cop>er, light parts
ALLOYS.
Fie. 3. — (F. Osmond.) Silver-copper [copper = 15%.
silver =85%! reheated to purple colour. Magnified 600
GUN-MAKING.
Fig. 5. — Gun steel, C. =0.30%. From top of ingot as
cast, magnified 29 diameters. Whites, ferrite; blacks,
carbide.
ALLOYS.
Fig. a. — (Ewing & Rosenhain, Phil. Trans.) Lead-tin
eutectic. Magnified 7SO diameters.
ALLOYS.
Fig. 4. — (Heycock & Neville, Phil. Trans.) Copper-
tin [tin 27.7%1 chilled at 731 C. oefore complete solidifi-
cation. Magnified 18 diameters. Blacks rich, whites less
rich in coooer.
GUN-MAKING.
Fig. 6. — Gun steel, C. =0.30%. From bottom of ingot
as cast, magnified 29 diameters. Whites, ferrite; blacks,
carbide.
GUN-MAKING.
Fig. 7. — Gun steel, C. -0.30%. Top of ingot, forged
ind annealed, magnified 29 diameters. Whites, ferrite;
slacks, carbide.
PHOTOMICROGRAPHS OF
(See Articles Metallography,
f ' GUN-MAKING.
Fig. 8.— Gun steel, C. =0.30%. Bottom of ingot,
forged and annealed, magnified 29 diameters. Whites,
ferrite; blacks carbide.
ALLOYS AND METALS.
Alloys, Iron and Steel.)
Plate IL
ALLOYS
Fig.
GUN-MAKING.
9. — Gun steel, C. =0.30%. Forged and annealed,
magnified 1000 diameters, showing pearlite.
Fig.
GUN-MAKING.
10. — Gun steel, C. =0.30%. Oil hardened
annealed, magnified so diameters.
IRON AND STEEL.
Fig. 11. — (Osmond.) Pearlite, steel (carbon about
1%) forged and annealed at 8oo° C. Magnified 1000
diameters.
IRON AND STEEL.
Fig. 12. — (Stoughton.) Meshes of pearlite in a r
work of ferrite, from hypo-eutectoid steel. Ma*r ■;
250 diameters.
IRON AND STEEL.
Fig. 13.— (Stoughton.) Meshes of pearlite in a network
of cementite from hyper-eutectoid steel. Magnified 250
diameters.
IRON AND STEEL.
Fig. 14. — (Osmond & Cartaud.) Martensite.
Magnified 250 diameters.
IRON AND STEEL.
Fig. is. — (Osmond.) Martensite (black) in au\tea-
site (white). Steel (carbon about 1.5^) quenched .t
1050 C. in ice-cold water. Magnified 250 diameters.
PHOTOMICROGRAPHS OF ALLOYS AND METALS.
(See Articles Metallography, Alloys, iRo^and Steel.)
ALLOYS
705
1 successful; for example, in the case of steel, which it an alloy of
iron and carbon, a microscopical examination gives valuable
1 information concerning the suitability of a sample of steel for
special purposes. .
Mixture by fusion is the general method of producing an
alloy, but it is not the only method possible. It would seem,
indeed, that any process by which the particles of two metals
are intimately mingled and brought into close contact, so that
diffusion of one metal into the other can take place, is likely to
result in the formation of an alloy. For example, if vapours of
the volatile metals cadmium, sine and magnesium are allowed
to act on platinum or palladium, alloys are produced. The
methods of manufacture of steel by cementation, case-hardening
and the Harvey process are important operations which appear
to depend on the diffusion of the carburetting material into the
solid metal When a solution of silver nitrate is poured on to
metallic mercury, the mercury replaces the silver in the solution,
forming nitrate of mercury, and the silver is precipitated, it
does not, however, appear as pure metallic silver, but in the
form of crystalline needles of an alloy of silver and mercury.
F. B. Mylius and O. Fromm have shown that alloys may be
precipitated from dilute solutions by sine, cadmium, tin, lead
and copper. Thus a strip of sine plunged into a solution of silver
sulphate, containing not more than 0*03 gramme of silver in
the litre, becomes covered with a flocculent precipitate which
is a true alloy of silver and sine, and in the same way, when
copper is precipitated from its sulphate by sine, the alloy formed
is brass. They have also formed in this way certain alloys of
definite composition, such as AuCda, Cu,Cd, and, more interesting
still, CutSn. A very similar fact, that brass may be formed by
electrodeposition from a solution containing sine and copper,
has long been known. W. V. Spring has shown that by com-
pressing a finely divided mixture of 15 parts of bismuth, 8 parts
of lead, 4 parts of tin and 3 parts of cadmium, an alloy is pro
duced which melts at too* C, that is, much below the melting-
point of any of the four metals. But these methods of forming
alloys, although they suggest questions of great interest, cannot
receive further discussion here.
Our knowledge of the nature of solid alloys has been much
enlarged by a careful study of the process of solidification.
Let us suppose that a molten mixture of two substances A and
B, which at a sufficiently high temperature form a uniform
liquid, and which do not combine to form definite compounds, is
slowly cooled until it becomes wholly solid. The phenomena
which succeed each other are then very similar, whether A and
B are two metals, such as lead and tin or silver and copper, or
are a pair of fused salts, or are water and common salt. All
these mixtures when solidified may fairly be termed alloys. 1
If a mixture of A and B be melted and then allowed to cool, a
thermometer immersed in the mixture will indicate a gradually
falling temperature. But when solidification commences, the
thermometer will cease to fall, it may even rise slightly, and the
temperature will remain almost constant for a short time. This
halt in the cooling, due to the heat evolved in the solidification
of the first crystals that form in the liquid, is called the freezing-
point of the mixture; the freezing-point can generally be
observed with considerable accuracy. In the case of a pure
substance, and of a certain small class of mixtures, there is no
further fall in temperature until the substance has become
completely solid, but, in the case of most mixtures, after the
freezing-point has been reached the temperature soon begins to
fall again, and as the amount of solid increases the temperature
becomes lower and lower. There may be other halts in the
cooling, both before and after complete solidification, due to
evolution of heat in the mixture. These halts in temperature
that occur during the cooling of a mixture should be carefully
noted, as they give valuable information concerning the physical
and chemical changes that are taking place. If we determine
the freezing-points of a number of mixtures varying in composi-
tion from pure A to pure B, we can plot the freezing-point curve.
1 The inttructive caw of the solidification of a solution of common
salt in water is discussed in the article Fusion.
,10/*
In such a curve the percentage composition can be plotted
horizontally and the temperature of the freezing-point vertically,
as in fig. 5. In such a diagram, a point P defines a particular
mixture, both as to percentage, composition and temperature;
a vertical line through P corresponds to the mixture at all
possible temperatures, the point Q being its freezing-point. In
the case of two substances which neither form compounds nor
dissolve each other in the solid state, the complete freezing-point
curve takes theform shown in fig.5. Itconsistsof two branches AC
and BC, which meet in a lowest point C. It will be seen that
as we increase the percentage of B from nothing up to that of
the mixture C, the freezing-point becomes lower and lower, but
that if we further increase the percentage of B in the mixture,
the freezing-point rises. This agrees with the well-known fact
that the presence of an impurity in a substance depresses its
melting-point. The mixture C has a lower freezing or melting
point than that of any other mixture; it is called the eutectic
mixture. All the mixtures whose composition lies between that
of A and C deposit crystals of pure A when they begin to solidify,
while mixtures between C and B in composition deposit crystals
of pure B. Let us con-
sider a little more closely
the solidification of the
mixture represented by
the vertical line PQRS.
As it cools from P to Q
the mixture remains
wholly liquid, but when
the temperature Q is
reached there is a halt
in the cooling, due to
the formation of crystals wfc .
of A. The cooling soon
recommences and these
crystals continue to
form, but at lower and
lower temperatures be- • #w««<fB
cause the still liquid Fio. 5.
part is becoming richer
inB. This process goes on until the state of the remaining liquid
is represented by the point C. Now crystals of B begin to form,
simultaneously with the A crystals, and the composition of the
remaining liquid does not alter as the solidification progresses.
Consequently the temperature does not change and there is
another well-marked halt in the cooling, and this halt lasts until
the mixture has become wholly solid. The corresponding
changes in the case of the mixture TUVW are easily understood
—the first halt at U, due to the crystallization of pure B, will
probably occur at a different temperature, but the second halt,
due to the simultaneous crystallization of A and B, will always
occur at the same temperature whatever the composition of the
mixture. It is evident that every mixture except the eutectic
mixture C will have two halts in its cooling, and that its solidifica-
tion will take place in two stages. Moreover, the three solids
S,D and W will differ in minute structure and therefore, probably,
in mechanical properties. All mixtures whose temperature lies
above the line ACB are wholly liquid, hence this line is often
called the " liquidus "; all mixtures at temperatures below that
of the horizontal line through C are wholly solid, hence this line
is sometimes called the " solidus," but in more complex cases
the solidus is often curved. At temperatures between the
solidus and the liquidus a mixture is partly solid and partly
liquid. This general case has been discussed at length because
a careful study of it will much facilitate the comprehension of
the similar but more complicated cases that occur in tbe ex-
amination of alloys. A great many mixtures of metals have
been examined in the above-mentioned way.
Fig. 6 gives the freezing-point diagram for alloys of lead and
tin. We see in it exactly the features described above. The two
sloping lines cutting at the eutectic point are the freezing-point
curves of alloys that, when they begin to solidify, deposit crystals
of lead and tin respectively. The horizontal line through the
706
ALLOYS
eutectic pornt gives the second halt in cooling, due to the simul-
taneous formation of lead crystals and tin crystals. In the case
of this pair of metals, or indeed of any metallic alloy, we cannot
see the crystals forming, nor can we easily filter them off and
examine them apart from the liquid, although this has been done
in a few cases. But if we polish the solid alloys, etch them if
necessary, and examine them microscopically, we shall find that
alloys on the lead side of the diagram consist of comparatively
large crystals of lead embedded in a minute complex, which is
due to the simultaneous crystallization of the two metals during
the solidification at the eutectic temperature. If we examine
alloys on the tin side we shall find large crystals of tin embedded
in the same complex. The eutectic alloy itself, fig. a (Plate),
shows the minute complex of the tin-lead eutectic, photographed
by J. A. Ewing and W. Rosen*
i
hain, and fig. 3 (Plate), photo-
graphed by F. Osmond, shows
1P**^^^_ m J 108 »tructure of a silver-copper
I ^^ "^w ^^ 000 alloy containing considerably
J r*,~n* m ore silver than the eutectic
Here, the large dark masses are
the silver or silver-rich substance
that crystallised above the eutectic
temperature, and the more minute
black and white complex represents the eutectic, It is not
safe to assume that the two ingredients we see are pure silver
and pure copper; on the contrary, there is reason to think that
the crystals of silver contain some copper uniformly diffused
through them, and vice versa. It Is, however, not possible to
detect the copper in the silver by means of the microscope.
This uniform distribution of a solid substance throughout the
mass of another, so as to form a homogeneous material, Is called
14 solid solution," and we may say that solid silver can dissolve
copper. Solid solutions are probably very common in alloys,
so that when an alloy of two metals shows two constituents under
the microscope it is never safe to infer, without further evidence,
that these are the two pure metals. Sometimes the whole alloy
is a uniform solid solution. This is the case with the copper-tin
alloys containing less than 9% by weight of tin; a microscopic
examination reveals only one material, a copper-like substance,
the tin having disappeared, being in solution in the copper.
Much information as to the nature of an alloy can be obtained
by placing several small ingots of the same alloy in a furnace
which is above the melting-point of the alloy, and allowing the
temperature to fall slowly and uniformly. We then extract
one ingot after another at successively lower temperatures and
chill each ingot by dropping it into water or by some other method
of very rapid cooling. The chilling stereotypes the structure
existing in the ingot at the moment it was withdrawn from the
furnace, and we can afterwards study this structure by means
of the microscope. We thus learn that the bronzes referred to
above, although chemically uniform when solid, are not so when
they begin to solidify, but that the liquid deposits crystals
richer in copper than itself, and therefore that the residual
liquid becomes richer in tin. Consequently, as the final solid
is uniform, the crystals formed at first must change in composition
at a later stage. We learn also that solid solutions which exist at
high temperatures often break up into two materials as they cool;
for example, the bronze of fig. x, which in that figure shows
two materials so plainly, if chilled at a somewhat higher tempera-
ture but when it was already solid, is found to consist of only
one material; it is then a uniform solid solution. The difference
between softness and hardness in ordinary sted is due to the
permanence of a solid solution of carbon in iron if the steel has
been chilled or very rapidly cooled, while if the steel is slowly
cooled this solid solution breaks up into a minute complex of two
substances which is called pearlite. The pearlite when highly
magnified somewhat resembles the lead-tin eutectic of fig. a
(Plate). In the case of steel (see Iron and Steel) the solid
solution is very hard, while the pearlite complex is much softer.
In the case of some bronzes, for example that with about 25%
of tin, the solid solution is soft, and the complex into which it
breaks up by slow cooling is much harder, so that the sasse pa-
cess of heating and chilling which hardens steel win soitca ai
bronze.
If we melt an alloy and chill it before it has wholly soB£»si
we often get evidence of the crystalline character of the nirf
matter which first forms. Fig. 4 (Plate) is the pattern tad
in a bronze containing 37*7% of tin when so treated. The das,
regularly oriented crystal skeletons were already soBd at tx
moment of chilling; they are rich in copper. The lighter pet
surrounding them was liquid before the chill; it is rich ia aa.
This alloy, if allowed to solidify completely before chilling, tea
into a uniform solid solution, and at still lower temperatsa
the solid solution breaks up into a pearlite complex. The analogy
between the breaking up of a solid solution on coding and Jk
formation of a eutectic is obvious. Iron and phosphorus e=s
to form a solid solution which breaks up on cooling into a pearE?
Other cases could be quoted, but enough has been said to ska*
the importance of solid solutions and their influence on tk
mechanical properties of alloys. These uniform solid sahmwa
must not be mistaken for chemical compounds; they csa
within limits, vary in composition like an ordinary fiqea*
solution. But the occasional or indeed frequent extsten
of chemical compounds in alloys has now been plated beyW
doubt.
We can sometimes obtain definite compounds in a pure sa*
by the action of appropriate solvents which dissolve the res
of the alloy and do not attack the crystals of the compocd
Thus, a number of copper-tin alloys when digested with hydro-
chloric add leave the same crystalline residue, which on anataa
proves to be the compound CuaSn. The bodies SoNa*, KXav
SnNa«, compounds of iron and molybdenum and many ©the?
substances, have also been isolated in this way. The freetaf-
point curve sometimes indicates the existence of chemical caa*
pounds. The simple type of curve, such as that of lead aad as,
fig. 6, consisting of two downward sloping branches meeting a
the eutectic point, and that of thallium and tin, the tipper cant
of fig. 7, certainly give no indication of chrmiral cxtmbiaatkB.
But the curves are not always so simple as the above. The
lower curve of fig. 7 gives the freezing-point curve of merest?
and thallium; here A and E are the
melting-points of pure mercury and
pure thallium, and the branches AB
and ED do not cut each other, but
cut an intermediate rounded branch
BCD. There are thus two eutectic
alloys B and D, and the alloys with
compositions between B and D have
higher melting-points. The summit
C of the branch BCD occurs at a
percentage exactly corresponding to
the formula Hg*TL It is probable
that all the alloys of compositions
between B and D, when they begin
to solidify, deposit crystals of the
compound; the lower eutectic B
probably corresponds to a solid complex of mercury and tht
compound. The point B is at - 6o° C, the lowest temperatoa
at which any metallic substance is known to exist in the Eqed
state. The higher eutectic D may correspond to a complex d
solid rtmiimm and the compound; but the possible emifw*
of solid solutions makes further investigation necessary here.
The curves of fig. 7 were determined by N. S. Kumakow sad
N. A. Puschin. Sometimes a freezing-point curve contains awt
than one intermediate summit, so that more than one compmsd
is indicated. For example, in the curve for gold-aliiniinraav
ignoring minor singularities, we find two intermediate summiu,
one at the percentage Au»Al, and another at the percenttje
AuAlt. Microscopic examination fully confirms the existence
of these compounds. The substance AuAlt is the most remark-
able compound of two metals that has so far been discovered;
although it contains so much aluminium its melting-poiat s
as high as that of gold. It also possesses a splendid purpw
Fio. 7.
ALLOYS
707
colour, more remarkable than that of any other metal or alloy.
Many other inter-metallic compounds have been indicated by
summits in freezing-point curves. For example, the system
sodium-mercury has a remarkable summit at the composition
NaHgi. This compound melts at 350° G, a temperature far
above the melting-point of either sodium or mercury. In the
system potassium-mercury, the compound KHg* is similarly
indicated. In the curve for -sodium-cadmium, the compound
NaCds is plainly shown. These three examples are taken from
the work of N. S. Kumakow. Various compounds of the alkali
metals with bismuth, antimony, tin and lead have been prepared
In a pure state. Such are the compounds SbNa*, BiNa*, PbNat,
SoNai. Of these, the first three are well indicated on the
freezing-point curves. The intermediate summits occurring
in the freezing-point curves of alloys are usually rounded; this
feature is believed to be due to the partial decomposition of the
compound which takes place when it melts. The formulae of
the group of substances last mentioned are in harmony with
the ordinary views of chemists as to valency, but the formulae
NaHgs, NaCd*, NaTl* AuAlt are more surprising. They indicate
the great gaps in our present knowledge of the subject of valency.
We must not take it for granted, when the freezing-point curve
gives no indication of the compound, that the compound does
not exist in the solid alloy. For example, the compound CuiSn
is not indicated in the freezing-point curve, and indeed a liquid
alloy of this percentage does not begin to solidify by the formation
of crystals of Cu»Sn; the liquid solidifies completely to a uniform
solid solution, and only at a lower temperature does this change
into crystals of the compound, the transformation being accom-
panied by a considerable evolution of heat Until recently the
vast subject of inter-metallic compounds has been an unopened
book to chemists. But the subject is now being vigorously
studied, and, apart from its importance as a branch of descriptive
chemistry, it is throwing light, and promises to throw more,
on obscure parts of chemical theory.
The graphical representation of the properties of alloys can be
extended so as to record all the changes, thermal and chemical,
which the alloy undergoes after, as well as before, solidification,
including the formation and breaking up of solid solutions and
compounds. For an example of such a diagram, see the Bakerian
Lecture. 1903, PkU. Trans., A. 346. The Phase Rule of Willard
Gibbs, especially as developed by Bakhuis Roozeboom, is a most
useful guide in such investigations.
So far we have been considering alloys containing two metals;
the phenomena they present are by no means simple But when
three or more metals are present, as is often the case in useful
alloys, the phenomena are much more complicated. With three
component metals the complete diagram giving the variations in
any property must be in three dimensions, although by the use of
contour lines the essential facts can be represented in a plane
diagram. The following method, depend-
ing on the constancy of the sum of the
perpendiculars from any point on to the
sides of an equilateral triangle, can be
adopted:— Let ABC (fig. 8) be an equi-
lateral triangle, the angular points corre-
sponding to the three pure metals A, B, C.
; Then the composition of any alloy can be
represented by a point P, so chosen that
the perpendicular Pa on to the side BC
gives the percentage of A in the alloy, and the perpendiculars
Pb and Pc give the percentages of B and C respectively.
Points on the side AB will correspond to binary alloys
containing only A and B, and so on. If now we wish to
represent the variations in some property, such as fusibility,
we determine the freezing-points of a number of alloys dis-
tributed fairly uniformly over the area of the triangle, and,
at each point corresponding to an alloy, we erect an ordinate
at right angles to the plane of the paper and proportional
in length to the freezing temperature of that alloy. We can
then draw a continuous surface through the summits of all
these ordinates, and so obtain a freezing-point surface, or
liquid us; points above this surface will correspond to wholly
Fie. 8.
liquid alloys. The ternary alloys containing bismuth, tin and
lead have been studied in this way by F. Charpy'and by E. S.
Shepherd. We have here a comparatively simple case, as the
metals do not form compounds. The solid alloy consists of
crystals of pure tin in juxtaposition with crystals of almost pure
lead and bismuth, these two metals dissolving each other in solid
solution to the extent of a few per cent only. If now we cut the
freezing-point surface by planes parallel to the base ABC we get
curves giving us all the alloys whose freezing-point is the same;
these isothermala can be projected on to the plane of the triangle
and are seen as dotted lines in fig. 9. The freezing surface, in
this case, consists of three sheets each starting from an angular
point of the surface, that is, from the freezing-point of a pure
metal The sheets meet in pairs along three lines which them-
selves meet in a point In fig. 9, due to F.Charpy, these lines are
projected on to the plane of the triangle as Ee, E'e and E'e.
The area of the triangle is thus divided into three regions. The
region PbEeE' contains all the alloys that commence their
solidification by the crystallization of lead; similarly, the other
two regions correspond to the initial crystallization of bismuth
and tin respectively; these areas are the projections of the three
sheets of the freezing-point surface. The points E, E', E' are
the eutectics of binary alloys. Alloys represented by points on
Ee, when they begin to solidify, deposit crystals of lead and
bismuth simultaneously; Ee is a eutectic line, as also are E'e and
E'e. The alloy of the point e is the ternary eutectic; it deposits
the three metals simultaneously during the whole period of its
solidfication and solidifies at a constant temperature. As the
lines of the surface which correspond to Ee, &c, slope downwards
to their common intersection it follows that the alloy e has the
lowest freezing-point of any mixture of the three metals; this
freezing-point is 06 C, and the alloy e contains about 32% of
lead. 15*5% of tin and 53*5% of bismuth.
It is evident that any other property can be represented by
similar diagrams. For example, we can construct the curve of
conductivity of alloys of two metals or the surface of
conductivity of ternary alloys, and so on for any measurable
property.
The electrical conductivity of a metal is often very much
decreased by alloying with it even small quantities of another
metal. This is so when gold and silver are alloyed with each
other, and is true in the case of alloys of copper. When a pure
metal is cooled to a very low temperature Its electrical con-
ductivity is greatly increased, but this is not the case with an
alloy. Lord Rayleigh has pointed out that the difference may
arise from the heterogeneity of alloys. When a current is passed
through a solid alloy, a series of Peltier effects, proportional to
the current, are set up between the particles of the different
metals, and these create an opposing electromotive force which
is indistinguishable experimentally from a resistance. If the
alloy were a true chemical compound the counteracting electro-
motive force should not occur; experiments in this direction are
much needed.
708
ALLPORT
Sir William Chandler Roberts-Austen has shown that in the
case of molten alloys the conduction of electricity is apparently
metallic, no transfer of matter attending the passage of the
current. A group of bodies may, however, be yet discovered
between alloys and electrolytes in which evidence may be found
of some gradual change from wholly metallic to electrolytic
conduction. A. P. Laurie has determined the electromotive
force of a series of copper-zinc, copper-tin and gold-tin alloys,
and as the result of his experiments he points to the existence of
definite compounds. Explosive alloys have been formed by
H. St Claire Deville and H. J. Debray in the case of rhodium,
iridium and ruthenium, which evolve heat when they are
dissolved in sine. When the- solution of the rhodium-sine alloy
is treated with hydrochloric add, a residue is left which under-
goes a change with explosive violence if it be heated in vacuo to
400°. The alloy is then insoluble in " aqua regia." The metals
have therefore passed into an insoluble form by a comparatively
slight elevation of temperature.
Metals do not appear to have been studied from the point of
view of surfusion until 1880, when A. D. van Riemsdijk showed
fhiftn^u, that gold and silver would both pass below their actual
freezing-points without bccomingsolid. Roberts-Austen
pointed out that surfusion might be easily measured in metals
and in alloys by the sensitive method of recording pyrometry
perfected by him. He also showed that the crossing of curves
of solubility, which had already been observed by H. le Chatelier
and by A. C. A. Dahms in the case of salts, could be measured
in the lead-tin alloys. The investigation of the mutual relations
of partially miscible liquids, due to P. Alexejew, D. P. Konovalow,
and to P. E. Dudaux, was extended to alloys by Alder Wright.
The addition of a third metal will sometimes render the mixture
of two other metals homogeneous. C. T. Heycock and F. H.
Neville proved that when one metal is alloyed with a small
quantity of some other metal, the solidification obeys the
law of F. M. Raoult. Their experiments, although not con-
dusive, appear to indicate that the molecule of a metal when
in dilute solution often consists of one atom. There are, however,
numerous exceptions to this rule. In the cases of aluminium
dissolved in tin and of mercury or bismuth in lead, it is at least
probable that the molecules in solution are Ala, Hgj and Bis
respectivdy, while tin in lead appears to form a molecule of the
typeSn*.
Since 1875 increased attention has been devoted to the
applications of the rarer metals. Thus nickd, which was formerly
used in the manufacture of " German silver " as a
substitute for silver, is now widdy employed in naval
construction and in the manufacture of steel armour-
plate and projectiles. Alloyed with copper, it is used
for the envelopes of bullets. A nickel steel containing 36 % of
nickel has the property of retaining an almost constant volume
when heated or cooled through a considerable range of tempera-
ture; it is therefore useful for the construction of pendulums
and for measures of length. Another steel containing 45% of
nickd has, like platinum, the same coefficient of expansion as
glass. It can therefore be employed, instead of that costly
metal, in the construction of incandescent lamps where a wire
has to be fused into the glass to establish dectric connexion
between the inside and the outside of the bulb. Manganese not
only forms with iron several alloys of great interest, but alloyed
with copper it is used for electrical purposes, as an alloy can thus
be obtained with an electrical resistance that does not alter with
change of temperature; this alloy, called manganin, is used in
the construction of resistance-boxes. Chromium also, in com-
paratively small quantities, is taking its place as a constituent
of steel axles and tires, and in the manufacture of tool-sted.
Steels containing as much as 12% of tungsten are now used as a
material for tools intended for turning and planing iron and steel.
The peculiarity of these steels is that no quenching or tempering
is required. They are normally hard and remain so, even at a faint
red heat; much deeper cuts can therefore be taken at a high
speed without blunting the tool. Vanadium, molybdenum and
titanium may be expected soon to play an important part in the
constitution of steel Titanium is alloyed la small <
with aluminium for use in naval architecture. Ahuninnx*, whea
alloyed with a few per cent of magnesium, gains greatly a
rigidity while remaining very light; this alloy, under the aaae
of magnalinm, is coming into use for small articles in which
lightness and rigidity have to be combined. One of the most
interesting amongst recent alloys is Conrad Heusler's afloy at
copper, aluminium and manganese, which possesses ;
properties far in excess of those of the constituent 1
The importance is now widdy recognized of
the mechanical properties of alloys in connexion with the
freezing-point curves to which reference has already been made,
but the subject is a very complicated one, and all that seed he
said here, is that when considered in relation to their mdtisg-
points the pure metals are consistently weaker than alloys* The
presence in an alloy of a eutectic which solidifies at a much lower
temperature than the main mass, implies a great reduction 2s
tenadty, especially if it is to be used above the ordinary tem-
perature as in the case- of pipes conveying super-heated steam
It has also been stated that alloys of metals with similar mritiaf-
points have higher tenadty when the atomic volumes of the
constituent metals differ than when they are nearly the same.
Refxrbncbs.— Alloys have formed a subject of reports to srrenl
scientific societies. Sir W. C. Roberts-Austen's six Reports ( 1B91 10
1004) to the Alloys Research Committee of the Institetioa of
Mechanical Engineers, London, the last report betas condaded by
William Gowland; the Cantor Lectures on Alloy* detwerod at fh
Society of Arts and the Contribution a VHude des otttuu I toot 1.
published by the SoctfU d' encouragement pour C industry mmh*ms!t
under the direction of the Commission des aUiates (1696-1900)
should be consulted. The theoretical aspect is discussed ia Lin
Guillet's Etude theorique des alliages mitaUiques (1904). W. T.
Brannt's The Metallic Alloys (1896); Roberts-Austen Wstfrorfacfts*
to the Study of Metallurgy (1902); and R. G. Thurston's MoJtnoit
of Engineering, should be consulted for the more practical decafe.
Recent progress is reported in the scientific periodicals, especafiy
in The Iron and Steel Metallurgist, formerly The MeUUogrepkui
(Boston, Mass.), and Mctatluroie (Halle). Important nxmoin by
Swing and Rosenhain. and by C. T. Heycock and F. H. Neville m tar
Philosophical Transactions, by N. S. Kurnakow in the Zeitscinft fur
anorganische Chemie, and by E. S. Shepherd in the Journal of Pfraxal
Chemistry, may also be consulted. (W. C. R.-A. ; F. ft. Kt)
ALLPORT, SIR JAMES JOSEPH (1811-1802), English raOway
manager, born on the 27th of February 181 1, was a son of Wiffiaa
AUport, of Birmingham, and was assodated with railways free
an early period of his life. In 1843 he became general manager
of the Birmingham and Derby railway, and in the following year
succeeded to the same position on the Newcastle and Darlingtas
line. Six years later he assumed the charge of the Manchester,
Sheffidd and Lincolnshire (now the Great Central) railway, and
finally, in 1853, was appointed to the general managership of the
Midland railway— an office which he held continuously, witk
the exception of a few years between 1857 and i860, when he was
managing director to Palmer's Shipbuilding Company at Jarre*,
until his retirement in 1880, when he became a director. Dvrai
these twenty-seven years the Midland grew to be one of the most
important railway systems in England, partly by the absorpdoe
of smaller lines and partly by the construction of two msis
extensions— on the south to London and on the north to Carfesk
—whereby it obtained an independent through-route betwees
the metropolis and the north. In the railway world Sir Jams
Allport was known as a keen tactician and a vigorous fighter, sns
he should be remembered as the pioneer of cheap and comfortable
railway travelling. He was the first to appreciate the importance
of the third-class passenger as a source of revenue, and accord-
ingly, in 1872, he, inaugurated the policy— subsequently adopted
more or less completdy by all the railways of Great Britain—
of carrying third-class passengers in well-fitted carriages at the
uniform rate of one penny a mile on all trains. The diminutioa
in the receipts from second-class passengers, which was one oi
the results, was regarded by some authorities as a sign of tat
unwisdom of his action, but to him it appeared a sufboeai
reason for the abolition of second-class carriages, which there-
fore disappeared from the Midland system in 1875, the first-
class fares bdng at the same time substantially reduced
ALLPORT— ALLSTON
709
He was also the first to introduce the Pullman ear on British
railways. Allport received the honour of knighthood in 1884.
He died in London on the 25th of April 1892.
ALLPORT. SAMUEL (1816-1807), English petrologist, brother
of the above, was born in Birmingham on the 23rd of January
1 8 1 6, and educated in that city. Although occupied in business
during the greater portion of his life, his leisure was given to
geological studies, and when residing for a short period in Bahia,
S. America, he made observations on the geology, published by
the Geological Society in 1 860. His chief work was in microscopic
petrology, to the study of which he was attracted by the investiga-
tions of Dr H. C. Sorby; and he became one of the pioneers of
this branch of geology, preparing his own rock-sections with
remarkable skill. The basalts of S. Staffordshire, the diorites of
Warwickshire, the phonolite of the Wolf Rock (to which he first
directed attention), the pitchstones of Arran and the altered
igneous rocks near the Land's End wereinvestigatedand described
by him during the years 1860-1879 in the Quarterly Journal of
the Geological Society and in the Geological kfagaiinc. In '1880
he was appointed librarian in Mason College, a post which he
relinquished on account of ill-health in 1887. In that year the
Lyell medal was awarded to him by the Geological Society. A
few years later he retired to Cheltenham, where he died on the
7th of July 1897.
ALL-ROUND ATHLETICS. Specialization in athletic sports,
although always existent, is to a great extent a modern product.
In ancient times athletes were encouraged to excel in several
branches of sport, often quite opposite in character. Thus the
athlete held in highest honour at the Olympic Games (see
Games, Classical) was the winner of the pentathlon, which
consisted of running, jumping, throwing the javelin and the
discus, and wrestling. All-round championships have existed for
many years both in Scotland and Ireland, and in America there
are both national and sectional championships. The American
national championship was instituted in 1884, the winner being
the athlete who succeeds in obtaining the highest marks in the
following eleven events; zoo yards run; putting 16 lb shot;
running high jump; half-mile walk; throwing 16 lb hammer;
120 yards hurdle race; pole vault; throwing 56 lb weight;
one mile run; running broad jump; quarter-mile run. In each
event 1000 points are allowed for equalling the " record," and
an increasing number of points is taken off for performances
below " record," down to a certain "standard," below which
the competitor scores nothing. For example, in the 100 yards
run the time of 0$ seconds represents 1000 points; that of xo
seconds scores 958, or 42 points less; 10& seconds scores 916,
&c; and below 14 J seconds the competitor scores nothing.
Should the record be broken 42 points are added for each
£ second. (See also Athletic Sports.)
ALL SAINTS, FESTIVAL OP (Festum omnium sanctorum),
also formerly known as All Hallows, or Hallowmas, a feast
of the Catholic Church celebrated on the 1st of November in
honour of all the saints, known or unknown. In the Roman
Catholic Church it is a festival of the first rank, with a vigil and
an octave. Common commemorations, by several churches, of
the deaths of martyrs began to be celebrated in the 4th century.
The first trace of a general celebration is in Antioch on the
Sunday after Pentecost, and this custom is also referred to in
the 74th homily of St Chrysostom (407). The origin of the
festival of All Saints as celebrated in the West is, however,
somewhat doubtful. In 609 or 610 Pope Boniface IV. conse-
crated the Pantheon at Rome to the Blessed Virgin and all the
martyrs, and the feast of the dedicaiio Sanctae hi aria* ad liar tyres
has been celebrated at Rome ever since on the 13th of May.
The idea, based on the medieval liturgiologists, that this festival
was the origin of that of All Saints has now been abandoned.
The latter is possibly traceable to the foundation by Gregory III.
(731-74O of an oratory in St Peter's for the relics " of the holy
apostles and of all saints, martyrs and confessors, of all the just
made perfect who are at rest throughout the world." So far as
the Western Church generally is concerned, though the festival
was already widely celebrated in the days of Charlemagne, it
was only made of obligation throughout the Frankish empire
in 835 by a decree of Louis the Pious issued " at the instance of
Pope Gregory IV. and with the assent of all the bishops," which
fixed its celebration on the 1st of November. The festival was
retained at the Reformation in the calendar of the Church of
England, and also in that of many of the Lutheran churches.
In the latter, in spite of attempts at revival, it has fallen into
complete disuse.
ALL SOULS' DAT (Commemoratio omnium fiddium defunc-
torum), the day set apart in the Roman Catholic Church for the
commemoration of the faithful departed. The celebration is
based on the doctrine that the souls of the faithful which at death
have not been cleansed from venial sins, or have not atoned for
past transgressions, cannot attain the Beatific Vision, and that
they may be helped to do so by prayer and by the sacrifice of
the mass. The feast falls on the 2nd of November; or on the
3rd if the 2nd is a Sunday or a festival of the first class. The
practice of setting apart a special day for intercession for certain
of the faithful departed is of great antiquity; but the establish-
ment of a feast of general intercession' was in the first instance
due to Odilo, abbot of Cluny (d. 1048). The legend connected
with its foundation is given by Peter Damiani in his Life of St
Odilo. According to this, a pilgrim returning from the Holy
Land was cast by a storm on a desolate island where dwelt a
hermit. From him he learned that amid the rocks was a chasm
communicating with purgatory, from which rose perpetually
the groans of tortured: souk, the hermit asserting that he had
also beard the demons complaining of the efficacy of the prayers
of the faithful, and especially of the monks of Cluny, in rescuing
their victims. On returning home the pilgrim hastened to inform
the abbot of Cluny, who forthwith set apart the 2nd of November
as a day of intercession on the part of his community for all
the souls in purgatory. The decree ordaining the celebration is
printed in the Bollandist Acta Sanctorum (Saec. VI., pt. i. p. 585).
From Cluny the custom spread to the other houses of the Cluniac
order, was soon adopted in several dioceses in France, and spread
thence throughout the Western Church. At the Reformation
the celebration of All Souls' Day was abolished in the Church of
England, though it has been renewed in certain churches in
connexion with the "Catholic revival." Among continental
Protestants its tradition has been more tenaciously maintained.
Even Luther's influence was not sufficient to abolish its celebra-
tion in Saxony during his lifetime; and, though its ecclesiastical
sanction lapsed before long even in the Lutheran Church, its
memory survives strongly in popular custom. Just as it is the
custom of French people, of aU ranks and creeds, to decorate the
graves of their dead on the jour des morts ,so in Germany the people
stream to the grave-yards once a year with offerings of flowers.
Certain popular beliefs connected with All Souls' Day are of
pagan origin and immemorial antiquity. Thus the dead are
believed by the peasantry of many Catholic countries to return
to their former homes on All Souls' night and partake of the food
of the living. In Tirol cakes are left for them on the table and
the room kept warm for their comfort In Brittany the people
flock into the cemeteries at nightfall to kneel bare-headed at the
graves of their loved ones, and to fill the hollow of the tombstone
with holy water or to pour libations of milk upon it, and at
bedtime the supper is left on the table for the soul's refreshment.
ALLSTON, WASHINGTON (1770-1843), American historical
painter and poet, was born on the 5th of November 1779 at
Waccamaw. South Carolina, where his father was a planter. He
graduated at Harvard in 1800, and for a short time pursued his
artistic studies at Charleston with Edward Greene Malbone
(1777-1807) the miniature painter, and Charles Fraser (1782-
i860). With the former, in 1801, he went to London, and
entered the Royal Academy as a student of Benjamin West,
with whom he formed a lifelong friendship. In 1804 he went
to Paris, and, after a few months' residence there, to Rome,
where he spent the greater part of the next four years. During
this period he became intimate with Coleridge and Thorwaldsen.
From 1809 to 181 1 he resided in his native country, and from
181 x to 18x7 he painted in England. After visiting Paris a
710
ALLUVION— ALMA
second time, he returned to the United States, and practised
his profession at Boston (1818-1830), and afterwards at Cam-
bridge, Massachusetts, where he died on the 9th of July 1843.
He was elected an associate of the Royal Academy in 1819. In
colour and the management of light and shade Allston closely
imitated the Venetian school, and he has hence been styled the
"American Titian." Many of his pictures have Biblical subjects,
and Allston himself had a profoundly religious nature. His
first considerable painting, " The Dead Man Revived," executed
shortly after his second visit to England, and now at the Pennsyl-
vania Academy of Fine Arts in Philadelphia, gained a prize of
200 guineas. In England he also painted his " St Peter Liberated
by the Angel," " Uriel in the Sun " (at Stafford House), " Jacob's
Dream " (at Petworth) and " Elijah in the Wilderness." To
the period of his residence in America belong " The Prophet
Jeremiah " (at Yale), " Saul and the Witch of Endor," "Miriam,"
" Beatrice," "Rosalie," " Spalatro's Vision of the Bloody Hand,"
and the vast but unfinished " Belshaazar's Feast " (in the Boston
Athenaeum), at which he was working at the time of his death.
As a writer, Allston shows great facility of expression and
imaginative power. His friend Coleridge (a portrait of whom
by Allston is in the National Gallery) said of him that he was
surpassed by no man of his age in artistic and poetic genius.
His literary works are— The Sylphs of the Seasons and other
Poems (1813), where he displays true sympathy with nature and
deep knowledge of the human heart; Monaldi (1841), a tragical
romance, the scene of which is* laid in Italy; and Lectures on
Art, edited by his brother-in-law, R. H. Dana the novelist (1850).
See J. B. Flagg's Life and Letters of Washington Allston (New
York, 1893).
ALLUVION (Lat. alluvio, washing against), a word taken from
Roman law, in which it was one of the examples of accessio t that
is, acquisition of property without any act being done by the
acquirer. It signifies the gradual accretion of land or formation
of an island by imperceptible degrees. If the accretion or forma-
tion be by a torrent or flood, the property in the severed portion
or new island continues with the original owner until the trees,
if any, swept away with it take root in the ground. Alluvion
never attached at all in the case of agri limitati, that is, lands
belonging to the state and leased or sold in plots. Dig. xli. 1, 7,
is the main authority. English law is in general agreement
(except as to agri limitati) with Roman, as appears from the
judgment in Foster v. Wright, 1878, 4 C.P.D. 438. The Scottish
law, as laid down by the House of Lords in Earl of Zetland v.
Clover Incorporation, 187a, L.R. 2 H.L., Sc., 70, is in accordance
with the English. (See Water Rights.)
ALLUVIUM, soil or land deposited by running water. All
streams, from the tiniest rill to the greatest river, are continually
engaged in transporting downstream solid particles of rock, the
product of weathering agencies in the area which they drain.
Since the capacity of a stream to carry matter in suspension is
proportional to its velocity, it follows that any circumstance
tending to retard the rate of flow will induce deposition. Thus
a fall in the gradient at any point in the course of a stream; any
snag, projection or dam, impeding the current; the reduced
velocity caused by the overflowing of streams in flood and the
dissipation of their energy where they enter a lake or the sea, are
all contributing causes to alluviation, or the deposition of stream-
borne sediment. It is evident from the foregoing remarks, that
while even the smallest stream may make deposits of alluvial
character it is in the flood-plains and deltas of large rivers that
the great alluvial deposits are to be found. The finer material
constituting alluvium, often described as " silt," is sand and mud.
Although it may be exceedingly fine-grained, there is usually
very little clay in alluvium. The larger materials include gravel
of all degrees of coarseness; carbonaceous matter is often an
important element. The amount of solid matter borne by large
streams is enormous; many rivers derive their names from the
colour thereby imparted to the water, e.g. Hwang Ho - Yellow
river, Missouri -Big Muddy, the Red river, &c. It has been
estimated that the Mississippi annually carries 406J million tons
of sediment to the sea; the Hwang Ho 796 million tons; the Po
67 million tons. Many shallow lakes have been com pfcul j Hal
with alluvium and their sites ate now occupied by fertile piaca,
this process may be seen in operation almost anywhere; a good
illustration is the delta of the Rhone in Lake Geneva. AlurnJ
deposits may be of great sire. The flood-plain of the Mnwrsqa*
has an area of 50,000 sq. m.; the great delta of the Ganges xai
Brahmaputra has an area of about 60,000 sq. m.; that of th?
Hwang Ho reaches out 300 m. into the sea and has a ooasx
border of about 400 m. Old alluvial deposits are left h&
above the existing level of many rivers, in the form of " teraco "
of gravel and loam, the streams to which these owe the*
existence having modified their courses and cut deeper chnases;
such are the alluvial gravels and brick-earths upon whkh much a
" greater London " is built. In some regions alluvial deposa
are the resting places of gemstones and gold, platinum, ftc; it a
from these deposits that the largest nuggets of gold have beea
obtained. Alluvial soils are almost invariably of great fertiitr;
it is due to the alluvial mud annually deposited by the Nile list
the dwellers in Egypt have been able to grow their crops Car ore
4000 years without artificial fertilisation.
ALLYL ALCOHOL, CiH»OH or CH»:CH-CHVOH, a conpezxi
which occurs in very small quantities in wood spirit. It may at
prepared from allyl iodide by the action of moist sflver o*s&:
by the reduction of acrolein; or by heating glycerin with anJfc
acid and a little ammonium chloride to 260° C. In this Is*
reaction glycerol monoformin is produced as an intermedaa
product, but i» decomposed as the temperature rises: —
C.H»(0H).+H,C«04-C,H.(0H),4<CH0+CQ.+H£
glycerol monof ormia
C,H»(OH) r O-CHO-C,H»OH+CO.+H l O
It is a colourless mobile liquid of pungent smell, boQing at 07* C
Being an unsaturated compound it combines readily with 1st
halogens. Oxidation by strong oxidizing agents con ve i ls it
successively into its aldehyde, acrolein, and into acrylic aoi
By gentle oxidation with potassium permanganate it may be
converted into glycerin.
ALMA, a river of Russia, in the S.W. of the Crimea, cnteriagtxe
Black Sea x 7 m. N. of Sevastopol. It gives its name to a inaom
victory gained over the Russians, on the 20th of Septesabe?
1S54, by the allied armies in the Crimean War (©/.».)- The ansa
bank of the river is bordered by a long ridge, which becosci
steeper as it approaches the sea, and upon this the Rosskss,
under Prince Menshikov, were drawn up, to bar the Sevastopa
road to the allies, who under General Lord Raglan and Marssa!
St Arnaud approached from the north over an open plain. 1st
Russian commander massed his troops in heavy ^"ipti after
the fashion of 18x3, and drew in his left wing so that it shoald
as far as possible be out of range of the allied men-of-war, wbka
were sailing down the coast in line with their land forces. Tte
allied generals decided that the French (right, wing) and tk
Turks should attack Menshikov's left, while the British, further
inland, were to assault the front of the Russian position, Tut
forces engaged are stated by Hamley (War in the Crimea) at
French and Turks, 35,000 infantry, with 68 guns; Britisa,
23,000 infantry, xooo cavalry and 60 guns; Russians, 33400
infantry, 3800 cavalry and 120 guns; by the Austrian writer
Berndt (Zakl im Kriege) the allied forces are reckoned at $7,000
men with 108 guns, and the Russians at 33,600 men with 06 gnat
The French advance met at first with' little opposition, aaf
several divisions scaled the cliffs of the lower Alma withaat
difficulty Menshikov relied apparently on being able to detad
his reserves to cope with them, but the assailants moved with t
rapidity which he had not counted upon, and the Russians oafr
came into action piecemeal in this quarter. Opposite the Brits!
who as usual deployed at a distance and then advanced in loaf
continuous lines, the Russians were posted on the crest of a loaf
glacis-like slope, which offered but little dead ground to u
assailant The village of Burliuk, and the vineyards woks
bordered the river, were quickly cleared by the British skir-
mishers, and the line of battle behind them crossed, though vita
some difficulty. On emerging from the cover afforded by the
river-bed the British divisions, now crowded together, bat suD
ALMACANTAR— ALMANAC
711
preserving their general line, came under a terrible fire from
heavy guns and musketry. The enemy's artillery was three
hundred yards away, yet the British pressed on in spite of their
losses, and as some of the Light Division troops reached the
"Great Battery" the Russians hurried their guns away to
safety. In the meantime, on both sides of this battery, the
assailants had come to close quarters with the Russian columns,
which were aided by their field guns. A brave counter-attack
was made by the Russian Vladimir regiment, 3000 strong,
against the troops which had stormed the great battery, and for
want of support the British were driven out again. But .they
soon rallied, and now the second line had crossed and formed for
attack. The Guards brigade attacked the Vladimir regiment,
and on the left the Highland brigade and the cavalry moved
forward also. Some of the field artillery, which had now crossed
the Alma, fired steadily into the closed masses of the Russian
reserve, and the Vladimir regiment lost half of its numbers under
the volleys of the Guards. The French were now severely
pressing the Russian left, and one-third of MenshikcVs forces
was drawn into the fight in that quarter. The success of the
frontal assault had dispirited the remainder of the defenders, and
Menshikov drew off his forces southwards. He had lost 5700 men
(Berndt and Hamley). The British had about 2000 killed and
wounded; the French stated their losses at 1340 men.
ALU ACAKTAR(from the Arabic for a sun-dial), an astronomical
term for a small circle of the sphere parallel to the horizon; when
two stars are in the same almacantar they have the same altitude.
The term was also given (1880) to an instrument invented by S. C.
Chandler to determine the latitude or correct the timepiece, of
great value because of its freedom from instrumental errors.
ALU ACK'S, formerly the name of a famous London club and
assembly rooms. The founder, known as William Almack, is
usually said to have been one Macall, or McCaul, of which name
Almack is an anagram. In 1764 he founded a gentlemen's club
in Pall Mall, where the present Marlborough Club stands. It
was famous for its high play. In 1 778 it was taken over by one
Brooks, and established as Brooks's Club in St James's Street,
where it still exists. In 1765 Almack built a suite of assembly
rooms in King's Street, St James's. Here for a ten-guinea
subscription a series of weekly balls was given for twelve weeks.
They were managed by a committee of ladies of rank, and
admission was exceedingly difficult. At Almack's death in 1781
they were left to his niece Mrs Willis. As " Willis's Rooms "
they lasted till 1890, when they became a restaurant, but as
" Almack's " they ceased m 1863. Several dubs, including a
mixed club for ladies and gentlemen, held meetings at Almack's
during the 18th and beginningof the 19th centuries. A new London
social dub (1904) has also adopted the name of Almack's.
ALMADEN, or Almaden del Azocue, a town of Spain, in the
province of Ciudad Real; situated in mountainous country
55 m. W.S.W. of the dty of Ciudad ReaL Pop. (1900) 7375.
Almaden, the Sisapon of the Romans, is celebrated for its
mercury mines, which were extensively wrought by the Romans
and Moors, and are still productive, the ore increasing in richness
with the depth of the descent. The mines ranked with those of
Adria, in South Austria, as the most valuable in the world, until
the great development of the mercury deposits at New Almaden,
in California, U.S.A., between 1853 and 1857. They were long
worked by convict labour, owing to their unhealthy atmosphere;
and exemption from military service is granted to miners
who have worked at Almaden for two years. The annual
yidd is about 1400,000 lb. Lead and sulphur are obtained
in the neighbourhood. The nearest railway station is that of
Chfll6n, 3 m. S. on the Madrid-Badajoz-Lisbon line.
ALMAORO, DIEGO DB (1475-1538), Spanish commander, the
companion and rival of Pizarro (q.v.), was born at Aldea dd Rey
in 1475. According to another account he was a foundling in
the village from which he derived his name. In 1525 he joined
Pizarro and Hernando de Luque at Panama in a scheme for the
conquest of Peru (see Peru: History). He was executed by
order of Pizarro in 1538 in consequence of a dispute as to thdr
respective territories.
ALMANAC, a book or table containing a calendar of the days,
weeks and months of the year, a register of ecclesiastical festivals
and saints 1 days, and a record of various astronomical phenomena
&c The derivation of the word is doubtful. The word almanac
was used by Roger Bacon (Opus Ma jus, 1267) for tables of the
apparent motions of the heavenly bodies. The Italian form is
almanacco, French almanack, and the Spanish is almanaque; all
of which, according to the New English Dictionary, are probably
connected with the Arabic al-mandkk, a combination of the
definite article al, and mandkk, a word of uncertain origin. An
Arabic-Castilian vocabulary (1505) gives mandkk, a calendar,
and manab, a sun-dial; mandkk has also been connected with
the Latin manacus, a sun-dial.
The attention given to astronomy by Eastern nations probably
led to the early construction of such tables as are comprised in
our almanacs; of these we know little or nothing. The fasti
(q.v.) of the Romans are far better known and were similar to
modern almanacs. Almanacs of a rude kind, known as dogg
almanacs, consisting of square blocks of hard wood, about 8
in. in length, with notches along the four angles corresponding
to the days of the year, were in use in some parts of England as
late as the end of the 17th century. Dr Robert Plot (1640-
1606), keeper of the Ashmolean Museum and professor of chem-
istry at Oxford, describes one of these in his Natural History of
Staffordshire (Oxford, 1686); and another is represented in
Gough's edition of Camden's Britannia (1806, vol. ii. p. 409).
The earliest almanac regarding which J. J. L. de Lalande
(Bibliographie astronomique, Paris, 1803) could obtain any
definite information belongs to the 12th century. Manuscript
almanacs of considerable antiquity are preserved in the British
Museum and in the libraries of Oxford and Cambridge. Of these
the most remarkable are a calendar ascribed to Roger Bacon
(1292), and those of Peter de Dada (about 1300), Walter de
Elvendene (1327) and John Somers (1380). If is to be remem-
bered that early calendars (such as the Kalendarium Lincolniense
of Bishop Robert Grosseteste) frequently bear the names, not
of thdr compilers, but of the writers of the treatises on ecclesi-
astical computation on which the calendars are based. The
earliest English calendar in the British Museum is one for the
year 1431. The first printed almanac known was compiled by
Purbach, and appeared between the years 1450 and 1461; the
first of importance is that of Regiomontanus, which appears to
have been printed at Nuremberg in 1472. In this work the
almanacs for the different months embrace three Metonic cydes,
or the 57 years from 1475 to 1 53 1 inclusive. The earliest almanac
printed in England was The /Calendar of Shepardes, a translation
from the French, printed by Richard Pynson about 1497.
Early almanacs had commonly the name of " prognostica-
tions " in addition, and what they professed to show may be
gathered from titles like the following, which is quoted by J. O.
Hall i well: " Pronostycacyon of Mayster John Thybault,
medycyncr and astronomer of the Empcryall Majestie, of the
year of our Lorde God MCCCCCXXXIJ., comprehending the
iiij. partes of this yerc, and of the influence of the roonc, of peas
and wane, and of the sykenesses of this yere, with the con-
stelladons of them that be under the vij. pianettes, and the
revolutions of kynges and princes, and of the edipses and
comets." Among almanacs of this class published in England,
and prindpally by the Stationers' Company, are Leonard
Digges's Prognostication Everlasting of Right' Good Effect, for
1553, 1 555, &c.; William Lilly's iierlinus Anglkus Junior for
1644, &c, and other almanacs and " prognostications "; John
Booker's Bloody Almanac and Bloody Irish Almanac for 1643,
1647, &c. — the last attributed erroneously to Richard Napier,
John Partridge's Mercurius Coelestis for i68x, Merlinus Redivivus,
&c. The name of Partridge has been immortalized in Pope's
Rape of the Loch', and his almanacs were very deverly burlesqued
by Swift, who predicted Partridge's own death, in genuine
prognosticator's style. The most famous of all the Stationers'
Company's predicting almanacs was the Vox Stcllarum of
Francis Moore (1657-1 71 5?), the first number of which was
completed in July 1700, and contained predictions for 1701.
712
ALMANDINE— ALMA-TADEMA
Its publication has been continued under the title of Old Moore's
Almanac. Of a different but not a better sort was Poor Robin,
dating from 1663, and published by the company down to 1828,
which abounded in coarse, sometimes extremely coarse, humour.
The exclusive right to sell "almanacs and prognostications"
in England, enjoyed in the time of Elizabeth by two members
of the Company of Stationers, was extended by James I. to the
two universities and the Stationers' Company jointly; but the
universities commuted their privilege for an annuity from the
company. This monopoly was challenged by Thomas Carnan,
a bookseller, who published an almanac for three successive
years, after having been thrice imprisoned on that account by
the company. The case came, in 1775, before the court of
common pleas, and was decided in Carnan 's favour, the question
argued being, " Whether almanacs were such public ordinances,
such matters of state, as belonged to the king by his prerogative,
so as to enable him to communicate an exclusive right of printing
them to a grantee of the crown?" In x 7 79 Lord North attempted
to reverse this decision by a parliamentary enactment, but the
bill was thrown out. In consequence of this the universities
lost their title to their annuity, and in lieu of it they received a
parliamentary grant. The company, however, virtually retained
its monopoly for many years, by buying up as much as possible
all the almanacs issued by other publishers, but in more recent
times this power has altogether ceased, although a considerable
proportion of the almanacs published in England still issue from
the hall of the Stationers' Company. A description of " Almanac
Day " at Stationers' Hall will be found in Knight's Cyclopaedia
of London (1851), p. 588.
On the 1st of January 1828 the Society for the Diffusion of
Useful Knowledge issued the British Almanac for that year—
a publication greatly superior in every way to the almanacs of
the time. The success of the British Almanac, with its valuable
supplement, the Companion to the Almanac, led to a great
improvement in this class of publications. The Stationers'
Company issued the Englishman's Almanac, a work of a similar
kind. The entire repeal in 1834, by the 3rd and 4th Will! V. c. 57,
of the heavy stamp duty, first imposed in 1710, on all almanacs
of nfteenpence per copy, gave an additional stimulus to the
publication of almanacs of a better class, and from that time the
number has greatly increased. Since 1870, the British Almanac
and Companion have been the principal almanacs published by
the Stationers' Company. Whilaker's Almanac, commenced in
1868 by Joseph Whitaker (1820-1895), is perhaps the best known
of modern almanacs.
In Scotland, almanacs containing much astrological matter
appeared to have been published at about the beginning of
the 16th century; and about a century later those published
at Aberdeen enjoyed considerable reputation. In 1683, the
Edinburgh's True Almanach, or a New Prognostication, appeared;
a publication which improved with years and was issued after
1837 as Oliver and Boyd's New Edinburgh Almanac, a standard
book of reference for Scottish affairs. Thorn's Irish Almanac
(since 1843) deals mainly with Ireland.
The earliest almanac published in the United States is probably
to be ascribed to Bradford's press in Philadelphia, for the year
1687. Poor Richard's Almanac, commenced in 1732 by Benjamin
Franklin under the pseudonym of " Richard Saunders," and
continued by him for twenty-five years, gained a high reputa-
tion for its wise and witty sayings; it may have been suggested
by a somewhat similar publication by Thomas, of Dedham,
Massachusetts. The American Almanac and Repository of
Useful Knowledge was published at Boston from 1828 to 1861 ;
a continuation, The National Almanac, was published only
twice, for 1863 and 1864. The Old Farmer's Almanac enjoys
considerable popularity and has been published for many years.
At the present time nearly every religious denomination, trade
and newspaper have almanacs or year-books.
In France prophetic almanacs circulated very freely among
the poorer and rural classes, although an ordonnance of Charles
IX. required the seal of a diocesan bishop on all almanacs.
In 1579 Henry III. prohibited the publication of predictions
relating to political events, a prohibition renewed by Louis XTEL
Of such almanacs, the most famous was the A lmanack &£pms
first published in 1625 at Liege by Matthieu Laeasbergh, s
person of very problematic existence. Publications of tins das
subsequently increased in number to such an extent thai, a
1852, their circulation was forcibly checked by the governsneEt
The most important French almanac is the Almanack ReycL
afterwards Impirial, and now National, first published in 1679.
A number of publications, issued in Germany, from the niddk
of the 1 8th to the middle of the 19th century, under such titles
as Musenalmanach, modelled on. the Almanach da J/acser. s
contemporary almanac published at Paris, contain some of the
best works of some of the most celebrated German poets. The
Almanach deCotha, which has existed since 1763, published since
1871 both in French and German, gives a particular account of
all the royal and princely families of Europe, and ample detain
concerning the administration and the statistics of the di fieie st
states of the world.
For the Nautical Almanac and similar publications, see ErtaiKV
ALMANDINE, or Almandite, a name applied to certain
kinds of precious garnet, being apparently a corruption of
alabandicus, which is the name applied by Pliny to a stone fecad
or worked at Alabanda, a townin Caria in Asia Minor. Almaadiae
is an iron alumina garnet, of deep red colour inclining to purple.
It is frequently cut with a convex face, or en cabockau, and a
then known as carbuncle. Viewed through the sp ec tr o sc ope
in a strong light, it generally shows three characteristic absofp-
lion bands, as first pointed out by Prof. A. H. Church.
Almandine occurs rather abundantly in the gem-graven oi
Ceylon, whence it has sometimes been called Ceyioo-rab?
When the colour inclines to a violet tint, the stone is often ca&4
Syrian garnet, a name said to be taken from Syriam, an andert
town of Pegu. Large deposits of fine almandine-gameu wm
found, some years ago, in the Northern Territory of Soots
Australia, and were at first taken for rubies, whence they were
known in trade for some time afterwards as Australian rubies.
Almandine is widely distributed. Fine rhombic dodecahedn
occur in the schistose rocks of the Zillerthal, in Tyrol, and are
sometimes cut and polished. An almandine in which the fer-
rous oxide is replaced partly by magnesia is found at Luisenfeld
in German East Africa. In -the United States there are mazy
localities which yield almandine. Dr G. F. Kunz has figured t
crystal of coarse almandine weighing of lb. from New York rit>
Fine crystals of almandine embedded in mica-schist occur near
Fort Wrangell in Alaska. The coarse varieties of almandine tit
often crushed for use as an abrasive agent. (See Gakxet.)
ALMAN8A, or Almanza, a town of eastern Spain, in the
province of Albacete; 35 m. E.S.E. of Albacete, on the Madrid-
Alicante railway. Pop. (1000) x 1,180. Almansa is built at the
foot of a white limestone crag, which is surmounted by a Moorish
castle, and rises abruptly in the midst of a fertile and irri-
gated plain. About 1 m. S. stands an obelisk commemoraiicg
the battle fought here on the 25th of April 1707, in which the
French under the duke of Berwick, a natural son of James IL of
Great Britain, routed the allied British, Portuguese and Spaaiss
troops. (See Spanish Succession, Wai or the.)
ALMA-TADEMA, SIR LAURENCE (Laurens) (1836- ).
British artist, was born on the 8th of January 1836, at Droarijp,
a Frisian village near Leeuwarden, the son of Pieter Tadeaa,
a notary, who died when he was four years old. Alma was the
name of his godfather. His mother (d. 1863) was his father's
second wife, and was left with a large family. It was desigEed
that the boy should follow his father's profession; but be had
so great a leaning towards art that he was eventually sent to
Antwerp, where in 1852 he entered the academy under GusUr
Wappers. Thence he passed to the atelier of Henri (afterwards
Baron) Leys. In 1859 he assisted Leys in the hitter's frescos
in the hall of the hotel de ville at Antwerp. In the exhibiiicD
of Alma-Tadema's collected works at the Grosvenor Gallery in
London in the winter of 188 2- 1883 were two pictures which may
be said to mark the beginning and end of his first period. These
were a portrait of himself, dated 1852, and "A Bargain,'* painted
ALME— ALMEIDA
7»3
in i860. His first great success was a picture of*' The Education
of the Children of Clovis" (1861), which was exhibited at
Antwerp. In the following year he received his first gold medal
at Amsterdam. The " Education of the Children of Clovis "
(three young children of Clovis and Clotilde practising the art
of burling the axe in the presence of their widowed mother,
who is training them to avenge the murder of their own parent)
was one of a series of Merovingian pictures, of which the finest
was the " Fredegonda " of 1878 (exhibited in 1880), where the
dejected wife or mistress is watching from behind her curtain
window the marriage of Chilperic I. with Galeswintha. It is
perhaps in this series that we find the painter moved by the
deepest feeling and the strongest spirit of romance. One of the
most passionate of all is " Fredegonda at the Death-bed of
Praetextatus," in which the bishop, subbed by order of the
queen, is cursing her from his dying bed. Another distinct series
is designed to reproduce the life of ancient Egypt. One of the
first of this series, " Egyptians 3000 Years Ago,' 1 was painted
in 1 863 . A profound depth of pathos is sounded in " The Death
of the Firstborn," painted in 1873. Among Alma-Tadema's
other notable Egyptian pictures are " An Egyptian at his Door-
way " (1865), " The Mummy " (1867), " The Chamberlain of
Scsostris " (i860), " A Widow »' (1873), and " Joseph, Overseer
of Pharaoh's Granaries " (1874). On these scenes from Frankish
a nd Egyptian life Alma-Tadema spent great energy and research;
but his strongest art-impulse was towards the presentation of
the life of ancient Greece and Rome, especially the latter.
Amongst the best known of his earlier pictures of scenes from
classical times are " Tarquinius Superbus " (1867), " Phidias
and the Elgin Marbles " (1868), and " The Pyrrhic Dance " and
" The Wine Shop " (i860). " The Pyrrhic Dance," though one
of the simplest of his compositions, stands out distinctly from
them all by reason of its striking movement. " Phidias and the
Elgin Marbles " is the first of those glimpses of the art-life of
classical times, of which " Hadrian in England," " The Sculpture
Gallery," and " The Picture Gallery " are later examples. "The
Wine Shop " is one of his many pictures of historical genre, but
marked with a more robust humour than usual. In 1863 Alma-
Tadema married a French lady, and lived at Brussels till 1869,
when she died, leaving him a widower with two daughters,
Laurence and Anna, both of whom afterwards made reputations
— the former in literature, the latter in art. In 1869 he sent
from Brussels to the Royal Academy two pictures, " Un Amateur
remain " and " Une Danse pyrrhique," which were followed
by three pictures, including " Un Jongleur," in 1870, when he
came to London. By this time, besides his Dutch and Belgian
distinctions, he had been awarded medals at the Paris Salon of
1 864 and the Exposition Universale of 1 867. In 1 87 1 he married
Miss Laura Epps, an English lady of a talented family, who,
under her married name, also won a high reputation as an artist.
After his arrival in England Alma-Tadema's career was one of
continued success. Amongst the most important of his pictures
during this period were " The Vintage Festival " (1870), " The
Picture Gallery " and " The Sculpture Gallery " (1875), " An
Audience at Agrippa's" (1876), "The Seasons" (1877),
" Sappho " (1881), u The Way to the Temple " (1883), his
diploma work, " Hadrian in Britain" (1884), " The Apodyterium
(18S6), " The Woman of Amphissa " (1887), " The Roses of
Heliogabalus " (1888), "An Earthly Paradise" (1801), and
" Spring " (1805). Most of his other pictures have been small
canvasses of exquisite finish, like the " Gold-fish " of 1000.
These, as well as all his works, are remarkable for the way in
which flowers, textures and hard reflecting substances, like
metals, pottery, and especially marble, are painted. His work
shows much of the fine execution and brilliant colour of the old
Dutch masters. By the human interest with which he imbues
all his scenes from ancient life he brings them within the scope
of modern feeling, and charms us with gentle sentiment and
playful humour. He also painted some fine portraits. Alma-
Tadema became a naturalized British subject in 1873, *nd was
knighted on the occasion of Queen Victoria's eighty-first birthday,
1899. He was made an associate of the Royal Academy in 1 876,
and a Royal Academician in 1879. In 1007 he was included in
the Order of Merit. He became a knight of the order Pourle Me rite
of Germany (Arts and Science Division); of Leopold, Belgium,
of the Dutch Lion, of St Michael of Bavaria; of the Golden
Lion of Nassau; and of the Crown of Prussia; an officer of the
Legion of Honour, France; a member of the Royal Academies
of Munich, Berlin, Madrid and Vienna. He received a goid
medal at Berlin in 1872 and a grand medal at Berlin in 1874;
a first class medal at the Paris International Exhibitions of 1889
and 1900. He also became a member of the Royal Society of
Water-colours.
See also Georg Ebers, " Loreni Alma-Tadema," Westermann's
Mortatskefte, November and December 1885, since republished in
volume form; Helen Zimmern, " L. Alma-Tadema, nis Life and
Work." Art Annual, 1886; C. Monkhouse, British Contemporary
Artists (London, 1899).
ALMS or Almai (from 6/i», wise, learned), the name of a
class of singing girls in Egypt who are present at festivals and
entertainments, and act as hired mourners at funerals. They
are to be distinguished from the ghawazee, or dancing girls,
who perform in the public streets and are of a lower order.
ALMEIDA, DOM FRANCISCO DB (c. 1450-1510), the first
viceroy of Portuguese India, was born at Lisbon about the
middle of the 15th century. He was the seventh son of the
second count of Abrantes, and thus belonged to one of the most
distinguished families in Portugal. In his youth he took part
under Ferdinand of Aragon in the wars against the Moors (1485-
149a). In March 1505, having received from Emmanuel I. the
appointment of viceroy of the newly conquered territory in
India, he set sail from Lisbon in command of a large and powerful
fleet, and arrived in July at Quiloa (Kilwa), which yielded to
him almost without a struggle. A much more vigorous resistance
was offered by the Moors of Mombasa, but the town was taken
and destroyed, and its large treasures went to strengthen the
resources of Almeida. At other places on his way, such as the
island of Angediva, near Goa, and Cannanore, he built forts,
and adopted measures to secure the Portuguese supremacy.
On his arrival in India he took up his residence at Cochin, where
a Portuguese fort had been built by Alphonso d' Albuquerque
in 1503. The most important events of Almeida's brief but
vigorous administration were the conclusion of a commercial
treaty with Malacca, and the discoveries made by his son
Lorenzo, who acted as his lieutenant. Lorenzo was probably
the first Portuguese who visited Ceylon, where he established a
settlement, and Fernando Soares, a captain commanding a
squadron of his fleet, appears to have been the first European
to sight Madagascar. In 1 508 he was killed at Dabul in a naval
engagement with the Egyptians, who at this time endeavoured
to dispute Portuguese supremacy in the Indian Ocean. His
father was preparing to avenge his death when Albuquerque
(9.9.) arrived in Cochin, and presented a commission empowering
him to supersede Almeida in the government. It was probably
Almeida's unwillingness to be thwarted in his scheme of vengeance
that chiefly induced him to refuse to recognize Albuquerque's
commission, and to cast him into prison. The punishment he
inflicted on the Arabs and their Egyptian allies was speedy and
terrible. Sailing along the coast be pillaged and burned various
ports, including Goa and Dabul, and finally, encountering the
enemy's combined fleet off Diu in February 1509, he completely
destroyed it. Returning immediately to Cochin, he held out for
a few months against the claims of Albuquerque, but in November
1 509 he was compelled to yield. On the xst of December he set
sail for Europe with an escort of three vessels. On the voyage
the fleet called at Table Bay. then known as Saldanha Bay, to
procure water, and here Almeida was killed (on the xst of March
1 510) in an attack upon the Hottentot natives, during which he
showed great personal courage. In this fight, which took place
on the site of Cape Town, 65 Portuguese perished, including 12
captains. Almeida's body was recovered on the following day
and buried on the spot where he fell.
ALMEIDA, a town of north-eastern Portugal, in the district
of Guarda and formerly included in the province of Beira;
situated in hilly country between the river Coa, a tributary of
7>4
ALMELO— ALMOGAVARES
the Douro, and the river Turones, a branch of the Agueda.
Pop. ( i ooo) 2330. Almeida was long one of the principal frontier
fortresses of Portugal. It was captured by the Spaniards in
1762. During the Peninsular War (q.v.) t the country between
the C6a and the Spanish fortress of Ciudad Rodrigo, 25 m. E.S.E.,
was the scene of hard fighting. Almeida was taken by the French
in 1610, and its recapture, by the allied British and Portuguese
forces under Lord Wellington, was only effected after a relieving
force under Marshal Massena had been defeated at Fuentes
d'Onor (or Fuentes de Onoro), 13 m. S.S.E. The battle was
fought on the 5th of May 181 1 and the fortress fell five days
later.
ALMELO, a town in the province of Overysel, Holland, nm.
by rail N.W. of Hengelo, at the junction of the Overysel and
Almelo canals. Pop. (1000) 0957. It is a place of considerable
antiquity, having been the seat of an independent lordship
before the 14th century. But it first rose into importance in the
second half of the 10th century owing to its share in the extra-
ordinary industrial development of the Twente district, and now
possesses numerous cotton and damask factories. Among the
public buildings are a town hall, court house, corn exchange,
and churches of various denominations, as well as a synagogue.
The lordship of Almelo belonged to the lords of Hecckeren,
who acquired the barony of Rechteren by marriage in 1350 and
the countship of Limpourg in 171 1. The elder branch of the
mediatized house of Rechteren-Limpourg is still established at
Almelo; the younger, German branch, at Markt Einersheim in
Bavaria.
ALM ENDRALEJO, a town of western Spain, in the province
of Badajoz; situated 27 m. E.S.E. of Badajoz, on the Merida-
Seville railway. Pop. (1000) 12,587. Almendralejo is a thriving
town, with broad streets and good modern houses; including
the palace of the marquesses of Monsalud, which contains a
museum of Roman antiquities discovered in the neighbourhood.
Local prosperity was greatly enhanced during the period 1875-
1005 by the improvement of communications, which enabled the
grain, fruit and wine of the Guadiana valley, on the north, and
of the upland known as the Tierra de Barros, on the south, to
be readily exported by the Merida-Seville railway. Brandy is
produced in large quantities.
ALMERIA, a maritime province of southern Spain, formed in
1833, and comprehending the eastern territories of the ancient
kingdom of Granada. Pop. (1000) 359,013; area, 3360 sq. m.
Almeria is bounded on the N. by Granada and Murcia, E. and S.
by Murcia and the Mediterranean Sea, and W. by Granada. It
is traversed by mountain ridges, with peaks of 6000 to 8000 ft.
in altitude; and it is seamed with valleys of great fertility. The
chief sierras, or ranges, are those of Maria, in the north;
Estancias and Oria, north of the Almanzora river; Filabres, in
the middle of the province; Cabrera and Gata, along the south-
east coast; Alhamilla, east of the city of Almeria; Gador in the
south-west; and, in the west, some outlying ridges of the Sierra
Nevada. Three small rivers, the Adra, or Rio Grande de Adra,
in the west, the Almeria in the centre, and the Almanzora in the
north and cast, flow down from the mountains to the sea. On
the south coast is the Gulf of Almeria, 25 m. wide at its entrance,
and terminating, on the east, in the Cabo de Gata, the southern-
most point of eastern Spain. The climate is mild, except among
the higher mountains. The valleys near the sea are well adapted
for agriculture; oranges, lemons, almonds and other fruit trees
thrive; silk is produced in the west; and the vine is extensively
cultivated, less for the production of wine than to meet the
foreign demand for white Almeria grapes. Although the cost of
transport is very heavy, the exportation of grapes is a flourishing
industry, and more than 2,000,000 barrels are annually sent
abroad. The cattle of the central districts are celebrated for
size and quality. Almeria is rich in minerals, especially iron and
lead; silver, copper, mercury, zinc and sulphur arc also obtained.
At the beginning of the 20th century the mines at work numbered
more than two hundred, and proved very attractive to foreign as
well as native capitalists. Garnets are found in the Sierra dc Gata
and in the Sierra Nevada fine marble is quarried. The development
of mining was facilitated by the extension of the railway system
between 1805 and 1005. The main line from Madrid to Absent
conveys much ore from Granada and Jacn to the sea; wh3e tk
railway from Baza to Lorca skirts the Almanzora valfey iaa
transports the mineral products of eastern Almeria by a brancs
line from Huercal-Overa to the Murcian port of Aguilas. Li£:
railways and aerial cables among the mountains supplement these
lines. The chief imports comprise coal, timber, especially oak
staves, and various manufactured goods. The exports ue
minerals, esparto, oil, grain, grapes and farm produce general*
The principal seaports are Almeria, the capital,pop.( 1900)47 jjs,
Adra (11,188), and Garrucha (4661), which, with Berja (13^24,
Cuevas de Vera (20,562), Huercal-Overa (15,763) and N^ar
(12,407), are described in separate articles. Other tovas,
important as mining or agricultural centres, are Albox (10.049,',
Dalias (7x36), Lubrin (6593), Sorbas (7306), Tabernas (7629!',
Velez Blanco (6825), Velex Rubio (10,109) and Vera (8446)
Education is backward and the standard of comfort low. A
constant annual loss of 2000 or 3000 emigrants to Algeria aad
elsewhere prevents any rapid increase of population, despite the
high birth-rate and low mortality.
ALMERIA, the capital of the province of Almerfa, and one af
the principal seaports on the Mediterranean coast of southen
Spain; in 36° 5' N. and 2 3a' W. t on the river Almeria, at ks
outflow into the Gulf of Almeria, and at the terminus of a railvaj
from Madrid. Pop. (1000) 47,326. The city occupies part of a
rich alluvial valley enclosed by hills. It is an episcopal see, asd
possesses a Gothic cathedral, dating from 1524, and constracttd
with massive embattled walls and belfry so as to resemble 1
fortress. A dismantled castle, the Castillo de San Cristobal
overlooks the city, which contains four Moorish towers ri&sf
conspicuously above its modern streets. Two long piers shelter
the harbour, and vessels drawing 25 ft can lie against the qoaji*
About 1400 ships, of nearly 1,000,000 tons, enter the port eterr
year, bringing fuel and timber, and taking cargoes of iron, lead,
esparto and fruit. White grapes are exported in very large
quantities.
Under its ancient name of Urd, Almerfa was one of the chid
Spanish harbours after the final conquest of Spain by the Rosass
in 19 b.c. It reached the summit of its prosperity in the middle
ages, as the foremost seaport of the Moorish kingdom of Granada
At this time its population numbered 150,000; its craisea
preyed upon the fleets of the neighbouring Christian states;
and its merchant ships traded with countries as distant a
Egypt and Syria. Almeria was captured in 1147 by Kiaf
Alphonso VII. of Castile and his Genoese troops, but speecSy
retaken and held by the Moors until 1489, when it was nasty
secured by the Spaniards.
See D. F. MargaU, Almeria, (Barcelona, 1886).
ALMERY, Auiiery, Aumbrxe, or Ambey (from the mechra]
form almarium, cf. Lat. armarium, a place for keeping tools;
cf. O. Fr. aumoire and mod. ar moire), in architecture, a recen
in the wall of a church, sometimes square-headed, and sometime
arched over, and closed with a door like a cupboard — used to
contain the chalices, basins, cruets, &c, for the use of the priest;
many of them have stone shelves. They are sometimes near the
piscina, but more often on the opposite side. The word ab»
seems in medieval times to be used commonly for any dosed
cupboard and even bookcase.
ALMODOVAR DEL CAMPO, or Alsiodovar, a torn of
Spain, in the province of Ciudad Real, 18 m. S.S.W. of Ciudii
Real, on the northern side of the Sierra de Alcudia. Pop. (190c'
1 2,525. Almod6var was a Moorish fortress in the middle **»,
but contains little of antiquarian interest. It owes its rooden
prosperity to the nearness of 'the valuable Puertollano coal-acid.
3 m. S. by a branch of the Mad rid-Badajox -Lisbon railway. In
manufactures are lace and linen and it has a brisk trade is
live-stock, oil and wine. South of the Sierra lies the Akodi
valley, owned by the crown, and used as pasture for imroewe
flocks of sheep.
ALMOGAVARES (from the Arab. Al-Hugatari % a scout), U*
name of a class of Spanish soldiers, well known during the
ALMOHADES— ALMON
715
Christian reconquest of Spain, and much employed as mercenaries
in Italy and the Levant, during the 13th and 14th centuries.
The Almogavares (the plural of Almogavar) came originally
from the Pyrenees, and were in later times recruited mainly in
Navarre, Aragon and Catalonia. They were frontiersmen and
foot-soldiers who wore no armour, dressed in skins, were shod
with brogues (abarcas), and carried the same arms as the Roman
legionaries — two heavy javelins (Spanish otagaya, the Roman
pflum), a short stabbing sword and a shield. They served the
king, the nobles, the church or the towns for pay, and were
professional soldiers. When Peter III. of Aragon made war on
Charles of Anjou after the Sicilian Vespers— 30th of March 1 282 —
for the possession of Naples and Sicily, the Almogavares formed
the most effective element of his army. Their discipline and
ferocity, the force with which they hurled their javelins, and their
activity, made them very formidable to the heavy cavalry of the
Angevin armies. When the peace of Calatabellota in 1302
ended the war in southern Italy, the Almogavares followed Roger
di Flor (Roger Blum) the unfrocked Templar, who entered the
service of the emperor of the East, Andronicus, as condottieri
to fight against the Turks. Their campaign in Asia Minor, 1303
and 1304, was a series of romantic victories, but their greed and
violence made them intolerable to the Christian population.
When Roger di Flor was assassinated by his Greek employer in
1305, they turned on the emperor, held Gallipoli and ravaged
the neighbourhood of Constantinople. In 13 10 they marched
•gainst the duke of Athens, of the French house of Brienne.
Walter of Brienne was defeated and slain by them with all his
knights at the battle of Cephissus, or Orchomenus, in Boeotia in
March. They then divided the wives and possessions of the
Frenchmen by lot and summoned a prince of the house of Aragon
to rule over them. The foundation of the Aragonese duchy of
Athens was the culmination of the achievements of the Almo-
gavares. In the 1 6th century the name died out. It was,
however, revived for a short time as a party nickname in the
civil wars of the reign of Ferdinand VII.
Authorities.— The Almogavares are admirably described by
one who fought with them, Ramon de Muntancr, whose Chronicle
has been translated into French by J. A. Buchon, Ckroniques
itranjjtres (Paris, i860). The original test was reprinted and edited
by K. Lanz at Stuttgart. 1844. See also the Expedition des "Almu-
rdvares" ou rentiers Catalans en orient, de fan ijo* a Van n 11, by
C. Schlumberger (Paris, 1902). (O. H.)
ALMOHADES (properly Muwahhadis, i.e. " Unitarians," the
name being corrupted through the Spanish), a Mahommedan
religious power which founded the fifth Moorish dynasty in the
1 2th century, and conquered all northern Africa as far as Egypt,
together with Moslem Spain. It originated with Mahommed ibn
TQmart, a member of the Masmuda, a Berber tribe of the Atlas.
Ibn TQmart was the son of a lamplighter in a mosque and had
been noted for his piety from his youth; he was small, ugly, and
misshapen and lived the life of a devotee-beggar. As a youth
he performed the pilgrimage to Mecca, whence he was expelled
on account of his severe strictures on the laxity of others, and
thence wandered to Bagdad, where he attached himself to the
school of the orthodox doctor al Ash&ri. But he made a system
of his own by combining the teaching of his master with parts of
the doctrine* of others, and with mysticism imbibed from the
great teacher Ghazfili. His main principle was a rigid unita-
rianism which denied the independent existence of the attributes
of God, as being incompatible with bis unity, and therefore a
polytheistic idea. Mahommed in fact represented a revolt
against the anthropomorphism of commonplace Mahommedan
orthodoxy, but he was a rigid predestinarian and a strict observer
of the law. After his return to Morocco at the age of twenty-
eight, he began preaching and agitating, heading riotous attacks
on wine-shops and on other manifestations of laxity. He even
went so far as to assault the sister of the Murabti (Al mora vide)
amir' Ali III., in the streets of Fez, because she was going about
unveiled after the manner of Berber women. 'Ali, who was very
deferential to any exhibition of piety, allowed him to escape
unpunished.
Ibn TQmart, who had been driven from several other towns for
exhibitions of reforming teal, now took refuge among his own
people, the Masmuda, in the Atlas. It is highly probable that
his influence would not have outlived him, if he had not found
a lieutenant in 'Abd-el-MQmin el Kami, another Berber, from
Algeria, who was undoubtedly a soldier and statesman of a high
order. When Ibn TQmart died in 11 28 at the monastery or
ribdt which he had founded in the Atlas at Tlnmal, after suffering
a severe defeat by the Murfibtis, 'Abd-el-Mumin kept his death
secret for two years, till his own influence was established. He
then came forward as the lieutenant of the Mahdi Ibn TQmart.
Between 1130 and his death in 1163, 'Abd-el-Mumin not only
rooted out the Murfibtis, but extended his power over all northern
Africa as far as Egypt, becoming amir of Morocco in 1140.
Mahommedan Spain followed the fate of Africa, and in n 70 the
Muwahhadis transferred their capital to Seville, a step followed
by the founding of the great mosque, now superseded by the
cathedral, the tower of which they erected in 11 84 to mark the
accession of Ya'kub el MansQr. From the time of Yusef II.,
however, they governed their co-religionists in Spain and Central
North Africa through lieutenants, their dominions outside
Morocco being treated as provinces. When their amirs crossed
the Straits it was to lead a. jehad against the Christians and to
return to their capital, Marrakesh.
The Muwfihhadi princes had a longer and a more distinguished
career than the Murfibtis or " Almoravides " (q.v.). Yusef II. or
" Abu Ya'kub " (1163-1184), and Ya'kub I. or " El MansQr "
(1184-1199), the successors of Abd-el-Mumin, were both able
men. They were fanatical, and their tyranny drove numbers of
their Jewish and Christian subjects to take refuge in the growing
Christian states of Portugal, Castile and Aragon. But in the end
they became less fanatical than the Murfibtis, and Ya'kub el
MansQr was a highly accomplished man, who wrote a good Arabic
style and who protected the philosopher Averroes. His title
of El Mansur, " The Victorious," was earned by the defeat he
inflicted on Alphonso VIII. of Castile at Alarcos in 1 195. But
the Christian states in Spain were becoming too well organized
to be overrun by the Mahommedans, and the Muwahhadis made
no permanent advance against them. In 1212 Mahommed III.,
"En-Nftsir" (noo-1214), the successor of El MansQr, was
utterly defeated by the allied five Christian princes of Spain,
Navarre and Portugal, at Las Navas de Tolosa in the Sierra
Morcna. All the Moorish dominions in Spain were lost in the
next few years, partly by the Christian conquest of Andalusia,
and partly by the revolt of the Mahommedans of Granada, who
put themselves under the protection of the Christian kings and
became their vassals.
The fanaticism of the Muwahhadis did not prevent them from
encouraging the establishment of Christians even in Fez, and
after the battle of Las Navas de Tolosa they occasionally entered
into alliances with the kings of Castile. In Africa they were
successful in expelling the garrisons placed in some of the coast
towns by the Norman kings of Sicily. The history of their
decline differs from that of the Murfibtis, whom they had dis-
placed. They were not assailed by a great religious movement,
but destroyed piecemeal by the revolt of tribes and districts.
Their most effective enemies were the Beni Marin (" Merinides ")
who founded the next Moroccan dynasty, the sixth. The last
representative of the line, Idrfs IV., " El Wfithik," was reduced to
the possession of Marrakesh, where he was murdered by a slave
in 1269.
The amirs of the Muw&hhadi Dynasty were as follows:—
•Abd-el-MQmin (1145); YQsef II., "Abu Ya'kQb" (1163);
Ya'kQb I., " Abu YQsef el MansQr " (1184); Mahommed III.,
" En-Nlsir " (1100); YQsef III., " Abu Ya'kub el Mustansir "
(1214); 'Abd-el-W&hid, "El MakhlQwi" (1223); 'Abd-Allah
II., "Abu Mahommed" (1224); Yafcya V., "El Mu'tasim "
(1226); Idrls in., " El MfimQn " (1229); Rashld I., " 'Abd-el-
Wfihid II." (1232); 'Ali IV., "Es-Sa'id el Mu tadld" (1242);
Omar I., "El Mortada" (1248); Idrls IV., "El Wfithik"
(1 266-1 269). (B. M.*;D.H.)
ALMON, JOHN (1737-1805), English political pamphleteer
and publisher, was born at Liverpool on the 17 th of December
716
ALMOND— ALMONER
1737. In early life he was apprenticed to a printer in his native
town, and he also spent two years at sea. He came to London in
1758 and at once began a career which, if not important in itself,
had a very important influence on the political history of the
country. The Whig opposition, hampered and harassed by the
Government to an extent that threatened the total suppression
of independent opinion, were in great need of a channel of
communication with the public, and they found what they
wanted in Almon. He had become personally known to the
leaders through various publications of his own which had a
great though transient popularity; the more important of these
being The Conduct of a late Noble Commander [Lord George
Sackville] Examined (1759); a Review of his late Majesty's
Reign (1760); a Review of Mr Pitt's Administration (1761);
and a number of letters on political subjects. The review of
Pitt's administration passed through four editions, and secured
for its author the friendship of Earl Temple, to whom it was
dedicated. Brought thus into the counsels of the Whig party,
he was persuaded in 1 763 to open a bookseller's shop in Piccadilly,
chiefly for the publication and sale of political pamphlets. This
involved considerable personal risk, and though he generally
received with every pamphlet a sum sufficient to secure him
against all contingencies, he deserves the credit of having done
much to secure the freedom of the press. The government
strengthened his influence by their repressive measures. In
1765 the attorney-general moved to have him tried for the
publication of the pamphlet entitled Juries and Libels, but the
prosecution failed; and in 1770, for merely selling a copy of the
London Museum containing Junius'* celebrated " Letter to the
King," he was sentenced by Lord Mansfield to pay a fine of ten
marks and give security for his good behaviour. It was this
trial that called forth the letter to Lord Mansfield, one of the
bitterest of the Junius series. Almon himself published an
account of the trial, and of course did not let slip the opportunity
of reprinting the matter that had been the ground of indictment;
but no further proceedings were taken against him. In 1774
Almon commenced the publication of his Parliamentary Register,
a monthly report of the debates in parliament, and he also issued
an abstract of the debates from 1742, when Richard Chandler's
Reports ceased, to 1774. About the same time, having earned
a competency, he retired to Boxmoor in Hertfordshire, though he
still continued to write on political subjects. He became pro-
prietor in 1784 of the General Advertiser, in the management of
which he lost his fortune and was declared insolvent. To these
calamities was added an imprisonment for libel. The claims
of his creditors compelled him to leave the country, but after
some years in France he was enabled to return to Boxmoor,
where he continued a career of undiminished literary activity,
publishing among other works an edition of Junius. His last
work was an edition of Wilkes's correspondence, with a memoir
( 1 80s). He died on the 1 2th of December 1805. Almon 's works,
most of which appeared anonymously, have no great literary
merit, but they are of very considerable value to the student
of the political history of the period.
ALMOND (from the O. Fr. almande or alemande, late Lat.
amandola, derived through a form amingdola from the Gr.
A^iryWXj?, an almond; the al- for a- is probably due to a
confusion with the Arabic article al, the word having first dropped
the a- as in the Italian form mandola; the English pronunciation
i-mond and the modern French amende show the true form of
the word). The almond is the fruit of Amygdalus communis,
a plant belonging to the tribe Pruneae of the natural order
Rosaceae. The genus A mygdalus is very closely allied to Prunus
(Plum, Cherry), in which it is sometimes merged; the distinction
lies in the fruit, the soft pulp attached to the stone in the plum
being replaced by a leathery separable coat in the almond.
The tree appears to be a native of western Asia, Barbary and
Morocco; but it has been extensively distributed over the warm-
temperate region of the Old World. It ripens its fruit in the
south of England. It is a tree of moderate size; the leaves are
lanceolate, and serrated at the edges; and it flowers early in
spring. The fruit is a drupe, having a downy outer coat, called
the epicarp, which encloses the reticulated hard stony skeS «c
endocarp. The seed is the kernel which is contained wssa
these coverings. The shell-almonds of trade consist of Ht
endocarps enclosing the seeds. The tree grows in Syria asd
Palestine; and is referred to in the Bible under the nasee d
Shaked, meaning " hasten." Toe word Lu*, which occurs is
Genesis xxx. 37, and which has been translated hazel, is stppaed
to be another name for the almond. In Palestine the tree flcves
in January, and this hastening of the period of flowering see=s
to be alluded to in Jeremiah i. xi, 12, where the Lord asks the
prophet, " What seest thou?" and he replies, " The rod of u
almond-tree "; and the Lord says, " Thou hast well seen, for I
will hasten my word to perform it." In Ecdesiastes xu.55
is said the " almond-tree shall flourish." This has often bees
supposed to refer to the resemblance of the hoary locks of age ::
the flowers of the almond; but this exposition is not borne ccs
by the facts of the case, inasmuch as the flowers of the ahxmi
are not white but pink. The passage is more probably intended
to allude to the hastening or rapid approach of old age. Tb
application of Shaked or hasten to the almond is similar to •**
use of the name " May " for the hawthorn, which usually nV« re-
in that month in Britain. The rod of Aaron, mentioned \z
Numbers xvii., was taken from an almond-tree; and the Jew
still carry rods of almond-blossom to the synagogues on grea:
festival days. The fruit of the almond supplied a model far
certain kinds of ornamental carved work (Exodus xxv. 33. 34.
xxxviL 19, 20).
There are two forms of the plant, the one (with pink bowcs*
producing sweet, the other (with white flowers) bitter ahnecis.
The kernel of the former contains a fixed oil and emulsin. It a
used internally in medicine, and must not be adulterated vi:b
the bitter almond. The Pulvis Amygdalae CompositMs of &
British Pharmacopoeia consists of sweet almonds, sugar i~d
gum acacia. It may be given in any dose. The Mistan
Amygdalae contains one part of the above to eight of water,
the dose is J to 1 or.
The bitter almond is rather broader and shorter than tie
sweet almond and has a bitter taste. It contains about 50*,
of the fixed oil which also occurs in sweet almonds. It she
contains a ferment emulsin which, in the presence of water, acts
on a soluble glucoside, amygdalin, yielding glucose, prussac add
and the essential oil of bitter almonds or benzaldehyde (ft)
which is not used in medicine. Bitter almonds may yield iresi
6 to 8% of prussic add.
Oleum Amygdalae, the fixed oil, is prepared from chier
variety of almond. If intended for internal use, it must, how-
ever, be prepared only from sweet almonds. It is a glyceryl
oleate, with slight odour and a nutty taste. It is almost insokt*
in alcohol but readily soluble in chloroform or ether. It may be
used as a pleasant substitute for olive oil. The pharrnacopoea)
preparations of the sweet almond are used only as vehicles far
other drugs. The sweet almond itself, however, has a sprat!
dietetic value. It contains practically no starch and nu?
therefore be made into flour for cakes and biscuits for patieits
suffering from diabetes mellitus or any other form of grycessm
It is a nutritious and very pleasant food.
There are numerous commercial varieties of sweet ahnesd.
of which the most esteemed is the Jordan almond, imported
from Malaga. Valentia almonds are also valued. Fresh s«c£
almonds are nutritive and demulcent, but as the outer br©«
skin sometimes causes irritation of the alimentary canal, the
are blanched by removal of this skin when used at dessert
ALMONER (from Lat. eleemosynarius, through med. Lit
almosynarius, almonarius, and Fr. almosnier, aumosKier, ic,
mod. Fr. aumbnier), in the primitive sense, an officer in relignw
houses to whom belonged the management and distribution ct
the alms of the house. By the ancient canons all monastene
were to spend at least a tenth part of their income in ahns to
the poor, and all bishops were required to keep almoEcn.
Almoners, as distinct from chaplains, appear early as attached
to the court of the kings of France; but the title of grind
almoner of France first appears in the reign of Charles \UL
ALMONRY— ALMORAVIDES
717
Re was an important court official whose duties comprised the
superintendence of the Chapel Royal and all the religious
ceremonies of the court. He was a director of the great hospital
for the blind (Quinxc-Vingts), and nominated the regius pro-
fessors and readers in the College de France. The office was
revived by Napoleon I., was abolished in 1830, and again created
by Napoleon III.; it existed till 187a In England, the royal
almonry still forms a part of the sovereign's household, the
officers being the hereditary grand almoner (the marquess of
Exeter), the lord high almoner, the sub-almoner, and the secretary
to the lord high almoner. The office of hereditary grand almoner
is now merely titular. The lord high almoner is an ecclesiastical
officer, usually a bishop, who had the rights to the forfeiture of
all deodands (g.v.) and the goods of a jdo de se, for distribution
among the poor. He had also, by virtue of an ancient custom,
the power of giving the first dish from the king's table to whatever
poor person he pleased, or, instead of it, alms in money, which
custom is kept up by the lord high almoner distributing as many
silver pennies as the sovereign has years of age to poor men and
women on Maundy Thursday (?.».)•
ALMONRY (Lat. eUemosynarium, Fr. oumfinerie, Ger. Alno-
senkaus), the name for the place or chamber where alms were
distributed to the poor in churches or other ecclesiastical
buildings. At Bishops tone church, Wiltshire, it is a sort of
covered porch attached to the south transept, but not com-
municating with the interior of the church. At Worcester
Cathedral the alms are said to have been distributed on stone
tables, on each side, within the great porch. In large monastic
establishments, as at Westminster, it seems to have been a
separate building of some importance, either joining the gatehouse
or near it, that the establishment might be disturbed as little as
possible.
ALMORA, a town and district of British India, the chief town
and administrative headquarters of the Kumaon division of
the United Provinces, situated on a mountain-ridge of the
Himalayas 5404 ft. above the sea. Pop. (1001) 8596. The
town has a college called after Sir Henry Ramsay; a government
high school; a Christian girls' school; and a large cantonment.
The town was captured by the Gurkhas in 1700, who constructed
a fort on the eastern extremity of the ridge. Another citadel,
Fort Moira, is situated on the other extremity of the ridge.
Almora is also celebrated as the scene of the British victory
which terminated the war with Nepal in April 1815, and which
resulted in the evacuation of Kumaon by the Gurkhas and the
annexation of the province by the British.
The District of Almora was constituted in 1801, together
with Nairn Tal, by a redistribution of the two former districts of
Kumaon and the Tarai. It lies among the mountains of Kumaon,
between the upper waters of the Ganges and the Gogra, here
called the Kali. Area, 5419*)- m.; pop. (1001) 465*893, showing
an increase of 13% during the decade. Tea is grown in the
district, which includes the military sanatorium of Ranikhet.
The nearest railway via Naini Tal is the extension of the Oudh
and Rohilkhand line from near Bareilly to Kathgodam.
ALMORAVIDES (properly Murdbfis, the name being corrupted
through the Spanish), a Berber horde from the Sahara which,
in the nth century, founded the fourth dynasty in Morocco.
By this dynasty the Moorish empire was extended over TIemcen
and a great part of Spain and Portugal. The name is derived
from the Arab. Murdbil, a religious ascetic (see Marabout).
The most powerful of the invading tribes was the Lam tuna
(" veiled men ") from the upper Niger, whose best-known
representatives now are the Tuareg. They had been converted
to Mahomtnedanism in the early times of the Arab conquest,
but their knowledge of Islam did not go much beyond the
formula of the creed — " there is no god but God, and Mahomet is
the apostle of God,"— and they were ignorant of the law. About
the year 1040 or a little earlier, one of their chiefs, Yafcya ibn
Ibrahim, made the pilgrimage to Mecca. On his way home he
attended the teachers of the mosque at Kairawan, in Tunisia,
who soon learnt from him that his people knew little of the
religion they were supposed to profess, and that though his
will was good, his own ignorance was great By the good offices
of the theologians of &airawin, one of whom was from Fez,
Yafeya was provided with a missionary, * Abd- Allah ibn Ylzln, a
zealous partisan of the Malekis, one of the four orthodox sects
of Islam. His preaching was for long rejected by the Lamtunas,
so on the advice of his patron Yafeya, who accompanied him,
he retired to an island in the Niger, where he founded a ribdj or
Moslem monastery, from which as a centre his influence spread.
There was no element of heresy in his creed, which was mainly
distinguished by a rigid formalism and strict obedience to the
letter of the Koran and the orthodox tradition or Sunna. 'Abd-
Allah imposed a penitential scourging on all converts as a purifica-
tion, and enforced a regular system of discipline for every breach
of the law, even on the chiefs. Under such directions the
Muribtis were brought to excellent order. Their first military
leader, Yahya ibn Omar, gave them a good military organization.
Their main force was infantry, armed with javelins in the front
ranks and pikes behind, formed into a phalanx and supported
by camelmen and horsemen on the flanks. From the year 1053
the Muribtis began to impose their orthodox and puritanical
religion on the Berber tribes of the desert, and on the pagan
negroes. Yahya was killed in battle in 1056, but 'Abd-Allah,
whose influence as a religious teacher was paramount, named
his brother Abu Baler as chief. Under him the Mur&btjs soon
began to spread their power beyond the desert, and subjected
the tribes of the Atlas. They then came in contact with the
Berghwita, a Berber people of central Morocco, who followed
a heresy founded by Salafe ibn Ttrff 300 years previously.
The Berghwita made a fierce resistance, and it was in battle
with them that 'Abd-Allah ibn Yazln won the crown of
martyrdom. They were, however, completely conquered by
Abu Bakr, who espoused the defeated chief's widow, Zalnab.
In 1061 Abu Bakr made a division of the power he had estab-
lished, handing over the more settled parts to his cousin YOsef
ibn Tashfln, as viceroy, resigning to him also his favourite wife
Zalnab, who had the reputation of a sorceress. For himself he
reserved the task of suppressing the revolts which had broken
out in the desert, but when he returned to resume control he
found his cousin too powerful to be superseded, so he had to go
back to the Sahara, where in 1087 be too attained martyrdom,
having been wounded with a poisoned arrow in battle with the
pagan negroes.
Ibn Tashfln, who was largely guided by Zalnab, had in the
meantime brought what is now known as Morocco to complete
subjection, and in 1062 had founded the city of Marrftkesh
(" Morocco City "). He is distinguished as Yusef I. In 1080 he
conquered the kingdom of TIemcen and founded the present city
of that name, his rule extending as far east as Oran. In 1086
he was invited by the Mahommedan princes in Spain to defend
them against Alphonso VI., king of Castile and Leon. In that
year Yusef passed the straits to Algeciras, and on the 23rd of
October inflicted a severe defeat on the Christians at Sacralias,
or in Arabic, Zallaxa, near Badajoz. He was debarred from
following up his victory by trouble in Africa which he had to settle
in person. When he returned to Spain in 1000 it was avowedly
for the purpose of deposing the Mahommedan princes and annex-
ing their states. He had in his favour the massof the inhabitants,
who were worn out by the oppressive taxation imposed by their
spendthrift rulers. Their religious teachers detested the native
Mahommedan princes for their religious indifference, and gave
Yusef a Jetwo— or legal opinion— to the effect that he had
good moral and religious right to dethrone the heterodox rulers
who did not scruple to seek help from the Christians whose bad
habits they had adopted. By 1004 he had removed them all,
and though he regained b'ttle from the Christians except Valencia,
he reunited the Mahommedan power and gave a check to the
reconquest of the country by the Christians. After friendly
correspondence with the caliph at Bagdad, whom he acknow-
ledged as Amir el MQminln, " Prince of the Faithful," Yusef
in 1097 assumed the title of " Prince of the Resigned "— Amir
el Muslimln. He died in xio6, when he was reputed to have
reached the age of 100.
7 i8
ALMQVIST— ALMUCE
The Muribti power was at its height at YQsef's death, and
the Moorish empire then included all North-West Africa as far
as Algiers, and all Spain south of the Tagus, with the east coast
as far as the mouth of the Ebro, and the Balearic Islands.
Three years afterwards, under YQsef's son and successor, 'Ali III.
of Morocco, Madrid, Lisbon and Oporto were added, and Spain
was again invaded in i tig and iiji, but the tide had turned,
the French having assisted the Aragonese to recover Sara-
gossa. In 1 138'AliIlI.wasdefeatedbyAlphonsoVlI.ofCastileand
Leon, and in 1 139 by Alphonso I. of Portugal, who thereby won
his crown, and Lisbon was recovered by the Portuguese in 1 147.
'All III. was a pious nonentity, who fasted and prayed while
his empire fell to pieces under the combined action of his Christian
foes in Spain and the agitation of the Muwibfcadis or " Almo-
hades " (q.v.) in Morocco. After *Ali's death in 1142, his son
Tashftn lost ground rapidly before the Muwahbadis, and in
1 145 he was killed by a fall from a precipice while endeavouring
to escape after a defeat near Oran. His two successors Ibrihim
and Ishlk are mere names. The conquest of the city of Marri-
kesh by the Muwafohadis in 1 147 marked the fall of the dynasty,
though fragments of the MuriLb(is continued to struggle in the
Balearic Islands, and finally in Tunisia.
The amirs of the Murabti dynasty were as follows: — YQsef I.,
bin Tashfln (1061); *Ali III. (1 106); Tashftn 1. (1 143); Ibrahim II.
(1 145); Ishik(u 4 6).
See Budgett Mcakin. The Moorish Empire (London, 1899); the
anonymous Raddel Karj&s {Fez. 1326). translated by Baymieras Roudk
d-Kartas (Paris, i860); Ibn KhaldOn, Kitdbel -Aibr . . . fi Aiydm el
Maghrib, Gfc. (cir. 1405), partly translated by de Slane as Histoire
des Berbers, vol. ii. (Algiers, 1852-1856); Makklri, History of the
Mahommedan Dynasties in Spain, translated by Gayangos (London,
1840); Histoire des Mussulmans d'Espagne, by R. Dozy, vol. iv.
(Leiden, 1861). (B. M.*;D. H.)
ALMQVIST, KARL JONAS LUDWIO (1793-1866), Swedish
writer, was born at Stockholm in 1793. He became a student
at Upsala, where his father was professor of theology, in 1808,
and took his degree in 181 5. He began life under highly favour-
able auspices; but becoming tired of a university career, in
1823 he threw up the position he held in the capital to lead a
colony of friends to the wilds of Wermland. This ideal Scandi-
navian life soon proved a failure; Aimqvist found the pen easier
to wield than the plough, and in 1828 he returned to Stockholm
as a teacher in the new Elementary School there, of which he
became rector in 1829. Now began his literary life; and after
bringing out several educational works, he made himself suddenly
famous by the publication of his great series of novels, called
The Booh of the Thorn-Rose (1832-183 5). The career so begun
developed with extraordinary rapidity; few writers have
equalled Aimqvist in productiveness and versatility; lyrical,
epic and dramatic poems; romances; lectures; philosophical,
aesthetical, moral, political and educational treatises; works
of religious edification, studies in lexicography and history, in
mathematics and philology, form the most prominent of his
countless contributions to modern Swedish literature. So
excellent was his style, that in this respect he has been con-
sidered the first of Swedish writers. His life was as varied as
his work. Unsettled, unstable in all his doings, he passed from
one lucrative post to another, at last subsisting entirely on the
proceeds of literary and journalistic labour. More and more
vehemently he espoused the cause of socialism in his brilliant
novels and pamphlets; friends were beginning to leave him,
foes beginning to triumph, when suddenly all minor criticism
was silenced by the astounding news that Aimqvist, convicted
of forgery and charged with murder, had fled from Sweden.
This occurred in 1851. For many years no more was heard of
him; but it is now known that he went over to America and
settled in St Louis. During a journey through Texas he was
robbed of all his manuscripts, among which are believed to have
been several imprinted novels. He is said to have appealed in
person to President Lincoln, but the robbers could not be traced.
The American adventures of Aimqvist remain exceedingly
obscure, and some of the most remarkable have been proved to
be fabulous. In 1865 he returned to Europe, and his strange
and sinister existence came to a close at Bremen on the 2*6
of September 1866. It is by his romances, undoubtedly tat
best in Swedish, that his literary fame will mainly be supported
but his singular history will always point him out as a remarlaW
figure even when his works are no longer read. He was aactha
Eugene Aram, but of greater genius, and so fax more success? J
that he escaped the judicial penalty of his crimes. (E. GJ
ALMS, the giving of relief, and the relief given, whether a
goods or money, to the poor, particularly applied to the charity
bestowed under a sense of religious obligation (see Csuam
and Charities). The word in O. Eng. was aeh*yssm\ and e
derived through the Teutonic adaptation (cf. the moden
Gcr. almosen ) of the Latinized form of the Gr. tkcqpor&i,
compassion or mercy, from iXfot, pity. The ^g 85 * 1 * w«rd
" eleemosynary," that which is given in the way of alms, chart-
able, gratuitous, derives direct from the Greek. " Abas ° a
often, like " riches/ 1 wrongly taken as a plural word.
ALMSHOUSE, a house built and endowed by private charity
for the residence of poor and usually aged people. The gres!a
portion were built after the Reformation- Two interested
examples are the Hospital of St Cross, near Winchester,
founded in 1136, and Coningsby Hospital at Hereford,
founded in 1614.
ALMUCE, or Amice (O. Ft. anmuce, O. Eng. ammmct, eaja,
amess, &c, from late LaL almucia, almucium, armmcia, 4c). 1
hooded cape of fur, or fur-lined, worn as a choir vestment by
certain dignitaries of the Western Church. The origin of the
word almucium is a philological mystery. The al~ b pronator
the Arabic article, since the word originated in the south (Sk£ia
aimtaiu, Prov. oJmussa, Span, almucio, &c), but the derivatja
of the second part of the word from a supposed old Teutosk
term for cap — Ger. Mtitu, Dutch Mutsdte, Scot. «*fc*
(New Eng. Did. s. " Amice "; Dies, WdrUrbuchderrom. Sprocket)
— is the exact reverse of the truth. The almuce was originally a
head-covering only, worn by the clergy, but adopted also by the
laity, and the German word MiUte, " cap," is later than the
introduction of the almuce in church, and is derived from it
(M. H. G., 13th century, almutt; 14th century, arsua, erem,
&c; 15th century, mutz, miitse, &c). The word states, is
dock, cut off, which first appears in the 14th century, does sot
help much, though the name of another vestment akin to U*
almuce — the monetta—h&s been by some traced to it throagl
the ItaL mature and moxzo (but see below).
In numerous documents from the 12th to the 15th cestsrj
the almucium is mentioned, occasionally as identical with tie
hood, but more often as a sort of cap distinct from it, e.g. ia the
decrees of the council of Sens (1485) — non caputia, sed oJataos
vel bireta tenenUs in capite. By the 14th century two types of
almucium were distinguished: (1) a cap coming down just over
the ears; (2) a hood-like cap falling over the back and shouttezv
This latter was reserved for the more important canons, and was
worn over surplice or rochet in choir. The introduction of the
biretta (q.v.) in the 15th century tended to replace the use of the
almuce as a head-covering, and the hood now became smafler.
while the cape was enlarged till in some cases it fell below the
elbows. Another form of almuce at this period covered the back,
but was cut away at the shoulders so as to leave the arms fae.
while in front it was elongated into two stole-like ends. Almsos
were occasionally made of silk or wool, but from the 13th center;
onward usually of fur, the hem being sometimes fringed vita
t*il*_ H»nr* f hf»v wmw Irnnwn in PnvtsnH •• ** am> M __C_ "
(from the ordinary colour of the fur), to distinguish thest (nee
the liturgical amice (q.v.). By the 16th century the almuce lad
become definitely established as the distinctive choir vestageat
of canons; but it had ceased to have any practical use, and ra
often only carried over the left arm as a symbol of office. Tx
almuce has now been almost entirely superseded by the mooetta.
but it is still worn at some cathedrals in France, e.g. Amiens aad
Chartres, at three churches in Rome, and in certain cathedra*
elsewhere in Italy. The "grey amice" of the canons of St
Paul's at London was put down in 1549, the academic hood
being substituted. It was again put down in 15 so, aad was
ALNAGE— ALOE
719
finally forbidden to the clergy of the English Church by the
unratified canons of 1571 (Report of the sub-committee of
Convocation, 1008).
See du Cange. Glossarium, s. " Altnuria "; Joseph Braun, Die
liturgische Gewandung, p. 359, &c (Freiburg ira Breisgau, 1907);
also the bibliography to the article Vestments.
ALNAGE, or Aulmage (from Fr. aune, ell), the official super-
vision of the shape and quality of manufactured woollen cloth.
It was first ordered in the reign of Richard I. that " woollen
cloths, wherever they are made, shall be of the same width, to
wit, of two ells within the lists, and of the same goodness in the
middle and sides." This ordinance is usually known as the
Assize of Measures or the Assize of Cloth. Article 35 of Magna
Carta re-enacted the Assize of Cloth, and in the reign of Edward I.
an official called an " alnager " was appointed to enforce iL
His duty was to measure each piece of cloth, and to affix a stamp
to show that it was of the necessary size and quality. As, how-
ever, the diversity of the wool and the importation of cloths of
various sizes from abroad made it impossible to maintain any
specific standard of width, the rules as to size were repealed* in
>353* The increased growth of the woollen trade, and the
introduction of new and lighter drapery in the reign of Queen
Elizabeth, compelled a revision of the old standards. A statute
was passed in 1665 creating the office of alnager of the new
drapery, and defining the sizes to which doth should be woven.
The object of the statute was to prevent people being deceived
by buying spurious woollen cloth, and to provide against fraud
and imposition. Owing to the introduction of the alternative
standard, a distinction arose between " broadcloth " (cloth of
two yards) and " streit " or "strait " (narrow doth of one yard).
The meaning now attached to broadcloth, however, is merely
that of materia] of superior quality. Alnage duties and the office
of alnager were abolished in 1699.
See W. J. Ashley, Economic History; and W. Cunningham,
Growth oj English Industry and Commerce.
ALNWICK, a market-town and the county-town of Northum-
berland, England, in the Berwick-upon-Tweed parliamentary
division, 309 m. N. by W. from London, on a branch of the
North Eastern railway. Pop. of urban district (1001) 6716.
It is beautifully situated on the small river Aln, in a hilly district.
Its history has left many marks. Dominating the town from
an eminence above the south bank of the river stands the castle,
held by the Percys since 1309, and long before this an important
border stronghold. A gateway of c. 1350, a fine Norman arch
of the middle of the 12th century, and the andent well in the
keep, are among noteworthy ancient portions; but the castle
was extensively renovated and altered in the second half of the
18th century, while in 1854, when the lofty Prudhoe tower was
built, a scheme of decoration in Italian style was adopted in the
interior; so that the castle, though magnificent, has largely
lost its historic character. It contains numerous fine examples
of the works of Italian and other artists, and collections of British
and Roman and Egyptian antiquities. In the beautiful park are
a monument commemorating the capture of William the Lion
of Scotland when besieging the town in n 74, two memorial
towers, and a British stone chamber. Remains of the wall which
formerly surrounded Alnwick are visible, and one of the four
gates, the Bondgate, stands, dating from the early part of the
1 5th century. The church of St Michael has Norman remains,
but is principally Perpendicular; it contains several ancient
monuments and incised slabs. The modern church of St Paul
has a fine east window of German stained glass. Within the
confines of the park arc ruins of two abbeys. Alnwick Abbey
was a Premonstratcnsian foundation of 1147; only a gateway
tower stands, but the ground-plan was excavated in 1884 and
is outlined on the surface. At 3 m. from the town are more
extensive remains of Hulne Abbey (1240), an early Carmelite
monastery. The long narrow church remains unroofed; there
are also a gateway tower, and portions of the chapter-house and
cloisters. The Norman chapel of the hospital of St Leonard,
which, as well as Alnwick Abbey, was founded by Eustace
Fitz John, completes the series of antiquities in Alnwick. In this
interesting locality, however, there must be mentioned the
mansion of Howick, built in the 18th century, in a fine situation
near the coast to the N.E. Not far from this, overlooking the
sea from a rocky cliff pierced by deep gullies, are the ruins of
Dunstanborough Castle; it dates from the 14th century, though
the site was probably occupied as a stronghold from earlier
times.
The chief industries are brewing, tobacco, snuff and fishing-
tackle making, and corn milling. Alnwick is under an urban
district council, but is a borough by prescription, and its freemen
form a body corporate without authority over the affairs of the
town. It is, however, required to pay, under an act of 1882,
a sum not less than £500 out of the corporate property towards
the upkeep of corporation schools. An ancient peculiar ceremony
was attached until modern times to the making of freemen; those
elected were required to ride in procession to a large pool called
Freemen's Well and there rush through the water According
to tradition the observance of this custom was enjoined by King
John to punish the inhabitants, the king having lost his way and
fallen into a bog owing to the neglected condition of the roads
in the neighbourhood.
According to the Chronide of Alnwick Abbey, the barony of
Alnwick belonged before the Conquest to Gilbert Tyson, whose
son and heir William was killed at Hastings, and whose estates
with his daughter were granted by the king to Ivo de Vescy,
although this theory does not seem probable since Gilbert
Tyson was certainly not a Saxon. In 1 297 William dc Vescy, a
descendant of Ivo, dying without issue, left the barony to the
bishop of Durham, who in 1309 sold it to Sir Henry Percy, in
whose family it still continues. The town evidently grew up
round the castle, which is said to have been built by Eustace
Fitzjohn about n 40. Tradition states that it received its
borough charter from Ring John. However, Alnwick is first
definitely mentioned as a borough in a charter given by William
de Vescy in the reign of Henry II., by which the burgesses were
to have common of pasture on Haydon Moor and to hold of him
" as freely and quietly as the burgesses of Newcastle hold of the
king." This charter was confirmed by his grandson, William
de Vescy, in an undated charter, and again by William, son of
the latter William, in iaoo. According to an inquiry of 1 291 a
market and fair were held in Alnwick from time immemorial.
In 1297 Edward I., in addition, granted the bishop of Durham
a market on Saturday, and a fair on the 17th of March and six
following days. By charters of Henry VI. the burgesses received
licence to enclose their town with a wall, to have a free port at
AInmouth, a market on Wednesday as well as Saturday, and
two new fairs on the feasts of SS Philip and James and St Lucy,
and dght days following each. Tanning and weaving were
formerly the principal industries carried on in Alnwick, and in
1646 there were twenty-two tanneries there. Alnwick has never
been represented in parliament.
See George Tate, The History of the Borough, Castle, and Barony
of Alnwick, 2 vols. (Alnwick, 1866-1869); Victoria County History,
Northumberland.
ALOE* a <genus of plants belonging to the natural order
Liliaceae, with about 00 species growing in the dry parts of Africa,
especially Cape Colony, and in the mountains of tropical Africa.
Members of the closely allied genera Gasteria and Haworthia,
with a similar mode of growth, are also cultivated and popularly
known as aloes. The plants are apparently stemless, bearing
a rosette of large, thick, fleshy leaves, or have a shorter or longer
(sometimes branched) stem, along which, or towards the end of
which and its branches, the generally fleshy leaves are borne.
They are much cultivated as ornamental plants, especially in
public buildings and gardens, for their stiff, rugged habit. The
leaves are generally lance-shaped with a sharp apex and a spiny
margin; but vary in colour from grey to bright green, and are
sometimes striped or mottled. The rather small tubular yellow
or red flowers are borne on simple or branched leafless stems
and are generally densely clustered. The juice of the leaves of
certain spedes yields aloes (see below). In some cases, as in
Aloe venenata, the juice is poisonous. The plant called American
720
ALOIDAE— ALOST
aloe, Agate amtricana (9.*.), belongs to a different order, vis.
Amaryllidaceae.
Aloes is a medicinal substance used as a purgative and pro-
duced from various species of aloe, such as A. vera, vulgaris,
socotrina, ckinensis, and Perryi. Several kinds of aloes are
distinguished in commerce — fiarbadoes, Socotrine, hepatic,
Indian, and Cape aloes. The first two are those commonly used
for medicinal purposes. Aloes is the expressed juice of the leaves
of the plant. When the leaves are cut the juice flows out, and is
collected and evaporated. After the juice has been obtained,
the leaves are sometimes boiled, so as to yield an inferior kind of
From these plants active principles termed aloins are extracted
by water. According to W. A. Shenstone, two classes are to be
recognized: (1) Nataloins, which yield picric and oxalic adds
with nitric acid, and do not give a red coloration with nitric
acid; and (2) Barbaloins, which yield aloetic acid, C 7 H»N,0»,
chrysammic add, C 7 H»NiO^ picric and oxalic adds with nitric
add, being reddened by this reagent. This second group may
be divided into a-Barbaloins, obtained from Barbadoes aloes, and
reddened in the cold, and /S- Barbaloins, obtained from Socotrine
and Zanzibar aloes, reddened by ordinary nitric add only when
warmed, or by fuming add in the cold. Nataloin, 2Ci7HnOrH40,
forms bright yellow scales, melting at ai2°-222°; barbaloin,
Ci?Hu07, forms yellow prismatic crystals. Aloes also contain a
trace of volatile oil, to which its odour is due.
The dose is 2 to 5 grains, that of aloin being } to 2 grains. Aloes
can be absorbed from a broken surface and will then cause
purging. When given internally it increases the actual amount
as well as the rate of flow of the bile. It hardly affects the small
intestine, but markedly stimulates the muscular coat of the
large intestine, causing purging in about fifteen hours. There
is hardly any increase in the intestinal secretion, the drug being
emphatically not a hydragogue cathartic There is no doubt
that its habitual use may be a factor in the formation of haemor-
rhoids; as in the case of all drugs that act powerfully on the
lower part of the intestine, without simultaneously lowering
the venous pressure by causing increase of secretion from the
bowel. Aloes also tends to increase the menstrual flow and
therefore belongs to the group of emmenagogues. Aloin is
preferable to aloes for therapeutic purposes, as it causes less, if
any, pain. It is a valuable drug in many forms of constipation,
as its continual use does not, as a rule, lead to the necessity of
enlarging the dose. Its combined action on the bowel and the
uterus is of especial value in chlorosis, of which amenorrhoea is
an almost constant symptom. The drug is obviously contra-
indicated in pregnancy and when haemorrhoids are already
present. Many well-known patent medicines consist essentially
of aloes.
The lign-aloes is quite different from the medicinal aloes.
The word is used in the Bible (Numb. xxiv. 6), but as the trees
usually supposed to be meant by this word are not native in
Syria, it has been suggested that the LXX. reading in which
the word does not occur is to be preferred. Lign-aloe is a corrup-
tion of the Lat. lignum-aloe, a wood, not a resin. Dioscorides
refers to it as agattochon, a wood brought from Arabia or India,
which was odoriferous but with an astringent and bitter taste.
This may be Aquilaria agallockum, a native of East India and
China, which supplies the so-called eagle-wood or aloes-wood,
which contains much resin and oil.
ALDlDAB, or Aloadae, i.e. Otus and Ephialtes, in andent
Greek legend, the twin-sons of Posddon by Iphimedeia, wife of
Aloeus. They were celebrated for their extraordinary stature
and strength. According to Homer {Od. xi. 305), they made war
upon the Olympian gods and endeavoured to pile Pelion upon
Ossa in order to storm heaven itself; had they reached the age
of manhood, their attempt would have been successful, but Apollo
destroyed them before their beards began to grow. In the Iliad
(v. 365) Ares is imprisoned by them, but delivered by Hermes.
Apollodorus says that they succeeded in piling Pelion upon Ossa.
Another story is that they were presumptuous enough to seek
Artemis and Hera in marriage, and that Artemis caused them
to slay each other unintentionally on the island of Na
they were afterwards worshipped as heroes- la punishment far
their offences they were bound back to back with snakes to a
pillar in the lower world (Hyginus, Fob. 28). The AbHdae (bene
connected with &Xwr), threshing-floor) represent the spirits of the
fertile earth and agriculture, conceived of by the Greeks as
engaged in combat with the Olympian gods. In coatrxst la
these legends, Pausanias tells us that they were regarded as the
first to worship the Muses on Mt Helicon, while Diodores repre-
sents them as historical personages, princes of Thes&ary, *m
defeated the Thradans in Strongyle, i.e. Naxoa, where they
made themselves rulers, and subsequently slew one another a a
quarrel.
ALOMPRA, ALOUNQ P'HOURA (1711-1760), founder of t5r
last Burmese dynasty, was born in 1711 at M6tshobo, a ssal
village 50 m. north-west of Ava. Of humble origin, lie had
risen to be chief of his native village when the invasion of Bursa,
by the king of Pegu in 1752 gave him the opportunity of attz-a-
ing to the highest distinction. The whole country had tsnrj
submitted to the invader, and the leading chiefs had taken the
oaths of allegiance. Alompra, however, with a more indeprstkx
spirit, not only contrived to regain possession of his village, hti
was able to defeat a body of Peguan troops that had beea xsd
to punish him. Upon this the Burmese, to the number of a
thousand, rallied to his standard and marched with tun cpoe
Ava, which was recovered from the invaders before the dost d
1753. For several years he prosecuted the war with naif are
success. In 1 7 54 the Peguans, to avenge themselves for a sever
defeat at Keoum-nuoum, slew the king of Burma, who «u
their prisoner. The son of the latter claimed the throne, and vis
supported by the tribe of Quois; but Alompra resisted, bcsi
determined to maintain his own supremacy. In 175s Alompra
founded the dty of Rangoon. In 1757 he had established is
position as one of the most powerful monarchs of the East tj
the invasion and conquest of Pegu. Before a year elapsed tiz
Peguans revolted; but Alompra, with his usual promputsoc
at once quelled the insurrection. The Europeans were susperte:
of having instigated the rising, and the massacre of the Ear!^*
at Negrais in October 1 750 is supposed to have been app»»w£ 5j
Alompra after the event, though there is no evidence that St
ordered it. Against the Siamese, who were also suspected d
having abetted the Peguan rebels, he proceeded more oprsi?
and severely. Entering their territory, he was, just about u
invest the capital when he was seized with an illness «hk>
proved fatal on the 15th of May 1700. Alompra is one of Je
most remarkable figures in modern Oriental history. To is*
doubted military genius he added considerable political sagaotf.
and he deserves particular credit for his efforts to improve lie
administration of justice. His cruelty and decdtiulness woe
faults common to all Eastern despots.
ALONE. This adjective or adverb requires no definition fcf
its meaning of " by oneself " or " solitary "; but its ctyinofagial
history, as simply a combination of the words " all ** and "one *
is rather curious (compare the Ger. allein). " Lone " b merely
a clipped form of the word, and so " londy." The New Engix*
Dictionary traces the English word back to the year 1300.
ALOHA, a town of southern Spain in the province of M£?3p,
17 m. W.N.W. of Malaga, on the right bank of the river Gaai*-'
horce, and on the Cordova-Malaga railway. Pop. (1000) 10.5^5
Alora, which is an andent and picturesque town, with several
Moorish ruins, occupies an outlying hill of the Sierra de Tote,
and overlooks a fertile valley where maize, sugar-cane and daa-
palms are cultivated. There are hot sulphurous springs ta tk«
town, which has also a fine climate; and many of the wealtiy
families from Malaga reside here in summer. Brandy tSkstiSLsg
is, after agriculture, the chief local industry.
ALOST (Flem. Aalst), a town of Belgium, in the proviso
of East Flanders, situated on the left bank of the Deodcr; tit
andent capital of what was called Imperial Flanders. Pep
(1897) 28,771; (1004) 31*655. Flanders in the feudal period
was a fief of the king of France — the count of Flanders being (he
first of the twdve peers of France; buf there was a small strip
ALP— ALPACA
721
Extending from Alost to the isles of Zeeland, designated Imperial
Flanders, of which the count was the vassal of the Holy Roman
imperor. Attached to the hotel de ville is a fine belfry of the
15th century, but unfortunately it was seriously damaged by
ire in 1879. In the church of St Martin, dating from 1498 but
infinished, is a fine Rubens. The subject is St Roch, the patron
taint of lepers, and the colouring of the scaly skin of the leper
n the forefront of the picture is generally regarded as one of the
naster's most striking effects. The work was painted to the
irder of the Brewers' Gild in (it is said) eight days. It was
>utside Alost that William Clito, grandson of William the
Conqueror, who was then endeavouring to establish his claims
is count of Flanders, was mortally wounded in n 28. Of all
he claims Alost possesses to fame perhaps the most remarkable
s that Thierry Maartens (e. 1474) set up there one of the first
>rinting presses in Europe. Alost is famous to-day for its hop
gardens and linen-bleaching establishments. The meadows
outh of Alost are often covered with the linen undergoing the
»rocess of bleaching, which makes them assume the aspect of
i whitish-blue carpet.
ALP. To the Swiss dwellers in the plains the term "the
Vlps " (9.9.) signifies the high snowy mountains which they see
>n the horizon, but to the dwellers in the valleys which nature
las carved in the sides of those high mountains, the word alp
neans exclusively the summer pastures situated on the slopes
ibove the valley, though below the snow-line. In fact such
wstures are essential to the inhabitants of pastoral alpine
listricts, for the fodder to be obtained in the valley itself would
lot suffice to support the number of cattle which are required
o afford sustenance to the inhabitants. Such mountain pastures,
nade use of only during the summer months, are of almost
m memorial antiquity, cases occurring in 739, 868 and 999,
rhile they are found in all parts of the Alpine chain. In
"ranee and Italy the system is badly managed, as also in Tirol
where the local name is Altnen), where, too, these pastures have
a the course of years been largely alienated by the valley in-
tabitants, and belong to large villages or small towns almost
n the plains. But in Switzerland, and especially in the German-
peaking mountain districts, the alps are the centre round
vhich the entire pastoral life of the inhabitants turns. It is
eckoned that in that country there are now about 4778 alps
n all, the capital value of which is put at rather over £3,000,000.
)f these alps about 45% are owned by the communes
exclusively or jointly) and 54% by individuals, the remaining
% being the property of the state or a few great monasteries,
n the case of the alps belonging to the Swiss communes, it must
»e borne in mind that " commune " here does not signify either
Zinwohnergemeinden or Biirgergemeinden, but a special class
ailed Alpgemeinden (for instance in the well-known valley of
irindelwaJd, there is one Eiwwohnergemeinde, but seven Alpge-
weinden). These Alpgemeinden are composed of the persons who
lave a right to send cattle up to any particular alp in summer,
his right being attached (in different places) either to certain
dots of ground in the valley or certain houses in the village,
r to certain persons. In -any case the owners of an alp
\x the greatest number of cows which it can support during
he summer without being permanently damaged. The plot
f ground which can support a single cow (or 2 heifers, 3 calves
r sheep, 4 pigs or 8 goats) is called a KuhstQSS (of which there
re 270,389 in Switzerland), and it is in these terms that the
iroductiveness of the alp is reckoned. Sometimes a par-
icular alp, or a portion of " it, is reserved exclusively to
teifers and calves, or to goats (in this case it is the loftier
ortion). On each alp there are several sets of huts wherein
ive the cow-herds and cheese-makers (the latter are called
'ennen or Fruitier s), the cattle being generally left in the open,
rhe cattle, with their attendants, shift from one to the other of
hese sets of huts, between the end of June and the end of
leptember, making but one sojourn at the highest huts, but
wo at the lower. The proper name for these huts js SennhlUten
»r chalets, but the latter term is incorrectly applied also to
touses in the village below. The milk given each day by each
• i3
cow is entered In a book, and then made into butter and cheese,
the cow-herds and cheese-makers having the right to a certain
proportion of milk, butter and cheese for their own sustenance,
and receiving a small sum per head of cattle for looking after them.
At the endof the season the net amount of cheese produced by milk
from each cow is handed over to the owner of that particular
cow, and is carried down by him to his home in the valley from
the hut (a small building on four stone legs to secure the contents
from mice) wherein the cheeses have been stored since they were
made — this hut is called a Spcickcr. As the owners of Kuhstdssen
may exchange them provisionally for others on another alp,
or may hire them out (they can only sell them with the plot or
house to which they are attached), the persons who in any given
summer actually send cows up to an alp (these form the
Bcsctzerschafl) need not necessarily be absolutely identical with
the true owners of these rights or BtsUxerschajL Hay is never
mown on the true alps save in spots which are not easily
accessible to cattle (in very high spots it belongs to the mower,
and is then called Wildheu), but hay-crops are made on the
Mayens or Voralpen, the lowest pastures, situated between the
homesteads and the true alps; these VoraJpen are individual
(not communal) property, though probably in olden days cut
out of the true Alpen. In the winter the cattle consume the hay
mown on these V or alpen (which, to a certain extent, are grazed
in late spring and early autumn, that is, before and after the
summer sojourn on the alps), either living in the huts on the
V or alpen while they consume it, or in the stable attached to the
dwelling-houses in the village; in the barn is stored the hay
mown on the homestead and on the meadows near the village,
which may belong to the owner of the cattle. The whole system
is well organized and is well understood by the natives, though
not always by strangers who visit the Alps in summer.
See John Ball, Hints and Notes for Travellers in the Alps (article x.,
especially pp. lvii.-lxv.); new edition, London, 1899; Felix
Anderegg, luustriertes Lekrbuch Htr die tesamte schwei*. Alpivirt-
sehaft (Bern, 1897-1898); the Schmeie-AlpstaHstih (each volume
devoted to the alps of a single Swiss canton); and A. v.
Miaskowski's two books, Die sckweie, AUmend (Leipzig, 1879), and
Die Verfassung der Land-, Alpen- und Forstwirtschaff der Sckweie
(Basel, 1878). (W. A. B. C)
ALPACA, one of two domesticated breeds of South American
camel-like ungulates, derived from the wild huanaco or guanaco.
Alpacas are kept in large flocks which graze on the level heights
of the Andes of southern Peru and northern Bolivia, at an eleva-
tion of from 14,000 to i6,ooo ft. above the sea-level, throughout
the year. They are not used as beasts of burden like llamas,
but are valued only for their wool, of which the Indian blankets
and ponchos are made. The colour is usually dark brown or
black and the coat of great length, reaching nearly to the ground.
In stature the alpaca (Lama huanacos pacos) is considerably
inferior to the llama, but has the same unpleasant habit of
spitting.
In the textile industries " alpaca " is a name given to two
distinct things. It is primarily a term applied to the wool, or
rather hair, obtained from the Peruvian alpaca. It is, however,
more broadly applied to a style of fabric originally made from
the alpaca wool but now frequently made from an allied type
of wool, viz. mohair, Iceland, or even from lustrous English
wool. In the trade, distinctions are made between alpacas and
the several styles of mohairs and lustres, but so far as the general
purchaser is concerned little or no distinction is made.
The four species of indigenous South American wool-bearing
animals are the llama, the alpaca, the guanaco and the vicuna.
The llama and the alpaca are domesticated; the guanaco and
the vicuna run wild. Of the four the alpaca and the vicuna are
the most valuable wool-bearing animals: the alpaca on account
of the quality and quantity, the vicuna on account of the softness,
fineness and quality of its wool. In the early days of the 19th
century, the usual length of alpaca staples appears to have
been about 12 in., this being a three years' growth; but
to-day the length is little more than about half this, i.e. a one to
two years' growth, although from time to time longer staples
are to be found. The fleeces are sorted for colour and quality
722
ALP ARSLAN— ALPENA
by skilled native women. The colour of the greater proportion
of alpaca imported into the United Kingdom is black and brown,
but there is also a fair proportion of white, grey and fawn. It is
customary to mix these colours together, thus producing a curious
ginger-coloured yarn, which upon being dyed black in the piece
takes a fuller and deeper shade than can be obtained by piece-
dyeing a solid-coloured wooL In physical structure alpaca is
somewhat akin to hair, being very glossy, but its softness and
fineness enable the spinner to produce satisfactory yarns with
comparative ease.
The history of the manufacture of this wool into cloth is one
of the romances of commerce. Undoubtedly the Indians of
Peru employed this fibre in the manufacture of many styles of
fabrics for centuries before its introduction into Europe as a
commercial product The first European importations would
naturally be into Spain. Spain, however, transferred the fibre
to Germany and France. Apparently alpaca yarn was spun in
England for the first time about the year 1808. It does not
appear to have made any headway, however, and alpaca wool
was condemned as an unworkable material. In 1830 Benjamin
Outram, of Greetland, near Halifax, appears to have again
attempted the spinning of this fibre, and for the second time
alpaca was condemned. These two attempts to use alpaca were
failures owing to the style of fabric into which the yarn was
woven— a species of camlet. It was not until the introduction
of cotton warps into the Bradford trade about 1836 that the true
qualities of alpaca could be developed in the fabric Where the
cotton warp and mohair or alpaca weft plain-cloth came from is
not known, but it was this simple yet ingenious structure which
enabled Titus Salt (q.v.), then a young Bradford manufacturer,
to utilize alpaca successfully. Bradford is still the great spinning
and manufacturing centre for alpacas, large quantities of yarns
and cloths being exported annually to the continent and to the
United States, although the quantities naturally vary in accord-
ance with the fashions in vogue, the typical " alpaca-fabric "
being a very characteristic " dress-fabric"
The following statistics, taken from Hooper's Statistics of the
Woollen and Worsted Trades of the United Kingdom, give an idea
of the extent of the trade in yarns and fabrics of the alpaca
type; unfortunately statistics for alpaca alone are not published.
Alpaca, Vicuna, and Llama Wool imported into the
United Kingdom.
Year.
Peru.
Chile. 1
lb
£
lb
£
1870
1,247.015
2,334,048
3,324454
1412.365
4.236.566
124,946
15.573
J.557
M
520402
S63,78a
890,627
?5!996
1880
98,644
64,621
1890
1900
190,703
205.839
564.606
1.148,694
30.694
51,116
1902
5.038.998
259.927
1,028.171
47,610
1905
2.301.522
1 19.321
2,302,650
112,367
Note.— In 1840 the imports into, exports from, and consumed in
the United Kingdom of mohair, alpaca, vicuna, &c, amounted to
£50,000.
Exports of Mohair and Alpaca Yarns for 1905.
Russia 1,288,800 lb £168,596
Germany . 9,851,200 „ 1,145.795
Belgium 316,400 „ 40,409
France . . 2,006,700 „ 223,605
Exports of Alpaca from the United Kingdom to the
United States.
1881 . . £1,256 1900 . • £30,631
1890 .. — 1905 . 4.954
Owing to the success in the manufacture of the various styles
of alpaca cloths attained by Sir Titus Salt and other Bradford
manufacturers, a great demand for alpaca wool arose, and this
demand could not be met by the native product, for there never
seems to have been any appreciable increase in the number of
alpacas available. Unsuccessful attempts were made to acclima-
tize the alpaca goat in England, on the European continent and
in Australia, and even to cross certain English breeds of sheep
1 Grown in Peru but shipped from Valparaiso*
with the alpaca. There is, however, a cross between the alpsa
and the llama — a true hybrid in every sense — produca g 1
material placed upon the Liverpool market under the aaae
" Huarizo." Crosses between the alpaca and vicuna have bk
proved satisfactory.
The preparing, combing, spinning, weaving and fiwWfc^f *
alpacas and mohairs are dealt with under Wool. (A. F. B-'
ALP ARSLAN, or Axan, MAHOMMBD BBM DATTD (rcx-
1072), the second sultan of the dynasty of Seljuk, in Persia, 1^
great-grandson of Seljuk, the founder of the dynasty, was boa
in the year a.d. 1029 (421 of the Hegira). He •— »»w*~4 the siat
of Mahommed when he embraced the Mussulman faith; aad «
account of his military prowess he obtained the surname a t
Arslan, which signifies "a valiant lion." He succeeded zs
father Da'ud as ruler of Khorasan in 1059, and bis uncle Toc-u
Bey as sultan of Oran in 1063, and thus became sole monarch -A
Persia from the river Ozus to the Tigris. In consotidatieg hi
empire and subduing contending factions he was ably assste:
by Nizam ul-Mulk, his vizier, one of the moat »w»iiw»t siatesaa
in early Mahommedan history. Peace and security being esii>
lished in his dominions, he convoked an assembly of the stata
and declared his son Malik Shah his heir and successor. ttri
the hope of acquiring immense booty in the rich church of St
Basil in Caesarea, the capital of Cappadoda, he placed hmudf
at the head of the Turkish cavalry, crossed the Euphrates ia*
entered and plundered that city. He then marched into Arresi
and Georgia, which, in 1064, he finally subdued. In xoo! A£
Arslan invaded the Roman empire. The emperor Roaiaa
Diogenes, assuming the command in person, met the iaradei
in Cilicia. In three arduous campaigns, the two first of wfca
were conducted by the emperor himself while the third vu
directed by Manuel Comnenus, the Turks were defeated a
detail and finally (1070) driven across the Euphrates. In itri
Romanus again took the field and advanced with. 100,000 na
including a contingent of the Turkish tribe of the Uses aod a
the French and Normans, under Ursel of BaUol, into Arnesn.
At Manzikert, on the Murad Tchai, north of Lake Van. be «s
met by Alp Arslan; and the sultan having proposed teres d
peace, which were scornfully rejected by the emperor, a hank
took place in which the Greeks, after a terrible slaughter, ve=
totally routed, a result due mainly to the rapid tactics of tit
Turkish cavalry. Romanus was taken prisoner and cosduasd
into the presence of Alp Arslan, who treated him with generastr
and terms of peace having been agreed to, dismissed him. loaded
with presents and respectfully attended by a military g&ui
The dominion of Alp Arslan now extended over the fairest far.
of Asia; 1200 princes or sons of princes surrounded his throat
and 200,000 warriors were at his command. He now prepand
to march to the conquest of Turkestan, the original scat o* ha
ancestors. With a powerful army he advanced to the backs a
the Oxus. Before he could pass the river with safety k «
necessary to subdue certain fortresses, one of which was ix
several days vigorously defended by the governor, Yssd
Kothual, a Kharizmian. He was, however, obliged to surresda
and was carried a prisoner before the sultan, who condecaed
him to a cruel death. Yussuf , in desperation, drew his da&s
and rushed upon the sultan. Alp Arslan, the most skilful aicha
of his day, motioned to his guards not to interfere and dre*
his bow, but his foot slipped, the arrow glanced aside and be
received the assassin's dagger in his breast. The wound prorot
mortal, and Alp Arslan expired a few hours after he received it
on the 15th of December 1072.
See Gibbon, Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire, eoited b*
J. B. Bury (1898), vi. pp. 235 et seq., and authorities there eked
ALPENA, a city and the county seat of Alpena coacry
Michigan, U.S.A., on Thunder Bay, a small arm of Lake Huraa
at the mouth of Thunder Bay river, in the N.E. part of the low
peninsula. Pop. (1800) 11,283; (1000) 11, 80 a, of whom 41©
were foreign-born; (1010 census) 11,706. It is served by tk
Detroit & Mackinac railway and by steamboat lines to Detnn
and other ports. The dty is built on sandy ground on both sida
of the river and has a good harbour, which has been considerabrf
ALPENHORN— ALPHABET
723
mproved by the Federal government; in 1907 the maximum
Iraft that could be carried over the shallowest part of the channel
vas 14 ft. There is good farming land in the vicinity and
Mpena has lumber and shingle mills, pulp works, Portland
:ement manufactories and tanneries; in 1905 the city's factory
)roducts were valued at $2,905,263. In 1006 the commerce of
he port, chiefly in lumber, cement, coal, cedar posts and ties,
odder and general merchandise, was valued at $3,018,894.
Upena occupies the site of an Indian burying-ground. A trading-
>ost was established here in 1835, but the permanent settlement
lates from 1858; in 187 1 Alpena was chartered as a city.
ALPENHORN, ALPHORN, a musical instrument, consisting
>f a natural wooden horn of conical bore, having a cup-shaped
nouthpiece, used by mountaineers in Switzerland and elsewhere.
The tube is made of thin strips of birchwood soaked in water
in til they have become quite pliable; they are then wound into
1 tube of conical form from 4 to 8 ft. long, and neatly
rovercd with bark. A cup-shaped mouthpiece carved out of a
>lock of hard wood is added and the instrument is complete,
rhe alpenhorn has no lateral openings and therefore gives the pure
latural harmonic series of the open pipe. The harmonics are
he more readily obtained by reason of the small diameter of the
x>re in relation to the length. An alpenhorn made at Rigi-Kulm,
>chwytz, and now in the South Kensington Museum, measures
J ft. in length and has a straight tube. The well-known
Ram des Yachts is the traditional melody of the alpenhorn,
which has been immortalized by Beethoven in the finale of the
Pastoral Symphony, where the music is generally rendered by a
or anglais (q.v.). Rossini has introduced the melody into his
>pera William Tell. Wagner, in the third act of Tristan and
Isolde, was not entirely satisfied with the tone quality of the cor
mglais for representing the natural pipe of the peasant. Having
n his mind the timbre of the alpenhorn, be had a wooden horn
nade for him with one valve only and a small pear-shaped bell,
nrhich is used at Bayreuth (see Holztrompete). The Swiss
ilpenhorn varies in shape according to the locality, being curved
iear the bell in the Bernese Oberland. Michael Praetorius
Mentions the alpenhorn under the name of holurn trummet in
Syntagma Muskun (Wittenberg, 161 5-1 61 9). (K. S.)
ALPES MARIT1ME8, a department in the S.E. of France,
ormed in i860 out of the county of Nice, to which were added
i>e districts of Grasse (formerly in the department of the Var)
ind of Mentone (purchased from the prince of Monaco). Pop.
[1906) 334,007. It is bounded N.E. and £. by Italy, S. by the
Mediterranean Sea, and W. by the departments of the Var and
he Basses Alpes, while its northern extremity forms a sharp
ingle between France and Italy. Its area is 1444 sq. m., its
greatest length is 59 m. and its greatest breadth 48} m. It is
romposedof the valley of the Var river (which is all but com-
pletely within this department), together with those of its chief
iffluents, the Tinee and the Vesubie. The region of Grasse is
3 illy, but the rest of the department is mountainous, its loftiest
point being the Mont Tinibras (9048 ft.) at the head of the Tinee
/alley. Two singular features of the frontier of the department
towards the east are only to be explained by historical reasons.
Dne is that the central bit of the Roja valley is French, while the
jpper and lower bits of this valley are Italian; the reason is that
Lhose bits which are now Italian formed part of the county of
Ventimiglia, and the central bit part of the county of Nice, which
alone became French in i860. The result is that the Italians are
aow unable to build a railway from Cuneo by the Col de Tenda
and down the Roja valley direct to Ventimiglia. The other
strange feature is that from near Isola in the upper Tinee valley
southwards the political frontier does not coincide with the
physical frontier, or the main watershed of the Alpine chain;
the reason (it is said) is that in i860 all the higher valleys of the
Maritime Alps (on both sides of the watershed) were expressly
excepted from the treaty of cession, in order that Victor
Emmanuel II. might retain his right of chamois hunting in these
parts. The department is divided into three arrondissements
(Nice, Grasse and Puget Theniers), 37 cantons and 155 communes.
It forms the bishopric of Nice (the first bishop certainly known
is mentioned at the end of the 4th century), which UH 1792 was
in the ecclesiastical province of Embrun, then (1802) in that of
Aix en Provence, next in that of Genoa (1814), and finally (i860)
in that of Aix again. Its chief town is Nice. The broad-gauge
railways in the department cover 56 m., including the line along
the coast, while there are also 82 m. of narrow-gauge railways.
The chief industries are distilleries for perfumes and manufacture
of olive oil, of pottery and of tiles, besides a great commerce
in cut flowers. To foreigners the department is- best known
for its health resorts, Nice, Cannes, Mentone, Antibes and
Beaulieu, while other important towns are Grasse and Puget
Theniers. (W. A. B. C.)
ALPHA and OMEGA (A and G), the first and last letters of
the Greek alphabet, corresponding to the AUph and Taw of the
Hebrew. They are used as a designation of Himself by the
speaker in Rcv.i.8; xxi.6; xxii. 13. The first and last letters of the
Hebrew alphabet are used in Rabbinic writings in a similar way.
We find also " the seal of God is Emeth," Emeth (truth) being
composed of the first, middle and last letters of the Hebrew
alphabet. God is thus represented as the beginning, middle and
end of all things (see the Jewish Encyclopaedia, s.v.).
ALPHABET (see also Writing). By the word alphabet,
derived from the Greek names for the first two letters — alpha and
beta — of the Greek alphabet, is meant a series of conventional
symbols each indicating a single sound or combination of sounds.
The ideal alphabet would indicate one sound by one symbol,
and not more than one sound by the same symbol. Symbols for
a combination of sounds are not necessary, though they may be
convenient as abbreviations. In the writing of some languages,
e.g. Sanskrit, such abbreviations are carried to an extreme;
in most Greek MSS. also they are of very frequent occurrence.
These contractions, however, may prove too great a strain upon
the eyesight or the memory, and thus become a hindrance instead
of a help. This was apparently the case in Greek, for though the
early printers cast types for all the contractions of the Greek
MSS. these have now with one consent been given up. A con-
sonant like x can only be regarded as an abbreviation; it ex-
presses nothing that cannot as well be expressed by ks or gt,
both of which combinations in different situations it may repre-
sent (see X) . No alphabet corresponds exactly to the ideal which
we have postulated, nor if it did, would it continue long so to
do, as the sounds of most languages are continually changing.
Hence in the case of dead languages or past forms of living
languages, it is often very difficult to define with precision what
the sounds of the past epoch were. The study of the history of
English pronunciation occupied the late Dr A. J. Ellis for a large
part of his life, and the results fill five large volumes. The sounds
which are most difficult to define exactly are the vowels; a great
variety may be indicated by the same symbol. In the New
English Dictionary no fewer than thirteen different nuances of
vowel sound are distinguished under the symbol A alone. In
English, moreover, the vowel sounds tend to become diphthongs,
so that the symbol ^for the simple sound tends to become the
symbol for that combination which we call a diphthong. Thus
the long I in ride, vine, &c, has become the diphthong at, and the
name of the symbol I fa itself so pronounced. In familiar, if
vulgar, dialects, A tends in the same direction. In the " cockney "
dialect, really the dialect of Essex but now no less familiar in
Cambridge and Middlesex, the at sound of I is represented by oi as
in ioime, " time," while A has become at in Kate, pane, &c. In
all southern English 6 becomes more rounded while it is being
pronounced, so that it ends with a slight u sound. In the vulgar
dialect already mentioned, the sound begins as a more open sound
than in the cultivated pronunciation, so that no is really pro-
nounced as naou. It is clear, therefore, that the best alphabet
would not long indicate very precisely the sounds which it was
intended to represent. See Phonetics.
But the history of the- alphabet shows that at no time has
it represented any European language with much precision,
because it was an importation adapted in a somewhat rough and
ready fashion to represent sounds different from those which It
represented outside Europe. Wherever the alphabet may have
7*4-
ALPHABET
originated, there seems no doubt that its first importation in a
form closely resembling that with which we are familiar in modern
times was from the Phoenicians to the Greeks. The Phoenicians
were certainly using it with freedom in the 9th century B.C.;
with so much freedom, indeed, that they must have been in
possession of it for a considerable time before we can trace it.
With the materials available up to August 1910 it would be idle
here to attempt to trace its earlier history. Great discoveries in
Cappadoda, Assyria and Egypt were then only at their beginning,
and any statement washable to be quickly disproved by the appear-
ance of new evidence. The prevalent theory, universally accepted
till a few years ago, was that of Vkomte Emmanuel de Rouge,
first propounded to the Academic des Inscriptions in 1859, but
unnoticed by the world at large till republished, after deRotigt's
death, by his son in 1874. According to this view the alphabet
was borrowed by the Phoenicians from the cursive (hieratic) form
of Egyptian hieroglyphics. The resemblances between some
Egyptian symbols and some symbols of the Phoenician alphabet
are striking; in other cases the differences are no less remarkable.
As a matter of fact the Egyptians might have passed about
thirty-five centuries B.C. from the picture writing of hieroglyphs
to genuine alphabetic signs. 1 They did not, however, profit by
their discovery, because, amongst the Egyptians, writing was
clearly a mystery in both senses— only possible at that period
for masters in the craft, and also something, like the writing of
medical prescriptions at the present day in Latin, which was not
to be made too easily intelligible to the common people. At
all periods, moreover, hieroglyphic writing was a branch of
decorative art, and it may have been that the ancient Egyptian,
like the modern Turk, resented too much lucidity, and liked his
literary compositions to be veiled in a certain obscurity. The
alphabet devised by the Egyptians consisted of twenty-four
letters. Egyptologists are at variance on the question whether
this alphabet was the original, or had any influence upon the
development of the Phoenician alphabet. " With the papyrus
paper," says Professor Breasted, 1 "the hand customarily
written upon it in Egypt now made its way into Phoenicia,
where before the xoth century B.C. it developed into an alphabet
of consonants, which was quickly transmitted to the Ionian
Greeks and thence to Europe." On the other hand, Professor
Spiegelberg, 1 writing soon after Professor Breasted, says that
investigation has not as yet furnished proof that the Phoenician
alphabet is of Egyptian origin, though he admits that in some
respects the development of the two alphabets, both without
vowel signs, is curiously parallel.
The most recent view is that of Dr A. J. Evans, who argues
ingeniously that the alphabet was taken over from Crete by the
" Cherethites and Pelethites " or Philistines, who established for
themselves settlements on the coast of Palestine. 4 From them
it passed to the Phoenicians, who were their near neighbours,
if not their kinsfolk. Symbols like the letters of the alphabet
have been found in European soil painted upon pebbles belonging
to a stratum between the Palaeolithic and Neolithic age. 1 This
was in France at Mas d'Azil on the left bank of the Arize. Else-
where several sericsof such symbols resembling inscriptions have
been found scratched on bones of the same period.* For the
history of writing these may be important, but for the history of
the alphabet, as we know it, they are not in question. The
alphabet may have originated as Dr Evans thinks, but at present
the proof is not conclusive. The Greek names of the letters,
their forms, and the order of the symbols show that the Greek
alphabet as we know it must have been imported by or from a
Semitic people, and there is no evidence to contradict ancient
tradition that this people was the Pho en i c ians. The view pro-
1 Breasted. History of Egypt (1906), p. 45.
* Op. eit. p. 484. m
* Die Sehrift und Spracke der alien Agypter (1907), p. 24.
* Scripta Mini*, h (1909), f 10, pp. 77 if.
* E. Piette, L Anthropologic, vii. (1896) pp. 384 ff.
•E. Piette, V Anthropologic, xvi. (1905) pp. 8*9. The apparent
inscriptions of this period are conveniently collected and figured
together in Dechclette't Mannel d'arckiohgU prikislorique eelticnc
* gaUe-remaine, I (1908) p. 335.
pounded by Deecke T in 1877, that the
had developed out of the late Assyrian cuncifonn, never met w=i
much acceptance and has really no evidence in its rawer
The earliest alphabetic document which can be dated wsk
comparative certainty is the famous Moabite stone, wsrica w
discovered in 1868, and after a controversy bet w ets ri»*
claimants which led to its being broken in pieces by the Arahi
ultimately reached the Louvre, where in a restored fans it re-
mains. The long inscription upon it celebrates the achftevemezi
of Mesha, king of Moab, who had been a tributary of Ahai.
king of Israel, and rebelled after his death (x Kings m. 4, s
Though the chronology of the period is somewhat VBcertaxa, tk
date must be in the first half of the oth century bx. It is tabe
remembered, however, that important as this iwommmwif j s for :*
development of the alphabet, and because it can be dated wfei
tolerable accuracy, the dialect and alphabet of Moab are a*
in themselves proof for the Phoenician forms which influence
the peoples of the Aegean, and through them Western Eorcpe
The fragment of a bronze bowl discovered in Cyprus in 1*7*
which bears round its edge an inscription dedicating h to Baar
Lebanon as a gift from a servant of Hiram, king of the S s dowim
is probably the oldest Phoenician document which we posse*
This bowl, though perhaps a little earlier than the Moabite staat
in all probability is not more than a century older, while scsi*
authorities think it is even later. The earliest alphabet ooasste
of twenty-two letters, and bears a very dose resetnbiaace t» tk
earliest Greek alphabet from A toT. The symbols in the Gm
alphabet from Y to Q, or in the numerical alphabet to *> , ase sc
found in the Phoenician alphabet.
As already mentioned, the twenty-two symbols of the r\st-
nician alphabet indicate consonantal sounds only. Greek £c a?
possess so many consonants. The Phoenician alphabet posses*!
many more aspirates than were required in Greek, whkh tenir
more and more to drop all its aspirates. Before history begasi s
had also lost, except sporadically in out-of-the-way dialects, tk
semi-vowel i (approximately English y). It therefore made tk
aspirates A, E, and the semi-vowel I into vowels, and appares!?
converted the semi-vowel Y~w into the vowel Y~*> ■***
it placed at the end of the alphabet and substituted for it at :k
sixth symbol of the alphabet the letter F with the old value «i a
The superfluous sibilants were also adapted in various wan i*
below).
The discovery of a large number of very archaic iu s Liiyti sn
in the island of Thera, which was made by Freiherr HiEer ra
Gartringen in 1806, has shown that the earliest Greek /^^
alphabet was even more like the Phoenician than had *»*
been heretofore believed. The symbol for in Thera 0>»*»
(9) is nearer than any previously known to the ***j»
Semitic letter ($) though, as not infrequently happens ****
in the transference of a symbol from one people to another. f%
position is -inverted— a fate which in this alphabet has bctrj:
also X (Semitic I, Thera *| ), and possibly v (Semitic Y*, Tiff.
M). The era of excavation initiated by Dr Schliemasm oc -^
grand scale has increased our knowledge of Greek inscripasi
beyond anything that was earlier dreamt of. Besides tk
excavations of Athens, Delos, Epidaurus and Delphi, the res.'-'
of which are most important for the 5th century b.c and ntt*
the exploration of the sites of 01ympia,of the Heracua as
Argos, of Naucratls in Egypt, and of various Cretan toez
(above all the ancient Gortyn), has revolutionized oar te*
ledge of the archaic alphabets of Greece. We can aov **
how long and laborious was the process by which the Grm:
attained to uniformity in writing and in numeration. Ii a
field, perhaps, was the centrifugal tendency of the Greeks oc
persistent than in such matters. In numeration, indeed. «
formity was not attained till at least the and century ef t w
Christian era. The differentiation of the local alphabets is fas*
* Dtr Ursprung des ali-semitiseken Alp
sehtn Kcilschrifl (ZDhfG. xxxi. pp. 102 fl .
theory of the same nature is propounded L. „
in the Proceedings of Ike Society of Biblical ArckceoUgy. av. (19%
pp. 39* ff.
Upkehets ens der nem-esrr*
t fl.). A still mm sweep*
ded by the Rev, C. J. s*
ALPHABET
725
torn the very beginning el otir records. Unfortunately, as yet
10 record fa preserved which can with any probability be dated
arlier than the 7th century B.C., and the Phoenician influence
tad by then nearly ceased. How long this influence lasted we
annottelL If in Crete a system of writing of an entirely different
lature had been developed seven or eight centuries before,
here must have been some very important reason for the entire
bandonment of the old method and the adoption of a new. In
:rete, at least, the excavations show that the old civilisation
oust have ended in a social and political cataclysm. The magnifi-
ent palace of Minos— there seems no reason to withhold from it
he name of the great prince whom^Thucydides recognized as
he first to hold the empire of the sea— perished by the flames,
ad it evidently had been plundered beforehand of everything
hat a conqueror would regard as valuable. The only force in
J reek history which we know that could have produced this
hange was that of the Dorian conquest. As everywhere in the
'eloponnese, except at Argos, there seems to have been a sudden
»reak with the earlier civilization, which can have been occasioned
nly by the semi-barbarous Dorian tribes, so the same result
eems to have followed from the same cause in Thera. The
>orians apparently were without an alphabet, and consequently
rhen Phoenician traders and pirates occupied the place left
^acant by the downfall of Minos'* empire, the people of the
gland, and of the sea coasts generally, adopted from them the
'hoenician alphabet. 1 The Greeks who migrated to Cyprus,
ossibly as the result of the Dorian invasion, adopted a
yllabary, not an alphabet (see Plate; also Writing). That
he alphabet was borrowed and adapted independently by
liferent places not widely separated, and that the earliest
3reek alphabets did not spread from one or a few centres
n Greek lands, seem clear (a) from the different Greek
ounds for which the Phoenician symbols were utilized; (b)
torn the different symbols which were employed to represent
ounds which the Phoenicians did not possess, and for which,
herefore, they had no symbols. The Phoenician alphabet was
in alphabet of consonants only, but all Greek alphabets as yet
mown agree in employing A, E, I, O, Y as vowels. On the
►ther hand, a table of Greek alphabets 1 will show how widely
lifferent the symbols for the same sound were. Except fora single
Utic inscription (see Plate), thealphabetsof Thera and of Corinth
ire theoldest Greek alphabets which we possess. Yet at Corinth
tlongskie ^ ^, which is found for the so-called spurious diph-
hong « (ix. the Attic a, which does not represent an Indo-
Suropean a, but arises by contraction, as in dnkur*, or through
he lengthening of the vowel sound as the result of the loss of a
onsonant, as in cJpn/ifrot for rVpnji&'os) the short e sound is
eprescnted by B; t is found at Corinth in its oldest form ^ ,
ind also as X , while in Thera it is £ In Thera the w sound of
l ig a mm a (F) was entirely lost, and therefore is not represented,
loth Thera and Corinth employ in the earliest inscriptions j:
or f , not & though in both alphabets the ordinary use as $ is
bdopted, no doubt through the influence of trade with other
1 la an excellent summary of the different views held as to the
wigin of the alphabet (Journal of the American Oriental Society,
not. xxiL, first half, 1901), Dr J. P. Peters agrees (pp. 191 ff.) that
be best test is the etymology -of the names of the letters. He
hows that " twelve of the letter-names are words with meanings
in the northern dialects of Semitic], all of them indicating simple
ibjects, six of the twelve being parts of the body. The objects
lenoted by the other six names— ox, house, valve of a door, water,
ish and mark or cr o ss cl early do not belong to any people in a
tomadic state, but to a settled, town-abiding population. . . .
»ix of the letter-names are not words in any known tongue, and
ippear to be syllables only. Four letter-names are triliterals, and
esemble in their form Semitic words." As 11 of the 1 2 which have
neanings are to be found in the Assyrian-Babylonian syllabaries,
te suggests a, possible Babylonian origin. Different views with
egam to some of these symbols are expressed by Lidzbarski,
IphemerisfOr semitiseke Epierapkik, ii. pp. 125 ff. (1006). The earliest
nadition of the names is discussed by Nolaeke in his Beitrdge zur
emituchen Sprackwissenschafi (1004), pp. 124 ff.
1 See. for example, the tables at the end of Roberts's Introduction
9 Greek Epigraphy (1 887): or Kirchhoff's Studien sur Geschichte des
riethischen Alphabets (4th ed. 1887); or LarfekTs Handbuck der
riechiscken Epigraphik, voL U (1907).
states. On the other hand, at Cleonae, which is distant not more
than 8 or 9 m. from Corinth, an ancient inscription written
fievarpodmbbp has recently been discovered, which shows that
though Cleonae for B wrote rj~» like the Corinthian J 1 , and,
as at Corinth, wrote & for a vowel sound, the vowel thus
represented was not short and long e (e and n) as at Corinth,
but » only, as in X**|*/* A> t*& (x/*W /4). Here ^ repre-
sents i, and the spurious diphthong is represented by a, as in
*l 3 M 1 31 (*!*»» Doric infinitive-eTnu), a form which shows
that t has at Cleonae the more modern form I as distinguished
from the Corinthian $.•
Regarding three other questions controversy still rages. These
are: fa) how Greek utilized the four sibilants (Shin, Samech, Zain
and 2ade), which it took over from the Phoenician; (b) what was
the history of development in the symbols for +, x, *\ « (the history
of £ belongs to both heads); (c) the history of the symbol for the
digamma F.
In the Phoenician alphabet Zain was the seventh letter, occupying
the same position and having the same form approximately (x)
as the early Greek Z, while in pronunciation it '
voiced f-sound; Samech (jf ) followed the symbol for » ^"Zf
and was the ordinary j-sound, though, as we have seen, rhoemkteM
it is in different Greek states at the earliest period f as Tf *»— j. ,
well as i\ after the symbol for p came £ade Qv), which
was a strong palatal «, though in name it corresponds to the Greek
f$ra; while lastly Shin (W) follows the symbol for r, and was an
f*-sound. The Greek name for the sibilant (elypa) may simply mean
the hissing letter and be a derivative from olfa; many authorities,
however, hold that it is a corruption of the Phoenician Samech.
Unfortunately, it is not clear how many sibilants were distinguished
in Greek pronunciation, nor over what areas a particular pronuncia-
tion extended. There is, however, considerable evidence m support
of the view that Greek 00 representing the sound arising from
*y» xy, ry, 9y was pronounced as sh (f), while f representing gy, dy
was pronounced in some districts as (j). 4
On an inscription of Halicarnassus, a town which stood in ancient
Carian territory, the sound of 00 in 'AXiMpnvfltiv is represented
by Tt as it is also in the Carian name Panyassis (TJawdTiot, geni-
tive), though the ordinary £$ is also found in the same inscription.
The same variation occurs at the neighbouring Teos and at Ephesus,
while the coins of Mesembria in Thrace show regularly MET A and
METAMBPIANilN. where T ^represents the sound which
resulted from the fusion of By, and which appears in Homer as ew in
l*o9o\, while in later Greek it becomes pi** .* This symbol f is in
all probability the early form of the letter which was known to the
Greeks as San 0«>) and in modern times as Sampi, and which is
utilized as the numeral for 900 in the shape "/h* According to
Herodotus (i. 139). San was only the Dorian name for the letter
which the Ionians called Sigma. This would bring it into connexion
with the Phoenician W (Shin), which, turned through a right angle,
is possibly the Greek Z , though some forms of Zade on old Hebrew
coins and gems (£ 3f.) equally resemble the Greek letter. From
other forms of Sade, however, the other early form of>, viz. M, is
probably derived. The confusion is thus extreme: the name Zade
assimilated in Greek to the names <ra and *fra becomes ffr*,
though the form is that of Zain; the name of Samech b possibly
the origin of Sigma, while the form of Samech is that of 3 which
has not taken over a Phoenician name. It is probable that the form
V\ is an abbreviation in writing from right to left of the earlier M,
and $ of the four stroke %. That the confusion of the sibilants
was not confined to the Greeks only, but that pronunciation varied
within a small area even among the Semitic stock, is shown by the
difficulty which the Ephraimites found in pronouncing " shibboleth "
(Judges xii. 6).
For the history of the additional symbols which are not Phoenician,
we must begin with y. There is no Greek alphabet in which the
symbol is not represented. But the Phoenician form „..
corresponding to it is the consonant w, and occupies the 3<a»
position of the Greek digamma as sixth in the series. 7* ~* _
Whence did the Greeks obtain the digamma? The *******
point is not clear, but probably the Greeks acted here as they did
in the case of the vowel /and the consonant y, adopting the consonant
symbol for the vowel sound. As, however, except in Cyprus,
ramphylia and Argos, the only y sound which survived in Greek—
* Cp. Frankel, Corpus inscriptionum Craecarum Peloponnesi, L,
No. 1607.
4 See Witton, in American Journal of Philology, xix. pp. 420 ff.,
and Lagercrantz, Zur griechischen Laulgeschichle (Upsala, 1898).
» See Foat, " Tsade and Sampi *' (Journal of Hellenic Studies, xxv.
pp. 338 ff., xxvi. p. 286). A number of ingenious points often un-
certain are raised by A. Gercke, " Zur Geschichte des altesten
griechischen Alphabets " (Hermes, xlL, 1906, pp. 540 ff.).
726
ALPHABET
the glide between i and another vowel as in sudw&ya— it never
represented, there was no occasion to use the Phoenician lod in a
double function. With Vau it was different | the «-souna existed
in some form in all dialects, the w-sound survived in many far into
historical times. The Phoenician symbol having been adopted for
the vowel sound, whence came the new symbol p or C for the
digamma? Hitherto there have been two views. Most authorities
have held that the new form was derived from £ by dropping the
lowermost crossbar; some have held that it developed out of the
old Vau. a view which is not impossible in itself and has the similar
development in Aramaic (Tema) in its favour. But as Dr Evans
has found a form like the digamma among his most recent types of
symbols, and as we have no intermediate forms which will prove the
development of p from Y , though the form found at Qaxos in
Crete, viz. ft, shows a form sufficiently unlike p, it is necessary to
suspend J udgment.
The Greek aspirates were not the sounds which we represent by
pk, tk, ck (Scotch), but corresponded rather to the sound of the final
consonants in such words as lip, bit, lick, the breath being
** **.__ audible after the formation of the consonant. It is not
ogtrntoa, clear that Creek took over Q with this value, for in one
Theran inscription Q Q are found combined as equivalent
to T— Hi while the regular representation of + and x is fl R **"*
K £fi or <p (koppa) respectively. In the great Gortyninscripcion
from Crete and occasionally in Thera, fl (in Crete in the form c) and
K are used alone for * and x. just as conversely even in the 5th
century the name of Themistocles has been found upon an ostrakon
spelt 9tMtc9t*\qs. Such confusions show that even to Creek ears
the distinction between the sounds was very small. To have re-
corded it in writing at all shows considerable progress in the obser-
vation of sounds. Such progress is more easily indicated by changes
in the symbols among a people whose acquaintance with the art is
not of long standing nor very familiar. English, though possessing
sounds comparable to the Greek 9, *, x, has never made any attempt
to represent them in writing. On the other hand, no doubt Athens
in 403 B.C. officially adopted the Ionic alphabet and gave up the
old Attic alphabet. The political situation in Athens, however, at
this time was as exceptional as the French Revolution, and offered
an opportunity not likely to recur for the adoption of a system
in widely extended use which private individuals had been employing
for a long time.
The history of the symbols * and x is altogether unknown. The
very numerous theories on the subject have generally been founded
on a principle which itself is in need of proof, viz. that these symbols
must have arisen by differentiation from others already existing in
the alphabet. The explanation is possible, but it is not easy to see
why, for example, the symbol 9 or <J> - Koppa, the Latin Q, should
have been utilized for a sound so different as *•*; nor, again, why
the symbol for 9 (9) by losing its cross stroke should become t\
teeing that the sounds of 9 and * outside Acolic (a dialect which is
not here in question) are never confused. On the other hand, if
we remember the large number of symbols belonging to the pre-
historic script, it will seem at least as easy to believe that the persons
who, by adding new letters to the Phoenician alphabet, attempted
to bring the symbols more into accordance with the sounds 01 the
Creek language, may have borrowed from this oldet script. It is
now generally admitted that the Improvements of the alphabet
were made by traders in the interests of commerce, and that these
improvements began from the great Greek emporia of Asia Minor,
above all from Miletus. Symbols exactly like +, x.and^(G), X» 40
are found in the Carian alphabet, and transliterated by Professor
Sayce l as * (and d), k and kk respectively. If the Carian alphabet
goes back to the prehistoric script, why should not Miletus have
borrowed them from it? We have already seen that, in the earliest
alphabets of Thera and Corinth, the ordinary symbol for £ in the
Ionic alphabet was used for f. This usage brought in its train
another— the use of \^, not for * as in Ionic, but for { in the name
AAEVA I CORA -'AX«|a>ioa, and similarly in Melos,
. PAY I I|CVA I ECM -np*M*W This experiment, for
it was no more, belongs apparently to the latter part of the 6th
'See especially Proceedings of tk* Society of Biblical Archaeology
for 1895, p. 40; cf. also Kalinka, Neut Jakrbucker fir Philology,
iii. (1809), p. 683. Similar forms are also found in the Safa in-
scriptions (South Semitic) with similar values, and Praetorius argues
(Z.D.M.G. lvi., 190a, pp. 677 ff.. and again, Iviii., 1904, pp. 725 f.)
that these were somehow borrowed by Greek in the 8th century R-C,
while in Ixii. pp. 283 ff, he argues that the reason why the Greeks
borrowed 8 for the aspirated t was its form, the cross in being re-
garded as T and the surrounding circle as a variety of Dan occasional
form of Q the aspirate. Here also (p. 287) as in his Ursprung des
kanoandiscken Alphabets, pp. 13 f., he argues that the two forms of the
digamma F and E. and also the South Semitic • - ». could all
have developed from the Cyprian I -toe. But proof is impossible
without evidence of the intermediate steps.
* Inscription** Grate**, xii., fasc. Ui. Nos. 81 1, 1 149*
century, and was soon given up. As the Iorinm kept the forsi £
which the people of Thera used for f, in the same poaitm m ^a
alphabet as Samech occupied in the Phoenician alphabet, ikst
can be no doubt as to its origin. The symbol + which the CbjriA^
Greeks used in the 6th century B.C. for £ may be d e rived, a cce rS ia ;
to the most widely accepted theory, from a primitive form of Snsrd
Q, which is recorded only in the abeudari* of the Chaicsdiaa color is
in Italy. In this case the borrowing of the Greek alphabet sue
long precede any Phoenician record we piiwriii But it is rt
probable that the Ionic and Phoenician =£ developed iswfr pi ss'iar*
from the closed form. Kretschmer, however, in several publicanon'
takes a different view. He thinks that the guttttml densest m :
was a spirant, and therefore different from x, which as aa aspra t
He points out that in Naxos, in a 6th<entury uascripuba. 4 { ■
Ne£fav, Its** and *p*£dv is represented by Q^. the swat eksaes
in which he regards as a form of Q -a. As x " fbaad in c*
same inscription (in the form x). the guttural chmitat saast saw
been different, else ( would have been spelt X£ • Attica and mac >
the Cyclades kept X for the guttural element in I (written X$ *
+ $) and for x &s well. On the west of the Aegean a new syaca
Y was invented for the aspirate value, and this spread over Ac na->
land and was carried by emigrants to Rhodes, Sicily and Italy. Tsr
sign X was kept in the western group for the guttural sprat a i
which was written X $; but, as this spirant occurred n o w h m eat
the combination was often abbreviated, and X was naed fori*
precisely as in the Italic alphabets we shall find that F «■/ devesem
out of a combination FH.
The development of symbols for the long vowels « and « was ass
the work of the Ionian*. The Jt-sound ceased at a very early peni
to exist in Ionic, and by 800 BX. was ignored in writing. The synod
B or H was then employed for thelongopenft*soand,a vac snggescsi
by the name of the letter, which, by the loss of the ^«fr*«*»_ &a:
passed from Heta to Eta. About the same period, and
a sequel to this change, the Greeks of Miletus deve'
long open 0-sound, a form which in all probability
a. About the same period, and pswbalK 1
the Greeks of Miletus developedjQ far a
rm which in all probability is duferVadas
out of O Centuries passed, however, before this symbol was stair
ally adopted, Athens using only O for ^ m and ov, the spjraa
diphthong, until the adoption of the whole Ionic alphabet in 404 a** •
The discoveries of the last quarter of the 19th century can**
back our knowledge of the Latin alphabet by at least rac
centuries, although the monuments of aa early age tAA
which have been discovered are only three, (a) In 1880 «£****
was discovered between the Quirinal and Viminal hills
a little earthenware pot of a curious shape, being, as it wes.
three vessels radiating from a centre, each with a «»p^rsit ■■**
at the top.* Round the sides of the triangle formed by the tbes
vessels and under the mouths runs an inscription of consjrfens
length. The use for which the pot was intended and the porpcr.
of the Inscription have been much disputed, there being at ka&
as many interpretations' as there are words In the inacripoaa
The date is probably the early part of the 4th century at
Though found in Rome, the vessel is small enough to be ea&t
portable, and might therefore have been brought from el* w ain
in Italy. It is equally possible that the potter who
inscribed the words upon it was not a native of Rome. f^ „ ft
One or two points in the inscription make it doubtful awaw*
whether the Latin upon it is really the Latin of Rome.
It is generally known as the Dvenos inscription, from the saw.
of the maker who wrote on the vessel from right to left the a-
scription. part of which is DVENOS MED FECED («'<*'
(b) The second of these early records is the inscription on a gaf
fibula found at Praeneste and published in 1887. The inscriptiaa
runs from right to left, and is in letters which show more cki^?
than ever that the Roman alphabet is borrowed from the alphabet
of the Chalcidian Greek colonies in Italy. Its date cannot be ter
than the 5th and is possibly as early as the 6th century it Tar
words are MANIOS MED FHEFHAKED NVMAStCl
" Manius made me for Numasius." The symbol for M
has stiirfivt strokes, t has the angular form 5* £ The *** __
inscription is earlier than the Latin change of * between aa^
vowels into r, for Numasioi is the dative of the oldet
form which corresponds to the later Numerius. The verb fsr=
' See especially Atkeniscke AiiOeilungen, xxi. p. 426.
1 Figured in Roberts's Introduction to Greek £**gra**y.p. 6$
~ ' 1 wifi be *
Details of the history of the individual letters \
pa rate articles.
• It is figured most accessibly in Egbert's Intmtmcmm to fat £a*>
oj Latin Inscriptions, p. 16.
ALPHABET
727
b remarkable. . In the Dvenos inscription the perfect of facto is
feted; here it is a reduplicated form with the same vowel as the
present. The spelling also is interesting. Thesymbol K isstill in
ordinary use, and not merely used for abbreviations as in the
classical age. But most remarkable is the representation of
Latin F by FH. The reason for this is clear. The value of F in
the Greek alphabet is v and not / as in Latin. Greek had no
sound corresponding to Latin F, consequently an attempt is
made by combining F and H to indicate the difference of sound.
Etruscan uses FH in the same way. As Latin, however, made
the symbol V indicate not only the vowel sound «, but also the
consonant sound * (i.e. English w), the sign for the digamma
F was left unemployed, and as FH was a cumbrous method of
representing a sound which did not exist in Greek, the second
element came to be left out in writing. Thus F came to be the
r*- tative of the unvoiced labiodental spirant instead of that
bilabial voiced spirant. Whether the form fefaked was
ood Latin in Rome may be doubted, for the Romans,
.e of the few miles that separate Praeneste from Rome,
inclined to sneer at the pronunciation and idiom of the
..•enestincs (cf. Plautus, Trin. 609, True. 601; Quintilian
»- 5. 56). (c) The last, and in some respects the most important,
of these records was found in 1800 under an ancient pavement
in the Comiiitim at the north-west corner of the Roman Forum.
It is engraved upon the four sides and one bevelled edge of a
pillar, the top of which has been broken off. As the
1 writing is /fowrrpo^ijoojr, beginning at the bottom of
the pillar and running upwards and down again, no
single line of the inscription is complete. Probably more
than half the pillar is lost, so that it is not possible to make
out the sense with certainty. The inscription is probably not
older than that on the fibula from Praeneste, but has the addi-
tional interest of being undoubtedly couched in the Latin of
Rome. The surviving portion of the inscription contains
examples of all the letters of the early alphabet, though the forms
of F and B are fragmentary and doubtful As in the Praenestine
inscription, the alphabet b still the western (Chalddian) alphabet
K is still in use as an ordinary consonant, and not limited to a
symbol for abbreviations as in the classicalperiod. The rounded
form of 7 is found with the value of Q in RECEI, which b probably
the dative of rex. H has still the dosed form Q, M has the five-
Stroke form, S b the three-stroke^, tending to become rounded.
R appears in the Greek form without a tan", and V and Y areboth
found for the same sound. The manner of writing up and down
instead of backwards and forwards across the stone b obviously
appropriate to a surface which b of considerable length, but com-
paratively narrow, a connected sense being thus much easier to
observe than in writing across a narrow surface where, as in the
gravestones of Melos, three lines are required for a single word.
The form of the monument corresponds to that which we are told
was given to the revolving wooden pillars on which the laws of
Solon were painted. That the writing of Solon's laws, which
was povofpodnjMv, was also vertical b rendered probable by
the phrase o dtrufor poptn in Demosthenes 1 speech Against
Aristocrats, § 28, for which Harpocration b unable to supply
a satisfactory explanation.
The differentiation of the Roman alphabet from the Greek b
brought about (a) by utilizing the digamma for the unvoiced labio-
dental spirant F; (&) by dropping oat the aspirates 9, +,
a"***** X OY in the Chalddian alphabet, whence the Roman b
Jjjjf. derived) from the alphabet proper and employing them
ZZZtormk o" 1 ? ** nttmer *b, * (O) being gradually modified till it
m+kmM was identified with C as though the initial (A centum, 100.
Similarly^ became in time identified with M as though the
initial of miiit, 1000. and the side strokes of x in the above form
were flattened out till it became 1, and ultimately L, 50. (c) After
350 B.c, at latest, there was in Latin no sound corresponding to Z,
which was therefore dropped. In the Chalcidian alphabet the
symbol for x was placed after the symbob common to all Greek
alphabet*, a position which X retains in the Latin (and also in the
Falbcan) alphabet. K in time passed out of use except as an
abbreviation, its place being taken by C, which, as we have seen,
b in the earliest Inscription still g . Three points here require ex-
planation: (1) Why K fell into disuse;
Three point
; (a) why C
C took the place of
K; (3) why the new symbol Q was put in the place of the Jost Z.
It b clear that C must have become an equivalent of K before
the Utter fell out of use. There b some evidence which seems to
point to a pronunciation of the voiced mutes which, 4ike the South
German pronunciation of f, d, b, but slightly differentiated them
from the unvoiced mutes, so that confusion might easily arise. The
Etruscans, who were separated from the Romans only by the Tiber,
gradually lost the voiced mutes. But another cause was perhaps more
potent. C and IC, as k was frequently written, would easily be con-
fused in writing, and Professor Hempl (Transactions of the American
PkOoloricoJ Association for 1899, pp. 24 ft.) shows that the Chalcidian
form of f— X developed into shapes which might have partaken of
the confusion. Owing to this confusion, the new symbol G, differ-
entiated from C, took the place of the useless X In abbreviations,
however, C remained as before in the value of Q, as in the names
Gaius and, Gnaeus. Y and Z were added in the- last century of the
republic for use in transliterating Greek words containing and f .'
The dblcct which was most closely akin to Latin was Falbcan.
The men of Falerii, however, regularly took the side of the Etrus-
cans in wars with Rome, and it ts clear that the civilisation of the
old Falerii, destroyed for its rebellion in 241 B.C., was Etruscan
and not Roman in character.. Peculiar to this alphabet b the form
for /— 'N Much more important than the scanty remains of Falbcan
is the Oscan alphabet. The history of thb alphabet b different
from that of Rome. It b certain from the symbob which they
develop or drop that the people of Campania and Samnium borrowed
their alphabet from the Etruscans, who held dominion in Campanb
from the 8th to the 5th century B.C. Previous to the Punic wars
Campania had reached a higher stage of civilization than Rome.
Unfortunately, the remains of that civilization are very scanty,
and our knowledge of the official alphabet outside Capua, and at
a later period Pompeii, b practically confined to two important
inscriptions, the tabula Agnonensb, now in the British Museum,
and the Cippus AbeUanus, which b now kept in the Episcopal
Seminary at Nola. Of Etruscan origin also b the Umbrian alphabet,
represented first and foremost in the bronze tablets from Gubbio
(the ancient Ijnivium). The Etruscan alphabet, like the Latin,
was of Chakicfian origin. That it was borrowed at an early date
is shown by the fact that most of its numerous inscriptions run
from right to left, though some are written 0M*rpo**Mr. That it
took over the whole Chalcidian alphabet b rendered probable by
the survival in Umbrian and Oscan, its daughter alphabets, of
forms which are not found in Etruscan itself Thb mysterious
1- j :»_ .1 :.*. ~ _f >k__ £^~* : :_.f i
remains as obscure as ever, but apparently it underwent very great
Ehonetic changes at an early period, so that the voiced mutes B,
1, O disappeared. Of the existence of the vowel O there b no
evidence. If it ever existed in Etruscan, it had been lost before the
Oscans and Umbrians borrowed their alphabets. On the other
hand, both of their alphabets preserve B and Umbrian G in the
form >. Etruscan also retained thb symbol in the form 3, and
utilized it exactly as Latin did to replace X Oscan, in order to
represent D, introduced bter a form w, thus creating confusion
between the symbob for d and for r. Thb form was adopted for
d because Q had already been borrowed from Etruscan as the symbol
for r, although H b also found on Etruscan inscriptions. For the
Greek digamma Etruscan used both 3 and 3, but the former only
was borro w ed by the other languages. Etruscan, like Latin, used
0*^ (from right to left) to represent the sound of Latin F, but,
unlike Latin, adopted Q not <l" as the single symbol. Thb form it
then wrote as two lozenges g, whence developed a bter sign, 81
which b used also in Umbrian and Oscan. As the old digamma
was kept, thb new sign was placed after those borrowed from the
Chalcidian alphabet Similarly it used 5p and I for the Chalcidian
f ; Umbrian borrowed the first, Oscan the second form. The form
for h was still closed H, which Etruscan passed on to Oscan, while
Umbrian modeled it to Q. The form for m has five strokes; from
a jater form [\\ the Oscan form was borrowed. Of the two sibilants,
M and ^ or 8, Oscan adopted only ^, Umbrian both M and the
rounded form 8. ? b found on Etruscan inscriptions, but not in
the alphabet series preserved; neither Umbrian nor Oscan has thb
form. T appears in Etruscan as y, yt, and X; of these Umbrian
borrows the first two, white Oscan has a form T like Latin. Etruscan
took over the three Greek aspirates, 9, ♦. x, in their Chalddian
forms; 9 survives in Umbrian as O, the others naturally disappear.
Both Umbrian and Oscan devised two new symbols. Umbrian
1 Gardthausen, " Ursprung und Entwickelung der gricchisch-
inischen Schrif t ** ,fl — — *"-- *■ -•—!.- w — * — v— v
g?. 337 ff.) argues ft . _ r _ r
truscan, Umbnan and Oscan descended as one group, and Falbcan
. . . L ~~-i~i. . *>•-«----- — Jun * der gnecn
bteimschen Sennit {Germantsck-romanische Monaissehrin, i. (k,
»• 337 ff.} argues for a " proto-Tyrrhenbn " alphabet from which
1. (1009).
and Latin as the other. Evidence in favour of such a position foi
the Latin alphabet b not. forthcoming.
728
ALPHABET
took over from Etruscan perhaps the sign C], but gave it the new
value of a spirant which developed out of an earlier rf-sound, but
which is written in the Latin alphabet with rx. The second Umbrian
symbol was d. which was the representative of an 5-sound developed
by palatalizing an earlier k. In Oscan, which had an o-sound, but
no symbol for it, a new sign was invented by placing a dot between the
legs of the symbol for u — V* This, however, is found only in the
best-written documents, and on some materials the dot cannot be
distinguished. The symbol h was invented for the open i-sound
and close t-sound. 1 At a much later epoch it was introduced into
the Latin alphabet by the emperor Claudius to represent y, and the
sound which was written as i or u in maximum, maxumus l &c
Besides the Italic alphabets already mentioned, which are all
derived from the alphabet of the Chalcidian Greek colonists in
Italy, there were at least four other alphabets in use in different
parts of Italy : (1) the Messapian of the south-east part of the penin-
sula, in which the inscriptions of the Illyrian dialect in use there
were written, an alphabet which, according to Pauli (Alt~italisdu
Forschungen, iii. chap, ii.) was borrowed from the Locrian alphabet;
(2) the Sabellic alphabet, derived from that of Corinth and Corcyra,
and found in a few inscriptions of eastern-central Italy; (3) the
alphabet of the Veneti of north-east Italy derived from the Elean;
(4) the alphabet of Sondrio (between Lakes Como and Garda),
which Pauli, on the insufficient ground that it possesses no symbols
corresponding to + and x, derives from a source at the same stage
of development as the oldest alphabets of Thera, Melos and Crete.
From the fact that upon the Galassi vase (unearthed at Cervetri,
but probably a 'product of Caere), which is now in the Gregorian
Museum of the Vatican, a syllabary is found along with one of the
most archaic Greek alphabets, and that a similar combination was
found upon the wall of a tomb at Colle, near Siena, it has been
argued that syllabic preceded alphabetic writing in Italy. But a
syllabary where each syllable is made by the combinations of a
symbol for a consonant with that for a vowel can furnish no proof
01 the existence of a syllabary in the strict sense, where each symbol
represents a syllable; it is rather evidence against the existence
of such writing. The syllabary upon the Galassi vase indicates in
all probability that the vase, which resembles an ink-bottle, be-
longed to a child, for whose edification the syllables pa, pi, p€, jm
and the rest were intended. The evidence adduced from the Latin
grammarians, and from abbreviations on Latin inscriptions like
Tubs for lubens, is not sufficient to establish the theory.
It has been argued that the nines of the Teutonic peoples
have been derived from a form of the Etruscan alphabet, in-
scriptions in which are spread over a great part of
northern Italy, but of which the most characteristic
are found in the neighbourhood of Lugano, and in Tirol
near Innsbruck, Botsen and Trent. The Danish scholar L. F. A.
Wimmer, in his great work Die Runenschrift (Berlin, 2887),
contends that the resemblance, though striking, is superficial.
Wimmer's own view is that the runes were developed from the
Latin alphabet in use at the end of the 2nd century ajl Wimmer
supports his thesis with great learning and ingenuity, and when
allowance is made for the fact that a script to be written upon
wood, as the runes were, of necessity avoids horizontal lines
which run along the fibres of the wood, and would therefore be
indistinct, most of the runic signs thus receive a plausible
explanation. The strongest argument for the derivation from
the Latin alphabet is undoubtedly the value of /attaching to P ;
for, as we have seen, the Greek value of this symbol is v, and its
value as/ arises only by abbreviation from r H. On the other
hand, several of Wimmer's equations are undoubtedly forced.
Even if we grant that the Latin symbols were inverted or set at
an angle (a proceeding which is paralleled by the treatment of
the Phoenician signs in Greek hands), so that ft represents
Latin V, M Latin E, N Latin V, and ^ Latin 0: while the
symbol for the voiced spirant 5 is p> doubled, M> Dy* ** ** diffi-
cult to believe that the symbol for the spirant g, viz. X. repre-
sents a Latin K (which was of rare occurrence), or again >, *C
a Latin N, or that the symbol for *g, <£, represents <-c doubled.
Moreover, the date of the borrowing seems too late. The runes
are found in all Teutonic countries, and the Romans were inclose
contact with the Germans on the Rhine before the beginning
1 For further details of these alphabets, see Conway, The Italic
Dialects, ii. pp. 458 ff. The recent discovery by Keil and Premerstein
{Denksckrifien der Wiener A kademie, liii., 1908) of Lydian inscriptions
containing the symbol a suggests that the old derivation of the
Etruscans from Lydia may be true and that they brought this
symbol with them (see article on r). But the inscriptions are not yet
deciphered, so that conclusive proof is still wanting.
of the Christian era. We hear of c or resp on dence between tk
Romans and German chieftains in the early days of the csp^
It is strange, therefore, if the Roman alphabet, which famed -Jfe
model for the runes, was that of two whole centuries iaier, ni
even then the formal alphabet of inscriptions. By thai ikr
the Teutons were likely to have more convenient materials U£r
wood whereon to write, so that the ada pt a t ion of the kea
would not have been necessary. That the Germans were£ass£^r
with some sort of marks on wood at a much earlier period is show
by Tacitus's Germania, chap. z. There we are told that for pur-
poses of divination certain signs were scratched on slips of wooi
from a fruit-bearing tree (including, no doubt, the beech; <?i
book, German Buck, and Buckstcbe, a letter of the alphabet); ±:
slips were thrown down promiscuously on a white doth, whet;
the expert picked them up at random and by them interpret
fate. In these slips we have the origin of the None fcffc ti*
Scots kaivel, which were and are still used as lots. The Ssfco
men of north-east Scotland, when they return after a iurii ifii
haul, divide the spoil into as many shares as there are ssrr a
the boat, with one share more for the boat. Each nam the* pro-
cures a piece of wood or stone, on which he puts a 1
These lots are put in a heap, and an outsider is «
throws one lot or kaivel upon each heap of fish. Each 1
then finds his kaivel, and the heap on which it lies is his. TK
system of " casting kaivels," as it is called, is certain}/ at gw
antiquity. But its existence will not help to prove am ear ^
knowledge of reading or writing, for in order that ewrjrthfag em
be fair, it is clear that the umpire should not be able Co kfcstl;
.the lot as belonging to a particular individual. It has* howetc
been contended that a system of primitive runes existed wkn
some at least of the later runes were borrowed, and theowaeni: r
marks of the Lapps, who have no knowledge of reading e:
writing, have been regarded as borrowed from these earn
Teutonic runes.* Be this as it may, the resemblances betwcEZ
the runic and the Mediterranean alphabets are too gnat to a*3£
of denial that it is from a Greek alphabet, whether dotal? t
indirectly, that the runes are derived. That Wimmer postdate
the introduction of the runic alphabet seems clear from tt-
archaic forms and method of writing. It is very anGkely thit 1
people borrowing an alphabet which was uniformly written fc?p
left to right should have used it in order to write from rigfc: a
left, or /btwrpodflpBoi'. Hence Hempl contends 1 that Wisssxn
view must be discarded, and that the runes were derived sbec
600 b.c. from a western Greek alphabet which dosdy 1
the Formejlo alphabet (one of the ancient Chalcidian t
and the Sabellic and North Etruscan alphabets. He thes £xa
the date at the same period as Isaac Taylor had done ia a
Greeks and Goths and The Alphabet. Taylor, however, decree
the runes from the alphabet of a Greek colony on the Black Sea.
Hempl's initiative was followed by Professor Gundermana at
Giessen, who announced in November 1897 4 that he had c*
covered the source of the runic alphabet, the fotrodactica a*
which he declares preceded the first of the phonetic chasra
known as the "Teutonic sound-shifting," since <-gisused fart.
X -X for g, a Theta-like symbol for d, while si is used lor a
If this view (which is identical with Taylor's) be true, we htvt
a parallel in the Armenian alphabet, which is similarly used 1*
anew value of the sounds. Hempl, on the other handLcoeterii
that the sound-shifting had already taken place, and, argots
that several of the symbols have changed places (e.f. f /isd
/b a,Q stand 8 b, because at this time ft was a bilabial spus
and not a stop), ultimately obtains an order— a b d e f 1 *t*
hij/z-prstulmnBo. As neither Gundermaan nor Her?
has published the full evidence for his view, no definite condiana
at the moment is possible.
• R. M. Meyer, Paid Braune und Sieeerf Beitraft, sal (rftjf
pp. 163 ff.
• In a paper published in the volume of PhOologisehe Stmdien, re-
sented as a lf Festgabe " to Professor Sievers in 1896. and ia a setnai
paper in the Journal of Germanic Philology, ii. (1899), pp. 370 ff.
• See LiteraiurbtaU fur germauisdut una romaniscme PkmSogm far
1897. col. 439 f-
ALPHABET
Plate I.
®$6#g$@»
Inscribed Pebbles from Mas d'Azil.
Prehistoric Linear Script from Crete.
Vadstena Pendant, with Runic
Alphabet; about a.d. 600.
Gold Fibula from Praeneste, with Early Latin Inscription.
Right to left.
Plate H. ALPHABET
*£* A^ A il> * •!* £ « ** •K'A* * + * •* £ A'p *••$*?(!•
| ^vK'JyJ/.iKrjG CV dc # S O KJJfcT oTT # S OK I OF o\ E # l *{ *K # S *K»/f T*p<A
Cyprian Inscription (4th century B.C.) from Curium (British Museum Excavations, p. 64).
Below are (1) the transliteration of the symbols; (2) the Greek words,
both like the Cyprian reading from right to left.
Oldest Attic Inscription. From a Dipylon Vase probably of 8th century B.C. Right to left
Inscription on Buddha Vase, perhaps 4th century b. c
ALPHABET
729
In one of the earliest runic records which we possess, the pendant
found at Vadstena in Sweden in 1774, and dating from about
Ogtugf A D 600 (see Plate), the signs are divided up into three
r-r* 1n r series of eight (the twenty fourth, &0, being omitted
^^ for want of room) Upon the basis of this division a
system of cryptography (in the sense that the symbols are unintel-
ligible without knowledge of the runic alphabet) was developed,
wherein the series and the position within the series of the letter
indicated, were each represented by straight strokes, the strokes
for the series being shorter than those for the runes or the series
being r epre s ented by strokes to the left, the runes by strokes to the
right, of a medial line. 1 From this system probably developed the
ogam writing employed among the Celtic peoples of Britain and
Ireland. The ogam inscriptions in Wales are frequently accom-
panied by Latin legends, and they date probably as far back as the
5th and 6th centuries a D. Hence the connexion between Celt and
Teuton as regards writing must go back to a period preceding the
Viking inroads of the 8th century. Taylor, however, conjectures
{The Alphabet, ii. p 227) that the ogams originated in Pembroke,
'* where there was a very ancient Teutonic settlement, possibly of
lutes, who as is indicated by the evidence of runic inscriptions
found in Kent, seem to have been the only Teutonic people of southern
Britain who were acquainted with the Gothic Futhoro." However
this may be, the ogam alphabet shows some knowledge of phonetics
and some attempt to classify the sounds accordingly. The symbols
are as follows':—
much discussion authorities on Slavonic seem generally agreed that
it was the Glagolitic (the name is derived from the Old Bulgarian,
i.e old ecclesiastical Slavonic glagoH. " word "). According to
Professor Leskien (Grammatik aer altbulgarischen (altkirchenstavi-
schen) Sprache, Heidelberg. 1909, p. xxi.), Cyril had probably made
a prolonged and careful study of Slavonic before proceeding on his
missionary journey, and probably in the first instance with a view
to preaching the Gospel to the Slavs of Macedonia and Bulgaria,
who were much nearer his own home, Thessalonica, than were those
of Moravia. The Glagolitic was founded upon the ordinary Greek
minuscule writing of the period, as was shown by Dr Isaac Taylor,*
though the writing of the letters separately without abbreviations
and an obvious attempt at artistic effect has gradually differentiated
it from Greek writing. This alphabet, which is much more difficult
to rand dura Thr bottler Cyrillic founded on the Greek uncial, sur-
vived for ordinary purposes in Croatia and in the islands of the
Qujrmro till the 17th century. The Servians and Russians ap-
parency always uvd the Cyrillic, and its advantages gradually
ousted the Glagolitic el*: where, though the service book in the old
eorlrebttical language which is used by the Roman Catholic Croats
is in Glagolilic*
While the Carian and Lycian were probably independent of the
Greek in origin* to, too, at the opposite end of the Mediterranean
wat the Iberian, On the other hand, the Phrygian was ptrrgmm,
very closely akin (0 the Greek in alphabet as well as in
linguUtic character- The Greek alphabet, with which it was most
d
-LL
c
LU-
LL!
JJJJJ.
Symbols of Ogam Alphabet.
n 111 1 n 1 mil
I 11 hi 111) Mill I
!! !!!!
1 ml
Jin
liTT
The form of the ogam alphabet made it easy to carve hastily;
hence in the old sagas, when a hero is killed we find the common
formula. " His grave was dug and his stone was raised, and his
name was written in ogam." According to Sophus MQIIer (Nordiscke
Altertumskunde, ii. p. 264), it was from Britain that the use of runes
upon gravestones was derived, a use which, to judge from the
number of bilingual inscriptions in Britain, the Celts derived from
the Romans.
The special forms of the alphabet — the Cyrillic and the Glagolitic
— which have been adopted by certain of the Slavonic peoples are
both sprung directly from the Greek alphabet of the ninth century
a.d , with the considerable additions rendered necessary by the
much greater variety of sounds in Slavonic as compared with Creek.
Apart from other evidence, the use of B with the value of v, of H
as well as I with the value of I, of w with the value of/, and X with
that of the Scotch e*. would be proof that the alphabet was not
borrowed till long after the Greek classical period, for not till later
did 0, 4*. x become spirants and a become identified with 1 The
confusion of with v necessitated the invention of a new symbol
5 in the Cyrillic, KS in the Glagolitic for 6, while new symbols were
so required for the sounds or combinations of sounds 2 (s/r), dt, U
(ski), e (ts) I {ch in church), J (5*), i. I, y (a without protrusion of the
lips), I (a close long e sound), for the combination of c. a and e with
consonantal I (English v) and for the nasalized vowch f, a (nasalised
o in pronunciation) and the combinations je ami ja (English yc< jg).
In all these matters Glagolitic differs very little from Cyrillic; it
has only one symbol for ja (ya) and i because both in this dialect
were pronounced the same. It has also only one symbol for t and
je (ye) for the phonetic reason that je always appear* in the old
ecclesiastical Slavonic, for which the alphabet? wen? fashioned at
.1.- u__i — .- — _r _. — 1. __j _f.__ „__„•_. __ .» , English me of ihc
! has a symbol for
„ .„,. w ... tramcriptianof Greek
words, 7 having become y early between vowels in the popular
dialects.
Such an elaborate alphabet could hardly have been invented
ghtfy, has attached
Constantine), who
_ - _ - r .- - a.d. 863 to Moravia
from Constantinople, for the purpose of converting the Slavonic
inhabitants to Christianity. The only question which concerns us
here is which of the two alphabets was the earlier in use, and after
ecclesiastical Slavonic, lor wnicn the aiphabc
the beginning of words and after vowels: cp. 1
symbol u in unspoken and uniform. Glagoli
the palatalized f (3). but it is used only in the
words, 7 having become y early between vGJm
dialects.
Such an elaborate alphabet could hardly ha*_
except by a scholar, and tradition, probably rightfy,
the credit for its invention to Cyril (originally Const
along with his brother Methodius proceeded in a.d. 86
1 A species of cryptography exactly like this, based upon the
•• abjad order of the Arabic letters, is stilPin use among the Eastern
Persians (E G. Browne, A Year amongst the Persians, p. 391 f.).
1 Cf. Rhfs, Outlines of Manx Pkonology, p. 73 (Publications of the
Manx Society, vol. xxxiii.); Rhys and Brynmor Jones, The Welsh
People, pp 3, 502. An interpretation of the oldest ogam inscrip-
tions is given by Whitley Stokes in Beztenberger*s Beitrdge, xi (1886),
p 143 n Besides the collections of ogams by Brash (1879) and
Ferguson (1887), a new collection by Mr R. A. S. Macalistcr is in
course of publication (Studies in Irish Epigraphy, 1897, 1902, 1907).
Professor Rhys, who at one time considered runes and ogam to be
connected, now thinks that ogam was the invention of a grammarian
in South Wales who was familiar with Latin letters.
closely connected, was the Western, for the evidence is strongly in
favour of the form Y having the value of x. not +, in Phrygian, aa
it certainly has in the Etruscan inscription found on Lemnos in
1886, which is in an alphabet practically identical.
To a much later era belongs the Armenian alphabet, which,
according to tradition, was revealed to Bishop Mesrob in a dream.
The Una might have been Grecizcd had it not, about Anaemia*.
A.D. 387, been divided between Persia and Byzantium,
the greater part falling to the former, who discouraged Greek and
favoured Syriac, which the Christian Armenians did not understand.
As those within Persian territory were forbidden to learn Greek,
an Armenian Christian literature became a necessity. Taylor
contends that the alphabet is Iranian in origin, but the circum-
stances justify Gardthausen and Hubschmann in claiming it for
Greek. That some symbols are like Persian only shows that
Mesrob was not able to rid himself of the influences under which
he lived.
Of the later development of Phoenician amongst Phoenician
people little need be said here. It can be traced in the graffiti of
the mercenaries of Psammctichus at Abu Simbcl in Upper Egypt,
where Greeks, Carians and Phoenicians all cut their names upon
the legs of the colossal statues. Still later it is found on the stele
of Byolos, and on the sarcophagus of Eshmunazar (about 300 B.c.J.
The most numerous inscriptions come from the excavations in
Carthage, the ancient eoleny of Sidon. One general feature char-
acterizes them all, though they differ somewhat in detail. The
symbols become longer and thinner; in fact, cease to be the script
of monuments and become the script of a busy trading people.
While the Phoenician alphabet was thus fertile in developing
daughter alphabets in the West, the progress of writing was no less
great in the East, first among the Semitic peoples, and through
them among other peoples still more remote. The carrying of the
alphabet to the Greeks by the Phoenicians at an early period affords
no clue to the period when Semitic ingenuity constructed an alphabet
out of a heterogeneous multitude of signs. If it be possible to assign
to some of the monuments discovered in Arabia by Glaser a date
not later than 1500 B.C., the origin of the alphabet and its dissemina-
tion arc carried back to a much earlier period than had hitherto been
supposed. Next in date amongst Semitic records of the Phoenician
type to the bowl of Baal-Lebanon and the Moabite stone comes
the Hebrew inscription found in the tunnel at the Pool of Siloam in
1881, which possibly dates back to the reign of Hezekiah (700 b.c).
The only other early records are seals with Hebrew inscriptions and
potters' marks upon clay vessels found in Lachish and other towns.'
• Arckh far slavische Philologie, v. 191 ff., where the Glagolitic
and the cursive Greek, the Cyrillic and the Greek uncial are set side
by side in facsimile.
4 For further details and references to literature see the intro-
duction to Leskicn's Grammatik (not to be confused with his Hand-
buck), from which this is abbreviated.
* These are figured most accessibly in Lidzbarski's article on the
alphabet in the Jewish Encyclopaedia, vol. i. (1901); see also his
table of symbols added to the 27th edition of Gesenius' Hcbrdiscker
Grammatik (1902).
73©
ALPHABET
Like the Phoenician, these Hebrew signs are distinctly cursive in
character, but, as the legend on the coins of the Maccabees shows,
became stereotyped for monumental use, while the Jews after the
exile gradually adopted the Aramaic writing, whence the square
Hebrew script is descended. The Samaritans alone stuck fast to
the old Hebrew as part of their contention that they, and not the
Jews, were the true Hebrews.
The oldest records in Aramaic were found at Sindjirli, in the north
of Syria, in 1890, and date to about 800 B.C. At this epoch the
. . Aramaic alphabet, or at any rate the alphabet of these
Armma * e » records, is but little different from that shown upon
the Moabite stone. Either two sounds are confused under one
symbol, or these records represent a dialect which, like Hebrew and
Assyrian, shows sh, s, ana c, where the ordinary Aramaic repre-
sentation is /, d, and /, the Arabic tk, dk, and Ik. The Aramaic became
in time by far the most important of the northern Semitic alphabets.
Even while long and important documents in Assyria were still
written on clay tablets, in cuneiform, a docket or precis of the
contents was made upon the side in Aramaic, which thus became
the alphabet of cursive writing— a fact which explains its later
development. Two changes, the inception of which is early, but
the completion of which belongs to nte Persian period, gave the
impulse which Aramaic obeyed in alt its later developments. These
were (a) the opening of the heads of letters, so that beth A, daletk
/^, and risA 4 become respectively ^, Wf.and A-J, while O becomes
first U and ultimately V. In the later development the heads tend
to be reduced in size, and finally to disappear, (b) As was natural
in cursive writing, angles tend to become rounded, and the tails of
the letters, which in Phoenician are very long, are curved round in
the middle of words so as to join on to the succeeding letter. These
characteristics were nituralVy emphasized in the Aramaic writing
on papyrus which, beginning about 500 B.C., during the Persian
sovereignty in Bpypt, lasted on there till about 200 B.C. The
gradual development of ihi* script into the square Hebrew, and the
more ornamental writing of Palmyra, may be traced in the works
of Bergcranii Lidzbarski 1
In the land of the ISabatacans, a people of Arabian origin, the
Aramaic alphabet was employed in a form which ultimately de-
veloped into the modern Arabic alphabet. Probably the
*"■**■ Mrfaest example of the Aramaic script in Arabia is the
stele of Tenia, in nonh-wesiern Arabia, whereon is commemorated
the establishment of a worship of an Aramaic divinity. This
monument, now in the Louvre, is not later than the 5th century
B.C. In it the writing preserves its ancient form, the heads of the
closed letters being only very slightly opened. The Nabataean
inscriptions belong to a different epoch and a different style. They
were first discovered by Charles Doughty in 1876-1877, who was
followed between 1880 and 1884 by Ruber and Euting, to whom
a complete collection of these records is due. The records arc
fortunately dated, and belong to the period from o, B.C. to a.d. 75.
A further development can be traced in the graffiti with which pilgrims
adorned the rocks of Mount Sinai down to the 2nd or 3rd century
A.D. By the help of these inscriptions it is possible to trace the
development of the modern Arabic where so many of the forms of
the letters have become similar that diacritic points are essential
to distinguish them, the original causes of confusion being the
continuous development of cursive writing and the adoption of
ligatures. Arabic writing, as known to us from documents of the
early Mahommcdan period, exhibits two principal types which are
known respectively as the Cufic and the nashkt. The former soon
fell into disuse for ordinary purposes and was retained only for
inscriptions, coins, &c; the latter, which is more cursive in char-
acter, is the parent of the Arabic writing of the present day. Another
form of the Aramaic alphabet, namely, the so-called Estrangela
writing which was in use amongst the Christians of northern Syria,
was carried by Nestorian missionaries into Central Asia and became
the ancestor of a multitude of alphabets spreading through the
Turkomans as far east as Manchuria.
There still remains a branch of the Semitic languages which,
except for one or two of the languages belonging to it, was practically
«. . .. unknown till recent years. This is the South Semitic.
sTftfe. Til1 tne I9tn "n*" 1 ^ tne car licst (° rm known of this
Semitic alphabet was the Ethiopian or Geez, in which Christian
documents have been preserved from the early centuries of our era,
and which is still used by the Abyssinian* for liturgical purposes.
The travels of two English naval officers, Wcltsted and Cruttenden,
through Yemen in southern Arabia in 1835, first called attention to
the earlier monuments of Arabia. Fulgence Fresncl first established
the importance of the inscriptions discovered by these Englishmen,
and in 1843, when French consul at Jeddah, obtained through a
French traveller, Francois Arnaud, information about other monu-
ments of the same kind. In 1869 Joseph Halevy brought back
l See Bcrger's Histoire de Vhcriture dans VaniiquiU. p. 253 ff.;
Lidzbarski, Nordsemiiische EPigrapkik, p. 186 ff., from whom this
summary is taken. Lidzbarski s second volume and G. A. Cooke's
Textbook of North-Semitic Inscriptions (Oxford, 1903) contain the
rnoct convenient collections of Northern Semitic inscriptions for
the student's purposes.
nearly seven hundred inscriptions from Yemen, and this mote
has been increased from other quarters by several thousands, tfencr-
the energy of several adventurous scholars, but dncfiy by Ei-irc
Glaser's repeated journeys. The south Arabian inscription* to no
the terms Himyaritic and Sabaean are applied fall into two ptz.
the Sabaean proper and the Minaean. These are distugvk**:
differences in grammar and phraseology rather than in a!pfcir.
The relative age of the Minaean and Sabaean moauoiesu » »
matter of dispute amongst Semitic scholars. Inscriptuu a »
kindred dialect were brought from El-Ola. in the north of i
Hedjaz, by Professor Euting. To these D. H. Mailer • pw*
title of Lihyanite, from the name of the tribe (Lihjin) 10 »—
they belong. Their date is supposed to be earlier than that « *
Sabaean and Minaean. Minaean inscriptions were found u *
same place, the Minaeans having had a trading station there »
1893 J. Theodore Bent copied carefully at Yeha in Abwsnai
few inscriptions, some of which had been already copied is ito
by the English traveller Salt. These inscriptions areof thema*
importance, because they demonstrate, according to D. H. M*>
that the Sabaeans had colonized Abyssinia as early as iooci:
Other inscriptions copied by Bent at Aksum belong to the <?
century a.d. and later. Two of the earliest are written ia &*?
characters, but in the language which is known as Geez or Etb^
From about a.d. 500 Ethiopie was written in an alphabet *-
according to Muller was no gradual growth but an ingemowdfnJ
of a Greek scholar of this period at the court of Abyssaia. Tx
Sabaean, like other Semitic, inscriptions are generally written ins
right to left, but a few are flow r pointer; trie Ethiopie b wvm
from left to right, and makes a marked advance upon the or**:-
Semitic manner of writing by indicating the vowels. This h do* *
varying the form of the consonant according to the vo«tJ «'- 1
Joltows it. The Ethiopie system is thus rather a syllabary tan a
alphabet. It is noticeable that the changes thus eatabbshed w*
made upon the basis of the old Sabaean script, which in it* <i*
form is evidently closely related to the old Phoenician, thottf t
would be premature to say that the Sabaean alphabet is drn«*
from the Phoenician. It is as likely, considering the date of b*i
that they are equally descendants from an older source ~*
characteristics of the Sabaean arc great squareness and bokfcess
outline. It has twenty-nine symbols, whereby it b enaWed 5
differentiate certain sounds which are not distinguished frost n
another in the writing of the northern Semites. As we have **•
it is a tendency in northern Semitic to open the heads of kr-'*
and therefore it is possible that the Sabaean form for Jed 9 Bil
be older 4 than the Phoenician ^. Similarly if Pi means ss*
Hommel is right in contending that the Sabaean Q is sure **
the object than the Phoenician J, if we suppose the form. Br £
or the Phoenician UJ and | for the Phoenician Yj t turned daw?
an angle of 90°. So also if Kaf corresponds to the Bab)***
Kappu, " hollow-hand," the Sabaean form ^| which Hooer '
interprets as the outline of the hand with the fingers t«r»i ■
and the thumb raised is a better pictograph than the various oat
ingtess forms of # ( a| ( Ac.).
The rock inscriptions in the wild district of So/ah near Duu*?
which have been collected by Halevy are also written in an Aa>
dialects but, ox%ing chiefly to their careless execution, they i~- -
a Kiine extent unintelligible. The character appears to be »k' y
the 5atac>in. Jt has been suggested that they were the vcfi J
Arabs who had wandered thus Tar from the south.
There m HI rem lin for discussion the alphabets of the Irido-Ea«c«'
pev|.l. -. of PofMA and India from which the other alphabet** *
Fan her East are descended. When Darius in 516 B.C. I ^ m
caused the great Behistun inscription to be engraved, it was
the cuneiform writing, already long in use for the languaja 9
Mesopotamia, that was adopted for this purpose. We have seen ofi
at Babylon itself the Aramaic language and character vert r -
known. It is probable therefore, a priori, that from the .V*" 5 -
alphabet the later writing of Persia should be developed. The in-
clusion is confirmed by the coins, the only records with lraoka rr .<
which go back so far; but the special form of Aramaic from ■a*?
the Iranian alphabet is derived must at present be left uiuk«*'
The later developments of the Iranian alphabet are the P**-
and the Zend, in which the MSS. of the Avesta are written. J
these manuscripts none is older than the 13th century A-O. «*
Pahlavi is properly the alphabet of the Sassaiud kings who ra«
in Persia from a.d. 226 till the Arab conquest in the 7** "^
A.D. Under the Sassanids the old Persian worship, which *
fallen with the Achaemenid dynasty in Alexanders time^
• MUller, Epigraphiuke DenkmaUr aus Arabien (Vienns. i8*£
■ Epigrapktsche DenkmaUr aus Abessinten (Vienna, 1804). "*"
torius (Z.D.M.C. Iviii. p. 724) holds that the oldest Sabaean iwrns-
tions may date from about 700 B.C., that the Libyan iascnpt**'
are at earliest of the Hellenistic period and the Safa insoriptwa* **
later.
• Praetorius {Z.D.M.C. Iviii. p. 461 f.) attempts to trace the *-
velopment of the Sabaean form from the Phoenician.
• Homme), Sud-arobiuke CkreUomalku (Munich, 1893). p- >
ALPHABET
73i
had been neglected by the subsequent Arsacid line, was revived
and the remains of its liturgical literature collected. The name is,
however, also applied to the alphabet on the coins of the Parthian
or Areacid dynasty, which in its beginnings was dearly under
Greek influence; while later, when a knowledge of Greek had
disappeared, the attempts to imitate the old legends are as grotesque
as those in western Europe to copy the inscriptions on Roman coins.
The relationship between the Pahlavi and the Aramaic is clearest in
the records written in the " Chaidaeo-Pahlavt " characters; the
a conclusion which Is not Invalidated by the fact that some im-
portant modifications are found beyond this area, nor by Dr Stein's
discovery of a great mass of documents in this alphabet at Khotan
in Turkestan, lor, according to tradition, the ancient inhabitants
of Khotan were emigrants banished in the time of Xing Acpka
from the area to which Buhler assigns this alphabet (see Stein's
Preliminary Report, 1901, p. 51). Kapson* has pointed out that
both Kharosthi and or&hmi letters are found upon Persian silver
sigloi, which were coined in the Punjab and belong to the period
Tablb I.
BMHMI
OlOtST SAB*** MMSHKI ItMM
AlHIWIC (Hm y ntK i (ARABIC) 600 BC
BOOB* Stono
CRttK
IMSCBtP m
(CfflRtBj ofTHttA tmcrifihon
crmuc sue*™
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♦ t
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9
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t \
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qpR
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09
After
Buhler
A
fttfEu
Hn$
YK VY
y-u ft
Value /W.xW, o.
Cyrillic ♦ X W
Gucounc * A O
14
Table U.—CyriUk and GlagplUic Symbols not ghen above.
«. «. *. *. y. 4 *. i«. i«. >, ctfc).
a qui
most imporunt of these documents is the liturgical inscription of
Hadji-abad, where the Arsacid and Sassanian alphabets are found
side by side. Taylor (The Alphabet, ii. p. 248 f.) regards the former
as probably derived from the " ancient alphabet of Eastern Iran, a
sister alphabet of the Aramaean of the satrapies," while the Sassanian
belongs to a later stage of Aramaic.
The alphabets of India all spring from two sources: (a) the
Kharosthi, (*) the Brahml alphabet. The history of the former is
fairly clear. It was always a local alphabet, and never
attained the importance of its rival. According to
Bflhler,' its range lay between 69* and 73° 3<>' E- and 33* to 35' N.,
t> ^Jiy k * 10 a is aaa * ia I* 3 \|r +
V III -6 ftfi£*9 «AF «»€3€4€ -0.
or the Achaemenid kings of Persia. As BQhter shows in detail,
the Kharosthi alphabet is derived from the alphabet of tBc Aramaic
inscriptions which date from the earlier part of the Achaemenid
period. The Aramaic alphabet passed into India with the staff
of subordinate officials by whom Darius organized his conquests
there. The people of India already possessed their Brahml alphabet,
» Buhler, Indian Studies, ui (and ed.. 1898), p. 93. The account
of these alphabets is drawn from this work and from the same
author's lndische Paldographir in the Crundriss der indo-orischen
Phitotogie, to which is attached an atlas of plates (Strassburg, 1896),
and in which a full bibliography is given.
1 For a coin and a gfld token with inscriptions see Rapsoo'0
Indian Coins (in Crundriss d. ind.-ar. Phil.), Plate 1.
732
'AL-PHASI— ALPHEUS
but had this other alphabet forced upon them in their dealings with
their rulers. The Kharosthi is then the gradual development under
local conditions of the Aramaic alphabet of the Persian period.
As Stein's explorations show, both alphabets may be found on
opposite sides of the same piece of wood.
The history of the Brfthmi alphabet b more difficult. In its
later forms it is so unlike other alphabets that many scholars have
regarded it as an invention within India itself. The discovery of
earlier inscriptions than were hitherto known has, however, caused
this view to be discarded, and the problem is to decide from which
form of the Semitic alphabet it is derived. Taylor {The Alphabet,
ii. p. 314 ff.), following Webcr r argues that it comes from the
Sabaeans who were carrying on trade with India as early as 1000
B.C. Even if the alphabet had not reached India till the 6th century
B.C., there would be time, he contends, for the peculiarities of
the Indian form of it to develop before the period when records begin.
The alphabet, according to Taylor, shows ho resemblance to any
northern Semitic script, while its stiff, straight lines and its forms
seem like the Sabacan. Buhler, on the other hand, shows from
literary evidence that writing was in common use in India in the 5th,
possibly in the 6th, century B.C. The oldest alphabet must have
been the Br&hml lipi, which is found all over India. But he rejects
Taylor's derivation of this alphabet from the Sabaean script, and
contends that it is borrowed from the North Semitic. To the
pedantry of the Hindu he attributes its main characteristics, viz.
(a) letters made as upright as possible, and with few exceptions eoual
in height ; (ft) the majority of the letters constructed of vertical lines,
with appendages attached mostly at the foot, occasionally at the foot
and at the top, or (rarely) in the middle, but never at the top alone;
(c) at the tops of the characters the ends of vertical lines, less fre-
quently straight horizontal lines, still more rarely curves or the
points of angles opening downwards, and quite exceptionally, in
the symbol ma, two lines rising upwards. A remarkable feature
of the alphabet is that the letters arc hung from and do not stand
upon a line, a characteristic which, as BUhlcr notes (Indian Studies,
iii. p. 57 n.), belongs even to the most ancient MSS., and to the
Asoka inscriptions of the 3rd century B.C. When these specially
Indian features have been allowed for, Buhler contends that the
symbols borrowed from the Semitic alphabet can be carried back to
the forms of the Phoenician and Moabitc alphabets. The proof deals
with each symbol separately ; as might be expected of its author,
it is both scholarly and ingenious, but, it must be admitted, not very
convincing. Further evidence as to the early history of this alphabet
must be discovered before we can definitely decide what its origin
may be. That such evidence will be forthcoming there is little doubt.
Even since Buhler wrote, the vase, the top of which is reproduced
(see Plate), has been discovered on the borders of Nepal in a stupa
where some of the relics of Buddha were kept. The inscription is of
the same type as the Asoka inscriptions, but, in Buhler s opinion
(Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society, xxx., 1898, p. 389), is older
than Asoka 's time. It reads as follows: iyam salilanidhane Budhasa
bhagavate sahiyanam suhitibhatinam sabhaginihanam safmtadalanam,
" This casket of relics of the blessed Buddha is the pious founda-
tion (so Pischel, no doubt rightly, Zeitsch. d. deutseh. morg. Cesell. Ivi.
158) of the Sftkyas. their brothers and their sisters, together with
children and wives.
.How this alphabet was modified locally, and how it spread to other
Eastern lands, must be sought in the specialist works to whkh
reference has already been made. Its extension to new and hitherto
unknown languages was in 1910 in process of being rapidly demon-
strated by English and German expeditions in Chinese Turkestan.
Authorities.— Owingto the rapid increase of materials, all early
works are out of date. The best general accounts, though already
somewhat antiquated, are: (1) The Alphabet (2 vols., with references
to earlier works), by Canon Isaac Taylor (1883), reprinted from the
stereotyped plates with small necessary corrections (1899); and (2)
Histoire de I icriture dans Vantiquiti, by M. Philippe Bcrger (Pans,
1891, and ed. 1892).- An excellent popular account is The Story
5f the Alphabet, by E. Clodd (no date, about 1900). Faulmann'a
llustrierte Ceschichte der Schrift (1880) is a popular work with good
illustrations. For the beginnings of the alphabet. Dr A. J. Evans's
Scribta hiinoa (vol. i., 1909) is indispensable, whether his theories
hold their ground or not. The Semitic alphabet is excellently treated
by Lidzbarski in the Jewish Encyclopaedia (1901) ; his Nordsemitische
Epigraphih ( 1 898) Ms excellent facsimiles and tables of the alphabets,
and there are many contributions to the history of the alphabet in
the same writer's Ephemeris fUr semilische Epigraphih (Giessen, since
1000). See also " Writing (by A. A. Bcvan) in the Encyclopaedia
BiUka, and " Alphabet "(by Isaac Taylor) in Hastings' Dictionary of
the Bible. A very good article, now somewhat antiquated, is Schlott-
mann's " Schrift und Schriftzcichcn " in Richm's Handw6rterbuch des
bibiischen A Iter turns (1884, reprinted 1894). For Greek epigraphy
the fullest and also most recent work is W. Larfcld's Ilandbuch der
griechischen Epigraphih (vol. ii., 1902; vol. i., 1907) (see especially
Herhunft und Alter des griechischen Alphabets, i. 310 ff.). For the
history of the Greek alphabet the fundamental work was A. Kirch-
horTs Studien tur Ceschichte des griechischen Alphabets (4th ed.,
1887): his theories were adopted and worked out on a much larger
scale in E. & Roberts's Introduction toCreeh Epigraphy, pt. 1. " The
Archaic Inscriptions and the Greek Alphabet ** (1*87). pt- i («M
E. A. Gardner) "The Inscriptions of Attica" (1905). See aha
Salomon Reinach's Traiti c" Ifntrapku grecqme (1885}. la Iwu *vt
Mailer's Handbuch der hlasstschen Allcrtuauwistentemmft iapcrtarr
articles on both Greek and Latin epigraphy and alphabet* &»<t
appeared (Greek in edition 1 by G. Heinrichs, 1886; in edkior 2 b*
W. Larfeld. 1892; Latin by Emtl Hubner). See also ** Alpfc*t«£.~
by W. Deecke, in Baumeister's Denhmdler des Hamjcheu Abe*:**:
'1884), and by Szanto (Greek) and Joh. Schmidt (Italic) ia Pas.s 1
lopddie edited by Wissowa (1894). Maoarasen'i j>«
Dialehte (1850) is not without value even now. 0>r
literature and references to fuller bibliographies in separate drpvr
ments have been given in the notes. Elsewhere in ttm ecfitaoa s
the Encyclopaedia BrUannica the articles on the various lacfazj*
and under the headings Inscriptions, Palaeography. Wuttm.
&c., should be consulted, while separate articles are given oa t±-i
letter of the English alphabet. The writer is indebted to Dr A. j
Evans for a photograph of the Cretan linear script, and to P»
feasors A. A. Bevan and Rapson of Cambridge, And to Mr F. V
Thomas, librarian of the India Office, for help in their r e n **' -*
departments of Semitic and Indian languages. (P. G*.
'AL-PHASI, ISAAC (1013-1103), Jewish rabbi and cod£r
known as Riph, was born near Fez in 1013 and died at Loceai ?
1 103. 'Al-Phasi means the " man of Fez " (medieval Jews «err
often named after their birthplaces). He was forced to ler?
Fez when an old man of 75, being accused on some unknot
political charge. He then settled in Spain where he was hesd Ir
much esteem. His magnanimous character was illustrated S
two incidents. When 'Al-phasi's opponent Isaac 'Albaaa 6ti
'AI-phasi received 'Albalia's son with the greatest fci»rfi»~* iai
adopted him as a son. When, again, 'AI-phasi was himself »
the point of death, he recommended as his successor ia ibe
Lucena rabbinate, not his own son, but his pupil Joseph :bi
Migash. The latter became the teacher of Maimonidcs, and tha
'Al-phasi's teaching as well as his work must have direc-T
influenced Maimonides. 'Al-phasi's fame rests on his Talmattal
Digest called Halakhoth or Decisions. The Talmud was wrlr— **
by him with a special view to practical law. He omitted a3 the
homiletical passages, and also excluded those parts of the Talaoe
which deal with religious duties practicable only in Paksaae.
'AI-phasi thus occupies an important place in the devesopr-ra
of the Spanish method of studying the Talmud. In coasi-
distinction to the French rabbis, the Spanish sought to sunpbr
the Talmud and free it from casuistical detail. 'AI-phasi ex-
ceeded in producing a Digest, which became the object of doss
study, and led in iu'turn to the great Codes of Mairnorndo aac
of Joseph Qaro.
ALPHBGB (Aun*i H SAINT (954-1023), mrchfashop d
Canterbury, came of a noble family, but in early life gave 19
everything for religion. Having assumed the monastic hafari a
the monastery of Deerhurst, he pased thence to Bath, whsc
he became an anchorite and ultimately abbot, distingusaga;
himself by his piety and the austerity of his life. In 084 br
was appointed through Dunstan's influence to the bishopric a
Winchester, and in 1006 he succeeded jQfric as archbishop *
Canterbury. At the sack of Canterbury by the Danes ia re::
iElfheah was captured and kept in prison for seven mollis
Refusing to pay a ransom he was barbarously murdered at
Greenwich on the 10th of April 101a. He was buried ia St
Paul's, whence his body was removed by Canute to Canterhsrr
with all the ceremony of a great act of state in 1023.
Lives of St. Alphege in prose (which survives) and ia verse wt
written by command of Lanfranc by the Canterbury monk 0»brt
(d. c. 1090), who says that his account of the solemn traasbuka "
Canterbury in 1023 was received^from the dean, Codric. one a
Alphege's own scholars.
ALPHEUS ('AXdfioi ; mod. Ruphia), the chief river of P*>
ponnesus. Stiictly Ruphia is the modern name for the anrinc
Ladon, a tributary which rises in N.E. Elis, but the name an
been given to the whole river. The Alpheus proper rises =ov
Asca; but its passage thither by subterranean channels frsa
the Tegean plain and its union with the Eurotas are prohibit
mythical (see W. Loring, in J own. Hell. Studies, xv. p. c;?
It consists for the most part of a shallow and rapid streas.
occupying but a small part of its broad, stony bed. It empta
itself into the Ionian sea. Pliny states that in ancient times .5
was navigable for six Roman miles from its mouth. AJpfccu
ALPHONSE— ALPHONSO
733
was recognised in cult and myth as the chief or typical river-god
in the Peloponnesus, as was Achelous in northern Greece. His
waters were said to pass beneath the sea and rise again in the
fountain Arethusa at Syracuse; such is the earlier version from
which later mythologists and poets evolved the familiar myth
of the loves of Alpheus and Arethusa.
ALPHONSB I., Count of Toulousk (1103-1148), son of
Count Raymond IV. by his third wife, Elvira of Castile, was born
in 1 103, in the castle of Mont-Pelerin, Tripoli He was surnamed
Jourdain on account of his being baptized in the river Jordan.
His father died when he was two years old and he remained
under the guardianship of his cousin, Guillaume Jourdain,
count of Cerdagne (d. 1109), until he was five. He was then
taken to Europe and his brother Bertrand gave him the count-
ship of Rouergue; in his tenth year, upon Bertrand 's death
( 1 1 1 a), he succeeded to thoxountship of Toulouse and marquisate
of Provence, but Toulouse was taken from him by William IX.,
count of Poitiers, in 11 14. He recovered a part in n 19, but
continued to fight for his possessions until about 1x23. When
at last successful, he was excommunicated by Pope Calixtus II.
for having expelled the monks of Saint-Gilles, who had aided
his enemies. He next fought for the sovereignty of Provence
against Raymond Berenger I., and not till September 1x15 did
the war end in an amicable agreement. Under it Jourdain
became absolute master of the regions lying between the Pyrenees
and the Alps, Auvergne and the sea. His ascendancy was an
unmixed good to the country, for during a period of fourteen
years art and industry flourished. About 1x34 he seized the
countship of Narbonne, only restoring it to the Viscountess
Ermengarde (d. 1197) in 1x43. Louis VII., for some reason
which has not appeared, besieged Toulouse in 1141, but without
result Next year Jourdain again incurred the displeasure of
the church by siding with the rebels of Montpellier against their
lord. A second time he was excommunicated; but in 1146 he
took the cross at the meeting of Vezelay called by Louis VII.,
and in August x 147 embarked for the East. He lingered on the
way in Italy and probably in Constantinople; but in 1x48
he had arrived at Acre. Among his companions he had made
enemies and be was destined to take no share in the crusade he
had joined. He was poisoned at Caesarea, either the wife of
Louis or the mother of the king of Jerusalem suggesting the
draught.
See the documentary HisUnre giniralc de Languedoc by De Vie
and Vaissette, voL iii. (Toulouse, 1872).
ALPHONSB, Count 01 Toulouse and or Porrxzas (1220-
1271), the son of Louis VIII., king of France, and brother of St
Louis, was born on the nth of November 1220. He joined the
county of Toulouse to his appanage of Foitou and Auvergne, on
the death, in September 1249, of Raymond VII., whose daughter
Jeanne he had married in 1237. He took the cross with his
brother, St Louis, in 1248 and in 1270. In 1252, on the death
of his mother, Blanche of Castile, he was joint regent with
Charles of Anjou until the return of Louis IX., and took a great
part in the negotiations which ted to the treaties of Abbeville and
of Paris (1258-1259). His main work was on his own estates.
There he repaired the evils of the Albigensian war and made
a first attempt at administrative centralization, thus preparing
the way for union with the crown. The charter known as
" Alphonsine," granted to the town of Riom, became the code
of public law for Auvergne. Honest and moderate, protecting
the middle classes against exactions of the nobles, he exercised
a happy influence upon the south, in spite of his naturally despotic
character and his continual and pressing need of money. He
died without heirs on his return from the 8th crusade, in Italy,
probably at Savona, on the 21st of August 1271.
See B. Ledain, Histoire oVAlphonse, frcre do S. Louis et iu comti
eU Poitou sous sou administration (1241-1271) (Poitou, 1869);
E. Boutaric, Saint Louis et Alphonso de Poitiers (Paris, 1870);
A. Molinier, Etude sur t 'administration de S. Louis et d'Alphonse do
Poitiers (Toulouse, 1880) ; and also his edition of the Correspondence
administrative d'Alphonse de Poitiers in the Collection de documents
inUtts pour servir d t' histoire de Prance (Paris, 1894 and 1895).
Ktmgtoi
ALPHONSO, the common English spelling of Affonso, Alonso
and Alfonso, which are respectively the Galician, the Leonese
and the Castilian forms of Ildefonso (lidefonsus), the name of a
saint and archbishop of Toledo in the 7th century. The name
has been borne by a number of Portuguese and Spanish kings,
who are distinguished collectively below.
Portuguese Kings. — Alphonso I. (Affonso Henriques), son of
Henry of Burgundy, count of Portugal, and Teresa of Castile,
was born at Guimaraes in 1004. He succeeded his
father in xix?, and was placed under the tutelage of
his mother. When he came of age, he was obliged to
wrest from her by force that power which her vices and incapacity
had rendered disastrous to the state. Being proclaimed sole
ruler of Portugal in 11 28, he defeated his mother's troops near
Guimaraes, making her at the same time his prisoner. He also
vanquished Alphonso Raymond of Castile, his mother's ally,
and thus freed Portugal from dependence on the crown of Leon.
Next turning his arms against the Moors, he obtained, on the
26th July 1x39, the famous victory of Ourique, and immediately
after was proclaimed king by his soldiers. He assembled the
Cortes of the kingdom at Lamego, where he received the crown
from the archbishop of Braganza; the assembly also declaring
that Portugal was no longer a dependency of Leon. Alphonso
continued to distinguish himself by his exploits against the
Moors, from whom he wrested Santarem in 1x46 and Lisbon in
X147. Some years later he became involved in a war that had
broken out among the kings of Spain; and in x 167, being disabled
during an engagement near Badajoz by a fall from his horse, he
was made prisoner by the soldiers of the king of Leon, and was
obliged to surrender as bis ransom almost all the conquests he
had made in Galida. In x 184, in spite of his great age, he had
still sufficient energy to relieve bis son Sancho, who was besieged
in Santarem by the Moors. He died shortly after, in 1185.
Alphonso was a man of gigantic stature, being 7 ft. high according
to some authors. He is revered as a saint by the Portuguese,
both on account of bis personal character and as the founder of
their kingdom.
Alphonso IX, "the Fat," was born in 1x85, and succeeded
his father, Sancho I., in 1 2 ix. He was engaged in war with the
Moors and gained a victory over them at Aldcer do Sal in 121 7.
He also endeavoured to weaken the power of the clergy and to
apply a portion of their enormous revenues to purposes of national
utility. Having been excommunicated for this by the pope
(Honorius III.), he promised to make amends to the church;
but he died in x 223 before doing anything to fulfil hb engagement.
He framed a code which introduced several beneficial changes
into the laws of his kingdom.
Alphonso ILL, son of Alphonso II., was born in xsxo, and
succeeded his brother, Sancho II., in 1248. Besides making
war upon the Moors, he was, like his father, frequently embroiled
with the church. In bis reign Algarve became part of Portugal.
He died in x 2 79.
Alphonso IV. was born In 1290, and in 1325 succeeded his
father, Dionis, whose death he had hastened by his intrigues and
rebellions. Hostilities with the Castilians and with the Moors
occupied many years of his reign, during which he gained some
successes; but by consenting to the barbarous murder of Inez
de Castro, who was secretly espoused to bis son Peter, he has
fixed an indelible stain on his character. Enraged at this
barbarous act, Peter put himself at the head of an army and
devastated the whole of the country between the Douro and the
Minho before he was reconciled to bis father. Alphonso died
almost immediately after, on the x 2th of May 1357.
Alphonso V., " Africano," was born in X432, and succeeded his
father Edward in X438. During his minority he was placed
under the regency, first of bis mother and latterly of bis uncle,
Dom Pedro. In 1448 he assumed the reins of government and
at the same time married Isabella, Dom Pedro's daughter. In
the following year, being led by what he afterwards discovered
to be false representations, he declared Dom Pedro a rebel and
defeated his army in a battle at Alfarrobeira, in which his uncle
was slain. In 1458, and with more numerous forces in X47 »»
734
ALPHONSO
be invaded the territories of the Moors in Africa and by his
successes there acquired his surname of " the African." On his
return to Portugal in 147$ his ambition led him into Castile,
where two princesses were disputing his succession to the throne.
Having been affianced to the Princess Juana, Alphonso caused
himself to be proclaimed king of Castile and Leon; but in the
following year he was defeated at Toro by Ferdinand, the
husband of Isabella of Castile. He went to France to obtain
the assistance of Louis XI., but finding himself deceived by the
French monarch, he abdicated in favour of his son John. When
he returned to Portugal, however, he was compelled by his son
to resume the sceptre, which he continued to wield for two
years longer. After that he fell into a deep melancholy and
retired into a monastery at Cintra, where he died in 1481.
Alphonso VI., the second king of the house of Braganza,
was born in 1643 and succeeded his father in 1656. In 1667 he
was compelled by his wife and brother to abdicate the throne
and was banished to the island of Terceira. These acts, which
the vices of Alphonso had rendered necessary, were sanctioned
by the Cortes in 1668. He died at Cintra in 1675.
Spanish Kings.— From Alphonso I. (730-757) to Alphonso V.
(000-1028) the personal history of the Spanish kings of this
Xtoftef name is unknown and their very dates are disputed.
mt^hrmt Alphonso I. is said to have married Ormesinda,
•nf&Mfrb daughter of Pelayo, who was raised on the shield in
^^ Asturias as king of the Goths after the Arab conquest.
He is also said to have been the son of Peter, duke of Can-
tabria. It is not improbable that he was in fact an hereditary
chief of the Basques, but no contemporary records exist. His
title of" the Catholic" itself may very well have been the
invention of later chronicles. Alphonso II. (780-842), his
reputed grandson, bears the name of " the Chaste." The Arab
writers who speak of the Spanish kings of the north-west as the
Beni-Alfons, appear to recognise them as a royal stock derived
from Alphonso I. The events of his reign are in reality unknown.
Poets of a later generation invented the story of the secret
marriage of his sister Ximena with Sancho, count of Saldafla,
and the feats of their son Bernardo del Carpio. Bernardo is the
hero of a cantor de gtsta (chanson de geste) written to please the
anarchical spirit of the nobles.
The first faint glimmerings of medieval Spanish history begin
with Alphonso III. (866-914) surnamed " the Great" Of him
also nothing is really known except the bare facts of his reign
and of his comparative success in consolidating the kingdom
known as " of Galida " or " ofOviedo " during the weakness of
the Omayyad princes of Cordova. Alphonso IV. (924-931)
has a faint personality. He resigned the crown to his brother
Ramiro and went into a religious house. A certain instability
of character is revealed by the fact that he took up arms against
Ramiro, having repented of his renunciation of the world. He
-was defeated, blinded and sent back to die in the cloister of
Sahagun. It fell to Alphonso V. (009-1028) to begin the work
of reorganizing the Christian kingdom of the north-west after a
most disastrous period of civil war and Arab inroads. Enough
is known of him to justify the belief that he had some of the
qualities of a soldier and a statesman. His name, and that of
his wife Geloria (Elvira), are associated with the grant of the
first franchises of Leon. He was killed by an arrow while
besieging the town of Viseu in northern Portugal, then held by
the Mahommedans. (For all these kings see the article Spain:
History.)
With Alphonso VI. (1065-1109) we come to a sovereign of
strong personal character. Much romance has gathered round
his name. In the cantor de gtsta of the Cid he plays the part
attributed by medieval poets to the greatest kings, to Charle-
magne himself. He is alternately the oppressor and the victim
of heroic and self-willed nobles— the idealised types of the patrons
for whom the jongleurs and troubadours sang. (For the events
of his reign see the article Spain: History.) He is the hero of a
cantor de gtsta which, like all but a very few of the early Spanish
songs, like the cantor of Bernardo del Carpio and the Infantes
of Lara, exists now only in the fragments incorporated in the
chronicle of Alphonso the Wise or in ballad form. His fcxh
from the monastery of Sahagun, where his brother Slack
endeavoured to imprison him, his chivalrous friendship for b
host Almamunof Toledo, cabaUero ounque as**, a gentkati
although a Moor, the passionate loyalty of his vassal Pennine
and his brotherly love for his sister Urraca of Zamora, may cm
something to the poet who took him for hero. They are tk
answer to the poet of the nobles who represented the king a
having submitted to take a degrading oath at the hands d
Ruy Diaz of Bivar (the Cid), in the church of Santa Gadea at
Burgos, and as having then persecuted the brave man *k
defied him. When every allowance is made, Alphonso VI
stands out as a strong man fighting for his own hand, wines a
his case was the hand of the king whose interest was law asd
order and who was the leader of the nation in the recoequsL
On the Arabs he impressed himself as an enemy very fere* aad
astute, but as a keeper of his word. A story of Mahomiee6z
origin, which is probably no more' historical than the oats d
Santa Gadea, tells of how he allowed himself to be tricked by
Ibn Ammar, the favourite of Al Motamid, the king of Seruc.
They played chess for an extremely beautiful table and set of
men, belonging to Ibn Ammar. Table and men were to go to
the king if he won. If Ibn Ammar gained he was to name tk
stake. The latter did win and demanded that the Christiaa kisg
should spare Seville. Alphonso kept his word. Whatever <nti
may lie behind the romantic tales of Christian and MshommHi»a,
we know that Alphonso represented in a remarkable way tk
two great influences then shaping the character and rivfliawa
of Spain. At the instigation, it is said, of his second «&
Constance of Burgundy, he brought the Cistercians into Sptc,
established them in Sahagun, chose a French Cisttroaa,
Bernard, as the first archbishop of Toledo after the recooqtctf
In 1085, married his daughters, legitimate and iDegituBatc
to French princes, and in every way forwarded the spread d
French influence— then the greatest civilising force in Europe
He also drew Spain nearer to the papacy, and it was his dedstos
which established the Roman ritual in place of the old nwsil
of Saint Isidore— the so-called Moxarabic* On the other hasd
he was very open to Arabic influence. He protected the Mahosv
medans among his subjects and struck coins with inscription
in Arabic letters. After the death of Constance he persapi
married and he certainly lived with Zaida, said to have bees
a daughter of " Benabet " (Al Motamid), Mahommedaa kiaf
of Seville. Zaida, who became a Christian under the name d
Maria or Isabel, bore him the only son among his many ckQdirx
Sancho, whom Alphonso designed to be his successor, but vk
was slain at the battle of Udes in 1108. Women play a great
part in Alphonso's life.
[Alphonso I., king of Aragon, " the Battler," who married
Urraca, daughter of Alphonso VI. (1104-1134), is sometinfl
counted the Vllth in the line of the kings of Leon and CamU
A passionate fighting-man (he fought twenty-nine battles apis*
Christian or Moor), he was married to Urraca, widow of Rayntfos
of Burgundy, a very dissolute and passionate woman, tk
marriage had been arranged by Alphonso VI. in 1 106 to wb*
the two chief Christian states against the Almoravides, sod u
supply them with a capable military leader. Bot Urraca «■
tenacious of her right as proprietary queen and had not learnt
chastity in the polygamous household of her father. Husbasd
and wife quarrelled with the brutality of the age and can* to
open war. .Alphonso had the support of one section of the noble*
who found their account in the confusion. Being a noi
better soldier than any of his opponents he gained victories it
Sepulveda and Fuente de la Culebra, but his only trustworthy
supporters were his Aragonese, who were not numerous eoouf*
to keep down Castile and Leon. The marriage of Alphonso a»d
Urraca was declared null by the pope, as they were third cousin*-
The king quarrelled with the church, and particularly tk
Cistercians, almost as violently as with his wife. As he beat ber,
so he drove Archbishop Bernard into exile and expelled tk
monks of Sahagun. He was finally compelled to give way o
Castile and Leon to his stepson Alphonso, son of Urraca sod set
ALPHONSO
735
first husband. The intervention of Pope Calixtus II. brought
•bout an arrangement between the old man and the young.
Alphonso the Battler won his great successes in the middle Ebro,
where he expelled the Moors from Saragossa; in the great raid
of 1x25, when he carried away a large part of the subject-
Christians from Granada, and in the south-west of France,
where he had rights as king of Navarre. Three years before his
death he made a will leaving his kingdom to the Templars, the
Hospitallers, and the Knights of the Sepulchre, which his subjects
refused to carry out. He was a fierce, violent man, a soldier
and nothing else, whose piety was wholly militant. Though he
died in 1134 after an unsuccessful battle with the Moors at
Braga, he has a great place in the reconquesL]
Alphonso VII., " the Emperor " (1x26-1157), is a dignified
and somewhat enigmatical figure. A vague tradition had always
assigned the title of emperor to the sovereign who held Leon as
the most direct representative of the Visigoth kings, who were
themselves the representatives of the Roman empire. But
though given in charters, and claimed by Alphonso VI. and the
Battler, the title had been little more than a flourish of rhetoric.
Alphonso VII. was crowned emperor in x 135 after the death of
the Battler. The weakness of Aragon enabled him to make his
superiority effective. He appears to have striven for the forma-
tion of a national unity, which Spain had never possessed since
the fall of the Visigoth kingdom. The elements he had to deal
with could not be welded together. Alphonso was at once a
patron of the church, and a protector if not a favourer of the
Mahommedans, who formed a large part of his subjects. His
reign ended in an unsuccessful campaign against the rising power
of the Almohades. Though he was not actually defeated, his
death in the pass of Muradel in the Sierra Morena, while on his
way back to Toledo, occurred In circumstances which showed
that no man could be what he claimed to be—" king of the men
of the two religions." His personal character does not stand out
with the emphasis of those of Alphonso VI. or the Battler. Yet
he was a great king, the type and to some extent the victim of
the confusions of his age— Christian in creed and ambition, but
more than half oriental in his household.
Alphonso VIII. (1 158-1 214), king of Castile only, and grand-
aon of Alphonso VII., is a great name in Spanish history, for
he led the coalition of Christian princes and foreign crusaders
who broke the power of the Almohades at the battle of the
Navas de Tolosa in 1 2 1 2. The events of his reign are dealt with
under Spain. His personal history is that of many medieval
kings. He succeeded to the throne on the death, of his father,
Sancho, at the age of a year and a half. Though proclaimed
king, he was regarded as a mere name by the unruly nobles to
whom a minority was convenient. The devotion of a squire of
his household, wbo carried him on the pommel of his saddle to
the stronghold of San Esteban de Gormaz, saved him from falling
into the hands of the contending factions of Castro and Lara,
or of his uncle Ferdinand of Leon, who claimed the regency.
The loyalty of the town of Avila protected his youth. He was
barely fifteen when he came forth to do a man's work by restoring
his kingdom to order. It was only by a surprise that he recovered
his capital Toledo from the hands of the Laras. His marriage
with Leonora of Aquitaine, daughter of Henry II. of England,
brought him under the influence of the greatest governing
intellect of his time. Alphonso VIII. was the founder of the
first Spanish university, the studium generate of Paknda, which,
however, did not survive him.
Alphonso IX. (1 183-1230) of Leon, first cousin of Alphonso
VIII. of Castile, and numbered next to him as being a junior
member of the family (see the article Spain for the division of the
kingdom and the relationship), is said by Ibn Khaldun to have
been called the " Baboso " or Slobberer, because he was subject
to fits of rage during which he foamed at the mouth. Though he
took a part in the work of the reconquest, this king is chiefly
remembered by the difficulties into which his successive marriages
led him with the pope. He was first married to his cousin Teresa
of Portugal, who bore him two daughters, and a son who died
young. The' marriage was declared null by the pope, to whom
Alphonso paid no attention till he was presumably tired of his
wife. It cannot have been his conscience which constrained him
to leave Teresa, for his next step was to marry Berengaria of
Castile, who was his second cousin. For this act of contumacy
the king and kingdom were placed under interdict. The pope
was, however, compelled to modify his measures by the threat
that if the people could not obtain the services of religion they
would not support the clergy, and that heresy would spread.
The king was left under interdict personally, but to that he
showed himself indifferent, and he had the support of his clergy.
Berengaria left him after the birth of five children, and the king
then returned to Teresa, to whose daughters he left his kingdom
bywilL
Alphonso X., El Sabio, or the learned (r25*-xa84), is perhaps
the most interesting, though he was far from being the most
capable, of the Spanish kings of the middle ages. (His merits as a
writer are dealt within the article Spain: Literature). His scientific
fame is based mainly on his encouragement of astronomy. It
may be pointed out, however, that the story which represents
him as boasting of his ability to make a better world than this is
of late authority. If he said so, he waa speaking of the Ptolemaic
cosmogony as known to him through the Arabs, and his vaunt
was a humorous proof of his scientific instinct. As a ruler he
showed legislative capacity, and a very commendable wish to
provide his kingdoms with a code of laws and a consistent
judicial system. The Fuero Real was undoubtedly his work, and
he began the code called the Side Partidas, which, however, was
only promulgated by his great-grandson. Unhappily for himself
and for Spain, he wanted the singleness of purpose required by a
ruler who would devote himself to organization, and also the
combination of firmness with temper needed for dealing with his
nobles. His descent from the Hohenstaufen through his mother,
a daughter of the emperor Philip, gave him claims to represent
the Swabian line. The choice of the German electors, after the
death of Conrad IV. in 1254, misled him into wild schemes which
never took effect but caused immense expense. To obtain
money he debased the coinage, and then endeavoured to prevent
a rise in prices by an arbitrary tariff. The little trade of his
dominions was ruined, and the burghers and peasants were deeply
offended. His nobles, whom he tried to cow by sporadic acts of
violence, rebelled against him. His second son, Sancho, enforced
his claim to be heir, in preference to the children of Ferdinand de
la Cerda, the elder brother who died in Alphonso's life. Son and
nobles alike supported the Moors, when he tried to unite the
nation in a crusade; and when he allied himself with the rulers
of Morocco they denounced him as an enemy of the faith. A
reaction in his favour was beginning in his later days, but he died
defeated and deserted at Seville, leaving a will by which he
endeavoured to exclude Sancho and a heritage of civil war.
Alphonso XI. (1312-1350) is variously known among Spanish
kings as the Avenger or the Implacable, and as " he of the
Rio Salad o." The first two names he earned by the ferocity
with which he repressed the disorder of the nobles after a long
minority; the third by his victory over the last formidable
African invasion of Spain in 1340. The chronicler who records
his death prays that " God may be merciful to him, for he was
a very great king." The mercy was needed. Alphonso XI.
never went to the insane lengths of his son Peter the Cruel, but
he could be abundantly sultanesque in his methods. He killed
for reasons of state without form of trial, while his open neglect
of his wife, Maria of Portugal, and his ostentatious passion for
Leonora de Guzman, who bore him a large family of sons, set
Peter an example which he did not fail to better. It may be that
his early death, during the great plague of 1350, at the siege of
Gibraltar, only averted a desperate struggle with his legitimate
son, though it was a misfortune in that it removed a ruler of
eminent capacity, who understood his subjects well enough not
to go too far.
(Four other kings of Aragon, besides the Battler, bore the
name of Alphonso. All these princes held territory in the south'
east of France, and had a close connexion with Italy. Alphonso
IL of Aragon (1162-1196) was the son of Raymond Berenger,
736
ALPHONSUS A SANCTA MARIA
count of Barcelona, and of Petronflla, niece of Alphonso the
Battler, and daughter of Ramiro surnamed the Monk. He
succeeded to the county of Barcelona in z 162 on the death of his
father, at the age of eleven, and in 1164 his mother renounced
her rights in Aragon in his favour. Though christened Ramon
(Raymond), the favourite name of his line, he reigned as Alphonso
out of a wish to please his Aragonese subjects, towhom the memory
of the Battler was dear. As king of Aragon he took a share in
the work of the reconquest, by helping his cousin Alphonso VIII.
of Castile to conquer Cuenca, and to suppress one Pero Ruiz de
Azagra, who was endeavouring to carve out a kingdom for himself
in the debatable land between Christian and Mahommedan.
But his double position as ruler both north and south of the
eastern Pyrenees distracted his policy. In character and interests
he was rather Provencal than Spanish, a favourer of the trouba-
dours, no enemy of the Albigensian heretics, and himself a poet
in the southern French dialect Alphonso III. of Aragon (1 285-
X2oi), the insignificant son of the notable Peter III., succeeded
to the Spanish and Provencal possessions of his father, but his
short reign did not give him time even to marry. His inability
to resist the demands of his nobles left a heritage of trouble in
Aragon. By recognising their right to rebel in the articles called
the Union he helped to make anarchy permanent Alphonso IV.
of Aragon (1327-1336) was a weak man whose reign was in-
significant Alphonso V. of Aragon (1416-1458;, surnamed the
Magnanimous, who represented the old line of the counts of
Barcelona only through women, and was on his father's side
descended from the Castilian house of Trastamara, is one of the
most conspicuous figures of the early Renaissance. No man of
his time had a larger share of the quality called by the Italians
of the day " virtue." By hereditary right king of Sicily, by the
will of Joanna H. and his own sword king of Naples, he fought
and triumphed amid the exuberant development of individuality
which accompanied the revival of learning and the birth of the
modern world. When a prisoner in the hands of Filipo Maria
Visconti, duke of Milan, in 1435, Alphonso persuaded his ferocious
and crafty captor to let him go by making it plain that it was the
Interest of Milan not to prevent the victory of the Aragonese
party in Naples. Like a true prince of the Renaissance he
favoured men of letters whom he trusted to preserve his reputa-
tion to posterity. His devotion to the classics was exceptional
even in that time. He halted his army in pious respect before
the birthplace of a Latin writer, carried Livy or Caesar on his
campaigns with him, and his panegyrist Panormita did not think
it an incredible lie to say that the king was cured of an illness
by having a few pages of Quintus Curtius read to him. The
classics had not refined his taste, for he was amused by setting
the wandering scholars, who swarmed to his court, to abuse one
another in the indescribably filthy Latin scolding matches which
were then the fashion. Alphonso founded nothing, and after his
conquest of Naples in 1442 ruled by his mercenary soldiers, and
no less mercenary men of letters. His Spanish possessions were
ruled for him by his brother John. He left his conquest of Naples
to his bastard son Ferdinand; his inherited lands, Sicily and
Sardinia, going to his brother John who survived him.]
Alphonso XII. (1857-1885), king of modern Spain, son of
Isabella II. and Maria Fernando Francisco de Assisi, eldest son
of the duke of Cadiz, was born on the 28th of November 1857.
When Queen Isabella and her husband were forced to leave
Spain by the revolution of 1868 he accompanied them to Paris,
and from thence he was sent to the Theresianum at Vienna to
continue his studies. On the 25th of June 1870 he was recalled
to Paris, where his mother abdicated in his favour, in the presence
of a number of Spanish nobles who had followed the fortunes of
the exiled queen. He assumed the title of Alphonso XII.; for
although no king'of united Spain had previously borne the name,
the Spanish monarchy was regarded as continuous with the
more ancient monarchy, represented by the eleven kings of
Leon and Castile already referred to. Shortly afterwards he
proceeded to Sandhurst to continue his military studies, and
while there he issued, on the 1st of December 1874, in reply to a
birthday greeting from his follower*, a manifesto proclaiming
himself the sole representative of the Spanish' monarchy. Mi
the end of the year, when Marshal Serrano left Madrid to tab
command of the northern army, General Martinex Camprn. wk
had long been working more or less openly for the king, carat
off some battalions of the central army to Sagunto, rallied to ha
own flag the troops sent against him, and entered Valencia a
the king's name. Thereupon the president of the cosad
resigned, and the power was transferred to the king's pks*
potentiary and adviser, Canovas del Castillo. In the coarse <s «
few days the king arrived at Madrid, passing through Barceka
and Valencia, and was received everywhere with a rrtsmarm
(1875). In 1876 a vigorous campaign against the Carbsts. h
which the young king took part, resulted in the defeat of Dca
Carlos and his abandonment of the struggle. Early hi riM
Alphonso married his cousin, Princess Maria de las Mexceda
daughter of the due de Montpensier, but she died whhia kz
months of her marriage. Towards the end of the same years
young workman of Tarragona, Oliva Marcousi, fired at the kisga
Madrid. On the 29th of November 1870 he married a peaces
of Austria, Maria Christina, daughter of the Archduke Chads
Ferdinand. During the honeymoon a pastrycook named Osts*
fired at the young sovereigns as they were driving in Bfadril
The children of this marriage were Maria de las Mercedes, titular
queen from the death of her father until the birth of her brother.
born on the xxth of September 1880, married on the lath d
February 1001 to Prince Carlos of Bourbon, died on the 17th d
October 1004; Maria Teresa, born on the xsth of Noveaba
1882, married to Prince Ferdinand of Bavaria on the nth d
January 1006; and Alphonso (see below). In 18S1 the keif
refused to sanction the law by which the ministers were to renai
in office for a fixed term of eighteen months, and upon the oaa-
sequent resignation of Canovas del Castillo, he snoaniead
Sagasta, the Liberal leader, to form a cabinet Alphonso died
of phthisis on the 24th of November 1885. Coming to the throe*
at such an early age, he had served no apprenticeship in the an
of ruling, but he possessed great natural tact and a scad
judgment ripened by the trials of exile. Benevolent and sym-
pathetic in disposition, he won the affection of his people hf
fearlessly visiting the districts ravaged by cholera or devastated
by earthquake in 1885. His capacity for dealing with men am
considerable, and he never allowed himself to become the iastra-
ment of any particular party. In his short reign peace «ss
established both at home and abroad, the finances were we2
regulated, and the various administrative services were places
on a basis that afterwards enabled Spain to pass through tk
disastrous war with the United States without even the uses:
of a revolution.
Alphonso XIII. 0886- ), king of Spain, son of Alpbor»
XII., was born, after his father's death, on the 1 7th of May tSSa
His mother, Queen Maria Christina, was appointed regent durisr
his minority (see Spain: History). In 1002, on attaining as
1 6th year, the king assumed control of the government Ob tat
31st of May 1006 he married Princess Victoria Eugenie Julia Esi
Maria Christina of Battenberg, niece of Edward VII. of EngUai
As the king and queen were returning from the wedding the?
narrowly escaped assassination in a bomb explosion, w*3
killed and injured many bystanders and members of the tvrA
procession. An heir to the throne was born on the 10th of Kir
1907, and received the name of Alphonso.
Authorities.— The lives of all the early kings of Spain wB br
found in the general histories (we the article Spain: Autkenha
of which the most trustworthy ts the Ancles de la Corema de Ang*>
by Geronimo Zurita (Saragosaa, 1610). See also the Chroakfe* *
the Kings of Castile in the BMioUca de Anton* EspaMeUs de Rm
deneyra (Madrid. 1846-1880, vols. 66, 68, 70). (D. H.)
ALPHONSUS A SANCTA MABIA, or Alphonso de Caetacd<
(1396-1456), Spanish historian, was born at Carthagena, ra:
succeeded his father, Paulus, as bishop of Burgos. la ujt **
was deputed by John II., king of Castile, to attend the coeao.
of Basel, in which he made himself conspicuous by his learniaf
He was the author of several works, the principal of which a
entitled Reruns Hispanoruns Romanorum twtcratanna, smn>
mcrum poniificum. nee non regum Franttrum onace tasJtfsu
ALPINI— ALPS
737
This is a history of Spain from the earliest times down to 1456,
and was printed at Granada in 1545, and also in the Rerum
Uispamcarum ScripUrrcs aliquot, by R. Bel (Frankfort, 1579).
Alphonsus died on the 12th of July 1456.
ALPINI, PROSPBRO (Prosper Alpinus), 1 553-161 7. Italian
physician and botanist, was born at Marostica, in the republic of
Venice, on the 23rd of November 1553. In his youth he served
for a time in the Milanese army, but in 1574 he went to study
medicine at Padua. After taking his doctor's degree in 1578,
be settled as a physician in Campo San Pietro, a small town in
the Paduan territory. But his tastes were botanical, and to
extend his knowledge of exotic plants he travelled to Egypt in
1 580 as physician to George Emo or Hemi, the Venetian consul
in Cairo. In Egypt he spent three years, and from a practice in
the management of date-trees, which he observed in that country,
he seems to have deduced the doctrine of the sexual difference
of plants, which was adopted as the foundation of the Linnaean
system. He says that " the female date-trees or palms do not
bear fruit unless the branches of the male and female plants are
mixed together; or, as is generally done, unless the dust found
in the male sheath or male flowers is sprinkled over the female
flowers." On his return, he resided for some time at Genoa as
physician to Andrea Doria, and in 1593 he was appointed
professor of botany at Padua, where he died on the 6th of
February 16x7. He was succeeded in the botanical chair by
his son Alpino Alpini (d. 2637). His best-known work is De
Planiis Aegypti liber (Venice, 159a). His De Medicina
Egyptiorum (Venice, 1501) is said to contain' the first account
of the coffee plant published in Europe. The genus Alpinia,
belonging to the order Zingiberaceae, was named after him by
Linnaeus.
ALPS, the collective name for one of the great mountain
systems of Europe.
1. Position and Name.— The continent of Europe is no more
than a great peninsula extending westwards from the much
vaster continent of Asia, while it is itself broken up by two
inland seas into several smaller peninsula*— the Mediterranean
forming the Iberian, the Italian and the Greek peninsulas,
while the Baltic forms that of Scandinavia and the much smaller
one of Denmark. Save the last-named, all these peninsulas of
Europe are essentially mountain ranges. But in height and
Importance the ranges that rise therein are much surpassed by a
great mountain-chain, stretching from south-eastern France to
the borders of Hungary, as well as between the plains of northern
Italy and of southern Germany. This chain is collectively known
as the Alps, and is the most important physical feature of the
European continent. The Alps, however, do not present so
continuous a barrier as the Himalayas, the Andes or even the
Pyrenees. They are formed of numerous ranges, divided by
comparatively deep valleys, which, with many local exceptions,
tend towards parallelism with the general direction of the whole
mass. This, between the Dauphin* and the borders of Hungary,
forms a broad band convex towards the north, while most of the
valleys lie between the directions west to east and south-west to
north-east. But in many parts deep transverse valleys intersect
the prevailing direction of the ridges, and facilitate the passage
of man, plants and animals, as well as of currents of air which
mitigate the contrast that would otherwise be found between
the climates of the opposite slopes.
The derivation of the name Alps is still very uncertain, some
writers connecting it with a Celtic root alb, said to mean height,
while others suggest the Latin adjective olbus (white), referring
to the colour of the snowy peaks. But in all parts of the great
chain itself, the term Alp (or Aim in the Eastern Alps) is exclu-
sively applied to the high mountain pastures (see Alp), and not
to the peaks and ridges of the chain.
2. Limits.— These will depend on the meaning we attach to
the word Alps as referring to the great mountain-chain of central
Europe. If we merely desire to distinguish it from certain
minor ranges (e.g. the C6vennes, the Jura, the hills of central
Germany, the Carpathians, the Apennines), which are really
independent ranges rather than offshoots of the main chain, the
best limits are on the west (strictly speaking south), the Col
d'Altare or di Cadibona (1624 ft), leading from Turin to Savona
and Genoa, and on the east the line of the railway over the
Semmering Pass (3215 ft) from Vienna to Marburg in the Mur
valley, and on by Laibach to Trieste. But if we confine the
meaning of the term Alps to those parts of the chain that
are what is commonly called "Alpine/' where the height is
sufficient to support a considerable mass of perpetual snow, our
boundaries to the west and to the east must be placed at spots
other than those mentioned above. To the west the limit will
then be the Col de Tenda (6145 ft.), leading from Cuneo (Cont)
to Ventimiglia, while on the east our line will be the route over
the Radstldtcr Tauem (5702 ft) and the Katschberg (5384 ft)
from Salzburg to Villach in Carinthia, and thence by Klagenf urt
to Marburg and so past Laibach in Carniola on to Trieste; from
Villach the direct route to Trieste would be over the Prtdil Pass
(3813 ft) or the Pontebba or Saifnitz Pass (2615 ft), more to the
west, but in either case this would exclude the Terglou (9400 ft.),
the highest summit of the entire South- Eastern Alps, as well as
its lower neighbours.
On the northern side the Alps (In whichever sense we take
this term) are definitely bounded by the course of the Rhine
from Basel to the Lake of Constance, the plain of Bavaria, and
the low region of foot-hills that extend from Salzburg to the
neighbourhood of Vienna. One result of this limit, marked out
by Nature herself, is that the waters which flow down the
northern slope of the Alps find their way either into the North
Sea through the Rhine, or into the Black Sea by means of the
Danube, not a drop reaching the Baltic Sea. On the southern
side the mountains extending from near Turin to near Trieste
subside into the great plain of Piedmont, Lombardy and
Venetia. But what properly forms the western bit of the Alps
runs, from near Turin to the Col de Tenda, in a southerly direc-
tion, then bending eastwards to the Col d'Altare that divides it
from the Apennines.
It should be borne in mind that the limits adopted above
refer purely to the topographical aspect of the Alps as they
exist at the present day. Naturalists will of course prefer other
limits according as they are geologists, botanists or zoologists.
3. Climate.— It is well known that as we rise from the sea-
level into the upper regions of the atmosphere the temperature
decreases. The effect of mountain-chains on prevailing winds
is to carry warm air belonging to the lower region into an upper
zone, where it expands in volume at the cost of a proportionate
loss of heat, often accompanied by the precipitation of moisture
in the form of snow or rain. The position of the Alps about the
centre of the European continent has profoundly modified the
climate of all the surrounding regions. The accumulation of
vast masses of snow, which have gradually been converted into
permanent glaciers, maintains a gradation of very different
climates within the narrow space that intervenes between the
foot of the mountains and their upper ridges; it cools the
breezes that are wafted to the plains on either side, but its most
important function is to regulate the water-supply of that large
region which is traversed by the streams of the Alps. Nearly
all the moisture that is precipitated during six or seven months
is stored up in the form of snow, and is gradually diffused in the
course of the succeeding summer; even in the hottest and driest
seasons the reserves accumulated during a long preceding period
of years in the form of glaciers are available to maintain the
regular flow of the greater streams. Nor is this all; the lakes
that fill several of the main valleys on the southern side of the
Alps are somewhat above the level of the plains of Lombardy
and Venetia, and afford an inexhaustible supply of water, which,
from a remote period, has been used for that system of irrigation
to which they owe their proverbial fertility. Six regions or
zones, which are best distinguished by their characteristic
vegetation, are found in the Alps. It is an error to suppose that
these are indicated by absolute height above the sea-level.
Local conditions of exposure to the sun, protection from cold
winds, or the reverse, are of primary importances determining
the climate and the corresponding vegetation.
73»
ALPS
laJKA?
Off**
Vta#
The great plain of Upper Italy has a winter climate colder
than that of the British Islands. The olive and the characteristic
shrubs of the northern coasts of the Mediterranean do
not thrive in the open air, but the former valuable
tree ripens its fruit in sheltered places at the foot of
the mountains, and penetrates along the deeper valleys and the
shores of the Italian lakes. The evergreen oak is wild on the
rocks about the Lake of Garda, and lemons are cultivated oa a
large scale, with partial protection in winter. The olive has been
known to survive severe cold when of short duration, but it can-
not be cultivated with success where frosts are prolonged, or where
the mean winter temperature falls below 42° F.; and to produce
fruit it requires a heat of at least 75° F. during the day, con-
tinued through four or five months of the summer and autumn.
The vine is far more tolerant of cold than the olive, but to
produce tolerable wine it demands, at the season of .ripening,
a degree of heat not much less than that needed by the
more delicate tree. These conditions are satisfied in
the deeper valleys of the Alps, even in the interior of
the chain, and up to a considerable height on slopes exposed
to the sun. The protection afforded by winter snow enables
the plant to resist severe and prolonged frosts, such as would
be fatal in more exposed situations. Many wild plants character-
istic of the warmer parts of middle Europe are seen to flourish
along with the vine. A mean summer temperature of at least
68° F. is considered necessary to produce tolerable wine, but
in ordinary seasons this is much exceeded in many of the great
valleys of the Alps.
Many writers take the growth of grain as the characteristic
of the mountain region; but so many varieties of all the common
_ r-fT species are in cultivation, and these have such different
uoe dimatal requirements, that they do not afford a satis-
ntffefl 0/ factory criterion. A more natural limit is afforded by
the presence of the chief deciduous tr ees oak, beech,
ash and sycamore. These do not reach exactly to the
same elevation, nor are they often found growing together; but
their upper limit corresponds accurately enough to the change
from a temperate to a colder climate that is further proved by a
change in the wild herbaceous vegetation. This limit usually lies
about 4000 ft above the sea on the north side of the Alps, but on
the southern slopes it often rises to 5000 ft, sometimes even to
5500 ft It must not be supposed that this region is always marked
by the presence of the characteristic trees. The interference of
man has in many districts almost extirpated them, and, excepting
the beech forests of the Austrian Alps, a considerable wood of
deciduous trees is scarcely anywhere to be found. In many
districts where such woods once existed, their place has been
occupied by the Scottish pine and spruce, which suffer less from
the ravages of goats, the worst enemies of tree vegetation. The
mean annual temperature of this region differs little from that
of the British Islands; but the dimatal conditions are widely
different Here snow usually lies for several months, till it gives
place to a spring and summer considerably warmer than the
average of British seasons.
The Subalpine is the region which mainly determines the
manner of life of the population of the Alps. On a rough estimate
we may reckon that, of the space lying between the
Z,"or summits of the Alps and the low country on cither
■ •*_ side, one-quarter is available for cultivation, of which
about one-half may be vineyards and corn-fields, while
the remainder produces forage and grass. About
another quarter is utterly barren, consisting of snow-fields,
glaciers, bare rock, lakes and the beds of streams. There
remains about one-half, which is divided between forest
and pasture, and ir is the produce of this half which mainly
supports the relatively large population. For a quarter of the
year the flocks and herds are fed on the upper pastures; but
the true limit of the wealth of a district is the number of animals
that can be supported during the long winter, and while one part
of the population is engaged in tending the beasts and in making
cheese and butter, the remainder is busy cutting hay and storing
up winter food for the cattle. The larger villages arc mostly
in the mountain region, bat in many parts of the Alps the T&p
stand in the subalpine jegion at heights varying from 4000 ft ?
5500 ft. above the sea, more rarely extending to about 6oxi
The most characteristic feature of this region is the pcrtixr"
of coniferous trees, which, where they have not been arti^L";
kept down, form vast forests that cover a large part of the set~^.
These play a most important part in the natural econocry ti 2.
country. They protect the valleys from destructive avatar
and, retaining the superficial soil by their roots, thcynetd&j
the destructive effects of heavy rains. In valleys when up
have been rashly cut away, and the waters pour down the s^re
unchecked, every tiny rivulet becomes a raging torrent, tkr
carries off. the grassy slopes and devastates the floor of the \x>
covering the soil with gravd and debris. In the pine foresb 2
the Alps the prevailing spedes are the common spruce and ±.
silver fir; on siliceous soil the larch flourishes, and surpass
every other European spedes in height The Scottish px <
chiefly found at a lower level and rarely forms forests. Tn
Siberian fir is found scattered at intervals throughout \ht K>
but is not common. The mughus, creeping pine, or /&•*»«.£
of the Germans, is common in the Eastern Alps, and soceooe
forms on the higher mountains a distinct zone above the jf*
of its congeners. In the Northern Alps the pine forests nx*
surpass the limit of 6000 ft above the sea, but on the soati sxt
they commonly attain 7000 ft., while the larch, Siberian fir tzi
mughus often extend above that elevation.
Throughout the Teutonic region of the Alps the word Alp e
used specifically for the upper pastures where cattle are fed a
summer, but this region is held to indude the whole J _
space between the uppermost limit of trees and the first „£»
appearance of permanent masses of snow. It is here
that the characteristic vegetation of the Alps is developed ta »
full beauty and variety. Shrubs are not wanting. Three space
of rhododendron vie with each other in the brilliancy of &-
masses of red or pink flowers; the common juniper rises hipc
still, along with three spedes of bilberry; and several d«s
willows attain nearly to the utmost limit of vegetation. Tk
upper limit of this region coinddes with the so-called iiak 4
perpetual snow.
On the higher parts of lofty mountains more snow falls in e*±
year than is melted on the spot. A portion of this a cam:
away by the wind before it is consolidated; a larger JM ^ fci
portion accumulates in hollows and depressions of the JJJ
surface, and is gradually converted into glacier-ice,
which descends by a slow secular motion into the deeper vaSrn
where it goes to swell perennial streams. As on a mountac tfc
snow does not lie in beds of uniform thickness, and some ports
are more exposed to the sun and warm winds than others. «
commonly find beds of snow alternating with exposed sbpe
covered with brilliant vegetation; and to the observer near n
hand there is no appearance in the least corresponding to tie
term limit of perpetual snow, though the case is otherwise *ba
a high mountain-chain is viewed from a distance. Similar cob-
ditions are repeated at many different points, so that the k>^
at which large snow-beds show themselves along its flanks is
approximately horizontal. But this holds good only so far tf
the conditions are similar. On the opposite sides of the saw
chain the exposure to the sun or to warm winds may cause «
wide difference in the levd of permanent snow; but in sea*
cases the increased fall of snow on the side exposed to roeU
winds may more than compensate the increased influence of &
sun's rays. Still, even with these reservations, the so-called 'J*
of perpetual snow is not fixed. The occurrence of favoun&fc
meteorological conditions during several successive seasons rait
and does increase the extent of the snow-fields, and lower tfct
limit of seemingly permanent snow; while an opposite state of
things may cause the limit to rise higher on the flanks of t>*
mountains. Hence all attempts to fix accuratdy the levri rf
perpetual snow in the Alps are falladous, and can at the best
approach only to local accuracy for a particular district. la
some parts of the Alps the limit may be set at about 8000 ft above
the sea, while in others it cannot be placed much below 9500 ft
MAIN CHAIN1
ALPS
739
EfiflnhMfci „
a ijp ™ 3* yi jjt> to 70 Bo y io g>
composed of a single range (as shown on the old maps) but of a
great " divide," flanked on either side by other important ranges,
which, however, do not comprise such lofty peaks as the main
watershed. In the following remarks we propose to follow the
main watershed from one end of the Alps to the other.
Starting from the Col d* Altarc or di Cadibona (west of Savona),
the main chain extends first south-west, then north-west to the
Col de Tenda, though nowhere rising much beyond the zone of
coniferous trees. Beyond the Col de Tenda the direction is first
roughly west, then north-west to the Rocher des Trois £veques
(9300 ft), just south of the Mont Enchastraye (0695 ft), several
peaks of about 10,000 ft. rising on the watershed, though the
highest of all, the Punta dell' Argentera (10,794 ft.) stands a little
way to its north. From the Rocher des Trois £veques the
watershed runs due north for a long distance, though of the two
loftiest peaks of this region one, the Aiguille de Chambeyron
(11,155 ft-)* » just to the west, and the other, the Monte Vis©
(x 2,609 ft.), is just to the east of the watershed. From the head
of the Val Pellice the main chain runs north-west, and diminishes
much in average height till it reaches the Mont Thabor (10,440
ft.), which forms the apex of a salient angle which the main chain
here presents towards the west. Hence the main watershed
extends eastwards, culminating in the Aiguille de Scolette
(11,500 ft), but makes a great curve to the north-west and back
to the south-east before rising in the Rochemelon (11,605 ft.),
which may be considered as a re-entering angle in the great
rampart by which Italy is guarded from its neighbours. Thence
the direction taken is north as far as the eastern summit (11,693
ft.) of the Levanna, the watershed rising in a series of snowy
peaks, though the loftiest point of the region, the Pointe de
Charbonel (1 2,336 ft.), stands a little to the west. Once more the
chain bends to the north-west, rising in several lofty peaks (the
highest is the Aiguille de la Grande Sassiere, 12,323 ft.), before
attaining the considerable depression of the Little St Bernard
Pass. Thence for a short way the direction is north to the Col de
la Seigne, and then north-east along the crest of the Mont Blanc
chain, which culminates in the peak of Mont Blanc (15,782 ft),
the loftiest in the Alps. A number of high peaks crown our
\s very li ttle snow can rest on rocks that lie at an angle exceeding
k>°, and this is soon removed by the wind, some steep masses
>f rock remain bare even near the summits of the highest peaks,
>ut as almost every spot offering the least hold for vegetation
s covered with snow, few flowering plants are seen above x 1,000
t. There is reason to think, however, that it is the want of soil
■ather than climatal conditions that checks the upward extension
rf the alpine flora. Increased direct effect of solar radiation
rompensates for the cold of the nights, and in the few spots where
slants have been found in flower up to a height of 12,000 ft,
10 thing has indicated that the processes of vegetation were
wrested by the severe cold which they must sometimes endure.
I*he climate of the glacial region has often been compared to
that of the polar regions, but they are widely different Here,
n tense solar radiation by day, which raises the surface when dry
to a temperature approaching 8o° F., alternates with severe
xost by night. There, a sun which never sets sends, feeble rays
that maintain a low equable temperature, rarely rising more
than a few degrees above the freezing-point Hence the upper
region of the Alps sustains a far more varied and brilliant
vegetation.
4. Main Chain.— In the case of every mountain system
geographers are disposed to regard, as a general rule, the water-
shed (or boundary dividing the waters flowing towards opposite
dopes of the range) as marking the main chain, and this usage is
justified in that the highest peaks often rise on or very near the
watershed. Yet, as a matter of fact, several important mountain
groups are situated on one or other side of the watershed of the
Alps, and form almost independent ranges, being only connected
with the main chain by a kind of peninsula: such are the
Dauphine Alps, the Eastern and Western Graians, the entire
Bernese Oberland, the Tddi, Albula and Silvretta groups, the
Order and Adamello ranges, and the Dolomites of south Tirol,
not to speak of the lower Alps of the Vorarlberg, Bavaria and
Salzburg. Of course each of these semi-detached ranges has a
watershed of its own, like the lateral ridges that branch off from
the main watershed. Thus there are lofty ranges parallel to that
which forms the main watershed. The Alps, therefore, are not
74°
ALPS
(main oun
watershed before it attains the Mont Dolent (i 2,543 ft). Thence
after a short dip to the south-east, our chain takes near the
Great St Bernard Pass the generally eastern direction that it
maintains till it reaches Monte Rosa, whence it bends northwards,
making one small dip to the east as far as the Simplon Pass. It
is in the portion of the watershed between the Great St Bernard
and the Simplon that the main chain maintains a greater average
height than in any other part. But, though it rises in a number
of lofty peaks, such as the Mont Velan (1 3,353 f t -)» toe Matterhorn
(14,782 ft), the Lyskamm (14,889 ft), the Nord End of Monte
Rosa (15,132 ft), and the Weissmies (13,226 ft), yet many of the
highest points of the region, such as the Grand Combin (14,164ft),
the Dent Blanche (14,3x8 ft), the Weisshorn (14,801 ft), the true
summit or Dufourspitze (15,217 ft.) of Monte Rosa itself, and the
Dom (14,042 ft), all rise on its northern slope and not on the
main watershed. On the other hand the chain between the
Great St Bernard and the Simplon sinks at barely half a dozen
points below a level of 10,000 ft The Simplon Pass corresponds
to what may be called a dislocation of the main chain. Thence
to the St Gotthard the divide runs north-east, all the higher
summits (including the Monte Leone, 11,684 ft, and the Puzo
Rotondo, 10,489 ft) rising on it, a curious contrast to the long
stretch just described. From the St Gotthard to the Maloja the
watershed between the basins of the Rhine and Po runs in an
easterly direction as a whole, though making two great dips
towards the south, first to near the Vogelberg (10,565 ft) and
again to near the Puzo Gallegione (10,201 ft), so that it presents
a broken and irregular appearance. But all the loftiest peaks
rise on it: Scopi (10,400 ft), Piz Medel (10,509 ft), the Rhein-
waldhorn (x 1,149 ft.), the Tambohorn (10,749 * L ) *nd Pis Timun
(10,502 ft).
From the Maloja Pass the main watershed dips to the south-
east for a short distance, and then runs eastwards and nearly over
the highest summit of the Bernina group, the Piz Bemina (13,304
ft), to the Bernina Pass. Thence to the Reschen Scheideck
Pass the main chain is Hi-defined, though on it rises the Corno di
Campo (10,844 ft), beyond which it runs slightly north-east past
the sources of the Adda and the Fraele Pass, sinks to form the
depression of the Ofen Pass, soon bends north and rises once
more in the Piz Sesvenna (10,568 ft).
The break in the continuity of the Alpine chain marked by
the deep valley, the Vintsckgau, of the upper Adige (Etsch) is one
of the most remarkable features in the orography of the Alps.
The little Reschen lake which forms the chief source of the Adige
is only 13 ft. below the Reschen Scheideck Pass (4002 ft), and by
it is but 5 m. from the Inn valley. Eastward of this pass, the
main chain runs north-east to the Brenner Pass along the snowy
crest of the Oetzthal and Stubai Alps, the loftiest point on it being
the Weisskugcl (1 2,291 ft, Oetzthal), for the highest summits both
of the Oetzthal and of the Stubai districts, the Wildspitze (12,382
ft.) and the Zuckerhtttl (11,520 ft) stand a little to the north.
The Brenner (4495 ft) is almost the lowest of all the great
carriage-road passes across the main chain, and has always been
the chief means of communication between Germany and Italy.
For some way beyond it the watershed runs eastwards over the
highest crest of the Zillerthal Alps, which attains 1 1 ,559 ft in the
Hochfeilcr. But, a little farther, at the Dreiherrenspitze (x 1 ,500
ft.) we have to choose between following the watershed south-
wards, or keeping due east along the highest crest of the
Greater Tauern Alps, (a) The latter course is adopted by many
geographers and has much in its favour. The eastward direc-
tion is maintained and the watershed (though not the chief
Alpine watershed) continues through the Greater Tauern Alps,
culminating in the Gross Venedlger (12,008 ft.), for the Gross
Glockner (1 2,461 ft) rises to the south. Our chain bends north-
east near the Radstadter Tauern Pass, and preserves that
direction through the Lesser Tauern Alps to the Semmering Pass.
(b) On the other hand, if from the Dreiherrenspitze we cleave to
the true main watershed of the Alpine chain, we find that it dips
south, passes over the Hochgall (11,287 ft), the culminating
point of the Riescrferner group, and then' sinks to the Toblach
Pass, but at a point a little east of the great Dolomite peak of
the Drei Zinnen it bends east again, and rises In the Skc:
Coglians (91 28 ft, the monarch of the Caraic Alps). Soar r ;
our watershed makes a last bend to the south-east and cuteac**
in the Terglou (0400 ft), the highest point of the Jufct A!s
though the Grintovc (8429 ft, the culminating point d it
Karawankas Alps) stands more to the east Finally oer nr
shed turns south and ends near the great limestone platec a
the Birnbaumerwald, between Laibach and Gdrz.
As might be expected, the main chain boasts of more gbdc
and eternal snow than the independent or external ranges. \r.
it is a curious fact that the three longest giaders in the Alps i>
Great Aletsch, i6§ m., and the Unteraar and the Fiescher, c^z
10 m.) are all in the Bernese Oberland. In the main chda i*
two longest are both o£ m., the Mer de Glace at Chamoaa isi
the Corner at Zermatt In the Eastern Alps the longest guce
is the Pasterze (rather over 6} m.), which is not near the or
main watershed, though it dings to the slope of the Grere
Tauern range, east of the Dreiherrenspitze. But the next rn
longest glaciers in the Eastern Alps (the Hintereis, 6f bl, asd lie
Gepatsch, 6 m.) are both in the Oetzthal Alps* and so ckse b
the true main watershed.
The so-called alpine lakes are the sheets of water found at tat
foot of the Alps, on either slope, just where the riven that iocs
them issue into the plains. There are, however, alpiar hie
higher up (e.g. the lake of Thun, and those in the Upper g«p*»
in the heart of the mountains, though these are naturally ssn&a
in extent, while the true lakes of the High Alps are iipwaofrg
by the glacier lakes of the Mlrjelensee (near the Great Aktxi
glacier) and those on the northern slope of the Col de Feat a.
between Aosta and the Val de Bagnea. The most singular, as:
probably the loftiest, lake in the Alps is the ever-frozen tara tszt
forms the summit of the Rocda Viva (11,976 ft.) in the Eases
Graians.
Among the great alpine rivers we may distinguish two diss
those which spring directly from glaciers and those winch rise a
lakes, these being fed by eternal snows or glaciers. Inthefam;
class are the Isere, the Rhone, the Aar, the Tidno, the Tosa, tse
Hinter (or main) Rhine and the Linth; while in the latter da* «e
have the Durance, the Po, the Reuss, the Vorder and virrs
branches of the Rhine, the Inn, the Adda, the Ogho and j*
Adige. The Piave and the Drave seem to be outside either ens*.
5. Principal Passes. — Though the Alps form a barrier thn
have never formed an impassable barrier, since, from the earue:
days onwards, they have been traversed first, perhaps fr
purposes of war or commerce, and later by pilgrims, stsdesn
and tourists. The spots at which they were crossed are causi
passes (this word is sometimes though rarely applied to fcr^e
only), and are the points at which the great chain sinks to ion
depressions, up to which deep-cut valleys lead from the piaas
Hence the oldest name for such passes is Mont (still retaiacc 3
cases of the Mont Cenis and the Monte Moro), for it was butt
ages before this term was especially applied to the peaks of sir
Alps, which with a few very rare exceptions (e.g . the Monte Vat
was known to the Romans as Vesulus) were long simply <?>
regarded. The native inhabitants of the Alps were natsialf
the first to use the alpine passes. But to the outer world thac
passes first became known when the Romans traversed thee a
order to conquer the world beyond. In the one case we have »
direct knowledge (though the Romans probably selected ibe
passes pointed out to them by the natives as the easiest). *h*
in the other we hear almost exclusively of the passes across tbc
main chain or the principal passes of the Alps. For obvi«5
reasons the Romans, having once found an easy direct pa*
across the main chain, did not trouble to seek for harder aa£
more devious routes. Hence the passes that can be shows »
have been certainly known to them are comparatively few s
number: they are, in topographical order from west to 0*.
the Col de 1'ArgentKre, the Mont Genevre, the two St Bernard
the SplQgen, the Septimer, the Brenner, the Radstfcdter Taeera.
the Solkscharte, the Pldcken and the Pontebba (or Sanotoi
Of these the Mont Genevre and the Brenner were the nost
frequented, while it will be noticed that in the Central Alps osjy
DIVISIONS)
ALPS
741
» passes (the SpHlgen and the Septimer) were certainly known
£0 the Romans. In fact the central portion of the Alps was by
fax the least Romanised and least known till the early middle
ages. Thus the Simplon is first certainly mentioned in 1235,
the §t Gotthard (without name) in 1236, the Lukmanier in 065,
the San Bernardino in 041; of course they may have been
known before, but authentic history is silent as regards them
till the dates specified. Even the Mont Cenis (from the 15th to
the 19th century the favourite pass for travellers going from
France to Italy) is first heard of in 756 only. In the 13th
century many hitherto unknown passes came into prominence,
even some of (he easy glacier passes. It should always be borne in
mind that in the Western and Central Alps there is but one ridge
to cross, to which access is gained by a deep-cut valley, though
often it would be shorter to cross a second pass in order to gain
the plains, e.g. the Mont Genevre, that is most directly reached
by the Col du Lautaret; and the Simplon, which is best gained
by one of the lower passes over the western portion of the
Bernese Oberland chain. On the other hand, in the Eastern
Alps, it b generally necessary to cross three distinct ridges
between the northern and southern plains, the central ridge
being the highest and most difficult. Thus the passes which
crossed a single ridge, and did not involve too great a detour
through a long valley of approach, became the most important
and the most popular, e.g. the Mont Cenis, the Great St Bernard,
the St Gotthard, the Septimer and the Brenner. As time went
on the travellers (with whatever object) who used the great
alpine passes could not put up any longer with the bad old mule
paths. A few passes {e.g. the Semmering, the Brenner, the Tenda
and the Arlberg) can boast of carriage roads constructed before
1800, while those over the Umbrail and the Great St Bernard
were not completed till the early years of the 20th century.
Most of the carriage roads across the great alpine passes were
thus constructed in the 19th century (particularly its first
half) 1 largely owing to the impetus given by Napoleon. As
late as 1905, the highest pass over the main chain that had a
carriage road was the Great St Bernard (8x11 ft), but three still
higher passes over side ridges have roads— the Stelvio (905s ft.),
the Col du Galibier (8721 ft.), in the Dauphine Alps, and the
Umbrail Pass (8242 ft.). Still more recently the main alpine
chain has been subjected to the further indignity of having
railway lines carried over it or through it — the Brenner and the
Pontebba lines being cases of the former, and the Col de Tenda,
the Mont Cenis (though the tunnel is really 17 m. to the west),
the Simplon and the St Gotthard, not to speak of the side passes
of the Arlberg, Albula and Pyhrn of the latter. There are also
schemes (more or less advanced) for piercing the SpHlgen and the
Hohe Tauem, both on the main ridge, and the Lotschen Pass,
on one of the external ranges. The numerous mountain railways,
chiefly in Switzerland, up various peaks (e.g. the Rigi and Pilatus)
and over various side passes (e.g. the BrUnig and the Little
Schekiegg) do not concern us here.
6. Divisums.—Tbt Alps, within the limits indicated under
(2) above, form a great range, consisting of a main chain, with
ramifications, and of several parallel minor chains. They thus
form a single connected whole as contrasted with the plains at
their base, and nature has made no breaks therein, save at the
spots where they sink to comparatively low depressions' or passes.
But for the sake of practical convenience it has long been usual to
select certain of the best marked of these passes to serve as limits
within the range, whether to distinguish several great divisions
from each other, or to further break up each of these great divisions
into smaller groups. As these divisions, great or small, are so
to speak artificial,' several systems have been proposed according
to which the Alps may be divided. We give below that which
seems to us to be the most satisfactory (based very largely on
personal acquaintance with most parts of the range), considering,
as in the case of the limits of the chain, only its topographical
aspect, as it exists at the present day, while leaving it to geo-
logists, botanists and zoologists to elaborate special divisions
as required by these various sciences. Our selected divisions
relate only to the High Alps between the Col de Tenda and the
route over the Radstidter Tauem, while in each of the 18 sub-
divisions the less elevated outlying peaks are regarded as append-
ages of the higher group within the topographical limits of which
they rise. No attempt, of course, has been made to give a com-
plete catalogue of the peaks and passes of the Alps, while in
the case of the peaks the culminating point of a lower half-
detached group has been included rather than the loftier spurs
of the higher and main group; in the case of the passes, the
villages or valleys they connect have been indicated, and also
the general character of the route over each pass.
As regards the main divisions, three am generally distinguished ;
the Western Alps (chiefly French and Italian, with a small bit
of the Swiss Valais) being held to extend from the Col de Tenda
to the Simplon Pass, the Central Alps (all but wholly Swiss and
Italian) thence to the Reschen Scheideck Pass, and the Eastern
Alps (wholly Austrian and Italian, save the small Bavarian
bit at the north-west angle) thence to the Radstidter Tauem
route, with a bend outwards towards the south-east, as explained
under (2) in order to include the higher summits of the South-
Eastern Alps. Strictly speaking, we should follow the Reschen
Scheideck route down the Adige valley, but as this would include
in the Central Alps the Order and some other of the highest
Urolese summits, it is best (remembering the artificial character
of the division) to draw a line from Mais southwards either over
the Umbrail Pass (the old historical pass) or the Stelvio (well-
known only since the carriage road was built over it in the first
quarter of the 19th century) to the head of the Valtellina, and
then over the Aprica Pass (as the Bergamasque Alps properly
belong to the Central Alps) to the Oglio valley or the Val
Camonica, and down that valley to the Lake of Iseo and Brescid.
Assuming these three main divisions, we must now consider
in detail the 18 sub-divisions which we distinguish; the first 5
forming the Western Alps, the next 7 the Central Alps, and the
rest the Eastern Alps, the heights throughout being, of course,
given in English feet and representing the latest measurements.
I. Wbstbin Alps
1. Maritime Alps (from the Col de Tenda to the Col de 1'Argen-
tiere).
Chief Peaks of the Maritime Alps.
Punta dell' Argentera 10,794. MontTinibras . . . 9,948
Cima dei Gdas . . . 10.280 Mont Enchastraye . . 9,695
Monte Matto. •. . 10.128 Monte Bego . . . 9426
Mont Pelat . 10,017 Mont Monnier . . . 9,246
Mont Clapaer . . . 9,994 Rocca dell' Abisso . . 9,039
Chief Passes of the Maritime Alps.
Passo del Pagarin (Vesubie Valley to Valdieri), snow . . 9,236
Col di Fremamorta (Tinee Valley to the Baths of Valdieri),
bridlepath .... . 8,683
Bassa di Druos (same to same), bridle path 8,629
Pa«o di Collalunjp (Tinee Valley to Vinadio), bridle path. 8.531
Coll dell* Agnel (tenda to Valdieri), foot path . . 8,426
Col della Cinegia (St Martin Vesubie to the Bathsof Valdieri),
bridle path ... .... 8,370
Col des Granges Communes (St Etienne de Tinee to Barce-
lonnette), bridlepath ... 8,242
Col de Pourriac (Tinee Valley to Argentera), foot path . 8,222
Col della Finestre (St Martin de Vesubie to Valdieri), bridle
path 8,107
Col di Guercia (Tinee Valley to Vinadio), foot path . . 8.042
Col della Lombarda (same to same), bridle path 7,858
Col de la Cayotle (Var Valley to Barcelonnctte), carriage
road ... ... 7,717
Col di Santa AnnaJTinee Valley to Vinadio), bridle path 7,605
Col del Sabbione (Tenda to Valdieri), bridle path 7,428
Col d'Allos or de Valgelaye (Verdon Valley to Barcelonnette).
carriage road 7,382
Col de T Argentiere (Barcelonnette to Cuneo), carriage road . 6,545
Col de Tenda (Tenda to Cuneo), carriage road, railway
beneath. 6,145
2. Cottian Alps (from the Col de I'Argentiere to the Mont Cenis
and westwards to the Col du Galibier).
Chief Peaks of the Cottian Alps.
Monte Vtso . 12.600 Dents d'Ambin . . . 1 1,096
Viso di Vallante . . 12.048 Mont d'Ambin . . .11,080
Aiguille de Scolette . 1 1.500 Pointe de la Font Sancte 1 1 ,057
Aiguille de Chambeyron. 11,155 Punta Fcrrant .- . . 11.037
Grand Rubren . 11.142 Visolotto .... 11,001
Brec de Chambeyron . 11,116 Rochebrune . . . . 10.906
Rognosa d'Etache . . 11.106 Punta Sommculer . . 10,896
742
ALPS
(PEAKS AND PASSES
BricFroid .... IO,S6o
Grand Glayza . . . 10,781
Rognosa di Sestrieres . 10,75*
Panestrel 10,673
Roche du Grand Galibier 10,637
TttE dea TaiHles
Monte Grant ro
Mqhx ChobcrtoA
T<?te tic Movie .
Mom? Mt'iJissa
Fclvo d'Elvn ,
Mont PcjJiiri
Mont Albi-r^iaii
Brie Bouthct .
Punta Cuuraour
Peou Roc to.tot
Pic du Pelvat . . . 10,559
Pointe Haute de Mary . 10,539
PicduThabor . . . 10*516
MontThabor . . . 10,440
Pointe des Cercee . . 10434
Chief Passes in the Cottian Alp*.
Col Sommeflkr (Bardonneche to Bramans). snow .
Col de la Travertettc (Criatolo to Abnes). mainly bridle path
beneath pan tunnel made in 1478-1480 .
Col d'Ambin (Exilles to Bramans), snow . . . .
Col de St Veran (Val Varaita to the Queyraa Valley), foot
path ...
Col douche (Bardonneche to Bramans), bridle path .
Col dell' Agneilo (Val Varaita to the Queyraa Valley), bridle
Col 5rardin(Ubaye Valley to the Queyraa Valley), bridle
path .......••
Col de Sautron (Val Maira to Barcdonnette), bridle path .
Col de Longet (Ubaye Valley to Val Varaita), bridle path .
Colde Mary or de Maurin (Ubaye Valley to Val Maira), bridle
path .........
Col dTAbriee or de Prali (Perosa to Abries), bridle path .
Col de la Roue (Bardonneche to Modane), bridle path .
Col de Frejus (same to same), carriage road, beneath which
is the so-called Mont Cenis railway tunnel.
Col de Clapier (Bramans to Susa), bridle path .
Col d'Izouard (Briancon to the Queyraa Valley), carnage
road .........
Col de la Croix (Torre Pellfce to Abries), bridle path .
Petit Mont Cenis (Bramans to the Mont Cenis Plateau), bndk
Col de Vara (Ubaye Valley to the Queyraa Valley), carriage
road .........
Mont Cenis (Lanslebourg to Susa), carriage road .
Col de Sestrieres (Pignerol to Cesanne), carriage road
Mont Genevre (Briancon to Cesanne), carriage road .
Col des Echelles de Planpinet (Briancon to Bardonneche),
1*430
10401
10,286
10,204
10,187
10,053
10,009
9.974
9.853
94«>
3. Dauphine Alps (from the Coi du Galibier, westwards" and
9.718
9.679
9^64
9.331
9.144
9^»3
2'J 55
3.767
8,708
8.695
8419
8^94
*»I73
7*35
7^76
7.166
8 s
6,631
6.083
southwards).
Chief Peaks of the Dauphint Alps,
Pointe des Serine . . 1346a Fk F*Hn NefT
Meiie 13.081
Ailefroide 12,089
Mont Pelvoux . . . 12.973
Pic Sans Nora . . . 12,845
PicGaspard .... 12,730
PicCoolidge .... 12,323
Grande Ruine . . . 12,317
Rateau 12,317
Montagne des Agneaux . 12,008
Les Bans ",979
Sommet des Routes . . >i.9 3 3
Aiguille du Plat . . . 11,818
Picd'Olan ".735
Pic Bonvoisin. . . . ",680
Aiguilles d'Arves (highest
point) ".529
Grandes Rousses . . . ",395
Roche de la Muzdle . .11 .349
Sirac 11,280
Chief Passes of the Dauphini Alps.
CoJ dc la Lauze (St ChristopW to La Grave), snow
Col da Avalanche* (La Berardc- to Vallouise), snow
Col de la Cawe Pcscrte (La Berarde to La Grave), 1
Col Emite Pic (La Grave (o Vatfouis*), »now .
Col de* tcriits (La Rerarde to Vallaui*^ sow
Cat du Glacier Blanc (La Grave to Vallouise), anow
Col du Sele- (La Berardc to VallouiK), mow .
Br&rne de la Meije (La Birardc to U Grn j). »now
. 10,571
Vitux Chaillvl . . . 10478
TJJtc dc VauitiH . . 10^75
Grand Pinier . . . 10,237
Pic dc Parierct . . . 10,007
M outre Froid . . •• 9.836
Bi-Utdonnc {highest) . 9,781
Rochcr Blanc (Sept Laux) 9,617
Taillefer 9487
Pic du Fr*ne . . . 9.219
Ttte dc rOhion . . .' 9,164
Grand Ferrand - . . J.Of
Pic de Burt (Aurouse)
Grand Vcymont
Mont Aiguille . .
Chamechaude . .
Dent de Crollea. .
Grand Som , . .
Moot Granier .
Dent du Chat . .
Z&l
6.847
6.779
6.670
6458
4.593
Col de la Temple {L* Berardc to VaHotrite), snow
11,625
".520
II.5I6
".490
".305
10,854
10,834
10,827
10.772
Col det Aiguille* d'Arves (VJbirr to St Jean d'Arves),snow 10,335
Col du Say* <Li Bcrarde to thp Val G.iU'Vmar), snow . 10,289
Ceil du Clot dn Cavale* (La Beratdc to La Grave), snow . 10,263
Col du Loup du Valgaudtimar (Vadkaawj to the Val Gaude-
mar). snow * .
Col Lombard {La Grave to St Tsan d'Arv«), snow .
Breche d« Cran4em Rousw* (Aflemont to C la vans), snow .
Col du Sella* (Vallum*? to the Val Gaudemar), snow
Col de la Aliunde (St Christuphe to the Val Gaudemar),
I0.2IO
10,171
10,171
10,063
Col dea Quirlies (St Jean d'Arves to Clavans), snow .
10.037
9.679
Col du Goteon (La Grave to Vallofre), foot path
Pas de la Cavale (Vallouise to Champoleon), carriage road .
Col d'Orcieres (Dormillouse to Orcieres), bridle path.
Col de riniernet (La Grave to St Jean d'Arves), foot path
Col du Galibier (Lautaret Hospice to St Michel de Maaneaae).
carriage road .
Breche deVal
re
SJfel
a^»
alsenestre (Bourg d'Oisans to Valseneatre) . foot
path .
Col de Vallonpierre (Val Gaudemar to Champoafaa). loot
path
Col de Val Estrete (same to same), foot path .
Col de Vaune (Val Gaudemar to Val Jouffrey). foot path .
Col de Martignare (La Grave to St Jean d'Arves). foot pattl
Col dea Tourettes (Orcieres to Chateauroux), bridle path .
Col de la Muaelle (St Christophe to Valseneatre). foot path
Col de I'Eychauda (Vallouise to Monestier), bridle path .
Col d'Arsine (La Grave to Monestier), bridle path .
Col des Prea Nouveaux (Le Freney to St Jean d'Arwea).
bridlepath
Col des Sept Laux (Allevard to Bourg d'Oisans), bridle path
Col du Lautaret (Briancon to Bourg d'Oisans), cimm
road
Col de la Croix de Fer (Bourg d'Oisans to St Jean d'Arves),
carriage road
Col du Glandon (Bourg d'Oisans to La Chambre), carriage
road .-. . • . . .
Col de I'Alpe de Venose (Venose to Le Freney). bridle path
Col d'Ornon (Bourg d'Oisans to La Mure), carriage road . 44^
Col Bayard (La Mure to Gap), carriage road . 4*oal
Col de la Croix Haute (Grenoble to Veynes and Gap), rail-
way line over 3JJ9
4. Graian Alps (from the Mont Cenis to the Little Sc Beraard
Pass). These are usually divided into three groups* the Cestui
(the watershed between the two passes named), the Western or
French, and the Eastern or Italian; in the foUowins; hsts tat
initials " C," " W," and " E " show to which group each peak
and pass belongs.
«^
Iff*
73»3
7^«*
Chief Peaks of the Graian Alps.
Grand Efcndb (E)
GrivoU (E) ....
Grande Cajw (W) . .
Mont Pourrj (W) . .
Mont Hcrbetet {E) . .
Poinr^ ot Charbonel (C)
Aiguille de la Grande
Stealers; (O . .
Dent Parracb£e (W) .
Tour du Grand St Pierre
m . , . . .
Vjj ■ J J CvamarelEj (Q .
C»ma di Charfon 1 (E) -.
Grande M otie (W) . .
Akbaran (C) ....
Roccia Viva (E) . •.
Lcvanna (C) + . Jt.943
Bo-suncae
It).
13^4
13,022
12,668
12428
12,336
".179
I2.IX3
12,061
12,025
12,018
12,015
Grande Aiguflle Pniieaf
{€). .... .
Granta Parey (Q . •
Roc du Muhnet (Q .
Aiguille Pfcrs (C) . .
Potnte de la Sana fW)
«4M
HJ95
11 sn
njat
it^sa
11.1M
n.ifla
11.109
10,9^
Punta di GaiJ (E) .
Dome de l|Arpont (W)
IL?
Jt
11.374
Pointe de Rnnce [C).' . 11,871
Bee de rinvcrgnaa (C) . 11,838
Tunteieana (C) , . . 11,831
D6mc de Cruuwfortt (W) ii h Hoj
Croce Roaia (C> . .
Aiguille de PecTet (W)
Mont Eniiliua (EJ
Punta d Arras (C) .
A%»Ulede Pol aij (W) .
Rrjchemclon (C) .
Mont Chalan&on(C) .
Teniva <E) , , . .
Grande Travet+W-re (C) .
Tea- du Ruior (C)
Cima dell' Auille
Pointe de lEchelle (W)
Punta Fours (E) . .
Pointe dea Scried (E)
Pointe de la Gfi^ CW)
Pointe dels Galea (C)
Pointe de la Travefsieta
KT). . . . . . 1006!
PoLrvtedc Mian M. titt
(W) . ■ ■ • • ».«4«
Puma La vina (E) , . IoJ5«
Onuelune {C) ■ - • 10*771
Rocht Chevriere (W) . 10,76*
Signal du Mont I teranfC} 10.634
Pointe de la Recha^w4(W) 101375
Grand Aiuly (C) , • 1 04 14
Roiaebannue (E) , . IOO*!
Becca di Nona (E> . . lojaf
Torre d'Ovarda (C) . lo^Sa
Pointe du Po«j*« (E) 0,904
Dome de Val dls£re (p) 9,051
Uja di Mondrone (C) .
Delia e*rd4 (C) , .
Monte Marco (E) . .
Petit Mom Blanc de
PraJognan (Wj
Mont Jouvet '"
9.72S
:wi * .
7 551
J 1,703
11,700
11,677
1 1. 615
11.608
11. 60s
11.582
11,536
1 1467
11^38
Chief Passes of the Graian Alps.
Col de b Grande Rousse (Rhemes Valley to the Val
Grijafichc), snow (C) . .' . . II,4fJ
Col dc Ccbrouku (Arc Valley to MoQtiera Tarentaise), snow
(W) ttjts
Col de Monei (Cogne to Locana), snow (E) . . . ti.24?
Col du Grand Paradis (Ceresole to the Val Savaranche),
fnow (El 10^68
Col du CharFnron (same to same), snow (E) • . . 10,9*9
Col de T: Verio (Cogne to Locana), snow (E) . . . 10,913
Col df- 1. .\m f .-m (Cogne to the Val Savaranche), bridle path (E) 10^31
Col ' *r i -i (Bonneval to Val d'lsere), snow (C) . icv&27
Col de St Grat (Val Grisanche to La Thuille). snow (C) . to4*7
Col de IHerbetet (Cogne to the Val Savaranche), snow (E) 10^86
Col du OaAerin (Bessans to Balme), snow (C) . . . IOJ06
Col du Grand Etret (Ceresole to the Val Savaranche). snow
05) tojai
PEAKS AND PASSES]
ALPS
Col deBassac (RUmei Valley to the Val Grisanche), s
Col du Cairo (Bonneval to Ceresole), mow (C) .
Col d'Arbok (Combo* to Brissogne), snow (E) .
Col de U Gc4etta(Va Id'lsere to the Rhemes Valley), a
Col de Rhemes (same to nine), snow (C) . .
Col de U Grande Caste (Pralognan to the Premou Glen),
r(W)
Col de Sea (Bonneval to Forno AlpiGraie).taow (Q
Col de lAutaret (Bcssans to Usseglio), foot path (C)
(Q 10^45
. 10,30a
(C) 10,337
10,174
10.171
10,115
low
9,9«7
9,836
91646
Col de Girard (Bonneval to Forno Alpi Graie). snow (Q .
Col Rosset (Val Savaranche to the Rhemes Valley), bridle
path(C) • •
Col d'Arnas (Bessans to Balme). snow (C) . _
Col de la Galise (Ceresole to Val d'Isere). snow (Q .
Col de Sort (Val Savaranche to the Rhemes Valley), partly
bridle path (C) . .
Quecccs de Tignes (Val d'Isere to Ternugnon), snow (W) .
Col della Nouva (Cogne to Pont Canavese), partly bridle
path (E) _. - - 9.623
Col de Garin (Aosta to Cogne). foot path (E) . .94"
ColUrin d'Arnas (Balme to Usseglio). snow (C) . 9.351
Finestra del Torrent (Rhemes Valley to the Val Grisanche),
foot path (C) 9,341
Fenetre de Champorchcr (Cogne to Champorcher), bridle
path (E)
Col deVaudet (Iters Valley to the Val Grisanche), foot path
Colde Bai
Col de Chaviere (M
(Cogne to Pont Canavese), snow (E)
[Modane to Pralognan), foot path (W)
Col de la Leisse (Tignes to Termignon). snow (W)
Col du Mont Iseran (Bonneval to Val d'Isere). bridle path
(Q
Ghteet di Sea (Balme to Forno Alpi Graie), foot path (C) .
Col de la Sacbette (Tignes to Bourg St Maurice), foot path
(W)
Col du Palet (Tignes to MoOtiers Tarentaise or Bourg
St Maurice), bridle path (W)
Col du Mont (Ste Foy to the Val Grisanche). bridle path (C)
Col de la Croix de Nivolet (Ceresole to the Val Savaranche),
bridle oath (E)
Col della Crocetta (Ceresole to Forno Alpi Graie), bridle
path(C)
Col de la Platiere (St Jean de Maurienne to MoOtiers Taren-
taise), partly bridle path (W) ...
Col de b Vanoise (Pralognan to Termignon), bridle path (W)
Col des Encorobres (St Michel de Maurienne to MoOtiers
Tarentaise), bridle path (W)
Little St Bernard (Aosta to MoOtiers Tarentaise), carriage
road (C) ..... .
Col de la Madeleine (La Chambre to MoOtiers Tarentaise),
bridle path (W)
9.3"
9.305
9.295
9.206
9,121
9.085
8.973
8.954
8,721
8.681
8,665
8,649
8,531
8,291
7,668
7.179
6,509
5. Pennine Alps (from the Little St Bernard to the Simplon Pass).
This range contains all the highest peaks in the Alps, save the
Finsteraarhorn (14.026) in the Bernese Oberland.
Mont Blanc
Monte Rosa (Dufour-
spitze) .
Nord End (Monte Rosa)
Dom (Mischabelhorner)
Lyskamm
WeiMhorn . . .
Matterhora . * . .
Taschhorn. . . ,
Mont Maudit . . .
Dent Blanche . . ,
Dome du GoOter . .
Grand Combin . . ,
Castor . . . .
Zinal Rothborn . . .
Alphubel
Grande* loran
Rimpnscnhora
Stranlhorn
Dent d'Herens
Zermatt Breithorn
Aiguille Verte . .
Ober Gabelhorn . .
Aiguille de Bionnassay
AlUlinhorn
Weissmies
Aiguille du Geant . .
Laquinhorn . . . .13,140
Rostbodenhorn . . . 13.128
Grand Cornier . 13,03a
Aiguille de Trcbtete 12,83a
Aiguille d'Argentiere . 12,819
Ruinette . ia,7a7
Aiguille de Triolet ia.717
Chief Peaks of the Pennine Alps.
15,78a Mont Blanc de Seilon . ia,7O0
Aiguille du Midi . . 12,609
15.217 TourNoir . . . ia,s86
:5.13a Aiguille des Glaciers . 12,579
1 .1 -J4 a Mont Dolent . 12,543
U r bcK) Aiguille du Chardonnet 12,540
1 \M\ Cima di Jaxai 12,527
14,782 Balfrin . . 12,474
I4,?5B Pigne d'Arolla . . . 12471
14^60 Mont Velan . . . 12,353
u >tS Aiguille du Dru . . 12,320
u.-"> T«e Blanche . . . 12,304
14.164 L'Eveque . . 12,264
13.879 Mont Pleureur 12,159
13,856 Dflme de Miage. . . 13,100
13.803 Lo Li- . 13,058
l 3.797 Aiguille dt Li Za . . 13,051
I3.790 Mont Colloo . . 11,956
13.751 DiaUww 11,838
13.715 Aiguille de Tour . . 11,615
13.685 Mont C*Ie . 11,539
13.541 Bee de Luicney . 11,503
13.364 Aigudfe de Crf pon . . 11,489
13.341 Chateao dei Damn . 11,447
13.236 Aiguille de* Chiirmo* 11,293
13.226 AffiUlllf; tin r.i i.l . 11,280
13,170 Grand Tou matin . Ii,o86
Pointe de Rom Blanche 10,985
Mont Avnl . 10,962
Grande lWi£rc . . 10,913
Corno Bianco . . . 10,893
Grauhaupt . . . 10,876
Pointed Orny . . . 10,743
Dent du Midi . . . 10,696
MontFavre ,
Sasseneire
Grand Golliaa
Tour Sallierea
Puzo Bianco .
Latelhorn
10,693
10,693
10,630
10.588
10,55a
10.525
Cramniont
Pointe de* Fours .
Pointe du CoJioney
Catogne ....
Monte B6 . . .
Mont JoLy . . .
Brevent ....
Pointe de Sollei
Aiguille de Varcru) .
Mont thctif . . .
Mnle ...
SaEevc (highest pgint)
Chief Passes of the Pennine Alps.
Sesiajoch (Zermatt to Abgiul, snow
Col de la Btenva (Courirus vur to Chamonix), snow
Domj«xh (Randii to S.ui), snow . . .
Lyijoch (Zermatt to Gressoney). snow
Mi m. hi be I joe h (Zermatt to Saas), snow .
Alphubel P»s* (unic to tame), snow
Adler Pa&t (tame to *ame). snow
Schwarzhorn (Augstbord) 10,51a
Gornergrat .... 10,289
Pointe de Lechaud . . 10,260
Buet 10,301
Mont Ruao .... 10,009
Mont Neri .... 10,073
Bella Tola .... 9.935
Pointe de Tanneverge . 9,784
Belvedere (Aigs. Rouges) 9.731
743
Tacliafcno .... 9,735
Riffelhorn , . . . 9,617
Po 1 n t * Pi- rcee d u Reposoir 0,039
8,980
8,931
8,83a
8,5a7
8.386
8,391
8,384
8,183
8,163
7.687
6,133
4.528
Morning Paw (Zemutt to Zinal), snow .
Schwanlhor {Zerman to A>3i), snow
Col de Triolet (Chamoniv to Courmayeur), snow
Ried Pa** (St Niklaui to S.u*>, snow
New Weiiithor { Zermatt to Macugnaga), snow
Allalin Pjm fZermatt to Sua*), snow
Col dt VolpcMinc (Zi-rmnri to AosU). snow
Biesjoch (Randa to rurim.irinl.snow
Tnftioch (Zennatt tw now.
Co, U Argcnitere (ChanM/fUA iu Ortieres), snow
Col du Sonadon (Bourg St Pierre to the Val de Bagnes),
Col de Talefre (Chamonix to Courmayeur), snow
Col d'Herens (Zermatt to Evolena), snow
Col Durand (Zermatt to Zinal), snow ....
Col des Maisons Blanches (Bourg St Pierre to the Val de
Bagnes), snow
Col de Bertol ( Arolla to the Col d'Herens). snow
Col de Miage (Contamtnes to Courmayeur), snow
Col du Geant (Chamonix to Courmayeur), snow
Col du Mont Rouge (Val de Bagnes to the Val d'Heremence),
$now ........
Col du Chirdonnrt (Chamonix to Orsifrc*), snow
Cut dc St T Module (Zermatt to Chfltillonh snow
Cot du Tour (Chamonix to Omcmh tnow
FfraPirc .kS.ilcinai (Sakiftai Glacier to Trie nt Glacier) .mow
Col de Tracuii (Zirul to Turtmaftfi), snow
ZwUehbergcn Paw (Saat to C^ondo>, tnow
Cot d'Gren (Val dc Bagnes to the Vatpclftfie}. snow .
Col de Seilon (Val dc BagneMo the Val d K*fetnenct1.
14.515
14.217
14,063
14.033
12.631
12.474
12,461
12,387
13.374
13,110
1I.800
11.746
UJI3
U.687
11,6
"447
11430
11418
11,398
it. 341
11,300
11.077
11,060
10,963
10.009
10.809
10.763
10.709
10,670
10.657
10.637
Cot du Crflt (Val de Bigne* to the Val d'Heremence). *now
Ceil de \atcournera (Val Tourrnnttit to the \'alpcltine),
snow ...
Col de Collon (Arolla to Aosta), snow
Col de Valsorey (Bourg St Pierre to Aosta), snow
Col de Chermontane (val de Bagnes to Arolla), snow
Cimes Blanches (Val Tournanche to Ayas), bridle path
Col de Torrent (Evolena to the Val de Torrent), bridle path
Augstbord Pass (St Niklaus to Turtmann), bridle path
Colde Crete Seche (Val de Bagnes to the Valpolline). snow
Col de Breuil (Bourg St Maurice to La Thuille). snow
Col d'Olcn (AUgna to Gressoney). bridle path .
Monte Moro (Saas to Macugnaga). partly bridle path
Pas de Chevres (Arolla to the Val d'Heremence). foot path
*now IO.499
10429
Antrona Pass (Saas to Antrona). partly bridle path
Col de Sorebois (Zinal to the Val de Torrent). bridL _
Col de Vessona (Valpelline to the St Banhelemy Glen), foot
Col de Fenetre (Val de Bagnes to Aosta), bridle path
Z'Meiden Pass (Zinal to Turtmann), bridle path
Turlo Pass (Alagna to Macugnaga), foot path
Col de Fenetre (Great St Bernard to the bwiss Val Ferret),
bridle path
Bettaf urka (Ayas to Gressoney), bridle path
Col du Mont Tondu (Contamtnes to Courmayeur), snow
Col Serena (Great St Bernard to Courmayeur). foot path
Col Ferret (Courmayeur to Orsieres), carriage road in
Col de la Seigne (Chapteux to Courmayeur) bridle path
Col de Susanle (Champery to Salvan), foot path
Col du Bonhomme (Contamtnes to Chapieux). bridle path
Col de Valdobbia (Gressoney to the Val Sesia). bridle path
Great St Bernard (Martigny to Aosta), carriage ruad
Col de Sagerou (Sixt to Champery), foot path
Col de Moud (Alagna to Rima and Varallo). bridle path
Col d'Anteme (Sixt to Servos), bridle path
10.335
10.270
10.314
10.119
9.777
9593
9.492
9-475
9.446
9.420
9.390
9354
9.331
9269
9.167
9.MI
9.095
6.977
!:$
8.498
•.327
8.311
8.243
8.202
8.147
8.134
8.1 1 1
7.917
7.622
7.423
744
Col d'Egua (Rima to the Val Anzasca). bridle path .
Col de Balme (Chamonix to the Trient Valley), bra"'
Simplon Pan (Brieg to Domo d'Ossola), carriage r
7.336
7,221
6,592
Col de Checouri (Courmayeur to the Lac de Combal), bridle
path - . 6431
Baranca Pass (Varallo to the Val Anzasca), bndle path . 5,971
Col de Voza (Chamonix to Contamines), bridle path . . 5,496
Col de la Forclaz (Chamonix to St Gervais), bridle path . 5,105
Col de la Forclaz (Trient Valley to Martigny), carnage road 4.9*7
II. Central Alps
6. Bernese Oberiand (from the Lake of Geneva to the Furka, the
Reuss Valley and the Lake of Lucerne). This general name seems
best to describe the range in question, though, of course, portions of
it are in Cantons other than that of Berne, viz. Vaud, Fnbourg, the
Valais, Lucerne, Uri and Unterwalden.
Chief Peaks of the Bernese Oberiand.
Finsteraarhorn . . . 14,026
Aletschhorn .... 13.721
iungfrau 13.660
Idnch 13468
Cross Schreckhorn . . 13.386
Cross Fiescherhora , . 13,285
Eiger 13,042
Bictschhorn .... 12,970
Cross Wannehorn . . 12,812
Cross Nesthorn . ... 12,533
Lauterbrunnen Brdthorn 13,399
1 0,013
o.qfi;
9 02<
9^53
Balmhorn
Wetterhom (Mittclhorn)
Wctterhorn (Hasli Jung-
frau)
Wctterhorn (Rosenhora )
BlQmlisalphorn
isalp]
Dold
Cross Doldenhora
Altels 11.930
12,176
12,166
12,149
i?.iio
Dammastock .... lit
Galenstock .... 11.802
Sustenhorn .... 11,523
Cspaltenhorn . . . . 11,293
Fleckistock .... 11,214
Gross Huhnerstock . . 10,985
Ewigschneehorn . . . 10,929
Ritzlihora .... 10,768
Wildhorn 10.709
Wildstrubel .... 10,673 ,_ .
Diablerets .... 10,650 Moleson 6.582
Titlis 10,627 Dent de Jaman . . 6,165
Gross Spannort . . . 10,516 Napf 4,629
Chief Passes of the Bernese Oberiand.
Lauithor (Lauterbrunnen to the Eggishorn), snow
"" ichjoch (Grindelwald to the Eggishorn),
rfraujoch (Wengern Alp to thcXggishorn),
Wdlhom. . . - ♦ IO486
Mettenberg . . . 10.194
Loffelhorn . . . ♦ 10,165
Grand Muveran
Gross Wendenstock
Sparrhom
Torrent horn
Grande Dent de Mercies 9,777
SchJIthorn .... 9754
Egpishoni .... O t oao
In RothMOck ... 9,620
Sch warrhom(Gri ridel wa Id )9>^13
Grow Siedclhorfl 9-452
Albatthbrn .... 9,069
ROLhfhord .... 9'°5*
FauJhom . . * . 8,803
GnmmlTuh - 8,074
Sulcgg , . , . . 7»0 , 4
VanlTNoir .... 7.W
Klcseo l . * ,, . 7,703
Rrien*er Rothhom ♦ 7,714
Tour U Ai . * , . 7,658
Hohpant . . . . 7.J25
Stockhorn ..... 7.102
Kaiscrega .... 7,182
Pilatus (TomlUhorn) . 6,095
Chamossaire. . . . 6,943
Gemmenalphorn
Rochers de Naye
ALPS CPEAKS AND PA52
7. Lepontine Alps (from the Simplon to the SplOfcs asd tc
of the Furka and Oberalp Passes). The eastern poctioa a .
range, from the St Gotthard Pass to the SplOgea. » awe*
named the Adula Alps.
Chief Peaks of the LepomUne Alp-,
Monte Leone. . . . 11,684 Pu Bias
Rheinwaldhorn . . . 11.149
Gaferhorn .... 11,132
Blindenhorn . . . .11,103
Basodino 10,749
Tambohorn .... 10,749
Helsenhoni .... 10,742
Wasenhorn .... 10,680
Ofenhorn 10,637
Cherbadung .... 10,542
Piz Medel .... 10,509
Scopi . ..... 10499
Puzo Rotondo . . . 10489
Pizzo dci Piani . . . 10,361
PizTerri 10,338
Monte Gtove
Piuo Cent rale
Fifui d"A
Piz Beverin . , -
\Vti4shorn1 {Splogea}
Luceadio
6.772
6,710
Monchjoch (Grindelwald to the Eggishorn), si
lungfraujoch (Wengern Alp to the Jbggishorn), snow .
Strahlegg Pass (Grindelwald to the Grimsel), snow .
Grttnhornlucke (Great Aletsch Glacier to the Fiescher
Glacier), snow
Oberaarjoch (Grimsel to the Eggishorn), snow .
Gauli Pass (Grimsel to Meiringen). snow .
Petersgrat (Lauterbrunnen to the Lfttschenthal), snow
Lotschenlucke (Lfttschenthal to the Eggishorn), snow
Lauteraarsattel (Grindelwald to the Grimsel), snow .
Beichgrat (L&tschcnthal to the Bel Alp), snow .
Lammernjoch (Lenk to the Gem mi), snow
Triftlimmi (Rhone Glacier to the Gadmen Valley), snow .
Sustenlimmi (Stein Alp to Goeschenen), snow .
GamchilQcke (Kien Valley to Lauterbrunnen), snow
Tschingel Pass (Lauterbrunnen to Kandersteg). snow
HohthUrli Pass (Kandersteg to the Kien Valley), foot path
Lotschen Pass (Kandersteg to the Lotschenthal), snow
Sefinenfurka(Lauterbrunnen to the Kien Valley), foot path
Wendenjoch (Engelberg to the Gadmen Valley), snow
Furtwangsattei(Guttannen to the Gadmen Valley), foot
path .........
Furka Pa*s (Rhone Glacier to Andermatt)* carriage road .
Rawil Pass (Sion to Lenk), bridle path r
Gemmi Bsh (Kandereteg to Leukerbad}, bridle path
Surenen Pass (Engelberg to Altdorf), foot path
Susten Pu « (Meiringen to W**aen), partly carriage road .
Sanetsch hi* 5 (Sion to Saanenh bridle path
Joch Pas? (Mcirin^cn to En^flberB). bridle path
Grimsel Pa&i (Meiringen to the Rhone Glacier), carriage road 7,100
Kleine Schcidcgg (Gnndelwald to Lauicrbrunnen), railway
over 6,772
Col de Cheville (Sion to Bex), bridle path 6,723
Crosse Scheidegg (Grindelwald to Meiringen), bridle path 6434
Col de laman (Montreux to Montbovon), mule path over,
railway tunnel beneath 4.974
BrOnig Pass (Meiringen to Lucerne), railway over . 3496
12,140
11,680
11.385
10.995
10,844
10,607
10,519
10.516
10,512
10,355
10.289
10,276
10,200
10,181
9»*95
9.265
8.882
8342
8.583
8.544
8.393
7.992
7.924
7.641
7^63
7422
7.331
,7W
I'i." 1 ■ 1 Lu
Piz ToraQl . .
Piz Cavel - , , .
BarenhofTi M . , .
Sis Midon (Bidm) .
Piz Muraun , . .
ZervreJlerhorn . . .
Monte CJ*telIa * . .
Piz Lukm-imtr , - <
Monte Prcnsa . - .
Pia±o Qjlunibe . , •
Monte Camoghe .
Piz Mundaun . .
Monte Generoso .
Monte San Salvatore
?"•*
PizAul 10,250
Pizzo di Pesciora . . 10,247
Wyttenwasscrstock . . 10,119
CampoTencia . . . 10,089
Leckihorn .... 10,069
Bruschghorn .... 10,020
Alpcrschellihorn . . . 9,991
Chief Passes of the Lepontine Alps.
t P.i^ (Hin!errhein to Malvaglia and Biases), snow.
icke (Kanal Gfen to the LenU Glen), snow .
jcke {Hiotcrrkin to Vals Platz), snow .
id Pass (flinn to Tosa Falls), snow
>a« (Wytienwasser Glen to the Mutten Glen), teem
Rotondo (Airolo to Oberwald), snow
isscf Pass (SimpJon Hospice to Veglia Alp), snow .
t{Yr,i io Olivone), foot path
in
5^-
9*
II?
1^
i (Vals PiatJ! to Vrin), foot path
(Binn to Veglia Alp), snow .
*» (Rcalp to the Val Bedretto),
>ja (Devero to the Val Formazza), bridle path . r
dlinno {Airulo 10 the Lukmanier Pass), foot psth k 5 *
Kinterrhcin to Vals Platz), bridle path . • {-•
vW'-'J to Sahen Platz), bridlepath . • 5I ;
i#
;«
7«^
i»spfad Pa** (Binn to r>evero), foot path
es Pasa tL r lriehen to Ten Falls), bndle path
t» di Naret (Fusio to Airolo), bridle pani .
_LS9 (L'lrtchcn to Airolo), bridle path
iu (Vrin to the Somvix Glen), bad bridle path
u (Binn to Devero and Baceno), bridle path
m (Olivone to the Somvix Glen), bridle path
mo Pass (Airolo to Tosa Falls), bridle psth • - •
uflfaloni{Val Mesocco to the Val Calanca).fo©t ps^ 7-g
t'omo Mirolo to the Lukmanier Pass) .bridle pats 7-*
Splagen Pass (Thud* to Chiavenna), carriage road . • ^
St Got t hard Pass ( Andermatt to Airolo), carriage road ortr,
railway tunnel beneath ' rS
San Bernardino Pat* (Triusis to Bellinzona), carriage road ^
Lukmanier Pas* (Discnti& to Olivone), carriage road . • 6 **
8. The Range of theTfidi (from the Oberalp Pass to the E*»*
Pass).
Chief Peaks of the Range of the TddL
Tfrdi 11,887 PizScgnes
Bjicrtenitock . . . . 11,2*1 Rs ~ ^ -*
Pi^ UHjuii
Oberalp rock . . . .
Gross SLhecrhorn. . ,
Oaridenstock , f ,
DiisAi stock . .. * .
RingcUpitJE k , . .
Bngrl^thftrner (highest)
Gro*»c Wind E a|le. . .
Hau&ttock . . .
Gross Ruchen* . , .
11,060
10,026
10,814
10.729
10,703
10,667
10,663
10473
10,342
10^89
Piz Gmf
Crispalt . .
Bristenstock
Selbsanft. .
Vorab . . . .
TschingclhOrner (Elm)
Piz Sol (Grauehorner)
Calanda ....
Karpfstock ...
Mageren ...
M&rtscbenstock. •
Chief Passes of the Range of the Tddu
Clariden Pass (Amsteg to Linththal), snow
Planura Pass (same to same), snow
Kammlilucke or Scheeiioch (Maderanerthal to Unter*
schachen), snow
Sardona Pass (Flims to Ragas). snow •
Sand Alp Pass (Disentis to Linththal), snow . ,
Brunni Pass (Disentis to Amsteg), snow . . •
Scenes Pass (Elm to Flims), foot path
Kistcn Pass (Linththal to llanz), bad bridle path
Panixer Pass (Elm to llanz), bad bridle path .
Kruzli Pass (Amsteg to Sedrun), foot path
Foo or Ramin Pass (Elm to Wcisstannen). bridle path
Oberalp Pass (Andermatt to Disentis). carriage road
Klausen Pass (Altdorf to Linththal), carriage road .
a*
a>»
*r
6^*
EAKS AND PASSES] ALPS
9. The Alps of North-Eastern Switzerland (north of the Klausen
7+5
Rigikulm ...
Hoher Kasten . . .
Rossberg ....
Zugcrberg (Hochwacht)
Albis Hochwacht . .
Uetlibcrg ....
1.359
".283
11,155
Chief Peaks of the North-Eastern Swiss Alps.
larnisch (highest) . . 9.580 Grose Mythen
6ser Faulen .... 9.200 "** **
kntis . 8,216
Itmana 7.999
aulfirst . • . . » 7.925
Ivier . .... . 7.753
urfQrsten (highest) . 7,576
peer 641 1
Chief Passes of the North-Eastern Swiss Alps.
uosalperkulm (Schachen Valley to the .Muota Valley), foot
path
larren Alp Pass (Muota Valley to Linththal), foot path .
linzigkulm Pass (Schachen Valley to the Muota Valley),
foot path
aasberg Pass (Einsiedeln to Glarus), foot path .
lamor Pass (Appenzell to Rflti), bridle path .
axerlticke (Appenrell to Sax), foot path ....
chwein Alp Pass (Waggithal to the Klon Glen), bridle path.
ragel Pass (Muota thai to Glarus), carriage road in progress
lacken Pass (Schwyz to Einsiedeln), foot path
lolzegg Pass (same to same), bridle path
bergcregg Pass (Schwyz to Iberg and Einsiedeln), carriage
roaa
Lrazeren Pass (Nesslau to Urnasch), bridle path 3,
10. Bernina Alps (from the Maloja to the Keschen Scheideck ana
he Stelvio, south and cast of the Val Bregaglia and of the Engadine
nd north of the Valtellina).
Chief Peaks of the Bernina Alps.
*\t Bernina .... 13.304 Piz Languard
>iz Zupo .....' 13.131 ~* "
tome di Scerscen . . 13,116
>iz Roseg 12.934
»ix Pala . * . . . 12,835
Trast' Agttzza . . . 12,704
»iz Morteratsch . . . 12,317
tlonte della Disgrazta . 12,067
'izzo dl Verona
Tima di Piazzi
Tima di Castello
lima Viola . . . . 11,163
'izzo Cengalo . . . 11,070
Z\ ma di Rosso -. . . 1 1,060
'izzo Seal i no .... 1 0.903
^zzoBadile .... 10,863
lorno di Campo , . . 10,844
>\zzo di Dosde . . . 10,762
Zima di Saoseo . . . 10,752
Chief Passes of Ike Bernina Alps.
r uorcla Bcllavtsta (Pontresina to Chiesa, in Val Malenco),
snow .........
• uorcla Crast* AgQzza (same to same), snow .
- uorcla Tschierva (same to same), snow ....
P uorola Sella (same to same), snow ....
Passo di Bondo (Bondo to the Baths of Masino), snow
Passo di Castello (Maloja to Morbegno), snow .
Passo Trcmoggia (Sils to Chiesa), snow ....
Passo di Mello (Chiareggio to Val Masino), snow
Diavolezza Pass(Bernina road to the Morteratsch Glen"), snow
Passo di Dosde (Val Grosina to Val Viola Bonnina), foot
path
Passo di Sacco (Bernina road to Grosio), foot path . .
Passo di Zocca (Vicosoprano to Val Masino), snow .
Casana Pass (Scanfs to Livigno), bridle path
Muretto Pass (Maloja to Chiesa), partly snow .
Umbrail Pass or Wdrmserjoch (Mttnster Valley to the
Stdvio road), carriage road .....'
Passo di Val Viola (Bernina road to Bonnio), bridle path
Giufplan Pass (Ofen road to Fraele), bridle path
Bernina Pass (Pontresina to Tirano), carriage road .
Forcola di Livigno (Bernina Pass to Livigno), small
carriage roaa ........
Cruschetta Pass (Schuls by Scar! to Taufers), bridle path .
Pa«so di Verva (Bormio to Grosio), foot path . . .
Sursass or Schlinig Pass (RemQs to Mais) foot path . .-
Fo^cagno Pass (Bormio to Trepallc), bridle path .
Alpisclla Pass (Livigno to Fraele), bridle path .
Scarl Pass (Scar! to Santa Maria MQnstcr), carriage road .
Oossradond Pass (Santa Maria Munster to Fraele), bridle
path
Passo Dheira (Livigno to Trepalle) bridle path . . •
Ofen Pass (Zernez to Mais), carriage road
Fraele Pass (Bormio to the Ofen road), partly bridle path
Scale di Fraele (Bormio to Fraele), bridle path.
Maloja Pass (St Moritz to Chiavcnna), carriage road
Piz Sesvenna
Piz Pisoc. .
Piz Murtardl
Piz Quatervals
Pizzo della Margna
Cima di Redasco
Piz Lischanna .
Pizzo di Sena .
Piz Casana . .
Monte Foscagno
Pizzo del Teo
Pizzo del Ferro .
Piz Umbrail
Zwci Schwestern
Monte Braulio .
Monte Spluga .
Monte Massuccio
Mont la Schera
6,240
5.906
5.899
5.194
2.887
2.864
7,126
6.877
6,811
6.227
5.512
5417
5.«58
5.099
4.649
4,616
4.613
10,716
10,568
10427
10424
10^58
10455
10,299
10,204
10,099
10,079
10,010
10,007
10,007
9.955
9.784
9.777
9421
9.239
M94
12,087
11.805
11.572
10,840
10,227
10,171
9.9»2
9.813
9.767
9.351
9.026
S.OOO
.832
8489
8,242
7.976
7.723
7.645
7.638
7599
7.592
7.540
7.5« 7
7497
7^86
7449
7.248
7.07 »
6.398
6.372
5.935
11. Atbula Range (from the Splugen Pass to the FlQela Pats,
north and west of the Val Bregaglia and of the Engadine).
Chief Peaks of the Albula Ran^t.
Piz Kesch .... 11,228 Pi*** Stella . . , . 10,375
Piz deltas Calderas . . 11,132 Klurla Sthwarzhorn . 10,335
Piz Platta .... II. 109 PLiiq della Duaru . . 10,279
Pizjulier 11,106 Pizzo GalLegione . . 10,201
Pizd'Err H.093 Gletscherham , . . 10,191
Pizd'Aela .... 10.959 Cima di Lago ■ . . 10,112
Cima da Flex . . . 10,785 Hoch ] Jnc.tn . . . 10,060
Piz Uertsch .... 10,739 Piz Gristli .... 10,000
Piz Forbisch .... 10,689 Avcrwr Wci&sbcrg . . 9,987
Piz Ot 10,667 Suntttahorti .... 9,971
Gross Piz Vadret . . 10,584 Aro*a Roth ham . . 9,794
Piz Timun or Emet . . 10,502 Piz Curver ... 9,761
Tinzenhorn . 10430 V\/iu Lunghiao . 9.I2I
Piz Michel . . . 10478 Suut-rharn. .... 8450
Chief Passes of the Albula Ramp.
Fuorcla Calderas (Molins to Be vers), snow . ' 10.270
Fuorcla d'Eschia (Madulein to BergQn), snow . . 9.869
Passo della Duana (Avers Valley to the Val Bregaglia), snow 9, 187
Sertig Pass (Davos to Scanfs), foot path .... 9,062
Forcella di Prassignola (Avers Valley to Soglio), old paved
cattle path 8,92a
Tinzenthor (BergQn to Savognino), foot path . 8,918
Forcella di Lago or Madris Pass (Avers Valley to Chia-
venna), foot path 8.793
Forcellina (Avers Valley to the Septimer Pass), foot path . 8.770
Ducan Pais (Davos to Bergun), foot path 8,763
Passo di Lei (Avers Valley to Chiavcnna), foot path . 8,724
Forcella di Lunghino (Maloja to the Septimer Pass), foot
path 8.645
Scaletta Pass (Davos to Scanfs). bridle path 8493
Suvretta Pass (St Moritz to Bevcrs). bridle path. . 8,590
Fuorcla d'Alp Fontauna (BergQn to Scanfs). foot path. . 8480
Stallerberg (Avers Valley to Bivio-Stalla), foot path / . 8478
Grialetsch Pass (Davos to Sus), foot path. . . 8.353
FlQela Pass (Davos to Sus), carriage road. 7,838
Strela Pass (Davos to Langwies), bridle path . 7,799
Albula Pass (Bergun to Ponte), carriage road over, rail-
way tunnel beneath 7,595
Septimer Pass (Bivio-Stalla to Casaccia). bridle path. 7.582
Julier Pass (Thusis to Silvaplana), carriage road 7,504
Passo di Madesimo or d'Emet (Avers Valley to Madesimo),
footpath 7481
12. Stlvretta and Rhltikon Ranges (from the FlQela Pass to the
Reschen Scheideck and the Arlberg Pass).
Piz Linard
Flu ch thorn
Gross Pli Buici
Vcrntanklahom
Muttltr
Piz Flsana
Stiimnieripitzc
Silvrcnahorn ,
Augsienbrrg .
PLT[ ten horn .
Drvitandcnptue
Piz Tasna . .
Kueheiwpitze .
Hoher Ri filer .
PL Mnndia ♦
Kiichclspitze ,
Gross Scchorn
Vesilspitze
Gross Liti ocr .
Chief Peaks of the SOoretta and RhdHhon Routes.
11,201
11.165
10,880
10,831
10,821
io,775
10,689
10.657
10,611
10.568
io.539
I0443
10401
10468
10425
10415
10.247
10,220
10,207
Chief Passes of Ike SUtretta and RhdHhon Ranges.
Jamjoch (Guarda to GaltGr), snow .
Fuorcla del Con&n (SUvretta Pass to the Vermunt Glacier),
Vesulspitze .
FlQela Weissborn
Piz Minschun
Patteriol
Piz Faschalba
Hexenkopf .
Gemsbletskopf
Pischahorn .
Scesaplana .
Rothbleiskopf
HohesRad .
Schiltfluh
Piattenpspitze
Madrishorn .
Drusenfluh .
Sulzfluh . .
Zimbaspitze
Naaflcopf .
Falknis . .
BuinlQcke (Guarda to Patenen), snow
Silvretta Pass (Klosters to Lavin), snow .
ZahnlGcke (Jam Glen to the Fimber Glen), snow
Verstanklatnor (Klosters to Lavin), snow
Fuorcla d'Urezzas (Ardez to GaltQr), snow
Fuorcla Tasna (Ardez to Ischgl), snow
Fuorcla Maisas (RemQs to the Samnaun Glen), snow
Vermunt or Fermunt Pass (Guarda to Patenen), snow
Futschol Pass (Ardez to GaltQr), foot path
Fuorcla Zadrell or Vernela Pass (Klosters to Lavin), snow
Cuolm d'Alp bella or Vignitz Pass (Samnaun Glen to Kappl),
footpath
SchafbOcheljoch (Mathon to St Anton), foot path .
Fimber Pass (RemQs to Ischgl). bridle path
Scheien Pass (Klosters to the See Glen), foot path .
Vereina Pass or Pass da Val Torta (Klosters to Lavin), foot
path
10.145
10.132
10,079
10,037
10,010
9.968
9.899
9.784
9.741
9.640
9.554
9482
9449
9.285
9.a _
9.282
S.252
.678
8445
84»9
10.112
IO,033
I0.020
9.886
9.7J2
9.682
9.564
9.374
9457
9.193
9.098
9.033
8^52
8,685
8.570
8.557
8^40
74&
Zebles Pass (Ischgl to the Semnaun Glen), bridle path . «45<>
Garnerajoch (Klosters to Gaschurn), foot path . 8,153
Fless Pass (Klosters to SUi), foot path .... 8,045
St Antonien or Gargellenjoch (St Antdnien to St Gallen-
kirch), foot path 7.79*
Drusenthor (Schiers to Schruns), foot path . . 7.7*°
Verrajochl (LQncrsee to the Schwcizerthor), foot path . 7,648
Ofen Pass (Schwcizerthor to Schruns), foot path 7,533
Cavelljoch (Bludenz and the Ldnersee to Seewis), foot path 7.343
Gruben Pass (St Antdnien to Schruns). foot path . . 7,333
Schlappinerjoch (Klosters to St Gallenldrch), bridle path . 7^18
Schwcizerthor (Schiers to Schruns). foot path . . 7,057
Bielerhohe (Patenen to GaltQr). bridle path . . . 6,631
Zeinisjoch (Patenen to GaltQr), bridle path . 6,076
Arlberg Pass (Landeclc to Bludenz), carriage road over,
railway tunnel beneath ... 5,91a
III. Eastern Alps
ALPS (PEAKS AND PASSES
Ober Tramerscharte (Rauris to Dotlach), snow . njsj
Kleine Elendacharte (Gastrin to Gmund), snow . . . l&j
Kleine Zirknitzscharte (D6llach to Fragant or Rauris), enow Mn
Ddseener or Mallnitzerscharte (Mallmtz to Gmflnd). snow 8,7^3
Grosse Elendacharte (Mallnitz to the Upper Malta Glen).
s.t*
***5
the
13. The Alps of Bavaria, the Vorarlbcrg and Salzburg (north of
e Arlberg Pass, Innsbruck, the Pinzgau, and the Enns valley).
Chief Peaks of Ike Alps of Bavaria, Ike Vorarlberg
and Sakburg.
Watzmann .... 8,001
Rothewandspitte . . 8,878
Gross Krottenkopf(Allgiu)8,7i8
Selbhorn .... 8,711
Hones Licht . . . 8,701
Madclegabel. . . . 8.681
Hochvogel . . . . 8,511
Elmauer Haltaspitte (Kaiser-
Parseicrspitze . . . 9>968
Dachstcin .... 9,Sy>
Zugspitze 9.738
Hochkontg .... 9.639
Valluga 9»"3
Rockspitze .... 9,059
E. Hone Grieaspitte . . 9052
Stanskogel 9.052
Birkkarspitze (Karwendel) 9.°4* gebirge) ....
Chief Passes of Ike Alts of Bavaria, Ike Vorarlberg
and Salzburg.
Gentschel Pass (Oberstdorf to Schrocken), bridle path
Schrofen Pass (Oberstdorf to Warth), foot path . k
Gerlos Pass (Zell to Mittersill), bridle path
Pass Thurn (Kitzbuhel to Mittersill), carriage road .
Fern Pass (Reuttc to Nasserett), carriage road
Scharnitz or Seefeld Pass (Partenkirchen to Zirl), carriage
road
HirechbQhel Pass (Berchteagaden to Saalfelden), carriage
road
Hochfilzen Pass (Saalfelden to KitzbQhel), railway over .
Pyhrn Pass (Linz to Liezen), carriage road over, railway
tunnel beneath .......
Wagreinstattel (Radstadt to St Johann in Pongau), carriage
road 2 % ji
14. Central Tirol Alps (from the Brenner Pass to the Radstadter
Tauern Pass, north of the Drave Valley and south of the Pinzgau
and the Enns Valley). This division takes in the Zillerthal and
Tauern Ranges.
Chief Peaks of Ike Central Tirol Alps.
7.691
6480
4.183
4,026
3*74
3.858
3.173
3.«<»
'43
Gross Glockner . . . 12461
Gross Vcnediger . . . 12,008
Gross Wiesbachhorn . 11,713
Hochfeilcr (Zillerthal) . 1 1.559
Dreiherrenspitze . • . 11,500
M6sele(Z) .... 11,438
Olperer(Z) .... 11.418
fohannisberg .... 1 1.375
Hochgall (Rieserferner) . IM87
Thurnerkamp (Z) . . 11,228
Gross LOffler (Z) . . . 11.096
Fusstein (Z) . . . . 11,000
Schwarzenstein (Z) . . 11.057
Gross Geiger .... 11,041
Chief Passes of Ike Central Tirol Alps.
MitECThaehjoeh f BTrTtTarmer to Taufers), snow (Z) . ,
Trvppachsiiid (Floitcn V.tll-y to Taufers), snow (Z). ,
Rjficlthor (Kaprun to Hcilf^.nblut), snow . . .
Bockkarsthsrtc (Ferleiten 10 Heiligenblut), snow . .
Sinnhlicltwliiftf iRjurii to* Heiligenblut), snow
Alpcinrrtchartc {Breiilahncr to St Jodok am Brenner), foot
path{Zj
Vorder Urn bait horl {Praffraten to Kasern), snow . ,
Obcr SuEihscluharl Praj;raten to Wald), snow
Keilbachioch ( Ma-yrhufcn c Stdnhaus), foot path (Z)
Untcr SuMbatnt horl (WaM (■> Gschloss), snow
RuihnrrWn (Rieser-
ferner) ,
Hochalrnspitze .
Rrichcti-Fpit^c (Z) , .
GronH Rnthcikiiopf
(Schobrt) , ., V ,
Grcms Morchtier{Z). .
HochpiifT (Goldberg) .
Ankngrl . T . , .
HocWhobef . . .
Kittitcinhora . . ,
Sonnbticfc ,
Zsigmr>ndv*pttre
Reckncr lTu*ergebirg<e)
tt.024
11,008
10,844
10,814
10.785
10.689
10.673
10,663
10,512
10,196
10,122
9rf85
10,270
10,020
10,010
9.994
9.774
9.7"
9.607
9.600
9410
9400
9.351
9^38
9.393
9W
9^33
_______ .-._.._- 9^«>
Kalserthorl (Kals to Uetu). snow 9,197
S hwirikonf^hfirtr (BramUrg to Gschloss), snow
.gmiertKor
utathflrl (I
i&mingi
■OQ* (Z)
„jpr„- . .. ,. .
I'racmtcrt h^rl ( Hrigrjitrn Id die Defereggen GIen),foet path
Gtrwlii|h5rULi«rLj in K*tpV rtlOW
AnthoUmchart* {Rein Valley to the Anthola Valley),
KrimmicrtWl (Krimml Glf a to the Obersulzbach Glen)
snow
Goldzechscharte (Heiligenblut to Rauris),
Unter Pfandlscharte (Ferleiten to Heiligenblut). t
HeiliggeistiOchl (Mayrhofen to Kasern), foot path (Z)
BergerthOrl (Kals to Heiligenblut), foot path .
Kaprunerthorl (upper Kaprun Glen to the upper Stubnck
Glen), snow
Krimmler Tauern (Krimml to Kasern), foot path
Virgner or Defereggerthorl (Defereggen Glen to Virgen and
Prtgraten), foot path K&
Backlenke or Trojerjoch (Prtgraten to the Defereggen Glen).
footpath Lsn
Hochthor or Heiligenbluter Tauern (Heiligenblut to Raoria).
foot path §44}
Hftrndltochl (Mayrhofen to Steinhaus), foot path (Z) . » 3*3
Velber Tauern (Windisch Matrei to MittersilO. bridle path . &&4
Kaiser Tauern (KaU to Uttendorf); foot path . SJ42
Hone or Korn Tauern (Mallniu to Gastein), bridle path ovtr.
railway tunnel beneath Ldb
Niedere or Mallnitzer Tauern (Mallniu to Gastein). bridle
path ;ja»
Fuscherthorl (Ferleiten to the Seidlwinkcl Glen), foot path ; fci
Lappacherjoch (Lappach to the Ahrn Valley), foot oath (Z) . 7^4
Tuxerjoch or Schmirnjoch (Mayrhofen to St Jodok am
Brenner), foot path (Z) 7 6$:
Klamml joch (Taufers to the Defereggen Valley) . bridle path 7-5 *7
Arlscharte (St Johann in Pongau to TGmQnd), foot path . ?j46
Pfitscherjoch (Mayrnofen to Sterzing), foot path (Z). .. ?.r*
Kals Matreierthorl (Kals to Windisch Matrei). bridle path 7-^jl
Die Stanz (Gastein to Rauris), foot path toss
Sullersattel (Defereggen Glen to the Antholz Glen), bridle
path (R) .... 6."tJ
Radstadter Tauern (Radstadt to Mautendorf), carriage road 5jns
15* Ortler, Oetzthal and Stubai Ranges (from the Resets
Schddeck and the Stelvio to the Brenner Pass, sooth of the Lss
Valley, and north of the Tonale Pan).
Chief Peaks of Ike Ortler \ Oetrlkal and Stubai Ranges.
Ortler ,
KOnigatpitae . . .
Monte Cevedale . .
Wildspitze (Oetzthal)
Weisskugel . . •
Monte Zebru . . .
Palon della Mare .
Punta San Matteo .
Thurwieserspitae
Hintere Schwarze •
Simtlaun ....
Pizzo Tresero . . .
Gross Ramolkogel .
Vertainspitze . . .
Hochvernagtspitte .
12,802
12.655
12^82
12.382
12^91
»^54
12,150
12,113
11.946
H.930
11,821
11,818
11.651
11,618
11.585
Zuckcrhud (Si bai)
Schalfkogti ....
Schrankoti;! . .
Hcchwildspitiit ...
SankUnpiiet ...
TuckciLipiLEe ...
Wilder Frciter . . .
Vencziatpiue . . .
Tscbengelsrr H ichwand
Monte tonfinale . .
Gl«*rlcthijrm . .
FernerlwEel ....
M.-jritc Ssbrrtta . .
Habfcfet .....
Pflerachcr i n'L Jaun .
II 3»
Il^rs
H4l>
IMiS
11409
I1CO&
I1-UI
U.KJ
IIX»J
1 1 jau
10J37
ioJu
io>75i
10,1^
Chief Passes of Ike Ortler, Oetzthal and Stubai Ranges.
Hochjoch (Sulden to the Zebru Glen), snow
Vioz Pass (Santa Caterina to Pejo), snow
Sonklarscharte (Solden to Sterzing), snow
Konigsjoch (Sulden to Sanu Caterina), snow . .
Cevedale Pass (Santa Caterina to the Martell Glen), snow
Gepatschioch (Vent to the Kauns Valley), snow
Ramoljocn (Vent to Gurgl), snow
Langtaufererjoch (Vent to the Reschen SchekJeck Pans),
snow
BildsEockJjocti fSflWtn to Ranalt), tnow ,
GurgLtr Evtijoch (Gufjl to ttie Pfo*9fii Clcn). snow 1 . ,
Eiuet Paw (Sijldtn to the MjrteH Glen), mow , ,
La n £ t hale f joch fGurg! to PfHdcrs) t snow . t ,
PaK*o dtl Zebru iSinca Calcrina to the Zebru Gh?a) f snow
Salient joch (Mancll Gtfn to Rabbt). mow « , ,
Nietkrioch (Vent to the Sr Final* Valley), snow » ,
SfiTsHliiia Pjj*s fSanla Caterina to Pe>o), snow , ,
Pit jfthjlcrjftc hi fMiitdbery to Solden). too* . % ,
EfejArhl mm Bild (Pf ciders to the Proisen Gka), i»« ,
Venter Hochjoch (Vent to the Schrul^ VaOeyJ, mow, ,
Taharcftaschsrte (Sulden to Trtfoi)^ foot pstb , ,
Stelvio Pass (Train i to DoruiJo), nmiw road
Gavia Pa» (Santa CitcHns to Pnutc d* Lcrnoi toot nath
TimmcEjoch orTimyprjoch (Solden to t3» Pasadcrthal sad
Meran^ bridlp path .
^ifen Paw (Steratiw to Mennh bridle patn ■
-chen Sc hoi deck Pass (Landrrk to Mrrjn), carriage teM
BrvDEici lau Unn&bruck to VcrunaJ, railway over
16. Lombard Alps (from the Lake of Como to the Adige Valkr.
south of the Valtellina and the Apnea and Tonale Paws. This
rijta
IO.S49
foais
toJen
tor?
IOJ9I
ioj«r
10^^
io.aj3
ooJJ
• »09
f>*5»
9»5«i
9459
9^S5
123*
4-9«
449S
PEARS AND PASSES!
division includes the Adameflo, Pfeaanella, Brest* and Betgamasque
ranges.
Chief Peaks of the Lombard Alps.
Presanella U.694
Adamello ..... 1 1,661
Care Alto ..... 11.369
Doacon di Genova . . 11,254
Crozzon di Lares • .11 ,004
Corno di Baitone. • . 10,939
Busazza 10,922
Lobbia Alu .... 10486
Cima Tosa (Brenta) . 10420
Cima di Brenta . • . 10,352
Crozzon di Brenta . . 10,247
Pizzo di Coca (Bergam*
asque) ....
Pizzo di Scais . •
Pizzo di Redorta .
Pietra Grande . .
Pizzo del Diavoto
RediCastello..
Recastello . .
Monte Gleno •
Monte Tomello.
Corno Stella
Monte Legnone
Pizzo dei Tre Signori
Pizzo di Preaolana
Grigna . . ..
Monte Baldo .
Monte Spinale •
Monte Roen. .
Monte Gazza .
Monte Resegone
10483
9.9*4
9.961
9.879
8,626
.7>4
8.376
8.006
7.983
7.937
10,014
9.974
9.964
9.630
Chief Passes of the Lombard Alps,
Passo di Lares (Lares Glacier to the Lobbia Qlacier), snow.
Paaeo di Cercen (Val di Genova to Fucine), snow
Passo delta Lobbia Alu (Lobbia Glacier to the Mandron
Glacier), snow
Passo di Presena (Val di Genova to the Tonale Pass), snow.
Pisgana Pass (Val di Genova to Ponte di Legno), snow
Bocca di Tuckett (Campiglio to Molveno), snow
Passo di Val Morta or del DiavoJo (Val Seriana to Sondrio),
foot path
Bocca di Brenta (Pinzolo or Campiglio to Molveno), snow.
Passo del Groste (Campiglio to Cles}, foot path.
Passo di Venina (Val Brembana to Sondrio), foot path •
Passo del Salto (Val Seriana to Sondrio). foot path .
Passo del Venerocolo (Val di Scalve to the Aprica road),
bridlepath 7,595
Passo della Forccllina or di Campo (Cedegolo to the Val di
Fumo), foot path 7.$°7
Passo di Dordona (Val Brembana to Sondrio), foot path 6,824
Passo di San Marco (Bergamo to Morbegno), bridle path . 6,513
Croce Domini Pass (Breno to Bagolino in Val Caffaro), bridle
path ' 6,217
Tonale Pass (Trent to Edolo), carriage road . 6. 181
Passo di Zovetto (Val di Scalve to Edolo), bridle path . 5.968
Colle Maniva (Val Trompia to Bagolino), bridle path 5476
Campo or Ginevrie Pass (Dimaro by Campiglio to Pinzolo),
carriage road 5407
Gampenioch (Cles to Meran). foot path .... 5,051
Mendel Pais (Botzen to Cles). railway on the E. slope 4462
Passo di Castione or Presolana Pass (Clusone to the Val di
Scalve), carriage road 4.219
Aprica Pass (Edolo to Tirano), carriage road 3.875
17. The Dolomites of South Tirol (from the Brenner Pan to the
Monte Croce Pass, and south of the Pusterthal).
ALPS 747
Vajolet Pan (Tien Co the Vajotet Glen), foot path . • 8,363
Pauo di Canali {Prioiicro to Agordo)* foot jwui • . 8,193
Tter»EpEjpchl (Campilello to Tier*), toot path . . . 8,055
Para di Ball (San Martino di Ca*tro«* tut he Pravi tale Glen),
foot path ........ 8,038
Force Ha di Giralba (Sex ten to Auronio). Tom path . . 7,99a
Cot dei Boa (FaLzaiego Glen to the Tra vernalizes Glen), foot
path . . , ... 7,579
Force Ha Grande (San Vlio to Auronto), foot path . . 7422
Pordoi Paw (Capri le to CampitellcO. tJrri.Tgr road . . 7.382
Sella joth (Grotfcn Glen to Carapiicllnl, lnlk path . . 7,277
Tre Sa&ii Pau (Cortina to St CAt&iao}, foot path . .7,215
Mahlkncchtjoch (Upper Duron Glen to the Miser Alp), foot
path 7,113
Grode tier joe h (Groden Glen to ColiWti£, bridle path . 7,011
Falzareco Paw {Caprile to ConioaJ, smalt carriage road • 6,946
Fedaja Pas* (Campitello to Caprile), t.rifJIc ruth . . 6,713
Pa*so di ValTei ji'ancvrcnin to Ccncrni|[hc), (oot path . 6,667
RoIEe Pas* (Predazzo to han Martino di Gastrozza and
Primtero). carriajje road .,,... 6,509
Forcella Fornda (Caprile to Sari Vitoh brittle path . . 6480
Pasco di San PcElegrino (Moena to Cenceniahe), small carriage
road .... ... 6,267
Forcella d'Alteghe (ATlephe to the ZoUSo Glen), foot path . 5.971
Tre Croci Pat* (Cortina to Auronro), carriacf" road . . 5.932
Kareraee or Care**a Pa« (Welicbenofm u> \ igo di Fassa),
carriage road . .... . 5*715
Monte Croce Pais (Innichen and Sexten to ihc Piave Valley
and fk-tlunoK carriage road ... 5*374
Ampczzo Pass (Tobtach to Cortina and HcMuno), carriage
road 5.066
Cereda Pass (Primiero to Agordo). bridle path . . 4,501
Toblach Pass (Bruncck to Lienz), railway over. . . 3,967
18. South-Eastern Alps (east of the Monte Croce Pass). This
division includes three small groups, the Julie, Carnicand Karawanlcas
Alps — each peak and pass being distinguished by one of the initial
letters " J." " C " or fi K."
9.564
9.482
9475
M19
8.596
8.380
8,239
7.907
7.218
7.094
6.939
$.529
6.155
Chief Peaks of the Dolomites of South Tirol
Marmolata .... 10.972
Antelao 10.706
Tofana di Mezzo . . 10,633
Sorapiss 10,594
Monte Civetta . . . 10,564
Vernel 10.519
Monte Cristallo . • . 10496
Cima di Vezzana • . 10470
Cimon della Pala . . 10453
Langlcofel 10427
Pelmo 10,397
Dreischusterspitze . . 10,375
Boespitze 10.342
Croda Rossa (Hoher
Caisl) 10,329
Piz Popena .... 10.312
Elferkofel 10,220
Grohmannspitze . . . 10,307
Zwolferkofel . . . .10,142
Sau Rigais(Geislerspitzen) 9.932
Drei Zinnen . . . 9.853
Kesselkogel (Rosengarten) 9,846
Funfnngerspitze » . . 9.833
Chief Passes of the Dolomites of South Tirol.
Passo d' Ombretta (Campitello to Caprilc), foot path
Langkofeljoch (Groden Valley to Campitello), foot path
Pala di San Martino .
Rosengartenspitze . .
Marmarole ....
Cima di Fradusta . .
Fermedathurm . . •
Cimad'Asta . . .
Cima di Canali . . .
Croda Grande . . .
Vajoletthurm (highest)
Sass Maor ....
Cima di Ball . . .
Cima della Madonna
(Sass Maor) . . .
Rosetta ....
Croda da Lago
Central Grasleitenspttze
Schlern . . .
Sasso di Mur . .
Cima dellc Dodici . .
Monte Pavione .
Cima di Posta . . .
Monte Pasubio . . .
9.831
9.781
9.715
9.649
9407
9.344
W3*
9.315
9.256
9.239
9.131
?,026
.993
8,911
&
8.380
7.671
7.664
7.333
7.323
8.675
Tschajjerjoch (Karenee to the Vajolet Glen), foot path -.-,„
Grasleiten Pau (Vajolet Glen to theGrasleiten Glen), foot path 8,521
Passo di Pravitale (RosetU Plateau to the Pravitalc Glen),
foot path ... 8465
Passo delte Comelle (same to Cencenighe), foot path 8462
Passo della Rosetta (San Martino di Castrozza to the great
limestone RosetU Plateau), foot path 8442
Chief Peaks of the South-Eastern Alps.
Tergfou or Trigbv (J) . 9400 Monte Cridola (C) . 8468
Monte Coftliam (C) . . 9,128 Grintovc (K) . . . 8429
Kellerwand (O . . . 9,105 Prestrclenik (J) . . 8,202
lof dcJ M on ratio (J) . . 9,039 Monte Cavallo (Q . 7,386
Cima dri I'reti (C) . . 8.868 Km (J) 7.369
Monte Para I ba (C) . . 8.829 Stou(K) .... 7.346
Manhart (J) ... 8.786 Dobratsch (C) . . . 7,110
ialoot (M . . 8.711 Vclka Kappa (K) . . 5.059
tonic Canui (J> . . 847 1
Chief Passes of the South-Eastern Alps.
Oefnerjoch (Forno Avoltri to St Lorenzcn in the Gail Valley),
foot path (C) 7.550
Wolayer Pan (same to Mauthen). foot path (C) . 6,506
Loibl Pan (Kjagenfurt to Laibach), carriage road (K) . 4495
Plocken Pan (Tolmezzo to Mauthen), bridle oath (C) . 4462
Predil Pan (Villach by Tarvis and Flitsch to GOrz), carriage
road (J) 3.813
Birnbaumerwald (Laibach to Gorz), carriage road (J) 2,897
Saifnitz or Pontebba Pan (Villach by Tarvis and Pontcb.ba
to Udine), railway 2,615
7. Political History and Modern State of the Inhabitants of the
Alps. — We know practically nothing of the early dwellers in the
Alps, save from the scanty accounts preserved to us by Roman
and Greek historians and geographers. A few details have come
down to us of the conquest of many of the Alpine tribes by
Augustus, though not much more than their names. The suc-
cessive emigrations and occupation of the Alpine region by divers
Teutonic tribes from the 5th to the 6th centuries are, too, known
to us only in outline, while to them, as to the Frankish kings
and emperors, the Alps offered a route from one place to another
rather than a permanent residence. It is not till the final break
up of the Carolingian empire in the 10th and nth centuries that
it becomes possible to trace out the local history of different
parts of the Alps.
In the case of the Western Alps (minus the bit from the chain
of Mont Blanc to the Simplon, which followed the fortunes of the
Valais), a prolonged struggle for the Alpine region took place
between the feudal lords of Savoy, the Dauphine and Provence.
In 1349 the Dauphine" fell to France, while in 1388 the county
of Nice passed from Provence to the house of Savoy, which too
held Piedmont as well as other lands on the Italian side of the
Alps. The struggle henceforth was limited to France and the
house of Savoy, but little by little France succeeded in pushing
74 8
ALPS
IHISTOSY
back the house of Savoy across the Alps, thus forcing it to be-
come a purely Italian power. One turning-point in the rivalry
was the treaty of Utrecht (17x3), by which France gave up to
Savoy the districts (all forming part of the Dauphine, and lying
on the Italian slope of the Alps) of Ezilles t Bardonneche, Oulx,
F£nestrclles, and Chateau Dauphin, while Savoy handed over
to France the valley of Barcelonnette, situated on the western
slope of the Alps and forming part of the county of Nice. The
final act in the long-continued struggle took place in i860, when
France obtained by cession the rest of the county of Nice and
also Savoy, thus remaining sole mistress on the western slope
of the Alps.
In the Central Alps the chief event, on the northern side of
the chain, is the gradual formation from 1291 to 1815 of the
Swiss Confederation, at least so far as regards the mountain
Cantons, and with especial reference to the independent confedera-
tions of the Grisons and the Valais, which only became full
members of the Confederation in 1803 and 18x5 respectively.
The attraction of the south was too strong for both the Forest
Cantons and the Grisons, so that both tried to secure, and
actually did secure, various bits of the Milanese. The former,
in the 15th century, won the Val Leventina (down which the
St Gotthard train now thunders) as well as Bellinzona and the
Val Blenio (though the Ossola Valley was held for a time only),
while the latter added to the Val Bregaglia (which had been
given to the bishop of Coire in 060 by the emperor Otto I.)
the valleys of Mesocco and of Poschiavo. Further, in 1512, the
Swiss Confederation as a whole won the valleys of Locarno with
Lugano, which, combined with tne 15th century conquests by
the Forest Cantons, were formed in 1803 into the new Canton
of Ticino or Tessin. On the other hand, the Grisons won in
151 2 the Valtellina, with Bormio and Chiavenna, but in 1797
these regions were finally lost to it as well as to the Swiss Con-
federation, though the Grisons retained the valleys of Mesocco,
Bregaglia and Poschiavo, while in 1762 it had bought the upper
bit of the valley of Mflnster that lies on the southern slope of the
Alps.
In the Eastern Alps the political history is almost monotonous,
for it relates simply to the advance or retreat of the house of
Habsburg, which still holds all but the whole of the northern
portion (the exception is the small bit in the north-west that
belongs to Bavaria) of that region. The Habsburgers, whose
original home was in the lower valley of the Aar, where still
stand the ruins of their ancestral castle, lost that district to the
Swiss in 141 5, as they had previously lost various other bits of
what is now Switzerland. But they received a rich compensation
in the Eastern Alps (not to speak of the imperial crown), for they
there gathered in the harvest that numerous minor dynasties
had prepared for them, albeit unconsciously. Thus they won
the duchy of Austria with Styria in 1282, Carinthia and Carniola
in 1335, Tirol in 1363, and the Vorarlberg in bits from 1375
to 1523, not to speak of minor " rectifications " of frontiers on
the northern slope of the Alps. But on the other slope their
progress was slower, and finally less successful. It is true that
they early won Primiero (1373), as well as (151 7) the Ampezzo
Valley and several towns to the south of Trent. In 1797 they
obtained Venctia proper, in 1803 the secularized bishoprics of
Trent and Brixen (as well as that of .Salzburg, more to the north),
besides the Valtellina region, and in 18x5 the Bergamasque
valleys, while the Milanese had belonged to them since 1535.
But, as is well known, in 1859 they lost to the house of Savoy
both the Milanese and the Bergamasca, and in 1866 Venetia
proper also, so that the Trentino is now their chief possession
on the southern slope of the Alps. The gain of the Milanese in
1859 by the future king of Italy (1861) meant that Italy then
won the valley of Livigno (between the Upper Engadine and
Bormio), which is the only important bit it holds on the non-
Italian slope of the Alps, besides the county of Tenda (obtained
in 1575, and not lost in i860), with the heads of certain glens
in the Maritime /Alps, reserved in i860 for reasons connected
with hunting. Thus the Alpine states (Italy, Switzerland and
Austria), other than France and Bavaria, hold bits of territory
on the slope of the Alps where one would not expect to find ikr
Roughly speaking, in each of these five lands the Alpine pepubu.-*
speaks the tongue of the country, though in Italy there arr 1
few French-speaking districts (the Waldensian valleys as ?r!
as the Aosta and Oulx valleys) as well as some Gcrxnan-spuliai
and Ladin-speaking settlements. In Switzerland there i-s
Italian-speaking regions, as well as some spots (in the Grins;
where the old Romance dialect of Romansch or Ladin s&rrno.
while in Austria, besides German, Italian and Ladin, we la*".
a Slavonic-speaking population in the South- Eastern AJpt
The highest permanently inhabited village in the Alps is jv
6098 ft. (Grisons); while in the French Alps, L'£oot, 67:5 .1
(Savoy), and St Veran, 6726 ft. (Dauphrae), are rivals: "sis
Italian Alps boast of Trepalle, 6788 ft. (between Lrrigno ssi
Bormio), and the Tirolese Alps of Ober Gurgl, 6322 ft., and FesA
621 x ft. (both in the Oetzthal).
8. Exploration of the High Alps.— The higher region cf th
Alps were long left to the exclusive attention of the men of tie
adjoining valleys, even when Alpine travellers (as distingutird
from Alpine climbers) began to visit these valleys. It is reckon^
that about 20 glacier passes were certainly known before ifce
about 25 more before 1700, and yet another score before ife
but though the attempt of P. A. Arnod (an official of the c\*:»
of Aosta) in 1689 to " re-open " the Col du Geant may be coartx :
as made by a non-native, we do not come upon another cast r
the kind till the last quarter of the 18th century. Nor dsd r
fare much better with the high peaks, though the two ear!**
recorded ascents were due to non-natives, that of the Rocfcrr&d.-
in 1358 having, been undertaken in fulfilment of a vow, and ihsi
of the Mont Aiguille in 1492 by order of Charles VII I. of Frascc
. in order to destroy its immense reputation for inaccessibtLr>—
in 1555 Conrad Gesner did not climb Pilatus prcper, but ce>
the grassy mound of the Gnepfstcin, the lowest and the roc
westerly of the seven summits. The two first men who radH
systematically explored the regions of ice and snow were H. B i
Saussure (1 740-1 709), as regards the Pennine Alps, acd tie
Benedictine monk of Disentis, Placidus a Spescha (1752-1?;;,
most of whose ascents were made before 1806), in the valleysat tir
sources of the Rhine. In the early 19th century the Mejcr
family of Aarau conquered in person the Jungfrau (1811) ari
by deputy the Finsteraarhorn (181 2), besides opening scvcrJ
glacier passes, their energy being entirely confined to the Benxw
Oberland. Their pioneer work was continued in that district,
as well as others, by a number of Swiss, pre-eminent among wbes
were Gottlieb Studer (1804-1890) of Bern, and Edouard Dree
(18x171882) of Neuchatcl. The first-known English camber ia
the Alps was Colonel Mark Beaufoy (1764-1827), who in iy:
made an ascent (the fourth) of Mont Blanc, a mountain to *ii.i
his fellow-countrymen long exclusively devoted themsehrs*
with a few noteworthy exceptions, such as Principal J. D. Fct**s
(1809-1868), A. T. Malkin (1803-1888), John Ball (xSiS-zSk .
and Sir Alfred Wills (b. 1828). Around Monte Rosa tV?
Vincent family, Josef Zumstcin (1783-1861), and Ciovaas.
Gnifetti (1801-1867) did good work during the half ctBf*T
between 1778 and 1842, while in the Eastern Alps the Arcbdsi.:
John (1782-1859), Prince F. J.C. von Schwarzenberg. archbish^
of Salzburg (1809-1885), Valentine Stanig (1774-1S47), Add:
Schaubach (1800-1850), above all, P. J. Thurwieser (1780-r^t:
deserve to be recalled as pioneers in the first half of the i:t K
century. In the early fifties of the 19th century the taste tor
mountaineering rapidly developed for several very ditTmst
reasons. A great stimulus was given to it by the foundatios «f
the various Alpine clubs, each of which drew together t v r
climbers who dwelt in the same country. The first was tbc
English Alpine Club (founded in the winter of 1857-185*1
followed in 1862 by the Austrian Alpine Club (which in i5?j
was fused, under the name of the German and Austrian Alxnre
Club, with the German Alpine Club, founded in 1869), in 1 So 3
by the Italian and Swiss Alpine Clubs, and in 1874 by the Frercfl
Alpine Club, not to mention numerous* minor societies of mm
local character. It was by the members of these clubs (and 1
few others) that the minute exploration (now all but comp?e?ri
BIBLIOGRAPHY] ALPS
>f the High Alps was carried out, while much has been done in
:he way of building club huts, organizing and training guides,
Sec, to smooth the way for later comers, who benefit too- by
the detailed information published in the periodicals (the first
iates from 1863 only) issued by these clubs. Limits of space
forbid us to trace out in detail the history of the exploration of
the High Alps, but the two sub-joined lists give the dates of the
conquest of about fifty of the greater peaks (apart from the two
climbed in ^58 and in 1492, see above), achieved before and
after 1st January 1858. As a proof of the rapidly-growing
activity of Englishmen, it may be pointed out that while before
1858 only four summits (the Mittelhorn, or central peak of the
Wetterndrner, the highest point of Monte Rosa, Laquinhorn
and Pelmo) were first ascended by Englishmen, in the case
of the second list only five (Grand Combin,Wildspitze,Marmolata,
Langkofcl and Meije) were not so conquered (if the present
writer, an American, be included among the English pro hoc vice).
(1) Before 1st January 1858:— Titlis (1744). Ankogel (1762),
Mont Velan (1779), Mont Blanc (1786), Rheinwaldhom (1789),
Gross Glockner (1800), Order (1804), Jungfrau (181 x), Fin-
stcraarhorn (1812), Zumsteinspitze (1820), Todi (1824), Altels
(1834), Piz Linard (183s), Gross Venediger (1841), Signalkuppe
(1842), WctterhOmer (1844-184$). Mont Pdvoux (1848),
Diablcrets and Piz Bernina (both in 1850), highest point of
Monte Rosa (1855), Laquinhorn (1856) and Pelmo (1857).
(2) After xst January 1858:— Dom (1858), Aletschhorn,
Bietschhorn and Grand Combin (all in 1859), Grand Paradis
and Grande Casse (both in i860), Weisshom, Monte Viso, Gross
Schreckhorn, Lyskamm and Wildspitze (all in 1861), Dent
Blanche, Monte della Disgrazia and Tischhora (all in 2862),
Marmolata, Presanella, Pointe des Ecrins and Zinal Roth horn
(all in 1864), Matter horn, Ober Gabelhorn, Aiguille Verte and
Piz Roseg (all in 1865), Langkofel (i860), Cimon della Pala
(1870), Rosengarten (1872), Meije (1877), Aiguille du Dru (1878),
Punta dell' Argentera (1879), Aiguille des Charmoz (1880),
Aiguille de Gr6pon (x88x) and Aiguille du Geant (1882).
9. General Lis t f Rook s and M a ps.— ( 1 ) Books.— For a longer
list than we can give s« John Balls Hints and Notes for Travellers
in the Alps (new e< 1*091 arid a ho A. W&ber's Landes- *nd Reise-
beschreibungen der Schwii (1899. supplement in 1907). In general
•ec- J. Ball's The Alpine Gunk (\ vols., new ed. of vol. L, 1898: last
ed. of vol ii., 1876, jncl of vol. Ml, 1879} ; H. A. Berlepsch, Dte A I pen
in Natur- und Letfnsbifdem (last cd,» 1885, Eng. trans.. 1861);
T. G. Bonney, The Alpine Rrgions of Switzerland and the Neighbouring
Countries (1868); A Civiale. Les Alpes au point de we de la ghh
(raphie physique (1*82); Sir Martin Conway, The Alps (1904);
V. A. B. Coolidge. 9mm Travel and Swiss Guide-Boohs (1889) and
The Alps (1008) ; F von Lendcnfeld. A us den Alpen (2 vols., 1896) ;
C. Lentheric, L'Heemem devant In Alpes (1896); F. Umlauft, Die
Alpen (1887, Ens. trans., 1S89). Un some special subjects see
W. A. Baillte-Grohmann, Sport in the Alps (1896); A. Moss6. Fisio-
logia deW Uomo suite Alpi (1897, English trans., 1898); N. Zuntz
and others, Hohenklima und Bergwanderungen tn ihrer Wirhungen
auf den Menschen (1906); G. Berndt, Der FShn (1896, the south
wind, so important in mountain districts); and the article on
Glacier.
As to Alpine legends, consult Maria Savi-Looetv Leggende delle
Alpi (1889); M. Tschetnen. WaUiser-Sagen (1872); Th. Vernalekcn,
Alpensagen (1858); and I. V. Zingerle, Sagen aus Tirol (1859); and
as to Alpine poetry — J. Adam, Der Natursinn in der deutschen
Dichtung (1006) ; E. A. Baker and F. E. Ross, The Voice of the
Mountains (1905, an anthology in verse and prose) ; A. von Halter,
Die Alpen (1732, best ed., 1882, illustrated ed., 1902); and H. E.
Jenny, Die Alpendichtung in der deutschen Schweis (1905).
As to Alpine dialects, consult I. Alton, Die ladinischen Idiome
in Ladinien, Grdden, Fossa, Buchenstein, Ampetxo (1879); ). A.
Chabrand and A. de Rochas d'Aiglun, Patois des Alpes cotttennes
it 877); Z. and E. Pallioppi, Dmonari dels Idioms Romauntschs
'Engiadina ota e basse, &c. (1895); A. Socin, Schriftsprache und
DiaUkte im Deutschen (1888); F.J. Stalder, Die Landessprachen der
Schweis (1819), and J. Zimmerh, Die deutsch-franxdsische Sprach-
t rente in der Schweis (3 vols., 1891-1899); besides the great Swiss
)ialect Dictionary {Schweis. Idiotthon) in course of publication since
1881.
As to the history of the Alps', the following works touch on various
aspects of the subject :— G. Allais, Le Alpi Occidentali neW Antichitd
(1891) ; W. Brockedon, Illustrations of the Passes of the Alps (2 vols.,
1828-1829); J. Grand-Carteret, La Montague a trovers Us ages
(2 vols., 1902-1904); G. Oberziner, Le Guerre di Augusto contra i
populi alpmi (1900); E. Oehlmann. Die Alpenpdssc 101 Mittelalter
749
(1878-1879); R.' Rcinhard, Pdsse und Slrassen in den Schweiser
Alpen (1903); and L. Vaccarone, Le Vie delle Alpi Occidentali negli
antichi tempi (1884); while W. A. B. Coolidge's Josias Simler et les
originesrde Valpimsme jusqu'en 1600 (1904) summarises our know*
ledge of the Alps up to 1600.
Among works of a more or less descriptive nature (based on actual
travels), the following list includes all the standard works dated
before 1855: — Le Alpi eke cingono V Italia (184O; ). G. Altmann,
Versuch etner hist. u. phys. Beschreihung der hemtischen Risbergen
JI751); A. C. Bordier, Voyage pittoresoue aux glacier es de Satoye
1773); P. J. de Bourcet, Memoires mtlitaires sur les frontitres de
1 France, du Pientont, etdela Savoie (1801) ; M. T. Bourrit, Descrip-
tion des glacieres, glaciers, et amas de glace du duchi de Sdvoyt
(1773. Eng. trans., 1775), Description des Alpes pennines et
rhitiennes (2 vols., 1781, 3rd vol., 1785), and Description des cols ou
supplement in 1900); J. A. Deluc and P. G. Dentan, Relation de
diff bents voyages dans les Alpes du Faucigny (1776); E. Desor,
Excursions et Ujours dans les glaciers (2 series, 1844-184$); C. M.
Engelhardt, Naturschilderungen aus den hbchsten Schweiser-Alpen
'1840), and Dm Monie-Rosa und MaUerhorn-Gebirg (1852); J. D.
Forbes, Tratxh tkrpvrk the At pi of Savoy (1843. new ed*. 1900);
Sir John Forbes, A Physician's Holiday {1849) ;J> Frobel, Reise in
die Mftnigtr beiannten TkMer auf der Nerd trite der penxiniscken
Alpen (1840); G. Gnifetd. Nozioni Icpagrajithe del Matte Rasa ed
ascensumi m di esso (1845, and ed.. 1858); G- S. Gruner, Die Fis-
gebirgc des Schweizerlandes (3 vols., 1760); J, H>gci5chw<:il«*r..#riJ*M
tn den Gfhirfijtock zariichen Gtartts und Graubtinden, [8[0-]8j?
^1825): G. HorTinann 4 Wandemngen in der Gieistkertatlt (i&^\);
\ } r Hugi, NatuThistoriscke Alpenreue (1810} ; C, J. Latrobe, The
Al ptMuM fiSi9) and The Pedestrian (1832); t R, and H. Meyer.
Reisevufden Juntfrau-Gteticker und Ertteigung seines GipfeJi fi8i i);
Dc MoniajiRtl, La Tapograpkit mtiUvift de ta froiUiere des Alpes
(written in J 7??» but puQ, in 1875 only): Operations gfodeiiques H
asirvncmiquei pour la mesute d'un arc du parallel* me yen (2 vol* r .
1825-1827); H. IL Rtbmann, Ein poetisch Gattmai und Geiprdii
tufyer Bergen, nemlick des tftesens und Stock kerns {1606}: C. Kohr-
dorf, Reiit uber dte Grindtlxmld-Viescker-Gletscker and Ersieigung
des Gbtscheri des Jvngjrcu-BerifS (1828): II. B. de Saussurc,
Vvyagrs dans lei Alpes (4 vols., 1779-1796)1 A. Schaubach, Deutsche
Alpen (4 vols M (845-1847); J r J. 5cheuch«rr, Hetvetiae Stoicheio-
grapkia, Orographia, et Qrttt*rophia (1716}. and Itinera per Helvetia*
alpmas regtones facta nnms tjos-iyti (4 vols.,. 1723); J< Simler,
Vatlesiae Drsrriptio et de Alpibns Cvmmentarius (1574^ new ed. in
1904, ace Coolidge above); Albert Smtth, The Story of Mont Blanc
(1853J; G. Studer, Topoiraphisikc MiUeHungen aus dem AlpeHge-
birgc (1643); R- Tbpffer, Voyages en sigsag (2 icries, (844 and
1853); Acgid. Tschudi, De prist I ac verd alpmd RhathA (1338, also
in German, same date) ; and L, von Weldcn, Der Monte Rasa ( 1 834),
As tQ works published after 1855 wc can only give a short k though
carefully selected, bat. C Acby and others. Dai Hackgehirge ton
Grindetwatd (1865); W, A. Baillic-Grohmann, Tyrol and ike Tyrolest
(1876), and Gadding* with a Primitive People (2 vols., (878); H +
yon Barth, Aus den nerdtkken Kal best pen (1874); L. Barth and
L. Pfaiindler. Die Sivbaiergtbirtsgruppe (1865); G. F, Browne,
Off ike Milt (1895); Mrs H.V. Cole T A Lady's Tour round Mont*
Rasa. (ig£9); E, T. Coleman, Scenes from the Snow Fields (1850);
Sir Martin Conway. Tke Alps ftam End to End (1895) ;. A. Daudet,
Tartar in sur les Alpes (1885. Eng. trans-, same date); C. T. Dent,
Above tkr Snaur Line (1885); Miss A. B r Edwards, Untrodden Peaks
and Unfrequented Valleys (1873. Dolomites): Mai FnrderTcuther,
Die Allgauer Alpen (1906); D. W. Fne*hfidd r Across Gountry from
Thonon ta Trent (1865). and Italian Alps (1875); Mrs Henry Fresh-
field, Alpine Byway jr (i860, and A Summer Tottr in the Orisons
'1862); H H B H George, The Gberland and its Gkciert (1866);
. Gilbert and G. C Churchill, Tke Dolomite Mountains (1864);
L C. Girdlcionc, The High Alps without Guides (1870); P. Groh-
mann, Wanderunten in den Dolomite n (1877); P + GU^fcldt, In den
Hochalpen (i88fij f and Der Moniblanc (1894); T + W + Hirtchliff.
Summer Moniks among the Alfa ( 1 857) ; C. Hudson and E. S, Kennedy,
Where there's a il j« i.u:± - j' Way U*»56; , E. javclk,
Climbs of (1899) ]Peaks. Passes and Glaciers (x vols., 1859-1862);
L. Purtscheller, Uber Pets und Fim (1901); E. Kambert, Ascensions
elfldneries (2 vols., 1888); G. Rey, // Monte Cervino (1904); John
Ruskin, vol. iv. (On Mountain Beauty) of Modem Painters (1856);
A. von Ruthner, Aus den Tauern (1864) and Aus Tirol (1869);
V. Sella and D. Vallino, Monte Rosa e Gressoney (1890) ; F. Stmony.
Das Dachsteingebiet (1889-1896); L. Sinigaelia, Climbing Reminis-
cences of the Dolomites (1896); K. von Sonklar, Die' Oetzthaler
Gebirgsgruppe (i860), and Die Gebirgsgruppe der Hohen-Touern
(1866) ; Sir L. Stephen, The Playground of Europe (1871) ; B. Studer,
750
ALPS
fGGOLOC
G. Studer and others, Berg- und GletscherfahrUn (2 series, 1859 and
1863); G. Theobald, Naiurbilder aus den rhdtischen Alpen (i860),
and Das Bindner Oberland (1861); F. F. Tuckett, Hochalpenstudien
(2 vols., 1873-1874); Miss L. Tuckett, How we Spent the Summer
1 1864), Pictures %n Tyrol (1867), and Zigzagging amongst Dolomites
(187 1); J. Tyndall, The Glaciers of the Alps {i860), Mountaineering
tn 1861 (1862), and Hours of Exercise ii» the Alps Ji^i); J- f
sder
sttht
B 5 6),
, Sc
«W hdcksten Gtpjel im Sommer von 1S12 (1813); E. Zstgmondy,
I Hours of Exercise in the Alps (1871); J. J.
Weilenmann, Aus der Firnenwelt (3 vols., 1872-1877); E. Whymper,
Scrambles amongst the Alps (1871); Sir A. Wills, Wanderings among
the High Alps (1856), and The " Eagle's Nest " in the Valley of Sixt
(i860); G. Yeld, Scrambles in the Eastern Graians (1900); H.
Zschokke, Reise auf die Eisgebirge des Kantons Bern und Ersteigung
Im Hochgebirge (1889); M. Zurbriggen, From the Alps to the Andes
(1800).
Many useful practical hints as to climbing are to be found in
C. Th Dent and others, Mounlaintetins (1893, 3rd ed*, 1900,
" Badminton Libra ry "); the Manuel d' Alpinism* (1904, publ. by
the French Alpine Cub); J. Mcurer. Handbmh 4ft aipi&en Sport
(1682), Kaiethtsmtis fur Berislrieer (1892), and Der Bergsttiger im
Hvckgtbirit ( 1 893 3; and C. Wilson, Mountaineering (1*93, "All
England series) .. As regard* the dangers of Alpine climbing
consult C. Fiorio and C Ralti, / Pericoli deli' Alpinisms (1889), and
E. Zsigmondy. Die Gefahren der Alpen (1885, Fr. trans-, ifrto).
There are als-n special guide- books for the use ol climbers in the
Alps— the " Climbers' Guides " series, edited by Sir Martin Conway
and W. A. B, Cuolidgc (10 vols., 18^0-1904): W. A. B. Coolidge,
H* Duhamcl and F, Pcrrin, Guide da Haul Dauthini (1887, with
supplement in 1890, Eur. tr.in*., 189a and 1 905,) ; L. Pu rise heller
and H, Hess, Der Hochtourist in den Oilnlpen (2 vols., 11*94, 3 vols.,
3rd ed., 1903): the 1 vols. publ. (1 902-1905) by the Swiss Alpine Club
under the name of Clubfuhref to the ATp* ot GJarus and Uri, and
V> Wolf von Clan veil, Dafomtienfiihrer (1898).
As regards the early history of A! pi nee* pi oration consult W+ A, B.
Coolidge, Josias Simtcr et ks or i sine $ dt rdpinisme jusqu'en 1600
(1904), and F. Cribble, The Early Mountaineers (1899), For the
utter period see, besides the more general works of travel mentioned
above, the publications [that date from 1863J of the various Alpine
Clubs"thc Alpine Journal {English A. C,) 1 the Ajinwairf, Bulletin, La
M$nlitgne r and Revue alpine {French A. C), the Jabrbuah, Mitleu
lunrrn, Verkdndlunf>en r and Zeiiichrifl [German and Austrian A, C).
the Alpinists* BalUttino, and Ritriita Mensiit [Italian A, C), and
the A spina, £cha des Alpes* Jakrbucht Stkuceirer Alpen- Zeilung
(Swiss A. CO 1 besides those of the smaller societies, such as the
sterreic h isehe Alpen-Zriiung ( A u st rian A, C) , t he Annua ire
(Societe desTouristesdu Dauphine), and iheAnnttaria (SocieU degli
Alpinist i Tridentini). Summaries of the Atmnc history »f the three
great divisions of the Alps or* given in (W. Alps) L Vaccarone,
Staiisiica delle Prime AstemwTii nelte Alpi Ckcidentnli (3rd, ed.,
1890 — this work omits the Dauphine Alps, as to which see the
1887 work or its Eng. version 1905, mentioned above] ; [Central
and Swiss Alps) G. Studer flbcr Ets vnd Sfknee (2nd ed, 3 vols.,
1896- 1899) j and (E. Alps J G.Gfogerand J, Rabl, Pit Entuttkeluni
der Hoehiouristtk in den faterrekhhthen Alpen [1690), ana
E. Riehier, Die Ersehliessuni der Qstatpen [3 vols,, 1894)- The
detailed history of Mont Blanc has been wntten by Ch. Durier,
Le Mont Blanc 1 1877, 4th ed., 1897), and t\ E, Mathcw% Thr Annals
cf Mi'nl Blanc {iSoiij. Lives of some of the most celebrated moun-
tain guides have been written in C. D, Cunningham and \V\ dt VV.
Abney, Pioneers of the Alps (2nd ed., 1B8S),
{2) Af a p j.— There is no good modern and fairly tarjje-scale map of
the entire chain of the Alps. But L. Ravcnstein 3 maps (scale
l; 250,000} of the Swits Alps (2 sheets) and of the Eastern Alps (8
sheets) include the whole chain, save that portion south of the range
of Mont Blanc*
AH 1 he countries which include Alpine districts have now issued
official Government maps. The French map on 3 scale ol J : 80.000
is clearer and more accurate than that on a »ea!c of 1 j 1 00.000. The
Italian Government has published maps on scales of J : 50,000 and
1 : joo.ooo the Austrian on a scale of I : 75.000^ and the Bavarian on
a scale ol t : jo.fwo. But the most splendid Government map of aU
is that put forth by the Swiss Federal Topographical Bureau,, under
the title of Sie$fried Alias (icale 1 : 50,000 for the Alpine districts),
which has quite supersede-d the Dufour Map (scale t : 100,000). the
history of which was published in [896. For maps of the Swiss Alps
and their neighbours, see J. H. Graf, Literctur der Landesvermessung
(1806, with a supplement).
^ A few of the best special maps of certain districts may be men-
tioned — such as li. Duhamcl's maps of the Dauphine Alps (4 sheets
Oil a m.aic ut » .iiXi.OuO, ioOy, iliJ cvi., toy*/, auu lllai vi tuc range
of Mont Blanc (scale 1:50,000, 1896, 2nd ed. f 1905), by X. Imfeld
and L. Kurz. The German and Austrian Alpine Club is publishing
a very fine set of maps (scale 1 : 50,000) of the Eastern Alps, which
are clearer and better than the Austrian Government s Topo-
graphische DetaUkarten (1 1 sheets, scale x : 50,000).
(W.A. B.C.)
xo. Geology.— The Alps form but a small portion of a great
tone of crumpling which stretches, in a series of curves, from
the Atlas Mountains to the Himalayas. Within this zone the
crust of the earth has been ridged up into * complex systai -
creases or folds, out of which the great mountain chase :
southern Europe and Asia have been carved by atawsphr
agencies. Superficially, the continuity of the aooe is taste; -
intervals by gaps of greater or less extent; but these are 4z
in part at least, to the subsidence of portions of the folded \a
and their subsequent burial by more recent acctusekx^
Such a gap is that between the Alps and the CaipaU&am L
a glance at a geological map of the region will show du* ■*
folding was probably at one time con tin uous. Leaving, ho«e>T
the larger question of the connexion between the great weczii
ranges of Europe and Asia, we find that the Alps are formed c \
series of wrinkles or folds, one behind another, freezes-*
arranged en ichelon. The folds run, in general, in the drrr -
of the chain, and together they form an arc around the p^~ -
Lombardy and Piedmont. Outside this arc lies a deprtsn
along which the waters of the upper Danube and the k??
Rhone find their way towards the sea; and beyond rise u
ancient crystalline masses of Bohemia, the Black Forest ui
the central plateau of France, together with the usterwes?
Mesozoic beds of southern Germany and the Jura. The orpra-
sion is filled by Miocene and later beds, which for the most jcr
lie flat and undisturbed as they were laid down. Bevead L*t
depression also, excepting in the Jura Mountains, there s t:
sign of the folding which has raised the Alpine chain. Sosf z
the older beds indeed are crumpled, but the folding is aliofrtkr
different in age and in direction from that of the Alps.
To assist in forming a clear idea of the relations of the Ala
to the surrounding regions, a simple illustration win S3«
Upon a table covered by a cloth lay two books in the retard
positions shown in figure. The book A represents the crafni
plateau of France and the book B represents the rods a
Bohemia and southern Germany. If
the two hands be placed flat upon the
table, in the angle between the two
books, and the doth pushed towards
the corner, it will at once be rucked up
into a fold which will follow a curve not
unlike that of the Alps. The precise
character and form of the folds pro-
duced will depend upon the nature of
the cloth and other accidental circum-.p, ff f i^^fciMr Awi
stances; but with a little adjustment ' cm thctahte
not only a representation of the chain
of the Alps, but even a subsidiary fold in front in the posnka
of the Jura Mountains may be obtained. Imperfect tbos^
this illustration may be, it will serve to explain the mocks?
conception of the forces concerned in the formation of Lie
Alps. Within the crust of the earth, whether by the caetnc*
tion of the interior or in any other way, tangential prases
were set up Since the crust is not of uniform strength Lhrocp-
out, only the weaker portions yielded to the pressure; ssi
these were crumpled up against the more resisting porti&3st?4
sometimes were pushed over them. In the case of the Alps a
seems natural enough that the crystalline masses of P^frrg^
the Black Forest and the central plateau of France shocld be
firmer than the more modern sedimentary deposits; bat ft 5
not so easy to understand why the Mesozoic rocks of soaihen
Germany resisted the folding, while those of the Jura yiekfci
It should, however, be borne in mind that the resisting bus a
not necessarily at the surface. Such is in outline the process U
which the Alps were elevated; but when the chain is exaasre-i
in detail, it is found that its history has not been uniform throat-
out; and it will be convenient, for purposes of description, ts
divide it into three portions, which may be called the Eastea
Alps, the Swiss Alps, and the Western Alps.
The Eastern Alps consist of a central mass of crystalline asi
schistose rocks flanked on each side by a zone of Mesoaocc bee*
and on the north by an outer band of Tertiary deposits.
On the Italian side there is usually no zone of folded aJT*
Tertiaries and the Mesozoic band forms the southern
border of the chain. Each of these zones is folded within itself.
GEOLOGY]
ALPS
7Si
and the folding is more intense on the Bavarian side than
on the Italian, the folds often leaning over towards the north.
The Tertiary zone of the northern border is of especial significance
and is remarkable for its extent and uniformity. It is divided
longitudinally into an outer zone of Motasse and an inner zone of
Flysch. The line of separation is very clearly denned; no* here
does the Molasse pass beyond it to the south and nowhere does
the Flysch extend beyond it to the north. The Molasse, in the
neighbourhood of the mountains, consists chiefly of conglomerates
and sandstones, and the Flysch consists of sandstones and shales;
but the Molasse is of Miocene and Oligocene age, while the Flysch
is mainly Eocene. The relations of the two series are never
normal. Along the line of contact, which is often a fault, the
oldest beds of the Molasse crop out, and they are invariably
overturned and plunge beneath the Flysch. A few miles farther
north these same beds rise again to the surface at the summit of
an anticlinal which runs parallel to the chain. Beyond this point
all signs of folding gradually cease and the beds lie flat and un-
disturbed
The Flysch is an extraordinarily thick and uniform mass of
sandstones and shales with scarcely any fossils excepting fucoids.
It is intensely folded and is constantly separated from the
Mesozoic zone by a fault Throughout the whole extent of the
Eastern Alps it is strictly limited to the belt between this fault
and the marginal zone of Molasse. Eocene beds, indeed, pene-
trate farther within the chain, but these are limestones with
nummulites or lignite- bearing shales and have nothing in
common with the Flysch. But although the Flysch is so uniform
in character, and although it forms so well-defined a zone, it is
not everywhere of the same age. In the west it seems to be
entirely Eocene, but towards the east intercalated beds with
I nee c ramus, &c, indicate that it is partly of Cretaceous age. It
is, in fact, a fades and nothing more. The most probable explana-
tion is that the Flysch consists of the detritus washed down from
the hills upon the flanks of which it was formed. It bears, indeed,
very much the same relation to the Alps that the Siwalik beds of
India bear to the Himalayas.
The Mesozoic belt of the Bavarian and Austrian Alps consists
mainly of the Trias, Jurassic and Cretaceous beds playing a
comparatively subordinate part But between the Trias of the
Eastern Alps and the Trias of the region beyond the Alpine folds
there is a striking contrast North of the Danube, in Germany
as in England, red sandstones, shales and conglomerates pre-
dominate, together with beds of gypsum and salt It was a
continental formation, such as is now being formed within the
desert belt of the globe. Only the Muschclkalk, which does not
reach so far as England, and the uppermost beds, the Rhaetic,
contain fossils in any abundance. The Trias of the Eastern Alps,
on the other hand, consists chiefly of great masses of limestone
with an abundant fauna, and is clearly of marine origin. The
Jurassic and Cretaceous beds also differ, though in a less degree,
from those of northern Europe. They consist largely of lime-
stone; but marls and sandstones are by no means rare, and there
are considerable gaps in the succession indicating that the region
was not continuously beneath the sea. Tithonian fossils,
characteristic of southern Europe, occur in the upper Jurassic,
while the Gosau beds, bdonging to the upper Cretaceous, contain
many of the forms of the Hippuritic sea. Nevertheless, the
difference between the deposits on the two sides of the chain
shows that the central ridge was dry land during at least a part
of the period.
The central zone of crystalline rock consists chiefly of gneisses
and schists, but folded within it is a band of Palaeozoic rocks
which divides it longitudinally into two parts. Palaeozoic beds
also occur along the northern and southern margins of the
crystalline zone. The age of a great part of the Palaeozoic belts
is somewhat uncertain, but Permian, Carboniferous, Devonian
and Silurian fossils have been found in various parts of the
chain, and it is not unlikely that even the Cambrian may be
represented.
The Mesozoic belt of the southern border of the chain extends
from Lago Maggiore eastwards. Jurassic and Cretaceous beds
play a larger part than on the northern border, but the Trias still
predominates. On the west the bdt is narrow, but towards the
east it gradually widens, and north of Lago di Garda its northern
boundary is suddenly deflected to the north and the zone spreads
out so as to include the whole of the Dolomite mountains of Tirol.
The sudden widening is due to the great Judicaria fault, which
runs from Lago d'Idro to the neighbourhood of Meran, where it
bends round to the east The throw of this fault may be as much
as 2000 metres, and the drop is on its south-east side, i.e. towards
the Adriatic. It is probable, indeed, that the fault took a large
share in the formation of the Adriatic depression. On the whole,
the Mesozoic beds of the southern border of the Alps point to a
deeper and less troubled sea than those of the north. Clastic
sediments are less abundant and there are fewer breaks in the
succession. The folding, moreover, is less intense; but in the
Dolomites of Tirol there are great outbursts of igneous rock, and
faulting has occurred on an extensive scale.
FH1 rntutt
ll_I_l] Ptutrnlt Kotkt
West of a line which runs from Lake Constance to Lago
Maggiore the zones already described do not continue with the
same simplicity. The zone of the Molasse is little _^
changed, but the Flysch is partly folded in the Mesozoic Aiftt
belt and no longer forms an absolutely independent
band. The Trias has almost disappeared, and what remains is
not of the marine type characteristic of the Eastern Alps but
belongs rather to the continental fades which occurs in Germany
and France. Jurassic and Cretaceous beds form the greater part
of the Mesozoic band. On the southern side of the chain the
Mesozoic zone disappears entirely a little west of Lago Maggiore
and the crystalline rocks rise directly from the plain.
Perhaps the strangest problem in the whole of Switzerland is
that presented by the so-called Klippen, Within the Alps, when
normally developed, we may trace the individual folds for long
distances and observe how they arise, increase and die out, to be
replaced by others of similar direction. But at times, within or
on the border of the northern Eocene trough, the continuity of
the folds is suddenly broken by mountain masses of quite different
constitution. These are the Klippen, and they are especially
important in the Chablais and between the Lakes of Geneva and
Thun. Not only is the folding of the Klippen wholly independent
of that of the zone in which they lie, but the rocks which form
them are of foreign fades. They consist chiefly of Jurassic and
Triassic beds, but it is the Trias and the Jura of the Eastern Alps
and not of Switzerland. Moreover, although they interrupt the
folding of the zone in which they occur, they do not disturb it:
they do not, in fact, rise through the zone, but lie upon it like
unconformable masses— in other words, they rest upon a
thrust-plane. Whence they have come into their present position
is by no means dear; but the character of the beds which form
them indicates a distant origin. It is interesting to note, in this
752
N.
fubaJpin* Magalfluh
ALPS
Crttaeaou* d Eocana Range Eocmie & Jura$*h Rang*
{GEOLOGY
totgtblrga
Southern Edga
MmaorpMc Rack*
Ter.
Cr.
Jr.
Tr.
C
Urtlary
Crttaetou*
Sc
Triassic
C*rf»(f0r9u$ A ftmreow
•tafrScMift
connexion, that the pebbles of the Swiss Molasse are not generally
such as would be derived from the neighbouring mountains, but
resemble the rocks of the Eastern Alps. The Klippen are, no
doubt, the remains of a much larger mass brought into the region
upon a thrust-plane, and much of the Molasse has been derived
from its destruction. Although the explanation here given of the
origin of the Swiss Klippen is that which now is usually accepted,
it should be mentioned that other theories have been proposed to
account for their peculiarities.
In the Western Alps the outer border of Molasse persists; but
it no longer forms so well-defined a zone, and strips are infolded
amongst the older rocks. The Eocene has altogether
lost its independence as a band and occurs only in
patches within the Mesozoic zone. The latter, on the
other hand, assumes a greater importance and forms nearly the
whole of the subalpine ranges. It consists almost entirely of
Jurassic and Cretaceous beds, the Trias in these outer ranges
being of very limited extent. The main chain is formed chiefly
of crystalline and schistose rocks, which on the Italian side rise
directly from the plain without any intervening zone of Mesozoic
beds. But it is divided longitudinally by a well-marked belt of
stratified deposits, known as the zone of the Brianconnais,
composed chiefly of Carboniferous, Triassic and Jurassic beds.
The origin of the schistose rocks has long been under discussion,
and controversy has centred more particularly around the
schistes lustris, which are held by some to be of Triassic age and
by others to be pre-Carboniferous and even, perhaps, Archaean.
Partly ra consequence of the uncertainty as to the age of these
and other rocks, there is considerable difference of opinion as to
the structure of the Western Alps* According to the view most
widely accepted in France the main chain as a whole forms a fan,
the folds on the eastern side leaning towards Italy and those on
the western side towards France, The zone of the Brianconnais
lies in the middle of the fan.
From the above account it will at once appear that between
the convex and the concave margins of the Alpine chain there is
a striking difference. Upon the outer side of the arc the central
zone of crystalline rocks is flanked by Mesozoic and Tertiary
belts; towards the west, indeed, the individuality of these belts
Ft Qmerii Perpkn
Pp. Pwpkyrif
Of. "
P.
In
SsrlcHle Schists
a. AmphtMlts
If. Marts
Cf». QmsiSSAMIcattklSt |
A-O. Augsm QmIss
is lost, to a large extent, but the rocks remain. Upon the 'ays
side the Tertiary band is found only in the eastern part of tk
chain, while towards the west, first the Tertiary and ^^
then the Mesozoic band disappears against the modern *,•?*
deposits of the low land. The appearance is strongly m*+-
suggestive of faulting; and probably the southern
margin of the chain lies buried beneath the plain of nonba
Italy.
The chain of the Alps was not raised by a single movement e£
in a single geological period. Its growth was gradual and hasetf
been uniform throughout. In the Eastern Alps the ^^
central ridge seems to have been -in existence at least JJ^
as early as Triassic times, but it has since been subject
to several oscillations. The most conspicuous folding, that of tk
Mesozoic and Tertiary belts, must have occurred in Terun
times, and it was not completed till the Miocene period. TVc
structure of the zones in the Bavarian Alps seems to suggest t&
the chain grew outwards in successive stages, each stage best
marked by the formation of a boundary fault. A precisely
similar structure is seen in the Himalayas.
Authorities, — The literal une is very extensive. The fo&woi
list included a few wit tied works on each portion of the chai=~
F. Freeh, " Die kamiwrhen A I , A," Abk. naturf. Ccs. HaBc, vol n*.
(iH^ jn-l 1894): A. Rothplttz, Ein i " ~ ' ~"
die OiuMpen (Stuttgart, 1&94); C. L_
Ottalpert a nd d ts Kamtge bit ta," in Bau • .
and Leipzig, iy\\}\ Lnvet-gutdi fialogique dans le Jura et la A*fO
de la Suisi* (Pan* and Lausanne, 1 804); A. Hdm, JLfeckantm* ie
Gtbiriibitdunfi (Basel, t&?ti) t D. Zaccagna. " Riaasunto di oneri*
zictu eeokfcichv far to *ul ur-ante occidental* dclle Ah* Gn*
les . UK » .....y*<* 9 , Jtuii, 5*». GUI. France, icr. 3, vol. wn (i**-
pp. 69-162; S. Francht, " SulP eta mesoxoica della sons defle p*- 1
verdi nellc Alpi Occidental!," Bail. R. Ceai. ItaL vol. xxix dj^''
pp. 173-247, 325-482. pts. v.-ix. For the broader questioa <* **
relation 01 the Alps to other region*. E. Sues*. Das A mint ier E**
(Vienna, 1885) (English translation, Oxford, iQ04)shouldbecoB«^-
The Ctologischer FHhrer dutch di* Afpe*, published by Borntne^<
Berlin, are handy guides. (P. I*-)
Atfh. naturj. ucs. Ham. **- »"»
Imi gealogiscker QuersckaiB iv*
Z. Diener, " Bau und KM as
Bau und BVd OtUrrrkhi (YVt*
1 1 . Flora.— Tht Alps owe the richness and beauty of their pl^
life partly to their position as the natural boundary between 1*
FT-ORA]
ALPS
753
■* JBaltic" flora on the north and the "Mediterranean" flora
on the south, but chiefly to the presence on their heights of a
third flora which has but little in common with either of the
others. The stronghold of this last, the distinctively " Alpine "
flora, is the region above the tree-limit. Its closest relationship
is with the flora of the Pyrenees; but an alpine flora is character-
is t ic of all the lofty mountains of central Europe. According to
J. Ball, 2010 well-marked species of flowering plants occur
within the limits of the Alps. If now we confine our attention
to the alpine and higher regions of the Alps and exclude from our
list all those plants which, however abundant in these regions,
a re not less so in the adjacent lowlands, we have left some 700
species (603, according to Dr Christ). We must observe, as
regards the plants of the lower alpine region, that it is the actual
presence of a forest vegetation, rather than the theoretical tree-
limit, which affects their vertical distribution; so that, e.g.
they overflow into the extensive clearings made by man in the
primeval mountain forests. Indeed, an analysis of the composi-
tion of the alpine flora as a whole leads to the conclusion that
the chief bond of union between its members consists in the
treeless character of their habitat.
We may broadly distinguish two main geographical elements
in the alpine flora, namely, the northern element and the endemic
element. This division (which is not, however, strictly ex-
haustive) directs special attention to what is undoubtedly the
most striking feature of the flora— namely, that of its 603
species no less than 271 reappear in the extreme north. This
relation of the arctic to the alpine flora is all the more remarkable
in view of the very important differences between the arctic and
alpine climates. The following circumpolar species are common,
and widely diffused throughout the whole of the Alps: Silene
acaulis, Dryas octopetala, Saxifraga oppositifotia, S. aizoides,
S. stellar is, Erigeron alpinus, Azalea procumbens, Myosotis
at pest r is, Polygonum viviparum, Salix retusa,S. herbacea, Phleum
alpinum, Juniperus nana. The proportion of northern forms,
as regards both species and individuals, increases as we ascend
to the higher regions. In the highest vegetation-zone, the
snow-region — i.e. on islands of rock above the snow-line — they
attain to an equality with the endemic forms. As examples of
northern flowers which are characteristic of the snow-region,
we may mention SUene acaulis, Eritrickium nanutn and Arenaria
ciliata. On the other hand , typical endemic species of this highest
zone are Androsau helvetica, A. glacialis, Petrocallis pyrenaica
and Cherleria sedoides. All the plants just named, we may
observe, are " cushion-plants." Their compact,, moss-like
growth and general structural peculiarities are not an expression
pf mutual affinity, but are in adaptation to the combined cold
and dryness of their habitat. It is noteworthy that among the
northern plants of the alpine zone, in the narrower sense of the
term (i.e. of the region between the tree-limit and the snow-line),
there is a marked predominance of species that affect moist
localities; and conversely, the majority of alpine flowers of
wet habitat are found also in the north. For example, in the
genus Primula, a highly characteristic genus of the alpine flora,
whose members are among the most striking ornaments of the
rocks, the single northern species, P. farinosa, grows only in
marshy meadows. On the whole, then, adaptation to cold and
wet is the note of the northern element.
As for the explanation of the community between the alpine
and arctic floras, all authorities are agreed that the key to the
problem is furnished by the occurrence of the glacial period. In
the ice-free belt, between the northern ice-sheet and the vastly
extended glaciers of the Alps, the two floras must have found a
common refuge and congenial conditions of existence; and this
view is confirmed by direct palacontological evidence. With the
return of a milder climate, the so-called northern forms of the
present alpine flora were split in two, one portion following close
on the northern ice in its gradual retreat to the Arctic, the other
following the shrinking glaciers till the plants were able to
establish (or re-establish) themselves on the slopes of the Alps.
The same explanation covers the case of the similarity of the
Bora (not merely as regards the northern element) on all the
I. 13*
high mountains of central Europe. So much seems to be beyond
reasonable doubt. But at this point disagreement 'begins
between the most eminent writers on the subject. While some
(e.g. Sir J. D. Hooker, Heer) regard the Arctic, and some (e.g.
Wcttstein) the Alps, as the original home of at least the bulk of
the "northern" element, others (e.g. Ball, Christ) locate this
in the highlands of temperate Asia. For it is a remarkable fact
that, of the 230 northern species which are most typical of the
far north, 182 are found also in the Altai (taking this as a collec-
tive name for the mountains that form the southern boundary of
Siberia). In any case, however, the migration of these plants to
the Alps must for the most part have taken place via the Arctic.
The possibility of any extensive east to west migration having
' taken place direct from the Altai to the Alps seems excluded by
the fact that 50% of the arctico-altaic alpine plants are absent
from the Caucasus. A score of species, it is true — not such a
number, be it observed, as was formerly supposed — are common
to the Alps and Altai, but absent from the Arctic. But the
species composing this Altaic element are not so numerous as
the arctico-alpine species that are absent from the Altai. On
the whole, a common origin in the north for at least the arctico-
altaic group of alpine plants seems to be the most reasonable
hypothesis.
Side by side with the northern element (which in some respects,
we may observe to point the contrast, would be better named
the tundra-element) we find a group of species usually spoken of
as the xerothcrmic or meridional element. These do not, how-
ever, form an " element," in the strict geographical sense in
which this term is otherwise used here. They are those species
which, on general phyto-geographical grounds, must be regarded
as having originated under steppe-like conditions. Their affinities
are chiefly, though not exclusively, with the present Mediter-
ranean flora — about fifty are of presumably Mediterranean origin.
—and a large proportion of them are restricted to the southern
slopes of the Alps. The following, however, among others, are
distributed throughout the whole, or a great part, of the range:
Cole hie urn alpinum, Crocus vernus, Orchis globosa,, Petrocallis
Pyrenaica, Astragalus depressus, A. aristatus, Oxytropis Halleri,
Eryngium alpinum, Erica carnea, Linaria alpina, Globularia
nudicaulis, G. cordifolia, Leontopodium alpinum. The last named
(the well-known " edelweiss ") is at the present day character-
istic of the Siberian steppes. The presence of these plants
among the alpine flora is traceable to the steppe-like conditions
which prevailed in central Europe both during the warmer
inter-glacial periods and (probably) for a time after the close of
the ice-age. Subsequently, as the climate of the plains assumed
a colder and more humid character, they retired before the
invading forests to the high mountains. Here, in the intenser
insolation which they enjoy on the alpine slopes, they seem to
find a compensation for the drawbacks incidental to the altitude
of their present station.
As regards now the endemic element as a whole, the question
as to the time and place of its origin is of a highly complicated
and controversial nature. The question, too, in the case of
this element, is necessarily of genetic rather than purely geo-
graphical scope. It must suffice to say that the weight of
scientific opinion inclines to the view that at least the majority
of endemic species are of pre-glacial origin, and are either
strictly indigenous or products of the neighbouring lowlands.
About 40% of the endemic element in the alpine flora are
endemic also in the narrower sense, i.e. they are confined to the
Alps. Many of them are restricted to some one small portion
of the chain; these occur chiefly in the southern and eastern
Alps. It is an interesting fact that the centrally situated
Bernese Alps produce hardly a single peculiar species. The
greater richness of certain districts in the matter of species is
partly due to the variety of soils encountered therein; but in
part may be explained by the fact that these districts were the
first to be freed from the ice-sheet at the end of the glacial period.
The following is a list of the most thoroughly characteristic
alpine plants — all of them ipso facto members of the endemic
element — which are at once peculiar to the Alps (or practically
75+
so) and widely distributed within the limits of the chain. These
are- Festuca pulckella, Carex microslyla, Saiix caesia, Rumex
nivalis, Alsinearetioides, Aquilegia alpina, Thlaspi rotundifolium.
Saxifrage Seguieri, S. apkylla, Astragalus leonlinus, Daphne
striata, Eryngium alpinum, Buplcurum slellatum, Androsace
helvetica, A. glacialis, Cenliana bavarica, Phyteuma humile.
Campanula thyrsoidea, C. cenisia, Achillea atrata, Cirsium
spinosissimum, Crepis Terglouensis.
Authorities. — Among the voluminous literature on alpine flora,
the following works are particularly noteworthy: — Ball. "On the
Origin of the Flora of the European Alps," in Proceed, of Ike Roy. Ceog.
Soc., 1879; Bennett, The Flora of the Alps, 2 vols, with 120 coloured
plates (1896); Briquet, " Les Colonies vegetales xerothermiques
des alpes lemaniennes," in Bull. d. I. Murithtenne, soc. valaisienne
des sciences not., xxvii. and xxviii. (1898-1899); Alph. de Candolle,
" Sur les causes de I'inegale distribution des plantes rarea dans la,
chalne des Alpes," Extr. des Actes du Conjres botan. internal, de
Florence (1875); Chodat u - Pampanini, "Sur U distribution des
"" " * - "' ' t de la soc.
antenleben
ALPUJARRAS
(ALPINE FAT5-
_. . subject; Engler, Die
Pfiantenformationen und die pflaneengeographiscke Gliederung der
AlpenkeUe (1901); Heer, Ueber die nioale Flora der Sckwei* (188$);
' , Ceschichte und Herkunft der schweizerischen Alpenflora; etne
ht uoer den eegenwdrtigen Stand der Frage (1903); Schroter,
Das PJtanzenleben der Alpen (Zurich, 1908) ; R. von Wettstein. Die
Pflan.
Alpen
Jeroach,
VI
Ceschichie unserer Alpenflora (1896). The best book of coloured
plates is the Atlas der.Alpen/lora, in 5 voh., pub. by the Deutscher u.
Oesterreichischer Alpenverein (2nd. ed., 1897).
12. Fauna, — The fauna of the lower zones in the Alps is, on
the northern side of the chain, practically identical with that of
central Europe, and on the southern side with that of the
Mediterranean basin. But in the higher regions it presents many
features of special interest alike to the zoologist and the traveller.
It seems therefore best to treat here principally of the animal
inhabitants of the high Alps.
Though among mammalia — as also in the case of the birds —
there are but few forms peculiar to the Alps, many interesting
animals have found in the high mountains at least a temporary
refuge from man. The European bison, the urns, the elk and the
wild swine have disappeared since Roman times. But the lynx
(Lynx vulgaris) perhaps lingers in remote parts, and the brown
bear (Ursus arcios) still survives in the dense forests of the Lower
Engadine. The fox (Canis vulpes), the stone marten (Maries
foina) and the stoat or ermine (Pulorius erminca) range in summer
above the tree-limit. The Ungulata are represented by the
chamois (Rupicapra tragus) and the bouquetin or steinbock
(Capra ibex). The former — the sole representative, in western
Europe, of the antelopes— is found elsewhere only in the Pyrenees,
Carpathians, Caucasus and the mountains of eastern Turkey;
the latter survives only in the eastern Graian Alps. Of the
Rodentia the most interesting and conspicuous is the marmot
(Arctomys marmoia), which lives in colonies close to the snow-line.
The snow-mouse (Arvicola nivalis) is confined to the alpine and
snow regions, and is abundant at these levels throughout the
whole chain of the Alps. The mountain hare (Lepus variabilis or
timidus) replaces the common hare (Lepus europaeus) in the
higher regions; though absent from the intervening plains it
again appears in the north of Europe and in Scotland. Among
the Insectivora, the alpine shrew (Sorex alpinus) is restricted to
the Alps. Of the Cheiroptera (bats) only Vcspcrugo maurus is
characteristically alpine.
The birds of the Alps are proportionately very numerous. The
lammergeyer fGypaelus barbatus), once common, is now extremely
rare, even if it has not already become extinct in the Alps; but
the golden eagle (Aquila chrysaetos) still holds its own. Some of
the smaller birds of prey are not uncommon, but there is none
that can be regarded as specially characteristic either of the Alps
as a whole or of the alpine region. As characteristic birds of the
snow-region may be mentioned the alpine chough (Pyrrhocorax
alpinus), which is frequently seen at the summits even of the
loftiest mountains, the alpine swift (Cypsdus melba), the wall-
creeper (Tichodroma muraria), snow-finch (Monlifringilla nivalis)
and ptarmigan (Lagopus mutus); the geographical distribution
of this last being similar to that of the mountain hare. The black
redstart (RuliciUa titys), though common in the lower regions, is
also met with in fair numbers almost up to the snow-fiat >
raven (Corvus corax) is fairly common in the alpine and sub-a!^
regions. On the highest pastures we find, further, the az*a
accentor (Accentor collaris) and the alpine pipit (Amtkms ttv
letta). The crag-martin (CatyU rupeslris) haunts lofty cli£» is =
alpine region. On the upper verge of the pine forests, or - s
scrubby vegetation just beyond, the following are not uncock
—black woodpecker (Picus martins), ring -ousel (Turd*i -r
quatus), Bonelli's warbler (PhyUoscopus Bonetlii). created '.
(Par us cristatus), citril finch (CitrineUa alpina), siskin (C&>
mitris spinus), crossbill (Loxia curvirostra), nutcracker (iVkvV'
caryocatactes), blackcock (Tetrao tetrix), and the alpine vaaeua
of the marsh-tit (Parus palustris, borealis) and tree-creoe
(Certhia familiar is, costae).
The remaining classes of Vertebrata are very sparser/ rrp>
sen ted in the high Alps; and what few species occur are wbJ*
common to the plains as well. In fact, among the remaiaiaf ^i
vertebrates, only the black salamander (Salantasedr* s*z >
exclusively alpine. This interesting animal, though a member *
the Amphibia, is terrestrial and viviparous.
The former connexion between the Arctic and the Alps, *-±
has left such unmistakable traces in the present alpine 6m.
affords, as regards the fauna also, the only possible expiasa^s
of the present geographical distribution of many alpine fcrsr
but it is chiefly among the Invertebrata that we find this coSUnssi
testimony to the influence of the glacial period. In this resp«
we may note that two small crustaceans, DiapUrmus beciSifcr *M
D. denlicomis, swarm in the ice-cold waters of the highest ai^ac
tarns throughout the entire chain; and the former of these is ate
a characteristic inhabitant of pools formed from melting snow k
the extreme north. Among the remaining divisions of later*
brata special mention may be made of the air-breath^
Artbropoda — on the whole the most important and Intercast
group. About one-third of the animals belonging thereto uc
occur in the higher regions are exclusively alpine Cor alpine i=£
northern); these characteristically alpine forms being faratste
chiefly by the spiders, beetles and butterflies. Most wuatsem
are the beetles. Those of the highest zone are remarkable lor 3*
great predominance of predaceous species and of wingless fores
In this last respect they present a striking analogy with -*
endemic coleopterous fauna of oceanic islands. As for tit
butterflies, not more than one-third of the species found is tk
alpine region occur in the neighbouring lowlands. The relabca
between alpine butterflies and plants are especially interests*
as regards not only their bionomic interdependence but also lie
analogies of their geographical distribution. It should be acted
that butterflies are the chief agents in securing the contact
existence of such alpine flowers as depend on insect fertilizaika,
the other insect fertilizers being mostly wanting at great hegbn-
The classic of alpine zoology is F. von Tschudi's Dms Tieriehen ia
Alpenwelt (l ith ed., 1890). bee also zoological section, by K. W r
Dalla Torre, of AnleUung tu mssenschafUichen Bcotacktnmcrn **f
Alpenreisen. For the Vertebrata, see V. Fatio's Fount des wr*3-t»
de la Suisse (5 vols., 1869-1904). Die Tierwelt der tf«r*M*«rrjjna.
by F. Zschokke (1900) is an important treatise 00 an mteracar
department of alpine natural history. C. Zeller'a Aipestiim r-
- *m* der Zeit (189a) '
ranee of some of 1
Wtchsd der Zeit (1892) gives a reliable account of the sjradas.' <*»
appearance of some of the larger forms of life from the Ales, f*
the inter-relations of alpine insects and flowers, see H. M«^ri
Alpenblumen. ihre Befruchtung dunk Inuhten, und ihre A npesjunx
• - (1881). (h.v7k7
ALPTJJARRAfl, or Aipuxamas. THE (Moorish «l £tufc*st
" the grass-land "), a mountainous district of southern Spain, a
the province of Granada, consisting principally of vaEcyt
which descend at right angles from the crest of the Sierra Nevada
on the north, to the Sierras Almijara, Contraviesa and Qiiar.
which sever it from the Mediterranean Sea, on the south. Them
valleys are among the most beautiful and fertile in Spain. Tbrr
contain a rich abundance of fruit trees, especially vines, orargts.
lemons and figs, and in some parts present scenes of alc<cst
Alpine grandeur. The inhabitants are the descendants of the
Moors, who, after the Spanish conquest of Granada in mo*
vainly sought to preserve the last relics of their independence is
their mountain fastnesses. Many of the names of places ta the
'ALQAMA IBN <ABADA— ALSACE
755
Alpujarras are of Moorish origin. The district contains many
villages of xooo to 4000 inhabitants, the four largest being
Lanjaron, with its ruined castle and chalybeate baths, Orgiba,
Yreveles and Ugijar; all situated at a considerable elevation.
Trevelez, the highest, stands 5333 ft. above the sea.
"ALQAMA IBM 'ABADA, generally known as 'Alqama al-
Fahl, an Arabian poet of the tribe Tamlm, who flourished in the
second half of the 6th century. Of his life we know practically
nothing except that his chief poem concerns an incident in the
wars between the Lakhmids and the Ghass&nids (see Arabia,
History). Even the date of this is doubtful, but it is generally
referred to the period after the middle of the 6th century. His
poetic description of ostriches is said to have been famous among
the Arabs. His diwin consists of three qasldas (elegies) and
eleven fragments. Asma* I considered three of the poems
genuine.
The poems were edited by A. Sorin with Latin translation as
EH* Gedickte des Alkama Alfakl (Leipzig, 1867), and are contained
in W. Ahlwardt's The Diwans of the six ancient Arabic Poets
(Lond., 1870); cf. W. Ahlwardt's Bemerkunten uber die Aeektheit
der alien arabiscken Cedichte (Greifswald, 1873), pp. 65-71 and
146-168. (C.W.T.)
ALQUIFOU (etymologically the same word as "alcohol"),
a lead ore found in Cornwall, used by potters for its green glaze.
ALREDUS, Alureo or Alureous, OP BEVERLEY, was
sacristan of the church of Beverley in the first half of the z 2th
century. He wrote, apparently about the year 1 143, a chronicle
entitled Annates she Historic de gestis regutn Britannia*, which
begins with Brutus and carries the history of England down to
1x39. This work was edited by T. Hearne (Oxford, 2716), and
at one time enjoyed some reputation as an authority. It is,
however, a mere compilation and of no value. Geoffrey
of Monmouth and Simeon of Durham are Alured's chief
sources. Among the Cottonian MSS. there is a collection of
records relating to Beverley, LibertaUs Ecdesiae S. Johannis
dt Bevcrlae, which is attributed to Alured, but on no good
authority. (H. W. C. D.)
ALSACE (Ger. Elsass), a former province of France, divided
after the Revolution into the departments of Haut-Rhin and
Bas-Rhin, and incorporated since the war of 1870 with the
German empire (see Alsace-Lorraine). It is bounded on the
north by the Rhenish Palatinate, on the east by the Rhine, on
the south by Switzerland and on the west by the Vosges
Mountains; and it comprises an area of 3344 English sq.
m. The district possesses many natural attractions, and is
one of the most fertile in central Europe. There are several
ranges of hills, but no point within the province attains a great
elevation. The only river of importance is the 111, which falls
into the Rhine after a course of more than 100 m., and is navi-
gable below Colmar. The hills are generally richly wooded,
chiefly with fir, beech and oak. The agricultural products are
corn, flax, tobacco, grapes and various other fruits. The country
has a great wealth of minerals, silver having been found, and
copper, lead, iron, coal and rock-salt being wrought with profit.
There are considerable manufactures, chiefly of cotton and linen.
The chief towns are Mulhausen and Colmar in the upper district
and Strassburg in the lower. The province is traversed from
east to west by the railway from Strassburg to Nancy, and the
main line north and south runs between Basel and Strassburg.
History.— From a very early period Alsace has been a disputed
territory, and has suffered in the contentions of rival races.
Inhabited by the Rauraci and the Sequani, it formed part of
ancient Gaul, and was therefore included in the Roman empire
in the provinces of Germania Superior and Maxima Sequanorum.
The Romans held it nearly five hundred years, and on the dis-
solution of their power it passed under the sway of the Franks.
In the Merovingian period it formed a duchy attached to the
kingdom of Australia, and was governed by the descendants
of duke Eticho, one of whom was St Odilia. After the death
of Charlemagne, Alsace, like the rest of the empire, was divided
into countships. But the duchy was re-established after the
death of the German king Henry I., and became hereditary in
the Hohenstaufen family, and then in. the house of Austria,
which succeeded is 1373 to the imperial dignity. In the be-
ginning of the 1 sth century the country was divided between
the two landgraviates of Upper and Lower Alsace, but to
counteract the power of the nobles the emperors established
in Alsace a great number of free towns. This state of things
continued until 1648, when a large part of Alsace, comprising
the two landgraviates of Upper and Lower Alsace and the pre-
fecture of the ten free imperial towns, was ceded to France by
the treaty of Westphalia. In the war which preceded this peace
(generally known as the Thirty Years' War) Alsace had been
so terribly devastated by the Swedes and the French that the
German emperor found himself unable to hold it The population
was greatly reduced in numbers, and much of the land was left
uncultivated. In the war between France and the Empire,
arising out of the attempt of Louis XIV. to seize Holland, that
part of Alsace which remained to Germany was again overrun
by the French. Although this war was terminated in 1678 by
the treaty of Nijmwegen, the French monarch was desirous of
incorporating a still larger amount of Rhine territory; and
accordingly in 1680 he laid claim to a number of territories,
belonging to princes of the Empire, which he alleged had been
dismembered from Alsace. It was ordered that these territories
should be at once restored to that province under the crown of
France, and several independent sovereigns were cited to appear
before two chambers of inquiry, called chambrcs de reunion, which
Louis had established at Brisach and Metz. The princes appealed
to the emperor and to the diet; but the previous wars had so
exhausted the power of the former that nothing could be done
to resist the aggression. In 1681 the French troops under
Louvois seized Strassburg, aided by the treachery of the bishop
and other great men of the city. A further war broke out, but
by the treaty of Ratisbon (Regensburg) in 1684, Strassburg was
secured to France. The war was renewed in x688 and con-
tinued until 1697, when the peace of Ryswick confirmed defini-
tively the annexation of Strassburg to France. Some remaining
territories of small extent were acquired by the French after
the revolution of 1789, including Mulhausen, which had been
a republic allied to Switzerland.
Originally Celtic, the population was modified during the
Roman period by the arrival of a Germanic people, the TribocL
In the 5th century came other German tribes, the Alamanni,
and then the Franks, who drove the Alamanni into the south.
Since that period the population has in the main been Teutonic;
and the French conquests of the 17 th century, while modifying
this element, still left it predominant. The people continued
to use a German dialect as their native tongue, though the
educated classes also spoke French. Protestantism was professed
by a large number of the inhabitants; and in many respects
their characteristics identified them rather with the race to the
east than that to the west of the Rhine. In process of time,
however, they considered themselves French, and lost all desire
for rcannexation to any of the German states.
Alsace suffered a good deal in the war .of 1870-71. The
earlier battles of the campaign were fought there; Strassburg
and other of its fortified towns were besieged and taken; and
its people were compelled to submit to very severe exactions.
The civil and military government of the province, as well as
that of Lorraine, was assumed by the Germans as soon as they
obtained possession of those parts of France, which was very
shortly after the commencement of the war. The Alsatian rail-
ways were reorganized and provided with a staff of German
officials. German stamps were introduced from Berlin; the
occupied towns were garrisoned by the Landwhr; and requisi-
tions on a large scale were demanded, and paid for in cheques
which, at the dose of the war, were to be honoured by whichever
side should stand in the unpleasant position of the conquered.
The people, notwithstanding their German origin, showed a very
strong feeling against the invaders, and in no part of France
was the enemy resisted with greater stubbornness. It was evident
from an early period of the war, however, that Prussia was
resolved to rcannex Alsace to German territory. When the
preliminaries of peace came to be discussed at Versailles in
756
ALSACE-LORRAINE
February 1871, the cession of Abacs, together with what b called
German Lorraine, was one of the earliest conditioni laid down
by Bismarck and accepted by Thiers. This sacrifice of territory
was afterwards ratified by the National Assembly at Bordeaux,
though not without a protest from the representatives of the
departments about to be given up; and thus Alsace once more
became German. By the bill for the incorporation of Alsace
and German Lorraine, introduced into the German parliament
in May 1871, It was provided that the sole and supreme control
of the two provinces should be vested in the German emperor
and the federal council until the 1st of January 1874, when the
constitution of the German empire was established. Bismarck
admitted the aversion of the population to Prussian rule, but said
that everything would be done to conciliate the people. This
policy appears really to have been carried out, and it was not
long in bearing fruit. Many of the inhabitants of the conquered
districts, however, stOl clung to the old connexion, and on the
30th of September 187s — the day by which the people were
required to determine whether they would consider themselves
German subjects and remain, or French subjects and transfer
their domicile to France— 45,000 elected to be still French, and
sorrowfully took their departure. The German system of com-
pulsory education of every child above the age of six was intro-
duced directly after the annexation.
ALBACE-LORRAIKB (Ger. Elsass-Lotkringen), a German
imperial territory (since 1871), consisting of the former French
province Alsace (then divided into the departments of Haut-
Rhin and Bas-Rhin), together with its capital Strassburg, and
German Lorraine (which included the department of the Moselle
and portions of the departments of Meurthe and Vosges),
together with the capital and fortress of Metx. The imperial
territory (Reichsiand) is bounded S. by Switzerland; E. by
Baden, from which it is separated by the Rhine; N.E. and N.
by the Bavarian Palatinate, the Prussian Rhine Province and
Luxemburg, and W. by France. Its area is 5601 sq. m. The
maximum length from N. to S. is 145 m.; the maximum breadth
E. to W. 105 m., and the minimum breadth, on a line drawn
through Schlettstadt, 24 m. In respect of its physical features,
Alsace-Lorraine falls into three parts— mountain land, plain
and plateau. The first, practically co-extensive with the
western half of Alsace, consists of the Vosges range, which
running in a northerly direction from the deep gap or pass of
Belf ort {trouU da BelforQ forms in its highest ridges the natural
frontier line between Germany and France. Between this
mountain chain and its spurs, which fall steeply to the E., and
the Rhine, stretches a fertile plain forming the eastern half of
Alsace. In the N.W. a high and undulating plateau, which
gently descends in the W. to the valley of the Moselle, occupies
nearly the whole area of Lorraine. The drainage of the Vosges
valleys and of the Rhine valley is collected and carried into the
Rhine about 10 m. below Strassburg by the 111, which has a
course of more than 100 m. and is navigable below Colmar.
With the exception of a few streams which run to the Rhone,
all the waters of Alsace flow into the Rhine. The climate is on
the whole temperate— warmest in the lowest districts (460 f L
above sea-level) of N. Alsace, and coldest on the summits of
the Vosges, where snow lies six months in the year. The mean
annual temperature at Strassburg is 49-8° F., at Metx 48*2°;
the rainfall at Strassburg 26} in., and at Metx 27} in. The Rhine
valley is in great part fertile, yielding good crops of potatoes,
cereals (including maize), sugar beet, hops, tobacco, flax, hemp
and products of oleaginous plants. But grapes and fruit are
amongst the most valuable of the crops. The cereals chiefly
grown are wheat, oats, barley and rye. Great quantities of hay
are harvested. This description embraces also* the production
of Lorraine, where agriculture is less strenuously carried on, and
the fertility of the soil is less. But Lorraine possesses, in com-
pensation, greater riches in the earth, in coal and iron and salt
mines. Cows are grazed on the S. Vosges in summer, and large
quantities of cheese (MUnster cheese) are made and exported.
Total population (1005) 1,814,626.
The farms in Alsace are mostly small and are held partly as a
private p o ss es si on, partly on the commtrnal system; in :
there axe tome larger occupations. The>manirfactttre ef cooaa
and on a smaller scale of woollens, is special to Alsace, the ea*
centres of the industry being Mulhausen, Conner sad :*
valleys of the Vosges. The territory has always bcem the cesa
of an active commerce, owing to its situation on the coatee r
Germany, France and Switzerland, and a lnngtwtf the p*
highway of the Rhine. The comniuiucatkns embraced see
1249 m. of railway (1003), of which 1x08 m. biinsisyrt to te-
state, a good system of roads, and several canals (notably oe
Rhine-Rhone, the Rhine-Marie and the Saar Canals), m addea
to the rivers. Administratively the territory fa divided »t» at
following three districts, showing a density of popsaiiwi 4
about 5x6 to the sq. m.:—
Districts.
Area in tq.
mile*.
PbfMttatiofe.
1885.
■90S-
Upper Alsace . • .
Lower Alsace r t
Lorraine . ...
2402
462.549
6x2,077
4*9.7*9
51*409
686459
615-55*
On the sex division, 035,305 were in X005 males, and 87*33
females. The percentage of illegitimacy is about 7. The nsa
population embraces 51% of the whole, the urban popuana
48 %. The largest towns are Strassburg (the capital of de
territory), Mulhausen, Metx, Colmar, all above 20*000 mhststi-a
each. Classified according to religion there were, in xso).
372,078 Protestants, 1,3x0,391 Roman Catholics, and 32^1
Jews. Education is provided for at the university of Strawhaq.
in sx classical and pro-classical schools, in 18 mo de m schwa,
and in nearly 4000 elementary schools. Over 85 % of the peso*
speak German as their mother-tongue, the rent French, «r »
patois of French. The annual revenue and expenditure a*
each somewhat in excess of £3,000,000. Customs and sb£h£
taxes yield more than three-fifths of the total revenue, as!
direct taxes less than one-fourth. The state forests give abc-*
one-ninth of the whole. The higher sdininbtratJon of justice 1
devolved upon six provincial courts and a supreme court, s*t=|
at Colmar. Moreover, there are purely industrial tribanah *
Mulhausen, Thann, Marklrch, Strassburg and Metx, The fas-
breeding establishment at Huningen in Upper Abace ahoaU fc
mentioned.
Constitution.— The sovereignty over the territory was fc? 1
law (Reicksgesets) of the 9th of June 1871 vested in the Genes
emperor, who, until the introduction of the imperial constJtssiB
on the xst of January 1874, had, with the assent of the tedea
council (Bundesrai) and, in a few cases, that of the ixaperial dc
(Reichstag), the sole right of initiating legislation. In Oache
of this last year a committee (Lattdcsoussckuss) of the was*
territory was appointed to deliberate on laws p ropos ed to t
before they received the final sanction of the emperor. On the
2nd of May 1877, the Landasatusckuu was itself empowered »
initiate legislation within the competence of the territory, and a
1879 the imperial viceroy (StaUkaticr), representing the oca
chancellor, who had until then been the responsible mmasc
took up bis residence in Strassburg. He is assisted in the goven-
ment by 4 ministers of departments, under the pcesidency ef *
secretary of state, and, when occasion demands the eatxaotdosri
discussion of legislative proposals, by a council of st*»
(Stoatsrat), consisting of the secretary of state, under secretana
the president of the supreme court of justice of the terrfrsr?
and, as a rule, of 12 nominees of the emperor. The lomdnn*
schuss, a constitutional body with parliamentary privilena
consists of 58 members, 34 being appointed out of their autebt?
by the various district councils (Betirkstage), 4 by the large torn
land 20 by the rural districts. Alsace-Lorraine is represeestf
in the Bundesrat by two commissioners, who have, howeve
but one voice; and the territory returns 1$ members to tat
Reichstag.
See A. Schmidt. Elsass und Lotkrvutn (Lefo. 1899): SpsA
Histoire de la basse Abort et de la vtiU de Strashemrw (Scnv
i860): von MQUeoheim Rechberg. Pie Ammttsem das Eismts mm*
ALSATIA— ALSTROMER
757
PranhrtUh mi RichUkh ami die Vuwalmng dee Louies, 1648-1607
(Straa., 1807) ; Da Prel. Diedsutschs VerwaUung in Blsass, 1870-1870
(Straa., 1879); L. Petenen, Das D eutsehtum mBUass-Lsmringen
(Munich, 1903). (P. A. AJ
AUATU (the old French province of Alsace), long a
" debatable ground " between France and Germany, and hence
a name applied in the 17th century to the district of Whitefriars,
between the Thames and Fleet Street, in London, which afforded
aanctuary (9.9.) to debtors and criminals. The privileges were
abolished in 1697. The term is also used generally of any refuge
for criminals.
ALIEN (Danish Alt), an island in the Baltic, off the coast of
Schleswig, in the Little Belt. It formerly belonged to Denmark,
but, as a result of the Danish war of 1864, was incorporated
with Germany. Its area 2s 105 sq. m.; the length nearly so,
and the breadth from 3 to is m. Pop. (xooo) 25,000, most of
whom speak Danish. The island is fertile, richly wooded, and
yields pain and fruit Sonderburg, the capital, with a good
harbour and a considerable trade, is connected with the mainland
by a pontoon bridge. Other places of note are Norburg and
Augustenburg. On the peninsula Kekenis at the S. W. end of
Alsen there is a lighthouse. Here, in 1848, the Danes directed
their main attack against Field-marshal Wrangel's army. In
1864 the Prussians under Herwarth von Bittenfeld took Alsen,
which was occupied by 0000 Danish troops under Steinmann,
thus bringing the Danish war to a dote. Since 1870 Alsen has
been fortified.
'ALSHRKH, MOSES, Jewish rabbi in Safed (Palestine) in the
later part of the 16th century. He was the author of many
homfletical commentaries on the Hebrew Bible. His works still
justly enjoy much popularity, largely because of their powerful
influence as practical exhortations to virtuous life.
AUIETUfUS LACU8 (mod. Logo di Martignano), a small
lake in southern Etruria, 15 m. due N.N. W. of Rome, in an
extinct crater. Augustus drew from it the Aqua Aisle Una;
the water was hardly fit to drink, and was mainly intended to
supply his naumachia (lake made for a sham naval battle) at
Rome, near S. Francesco a Ripa, on the right bank of the Tiber,
where some traces of the aqueduct were perhaps found in 172a
The course of the aqueduct, which was mainly subterranean,
is practically unknown: Frontinus tells us that it received a
branch from the lake of Bracdano near Careiae (Galera): and
an inscription relating to It was found in this district in 1887
(F. Barnabei, Nolitu degli Scavi, 1887, 181).
ALSIUM (mod. Pale), an ancient town of Etruria, 39 m. W. by
N. of Rome by rail, on the Via Aurelia, by which it is about
as m. from Rome. It was one of the oldest cities of Etruria,
but does not appear in history till the Roman colonization of
347 B.C., and was never of great importance, except as a resort
of wealthy Romans, many of whom (Pompey, the Antonine
emperors) had villas there. About if m. N.E. of Palo is a row of
large mounds called I Monteroni, which belong to tombs of the
Etruscan cemetery. Considerable remains of ancient villas
still exist along the low sandy coast, one of which, about 1 m. E.
of Palo, occupies an area of some 400 by 350 yds. The medieval
castle belongs to the Odescalchi family. Near Palo is the modern
sea-bathing resort Ladispoli. founded by Prince Odescalchi.
See G. Dennis, Chits and Cemeteries of Etruria, i. 2 19.
ALBOP, VUfCBNT (c. 1630-1703), English Nonconformist
divine, was of Northamptonshire origin and was educated at
St John's College, Cambridge. He received deacon's orders
from a bishop, whereupon he settled as assistant-master in the
free school of Oakham, Rutland. He was reclaimed from in-
different courses and associates here by a very "painful"
minister, the Rev. Benjamin King. Subsequently he married
Mr King's daughter, and " becoming a convert to his principles,
received ordination in the Presbyterian way, not being satisfied
with that which he had from the bishop." He was presented to
the living of Wflby in Northamptonshire; but was thence
ejected under the act of Uniformity in 1663. After bis ejection
he preached privately at Oakham and Wellingborough, sharing
the common pains and penalties of nonconformists,—*^, he was
imprisoned six months for praying with a sick person. A book
against William Sherlock, dean of 8t Paul's, called Antisono
(against Sodnus), written in the vein of Andrew Marvdl's
Rehearsal Transposed, procured him much cdebrity as a wit.
Dr Robert South, no friend to nonconformists, publicly pro-
nounced that Alsop had the advantage of Sherlock in every way.
Besides fame, Antisomo procured for its author an invitation to
succeed the venerable Thomas Cawton (the younger) as inde-
pendent minister in Westminster. He accepted the call and
drew great multitudes to his chapd. He published other books
which showed a fecundity of wit, a playful strength of reasoning,
and a provoking indomitableness of raillery. Even with Dr
Goodman and Dr Stfllingfleet for antagonists, he more than
held his own. His Mischief of Impositions (1680) in answer to
Stillingfleet's Mischief of Separation, and Melius Inquirendum
(1679) in answer to Goodman's Compassionate Inquiry, remain
historical landmarks in the history of nonconformity. Later
on, from the entanglements of a son in alleged treasonable
practices, he had to sue for and obtained pardon from King
James IL This seems to have given a somewhat diplomatic
character to his dosing years, inasmuch as, while remaining a
nonconformist, he had a good deal to do with proposed polittcal-
ecdesiastkal compromises. He died on the 8th of May 1703,
having preserved his "spirits and smartness" to the last
See Wood'si4lama« (Bliss) iv. 106; Calamy's Life of Box^r.U. 487;
Wilson's History and Ant, of Dissenting Churches, iv. 63-66.
(A.J.O
AJJTID, JOHAMM HOMRICH (1589-1638), German Pro-
testant divine. He was some time professor of philosophy and
theology at Herborn, in Nassau, and afterwards at Weissenburg
in Transylvania, where he remained till his death in 1638. He
was a marvellously prolific writer. His Encyclopaedia (1630),
the most considerable of the earlier works ofthat class, was long
hdd in high estimation.
ALSTON, CHARLES (1683-1760), Scottish botanist, was
born at Eddlewood, near Hamilton, in 1683, and became lecturer
in materia medica and botany at Edinburgh and also superin-
tendent of the botanical gardens, of the plants in which he
published a catalogue in 174a He was a critic of Linnaeus's
system of plant-classification (see Botany). He died on the
a and of November 1 760 at Edinburgh. His Lectures on Materia
Medica were published posthumously in 1770.
AIATON, a market-town in the Penrith parliamentary division
of Cumberland, England, 29 m. by road E.S.E. of Carlisle, on
a branch of the North-Eastern railway from Haltwhistle. Pop.
(xoox) 3x33. It lies in the uppermost part of the valley of the
South Tyne, among the high bleak moors of the Pennines.
Copper and blende are found, and there are limestone quarries.
The mines of argentiferous lead, bdonging to Greenwich Hospital,
London, were formerly of great value, and it was in order that
royalties on the Alston lead mines and on those elsewhere in the
county might be jointly collected that the parish was first
induded within the borders of Cumberland, in the 1 8th century.
As many as 1x9 lead mines were worked in the parish in 1768,
but the supply of metal has been almost exhausted. Coal is
worked chiefly for lime-burning, and umber is prepared for the
.manufacture of colours. Thread and flannels are also made.
Whitley Castle, a m. N., was a Roman fort, the original name of
which is not known, guarding the road which ran along the
South Tyne valley and over the Pennines. It has no connexion
with Alston itself.
ALSTROMER, JONAS (1685-1761), Swedish industrial re-
former, was born at Ah'ngsas in VestergGUand, on the 7th of
January 1685. He Idt his native village at an early age, and in
1707 became clerk to Alberg, a merchant of Stockholm, whom he
accompanied to London. After carrying on business for three
years, Alberg failed, and AlstrOm (as his name was before his
ennoblement) engaged in the business of shipbroker on his own
account, and eventually proved very successful. After travel-
ling for several years on the continent, be was seized with the
patriotic desire to transplant to his native country some of the
industries be had seen flourishing in Britain. He accordingly
returned to Alingsis, and in 1734 established a woollen factory in
758
ALTAI
the village. After preliminary difficulties it became a very
profitable business. He next established a sugar refinery at
Gothenburg, introduced improvements in the cultivation of
potatoes and of plants suitable for dyeing, and directed atten-
tion to improved methods in shipbuilding, tanning and the
manufacture of cutlery. But his most successful undertaking
was the importation of sheep from England, Spain and Angora.
He received many marks of distinction, was created ( 1 748) knight
of the order of the North Star, and a few years later received letters
of nobility, with permission to change his name to Alstrdmer. He
died on the 2nd of June 1761, leaving several works on practical
industrial subjects. A statue was erected in his honour in the
exchange at Stockholm. One of his sons, Gas (Gaude) (1736-
1794)1 was a naturalist of considerable eminence. During a
voyage to Spain he noticed a native Peruvian plant known in
Peru as the lily of the Incas, at the Swedish counsul's at Cadiz; he
sent a few seeds to his master and friend, Linnaeus, who named
the genus in his honour Alstrdmerio. He also wrote a work on
sheep-breeding.
ALTAI ( in Mongolian Altain-uh, the " Mountains of Gold "),
a term used in Asiatic geography with various significations.
The Altai region, in West Siberia and Mongolia, is similar in
character to Switzerland, but covers a very much greater area.
It extends from the river Irtysh and the Dzungarian depression
(46% 7 N.) northwards to the Siberian railway and to the Sayan
mountains. The backbone of the region is the Sailughem or
Silyughema mountains, also known as Kolyvan Altai, which
stretch north-eastwards from 49° N. and 86° £. towards the
western extremity of the Sayan mountains in 51° 6V N. and
8o° £. Their mean elevation is 5000-5500 ft The snow-line
runs at 6700 ft. on the northern versant and at 7800 ft. on the
southern, and above it the rugged peaks tower up some 3200 ft.
more. Passes across the range are few and difficult, the chief
being the Ulan-daban a* 9275 ft (9445 ft according to Kozlov),
and the Chapchan-daban, at 10,555 ft*> hi the south and north
respectively. On the east and south-east this range is flanked by
the great plateau of Mongolia, the transition being effected
gradually by means of several minor plateaus, such as Ukdk
(7800 ft.), Chuya (6000 ft), Kendykty (8200 ft), Kak (8270 ft),
Suok (8500 ft.), and Juvlu-kul (7000 ft.). This region, which is
not accurately known, is studded with large lakes, i.e. Ubsa-nor
(2370 ft. above sea-level), Rirghiz-nor, Durga-nor and Kobdo-nor
(3840 ft), and traversed by various mountain ranges, of which
the principal are the Tannu-ola, running roughly parallel with
the Sayan mountains as far east as the Kosso-gol (ioo°-ioi° E.
long.), and the Khan-khu mountains, also stretching west and
east.
The range of the Altai Proper, known also as the Ek-tagh,
Mongolian Altai, Great Altai and Southern Altai, likewise extend
in two twin parallel chains eastwards as far as 09°, if not farther.
The Ek-tagh or Mongolian Altai, which separates the Robdo
basin on the north from the Irtysh basin on the south, is a true
border-range, in that it rises in a steep and lofty escarpment
from the Dzungarian depression (1550 to 3000 ft), but descends
on the north by a relatively short slope to the plateau (4000-5500
ft) of north-western Mongolia. East of 04° the range is continued
by a double series of mountain chains, all of which exhibit less
sharply marked orographical features and are at considerably
lower elevations. The southern chain bears the names of Kara-
adzirga and Burkhan-ola, and terminates in about 99°; but the
northern range, the principal names of which are Artsi-bogdo and
Saikhat, extends probably most of the way to the great north-
ward bend of the Hwang-ho or Yellow River round the desert of
Ordos. Whereas the western Ek-tagh Altai rises above the snow-
line and is destitute of timber, the eastern double ranges barely
touch the snow-line and are clothed with thick forests up to an
altitude of 6250 ft The slopes of the constituent chains of the
system are inhabited principally by nomad Kirghiz.
The north-western and northern slopes of the Sailughem
mountains are extremely steep and very difficult of access. On
this side lies the culminating summit of the range, the double-
headed Byclukha (the Mont Blanc of the Altai), whose summits
reach 14,890 and 14,560 ft. respectively, 1 and give angni te
several glaciers (30 sq. m. in aggregate area). Here also are *±t
Kuitun (x 2,000 ft.) and several other lofty peaks. Ku
spurs, striking in all directions from the Sailughem 1
fill up the space between that range and the lowlands of Tossk,
but their mutual relations are far from being well known. Sad
are the Chuya Alps, having an average altitude of 9000 ft, vid
summits from 11,500 to 12,000 ft, and at least tea gbdes a
their northern slope; the Katun Alps, which have a mea
elevation of about 10,000 ft and are mostly snow-dad; ur
Kholzun range; the Korgon (6300 to 7600 ft), Talitsk and Se&sc
ranges; the Tigeretsk Alps, and so on. Several secoodar?
plateaus of lower altitude are also distinguished by geographes
The Katun valley begins as a wild gorge on the south-west shoe
of Byelukha; then, after a bag bend, the river (400 nv tag}
pierces the Katun Alps, and enters a wider valley, lying at ax
altitude of from 2000 to 3500 ft, which it follows until it emenja
from the Altai highlands to join the Biya in a most picturesque
region. The Katun and the Biya together form the Ob. Tie
next valley is that of the Charysh, which has the Korgon sad
Tigeretsk Alps on one side and the Talitsk and Bashalatsk Aba
on the other. This, too, is very fertile. The Altai, seen from tbs
valley, presents the most romantic scenes, including the saal
but deep Kolyvan lake (altitude, 1180 ft), which is sarronaoe:
by fantastic granite domes and towers. Farther west the vafirn
of the Uba, the Ulba and the Bukhtarma open south-westwa.*tb
towards the Irtysh. The lower part of the first, like the km
valley of the Charysh, is thickly populated; in the valley of tk
Ulba is the Riddersk mine, at the foot of the Ivanovsk peal
(6770 ft) , clothed with beautiful alpine meadows. The vafie? &
the Bukhtarma, which has a length of 200 m., also has its ongit
at the foot of the Byelukha and the Kuitun peaks, and as kfxSi
some 5000 ft in less than 200 m., from an alpine plateau at ai
elevation of 6200 ft to the Bukhtarma fortress (1 130 ft.), it ©fen
the most striking contrasts of landscape and vegetation. lu
upper parts abound in glaciers, the best known of which u m?
Berel, which comes down from the Byelukha. On the northers
side of the range which separates the upper Bukhtarma iron tk
upper Katun is the Katun glacier, which after two ice-fab
widens out to 700-000 yards. From a grotto in this glacier buna
tumultuously the Katun river. The middle and lower parts at
the Bukhtarma valley have been colonized since the 18th centsry
by runaway Russian peasants— serfs and noacxudonaagi
(Raskolniks)— who created there a free republic on Chinese
territory; and after this part of the valley was annexed t>
Russia in i860, it was rapidly colonized. The high vaSrys
farther north, on the same western face of the Sailughem rang*
are but little known, their only visitors being Kirghiz shepherd.
Those of Bashkaus, Chulyshman, and Chulcha, all three leaoxsr,
to the beautiful alpine lake of Teletskoye (length, 4S aw,
maximum width, 3 m.; altitude, 1700 ft; area, 87 sq. au.
maximum depth, 1020 ft ; mean depth, 660 ft), are only ™h»*»»-<
by nomad Telenghites or Teleuts. The shores of the lake-
reminding a visitor somewhat of the Swiss lake of ]
rise almost sheer to over 6000 ft and are too wild toi
a numerous population. From this lake issues the Biya, vakh
joins the Katun at Biysk, and then meanders through the
beautiful prairies of the north-west of the Altai Farther north
the Altai highlands are continued in the Kuznetsk district, which
has a slightly different geological aspect, but still belongs to the
Altai system. But the Abakan river, which rises on the wesaera
shoulder of the Sayan mountains, belongs to the system of the
Yenisei. The Kuznetsk Ala-tau range, on the left bank of the
Abakan, runs north-east into the government of Yeniseisk, vhfie
a complexus of imperfectly mapped mountains (Chukchct
Salair, Abakan) fills up the country northwards towards the
Siberian railway and westwards towards the Ob. The Toss and
its numerous tributaries rise on the northern slopes of the
Kuznetsk Ala-tau, and their fertile valleys are occupied by •
1 Mr S. Turner estimates the culminating peak of Mt. Byetakss
at 14.800 ft., but to Willer's Peak, a little to theN. W. of Byehika*
he assigns an altitude of 17,800 ft. (p. 305 of Siberia).
ALTAMURA— ALTAR
759
dense Russian population, the centre of which is Kuznetsk, on
the Tom.
Geology.— Geologically the Altai mountains consist of two
distinct elements which differ considerably from each other in
composition and structure. The Russian Altai is composed
mainly of mica and chlorite schists and slates, together with
beds of limestone, and in the higher horizons Devonian and
Carboniferous fossils occur in many places. There is no axial
zone of gneiss, but intrusions of granite and other plutonic
rocks occur, and the famous ore deposits are found chiefly near
the contact of these intrusions with the schists. The strata are
thrown into folds which run in the direction of the mountain
ridges, forming a curve with the convexity facing the south-east.
The Mongolian or Great Altai, on the other hand, consists mainly
of gneiss and Archaean rocks. The strike of the rocks is inde-
pendent of the direction of the chain, and the chain is bounded
by faults. It is, in fact, a horst and not a zone of folding.
Flora.— The flora of the Altai, explored chiefly by Karl F. von
Ledebour (1785-1851), is rich and very beautiful. Up to a level
of 1000 ft. on the northern and 2000 ft on the southern slopes,
plant life belongs to the European flora, which extends into
Siberia as far as the Yenisei. The steppe flora penetrates into
the mountains, ascending some 1100-1200 ft, and in sheltered
valleys even up to 5500 ft., when it of course comes into contact
with the purely alpine flora. Tree vegetation, which reaches up
as high as 6500 and 8150 ft, the latter limit on the north and
wrest, consists of magnificent forests of birch, poplar, aspen, and
Coniferae, such as Pinus umbra, Abies sibirica, Larix sibirica,
Picea obovata, and so on, though the fir is not found above 2500
ft., while the meadows are abundantly clothed with brightly-
coloured, typical assortments of herbaceous plants. The alpine
meadows, which have many species in common with the European
Alps, have also a number of their own peculiar Altaian species.
Mineral wealtk. — The Altai proper is rich in silver, copper,
lead and zinc ores, while in the Kuznetsk Ala-tau, gold, iron
and coal are the chief mineral resources. The Kuznetsk Ala-tau
mines are only now beginning to be explored, while the copper,
and perhaps also the silver, ores of the Altai proper were worked
by the mysterious prehistoric race of the Chudes at a time when
the use of iron was not yet known. Russians began to mine in
1727 at Kolyvan, and in 1739 at Barnaul Most of the Altai
region, covering an area of some 170,000 sq. m. and including the
Kuznetsk district, has since 1746 formed a domain of the imperial
family under the name of the Altai Mining District. The ores of
the Altai proper. nearly always appear in irregular veins, con-
taining silver, lead, copper and gold— sometimes all together, —
and they are, or were, worked chiefly by Zmeinogorsk (or Zmeiev) ,
Zyryanovsk, Ust-Kamenogorsk and Riddersk (abandoned in
x86i). They offer, however, great difficulties, especially on
account of their continually varying productivity and tempera-
ture of fusion. The beautiful varieties of porphyry— green, red,
striped — which are obtained, often in big monoliths, near
Kolyvan, are cut at the imperial stone-cutting factory into vases
and other ornaments, familiar in the art galleries and palaces of
Europe. Aquamarines of mediocre quality but enormous size
(up to 3 in. in diameter) are found in the Korgon mine. The
northern, or Salair, mining region is rich in silver ores, and the
mine of this name used formerly to yield up to 93,300 os. of silver
in the year. But the chief wealth of the northern Altai is in the
Kuznetsk coal-basin, also containing iron-ores, which fills up a
valley between the Kuznetsk Ala-tau and the Salair range for a
length of about 270 m., with a width of about 65 m. The coal
is considered equal to the best coal of England and south Russia.
The country is also covered with thick diluvial and alluvial
deposit* containing gold. However, all the mining is now on the
decline.
Papulation.— -The Russian population has rapidly increased
since the fertile valleys belonging to the imperial family have
been thrown open to settlement, and it has been estimated that
in 1908 the population of the region (Biysk, Barnaul and
Kuznetsk districts) reached about 800,000. Their chief occupa-
tions are agriculture (about 3,500,000 acres under culture), cattle-
breeding, bee-keeping, mining, gathering of cedar-nuts and
hunting. All this produce is exported partly to Tomsk and
partly to Kobdo in Mongolia. The natives may represent a
population of about 45,000. They are Altaians in the west and
Telenghites or Teleuts in the east, with a few Kalmucks and
Tatars. Although all are called Kalmucks by the Russians,
they speak a Turkish language. Both the Telenghites and the
Altaians are Shamanists in religion, but many of the former are
already quite Russified. The virgin forests of the Kuznetsk
Ala-tau— the Chern, or Black Forest of the Russians— are
peopled by Tatars, who live in very small settlements, sometimes
of the Russian type, but mostly in wooden yurts or huts of the
Mongolian fashion. They can hardly keep any cattle, and lead
the precarious life of forest-dwellers, living upon various wild
roots when there is no grain in the spring. Hunting and fishing
are resorted to, and the skins and furs are tanned.
Towns.— The capital of the Altai region is Barnaul, the centre
of the mining administration and an animated commercial town;
Biysk is the commercial centre; Kuznetsk, Ust-Kamenogorsk,
and the mining towns of Kolyvan, Zmeinogorsk, Riddersk and
Salairsk are the next largest places.
Authority** — P> Semenov and C. N. Potamn. IniuppjenJtiitary
vol. of Kn i.m «■(£. <4 Kittcr't Azitn (1B77); Ledcbour, jftrii* dttrth
das Akiiieebirie (1539-1830)3 P. Clukharchcv h Voy&tf acfeatjfMl
dans l' Altai aritntal (iSj«(): Gcbkr, Obtrxitkl des JtaismicA**
Cebirgii I j 837)3 G* von Httrftencn, Retse nock dtm Atiai {Si Peter**
burg, 1B4S}; T. W. Atkinson, Oriental and Wetter* Siberia (ia«a) :
and CoiU t Der Altai (1871), are still worth consulting. Of modem
works »» Adrianov, " jaurnry to the Altai/* in Zapuki /fjui,
Ceogr. Sml %\ ; y*driiitsrv H M Journey m Wat Siberia.' in Zapiski
West S>b. Geagr, Soc. 1L.3 GoIubev„ Altai (1800, Ruuiao); Schmurlo,
" Pa» h S. Altai (Sailughem), in Iseeitia Rvu, Qeotr t Sot. { iSg*),
xxxiv. }; V, SaposhmkoY, various articles in *anu- pcriix|ir*t (tW*>7L
xxxiii. and ( I £'}</> Jtusv., and H by the Mint, K din ft 1 yeya J Hoi*
(Toms' . 1901); S. Turner. Siberia (1905); Demlcrr, on Kurlov's
explorer ion*, in Ltf Cevrraphw (1501, pp. 41, &c); aritl P. Jtfmtov,
in Imc-tin Kttss, Ge$f » (1002. No. a). (P. A. K.3 J. T. Be.)
ALTAMURA, a town of Apulia, Italy, in the province of Ban,
28 m. S.S.W. of the town of that name, and 56 m. by rail via
Gioia del Colle. Pop. (1901) 22,729. It possesses a fine Roman-
esque cathedral begun in 1232 and restored in 1330 and 1531,
the portal being especially remarkable. It is one of the four
Palatine churches of Apulia. The surrounding territory is
fertile. The medieval walls, erected by the emperor Frederick
II., rest upon the walls of an ancient city of unknown name.
These early walls are of rough blocks of stone without mortar
Ancient tombs with fragments of vases have also been found,
and there are cases which have been used as primitive tombs or
dwellings, and a group of some fifty tumuli near Altamura.
ALTAR (Lat. altare, from alius, high; some ancient etymo-
logical guesses are recorded by St Isidore of Seville in Eiymologiae
xv. 4), strictly a base or pedestal used for supplication and
sacrifice to gods or to deified heroes. The necessity for such
sacrificial furniture has been felt in most religions, and conse-
quently we find its use widespread among races and nations
which have no mutual connexion.
Mesopotamia. — Altars are found from the earliest times in tic
remains of Babylonian cities; the oldest are square erections cf
sun-dried bricks. In Assyrian mounds limestone and alabaster
are the chief material. They are of varying form; an altar
shown in a relief at Khorsabad is ornamented with stepped
battlements, which are the equivalent of the familiar " altar-
horns " in Hebrew ritual. An altar also from Khorsabad (now
in the British Museum) has a circular table and a solid base
triangular on plan, with pilasters ornamented with animals'
paws at the angles. A third variety, of which an 8th century
b.c example from Nimrud exists in the British Museum, is a
rectangular block ornamented at the ends by cylindrical rolls.
These altars are in height from 2 to 3 ft. According to Herodotus
(i. 183) the great altars of Babylonia were made of gold.
Egypt. — In Egypt altars took the form of a truncated cone or
of a cubical block of polished granite or of basalt, with one or
more basin-like depressions in the upper surface for receiving
fluid libations. These had channels whereby fluids poured into
the receptacles could be drained off. The surface was plain,
760
ALTAR
inscribed with dedicatory or other legends, or adorned with
symbolical carving.
Palestine. — Recent excavations, especially at Geser, have
shown that the earliest altars, or rather sacrifice hearths, in
Palestine were circular spaces marked out by small stones set
on end At Gezer a pre^Semitic place of worship was found in
which three such hearths stood together, and drained into a cave
which may reasonably be supposed to have been regarded as the
residence of the divinity. These circular hearths persisted into
the Canaanitc period, but were ultimately superseded by the
Semitic developments. To the primitive nomadic Semite the
presence of the divinity was indicated by springs, shady trees,
remarkable rocks and other landmarks; and from this earliest
conception grew the theory that a numen might be induced to
take up an abode in an artificial heap of stones, or a pillar set
upright for the purpose. The blood of the victim was poured
over the stone as an offering to the divinity dwelling within
it; and from this conception of the stone arose the further and
final view, that the stone was a table on which the victim was to
be burned.
Very few specimens of early Palestinian'altars remain. The
megalithic structures common in the Hauran and Moab may
be entirely sepulchral. At Geter no definite altar was discovered
in the great High Place; though it is possible that a bank of
intensely hard compact earth, in which were embedded a large
number of human skulls, took its place. A very remarkable
altar, at present unique, was found at Taanach by the Austrian
excavators. It is pyramidal in shape, and the surface is orna-
mented with human-headed animals in relief. This, like the
earliest Babylonian altars, is of baked earth.
The Old Testament conception of the altar varies with the
stage of religious development In the pre-Deuteronomic
period altars are erected in any place where there had appeared
to be a manifestation of deity, or under any circumstance in
which the aid of deity was invoked; not by heretical individuals,
but by the acknowledged religious leaders, such as Noah at
Ararat, Abraham at Shechem, Bethel &&, Isaac at Beersheba,
Jacob at Bethel, Moses at Rephidim, Joshua at Ebal, Gideon
at Ophrah, Samuel at Raman, Elijah at Carmel, and others.
These primitive altars were of the simplest possible description
—in fact they were required to be so by the regulation affecting
them, preserved in Exodus xx. 24, which prescribes that in every
place where Yakwek records his name *nt\\ztoi earth or of unhewn
stone, without steps or other extraneous ornamentation, shall
be erected.
The priestly regulations affecting altars are bf a very elaborate
nature, and are framed with a single eye to the essential theory
of later Hebrew worship— the centralization of all worship at
one shrine. These recognize two altars, which by the authors
of this portion of the Pentateuch are placed from the first in the
tabernacle in the wilderness— a theory which is inconsistent with
the other evidences of the nature of the earlier Hebrew worship,
to which we have just alluded.
The first of these altars is that for burnt-offering. This altar
was in the centre of the court of the tabernacle, of acacia wood,
3 cubits high and 5 square. It was covered with copper,
was provided with " horns " at the corners (like those of Assyria),
hollow in the middle, and with rings on the sides into which the
staves for its transportation could be run (Ex. xxviL x-8). The
altar of the Solomonic temple is on similar lines, but much larger.
It is now generally recognized that the description of the taber-
nacle altar is intended to provide a precedent for this vast
structure, which would otherwise be' inconsistent with the
traditional view of the simple Hebrew altars. In the second
temple a new altar was built after the fashion of the former
(1 Mace iv. 47) of "whole stones from the mountain." In
Herod's temple the altar was again built after the same model.
It is described by Josephus (v. 5. 6) as 15 cubits high and
50 cubits square, with angle horns, and with an "insensible
acclivity " leading up to it (a device to evade the pre-Deutero-
nomic regulation about steps). It was made without any use of
iron, and no iron tool was ever allowed to touch It The blood
and refuse were discharged through a draw Into Ike anal
Kedron; this drain probably still remains, in the J* aMraai,
under the " Dome of the Rock " in the moaqa* aaata era
the site of the temple.
The second altar waa the altar of incense, which, «ee h tkt
holy place of the tabernacle. It was of similar caastjaa*,
to the altar of burnt-offering, but smaller, besssf a case
high and 1 cubit square (Ex. xxx. 1-5). It waa eaajsfaftf an
gold. Solomon's altar of incense (1 L vL so) is fefhwnl to a
a problematical passage from which it would 1 _
of cedar. But the authenticity of the pmagta 4attssna
altar of incense in the tabernacle, and the J
corresponding altar in Solomon's temple, axe ]
dispute among critics. The incense altar in the 1
was removed by Antiochus Epiphanes (1 Mace L ax)aasfratiarai
by Judas Maccabaeus (x Mace iv. 49). That in fin* taaasr si
Herod is referred to in Luke {. n..
The ritual uses of these altars are sufficiently aajttssat fc?
their names. On the first was a fire continuaQy feasant a
which the burnt-offerings were consumed. Ob taa> attend a
offering of incense was made twice a day.
In the pre-Deuteronomic passage, Exodus xxt 14, tnaaac of
the altar as an asylum is postulated, though denies* t» sneer '
murderer. This is a survival of the ancient belief dtntfnteerr
resided in the pillar or stone-heap, and that the As*fts%* an
placing himself under the protection of the local aaaanh
seeking sanctuary. From 1 Kings L 50 h would aeansv thai
the suppliant caught hold of the altar-horns { i iiib ji i h a Ebb
ii. a8), as though special protective virtue resided in taafcasaasftix:
though obscure part of the structure.
Greece and Rome, — According to the difference am 1
for which they were employed, altars feD into two daaai
of the first class were pedestals, so small and low that I
could kneel upon them; these stood inside the liiiajltai is free:
of the sacred image. The second class consisted oflaiaju Islai
destined for burnt sacrifice; these were placed la tint open ar,
and, if connected with a temple, in front of flat, entxaao.
Possibly altars of the former class were in historical tancs sub-
stitutes for, and rendered the same service as, the baaes of me
sacred images within the temples in earlier ages. In that caw
the altar of Apollo at Delphi, upon which on the <
Neoptolemus is frequently represented as taking 1
Orestes, might be regarded as the pedestal of an law . .
of the god, and as fulfilling the same function as did nan ease «i
the actual image of Athene in Troy, towards which Caasaaca
fled from Ajax. The second class of altars, called 0taasf by
the Greeks and oUaria by the Romans, appears to h a e a eanjheari
in temporary constructions such as heaps of earth, taafer atont
made for kindling a sacrificial fire as occasion reqeand. Bet
sacrifices to earth divinities were made on the earth isaee* and
those to the infernal deities In sunk hollows (Odyss. x. *£ Fesna
s. t. AUaria). The note of EusUtnius (Odyss. zfi. 15a) petfcajs
indicates some customs reminiscent of a primitive antiqu.:?
in which the sacrifice was made without an altar at aQ. Hr
says d*o££/jta run bpa £r oim ts-t /topoO 6 catVytwaet il*
M tid^ovi— "some holy places away from alters, %fc*«
offering is made not on an altar but on the floor." Pausacs
(vi. 20. 7) speaks of an altar at Oiympia made of unbaked brkb
In some primitive holy shrines the bones and ashes of the rictm
sacrificed were allowed to accumulate, and upon this new &»
were kindled. Altars so raised were, like most religious anrrh sk
considered as endowed with particular sanctity; the avast
remarkable recorded instances of such are the altars of Hera n
Samoa, and of Pan at Oiympia (Paus. v. 14. 6; v. t$. 5). d
Heracles at Thebes (Paus. ix. ix. 7), and of Zens at Ot^tnpa
(Paus. v. 13. s). The last-mentioned stood on a platan
(vpaBvats) measuring 125 ft in circumference, and led up *■
by steps, the altar itself being ssft high. Women were endoded
from the platform. Where hecatombs were sacrificed, cat
Tp6$wa necessarily assumed colossal proportions, as in uv
case of the altar at Parion, where It measured on each side 600 It
The altar of Apollo at Delos (•xeparows 0»nei) waa aw*
ALTAR
Plate I.
Hob, Brvgi.
Fig. i.-SANT* AMBROGIO. MILAN.
Plate IL
/ '*<*», o. u\ WH*m & Co,
Pig. 3.— ST. PAUL'S, LONDON.
ALTAR
761
of the boras of gotta believed to have been slam by Diana;
while at Miletus was an altar composed of the blood of victims
sacrificed (Paus. v. 13. 6). The altar at Phorae in Achaea was
of unhewn stones (Paus. vii. aa. 3). The altar used at the festival
in honour of Daedalus on ML Cithaeron was of wood, and was
consumed along with the sacrifice (Paus. ix. 3. 4). Others of
bronze are mentioned. But these were exceptional, the usual
material of an altar was marble, and its form, both among the
Greeks and Romans, was either square or round;, polygonal
altars, of which examples still exist, being exceptions. When
sculptured decorations were added they frequently took the
form of imitations of the actual festoons with which it was usual
to ornament altars, or of symbols, such as crania and horns of
oxen, referring to the victims sacrificed. As a rule, the altars
which existed apart from temples bore the name of the person
by whom they were dedicated and the names of the deities in
whose service they were, or, if not the name, some obvious
representation of the deity. Such, for example, is the purpose
of the figures of the Muses on an altar dedicated to them, now
to be seen in the British Museum. An altar was retained for the
service of one particular god, except where through local
tradition two or more deities had become intimately associated,
as in the case of the altar at Olympia to Artemis and Alpheus
jointly, or that of Poseidon and Erechtheus in the Erechtheum
at Athens. The most remarkable instance of multiple dedication
was, however, at Oropus, where the altar was divided into five
parts, one dedicated to Heracles, Zeus and Paean Apollo, a
second to heroes and their wives, a third to Hestia, Hermes,
Amphiaraus and the children of Amphflochus, a fourth to
Aphrodite Panacea, Jason, Health, and Healing Athene, and
the fifth to the Nymphs, Pan, and the rivers Archelous and
Cephissus (Paus. L 34. a). Such deities were styled cbuPcopot,
each having a separate part of the altar (Paus. L 34. a).
Other terms are £761*01, or djio/tojuoi. Deities of an inferior
order, who were conceived as working together— «.g. the wind
gods— had an altar in common. In the same way, the "unknown
gods " were regarded as a unit, and had in Athens and at Olympia
one altar for all (Paus. i. 1, 4; v. 14. 5; cf. Acts of Apostles,
xvii. 18). An altar to all the gods is mentioned. by Aeschylus
{Suppi. 222), Among the exceptional classes of altars are also
to be mentioned those on which fire could not be kindled (/fojiol
orvpot), and those which were kept free from blood (Jfojiol
Aral/Mum*), of which in both respects the altar of Zeus
Hypatos at Athens was an example. The ioMa was a round
altar; the bx*>P*> one employed apparently for sacrifice to
inferior deities or heroes (but fcrxdpa *ot/3ov, Aesch. Pers.
aos). In Rome an altar erected in front of a statue of a god was
always required to be lower than the statue itself (Vitruvius iv. 9).
Altars were always places of refuge, and even criminals and
slaves were there safe, violence offered to them being insults to
the gods whose suppliants the refugees were for the time being.
They were also taken hold of by the Greeks when making their
Ancient America.— Ks a single specimen of an altar, wholly
unrelated to any of the foregoing, we may cite the ancient
Mexican example described by W. Bullock (Six Months in Mexico,
London, 1834, p. 335). This was cylindrical, 9$ ft. in circum-
ference, with sculpture representing the conquests of the national
warriors in fifteen different groups round the side. 1
Portable altars and tables of offerings were used in pre-Christian
as well as in Christian ritual One such was discovered in the
Geser excavations, dating about aoo B.C. It was a slab of
polished limestone about 6 in. square with five cups in its upper
surface. Another from the same place was a small cubical
block of limestone bearing a dedication to Heracles. They have
also been found in Assyria. Pocket altars are still used in some
forms of worship in India, Set the Journal of the Royal Asiatic
Society, 185a, p. 71.
1 Bullock afao ssvt (p. 334) that the altar in the church of the
Indian village of S. Miguel de km Ranches which he visited was " of
the same nature as those in use before the introduction of
Christianity."
AlTABS Of 1KB CfeBlSTIAN Cboicb
L The Early Church.— The altar b spoken of by the early
Greek and Latin ecclesiastical writers under a variety of names: —
rp&s-c^i} the principal name in the Greek fathers and the
liturgies; dvoxacrlipior (rarer; used in the Septuagint for
Hebrew altars); JXcurr^ptor; faiUn (usually avoided, as it is
a word with heathen associations); mensa Domini, ara (avoided
like fiufjAs, and for the same reason) ; and, most regularly, otiare.
After the 4th century other names or expressions come into use,
such as mensa tremenda, sties corporis et sanguinis ChrisH.
The earliest Christians had no altars, and were taunted by the
pagans for this. It is admitted by Origcn in his reply to Celsus
(p. 389)1 who has charged the Christians with being a secret
society " because they forbid to build temples, to raise altars."
" The altars," says Origen, " are the heart of every Christian."
The same appears from a passage in Lactantius, De Origine
Erroris, ii. a. Wc gather from these passages that down to
about A.D. 250, or perhaps a little later, the communion was
administered on a movable wooden table. In the Catacombs,
the arcosolia or bench-like tombs are said (though the statement
is doubtful) to have been used to serve this purpose. The earliest
church altars were certainly made of wood; and it would appear
from a passage in William of Malmesbury (De Cest. Pontif.
Angl. iiL 14) that English altars were of wood down to the
middle of the nth century, at least in the diocese of Worcester.
The cessation of persecution, and consequent gradual elabora-
tion of church furniture and ritual, led to the employment of
more costly materials for the altar as for the other fittings of
ecclesiastical buildings. Already in the 4th century we find
reference to stone altars in the writings of Gregory of Nyssa.
In 5x7 the council of Epaone in Burgundy forbade any but
stone pillars to be consecrated with chrism; but of course the
decrees of this provincial council would not necessarily be
received throughout the church.
Pope Felix I. (a.d. 269-274) decreed that " mass should be
celebrated above the tombs of martyrs"— an observance
probably suggested by the passage in Revelation vi. 9, " I saw
under the altar the souls of them that were slain for the word
of God." This practice developed into the medieval rule that
no altar can be consecrated unless it contain a relic or relics.
The form of the altar was originally table-shaped, consisting
of a plane surface supported by columns. There were usually
four, but examples with one, two and five columns are also
recorded. But the development of the relic-custom led to the
adoption of another form, the square box shape of an " altar-
tomb." Transitional examples, combining the box with the
earlier table shape, are found dating about 450. Mention is
made occasionally of silver and gold altars in the 5th to the 8th
centuries. This means no doubt that gold and silver were
copiously used in its decoration. Such an altar still remains
in Sant* Ambrogio at Milan, dating from the 9th century (see
fig. 0.
II. The Medieval Church.— It will be convenient now to pass
to the fully-developed altar of the Western Church with its
accessories, though the rudiments of most of the additional
details are traceable in the earlier period.
In the Roman Catholic Church, which preserves in this respect
the tradition that had become established during the middle
ages, the component parts of a fixed altar in the Liturgical sense
are the table (mensa), or super-altar, consisting of a stone slab;
the support (stipes), consisting either of a solid mass or of four
or more columns; the sepulchrum, or altar-cavity, a small
chamber for the reception of the relics of martyrs. The support,
in the technical sense, must be of stone solidly joined to the
table; but, if this support consist of columns, the intervals may
be filled with other .materials, e.g. brick or cement. The altar-
slab or " table " alone is consecrated, and in sign of this are cut
in its upper surface five Greek crosses, one in the centre and one
in each corner. These crosses must have been anointed by the
bishop with chrism in the ritual of consecration before the altar
can be used. Crosses appear on the portable altar buried with
762
ALTAR
St Cuthbert (a.d. 687), but the history of the origin and develop-
ment of this practice is not fully worked out.
According to the Coeromoniale (i. 1a. 13) a canopy (balda-
chinum) should be suspended over the altar; this should be
square, and of sufficient size to cover the altar and the predeUa
on which the officiating priest stands. This baldachin, called
liturgically the ciborium, is sometimes hung from the roof by
chains in such a way that it can be lowered or raised; sometimes
it is fixed to the wall or reredos; sometimes it is a solid structure
of wood covered with metal or of marble supported on four
columns. The latter form is, however, usual only in large
churches, more especially of the basilica type, e.g. St Peter's at
Rome or the Roman Catholic cathedral at Westminster. The
origin of the ciborium is not certain, but it is represented in a
mosaic at Thessalonica of a date not later than a.d. 500. Even
at the present day, in spite of a decree of the Congregation of
Rites (27th of May 1697) ordering it to be placed over all altars,
it is— even at Rome itself — usually only found over the high
altar and the altar of the Blessed Sacrament
Multiplication of altars is another medieval characteristic.
This also is probably a result of the edict of Pope Felix already
mentioned. In a vault where more than one martyr was buried
an altar might be erected for each. It is in the 6th century
that we begin to find traces of the multiplication of altars. In
the church of St Gall, Switzerland, in the 9th century there were
seventeen. In the modern Latin Church almost every large
church contains several altars — dedicated to certain saints, in
private side chapels, established for masses for the repose of the
founder's soul, &c. Archbishop Wulfred in 816 ordered that
beside every altar there should be an inscription recording its
dedication. This regulation fell into abeyance after the 12th
century, and such inscriptions are very rare. One remains
mutilated at Deerhurst (Arckaeologia, vol. 1. p. 69).
Where there is in a cathedral or church more than one altar,
the principal one is called a " high altar." Where there is a
second high altar, it is generally at the end of the choir or
chancel. In monastic churches (e.g. formerly at St Albans) it
sometimes stands at the end of the nave close to the choir screen.
Beside the altar was a drain (piscina) for pouring away the
water in which the communion vessels were rinsed. This seems
originally to have been under the altar, as it is still in the Eastern
Church.
That the primitive communion table was covered with a
communion-cloth is highly probable, and is mentioned by
Optatus (e. a.d. 370), bishop of Milevis. This had developed
by the 14th or 15th century into a cerecloth, or waxed doth, on
the table itself; and three linen coverings one above the other,
two of about the size of the table and one rather wider than the
altar, and long enough to hang down at each end. Five crosses
are worked upon it, four in the corners and one in the middle,
and there is an embroidered edging. 1 In front was often a
hanging panel of embroidered cloth (the frontal; but frontals
of wood, ornamented with carving or enamel, &c, are also to be
found). These embroidered frontals are changeable, so that the
principal colour in the pattern can accord with the liturgical
colour of the day. Speaking broadly, red is the colour for feasts
of martyrs, white for virgins, violet for penitential seasons, &c;
no less than sixty-three different uses differing in details have
been enumerated. A similar panel of needlework (the dossal)
is suspended behind the altar.
Portable altars have been used on occasion since the time of
Bede. They are small slabs of hard stone, just large enough for
the chalice and paten. They are consecrated and marked with
the five incised crosses in the same way as the fixed altar, but
they may be placed upon a support of any suitable material,
whether wood or stone. They are used on a journey in a heretical
or heathen country, or in private chapels. In the inventory of
the field apparel of Henry, earl of Northumberland, aj>, 1 513, is
1 In the Eastern Church four small pieces of cloth marked with
the names of the Evangelists are placed on the four corners of the
altar, and covered with three cloths, the uppermost (the corporal)
being of smaller sise.
included " A coffer wyth ij liddes to seme for an Awter and ael
be" (Arckaeologia, xxvi. 403).
On the altar are placed a cross and candlesticks — six in rasher
and seven when a bishop celebrates in his cathedral; and over i»
is suspended or fixed a tabernacle ox receptacle for the rescrvaaos
of the Sacrament.
III. Post- Reformation Altars.— At the Reformation the alas
in churches were looked upon as symbols of the oardonwj
doctrine, especially where the struggle lay between the Cathcu;
and the Calvinists, who on this point were much more radxz
revolutionaries than the Lutherans. In England the aas*
"altar"* was retained in the Communion Office in Engfefc
printed in 1549, and in the complete English Prayer-book of ^
following year, known to students as the First Book of Edward VI
But orders were given soon after that the altars should it
destroyed, and replaced by movable wooden tables; while tni
the revised Prayer-book of 155* the word " altar " was carehJ*
expunged, "God's board" or "the table" being substitstsd
The short reign of Mary produced a temporary reaction, bet 'be
work of reformation was resumed on the accession of F 1 ^ 1 ***
The name " altar " has been all along retained in the Carna-
tion Office of the kings of England, where it occurs freqnecJv
It was also recognized in the canons of 1640, but with the resem
tion that " it was an altar in the sense in which the pruekr<e
church called it an altar and in no other." In the same cuoae
the rule for the position of the communion tables, which has bee
since regularly followed throughout the Church of Fggb«**, ra
formulated. In the primitive church the altars seem to at*
been so placed that, like those of the Hebrews, they code at
surrounded on all sides by the worshippers. The chair of tk
bishop or celebrant was on their east side, and the asasuM
clergy were ranged on each side of him. But in the middle age
the altars were placed against the east wall of the churches. «
else against a reredos erected at the east side of the altar, so is a
prevent all access to the table from that side; the celebrant «a
thus brought round to the west side and caused to stand betvtet
the people and the altar. On the north and south sides (hex
were often curtains. When tables were substituted for alias s
the English churches, these were not merely movable, but at tbe
administration of the Lord's Supper were actually moved iza
the body of the church, and placed tabU-vist — that is, with tie
long sides turned to the north and south, and the narrow ends »
the east and west, — the officiating clergyman standing at :k
north side. In the time of Archbishop Laud, however, tk
present practice of the Church of England was introduced, Tat
communion table, though still of wood and movable, is, as *
matter of fact, never moved, it is placed aliar-xeise— that a
with its longer axis running north and south, and dose again*
the east wall. Often there is a reredos behind it; it is also fenced
in by rails to preserve it from profanation of various kinds.
In 1 84 1 the ancient church of the Holy Sepulchre at Cambridp
was robbed of most of its interest by a calamitous " restorauos *
carried out under the superintendence and partly at the chafe
of the Camden Society. On this occasion a stone altar, owawraf
of a flat slab resting upon three other upright slabs, was presented
to the parish, and was set up in the church at the east wall of ue
chancel. This was brought to the notice of the Court of Arches
in 1845, and Sir H. Jenner Fust (Faulkner v. Uckield and S&cr%)
ordered it to be removed, on the ground that a stone structure *
weighty that it could not be carried about, and seeming to bet
mass of solid masonry, was not a communion-table in the sesse
recognized by the Church of England.
Bibliography.— For altars in the ancient East see Iff. Jasrre*
Religion of Assyria and Babylonia; Perrot and Chtpiea, An a
CkoJdea (i. 143, 255); Sir I. Gardiner Wilkinson, A Second Sena 4
the Manners and Customs o)th*A ncient Egyptians, n. 587 ; Benztajt"
and Nowack's works on Hebrdisch* A rchdotogie. For classical altan-
much information can be obtained from the notes in J. C. Ffasr*
Pausanias. See also Schomann, Grieckistke AlUrtku'maw. «J- a.
the volume on " Gottesdienstliche Alterthamer ** in Hermans*
Lehrbuch dor grietkiscken Anlicuildlen. On domestic altar* astf
worship see Petersen, Hausgottesdieust der Criocktn (Casact. iSS« l
* Except in one place where the term used is " God's board."
ALTDORF— ALTERNATION
76"3
On plant dedications consult Maurer, Dt aribus graecortm pluribus
deis in commune positis ('Darmstadt, 1885). For Christian altars,
reference is best made to the articles on the subject in the dictionaries
erf Christian and liturgical antiquities of Mime, Martijjny, Smith
and Cheetham, and Pugin, where practically alfthe available informa-
> Ciampinus, Vti
tion is collected. See also Ciampinus, Vetera Monumenta (Rome,
"747). where numerous illustrations of altars are to be found r
Partem, De antiquis Ecdesiat ritibus, Hi. vL (Rouen, 1700); Voigt,
1747), where numerous illustrations of altars are to be found;
Martene, De antiquis Ecdesiat ritibus, iiL vL (Rouen, 1700); Voigt,
Thysiasteriologia sioe it aitaribus veterum Ckristianorum (Hamburg,
1700) ; and the liturgical works of Bona. Many articles on various
sections of the subject have appeared in the journals of archaeo-
logical societies; we may mention Nesbitt on the churches of Rome
earlier than 11 50 (Archaeotogia, xL p. a 10), Didron, "L'Autel
Chretien" (Annates arckiUogtaues, iv. p. 238), and a paper by
Texier on enamelled altars in the same volume. (R. A. S. M.)
ALTDORF, the capital of the Swiss canton of Uri. It b built
at a height of 1516 ft above sea-levd, a little above the right
bank of the Reuss, not far above the point where this river is
joined on the right by the Schichen torrent. Iniooothepopula-
tion was 3117, all Romanists and German-speaking. Altdorfis
34 m. from Lucerne by the St Gotthard railway and 22 m. from
Goeschenen. Its port on the Lake of Lucerne, FlQelen, is 2 m.
distant. There is a stately parish church, while above the little
town is the oldest Capuchin convent in Switzerland (1581).
Altdorf is best known as the place where, according to the legend,
William Tell shot the apple from his son's head. This act by
tradition happened on the market-place, where in 1895, at the
foot of an old tower (with rude frescoes commemorating the feat),
there was set up a fine bronze statue (by Richard Kissling of
Zurich) of Tell and his son. In 1809 a theatre was opened dose
to the town for the sole purpose of performing Schiller's play of
Wilhelm Tell. The same year a new carriage-road was opened
from Altdorf through the Schichen valley and over the Klausen
Pass (6404 ft) to the village of Linththal (30 m.) and so to Glarus.
One and a half mile from Altdorf by the Klausen road is the
village of Bttrglen, where by tradition Tell was born; while he is
also said to have lost his life, while saving that of a child, in the
Schichen torrent that flows past the village. On the left bank of
the Reuss, immediately opposite Altdorf, is Attinghausen, where
the ruined castle (which belonged to one of the real founders of
the Swiss Confederation) now houses the cantonal museum of
antiquities. (W. A. B. C.)
ALTDORFBR, ALBRECHT (? 1480-1538), German painter and
engraver, was born at Regensburg (Ratisbon), where in 150$ he
was enrolled a burgher, and described as " twenty-five years old."
Soon afterwards he is known to have been prosperous, and as
dty architect he erected fortifications and a public slaughter-
house. Altdorfer has been called the " Giorgione of the North."
His paintings are remarkable for minute and careful finish, and
for dose study of nature. The most important of them are to be
found in the Pinakothek at Munich/ A representation of the
battle of Arbela (1529), induded in that collection, is usually
considered his chief work. His engravings on wood and copper
are very numerous, and rank next to those of Albrecht Dttrer.
The most important collection is at the Berlin museum.
Albrecht's brother, Erhard Altdorfer, was also a painter and
engraver, and a pupil of Lucas Cranach.
A1TKN, SIR CHARLES [Karl] (1764-1840), Hanoverian and
British soldier, son of Baron Alten, a member of an old Hanoverian
family, entered the service of the elector as a page at the age of
twelve* In 1781 he received a commission in the Hanoverian
guards, and as a captain took part in the campaigns of 1793-
1795 in the Low Countries, distinguishing himself particularly
on the Lys in command of light infantry. In 1803 the
Hanoverian army was disbanded, and Alten took service with
the King's German Legion in British pay. In command of the
light infantry of this famous corps he took part with Lord
Gathcart in the Hanoverian expedition of 1805 and in the siege
of Copenhagen in 1807, and was with Moore in Sweden and
Spain, as well as in the disastrous Walcheren expedition. He
was soon employed once more in the Peninsula, and at Albuera
commanded a brigade. In April 181 3 Wellington placed him at
the head of the famous " Light Division " (43rd, 52nd, 95th,
and Cacadores), in which post he worthily continued the records
of Moore and Robert Craufurd at Nivelle, Nive, Orthes and
Toulouse. His officers presented him with a sword of honour as
a token of their esteem. In 181 5 Alten commanded Wellington's
3rd division and was severely wounded at Waterloo. His conduct
won for him the rank of Count von Alten. When the King's
German Legion ceased to exist, Alten was given the command of
the Hanoverians in France, and in 1818 he returned to Hanover,
where he became subsequently minister of war and foreign
affairs, and rose to be field-marshal, being retained on the British
Army list at the same time as Major-General Sir Charles Alten,
G. C. B. He died in 1840. A memorial to Alten has been
erected at Hanover.
See CentUman's Blagarine, 1840; N. L. Beamish, Hist, of the
King's German Legion, a vols. (1832-1837).
ALTENA, a town of Germany, in the Prussian province of
Westphalia, on the river Lenne, 38 m. S.S.E. from Dortmund.
Pop. (1900) 13,769. It consists of a single street, winding up a
deep valley for about 3 m. There are three churches, a
museum, high grade and popular schools. Its hardware in-
dustries are important, and embrace iron rolling, the manufacture
of fine wire, needles, springs and silver ornaments. On the
neighbouring Schlossberg is the ancestral castle of the counts of
La March, ancestors, on the female side, of the Prussian royal
house.
ALTENBURQ, a 'town of Germany, capital of the duchy of
Saxe-Altenburg, situated near the river Pleisse, 33 m. S. of
Leipzig, and at the junction of the Saxon state railways Leipzig-
Hof and Altenburg-Zdtz. Pop. (1905) 38,811. The town from
its hilly position is irregularly built, but many of its streets are
wide, and contain a number of large and beautiful buildings.
Its andent castle Is picturesquely situated on a lofty porphyry
rock, and is memorable as the place from which, in 1455, Kunz
von Kaufungen carried off the young princes Albert and Ernest,
the founders of the present royal and ducal families of Saxony.
Its beautiful picture gallery, containing portraits of several of
the famous princes of the house of Weltin, was almost totally
destroyed by fire in January 1905. Allenburg is the seat of
the higher courts of the Saxon duchies, and possesses a cathedral
and several churches, schools, a library, a gallery of pictures
and a school of art, an infirmary and various learned societies.
There is also a museum, with natural history, archaeological,
and art collections, and among other buildings may be mentioned
St Bartholomew's church (1089), the town hall (1562-1564), a
lunatic asylum, teachers' seminary and an agricultural academy.
There is considerable traffic in grain and cattle brought from the
surrounding districts; and twice a year there are large horse fairs.
Cigars, woollen goods, gloves, hats and porcelain are among the
chief m anufac tures. There are lignite mines in the vicinity.
ALTENSTBIH, a castle upon a rocky mountain in Saxe-
Meiningen, on the south-western slope of the ThUringerwald,
not far from Eisenach. It is the summer residence of the
dukes of Meiningen, and is surrounded by a noble park, which
contains, among other objects of interest, a remarkable under-
ground cavern, 500 ft long, through which flows a large and rapid
stream. Boniface, the apostle of the Germans, lived and preached
at Altenstein in 724; and near by is the place where, in 1521,
Luther was seized, by the order of the elector Frederick the
Wise, to be carried off to the Wartburg. An old beech called
" Luther's tree," which tradition connected with the reformer,
was blown down in 1841, and a small monument now stands in
its p lace.
ALTERKATION (from Lat oUernare, to do by turns),
strictly, the process of " alternating," i.e. of two things following
one another regularly by turns, as night alternates with day.
A somewhat different sense is attached to some usages of the
derivatives. Thus, in American political representative bodies
and in the case of company directors, a substitute is sometimes
called an "alternate." An "alternative" is that which is
offered as a choice of two things, the acceptance of the one
implying the rejection of the other. It is incorrect to speak
of more than two alternatives, though Mr Gladstone wrote in
1857 of a fourth (Ox/. Essays, 26). When there is only one
course open there is said to be no alternative.
76+
ALTHAEA— ALTONA
ALTHAEA, in classical legend, daughter el Thestlus, king
of Aetolia, wife of Oeneus, king of Calydon, and mother of
Meleager (q.v.).
ALTING, JOHANN HBDTRICH (1583-1644), German divine,
was born at Emden, where his father, Mcnso Alting (1541-161 2),
was minister. Johann studied with great success at the uni-
versities of Grdningen and Herborn. In 1608 he was appointed
tutor of Frederick, afterwards elector-palatine, at Heidelberg,
and in 161 2 accompanied him to England. Returning in 1613 to
Heidelberg, after the marriage of the elector with Princess
Elizabeth of England, he was appointed professor of dogmatics,
and in 1616 director of the theological department in the Ctf-
legium Sapientiae. In 1618, along with Abraham Scultetus, he
represented the university in the synod of Dort. When Count
Tilly took the dty of Heidelberg (162a) and handed it over to
plunder, Alting found great difficulty in escaping the fury of the
soldiers. He first retired to Schorndorf ; but, offended by the
" semi-Pelagianism " of the Lutherans with whom he was brought
in contact, he removed to Holland, where the unfortunate
elector and " Winter Ring " Frederick, in exile after his brief
reign in Bohemia, made him tutor to his eldest son. In 1627
Alting was appointed to the chair of theology at Grdningen,
where he continued to lecture, with increasing reputation, until
his death in 1644. Though an orthodox Calvinist, Alting laid
little stress on the sterner side of his creed and, when at Dort he
opposed the Remonstrants, he did so mainly on the ground that
they were "innovators." Among his works vm—Notae in
Decadem Problematun Jacob* Bekm (Heidelberg, 1618); Scripta
Tkcologica fieidelbergemia (Amst., 1662); Exegesis Augustanae
Confessionis (Amst, 1647)*
ALTDfUM (mod. Altine), an andent town of Venetia, 12 m.
S.E. of Tarvisium (Treviso), on the edge of the lagoons. It was
probably only a small fishing village until it became the point of
junction of the Via Postumia and the Via Popillia (see Aquxleu).
At the end of the republic it was a munkipium. Augustus and
his successprs brought it into further Importance as a point on
the route between Italy and the north-eastern portions of the
empire. After the foundation of the naval station at Ravenna,
it became the practice to take ship from there to Altinum, instead
of following the Via Popillia round the coast, and thence to
continue the journey by land. . A new road, the Via Claudia
Augusta, was constructed by the emperor Claudius from Altinum
to the Danube, a distance of 350 m., apparently by way of the
Lake of Constance. The place thus became of considerable
strategic and commercial importance, and the comparatively
mild climate (considering its northerly situation) led to the
erection of villas which Martial (Epigr. iv. as) compares with
those of Baiae. It was destroyed by Attila in A.D. 452, and its
inhabitants took refuge in the islands of the lagoons, forming
settlements from which Venice eventually sprang.
ALTITUDE (Lat. altUudo, from alius, high), height or
eminence, and particularly the height above the ground or above
sea-level. In geometry, the altitude of a triangle is the length
of the perpendicular from the vertex to the base. In astronomy,
the altitude of a heavenly body is the apparent angular devation
of the body above the plane of the horizon (see Astxonomy:
Spherical). Apparent altitude is the value which is directly
observed; true altitude is deduced by correcting for astronomical
refraction and dip of the horizon; geocentric altitude by correcting
for parallax.
aLtmOHL, a river. of Germany, In the kingdom of Bavaria.
It is an important left bank tributary of the Danube, rising in the
Franconian plateau (Frankische Terrasse), and after a tortuous
course of 116 m. r at times flowing through meadows and again
in weird romantic gorges, joins the Danube at Kdheim. From
its mouth it is navigable up to Dietfurt (18 m.), whence the
Ludwigscanal (100 m. long) proceeds to Bamberg on the
Rcgnitx, thus establishing communication between the Danube
and the Rhine.
ALTO (IUl. for " high "), a musical term applied to the highest
adult male voice or counter-tenor, and to the lower boy's or
i's (contralto) voice.
ALTON, a market-town In the Fareham parhamentary divi
of Hampshire, England, 46! m. S.W. of London by the I
ft South- Western railway. Pop. of urban district (1901) 5470.
It hasa pleasant undulating site near the headwatersof the over
Wey. Of the church of St Lawrence part, inducting the tower,
is Norman; the building was the scene of a fierce contact betweei
the royalist and parliamentary troops in 1643. There m a
museum of natural history; the collection is rrnriiuscrnt of tht
famous naturalist Gilbert White, of Sdborne in thai vidnitj.
Large markets and fairs are held for corn, hops, cavtik and sheep,
and the town contains some highly reputed ale breweries* besides
paper mills and iron foundries.
ALTON, a city of Madison county, Illinois, TJ.S-A., in tht
W. part of the state, on the Mississippi river, about 10 an. above
the mouth of the Missouri, and about 25 m. N. of St Loans,
Missouri. Pop. (1890) 10,294; (1900) 14,210, of w-hotn tejl
were foreign-born; (1910) 17,528. Alton b served by the
Chicago ft Alton, the Chicago, Peoria ft St Lows, the Cleve-
land, Cincinnati, Chicago ft St Louis, and the Iflinois Tensed
railways. The river is here spanned by a bridge. Thercskfeanil
portion of the dty lies on the river bluffs, some of which rise to
a height of 250 ft above the water level, and the business streets
are on the bottom lands of the river. Alton has a public fibmrj
and a public park. Upper Alton (pop. 2918 in loto), ahoat
1 } m. N.E. of Alton, is the seat of the Western Military Acnden?
(founded in 1879 as Wyman Institute; chartered in 189a), aad
of Shurtleff College (Baptist, founded in 1827 at Rock Sprint
removed to Upper Alton in 183 1, and chartered in 1833), wbka
has a college of liberal arts, a divinity school, an academy and a
school of music; and the village of Godfrey, 5} m- N. of Altos,
is the seat of the Monticello Ladies' Seminary, founded by
Benjamin Godfrey, opened in 1838, and chartered in 1841.
Among the manufactures of Alton are iron and glass ware,
miners 1 tools, shovels, coal-mine cars, flour, and agriodtsral
implements; and there are a large oil refinery and a Urge lead
smelter. The value of the city's factory products increased
from $4,250,389 in xooo to $8,696314 in 1905, or 104-6 %.
The first settlement on the site of Alton was made in 1807,
when a trading post was established by the French. The tova
was laid out in 1817, was first incorporated in x 821, and in 1827
was made the seat of a state penitentiary, which was lata
removed to Joliet, the last prisoners being transferred in x8to>
Alton was first chartered as a dty in 1837. In 1836 the Rev.
Elijah P. Lovejoy( 1 802-1837), a native of Albion, Maine, removed
the Observer, a religious (Presbyterian) periodical of which be
was the editor, from St Louis to Alton. He had attracted
considerable attention In St Louis by his criticisms of slavery,
but though he believed in emancipation, he was not a radkal
abolitionist. After coming to Alton his anti-slavery views sooa
became more radical, and in a few months he was an avowed
abolitionist. His views were shared by his brother. Owes
Lovejoy (181 1-1864), a Congregational minister, who also at that
time lived in Alton, and who from 1857 until his death was aa
able anti-slavery member of Congress. Most of the people of
southern Illinois were in sympathy with slavery, and conse-
quently the Lovejoys became very unpopular. The press of the
Obscner was three time destroyed, and on the 7th of November
1837 E. P. Lovejoy was killed while attempting to defend agatoit
a mob a fourth press which he had recently obtained and whka
was stored in a warehouse in Alton. His death caused intense
excitement throughout the country, and he was everywhere
regarded by abolitionists as a martyr to their cause. In 1897 s
monument, a granite column surmounted by a bronse statse ef
Victory, was erected in his honour by the dtiaens of Alton and by
the sUte.
See Henry Tanner. The Martyrdom of Lmjoy (Chicago, 1M1).
and "The Alton Tragedy "in S. I. Ma/e Some koroSehSms of Om
Anti-Slavery Con/tut (Boston, 1869).
ALTONA, a town of Germany, In the Prussian piovi at* «f
Schleswig.Holstein, on the right bank of the Elbe immediately
west of Hamburg. Though administratively distinct, the twa
cities so closely adjoin as virtually to form one whole. Lying
ALTOONA— ALTRINCHAM
765
higher than Hamburg, Altona enjoys a purer and healthier
atmosphere. It has spacious squares and streets, among the
latter the Palmaflle, a stately avenue ending on a terrace about
100 ft above the Elbe, whence a fine view is obtained of the
river and the lowlands beyond. Of the six Evangelical churches,
the Hauptkirche (parish church), with a lofty steeple, is note-
worthy. The main thoroughfares are embellished by several
striking monuments, notably the memorials of the wars of
1864 and 1870, bronze statues of the emperor William I. and
Bismarck and the column of Victory (SitgesstuU). The museum
(1901) is an imposing building in the German Renaissance style
and contains, in addition to a valuable library, ethnographical
and natural history collections. Its site is that formerly occupied
by the terminus of the Schleswig-Holstein railways, but a hand-
some central station lying somewhat farther to the N., connected
with Hamburg by an elevated railway, now accommodates all
the traffic and provides through communication with the main
Prussian railway systems. There are also fine municipal and
judicial buildings, a theatre (under the same management as
the Stadttheater in Hamburg), a gymnasium, technical schools,
a school of navigation and a hospital. In respect of its local
industries Altona has manufactures of tobacco and cigars, of
machinery, woollens, cottons and chemicals. There are also
extensive breweries, tanneries and soap and oil works. Altona
carries on an extensive maritime trade with Great Britain,
France and America, but it has by no means succeeded in
depriving Hamburg of its commercial superiority— indeed, so
dependent is it upon its rival that most of its business is trans-
acted on the Hamburg exchange, while the magnificent ware-
houses on the Altona river bank are to a large extent occupied
by the goods of Hamburg merchants. Since 1888, when Altona
joined the imperial ZoUverein, approximately half a million
sterling has been spent upon harbour improvement works.
The exports and imports resemble those of Hamburg. In the
ten years 1871-1880, the port was entered on an average annually
by 737 vessels of 67,735 tons, in 1 881-1890 by 608 vessels of
154,713 tons, and in 1891-1808 by 839 vessels of 353*384 tons.
In 1800 the populous suburbs of Ottensen to the W., where
the poet Gottlieb Klopetock lies buried.Bahrenfeld, Othmarschen
and OvelgOnne were incorporated. Without these suburbs the
growth of the town may be seen from the following figures: —
(1864, when it ceased to be Danish) 53,039; (1880) 91,049;
(1885) 104,717; (1890) together with the four suburbs, 143,249;
(1895) 148,044; (1900) 161,508; (1905) 168,301. Altona is the
headquarters of the IX. German army corps.
The name Altona is said to be derived from <illsu-nak (" all
too near "), the Hamburgers' designation for an inn which in
the middle of the 16th century lay too close to their territory.
For a long time this was the only house in the locality. When in
1640 Altona passed to Denmark it was a small fishing village.
Its rise to its present position is mainly due to the fostering care
of the Danish kings who conferred certain customs privileges
and exemptions upon it with a view to making it a formidable
rival to Hamburg. In 1713 it was burnt by the Swedes, but
rapidly recovered from this disaster, and despite the trials of
the Napoleonic wars, gradually increased in prosperity. In 1 853,
owing to the withdrawal by Denmark of its customs privileges,
its trade waned. In 1864 Altona was occupied in the name
of the German Confederation, passed to Prussia after the
war of 1866, and 1888 together with Hamburg joined the
ZoUverein, while retaining certain free trade rights over the
Frcihajengebid which it shares with Hamburg and Wandsbek.
See Wkhmann, Gnckkht* Altona* (a vols., Alt., 1896) ; Ehrenberg
A Stahl, AUonas topograph**** Rnhrichdung (Alt., 1804).
ALTOONA, a city of Blair county, Pennsylvania, U.S.A.,
About 1 1 7 m. E. by N. of Pittsburg. Pop. (1800) 30,337 ; (1900)
38,973, of whom 3301 were foreign-born, 151 8 being German;
Cioxo) 5*.i*7. It lies in the upper end of Logan Valley
mt the base of the Alleghany mountains, about n 80 ft.
»bove sea-level, and commands views of some of the most
picturesque mountain scenery in the state. A short distance to
Che W. is the famous Horseshoe Bend of the Pennsylvania
railway. Altoona is served by the Pennsylvania railway, and
b one of the leading railway cities in the United States. Its
freight yard is 7 m. long; and has 221 m. of tracks. Large
numbers of eastbound coal trains from the mountains and
westbound " empties " returning to the mines stop here; and
the cars of these trains are classified here and new trains made
up. Locomotives and cars are sent to Altoona to be repaired
from all over the Pennsylvania railway system E. of Pittsburg,
and cars and locomotives are built here; and in the south
Altoona foundries car wheels and general castings for locomotives
and cars are made. The several departments of railway work
are used to give training in a sort of railway university. Gradu-
ates of technical schools are received as special apprentices and
are directed in a course of four years through the erecting shops,
vice shop, blacksmith shop, boiler shop, roundhouse, test depart-
ment, machine shop, air-brake shop, iron foundry, car shop,
work of firing on the road, office work in the motive power
accounting department, and drawing room; the most competent
may be admitted through the grades of inspector, in the office of
the master mechanic or of the road foreman of engines, assistant
master mechanic, assistant engineer of motive power, master
mechanic and superintendent of motive power. The Pennsyl-
vania railway, co-operating with the public school authorities,
established at Altoona, in 1907, a railway high school, the first
institution of the kind in the country. It has a well-equipped
drawing room, carpenter shop, forging room, foundry, science
laboratories and machinery department, in which expert in-
struction is given. In 1905 the city's factory products were
valued at $14,349,963, and in this year the railway shops gave
employment to 83*7 % of all wage-earners employed in manu-
facturing establishments. The manufacture of silk is the only
other important industry in the city. The site of the city
(formerly farming land) was purchased in 1849 Dv the Pennsyl-
vania Railroad Company and was laid out as a town. It was
incorporated as a borough in 1854 and was chartered as a dty
inx868.
ALTO-RELIEVO (Ital. for " high relief "), the term applied
to sculpture that projects from the plane to which it is attached
to the extent of more than one-half the outline of the principal
figures, which may be nearly or in parts entirety detached from
the background. It is thus distinguished from basso-relievo
(9. v.), in which there is a greater or less approximation in effect
to the pictorial method, the figures being made to appear as
projecting more than half their outline without actually doing
so. At the same time it is not only the actual degree of relief
which is implied by these two terms, but a resultant difference
also of design and treatment necessitated by the contingent
differences of light and shadow. (See Relief and Sculpture.)
ALTdTTlNG, a town of Germany, in the kingdom of Bavaria,
on the Mdrren, not far from its junction with the Inn, and on
the Muhldorf-Burghausen railway. Pop. (1000) 4344. It has
long been a place of pilgrimage to which Roman Catholics,
especially from Austria, Bavaria and Swabia resort in large
numbers, on account of a celebrated image of the Virgin Mary in
the Holy Chapel, which also contains the hearts of some Bavarian
princes in silver caskets. In the church of St Peter and St Paul
is the tomb of Tilly.
ALTRANSTXDT, a village of Germany, in Prussian Saxony
near Merseburg (q.v.), with (1900) 813 inhabitants. Altranstidt
is famous in history for two treaties concluded here: (1) the
peace which Augustus II., king of Poland and elector of Saxony,
was forced to ratify, on the 24 th of September 1706, with Charles
XII. of Sweden, whereby the former renounced the throne of
Poland in favour of Stanislaus Leszczynski— a treaty which
Augustus declared null and void after Charles XII. 's defeat at
Poltava (8th of July 1709); (2) the treaty of the 31st of August
1707. by which the emperor Joseph I. guaranteed to Charles
XII. religious tolerance and liberty of conscience for the Siksian
protestants.
ALTRINCHAM, or Altmngham (and so pronounced), a
market-town in the Altrincham parliamentary division of
Cheshire, England, 8 m. S. W. by S. of Manchester, on the London
7 66
ALTRUISM— ALUM
ft North-Western, Manchester, South Junction & Altrincham
and Cheshire Lines railways. Pop. of urban district (iooi)
16,831. Many residences in the locality are occupied by those
whose business lies in Manchester, who are attracted by the
healthy climate and the vicinity of Bowdon Downs and Dunham
Massey Woods. Market gardening is carried on, large quantities
of fruit and flowers being grown for sale in Manchester.
Cabinet-making is also practised; and there are sawmills, iron
foundries, and manufactures of cotton, yarn and worsted.
Altrincham ( Aldringham) was originally included in the barony
of Dunham Massey, one of the eight baronies founded by Hugh,
earl of Chester, after the Conquest An undated charter from
Hamo de Massey, lord of the barony, in the reign of Edward I.,
constituted Altrincham a free borough, with a gild merchant,
the customs of Macclesfield, the right to elect reeves and bailiffs
for the common council and other privileges. In 1290 the same
Hamo obtained a grant of a Tuesday market and a three days'
fair at the feast of the Assumption of the Virgin; but in 13x9, by
a charter from Edward IL, the date of the fair was changed to the
feast of St James the Apostle. A mayor of Altrincham is
mentioned by name in 1452, but the office probably existed long
before this date; it has now for centuries been a purely nominal
appointment, the chief duty consisting in the opening of the
annual fairs. The trade in worsted and woollen yarns, which
formerly furnished employment to a large section of the popula-
tion, has now completely declined, partly owing to the introduc-
tion of Irish worsted.
See Victoria County History, Cheshire; Alfred Ingham, History
of Altrincham and Bowdon (Altrincham, 1879).
ALTRUISM (Fr. outrui, from Lat. alter, the other of two), a
philosophical term used in ethics for that theory of conduct
which regards the good of others as the end of moral action. It
was invented by Auguste Comte and adopted by the English
positivists as a convenient antithesis to egoism. According to
Comte the only practical methodof social regeneration is gradually
to inculcate the true social feeling which subordinates itself to the
welfare of others. The application to sociological problems of
the physical theory of organic evolution further developed the
altruistic theory. According to Herbert Spencer, the life of the
individual in the perfect society is identical with that of the state:
in other words, the first object of him who would live well must
be to take his part in promoting the well-being of his fellows
individually and collectively. Pure egoism and pure altruism
are alike impracticable. For on the one hand unless the egoist's
happiness is compatible to some extent with that of his fellows,
their opposition will almost inevitably vitiate his perfect enjoy-
ment; on the other hand, the altruist whose primary object is the
good of others, must derive his own highest happiness — i.e.
must realize himself most completely—- in the fulfilment of this
object. In fact, the altruistic idea, in itself and apart from a
further definition of the good, is rather a method than an end.
The self-love theory of Hobbes, with its subtle perversions of
the motives of ordinary humanity, led to a reaction which
culminated in the utilitarianism of Bentham and the two Mills;
but their theory, though superior to the extravagant egoism of
Hobbes, had this main defect, according to Herbert Spencer,
that it conceived the world as an aggregate of units, and was so
far individualistic. Sir Leslie Stephen in his Science of Ethics
insisted that the unit is the social organism, and therefore that
the aim of moralists is not the " greatest happiness of the greatest
number," but rather the "health of the organism.' 1 The
socialistic tendencies of subsequent thinkers have emphasized
the ethical importance of altruistic action, but it must be re-
membered always that it is ultimately only a form of action,
that it may be commended in all types of ethical theory, and that
it is a practical guide only when it is applied in accordance with
a definite theory of " the good." Finally, he who devotes himself
on principle to furthering the good of others as his highest moral
obligation is from the highest point of view realizing, not sacri-
ficing, himself.
See works of Comte, Spencer, Stephen, and text-books of ethics
(cf. bibliography at end of article Ethics).
ALTWASSER, a town of Germany, in the Prussian jcrrmx
of Silesia, 43 m. by rail S.W. from Brcslau, nod 3 m. K sc
Waldenburg. It has factories for glass, porcelain, mackr?
cotton-spinning, iron-foundries and coal-mines. Pop. u*k.
«,I44.
ALTYN-TAGH, or Astyn-Tagh, one of the chief const:**
ranges of the Kuen-lun (q.v.) in Central Asia, separating T^a
from east Turkestan and the Desert of Gobi.
ALUM, in chemistry, a term given to the crystallized c*~ :fc
sulphates of the typical formula MjS(VM4 u -(SOwV:«5^
where M is the sign of an alkali metal (potassium, safer
rubidium, caesium), silver or ammonium, and M w deno>s at
of the trivalent metals, aluminium, chromium or ferric -1
These salts are employed in dyeing and various other isiiSL-i.
processes. They are soluble in water, have an astringent a. -
and sweetish taste, react acid to litmus, and crystaiSs j
regular octahedra. When heated they liquefy; and if the :«*:-
ing be continued, the water of crystallization is driven cc '±t
salt froths and swells, and at last an amorphous powder pp*
Potash alum is the common alum of commerce, although bei
soda alum and ammonium alum are manufactured. T*
presence of sulphuric acid in potash alum was known ts *
alchemists. J. H. Pott and A. S. Marggraf demonstrated ±-i
alumina was another constituent. Pott in his Ltik*gc*p^i
showed that the precipitate obtained when an alkali a pose?
into a solution of alum is quite different from lime and cfcj.
with which it had been confounded by G. E. StahL Ma^z-r
showed that alumina is one of the constituents of aluc ^J
that this earth possesses peculiar properties, and is one of ±
ingredients in common clay {Experiences faites sur U *-?
de Valun, Marggraf 's Opusc. ii. in). He also showed that ay*z£
of alum cannot be obtained by dissolving alumina in sdpfc-r:
acid and evaporating the solutions, but when a so1ikr£ i
potash or ammonia is dropped into this liquid, it inune&r-s?
deposits perfect crystals of alum {Sur la rigenerciiem de faa*
Marggraf 's Opusc. ii. 86).
T. O. Bergman also observed that the addition of pocss* *
ammonia made the solution of alumina in sulphuric acid cnv*v
lize, but that the same effect was not produced by the adiar
of soda or of lime (De confectione aluminas, Bergman's Opec
i. 235), and that potassium sulphate is frequently found is ii=.
After M. H. Klaproth had discovered the presence of potaswa
in leudte and lepidolite, it occurred to L. N. Vauquena tii: 2
was probably an ingredient likewise in many other muraa
Knowing that alum cannot be obtained in crystals withcu tit
addition of potash, he began to suspect that this alkali constitr^
an essential ingredient in the salt, and in 1797 he pubtibr: 1
dissertation demonstrating that alum is a double salt, coaepwrt
of sulphuric acid, alumina and potash {AnnaUs de dtimm. zc
258). Soon after^ J. A. Chaptal published the analysis oi faff
different kinds of alum, namely, Roman alum, levant al_r.
British alum and alum manufactured by himself. This arita
led to the same result as that of Vauquelin (Amu. de uba
xxii.280).
The word alumen, which we translate alum, occurs m r\rf%
Natural History. In the 15th chapter of his 35th book he r/m
a detailed description of it By comparing this with the acccrr:
of arvrrnpla given by Dioscorides in the 123rd chapter of hv
5th book, it is obvious that the two are identical Pliny iafcoi
us that alumen was found naturally in the earth. He cais *
saUugoterrae. Different substances were distinguished by 'if
name of " alumen "; but they were all characterized by a cents
degree of astringency, and were aU employed in dyeing a*4
medicine, the light-coloured alumen being useful in bnfcw-
dyes, the dark-coloured only in dyeing black or very drt
colours. One species was a liquid, which was apt to be adahr-
ated; but when pure it had the property of Homing vfcei
added to pomegranate juice. This property seems to characters!
a solution of iron sulphate in water; a solution of ord«a«7
(potash) alum would possess no such property. Pliny says that
there is another kind of alum which the Greeks call srmstss. it
forms in white threads upon the surface of certain stones. Fra»
ALUMINIUM
767
the name sekistos, and the mode of formation, there can be
little doubt that this species was the salt which forms spontane-
ously on certain slaty minerals, as alum slate and bituminous
shale, and which consists chiefly of the sulphates of iron and
aluminium. Possibly in certain places the iron sulphate may
have been nearly wanting, and then the salt would be white,
and would answer, as Pliny says it did, for dyeing bright colours.
Several other species of alumen are described by Pliny, but we
are unable to make out to what minerals he alludes.
The alumen of the andents, then, was not the same with the
alum of the moderns. It was most commonly an iron sulphate,
sometimes probably an aluminium sulphate, and usually a
mixture of the two. But the ancients were unacquainted with
our alum. They were acquainted with a crystallized iron
sulphate, and distinguished it by the names of misy, sory,
chalcantkum (Pliny xxxiv. 12). As alum and green vitriol were
applied to a variety of substances in common, and as both are
distinguished by a sweetish and astringent taste, writers, even
after the discovery of alum, do not seem to have discriminated
the two salts accurately from each other. In the writings of
the alchemists we find the words misy, sory, chalcanthum applied
to alum as well as to iron sulphate; and the name atramcnium
rutcrium, which ought to belong, one would suppose, exclusively
to green vitriol, applied indifferently to both. Various minerals
are employed in the manufacture
of alum, the most important being
alunite (q.v.) or alum-stone, alum
schist, bauxite and cryolite.
In order to obtain alum from
alunite, it is calcined and then
exposed to the action of air for
a considerable time. During this
exposure it is kept continually
moistened with water, so that it
ultimately falls to a very fine
powder. This powder is then
lixiviated with hot water, the
liquor decanted, and the alum
allowed to crystallize. The alum schists employed in the manu-
facture of alum are mixtures of iron pyrites, aluminium silicate
and various bituminous substances, and are found in upper
Bavaria, Bohemia, Belgium and Scotland. These are either roasted
or exposed to the weathering action of the air. In the roasting
process, sulphuric acid is formed and acts on the clay to form
aluminium sulphate, a similar condition of affairs being produced
during weathering. The mass is now systematically extracted
with water, and a solution of aluminium sulphate of specific
gravity 116 is prepared. This solution is allowed to stand for
some time (in order that any calcium sulphate and basic ferric
sulphate may separate), and is then evaporated until ferrous
sulphate crystallizes on cooling; it is then drawn off and
evaporated until it attains a specific gravity of 1*40. It is now
allowed to stand for some time, decanted from any sediment,
and finally mixed with the calculated quantity of potassium
sulphate (or if ammonium alum is required, with ammonium
sulphate), well agitated, and the alum is thrown down as a
finely-divided precipitate of alum meaL If much iron should
be present in the shale then it is preferable to use potassium
chloride in place of potassium sulphate.
In the preparation of alum from clays or from bauxite, the
material is gently calcined, then mixed with sulphuric add and
heated gradually to boiling; it is allowed to stand for some
time, the clear solution drawn off and mixed with acid potassium
sulphate and allowed to crystallize. When cryolite is used for
the preparation of alum, it is mixed with calcium carbonate
and heated. By this means, sodium aluminate is formed; it
is then extracted with water and precipitated either by sodium
bicarbonate or by passing a current of carbon dioxide through
the solution. The precipitate is then dissolved in sulphuric
acid, the requisite amount of potassium sulphate added and
the solution allowed to crystallize.
Potash alum, K,SO < Al,(SO«),-24H 2 0, crystallizes in regular
octahedra and is very soluble in water. The solution reddens
litmus and is an astringent. When heated to nearly a red heat
it gives a porous friable mass which is known as " burnt alum."
It fuses at 92° C. in its own water of crystallization. " Neutral
alum " is obtained by the addition of as much sodium carbonate
to a solution of alum as will begin to cause the separation of
alumina; it is much used in mordanting. Alum finds application
as a mordant, in the preparation of lakes for sizing hand-made
paper and in the clarifying of turbid liquids.
Sodium alum, Na J SOvAl t (S04)r24H 1 0, occurs in nature as
the mineral mendozite. It is very soluble in water, and is
extremely difficult to purify. In the preparation of this salt, it
is preferable to mix the component solutions in the cold, and to
evaporate them at a temperature not exceeding 6o° C. 100
parts of water dissolve xzo parts of sodium alum at o° C. (W. A.
Tilden, Jour, Chcm, Soc., 1884, 45, p. 409), and 51 parts at
x6° C. (E. Auge, Comptcs rendus, 1800, no, p. 1130).
Chrome alum, K^04-Cr,(S0 4 )r24H^), appears chiefly as a
by-product in the manufacture of alizarin, and as a product of
the reaction in bichromate batteries.
The solubility of the various alums in water varies greatly,
sodium alum being readily soluble in water, whilst caesium and
rubidium alums are only sparingly soluble: The various solu-
bilities are shown in the following- table.*-—
Ammonium Alum.
Caesium Alum.
Potash Alum.
Rubidium Alum.
t # C.
100 parts water
dissolve.
t»C.
100 parts water
dissolve.
fC.
100 parts water
dissolve.
t # C.
100 parts water
dissolve.
10
S
100
2-63
45
159
35*
7083
10
C
0-19
0-29
1-235
5-29
10
s
100
39
9-5*
44*11
134-47
35748
10
IS
0-71
21-60
Porciale
Ann. Chtm, pkys.
(3l 8. P- 467-
C. Setterberg
Ann. 1882,211, p. 104.
Poggiale
C. Setterberg
ALUMINIUM (symbol Al; atomic weight 27 o), a metallic
chemical element. Although never met with in the free state,
aluminium is very widely distributed in combination, principally
as silicates. The word is derived from the Lat. alumen (see
Alum), and is probably akin to the Gr. &\s (the root of salt,
halogen, &c). In 1722 F. Hoffmann announced the base of alum
to be an individual substance; L.B.Guy ton de Morveau sug-
gested that this base should be called alumint, after Sel alumincux,
the French name for alum; and about 1820 the word was changed
into alumina. In 1760 the French chemist, T. Baron de Henou-
ville, unsuccessfully attempted " to reduce the base of alum "
to a metal, and shortly afterwards various other investigators
essayed the problem in vain. In z8o8 Sir Humphry Davy,
fresh from the electrolytic isolation of potassium and sodium,
attempted to decompose alumina by heating it with potash
in a platinum crucible and submitting the mixture to a current
of electricity; in 1809, with a more powerful battery, he raised
iron wire to a red heat in contact with alumina, and obtained
distinct evidence of the production of an iron-aluminium alloy.
Naming the new metal in anticipation of its actual birth, he
called it alumium; but for the sake of analogy he was soon
persuaded to change the word to aluminum, in which form,
alternately with aluminium, it occurs in chemical literature
for some thirty years.
In the year i824,endeavouring to prepare it by chemical means,
H. C. Oersted heated its chloride with potassium amalgam,
and failed in his object simply by reason of the mercury,
so that when F. Wohler repeated the experiment at
Gdttingen in 1827, employing potassium alone as the
reducing agent, he obtained it in the metallic state for the first
time. Contaminated as it was with potassium and with platinum
from the crucible, the metal formed a grey powder and was far
from pure; but in 1845 he improved his process and succeeded
in producing metallic globules wherewith he examined its chief
768
ALUMINIUM
properties, and prepared several compounds hitherto unknown.
Early in 1854, H. St Claire Deville, accidentally and in ignorance
of Wtthler's later results, imitated the 1845 experiment. At once
observing the reduction of the chloride, he realized the importance
of his discovery and immediately began to study the commercial
production of the metal. His attention was at first divided
between two processes— the chemical method of reducing the
chloride with potassium, and an electrolytic method of decom-
posing it with a carbon anode and a platinum cathode, which
was simultaneously imagined by himself and R. Bunsen. Both
schemes appeared practically impossible; potassium cost about
£17 per lb, gave a very small yield and was dangerous to mani-
pulate, while on the other hand, the only source of electric current
then available was the primary battery, and zinc as a store of
industrial energy was utterly out of the question. Deville
accordingly returned to pure chemistry and invented a practicable
method of preparing sodium which, having a lower atomic weight
than potassium, reduced a larger proportion. He next devised a
plan for manufacturing pure alumina from the natural ores, and
finally elaborated a process and plant which held the field for
almost thirty years. Only the discovery of dynamo-electric
machines and their application to metallurgical processes rendered
it possible for E. H. and A. H. Cowles to remove the industry from
the hands of chemists, till the time when P. T. L. Heroult and
C. M. Hall, by devising the electrolytic method now in use,
inaugurated the present era of industrial electrolysis.
The chief natural compounds of aluminium are four in number:
oxide, hydroxide (hydrated oxide), silicate and fluoride. Corun-
4m, duns, the only important native oxide (Al x Oj), occurs
in large deposits in southern India and the United
States. Although it contains a higher percentage of metal
(S>'9 %) than any other natural compound, it is not at present
employed as an ore, not only because it is so hard as to be crushed
with difficulty, but also because its very hardness makes it
valuable as an abrasive. Cryolite (AlF s -5NaF) is a double
fluoride of aluminium and sodium, which is scarcely known
except on the west coast of Greenland. Formerly it was used
for the preparation of the metal, but the inaccessibility of its
source, and the fact that it is not sufficiently pure to be employed
without some preliminary treatment, caused it to be abandoned
in favour of other salts. When required in the Heroult-Hall
process as a solvent, it is sometimes made artificially. Aluminium
silicate is the chemical body of which all clays are nominally
composed. Kaolin or China clay is essentially a pure disilicate
(AliOj-2SiOi'2HiO), occurring in large beds almost throughout
the world, and containing in its anhydrous state 24-4 % of the
metal, which, however, in common clays is more or less replaced
by calcium, magnesium, and the alkalis, the proportion of silica
sometimes reaching 70 %. Kaolin thus seems to be the best
ore, and it would undoubtedly be used were it not for the fatal
objection that no satisfactory process has yet been discovered
for preparing pure alumina from any mineral silicate. If,
according to the present method of winning the metal, a bath
containing silica as well as alumina is submitted to electrolysis,
both oxides are dissociated, and as silicon is a very undesirable
impurity, an alumina contaminated with silica is not suited for
reduction. Bauxite is a hydrated oxide of aluminium of the ideal
composition, Alj0i-2H,0. It is a somewhat widely distributed
mineral, being met with in Styria, Austria, Hesse, French Guiana,
India and Italy; but the most important beds are in the south
of France, the north of Ireland, and in Alabama, Georgia and
Arkansas in North America. The chief Irish deposits are in
the neighbourhood of Glenravel, Co. Antrim, and have the
advantage of being near the coast, so that the alumina can be
transported by water-carriage. After being dried at ioo* G,
Antrim bauxite contains from 33 to 60 % of alumina, from 2 to
30% of ferric oxide, and from 7 to 24% of silica, the balance
being titanic acid and water of combination. The American
bauxites contain from 38 to 67 % of alumina, from 1 to 23 %
of ferric oxide, and from z to 32 % of silica. The French bauxites
are of fairly constant composition, containing usually from 58
to 70% of alumina, 3 to 15 % of foreign matter, and 27 % made
up of silica, iron oxide and water in proportions that vary ati
the colour and the situation of the beds.
Before the application of electricity, only two compounds vcs
found suitable for reduction to the metallic state. Akaua
itself is so refractory that it cannot be melted save by the a? -
hydrogen blowpipe or the electric arc, and except ia is
molten state it is not susceptible of decomposition by any cbesaol
reagent Deville first selected the chloride aa his caw maiens,
but observing it to be volatile and extremely deliquesce;
he soon substituted in its place a double chloride of afasuaaa
and sodium. Early in 1855 John Percy suggested that areas
should be more convenient, as it was a natural mineral ui.
might not require purification, and at the end of March is tiar
year, Faraday exhibited before the Royal Institution snmp!s£
the metal reduced from its fluoride by Dick and Smitb. H. fcss
also carried out experiments on the decomposition of errata.
and expressed an opinion that it was the best of all tumiiiwi
for reduction; but, finding the yield of metal to be low, receir=f
a report of the difficulties experienced in minim* tbe ore, ia£
fearing to cripple his new industry by basing it upon tbe empfe*-
ment of a mineral of such uncertain supply, Deville deocei
to keep to his chlorides. With the advent of the dynamo. **
position of affairs was wholly changed. The first succemN!
idea of using electricity depended on the enormous heating povrs
of the arc The infusibility of alumina was no longer prob»b(t<x.
for the molten oxide is easily reduced by carbon. Neverthebi,
it was found impracticable to smelt alumina electrically act?*
in presence of copper, so that the Cowles furnace yielded, not im-
pure metal, but an alloy. So long as the metal was printiptlf
regarded as a necessary ingredient of aluminium-brona tbe
Cowles process was popular, but when the advantages of sia-
minium itself became more apparent, there arose a fresh desud
for some chief method of obtaining it unalloyed. It was son
discovered that the faculty of inducing dissociation ptmwei
by the current might now be utilized with some hope of pecuniar)
success, but as electrolytic currents are of lower voltage tia:
those required in electric furnaces, molten alumina again beast
impossible. Many metals, of which copper, silver and sickd
are types, can be readily won or purified by the csectrorjsis «
aqueous solutions, and theoretically it may be feasible' to t«n:
aluminium in an identical manner. In practice, howrm •»
cannot be thrown down electrolytically with a dissimilar ana*
so as to win the metal, and certain difficulties are still snet w&
in the analogous operation of plating by means of a siedr
anode. Of the simple compounds, only the fluoride is ammihir
to electrolysis in the fused state, since the chloride begin* s
volatilize below its melting-point, and the latter is only s* befa*
its boiling-point. Cryolite is not a safe body to electro^*
because the minimum voltage needed to break up tbe alurais&a
fluoride is 4*0, whereas the sodium fluoride requires only 4-7 wcj
if, therefore, the current rises in tension, the alkali is reduced,
and the final product consists of an alloy with sodium. Tb*
corresponding double chloride is a far better material; &.*£.
because it melts at about 180° C, and does not volatilise bek*
a red heat, and second, because the voltage of aluminium chkr&r
is 2-3 and that of sodium chloride 4-3, so that there k a b*£
wider margin of safety to cover irregularities in the efectsc
pressure. It has been found, however, that molten crro^
and the analogous double fluoride represented by the fare*
AljFc-2NaF are very efficient solvents of alumina, and that these
solutions can be easily electrolysed at about 800* C. by man
of a current that completely decomposes the oxide but kiws
the haloid salts unaffected. Molten cryolite dissolves rocgt^
30 % of its weight of pure alumina, so that when ready for ut£-
ment the solution contains about the same proportion of «*U
may be termed "available" aluminium as does the had
double chloride of aluminium and sodium. Tbe advantages U
with the oxide because of its easier preparation. Ataac*
dissolves readily enough in aqueous hydrochloric add to yietf
a solution of the chloride, but neither this solution, nor t&si
containing sodium chloride, can be evaporated to drrnea
without decomposition. To obtain the anhydrous singfe cr
ALUMINIUM
769
double chloride, alumina must be ignited With carbon in a
current of chlorine, and to exclude iron from the finished metal,
cither the alumina must be pure or the chloride be submitted
to purification. This preparation of a chlorine compound
suited for electrolysis becomes more costly and more troublesome
than that of the oxide, and In addition four times as much raw
material must be handled.
At different times propositions have been made to win the
metal from its sulphide. This compound possesses a heat of
formation so much lower that electrically it needs but a voltage
of o*o to deco mp ose it, and it is easily soluble in the fused
sulphides of the alkali metals. It can also be reduced metal-
hirgically by the action of molten iron. Various considerations-,
however, tend to show that there cannot be so much advantage
in employing it as would appear at first sight. As it is easier to
reduce than any other compound, so it is more difficult to produce.
Therefore while less energy is absorbed in its final reduction,
more is needed in its initial preparation, and it b questionable
whether the economy possible in the second stage would not be
neutralised by the greater cost of the first stage in the whole
operation of winning the metal from bauxite with the sulphide as
the intermediary.
The DeviUe process as gradually elaborated between 1855 and
1859 exhibited three distinct phases:— Production of metallic
n . f sodium, formation of the pure double chloride of sodium
HOmttmm an< * aluminium.and preparation of the metal by the inter-
action of the two former substances. To produce the
alkali metal, a calcined mixture of sodium carbonate, coal and
chalk was strongly ignited in flat retorts made of boiler-plate;
the sodium distilled over into condensers and was preserved
under heavy petroleum. In order to prepare pure alumina,
bauxite and sodium carbonate were heated in a furnace until the
reaction was complete; the product was then extracted with
water to dissolve the sodium aluminate, the solution treated
with carbon dioxide, and the precipitate removed and dried.
This purified oxide, mixed with sodium chloride and coal tar,
was carbonised at a red heat, and ignited in a current of dry
chlorine as long as vapours of the double chloride were given off,
these being condensed in suitable chambers. For the production
of the final aluminium, xoo parts of the chloride and 45 parts of
cryolite to serve as a flux were powdered together and mixed
with 35 parts of sodium cut into small pieces. The whole was
thrown in several portions on to the hearth of a furnace previously
heated to low redness and was stirred at intervals for three hours.
At length when the furnace was tapped a white slag was drawn
off from the top, and the liquid metal beneath was received into a
ladle and poured into cast-iron moulds. The process was worked
out by Deville in his laboratory at the £cole NormcU in Paris.
Early in 1855 he conducted large-scale experiments at Javel in
a factory lent him for the purpose, where he produced sufficient
to show at the French Exhibition of 1855. In the spring of
1856 a complete plant was erected at La Glaciere, a suburb
of Paris, but becoming a nuisance to the neighbours, it was
removed to Nanterre in the following year. Later it was again
transferred to Salindres, where the manufacture was continued
by Messrs. Pechiney till the advent of the present electrolytic
process rendered it no longer profitable.
When Deville quitted the Javel works, two brothers C. and A.
Tlsster, formerly his assistants, who had devised an improved
sodium furnace and had acquired a thorough knowledge of their
leader's experiments, also left, and erected a factory at AmfrevOle,
near Rouen, to work the cryolite process. It consisted simply in
reducing cryolite with metallic sodium exactly as in Deville's
chloride method, and it was claimed to possess various mythical
advantages over its rival Two grave disadvantages were soon
obvious— the limited supply of ore, and, what was even more
serious, the large proportion of silicon in the reduced metal
The Amfreville works existed some eight or ten years, but
achieved no permanent prosperity. In 1858 or 1859 a small
factory, the first in England, was built by F. W. Gerhard at
Battersea, who also employed cryolite, made his own sodium, and
was able to sell the product at 3s, yd. per os. This enterprise
only lasted about four years. Between i860 and 1874 Messrs
Bell Brothers manufactured the metal at Washington, near
Newcastle, under Deville's supervision, producing nearly 2 cwt
per year. They took part in the International Exhibition of
x86s, quoting a price of 40s. per lb troy.
In 1881 J. Webster patented an improved process for making
alumina, and the following year he organized the Aluminium
Crown Metal Co. of Hollywood to exploit it in conjunction with
Deville's method of reduction. Potash-alum and pitch were
caldned together, and the mass was treated with hydrochloric
add; chsrroal and water to form a paste were next added, and
the whole was dried and ignited in a current of air and steam.
The residue, consisting of alumina and potassium sulphate, was
leached with water to separate the insoluble matter which was
dried as usuaL All the by-products, potassium sulphate, sulphur
and aluminate of iron, were capable of recovery, and were
claimed to reduce the cost of the oxide materially. From this
alumina the double chloride was prepared in essentially the same
manner as practised at Salindres, but sundry economies accrued
in the process, owing to the larger scale of working and to the
adoption of W. Wddon's method of regenerating the. spent
chlorine liquors. In 1886 H. Y. Castner's sodium patents
appeared, and The Aluminium Co. of Oldbury was promoted to
combine the advantages of Webster's alumina and Castner's
sodium. Castner had long been interested in aluminium, and
was desirous of lowering its price. Seeing that sodium was the
only possible reducing agent, he set himself to cheapen its cost,
and deliberately rejecting sodium carbonate for the more ex-
pensive sodium hydroxide (caustic soda), and replacing carbon
by a mixture of iron and carbon— the so-called carbide of iron-
he invented the highly scientific method of winning the alkali
metal which has remained in existence almost to the present day.
In 187a sodium prepared by Deville's process cost about as. per lb,
the greater part of the expense being due to the constant failure
of the retorts; in 1887 Castner's sodium cost less than is. per lb,
for his cast-iron pots survived 135 distillations.
In the same year L. Grabau patented a method of reducing the
simple fluoride of aluminium with sodium, and his process was
operated at Trotha in Germany. It was distinguished by the
unusual purity of the metal obtained, some of his samples contain-
ing 99' 5 to 99*8 %. In 1888 the Alliance Aluminium Co., organized
to work certain patents for winning the metal from cryolite by
means of sodium, erected plant in London, Hebburn and Wall-
send, and by 1889 were selling the metal at xxs. to 15s. per lb.
The Aluminium Company's price in x888 was 20s. per lb and
the output about 250 lb per day. In 1889 the price was xoa.,
but by 1891 the electricians commenced to offer metal at as.
per lb, and aluminium reduced with sodium became a thing of
the past
About 1879 dynamos began to be introduced into metallurgical
practice, and from that date onwards numerous schemes for
utilizing this cheaper source of energy were brought
before the public. The first electrical method worthy
of notice is that patented by E. H. and A. H. Cowles
in 1885, which was worked both at Lockport, New York, U.S.A.,
and at Milton, Staffordshire. The furnace consisted of a flat,
rectangular, firebrick box, packed with a layer of finely-powdered
charcoal a in. thick* Through stuffing-boxes at the ends
passed the two electrodes, made after the fashion of arc-light
carbons, and capable of being approached together according to
the requirements of the operation. The central space of the
furnace was filled with a mixture of corundum, coarsely-powdered
charcoal and copper; and an iron lid lined with firebrick was
luted in its place to exclude air. The charge was reduced by
means of a 50-volt current from a 300-kilowatt dynamo, which
was passed through the furnace for i\ hours till decomposition
was complete. About xoo lb of bronze, containing from 15 to
so lb of aluminium, were obtained from each run, the yield of
the alloy being reported at about 1 ft) per 18 e.h.p.-hours. The
composition of the alloys thus produced could not be pre-
determined with exactitude; each batch was therefore analysed,
a number of them were bulked together or mixed with copper in
77©
ALUMINIUM
the necessary proportion, and melted in crucibles to give mer-
chantable bronzes containing between i J and 10 % of aluminium.
Although the copper took no part in the reaction, its employment
was found indispensable, as otherwise the aluminium partly
volatilized, and partly combined with the carbon to form a
carbide. It was also necessary to give the fine charcoal a thin
coating of calcium oxide by soaking it in lime-water, for the
temperature was so high that unless it was thus protected it was
gradually converted into graphite, losing its insulating power
and diffusing the current through the lining and walls of the
furnace. That this process did not depend upon electrolysis, but
was simply an instance of electrical smelting or the decomposition
of an oxide by means of carbon at the temperature of the electric
arc, is shown by the fact that the Cowles furnace would work
with an alternating current.
In 1883 R. Cratzel patented a useless electrolytic process with
fused cryolite or the double chloride as the raw material, and in
z886 Dr E. Kleiner propounded a cryolite method which was
worked for a time by the Aluminium Syndicate at Tyldesley near
Manchester, but was abandoned in 1800. In 1887 A. Minet took
out patents for electrolysing a mixture of sodium chloride with
aluminium fluoride, or with natural or artificial cryolite. The
operation was continuous, the metal being regularly run off from
the bottom of the bath, while fresh alumina and flouride were
added as required. The process exhibited several disadvantages,
the electrolyte had to be kept constant in composition lest either
fluorine vapours should be evolved or sodium thrown down, and
the raw materials had accordingly to be prepared in a pure state.
After prolonged experiments in a factory owned by Messrs
Bernard Fr&res at St Michel in Savoy, Minet's process was given
up, and at the close of the 19th century the Heroult-Hall method
-was alone being employed in the manufacture of aluminium
throughout the world.
The original Deville process for obtaining pure alumina from
bauxite was greatly simplified in 1889 by K. T. Bayer, whose
improved process is exploited at Larne in Ireland and at Gardanne
in France. New works on the same process have recently been
erected near Marseilles. Crude bauxite is ground, lightly
calcined to destroy organic matter, and agitated under a pressure
of 70 or 80 lb per sq. in. with a solution of sodium hydroxide
having the specific gravity 1-45. After two or three hours the
liquid is diluted till its density falls to 1.23, when it is passed
through filter-presses to- remove the insoluble ferric oxide and
silica. The solution of sodium aluminate, containing aluminium
oxide and sodium oxide in the molecular proportion of 6 to x, is
next agitated for thirty-six hours with a small quantity of
hydra ted alumina previously obtained, which causes the liquor
to decompose, and some 70 % of the aluminium hydroxide to be
thrown down. The filtrate, now containing roughly two mole-
cules of alumina to one of soda, is concentrated to the original
gravity of 1-45, and employed instead of fresh caustic for the
attack of more bauxite; the precipitate is then collected, washed
till free from soda, dried and ignited at about iooo° C. to convert
it into a crystalline oxide which is less hygroscopic than the
former amorphous variety.
The process of manufacture which now remains to be described
was patented during 1886 and 1887 in the name of C. M. Hall in
America, in that of P. T. L. Heroult in England and France. It
would be idle to discuss to whom the credit of first imagining
the method rightfully belongs, for probably this is only one of
the many occasions when new ideas have been bora in several
brains at the same time. By z888 Hall was at work on a com-
mercial scale at Pittsburg, reducing German alumina; in 1891
the plant was removed to New Kensington for economy in fuel,
and was gradually enlarged to 1500 h.p.; in 1894 a factory
driven by water was erected at Niagara Falls, and subsequently
works were established at Shawenegan in Canada and at Massena
in the United States. In rftoo also the Hall process operated by
steam power was installed *t Patricroft, Lancashire, where the
plant had a capacity of 300 lb per day, but by 1894 the turbines
of the Swiss and French works ruined the enterprise. About
1897 the Bernard factory at St Michel passed into the hands of
Messrs Pechiney, the machinery toon being increased, and that,
under the control of a firm that has been concerned ia tk
industry almost from its inception, aluminium is being ssaca-
factured by the Hall process on a large scale. Ia July 1888 tk
Sociiii Mitallurgique Suisse erected plant driven by a 500 kp.
turbine to carry out Heroult's alloy process, and at the end «'
that year the AUgemeine EUktriciUUsGcsdUckafi united with tk
Swiss firm in organizing the Aluminium Industrie Adieu Cad-
schaft of Neuhasen, which has factories in Switzerland, Genus?
and Austria. The Sociiti EUctromUaUurgiquc Francois*, started
under the direction of Heroult in 1888 for the production si
aluminium in France, began operations on a small scale at
Froges in Isere; but soon after large works were erected in Save?
at La Praz, near Modane, and in 1005 another large factory ««
started in Savoy at St Michel. In 1895 the British Ahunirian
Company was founded to mine bauxite and manufacture aluxaisa
in Ireland, to prepare the necessary electrodes at Greenock, is
reduce the aluminium by the aid of water-power at the Falls si
Foyers, and to refine and work up the metal into martrtaNr
shapes at the old Milton factory of the Cowles Syndicate, re-
modelled to suit modern requirements. In 1005 this compaaf
began works for the utilization of another water-power at Lad
Leven.
In 1907 a new company, The Aluminium Corporation, vat
started in England to carry out the production of the metal by
the Heroult process, and new factories were constructed near
Conway in North Wales and at Wallsend-on-Tyne, quite dese
to where, twenty years before, the Alliance Aluminium Co. sad
their works.
The Heroult cell consists of a square iron or steel box Uses*
with carbon rammed and baked into a solid mass; at the bottas
is a cast-iron plate connected with the negative pole of tk
dynamo, but the actual working cathode ia undoubtedly tk
layer of already reduced and molten metal that lies in the bath.
The anode is formed of a bundle of carbon rods suspended froa
overhead so as to be capable of vertical adjustment. The cell s
filled up with cryolite, and the current is turned on till the 4
melted; then the pure powdered alumina is fed in continuously
as long as the operation proceeds. The current is supplied at a
tension of 3 to $ volts per cell, passing through to or 12 in sens;
and it performs two distinct functions: — (1) it o v erco me s tk
chemical affinity of the aluminium oxide, (a) it overcomes tk
resistance of the electrolyte, heating the liquid at the same rise.
As a part of the voltage is consumed in the latter duty, only tk
residue can be converted into chemical work, and as the theoretical
voltage of the aluminium fluoride in the cryolite is 4-0, provided
the bath is kept properly supplied with alumina, the fluorides are
not attacked. It follows, therefore, except for "»*rh«Twrffl fesst*
that one charge of cryolite lasts indefinitely, that the sodium a&i
other impurities in it are not liable to contaminate the product
and that only the alumina itself need be carefully punned. Tk
operation is essentially a dissociation of alumina into aluminum,
which collects at the cathode, and into oxygen, which comhitHn
with the anodes to form carbon monoxide, the latter escapist
and being burnt to carbon dioxide outside. Theoretically j6
parts by weight of carbon are oxidized in the production of 54
parts of aluminium; practically the anodes waste at the sane
rate at which metal is deposited. The current density is abest
700 amperes per sq. ft. of cathode surface, and the number of
rods in the anode is such that each delivers 6 or 7 amperes per
sq. in. of cross-sectional area. The working temperature 6a
between 750° and 850° C, and the actual yield is 1 lb of metal per
1 2 e.h.p. hours. The bath is heated internally with the camat
rather than by means of external fuel, because this arrangemeat
permits the vessel itself to be kept comparatively cool; if it wrre
fired from without, it would be hotter than the electrolyte, ana*
no material suitable for the construction of the cell is competect
to withstand the attack of nascent aluminium at high tempera-
tures. Aluminium is so light that it is a matter requiring son*
ingenuity to select a convenient solvent through which it shall
sink quickly, for if it does not *tnk. it short-circuits theelectiolrte.
The molten metal has a specific gravity of 2*54, that of mobs
ALUMINIUM
771
cryolite saturated with alumina is 2*35, and that of the fluoride
Al a F« 2NaF saturated with alumina 1-97. The latter therefore
appears the better material, and was originally preferred by Hall ;
cryolite, however, dissolves more alumina, and has been finally
adopted by both inventors.
Aluminium is a white metal with a characteristic tint which
most neatly resembles that of tin; when impure, or after pro-
„.. M _ longed exposure to air, it has* a alight violet shade. Its
M B atomic weight is 27 (26*77, H-I, according to J.
Thomsen). It is trivalent. The specific gravity of cast metal
is 2- 583, and of rolled 2088 at 4 C. It melts at 626* C. (freezing-
point 6s4*5*, Heycock and Neville). It is the third most malle-
able and sixth most ductile metal, yielding sheets 0*000025 in.
in thickness, and wires 0*004 in. in diameter. When quite pure
it is somewhat harder than tin, and its hardness is considerably
increased by rolling. It is not magnetic. It stands near the
positive end of the list of elements arranged in electromotive
series, being exceeded only by the alkalis and metals of the
alkaline earths; it therefore combines eagerly, under suitable
conditions, with oxygen and chlorine. Its coefficient of linear
expansion by heat is 0-0000222 (Richards) or 0*0000231 (Roberts-
Austen) per 1* C. Its mean specific heat between o* and ioo°
is 0*227, and its latent heat of fusion 100 calories (Richards).
Only silver, copper and gold surpass it as conductors of heat, its
value being 31-33 (Ag-100, Roberts- Austen). Its electrical
conductivity, determined on 09*6 % metal, is 60-5 % that of
copper for equal volumes, or double that of copper for equal
weights, and when chemically pure it exhibits a somewhat
higher relative efficiency. The average strength of 98 % metal
is approximately shown by the following table*—
Elastic Limit,
tons per sq. in.
Ultimate
Strength, tons
per sq. in.
Reduction
of Area %
Cast . . .
Sheet . . .
Bars .
Wire . . .
7-13
7
II
12
13-29
13
35
Weight for weight, therefore, aluminium is only exceeded
in tensile strength by the best cast steel, and its own alloy,
aluminium bronze. An absolutely clean surface becomes
tarnished in damp air, an almost, invisible coating of oxide
being produced, just as happens with zinc; but this film is
very permanent and prevents further attack. Exposure to air
and rain also causes slight corrosion, but to nothing like the
same extent as occurs with iron, copper or brass. Commercial
electrolytic aluminium of the best quality contains as the average
of a large number of tests, 0*48 % of silicon and 0*46 % of iron,
the residue being essentially aluminium itself. The metal in
mass is not affected by hot or cold water, the foil is very slowly
oxidised, while the amalgam decomposes rapidly. Sulphuretted
hydrogen having no action upon it, articles made of it are not
blackened in foggy weather or in rooms where crude coal gas is
burnt. To inorganic adds, except hydrochloric, it is highly
resistant, ranking well with tin in this respect; but alkalis
dissolve it quickly. Organic adds such as vinegar, common
salt, the natural ingredients of food, and the various extraneous
substances used as food preservatives, alone or mixed together,
dissolve traces of it if boiled for any length of time in a chemically-
dean vessel; but when aluminium utensils are submitted to
the ordinary routine of the kitchen, being used to heat or cook
milk, coffee, vegetables, meat and even fruit, and are also cleaned
frequently in the usual fashion, no appreciable quantity of metal
passes into the food. Moreover, did it do so, the action upon
the human system would be infinitely less harmful than similar
doses of copper or of lead.
The highly electro-positive character of aluminium is most
important At devated temperatures the metal decomposes
nearly all other metallic oxides, wherefore it is most serviceable
as a metallurgical reagent. In the casting of iron, sted and
brass, the addition of a trifling proportion (0-005 %) removes
oxide and renders the molten metal more fluid, causing the
finished products to be more homogeneous, free from blow-holes
and solid all through. On the other hand, its electro-positive
nature necessitates some care in its utilization. If it be exposed
to damp, to sea-water or to corrosive influences of any kind in
contact with another metal, or if it be mixed with another metal
so as to form an alloy which is- not a true chemical compound,
the other metal being highly negative to it, powerful galvanic
action will be set up and the structure will quickly deteriorate.
This explains the failure of boats built of commercially pure
aluminium which have been put together with iron or copper
rivets, and the decay of other boats built of a light alloy, in
which the alloying metal (copper) has been injudidously chosen.
It also explains why aluminium is so difficult to join with low-
temperature solders, for these mostly contain a large proportion
of lead. This disadvantage, however, is often overestimated
since in most cases other means of uniting two pieces are
available.
The metal produces an enormous number of useful alloys, some
of which, containing only z or 2 % of other metals, combine the
lightness of aluminium itself with far greater hardness
and strength. Some with 90 to 09% of other metals **V*
exhibit the general properties of those metals conspicuously
improved. Among the heavy alloys, the aluminium bronzes
(Cu, 00-97*5 %; Al, 10-2-5 %) occupy the most important
position, showing mean tensile strengths increasing from 20 to
41 tons per sq. in. as the percentage of aluminium rises, and all
strongly resisting corrosion in air or sea-water. The light copper
alloys, in which the proportions just given are practically
reversed, are of considerably less utility, for although they are
fairly strong, they lack power to resist galvanic action. This
subject is far from being exhausted, and it is not improbable
that the alloy-producing capadty of aluminium may eventually
prove its most valuable characteristic. In the meantime,
ternary light alloys appear the most satisfactory, and tungsten
and copper, or tungsten and nickd, seem to be the best substances;
to add.
The uses of aluminium are too numerous to mention. Probably
the widest field is still in the purification of iron and sted. To
the general public it appeals most strongly as a material ..__
for constructing cooking utensils. It is not brittle ^"*
like porcelain and cast iron, not poisonous like lead-glazed
earthenware and untinned copper, needs no enamd to chip off,
does not rust and wear out like cheap tin-plate, and weighs but
a fraction of other substances. It is largely replacing brass and
copper in all departments of todustry— especially where dead
weight has to be moved about, and lightness is synonymous
with economy— for instance, in bed-plates for torpedo-boat
engines, internal fittings for ships instead of wood, complete
boats for pottage, motor-car parts and boiling-pans for con-
fectionery and in chemical works. The British Admiralty
employ it to save weight in the Navy, and the war-offices of the
European powers equip their soldiers with it wherever possible.
As a substitute for Solenhof en-stone it is used in a modified form
of lithography, which can be performed on rotary printing-
machines at a high speed. With the increasing price of copper,
it is coming into vogue as an electrical conductor for uncovered
mains; it is found that an aluminium wire 0*126 in. in diameter
will carry as much current as a copper wire o- 100 in. in diameter,
while the former weighs about 79 lb and theiatter 162 lb per
mile. Assuming the materials to be of equal tensile strength
per unit of area— hard-drawn copper is stronger, but has a lower
conductivity— -the adoption of aluminium thus leads to a
reduction of 52% in the weight, a gain of 60% in the strength,
and an increase of 26 % in the diameter of the conductor. Bare
aluminium strip has recently been tried for winding-coils in
electrical machines, the oxide of the metal acting as insulators
between the layers. When the price of aluminium is less than
double the price of copper aluminium is cheaper than copper
per unit of electric current conveyed; but when insulation is
necessary, the smaller size <5f the copper wire renders it more
economical. Aluminium conductors have been employed on
heavy work in many places, and for tdegraphy and tdephony
77*
ALUMINIUM
they are in frequent demand and give perfect satisfaction.
Difficulties were at first encountered in making the necessary
joints, but these have been overcome by practice and experience.
Two points connected with this metal are of sufficient moment
to demand a few words by way of conclusion. Its extraordinary
lightness forms its chief claim to general adoption, yet is apt
to cause mistakes when its price is mentioned. It is the weight
of a mass of metal which governs its financial value; its industrial
value, in the vast majority of cases, depends on the volume of
that mass. Provided it be rigid, the bed-plate of an engine is
no better for weighing 30 cwt. than for weighing 10 cwt. A
saucepan is required to have a certain diameter and a certain
depth in order that it may hold a certain bulk of liquid: its
weight is merely an encumbrance. Copper being 31 times as
heavy as aluminium, whenever the latter costs less than $\ times
as much as copper it is actually cheaper. It must be remembered,
too, that electrolytic aluminium only became known during
the last decade of the 19th century. Samples dating from the
old sodium days are still in existence, and when they exhibit
unpleasant properties the defect is often ascribed to the metal
instead of to the process by which it was won. Much has yet
to be learnt about the practical qualities of the electrolytic
product, and although every day's experience serves to place
the metal in a firmer industrial position, a final verdict can only
be passed after the lapse of time. The individual and collective
influence of the several impurities. which occur in the product
of the Heroult cell is still to seek, and the importance of this
inquiry will be seen when we consider that if cast iron, wrought
iron and steel, the three totally distinct metals included in "the
generic name of " iron " — which are only distinguished one from
another chemically by minute differences in the proportion
of certain non-metallic ingredients-— had only been in use for
a comparatively few years, attempts might occasionally be made
to forge cast iron, or to employ wrought iron in the manufacture
of edge-tools. (E. J. R.)
Compounds of Aluminium,
Aluminium oxide or alumina, AI1O1, occurs in nature as the
mineral corundum (q.9.) t notable for its hardness and abrasive
power (see Emery), and in well-crystallized forms it constitutes,
when coloured by various metallic oxides, the gem-stones,
sapphire, oriental topaz, oriental amethyst and oriental emerald.
Alumina is obtained as a white amorphous powder by heating
aluminium hydroxide. This powder, provided that it has not
been too strongly ignited, is soluble in strong adds; by ignition
it becomes denser and nearly as hard as corundum; it fuses
in the oxyhydrogen flame or electric arc, and on cooling it assumes
a crystalline form closely resembling the mineral spedes.
Crystallized alumina is also obtained by heating the fluoride
with boron trioxide; by fusing aluminium phosphate with
sodium sulphate; by heating alumina to a dull redness in
hydrochloric add gas under pressure; and by heating alumina
with lead oxide to a bright red heat These reactions are of
spedal interest, for they culminate in the production of artificial
ruby and sapphire (see Gems, AxTmcua).
Aluminium Hydrates.— Several hydrated forms of aluminium
oxide are known. Of these hydrargillite or gibbsite, Al(OH) t ,
diaspore, AIO(OH), and bauxite, Al*0(OH)4, occur in the mineral
kingdom. Aluminium hydrate, Al(OH)s, is obtained as a
gelatinous white predpitate, soluble in potassium or sodium
hydrate, but insoluble in ammonium chloride, by adding ammonia
to a cold solution of an aluminium salt; from boiling solutions
the predpitate is opaque. By drying at ordinary temperatures,
the hydrate Al(OH),H.O is obtained; at 300° this yidds
AIO(OH), which on ignition gives alumina, A1A. Predpitated
aluminium hydrate finds considerable application in dyeing.
Soluble modifications were obtained by Walter Cram (Joum.
Ckem. Soc., 1854, vi. 316), and Thomas Graham (Phil. Trans.,
1 86 1, p. 163); the first named decomposing aluminium acetate
(from lead acetate and aluminium sulphate) with boiling water,
the latter dialysing a solution of the basic chloride (obtained
by dissolving the hydroxide in a solution of the normal chloride).
Both these soluble hydrates are readily coagulated by 1
of a salt, add or alkali; Crura 's hydrate does not
with dye-stuffs, neither is it soluble in excess of acid, while
Graham's compound readily forms lakes, and readily dissolves
when coagulated in adds.
In addition to behaving as a basic oxide, ahuninhun oxide
(or hydrate) behaves as an add oxide towards the strong basts
with the formation of aluminaies. Potassium ahixainate,
KiAltOi, is obtained in solution by dissolving aluminium hydrate
in caustic potash; it is also obtained, as crystals mtuaining
three molecules of water, by fusing alumina with potash, ex-
hausting with water, and crystallizing the solution m
Sodium aluminate is obtained in the manufacture of 1
it is used as a mordant in dyeing, and has other <
dal applications. Other aluminates (in particular, of mm and
magnesium), are of frequent occurrence in the mineral iiiigritnn,
e.g. spinel, gahnite, &c.
Salts of Aluminium. — Aluminium forms one series of salts,
derived from the trioxide, AWOb. These exhibit, in certain cases,
marked crystallographical and other analogies with the corre-
sponding salts of chromium and ferric iron.
Aluminium fluoride, AlFt, obtained by dissolving the metal
in hydrofluoric add, and subliming the residue in a current of
hydrogen, forms transparent, very obtuse rhombohedra, whack
are insoluble in water. It forms a series of double fluorides,
the most important of which is cryolite (?.w.); this mineral has
been applied to the commercial preparation of the metal (see
above). Aluminium chloride, A1CU, was first prepared by
Oersted, who heated a mixture of carbon and alumina in a current
of chlorine, a method subsequently improved by WShler, Bunaea,
Deville and others. A purer product is obtained by heating
aluminium turnings in a current of dry chlorine, when the chloride
distils over. So obtained, it is a white crystalline solid, which
slowly sublimes just below its melting point (104*). Its vapour
density at temperatures above 750° corresponds to the formula
A1CU; below this point the molecules are associated. It is
very hygroscopic, absorbing water with the evolution of hydro-
chloric add. It combines with ammonia to form AICV3JTH,;
and forms double compounds with phosphorus pentachloride,
phosphorus oxychloride, sdenium and tellurium chlorides, aa weS
as with many metallic chlorides; sodium aluminium chloride,
AlCUNaCl, is used in the production of the metal. As a syn-
thetical agent in organic chemistry, aluminium chloride has
rendered possible more reactions than any other substance;
here we can only mention the classic syntheses of benzene
homologues. Aluminium bromide, AlBr», is prepared in the
same manner as the chloride. It forms colourless crystals,
melting at oo°, and boiling at a65°-a70°. Aluminium iodide.
Alls, results from the interaction of iodine and aluminium It
forms colourless crystals, melting at 185*, and boiling at 360*.
Aluminium sulphide, AUSj, results from the direct union of the
metal with sulphur, or when carbon disulphide vapour is passed
over strongly heated alumina. It forms a yellow fusible mass,
which is decomposed by water into alumina and sulphuretted
hydrogen. Aluminium sulphate Al(SQt)a» occurs in the
mineral kingdom as keramohalite, Al|(SOt)rl8HjO, found near
volcanoes and in alum-shale; aluminite or websterite is a bask
salt, Ab(SO«)(OH)«-7HsO. Aluminium sulphate, known com-
mercially as " concentrated alum " or " sulphate of Uumiaa,*
is manufactured from kaolin or china clay, which, after roasting
(in order to oxidize any iron present), is heated with sulphuric
add, the dear solution run off, and evaporated. " Alum cake "
is an impure product Aluminium sulphate crystallizes as
Al t (SO«)i-18HiO in tablets belonging to the monoclink system,
It has a sweet astringent taste, very soluble in water, but scarcely
soluble in alcohol. On heating, the crystals lose water, swell op.
and give the anhydrous sulphate, which, on further heating, gives
alumina. It forms double salts with the sulphates of the metals
of the alkalis, known as the alums (see Alum).
Aluminium nitride (A1N) is obtained as small yellow crystab
when aluminium is strongly heated in nitrogen. The nitrate,
A1(N0»)», is obtained as deliquescent crystals (with 6&0)
ALUNITE— ALVA
773
by evaporating m eolation of the hydroxide in nitric add.
Aluminium phosphates may be prepared by precipitating a
soluble aluminium salt with sodium phosphate. WaveUite
AJ,(P0«)t(0H)tt-9HA is a naturally occurring basic phosphate,
while the gem-stone turquoise (e.t.) is Al (P0«) (OHVHgO,
coloured by traces of copper. Aluminium silicates are widely
diffused in the mineral kingdom, being present in the commonest
rock-forming minerals (felspars, &c), and in the gem-stones,
topaz, beryl, garnet, &c It also constitutes with sodium
silicate the mineral lapis-laxuli and the pigment ultramarine
ig.v.). Forming the basis of all days, aluminium silicates play
a prominent part in the manufacture of pottery and porcelain.
Bibliography.— -The metallurgy and uses of aluminium are
treated in detail in P. Moiasonnaer, L' Aluminum (Paris, 1903); in
J. W. Richards, Aluminium (1896); and in A. Mtnet, Production 0/
Aluminium, Eng. trans, by L. Waldo (1905); reference may also
be made to treatises on general metallurgy, e.g. C. Schnabel, Hand-
book of Metallurgy, vol. it. (1907). For the chemistry see Roscoe and
Schlorleiumer, Treatise on Inorganic Chemistry, vol. ii. (1908); H.
Moissan, Traili do chimio minerale; Abegg, Handbuck dor anor-
Janischon Ckemie; and O. Dammer, Handbuck dtr anorganiuken
: hem ic. Alu minium alloys have been studied in detail by Guillet.
ALUNITE, or Alumstonz, a mineral first observed in the
1 5th century at Tolfa, near Rome, where it is mined for the
manufacture of alum. Extensive deposits are also worked in
Tuscany and Hungary, and at Bulladelah in New South Wales.
By repeatedly roasting and lixiviating the mineral, alum is
obtained in solution, and this is crystallized out by evaporation.
Alunite occurs as seams in trachytic and allied volcanic rocks,
having been formed by the action of sulphureous vapours on
these rocks. The white, finely
granular masses somewhat resemble
limestone in appearance, and the
more compact kinds from Hungary
are so hard and tough that they are
used for millstones. Distinct crys-
tals of alunite are rarely met with
in cavities in the massive material;
these are rhombohedra with interfadal angles of oo° 5c/, so
that they resemble cubes in appearance. Minute glistening
crystals have also been found loose in cavities in altered
rhyolite. The hardness is 4 and the specific gravity 26. The
mineral is a hydrated basic aluminium and potassium sulphate,
KAMSQ4MOHV It is insoluble in water,, but soluble in
sulphuric add. First called aluminilite by J. C. Delametherie
in 1797, this name was contracted by F. S. Beudant in 1824 to
alunite. (L. J. S.)
ALUR (Lur, Luri, Lurem), a Negro people of the Nile valley,
living on the north-west coast of Albert Nyanza. They are
akin to the Acboli (?.*.), speaking practically the same language.
ALURB (a Fr., from otter, to walk), an architectural term for
an alley, passage, the water-way or flat gutter behind a parapet,
the galleries of a clerestory, sometimes even the aisle itself of a
church. The term is sometimes written valure or valoring.
ALVA, or Alba, FERNANDO ALVAREZ DB TOLEDO, du«e
of, (1508-1583), Spanish soldier, descended from one of the
most illustrious families in Spain, was born in 1 508. His grand-
fa ther, Ferdinand of Toledo, educated him in military sdence
and politics; and he was engaged with distinction at the battle
of Pa via while still a youth. Selected for a military command by
Charles V., be took part in the siege of Tunis (1535), and success-
fully defended Pcrpignan against the dauphin of France. He
was present at the battle of Muhlberg (1547), and the victory
gained there over John of Saxony was due mainly to his exertions.
He took part in the subsequent siege of Wittenberg, and presided
at the court-martial which tried the doctor and condemned him
to death. In 155a Alva was intrusted with the command of
the army intended to invade France, and was engaged for
several months in an unsuccessful siege of Met*. Inconsequence
of the success of the French arms in Piedmont, he was made
commander-in-chief of all the emperor's forces in Italy, and at
the same time invested with unlimited power. Success did not,
however, attend his first attempts, and after several unfortunate
attacks he was obliged to retire into winter quarters. After the
abdication of Charles he was continued in the command by
Philip II., who, however, restrained him from extreme measures.
Alva had subdued the whole Campagna and was at the gates of
Rome, when he was compelled by Philip's orders to negotiate
a peace. One of its terms was that the duke of Alva should in
person ask forgiveness of the haughty pontiff whom he had
conquered. Proud as the duke was by nature, and accustomed
to treat with persons of the highest dignity, he confessed his
voice failed him at the interview and his presence of mind
forsook him. Not long after this (1 559) he was sent at the head of
a splendid embassy to Paris to espouse, in the name of his master,
Elisabeth, daughter of Henry, king of France. In 1567, Philip,
who was a bigoted Catholic, sent Alva into the Netherlands at
the head of an army of 10,000 men, with unlimited powers for the
extirpation of heretics. When he arrived he soon showed how
much he merited the confidence which his master reposed in
him, and instantly erected a tribunal which soon became known
to its victims as the " Court of Blood," to try all persons who had
been engaged in the late commotions which the dvil and religious
tyranny of Philip had exdted. He imprisoned the counts
Egmont and Horn, the two popular leaders of the Protestants,
brought them to an unjust trial and condemned them to death.
In a short time he totally annihilated every privilege of the
people, and with unrelenting cruelty put multitudes of them to
death. The executioner was employed in removing all those
friends of freedom whom the sword had spared. In most of the
considerable towns Alva built citadels. In the city of Antwerp
he erected a statue of himself, which was a monument no less of
his vanity than of his tyranny : he was figured trampling on the
necks of two smaller statues, representing the two estates of the
Low Countries. His attempt to raise money by imposing the
Spanish oleabalo, a tax of 5 % on all sales, aroused the
opposition of the Catholic Netherlands themsdves. The exiles
from the Low Countries, encouraged by the general resistance
to his government, fitted out a fleet of privateers, and after
strengthening themselves by successful depredations, ventured
upon the bold exploit of seising the town of Bridle. Thus Alva
by his crudty became the unwitting instrument of the future
independence of the seven Dutch provinces. The fleet of the
exiles, having met the Spanish fleet, totally ddeated it, and
reduced North Holland and Mons. Many dties hastened to
throw off the yoke; while the states-general, assembling at
Dordrecht, openly declared against Alva's government, and
marshalled under the banners of the prince of Orange. Alva's
preparations to oppose the gathering storm were made with his
usual vigour, and he succeeded in recovering Mons, Mechlin and
Zutphen, under the conduct of his son Frederick. With the
exception of Zealand and Holland, he regained all the provinces;
and at last his son stormed Naarden, and massacring its inhabi-
tants, proceeded to invest the dty of Haarlem, which, after standing
an obstinate siege, was taken and pillaged. Their next attack
was upon Alkmaar; but the spirit of desperate resistance was
raised to such a height in the breasts of the Hollanders that the
Spanish veterans were repulsed with great loss and Frederick
constrained reluctantly to retire. Alva's feeble state of health
and continued disasters induced him to solicit his recall from
the government of the Low Countries; a measure which, in
all probability, was not displeasing to Philip, who was now
resolved to make trial of a milder administration. In December
1573 the much-oppressed country was relieved from the presence
of the duke of Alva, who, returning home accompanied by his
son, made the infamous boast that during the course of six
years, besides the multitudes destroyed in battle and massacred
after victory, he had consigned 18,000 persons to the executioner.
On his return he was treated for some time with great distinc-
tion by Philip. A tardy and imperfect justice, however, overtook
him, when he was banished from court and confined in the castle
of Uzeda for complicity in certain disgraceful conduct of his son.
Here he had remained two years, when the success of Don
Antonio in assuming the crown of Portugal determined Philip to
turn his eyes towards Alva as the person in whose fidelity and
abilities he could most confide. A secretary was instantly
774
ALVA— ALVENSLEBEN
despatched to Alva to ascertain whether his health was suffi-
ciently vigorous to enable him to undertake the command of an
army. The aged chief returned an answer full of loyal zeal,
and was immediately appointed to the supreme command in
Portugal. It is a striking fact, however, that the liberation and
elevation of Alva were not followed by forgiveness. In 1581
Alva entered Pbrtugal, defeated Antonio, drove him from the
kingdom, and soon reduced the whole under the subjection of
Philip. Entering Lisbon he seized an immense treasure, and
suffered his soldiers, with their accustomed violence and rapacity,
to sack the suburbs and vicinity. It is reported that Alva, being
requested to give an account of the money expended on that
occasion, sternly replied, " If the king asks me for an account, I
will make him a statement of kingdoms preserved or conquered,
of signal victories, of successful sieges and of sixty years' ser-
vice." Philip deemed it proper to make no further inquiries.
Alva, however, did not enjoy the honours and rewards of his
last expedition, for he died in January 1583 at the age of 74.
Authorities. — See the Lift, by Rustant (Madrid, 1751). His
correspondence during his Flemish government has been published
by M. Gachard (Brussels, 1850). See also Coleuion de docu-
ments incditos para la kistoria deEsjMfia^ynM. iv., vii., viii., xiv.,
by M. Gachard (Brussels, 1850). See also Coleuion do docu-
mentos incditos para la kistoria de Espana. vols, iv., vii., viii., xiv.,
xxxii. and xxxv. (Madrid) ; and Motley's Rise of the Dutch Republic
(1856).
ALVA, a police burgh of Clackmannanshire, Scotland, $\ m.
N. of Alloa, terminus of a branch line of the North British
railway. Pop. (1891) 5225; (1901) 4624. It is situated at the
foot of three front peaks of the Ochils— West Hill (1682 ft.),
Middle Hill (1436 ft) and Wood Hill (1723 ft.). There are
spinning-mills, and manufactures of tweeds, tartans and other
woollen goods. Silver, lead and other metals have been found
in the hills, but not in paying quantities. The glen to the east
of the town, in which are abandoned workings, is called the
Silver Glen. Alva House is the seat of the Johnstones, a family
which has been intimately connected with the district since the
latter half of the 18th century.
ALVARADO, PEDRO DB (1495-1541), one of the Spanish
leaders in the discovery and conquest of America, was born at
Badajoz about 1495. He held a command in the expedition
sent from Cuba against Yucatan in the spring of 1518, and
returned in a few months, bearing reports of the wealth and
splendour of Montezuma's empire. In February 1510 he
accompanied Hernando Cortes in the expedition for the conquest
of Mexico, being appointed to the command of one of the eleven
vessels of the fleet. He acted as Cortes's principal officer, and
on the first occupation of the city of Mexico was left there in
charge. When the Spaniards had temporarily to retire before
the Mexican uprising, Alvarado led the rear-guard (1st of July
1520), and the Salto dc Alvarado — a long leap with the use of his
spear, by which he saved his life — became famous. He was
engaged (1523-24) in the conquest of Guatemala, of which he
was subsequently appointed governor by Charles V. In 1534
he attempted to bring the province of Quito under his power,
but had to content himself with the exaction of a pecuniary
indemnity for the expenses of the expedition. During a visit to
Spain, three years later, he had the governorship of Honduras
conferred upon him in addition to that of Guatemala. He died
in Guatemala in 1541.
ALVAREZ, FRANCISCO (c. 1465-1541?), Portuguese mis-
sionary and explorer, was born at Coimbra. He was a chaplain-
priest and almoner to Dom Manuel, king of Portugal, and was
sent in 15x5 as secretary to Duarte Galvao and Rodrigo da
Lima on an embassy to the negus of Abyssinia (Lebna Dengel
Da wit (David) II.). The expedition having been delayed by
the way, it was not until 1520 that he reached Abyssinia, where
he remained six years, returning to Lisbon in 1526-1527. In
1533 he was sent to' Rome on an embassy to Pope Clement VII.
The precise date of his death, like that of his birth, is unknown,
but it must have been later than x 540, in which year he published
at Lisbon under the king's patronage an account of his travels
in one volume folio, entitled Verdadera Informosom das terras
do Presto Joam. This curious work was translated into Italian I
(G. B. Ramusio, Natagoiioni, vol. i., Venice, 1550); rato |
Spanish (Historia de las Cases de Etiopi*, by Fray Tkmsssdr
Padilla, Antwerp, 1557); into French (ffutariofe Descriptim
de VEtkiopie, Christ. Plantin, Antwerp, 1558); into Gexsu
(Wahrhaftiger Bench* m... Ethiopia*, Eisfeben, 15*
into English (Sam. Purchas, PU grimes, part n., L o ndon . ifc?
The information it contains must, however, be received vd
caution, as the author is prone to exaggerate, and does eat
confine himself to what came within his own observation.
ALVAREZ, DON J08* (1 768-1827), Spanish sculptor, **
born at Priego, in the province of Cordova, in 1768. Hs :J
name was Jose Alvarez de Pereira y Cubero. Bred to b
father's trade of a stone-mason, he devoted all his spare war 9
drawing and modelling. His education in art was due pertir s
the teaching of the French sculptor Verdiguier at Cordova, «^
partly to lessons at Madrid, where he attended the lecture s
the academy of San Fernando. In 1709 he obtained frac
Charles IV. a pension of 12,000 reals to enable him to rat
Paris and Rome. In the former city he executed in 1*0* 1
statue of Ganymede, which placed him at once in the front nu
of the sculptors of his time, and which is now in the sculpt
gallery of the Prado. Shortly afterwards bis pension was bw
than doubled, and he left Paris for Rome, where be rcaa-r-i
till within a year of his death. He bad married in Paris E&asri
Bougel, by whom he had a son in 1805. This son, kac«* e
Don Jose Alvarez y Bougel, also distinguished himself as 1
sculptor and a painter, but he died at Burgos before he be
reached the age of twenty-five, a little more than two years sits?
his father's death in Madrid in 1827. One of the most sneomrs
works of the elder Alvarez was a group representing Antflocko
and Memnon, which was commissioned in marble (181S) t?
Ferdinand VII., and secured for the artist the appointiney. a
court-sculptor. It is now in the museum of Madrid. He aJt
modelled a few portrait busts (Ferdinand VII., Rrwsfiw. tte
duchess of Alba), which are remarkable for their vigoer sac
fidelity.
ALVAREZ, DON MANUEL (1727-1797). Spanish scsit**
was born at Salamanca. He followed classical models so dojriy
that he was styled by his countrymen El Grieg*, " The Greek"
His works, which are very numerous, are chiefly to be fosnd at
Madrid.
ALVARY, MAX (1858-1898), German singer, was bora st
DOsseldorf. Gifted with a fine tenor voice and *»«»^*^»
presence he speedily made a reputation in Germany in the lea&f
roles in Wagnerian opera, and from 1885 onwards appeal
also in America and England. He was at his best in 1802. wte
his performances as Tristan and Siegfried at Covent Garda
aroused great enthusiasm.
ALVEARY (from the Lat ahearium), a beehive; used Ufa
apiarium in the same sense, figuratively for a collection of ant
working people, or a scholarly work (e.g. dictionary) inveMg
bee-like industry. By analogy the term is used for the 1
of the ear, where the wax collects.
ALVENSLEBEN, CONSTANTIN VON (x8oo-iSos),
general, was born on the 26th of August x8oo at Efcxkabarlebet
in Prussian Saxony, and entered the Prussian guards from ite
cadet corps in 1827. He became first lieutenant in 1842, capuoi
in 1849, and major on the Great General Staff in 1853, whesoc
after seven years he went to the Ministry of War. He was worn
afterwards promoted colonel, and commanded a regiment af
Guard infantry up to 1864, when he became a major-geneni
In this rank he commanded a brigade of guards in the war «f
1866. At the action of Soor (Burkersdorf) on the a8th of Joe
he distinguished himself very greatly, and at KOniggratx, when
he led the advanced guard of the Guard corps, his energy ui
initiative were still more conspicuous. Soon afterwards he suc-
ceeded to the command of his division, General Hifler r
Gartringen having fallen in the battle; he was promvtctf
lieutenant-general, and retained this command after the coad*
sion of peace, receiving in addition the order pour le merde *r
his services. In 1870, on the outbreak of war with Fraacr
von Alvensleben succeeded Prince Frederick Charles in t
of the III army corps which formed part of the II
ALVEOLATE— ALWAR
775
Army commanded by the prince. Under their new general,
the Brandenburg regiments forming the III corps proved them-
selves collectively the best in the whole German army, with the
possible exception of the Prussian guards, and, if Prince Frederick
Charles is entitled to the chief credit in training the III corps,
Alvensleben had contributed in almost equal degree to the
efficiency of the Guard infantry, while his actual leadership of
the m corps in the battles of 1870 and 1871 showed him afresh
as a fighting general of the very first rank. The battle of
Spicheren, on the 6th of August, was initiated and practically
directed throughout by him, and in the confusion which followed
this victory, for which the superior commanders were not pre-
pared, Alvensleben showed his energy and determination by
resuming the advance on his own responsibility. This led to
the great battles of the 14th, 16th and 18th of August around
Mets, and again the HI corps was destined, under its resolute
leader, to win the chief credit. Crossing the Moselle the instant
that he received permission from his army commander to do so,
Alvensleben struck the flank of Bazaine's whole army (August
x 6th) in movement westward from Met*. The III corps attacked
at once, and for many hours bore the whole brunt of the battle
at Vionvilk. By the most resolute leading, and at the cost of
very heavy losses, Alvensleben held the whole French army at
bay while other corps of the I and II German Armies gradually
closed up. In the battle of Gravelotte, on the 18th, the corps
took little part Its work was done, and it remained with the
II Army before Metz until the surrender of Bazaine's army.
Prince Frederick Charles then moved south-west to co-operate
with the grand-duke of Mecklenburg on the Loire. At the
battle of Beaune-la-Rolande, the corps, with its comrades of
Vionville, the X corps under General v. Voigts-Rhetz, won new
laurels, and it participated in the advance on Le Mans and the
battle at that place on the 12th of January 1871. At the close
of the war Alvensleben received the oak-leaves of the order
pour le mtrite, the first class of the Iron Cross and a grant of
100,000 thalers. He became full general of infantry in 1873
and retired immediately afterwards. In 1889 the emperor
William II. ordered that the 52nd infantry regiment (one of
the distinguished regiments of Vionville) should thereafter bear
Alvenslcben's name, and in 1892, on the anniversary of the battle
of Le Mans, the old general received the order of the Black Eagle.
He died on the 28th of March 1892 at Berlin.
His brother, Gustav von Alvensleben (1803-1881), Prussian
general of infantry, was born at Eichenbarleben on the 30th of
September 1803, entered the Guard infantry in 1821, and took
part as a general staff officer in the suppression of the Baden
insurrection of 1849. He became a major-general in 1858,
aide-de-camp to the king in 1861, and lieutenant-general in
1863, and in the campaign of 1866 performed valuable military
and political services. He was promoted general of infantry
in 1868. In the war of 1870 he commanded the IV army corps,
which took a conspicuous part in the action of Beaumont and
afterwards served in the siege of Paris. He received the Iron
Cross, the order pour le meriie, and a money grant, as a reward
for his services, and retired in 187s. He died at Gernrode in the
Harz on the 30th of June i88x.
Another brother, Albkecht, Count von Alvensleben (1794-
1858), was a distinguished Prussian statesman.
ALVEOLATE (from Lat alveolus), honeycombed, a word used
technically in biology, &c, to mean pitted like a honeycomb.
ALVERSTONB. RICHARD BVERARD WEBSTER, 1ST
Baron (1842- ), lord chief justice of England, was born
on the 32nd of December 1842, being the second son of Thomas
Webster, Q.C. He was educated at King's College and Charter-
house schools, and Trinity College, Cambridge; was called to
the bar in 1868, and became Q.C. only ten years afterwards.
His practice was chiefly in commercial, railway and patent
cases until (June 1885) he was appointed attorney-general in
the Conservative Government in the exceptional circumstances
of never having been solicitor-general, and not at the time
occupying a seat in parliament. He was elected for Launceston
in the following month, and in November exchanged this seat
for the Isle of Wight, which he continued to represent until his
elevation to the House of Lords. Except under the brief Glad-
stone administration of 1886, and the Gladstone-Rosebery
cabinet of 1892-1895, Sir Richard Webster was attorney-general
from 1885 to xooo. In 1890 he was leading counsel for The
Times in the Paraell inquiry; in 1893 he represented Great
Britain in the Bering Sea arbitration; in 1898 he discharged
the same function in the matter of the boundary between
British Guiana and Venezuela; and in 1903 was one of the
members of the Alaska Boundary Commission. He was well
known as an athlete in his earlier years, having represented his
university as a runner, and his interest in cricket and foot-raring
was kept up in later life. In the House of Commons, and outside
it, he was throughout his political career prominently associated
with church work; and his speeches were distinguished for
gravity and earnestness. In 1900 he succeeded Sir Nathaniel
Lindley as Master of the Rolls, being raised to the peerage as
Baron Alverstone, and in October of the same year he was
elevated to the office of lord chief justice upon the death of Lord
Russell of Killowen.
ALWAR, or Ulwab, a native state of India in the Rajputana
agency. It is bounded on the E. by the state of Bharatpur and
the British district of Gurgaon, on the N. by Gurgaon district
and the state of Patiala, on the W. by the states of Nabha and
Jaipur, and on the S. by the state of Jaipur. Its configuration
is irregular, the greatest length from north to south being about
80 m., and breadth from east to west about 60 m., with a total
area of 3x41 sq. m. The eastern portion of the state is open and
highly cultivated; the western is diversified by hills and peaks,
which form a continuation of the Aravalli range, from 12 to 20
m. in breadth. These hills run in rocky and precipitous parallel
ridges, in some places upwards of 2200 ft. in height . The Sabhi
river flows through the north-western part of the state, the only
other stream of importance being the Ruparel, which rises in
the Alwar hills, and flows through the state into the Bharatpur
territory. The population in 1001 was 828,487, showing an
increase of 8 % during the decade. When compared with a
heavy decrease elsewhere throughout Rajputana, this increase
may be attributed to the successful administration of famine
relief, under British officials. The revenue is £185,000. The
maharaja Jai Singh, who succeeded in 1892 at the age of ten,
was educated at the Mayo college, where he excelled both in
sports and in knowledge of English. He came of age in 1903,
when he was invested by the viceroy with full ruling powers.
Alwar was the first native state to accept a currency struck at
the Calcutta mint, of the same weight and assay as the imperial
rupee, with the head of the British sovereign on the obverse.
Imperial service troops are maintained, consisting of both
cavalry and infantry, with transport. The state is traversed
by the Delhi branch of the Rajputana railway. A settlement
of the land revenue has been carried out by an English civilian.
The state was founded by Pratap Singh (1 740-1 791), a Rajput
of ancient lineage, and increased by his adopted son Bakhtawar
Singh. The latter joined the British against the Mahrattas, and
in 1803, after the battle of Laswari (Nov. x), signed a treaty of
offensive and defensive alliance with the British government.
In 181 1, owing to his armed intervention in Jaipur, a fresh
engagement was made, prohibiting him from political intercourse
with other states without British consent. In 1857 the raja
Binni Singh sent a force of Mussulmans and Rajputs to relieve
the British garrison in Agra; the Mussulmans, however,
deserted, and the rest were defeated by the mutineers.
The City or Alwar has a railway station on the Rajputana
line, 98 m. from Delhi; pop. (1901) 56,771, showing a
steady increase. It stands in a valley overhung by a fortress
1000 ft. above. It is surrounded by a rampart and moat, with
five gates, and contains fine palaces, temples and tombs. The
water-supply is brought from a lake 9 m. distant. It has a high
school, affiliated to the Allahabad university; and a school for
the sons of nobles, founded to commemorate the Diamond
Jubilee of Queen Victoria. The Lady Duffcrin hospital is under
the charge of an English lady doctor, with two female assistants.
776
ALYATTES— AMADIS DE GAULA
ALYATTES, king of Lydia (600-560 B.C.), the real founder of
the Lydian empire, was the ton of Sadyattes, of the house of the
Mermnadae. For several years he continued the war* against
Miletus begun by his father, but was obliged to turn his attention
to the Medes and Babylonians. On the 28th of May 585, during
a battle on the Halys between him and Cyaxares, king of Media,
an eclipse of the sun took place; hostilities were suspended,
peace concluded, and the Halys fixed as the boundary between
the two kingdoms. Alyattes drove the Cimmerii (see Scythxa)
from Asia, subdued the Carians, and took several Ionian cities
(Smyrna, Colophon). He was succeeded by his son Croesus.
His tomb still exists on the plateau between lake Gygaea and the
river Hermus to the north of Sardis— a large mound of earth
with a substructure of huge stones. It was excavated by
Spiegelthal in 1854, who found that it covered a large vault of
finely-cut marble blocks approached by a flat-roofed passage of
the same stone from the south. The sarcophagus and its contents
had been removed by early plunderers of the tomb, all that was
left being some broken alabaster vases, pottery and charcoal.
On the summit of the mound were large phalli of stone.
See A. von Olfera, "Ober die lydischen KOnigsgraber bet Sardes,*'
Abh. Bert. Ah., 1858.
ALYPIUS, a Greek writer on music whose works, with those of
six others, were collected and published with a commentary and
explanatory notes (Antique* iiusicae Auctores Septem, Amstel.,
1652), by Mark Meibomius (1630-1711). He is said to have
written before Euclid and Ptolemy; and Cassiodorus arranges
his Introduction to Music between those of Nicomachus and
Gaudentius. The work consists solely of a list of symbols of the
various scales and modes, and is probably only a fragment
ALYPIUS or Antioch, a geographer of the 4th century, who
was sent by the emperor Julian into Britain as first prefect, and
was afterwards commissioned to rebuild the temple of Jerusalem.
Among the letters of Julian are two (29 and 30) addressed to
Aiypius; one inviting him to Rome, the other thanking him for a
geographical treatise, which no longer exists.
See alto Ammianus Marcellinui xxiii. 1 , f a.
ALYTES, the midwife toad, first discovered by P. Demours
in z 74 1, on the border of a small pond in the Jardin des Plantes,
in the very act of parturition which has rendered it famous,
and described as Petit crapaud mdle accoucheur de sa femelle.
Alytes obstetricans is of special interest as the first known example
of paternal solicitude in Batrachians, and although many no less
wonderful cases of nursing instinct have since been revealed to
us, it remains the only one among European forms.
Alytes obstetricans is a small toad-like Batrachian, two inches
in length, of dull greyish coloration, plump form with warty skin
and large eyes with vertical pupils. Although toad like it is not
really related to the toads proper, but belongs to the family
Discoglossidae, characterized by a circular, adherent tongue,
teeth in the upper jaw and on the palate, short but distinct ribs
on the anterior vertebrae, and convex-concave vertebrae. It
inhabits France, Belgium, Switzerland, Western Germany (east-
wards to the Weser), Spain and Portugal. A second species,
A. cisternasii, occurs in Spain and Portugal
Alytes is nocturnal and slow in its movements. It is thoroughly
terrestrial, selecting for its' retreat in the daytime holes made by
small mammals, or interstices between stones. Towards evening
it reveals its presence by a clear whistling note, which has often
been compared to the sound of a little bell, or to a chime when
produced by numerous individuals. The breeding season lasts
throughout spring and summer, and the female is able to spawn
two, three or even four times in the year. Pairing and oviposition
take place on land; the male seizes the female round the waist.
The eggs are large and yellow, and produced in two rosary-like
strings, as if strung together by elastic filaments continuous with
the gelatinous capsules. After impregnation, the male twists
them round his legs and returns to his usual retreat, going about
at night in order to feed himself and to keep up the moisture of
the eggs, even resorting to a short immersion in the water during
exceptionally dry nights. The development of the embryo
within the egg takes about three weeks. When the time for
eclosion has come, the male enters the water with fab buries;
the larvae, in the full tadpole condition, measuring 14 to 17
millimetres, bite their way through their tough envelope, wkka
is not abandoned by the father until all the young are tiberatei
and complete in the ordinary way their metamorphosis, Tm
tadpoles grow to a large size considering that of the adult, tie
body equalling in size a sparrow's or even a small pigeon 1 ! e»
and they often remain more than a year in that condit i o n,
See A. de l'lsle, " M6moire sur tea meeurs et Taccoodieaeat de
I* Alytes obstetricans," Ann. Set. Nat. (6) ft. 1876; G. A. n o uh a eir,
Tailless Batrachians of Europe (Ray Society, 1897). (Q. A. &)
ALZEY, a town of Germany, in the grand duchy of Heae-
Darrnstadt,x8m.S. of Mainz by rail Pop. (1000) 6893- The*
are a Roman Catholic and two Protestant churches, several utgb-
grade schools and a teachers' seminary. Alsey has industries d
dyeing and weaving, breweries, and does a considerable trade s
wine. It is immortalized in the Nibelungenlied in the person u
" Volker von Alzde," the warrior who in the last part of the epic
plays a part second only to that of Hagen, and who " was cafes'
the minstrel (spilman) because he could fiddle." It became as
imperial dty in 1277. In 1620 it was sacked by the Spaniard
and in 1689 burnt by the French. Annexed to France duoac
the Napoleonic wars, it passed in 18x5 to the grand-duchy rf
Hesse-Darmstadt.
ALZOG, JOHANN BAPTIST (1808-1878), German theefagjsa.
was born at Ohlau, in Silesia, on the 29th of Jane 1808. Be
studied at Breslau and Bonn and was ordained priest si Cologne
in 1834. In the following year he accepted the chairs of excess
and church history at the seminary of Posen. He removed a
1844 to Hildesheim, where he had been appointed rector of tie
seminary. He became professor of church history at tat
university of Freiburg in the Breisgau in 1853 and held tfcr.
post till his death on the 1st of March 1878. Together wfch
Dollinger, Alzog was instrumental in convoking the faopss
Munich assembly of Catholic scholars in 1863. He also toot
part, with Bishops Hefele and Haseberg, in the preparatory wad
of the Vatican Council and voted in favour of the doctriae
of papal infallibility but against the opportuneness of is
promulgation. Alzog's fame rests mainly on his Handbmci •>
Universal- Kirchenicschichte (Mainz, 1841, often reprinted under
various titles; Eng. trans, by Pabisch and Byrne, A Mend
of Church History , 4 vols. Cincinnati, 1874)* Based upon the
foundations laid by Mahler, this manual was generally accepted
as the best exposition of Catholic views, in opposition to tk
Protestant manual by C. A. Hase, and was translated k»
several languages. Besides a host of minor writings oa eccks-
astical subjects, and an active collaboration in the great Jtirtfcs-
lexicon of Wetzer and Welte,Alzog was also the author of Crumins
der Patrologie (Freiburg, x866, 4th ed. x888), a scholarly wod.
though now superseded by that of 0. Bardenhewer.
A full list of Alzog's writings is given in H. Hurter's Nemcmkir
literarius recenlioris tktologiae catholicae, vol. iii. For an access:
of his life tee the funeral oration by F. X. .Kraus, entkfef-
Geddchtnissrede auf Johannes Alnog (Freiburg, 1879).
AH ADfS DB GAULA. This famous romance of chrnty
survives only in a Castilian text, but it is claimed by Fortajai
as well as by Spain. The date of its composition, the name of fe
author, and the language in which it was originally wzhte
are not yet settled. It is not even certain when the romance «»
first printed, for though the oldest known edition (a unique cop
of which is in the British Museum) appeared at Saragassa *
1508, it is highly probable that Amadis was in print before tka
date: an edition is reported to have been issued at SeviQe p
1406. As it exists in Spanish, Amadis de Caula roiwti of fee?
books, the last of which is generally believed to be by the rtgid*
of Medina del Campo, Gard Rodriguez de Montalvo (who*
name is given as Gard Ordonez de Montalvo in ail editions d
Amadis later than that of 1508, and as Card Gutierrez de
Montalvo in some editions of the Sergas da EspUmdi&*\
Montalvo alleges that the first three books were arranged aa4
corrected by him from " the ancient originals," and a leferesct
in the prologue to the siege of Granada points to the concreiua
that the Spanish recast was made shortly after 1492; it *
AMADOU— AMALASUNTHA
777
possible, however, that the prologue alone was written after 1491,
and that the text itself is older. The number of these u ancient
originals " is not stated, nor Is there any mention of the language
in which they were composed; Montalvo's silence on the latter
point might be taken to imply that they were in Castilian, but
any such inference would be hazardous. Three books of Amadts
de Cauta are mentioned by Pero Ferris who was living in 1379,
and there is evidence that the romance was current in Castile
more than a quarter of a century earlier; but again there is no
information as to the language in which they were written. Gomes
Eannes de Azurara, in his Chronica de Conde D. Pedro de Menaes
{c. 1450), states that Amadts de CatUa was written by Vasco de
Lobcira in the time of king Ferdinand of Portugal who died in
1383: as Vasco de Lobeira was knighted in 1385, it would follow
that he wrote the elaborate romance in his earliest youth. This
conclusion is untenable, and the suggestion that the author was
Pedro de Lobeira (who flourished in the 15th century) involves
a glaring anachronism. A further step was taken by the historian
Joao de Barros, who maintained in an unpublished work dating
between 1540 and 1550 that Vasco de Lobeira wrote Amadts de
Caula in Portuguese, and that his text was translated into
Castilian; this is unsupported assertion. Towards the end of
the 1 6th century Miguel Leite Ferreira, son of the Portuguese
poet, Antonio Ferreira, declared that the original manuscript of
Amadts de Caula was then in the Aveiro archives, and an Amadts
de Caula in Portuguese, which is alleged to have existed in the
conde de Vimeiro's library as late as 1586, had vanished before
1726. In the absence of corroboration, these dubious details
must be received with extreme reserve. A stronger argument
in favour of the Portuguese case is drawn from the existing
Spanish text In book I, chapters 40 and 42, it is recorded that
the Infante Alpbonso of Portugal suggested a radical change in
the narrative of Briolanja's relations with Amadfs. This prince
has been identified as the Infante Alphonso who died in 13x2, or
as Alphonso IV. who ascended the Portuguese throne in 1325.
Were either of these identifications established, the date of com-
position might be referred with certainty to the beginning of the
14th century or the end of the 13th. But both identifications
are conjectural Nevertheless the passage in the Spanish text
undeniably lends some support to the Portuguese claim, and
recent critics have inclined to the belief that Amadts de Caula
was written by Joao de Lobcira, a Galician knight who frequented
the Portuguese court between 1258 and 1285, and to whom are
ascribed two fragments of a, poem in the Colocci-Brancuti
Camsoniere (Nos. 240 and 240*), which reappears with some
unimportant variants in Amadts de Caula (book II, chapter n).
The coincidence may be held to account in some measure for the
traditional association of a Lobeira with the authorship of Amadts
de Caula; but, though curious, it warrants no definite conclusion
being drawn from it Against the Portuguese claim it is argued
that the Villancico corresponding to Joao de Lobeiro's poem is an
interpolation in the Spanish teat, that Portuguese prose was in
a rudimentary stage of development at the period when — ex
kypothesi— the romance was composed, and that the book was
very popular in Spain almost a century before it is even mentioned
in Portugal. Lastly, there is the incontrovertible fact that A midts
de Caula exists in Castilian, while it remains to be proved that it
ever existed in Portuguese. As to its substance, it is beyond
dispute that much of the text derives from the French romances
of the Round Table; but the evidence does not enable us to say
(x) whether it was pieced together from various French romances;
(2) whether it was more or less literally translated from a lost
French original; or (3) whether the first Peninsular adapter or
translator was a Castilian or a Portuguese. On these points
judgment must be suspended. There can, however, be no
hesitation in accepting Cervantes' verdict on Amadts de Gaula as
the " best of all the books of this kind that have ever been
written." It is the prose epic of feudalism, and its romantic
spirit, its high ideals, its fantastic gallantry, its ingenious
adventures, its mechanism of symbolic wonders, and its flowing
style have entranced readers of such various types as Francis I.
and Charles V., Ariosto and Montaigne. I
Bibuogea phy.— Carolina Michaelisde Vaaconcellos and Gottfried
Baist in tbxCrundrissderromanisdum Pkilologie (Strassburg, 1897), ii.
Band, 2. Abteilung, pp. 216-226 and 440-442; Ludwig Braunfels,
Kritiscker Versuck fiber den Roman Amadts von Galium (Leipzig.
1876) ; Theophilo Braga, Historia das novelas portuguetas de caoaUerta
(Porto, 1873), Curso de litUratura e arte portuguao (Lisboa, 1881),
and Questdcs de litUratura e arte portuguesa (Lisboa, 1885) ; Marcelino
Menendez y Pelayo, Origenes de la nc+eta (Madrid, 1905); Eugene
Baret, De PAmaais de Caule et de son influence sur les nueurs ei la
lUUrature au XVI' et au XVII* siecle (Paris, 1873). (J- F* -K.)
AMADOU, a soft tough substance used as tinder, derived
from Polyporus fomentarius, a fungus belonging to the group
Basidiomycetes and somewhat resembling a mushroom in manner
of growth. It grows upon old trees, especially the oak, ash,
fir and cherry. The fungus is cut into slices and then steeped in
a solution of nitre. Amadou is prepared on the continent of
Europe, chiefly in Germany, but the fungus is a native of Britain.
Polyporus igniarius and other species are also used, but yield an
inferior product.
AMAKUSA, an island belonging to Japan, 26} m. long and
X3$ in extreme width, situated about 32 20' N., and 130 E.
long., on the west of the province of Higo (island of Kiushiu),
from which it is separated by the Yatsushiro-kai. It has no
high mountains, but its surface being very hilly— four of the
peaks rise to a height over 1500 ft.— the natives resort to the
terrace system of cultivation with remarkable success. A
number of the heads of the Christians executed in connexion
with the Shimabara rebellion in the first half of the 17 th century
were buried in this island. Amakusa produces a little coal
and fine kaolin, which was largely used in former times by the
potters of Hirado and Satsuma.
AMAL, the name of the noblest family among the Ostrogoths,
and that from which nearly all their kings were chosen.
AMALARIC (d. 531), king of the Visigoths, son of Alaric II.,
was a child when his father fell in battle against Clovis, king of
the Franks (507). He was carried for safety into Spain, which
country and Provence were thenceforth ruled by his maternal
grandfather, Theodoric the Ostrogoth, acting through his vice-
gerent, an Ostrogothic nobleman named Theudis. In 522 the
young Amalaric was proclaimed king, and four years later, on
Thcodoric's death, he assumed full royal power in Spain and a
part of Languedoc, relinquishing Provence to his cousin Atha-
laric He married Clotilda, daughter of Clovis; but his disputes
with her, he being an Arian and she a Catholic, brought on him
the penalty of a Frankish invasion, in which he lost his life in 531 .
AMALASUNTHA or Amalasuentba, queen of the Ostrogoths
(d* 53 5) 1 daughter of Theodoric, king of the Ostrogoths, was
married in 515 to Eutharic, an Ostrogoth of the old Amal line,
who had previously been living in Spain. Her husband died,
apparently in the early years of her marriage, leaving her with
two children, Athalaric and Matasuentha. On the death of her
father in 526, she succeeded him, acting as regent for her son,
but being herself deeply imbued with the old Roman culture,
she gave to that son's education a more refined and literary
turn than suited the ideas of her Gothic subjects. Conscious
of her unpopularity she banished, and afterwards put to death,
three Gothic nobles whom she suspected of intriguing against her
rule, and at the same time opened negotiations with the emperor
Justinian with the view of removing herself and the Gothic
treasure to Constantinople. Her son's death in 534 made but
little change in the posture of affairs. Amalasuntha, now queen,
with a view of strengthening her position, made her cousin
Theodahad partner of her throne (not, as sometimes stated, her
husband, for his wife was still living). The choice was un-
fortunate. Theodahad, notwithstanding a varnish of literary
culture, was a coward and a scoundrel. He fostered the dis-
affection of the Goths, and either by his orders or with his
permission, Amalasuntha was imprisoned on an island in the
Tuscan lake of Bolsena, where in the spring of 535 she was
murdered in her bath.
The letters of Cassiodorus, chief minister and literary adviser of
Amalasuntha, and the histories of Procopius and Jordanes, give us
our chief information as to the character of Amalasuntha.
J
778
AMALEKITES— AMALRIC
AMALEKITES, an ancient tribe, or collection of tribes, in
the south and south-east of Palestine, often mentioned in the
Old Testament as foes of the Israelites. They were regarded
as a branch of the Edomites (Gen. xxxvL 12, see Edom), and
appear to have numbered among their divisions the Kenites.
When the Israelites were journeying from Egypt to the land of
Canaan, the Amalekites are said to have taken advantage of
their weak condition to harry the stragglers in the rear, and as a
judgment for their hostility it was ordained that their memory
should be blotted out from under heaven (DeuL xxv. 17-19).
An allusion to this appears in the account of Israel's defeat on
the occasion of the attempt to force a passage from Kadesh
through Hormah, evidently into Palestine (Num. xiv. 43-45.
cp. DeuL i. 44-46). The statements are obscure, and elsewhere
Hormah is the scene of a victory over the Canaanites by Israel
(Num. xxi. 1-3), or by the tribes Judah and Simeon (Judg. i. 17).
The question is further complicated by the account of Joshua's
overthrow of Amalck apparently in the Sinai tic peninsula. The
event was commemorated by the erection of the altar " Yahweh-
nissi " (" Yahwch my banner " or " memorial "), and rendered
even more memorable by the utterance, " Yahweh hath sworn:
Yahwch will have war with Amalek from generation to genera-
tion " (Ex. xvii. 8-16, on its present position, see Exodus
[Book]). The same sentiment recurs in Yahweh's command to
Saul to destroy Amalek utterly for its hostility to Israel (z Sam.
xv.), and in David's retaliatory expedition when he distributed
among his friends the spoil of the " enemies of Yahweh " (xxx.
26). Saul himself, according to one tradition, was slain by an
Amalekite (2 Sam. L, contrast x Sam. xxxi.). A similar spirit
appears among the prophecies ascribed to Balaam: " Amalek,
first (or chief) of nations, his latter end [will be] destruction "
(Num. xxiv. 20).
The district of Amalek lay to the south of Judah (cp. x Chron.
tv. 42 seq.), probably between Kadesh and Hormah (cp. Gen.
xiv. 7; x Sam. xv. 7, xxvii. 8), and the interchange of the
ethnic with " Canaanites " and " Amorites " suggests that the
Amalekites are merely one of Israel's traditional enemies of the
older period. Hence we find them taking part with Ammonites
and Midianites (Judg. iii. 13, vi. 3), and their king Agag, slain
by Samuel as a sacrificial offering (x Sam. xv. 9), was a byword
for old-time might and power (Num. xxiv. 7). Even in one of
the Psalms (Ixxxiii. 7) Amalck is mentioned among the enemies
of Israel— just as Greek writers of the 6th century of this era
applied the old term Scythians to the Goths (Noldeke),— and
the traditional hostility between Saul and Amalek is reflected
still later in the book of Esther where Haman the Agagite is
pitted against Mordecai the Benjamite.
Twice Amalek seems to be mentioned as occupying central
Palestine (Judg. v. 14, xii. 15), but the passages are textually un-
certain. The name is celebrated in Arabian tradition, but the
statements regarding them are confused and conflicting, and for
historical purposes are practically worthless, as has been proved by
Th. Noldeke (Ueber die AmaUkiter, Gottingen, 1864). On the
biblical data, see also E. Meyer, Die Israelite* {Index, s.v.).
(S. A. C.)
AMALFI, a town and archiepiscopal see of Campania, Italy,
in the province of Salerno, from the town of which name it is
distant 12 m. W.S.W. by road, on the N. coast of the Gulf of
Salerno. Pop. (1001) 6681. It lies at the mouth of a deep ravine,
in a sheltered situation, at the foot of Monte Cerreto (43x4 ft),
in the centre of splendid coast scenery, and is in consequence
much visited by foreigners. The cathedral of S. Andrea is a
structure in the Lombard-Norman style, of the nth century;
the facade in black and white stone was well restored in 1891 ;
the bronze doors were executed at Constantinople before 1066.
The campanile dates from 1276. The interior is also fine, and
contains andent columns and sarcophagi. The conspicuous
Capuchin monastery on the W. with fine cloisters (partly de-
stroyed by a landslip in 1809) is now used as an hotel. Amalfi
is first mentioned in the 6th century, and soon acquired importance
as a naval power; in the 9th century it shared with Venice
and Gaeta the Italian trade with the East, and in 848 its fleet
went to the assistance of Pope Leo IV. against the Saracens.
It was then an independent republic with a population of bc*
70,000, but in 1 131 it was reduced by King Roger of Stair, h
1135 and 1137 it was taken by the Pisans, and rapidly d ecfari
in importance, though its maritime code, known as the Ics*
AmalJUane, was recognised in the Mediterranean until 1570. la
1343 a large part of the town was destroyed by an mucdaaa.
and its harbour is now of little importance. Its industries cac
have largely disappeared, and the paper manufacture has fc*
ground since 1861.
AMALGAM, the name applied to alloys which contain mcrcn.
It is said by Andreas Libavius to be a corruption of takXsrtwL,
in the alchemists the form algamoia is also found. Many aa^-
gams are formed by the direct contact of a metal with metcsj
sometimes with absorption, sometimes with evolution, of haa
Other methods are to place the metal and mercury together
in dilute acid, to add mercury to the solution of a meula
salt, to place a metal in a solution of mercuric max**.
or to electrolyse a metallic salt using mercury as the negate
electrode. Some amalgams are liquids, especially when coeua-
ing a large proportion of mercury; others assume a crystal
form. In some cases definite compounds have been isolated haa
amalgams which may be regarded as mixtures of one or awe
of such compounds with mercury in excess. In general tkss
compounds are decomposable by heat, but some- of them, sh±
as those of gold, silver, copper and the alkali n*+**i* evr:
when heated above the boiling point of mercury retain mtmej
and leave residues of definite composition. Tin »-«»%*» e
used for " silvering " mirrors, gold and silver »wt*lgaw» in gSdrr.
and silvering, cadmium and copper amalgam in dentistry, asrf
an amalgam of zinc and tin for the rubbers of electrical ™»*r*~~ .
the zinc plates of electric batteries are amalgamated in order
to reduce polarization.
AMALRIC, the name of two kings of Jerusalem.
Amalrxc I., king from 1162 to 1174, was the son of Folk of
Jerusalem, and the brother of Baldwin IIL He was twice
married: by his first wife, Agnes of Edessa, he had isstm 1
son and a daughter, Baldwin IV. and Sibylla, while fab seorad
wife, Maria Comnena, bore him a daughter Isabella, who ei>
mately carried the crown of Jerusalem to her fourth hirshwd.
Amalric of Lusignan (Amalric II.). The reign of Amalnc 1
was occupied by the Egyptian problem. It became a quesoca
between Amalric and Nureddin, which of the two should ooatas*
the discordant viziers, who vied with one another for the coctm*
of the decadent caliphs of Egypt. The acquisition of Egypt fctf
been an object of the Franks since the days of Baldwin JL (tsd
indeed of Godfrey himself, who had promised to cede Jerasalec tfl
the patriarch Dagobert as soon as he should himself acqact
Cairo). The capture of Ascalon by Baldwin IIL in x 153 nude
this object more feasible; and we find the Hospitallers prepariaf
sketch-maps of the routes best suited for an invasion of Egypt
in the style of a modern war office. On the other hand, it «at
natural for Nureddin to attempt to secure Egypt, both becss*
it was the terminus of the trading route which ran from Damnon
and because the acquisition of Egypt would enable him tosarrouad
the Latin kingdom. For some five years a contest was wafti
between Amalric and Shirguh (Shirkuh), the lieutenant «f
Nureddin, for the possessioa of Egypt Thrice (x 164,1 167,1 ifel
Amalric penetrated into Egypt: but the contest ended ia da
establishment of Saladin, the nephew of Shirguh, as vizier-
a position which, on the death of the puppet caliph in 1171.
was turned into that of sovereign. The extinction of the Litis
kingdom might now seem imminent; and envoys were sent »
the West with anxious appeals for assistance in 11 69, X171 sad
1 1 73. But though in 1170 Saladin attacked the kingdom, aei
captured Aila on the Red Sea, the danger was not so great as a
seemed. Nureddin was jealous of his over-mighty subject
and his jealousy bound Saladin 's hands. This was the positio&d
affairs when Amalric died, in 1x74; but, as Nureddin died in the
same year, the position was soon altered and Saladin bepa
the final attack on the kingdom. Amalric L, the second of tte
native kings of Jerusalem, had the qualities of his brother
Baldwin IIL fa.f.). He was something of a scholar, and it «*»
AMALRIC— AMANA
779
be who set William of Tyre to work. He was perhaps still more
»f a lawyer: his delight was In knotty points of the law, and he
fcnew the Assises better than any of his subjects. The Church
taad some doubts of him, and he laid his hands on the Church.
William of Tyre was once astonished to find him questioning,
9ii a bed of sickness, the resurrection of the body; and his taxa-
tion of clerical goods gave umbrage to the clergy generally.
But he maintained the state of his kingdom with the resources
which he owed to the Church; and he is the last in the fine list
off the early kings of Jerusalem.
William of Tyre b our original authority: see six. 2-3 for his
sketch of Amalric RGhricht narrates the reign of Amalric 1.,
Gcschickie (Us Kdnigrekhs Jerusalem, c xviL-xviii.
Amalric II., king from 1197 to 1205, was the brother of Guy
of Lusignan. He had been constable of Jerusalem, but in 1104,
on the death of his brother, he became king of Cyprus, as
Amalric I. He married Isabella, the daughter of Amalric I.
by his second marriage, and became king of Jerusalem in right
of his wife in x 197. In 1 198 he was able to procure a five years'
truce with the Mahommedans, owing to the struggle between
Saladio's brothers and his sons for the inheritance of his territories.
The truce was disturbed by raids on both sides, but in 1204 it
was renewed for six years. Amalric died in 1205, just after his
son and just before his wife. The kingdom of Cyprus passed
to Hugh, his son by an earlier marriage, while that of Jerusalem
passed to Maria, the daughter of Isabella by her previous marriage
with Conrad of Montferrat. (E. Br.)
AMALRIC (Fr. Amatoy) OF BBNA (d.£ 1204-1207), French
theologian, was born in the latter part of the 12th century at
Bena, a village in the diocese of Chartres. He taught philosophy
and theology at the university of Paris and enjoyed a great
reputation as a subtle dialectician; his lectures developing the
philosophy of Aristotle attracted a large circle of hearers. In
1 204 his doctrines were condemned by the university, and, on
a personal appeal to Pope Innocent III., the sentence was ratified,
Amalric being ordered to return to Paris and recant his errors.
His death was caused, it is said, by grief at the humiliation to
which he had been subjected. In 1209 ten of his followers were
burnt before the gates of Paris, and Amalric's own body was
exhumed and burnt and the ashes given to the winds. The
doctrines of his followers, known as the Amalricians, were
formally condemned by the fourth Lateran Council in 1215.
Amalric appears to have derived his philosophical system from
Erigena (?.t.), whose principles he developed in a one-sided and
strongly pantheistic form. Three propositions only can with
certainty be attributed to him: (1) that God is all; (2) that
every Christian is bound to believe that he is a member of the
body of Christ, and that this belief is necessary for salvation:
(3) that he who remains in love of God can commit no sin. These
three propositions were further developed by his followers, who
maintained that God revealed Himself in a threefold revelation,
the first in Abraham, marking the epoch of the Father; the
second in Christ, who began the epoch of the Son; and the third
in Amalric and his disciples, who inaugurated the era of the Holy
Ghost. Under the pretext that a true believer could commit no
sin, the Amalricians indulged in every excess, and the sect does
not appear to have long survived the death of its founder.
See W. Preger, Geschickte der deutscken Mystik im MiUelaUer
(Leipzig, 1874, i. 167-173); Haureau, Hist, de la Phil. seal. (Paris,
1872); C. Schmidt, Hist, de rEglise d? Occident pendant te moyen Age
(Paris, 1885); Hefcle, ConcUiengesck. (and ed., Freiburg. 1886).
AM ALTEO, the name of an Italian family belonging to Oderzo,
Treviso, several members of which were distinguished in literature.
The best known are three brothers, Geronimo (1507-1574).
Giambattista (1525-1 573) and Comelio (1530-1603), whose Latin
poems were published in one collection under the title Trium
Fratrum Amaliheorum Carmine (Venice, 1627; Amst., 1689).
The eldest brother, Geronimo, was a celebrated physician; the
second, Giambattista, accompanied a Venetian embassy to
England in 1554, and was secretary to Pius IV. at the council of
Trent; the third, Comelio, was a physician and secretary to the
republic of Ragusa.
AMALTBO, POVPOftlO (1505-1584), Italian painter of the
Venetian school, was born at San Vito in Friuli. He was a pupil
and son-in-law of Pordenone, whose style he closely imitated.
His works consist chiefly of frescoes and altar-pieces and many
of them (e.g. in the church of Santa Maria de' Battisti, at San
Vito) have suffered greatly from the ravages of time.
AMALTHEIA, in Greek mythology, the foster-mother of Zeus.
She is sometimes represented as the goat which suckled the
infant-god in a cave in Crete, sometimes as a nymph of uncertain
parentage (daughter of Oceanus, Haemonius, Olen, Melisseus),
who brought him up on the milk of a goat. This goat having
broken off one of its horns, Amaltheia filled it with flowers and
fruits and presented it to Zeus, who placed it together with the
goat amongst the stars. According to another story, Zeus
himself broke off the horn and gave it to Amaltheia, promising
that it would supply whatever she desired in abundance.
Amaltheia gave it to Achelous (her reputed brother), who
exchanged it for his own horn which had been broken off in his
contest with Heracles for the possession of Deianeira. According
to ancient mythology, the owners of the horn were many and
various. Speaking generally, it was regarded as the symbol of
inexhaustible riches and plenty, and became the attribute of
various divinities (Hades, Gaea, Demeter, Cybcle, Hermes), and
of rivers (the Nile) as fertilizers of the land. The term " horn of
Amaltheia " is applied to a fertile district, and an estate belonging
to Titus Pomponius Atticus was called Amaltheum. Cretan
coins represent the infant Zeus being suckled by the goat; other
Greek coins exhibit him suspended from its teats or carried in the
arms of a nymph (Ovid, Fasti, v. 115; Metam. ix. 87).
AMANA, a township in Iowa county, Iowa, U.S.A., 19 m.
S.W. (by rail) of Cedar Rapids. Pop. (1900) 1748; (1910)
1739. It is served by the Chicago, Milwaukee & St Paul,
and the Chicago, Rock Island & Pacific railways. The town-
ship is the home of a German religious communistic society,
the Amana Society, formerly the True Inspiration Society (so
called from its belief in the present inspiration of the truly
godly and perfectly pious), whose members live in various
villages near the Iowa river. These villages are named Amana,
West Amana, South Amana, East Amana, Middle Amana, High
Amana and Homestead. The houses are of brick or unpainted
wood. The society has in all 26,000 acres of land, of which
about 10,000 acres are covered with forests. The principal
occupation of the members is farming, although they also have
woollen mills (their woollens being of superior quality), a cotton
print factory, flour mills, saw mills and dye shops. Each family
has its own dwelling-place and a small garden; each member
of a family has an annual allowance of credit at the common
store and a room in the dwelling-house; and each group of
families has a large garden, a common kitchen and a common
dining-hall where men and women eat at separate tables.
Between the ages of five and fourteen education is compulsory
for the entire year. In the schools nature study and manual
training are prominent; German is used throughout and
English is taught in upper classes only. No man is permitted
to marry until twenty-four years of age, and no woman until
twenty. The society's views and practices are nearly related
to the teachings of Schwenkfcld and Boehme. Baptism is not
practised; the Lord's Supper is celebrated only once in two
years; foot- washing is held as a sacrament. At an annual
spiritual examination of the members, there are mutual criti-
cisms and public confessions of sin. The Inspirationists are
opposed to war and to taking of oaths. The Society became
attached to the Separatist leader, Ebcrhard Ludwig Gruber
(d. 1728) in Wctterau in 1714; in 184 2- 1844 about 600 members,
led by Christian MeU, the " divine instrument " of the Society,
emigrated from Germany to the United States and settled in a
colony called Ebenczer, in Erie county, near Buffalo, N.Y.;
in 1 855 the colony began to remove to its present home, which
it named from the mountain mentioned in the Song of Solomon,
iv. 8, the Hebrew word meaning " remain true " (or, more
probably, " fixed "), and in 1859 it was incorporated under the
name of the Amana Society. MeU died in 1864 and was
780
AMANITA— AMARAPURA
succeeded by Barbara Landmann, since whose death in 1884 the
community has lacked an inspired leader. Amana was the
strongest in 'numbers of the few sectarian communities in
America which outlived the 19th century. A few new members
have joined the community from Switzerland and Germany in
recent years. In' 1905 the community won a suit brought
against it for its dissolution on the ground that, having been
incorporated solely as a benevolent and religious body, it was
illegally carrying on a general business.
See W. R. Perkins and B. L. Wick, History of the Amana Society
or Community of True Inspiration. Historical Monograph, No. 1, in
State University of Iowa publication! (Iowa City, 1891); R. T. Ely,
" Amana : A Study of Religious Communism,' in Harper's Maga-
zine tor October 1903; and Bertha M. H. Shambaugh, Amana, the
Community of True. Inspiration (Iowa City, 1908).
AMANITA. The amanitas include some of the most showy
representatives of the Agaricineae or mushroom order of fungi
(?.«.). In the first stages of growth, they are completely en-
veloped by an outer covering called the veil. As the plant
develops the veil is ruptured; the lower portion forms a sheath
or volva round the base of the stem, while the upper portion
persists as white patches or scales or warts on the surface of
the cap. The stem usually bears an upper ring of tissue, the
B C
Amanita muscaria.
A, the young plant. g, the gills.
B, the mature plant. a, the annulus, or remnant of
C, longitudinal section of mature velum particle.
plant. v ( remains of voha or velum
p, the pileus. universale, s, the stalk,
remains of an inner veil, that stretched from the stem to the
edge of the cap and broke away from the cap as the latter
expanded. The presence of the volva, and the clear white gills
and spores, distinguish this genus from all other agarics. They
are beautiful objects in the autumn woods; Amanita muscaria ,
the fly fungus, formerly known as Agaricus muscarius, being
especially remarkable by its bright red cap covered with white
warts. Others are pure white or of varying shades of yellow
or green. There are sixteen British species of Amanita; they
grow on the ground in or near woods. Several of the species arc
very poisonous.
AMANUENSIS (a Latin word, derived from the phrase serous
a menu, slave of the hand, a secretary), one who writes, from
dictation or otherwise, on behalf of another.
AMAPALA, the only port on the Pacific coast of Honduras,
on the northern shore of Tigre island, in the Bay of Fonseca
(q.v.); in 13 3' N., and 87 9' W. Pop. (1905) about 4000.
Amapala was founded in 1838, and its port was opened and
declared free in 1868. The roadstead is perfectly sheltered
and so deep that the largest vessels can lie within a few yards of
the shore. It is the natural outlet for the commerce of some of
the richest parts of Honduras, Nicaragua and Salvador; and
during the 19th century it exported large quantities of gold,
silver and other ores, although its progress was retarded by the
delay in constructing a transcontinental railway from Puerto
Cortev }ts depots on the mainland, both about 30 m. distant,
are La Brea, for the line to Puerto Cortes, and San Lorraa it
Tegucigalpa. Silver is still exported, in addition to fafe
timber, coffee and indigo, and there are valuable fisheries.
AMARANTH, or Amabant (from the Gr. ajiAparr*. a-
withering), a name chiefly used in poetry, and appfe .
certain plants which, from not soon fading, typified imawtar
Thus Milton (Paradise Lost, iil 353) : —
" Immortal amarant, a flower which once
In paradise, fast by the tree of life.
Began to bloom ; but soon for man's offence
To heaven removed, where first it grew, there grow*,
And flowers aloft, shading the fount of life.
And where the river of bfiss through midst of herca
Rolls o'er dysian flowers her amber stream:
With these that never fade the spirits elect
Bind their resplendent locks."
It should be noted that the proper spelling of the red s
amarant; the more common spelling seems to have coax fes
a hazy notion that the final syllable is the Greek word fafc.
" flower," which enters into a vast number of botanical una
The plant genus Amaranius (natural order Amarartimt
contains several well-known garden plants, such as low-i*
bleeding (A. caudatus), a native of India, a vigorous tea
annual, with dark purplish flowers crowded in handwnr draw-
ing spikes. Another species A. kypodkondriacus, is priacn
feather, another Indian annual, with deeply-veined loo-
shaped leaves, purple on the under face, and deep etna
flowers densely packed on erect spikes. " Globe amw-vi'
belongs to an allied genus, Gomphrena, and is also a asti* 1
India. It is an annual about 18 in. high, with solitary rcaac
heads of flowers; the heads are violet from the colour of »
bracts which surround the small flowers.
In ancient Greece the amaranth (also called xpathAmu ci
Odxpwos) was sacred to Ephesian Artemis. It was sapo**
to have special healing properties, and as a symbol of imar-
tality was used to decorate images of the gods and tombs b
legend, Amarynthus (a form of Amarantus) was a hunter a
Artemis and king of Euboea; in a village of Amaryntfcas, «'
which he was the eponymous hero, there was a famous 109*
of Artemis Amarynthia or Amarysia (Strabo z. 44S; Passu
See Lena! Botanik der all. Criech. und Ronu (1859): J. Mcn.fr
Pflantenwelt in der grieck. Mythol. (1090).
AMARAPURA (" the city of the gods "), formerly t*
capital of the Burmese kingdom, now a suburb of Mandaty,
Burma, with a population in 1001 of 9103. The ton «*
founded in 1783 to form a new capital about 6 a. to »
north-east of Ava. It increased rapidly in size and popttUu*
and in 1810 was estimated to contain 170,000 tahabitsTJ
but in that year the town was destroyed by fire, and thtsdiscte
together with the removal of the native court to Ava is ifc«
caused a decline in the prosperity of the place. la iSr &
population was estimated at only 30,00a It suffered snot
calamity from an earthquake, which in 1830 destroyed &
greater part of the city. It was finally abandoned is i**
when king Mindon occupied Mandalay, 5 or 6 m. faithf
north. Amarapura was laid out on much the same plan as .An.
The ruins of the city wall, now overgrown with jungle, show it •'
have been a square with a side of about three-quarters of t e'e
in length. At each corner stood a solid brick pagoda aboot 100 ft
high. The most remarkable edifice was a celebrated trapL
adorned with 350 lofty pillars of gilt wood, and conuisi* 1
colossal bronze statue of Buddha. The remains of the for*'
palace of the Burmese monarchs still survive in the centre of '•*
town. During the time of its prosperity Amarapura was dcfa&
by a rampart and a large square citadel, with a broad noti. &
walls being 7000 ft. long and 20 ft. high, with a bastion at a>-
corner. The Burmans know it now as Myohaung, " u* c -
city." It has a station on the Rangoon-Mandalay rail"?
and is the junction for the line to Maymyo and the Xuate*
ferry and for the Sagaing-Myitkyina railway. The pwp *
villages called Amarapura by Europeans is known to the Bunsu*
as Taung-myo, " the southern city," as distinguished b**
Mandalay, the Myauk-myo, or " northern city," 3 m. dbust
AMARAR— AMASIA
781
AMARAR, a tribe of African " Arabs " inhabiting the moun-
tainous country on the west side of the Red Sea from
Suakin northwards towards Kosseir. Between them and the
Nile are the Ababda and Bisharin tribes and to their south
dwell the Hadendoa. The country of the Amarar is called the
Etbai. Their headquarters are in the Ariab district. The tribe
is divided into four great families: (x) Weled Gwilei, (2) Weled
Aliab, (3) Weled Kurbab Wagadab, and (4) the Amarar proper of
the Ariab district. They claim to be of Koreish blood and to be
the descendants of an invading Arab army. Possibly some
small bands of Koreish Arabs may have made an inroad and
converted some of the Amarar to Islam. Further than this
there is little to substantiate their claim.
See Anglo-Egyptian Sudan, edited by Count Gleichen (London,
1005) ; Sir F. R. Wingate, Mahdism and the Egyptian Sudan (London,
1 891); A. H. Keane, Ethnology of Egyptian Sudan (London, 1884).
AHARA SINHA (c. ad. 375), Sanskrit grammarian and poet,
of whose personal history hardly anything is known. He is
said to have been " one of the nine gems that adorned the throne
of Vikramaditya," and according to the evidence of HsUan
Tsang, this is the Chandragupta Vikramaditya that flourished
about aj>. 375, Amara seems to have been a Buddhist; and an
early tradition asserts that his works, with one exception, were
destroyed during the persecution carried on by the orthodox
Brahmins in the 5th century. The exception is the celebrated
Amara-Kosha (Treasury of Amara), a vocabulary of Sanskrit
roots, in three books, and hence sometimes called Trikanda or
the *' Tripartite." It contains 10,000 words, and is arranged,
like other works of its class, in metre, to aid the memory. The
first chapter of the Kosha was printed at Rome in Tamil character
in 1798. An edition of the entire work, with English notes and
an index by H. T. Colebrooke, appeared at Serampore in 1808.
The Sanskrit text was printed at Calcutta in 1831. A French
translation by A. L. A.'Loiseleur-Deslongchamps as published
at Paris in 1830.
AMARI, MICHELE (1806-1889), Italian orientalist and patriot,
was born at Palermo. From his earliest youth he imbibed
liberal principles from his relatives, especially from his grand-
father, and although at the age of fourteen he 1 was appointed
clerk in the Bourbon civil service, he joined the Carbonari like
many other young Sicilians and actively sympathized with
the revolution of 1820. The movement, which was separatist
in its tendencies, was quickly suppressed, but the conspiracies
continued, and Amari's father, implicated in that of 1822, was
arrested and condemned to death together with many others;
but his sentence was commuted to imprisonment, and in 1834
he was liberated. Michele Amari still held his clerkship, but he
regarded the Neapolitan government with increasing hatred, and
he led a life of active physical exercise to train himself for the
day of revolution. He devoted much of his time to the study
of English and of history; his first literary essay was a translation
of Sir Walter Scott's Marmion (1832), and in 1839 he published
a work on the Sicilian Vespers, entitled Un Petiodo delle ttorie
Suiliane del XIII. secofa, filled with political allusions reflecting
unfavourably on the government. The book had an immediate
success and went through many editions, but it brought the
author under the suspicion of the authorities, and in 1842 he
escaped from a boat just as he was about to be arrested. He
settled in Paris, where he came in contact with a number of
literary men, such as Michelet and Thierry, as well as with the
Italian exiles. Having no private means he had to earn a
precarious livelihood by literature. He was much struck with
certain French translations of Arabic works on Sicily , which awoke
in him a desire to read the authors in the original. With the
assistance of Prof. Reinaud and Baron de Slane he soon acquired
great proficiency in Arabic, and his translations and editions of
oriental texts, as well as his historical essays, made him' a reputa-
tion. In 1844 he began his great work LaStori a dei Musulmani
in Sicilia, but the revolution of 1848 plunged him into politics
once more. His pamphlet, Qudques Observations sur le droit
public de la Sicile, advocating the revival of the 181 2 constitution
for the bland, met with great success, and on arriving at Palermo,
whence the Bourbon government had been expelled, he was
chosen member of the war committee and appointed professor
of public law at the university. At the general elections Amari
was returned for Palermo and became minister of finance in
the Stabile cabinet On its fall he was sent to Paris and London
to try to obtain help for the struggling island; having failed in
his mission he returned to Sicily in 1849, hoping to fight But
the Neapolitan troops had re-occupied the island, the Liberals
were in disagreement among themselves, and Amari with several
other notables with difficulty escaped to Malta. Characteristic
of his scholarly nature is the fact that he delayed his flight to take
the impress of an important Arabic inscription. He returned
to Paris, sad and dejected at the collapse of the movement, and
devoted himself once more to his Arabic studies. He published
a work on the chronology of the Koran, for which he received
a prize from the Academie des Inscriptions, edited the Solwan d
Mota by Ibn Zafer (a curious collection of philosophical thoughts)
and Ibn HaukaTs Description of Palermo, and in 1854 the first
volume of his history of the Mahommedans in Sicily appeared.
He received a meagre stipend for cataloguing the Arabic MSS. in
the Bibliotheque Nationale, and he contributed many articles
to the reviews. Although a firm friend of Mazzini, he discouraged
the latter's premature conspiracies. In 1859, after the expulsion
of the central Italian despots, Amari was appointed professor
of Arabic at Pisa and afterwards at Florence. But when
Garibaldi and his thousand had conquered Sicily, Amari returned
to his native island, and was given an appointment in the
government Although intensely Sicilian in sentiment, he
became one of the staunchest advocates of the union of Sicily
with Italy, and was subsequently made senator of the kingdom
at Cavour's instance. He was minister of education in the
Farini and Minghetti cabinets, but on the fall of the latter in
1864, he resumed his professorship at Florence and spent the
rest of his life in'study. His circle of acquaintances, both in Italy
and abroad, was very large, and his sound scholarship was
appreciated in all countries. He died in 1889, loaded with
honours. The last volume of his Storia dei Musulmani appeared in
1873, and in addition to the above-mentioned works he published
many others on oriental and historical subjects. His work on the
Sicilian Vespers was re-written as La Guerra del Vespro (9th ed.,
Milan, 1886). He was the pioneer of Arabic studies in modem
Italy, and he still remains the standard authority on the Mussul-
man domination in Sicily, though his judgment on religious
questions is sometimes warped by a violently anti-clerical bias.
See A. D'Ancona, Carte frio di Michele Amari coW elogio di lui
(Turin, 1896) ; and Oreste Tommasini's essay in his Scrittt di storia\
e critica (Rome, 1891). (L. V.*) I
AMARYLLIS (the name of a girl in classical pastoral poetry), in
botany, a genus of the natural order Amaryllidaceae, containing
the belladonna lily (Amaryllis Belladonna), a native of South
Africa, which was introduced into cultivation at the beginning
of the 1 8th century. This is a half-hardy bulbous plant, produc-
ing in the spring a number of strap-shaped, dull green leaves,
1-1J ft. long, arranged in two rows, and in autumn a solid stem,
bearing at the top a cluster of 6-12 funnel-shaped flowers, of a
rose colour and very fragrant Several forms are known in
cultivation. Most of the so-called Amaryllis of gardens belong
to the allied genus Hippeastrum (q.9.).
AMASIA (anc. Amasio), the chief town of a sanjak in the Sivas
vilayet of Asia Minor and an important trade centre on the
Samsun-Sivas road, beautifully situated on the Yeshil Irmak
(Iris). Pop. 30,000; Moslems about 20,000, of whom a large
proportion are Kizilbash (Shia); Christians (mostly Armenians),
10,000. It was one of the chief towns of the kingdom of
Trebizond and of the Seljuks, one of whose sultans, Kaikobad L,
enriched it with fine buildings and restored the castle, which was
thus enabled to stand a seven months' siege by Timur. It was
also much favoured by the early Osmanli sultans, one of whom,
Selim I., was born there. Bayezid II. built a fine mosque. The
place was modernized about a generation ago by Zia Pasha, the
poet, when governor, and is now an unusually well built Turkish
town with good bazaar and khans and a fine clock-tower. The
7 82
AMASIS— AMATEUR
Americans and the Jesuits have missionary schools for the
Armenian population. Amasia has extensive orchards and fruit
gardens still, as in Ibn Batuta's time, irrigated by water wheels
turned by the current of the river; and there are steam flour-
mills. Wheat, flour and silk are exported.
Ancient Amasia has left little trace of itself except on the castle
rock, on the left of the river, where the acropolis walls and a
number of splendid rock-cut tombs, described by Strabo as those
of the kings of Pontus, can be seen. The cliff is cut away all
round these immense sepulchres so that they stand free. The
finest, known from its polished surfaces as the " Mirror Tomb,"
is about 2 m. from the modem city. Amasia rose into historical
importance after the time of Alexander as the.cradlc of the power
of Pontus; but the last king to reign thtrc was the father of
Mithradates Eupator " The Great." The latter, however, made
it the base of his operations against the Romans in 89, 72 and
67 B.C. Pompey made it a free city in 65, after Mithradates' fall.
It was the birthplace of Strabo. (D. G. H.)
AMASIS, or Auosis (the Greek forms of the Egyptian name
Akmase, Ahmosi, " the moon is born," often written Aahmcs or
Ahmes in modern works), the name of two kings of ancient
Egypt
Amasis I., the founder of the XYlIIth dynasty, is famous for
his successful wars against the Hyksos princes who still ruled in
the north-east of the Delta (see Egypt: History, sect. 1.)
Aiiasis II. was the last great ruler of Egypt before the Persian
conquest, 570-526 B.C. Most of our information about him is
derived from Herodotus (ii. 161 et seq.) and can only be im-
perfectly controlled by monumental evidence. According to the
Greek historian he was of mean origin. A revolt of the native
soldiers gave him his opportunity. These troops, returning
home from a disastrous expedition to Cyrcne, suspected that they
had been betrayed in order that Aprics, the reigning king, might
rule more absolutely by means of his mercenaries, and their
friends in Egypt fully sympathized with them. Amasis, sent to
meet them and quell the revolt, was proclaimed king by the
rebels, and Aprics, who had now to rely entirely on bis mercen-
aries, was defeated and taken prisoner in the ensuing conflict at
Momemphis; the usurper treated the captive prince with great
lenity, but was eventually persuaded to give him up to the people,
by whom he was strangled and buried in his ancestral tomb at
Sais. An inscription confirms the fact of the struggle between
the native and the foreign soldiery, and proves that Apries was
killed and honourably buried in the 3rd year of Amasis. Although
Amasis thus appears first as champion of the disparaged native,
he had the good sense to cultivate the friendship of the Greek
world, and brought Egypt into closer touch with it than ever
before. Hcrodot us relates that under his prudent administration
Egypt reached the highest pitch of prosperity; he adorned the
temples of Lower Egypt especially with splendid monolithic
shrines and other monuments (his activity here is proved by
remains still existing). To the Greeks Amasis assigned the
commercial colony of Naucratis on the Canopic branch of the
Nile, and when the temple of Delphi was burnt he contributed
1000 talents to the rebuilding. He also married a Greek princess
named Lad ice, the daughter of Battus, king of Cyrene, and he
made alliances with Polycrates of Samos and Croesus of Lydia.
His kingdom consisted probably of Egypt only, as far as the
First Cataract, but to this he added Cyprus, and his influence
was great in Cyrene. At the beginning of his long reign, before
the death of Apries, he appears to have sustained an attack by
Nebuchadrezzar (568 B.C.). Cyrus left Egypt unmolested; but
the last years of Amasis were disturbed by the threatened
invasion of Cambyses and by the rupture of the alliance with
Polycrates of Samos. The blow fell upon his son Psam-
mctichus III., whom the Persian deprived of his kingdom after
a reign of only six months.
See Naucratis: also W. M. Flinders Petri*. History, vol. Hi.;
Breasted, History and Historical Documents, vol. iv. p. 509; Maspero,
Us Empires. (F. Ll. G.)
AMATEUR (Lat. amator, lover), a person who takes part in any
art, craft, game or sport for the sake of the pleasure afforded I
by the occupation itself and not far pecuniar? gain. Beef
thus a person for whom the pursuit in question is a reaoL^
and not a business, and who therefore presumably devote a it
a portion only of his leisure and not his working hour*, 'M
average amateur possesses less skill than the average profeaic^
whose livelihood and reputation depend on his pronaeacf . &.
who therefore concentrates all his energies on the task of utir -(
the greatest possible mastery in his chosen career, lo ike r*
such as music, painting and the drama, the best amateurs n
outdistanced as executants not merely by the best profess «Ji
but by professionals far below the highest rank; and aJlk-p
the inferiority of the amateur is not perhaps so pronounce! T
so universal in the case of games and outdoor sports, the rra»-3
of such pastimes as horse-racing, boxing, rowing, bIj-%
tennis and golf prove that here also the same contrast is gcrcr
ally to be found. Hence it has come about that the tra
"amateur," and more especially the adjectival derinu*
"amateurish," has acquired a secondary meaning. &<^>
employed somewhat contemptuously, signifying iaenjcetcr.
unsktlfulncss, superficial knowledge or training.
The immense increase in popularity of athletic contest! :v'
games of all kinds in modern times, and especially -ike he
competition for " records " and championships^ oftes d :*
international character, have made it a matter of lmporur ? '-"■
arrive at a clear and formal definition of the amateur as '--
tinguished from the professional. The simple, straighuVn-:
definition of the amateur given above has been proved v> *
easily evaded. Many leading cricketers, for example. pr?c*
their amateur status who, although they are not paid npsv
each match they play like their professional colleagues. »"
provided with an annual income by their county or club u&
the guise of salary for performing the duties of "seoeurj *
some other office, leaving them free to play the game six dip*
week. Similarly, " gentlemen riders " are often presented *•*
a cash payment described as a bet, or under some other prewt
Nor is the dividing-line between "out-of-pocket expose*
allowed to the amateur and the remuneration payable to ti*
professional always strictly drawn. The various asscciibc'i
controlling the different branches of sport have therefore dev^i
working regulations to be observed so far as their jurist**
extends. Thus the Amateur Athletic Association d C*o:
Britain, defines an amateur as " one who has never con?<* :
for a money prize or staked bet, or with or against a profes*^
for any prize, or who has never taught, pursued or assbtffi .*
the practice of athletic exercises as a means of obuinii *
livelihood." The rules of the Amateur Rowing Associates rr
stricter, denying amateur status to anyone who has ever *«*'-
or rowed in a race with a professional for any prize, or »** *
or has been by trade or employment for wages a mecti--
artisan or labourer, or engaged in any menial duty, be**
insisting upon the usual restrictions in regard to taking nc*c
and competing with professionals. In association footb* *
rules are much more lax, for although amateurs are A-**
distinguished from professionals, an amateur may even bertf*
a regular member, though unsalaried, of a professional *•£=
without losing his amateur status. The Rugby game was. C -**
1895, entirely controlled by the Rugby Football Union. « l •"
by the strictness of its laws, effectually prevented the gro«'*
professionalism, but there had been much dissatisfaction 1" >
provinces with the Union's decision against reimbursirj J*
working players for " broken time," ix. for that part of :h-'
wages which they lost by playing on working days, as 1 *
resulted in the formation (1805) of the Northern Union. » l
permits remuneration for " broken time," but allows no ^
who works for his living to play football unless regularly cff.f~.
at his particular trade.
In America the amateur question is less complicated 0*'
Great Britain; but the intensely business-like character
American ideas of sport has encouraged the modern «p''
professionalism. AH important sports in America, "^
baseball, football, cricket, golf and rowing, are, however. *'*
the control of the Amateur Athletic Union of the United Su*
AMATHUS— AMAZON
783
the rules of which, 80 far as they relate to professionalism, are
as follows. No person shall be eligible to compete in any athletic
meeting, game or entertainment, given or sanctioned by this
Union, who has (1) received or competed for compensation or
reward in any form for the display, exercise or example of his
skill or knowledge of any athletic exercise, or for rendering
personal service of any kind .to any athletic organization, or for
becoming or continuing a member of any athletic organization;
or (2) has entered any competition under a name other than his
own, or from a club of which he was not at that time a member
in good standing; or (3) has knowingly entered any competition
open to any professional or professionals, or has knowingly
competed with any professional for any prize or token; or (4)
has issued or allowed to be issued in his behalf any challenge
to compete against any professional or for money; or (5) has
pawned, bartered or sold any prize won in athletic competition.
It will be seen that by rule 3 the American Union enacts a
standard for all athletes not much different from that of the
British Amateur Rowing Association. The rules for the sports
not within the Union's jurisdiction are practically the same,
except that in baseball, cricket and golf amateurs may compete
with professionals, though not for cash prizes. In the case of
open golf competitions professional prize-winners receive cash,
while amateurs are given plate to the value of their prizes as in
Great Britain. There are practically no professional football
players in America.
On both sides of the Atlantic the question of the employment
of professional coaches has occasioned much discussion. In
America it has been accepted as legal. In England the same is
almost universally true, but there are certain exceptions, such
as the decision of the Henley Regatta Committee, that no crew
entering may be coached by a professional within two months
of the race-day. Whether such a regulation be wise or the reverse
is a question that depends upon the spirit in which games are
regarded. Nobody wants to disparage proficiency; but if a
game is conducted on business methods, the " game " element
tends to be minimized, and if its object is pecuniary it ceases to
be " sport " in the old sense, and the old idea of the " amateur "
who indulges in it for love of the mere enjoyment tends to
disappear.
AMATHUS, an ancient dty of Cyprus, on the S. coast, about
24 m. W. of Larnaka and 6 m. E. of Limassol, among sandy hills
and sand-dunes, which perhaps explain its name in Greek
(o>a0os, sand). The earliest remains hitherto found on the
site are tombs of the early Iron Age period of Graeco- Phoenician
influences (1000-600 b.c). Amathus is identified by some
(E. Obcrhummer, Die Intel Cypern, i., 1002, pp. 13-14; but see
CmuM) with Kartihadasti (Phoenician " New-Town ") in the
Cypriote tribute-list of Esarhaddon of Assyria (668 B.C.). It
certainly maintained strong Phoenician sympathies, for it was
its refusal to join the phi]- Hellene league of Onesilas of Salamis
which provoked the revolt of Cyprus from Persia in 500-494 b.c
(Herod, v. 105), when Amathus was besieged unsuccessfully and
avenged itself by the capture and execution of Onesilas. The
phil- Hellene Evagoras of Salamis was similarly opposed by
Amathus about 385-380 B.C. in conjunction with Citium and
Soli (Diod. Sic xiv. 98); and even after Alexander the city re-
sisted annexation, and was bound over to give hostages to
Selcucus (Diod. Sic. xix. 62). Its political importance now ended,
but its temple of Adonis and Aphrodite {Venus Amathusia)
remained famous in Roman time.
The wealth of Amathus was derived partly from its corn
(Strabo 340, quoting Hipponax, fi. 540 B.C.), partly from its
copper mines (Ovid, Met. x. 220, 531). of which traces can be seen
inland (G. Mariti, i. 187; L. Ross, Inselreise, iv. 195; W. H.
Engcl, Kypros, i. 111 ft.). Ovid also mentions its sheep (Met.
x. 227); the epithet Amathusia in Roman poetry often means
little more than "Cypriote," attesting however the fame of the
city.
Amathus still flourished and produced a distinguished patriarch
of Alexandria (Johannes Elcemon), as late as 606-616, and a
ruined Byzantine church marks the site; but it was already
almost deserted when Richard Corur de Lion won Cyprus by
a victory there over Isaac Comnenus in 1191. The rich necro-
polis, already partly plundered then, has yielded valuable works
of art to New York (L. P. di Cesnola, Cyprus, 1878 passim) and
to the British Museum (Excavation* in Cyprus, 1894 (1899)
passim); but the dty has vanished, except fragments of wall
and of a great stone cistern on the acropolis. A similar vessel
was transported to the Louvre in 1867. Two small sanctuaries,
with terra-cotta votive offerings of Graeco- Phoenician age,
lie not far off, but the great shrine of Adonis and Aphrodite
has not been identified (M. Ohnefalsch-Richter, Kypros, L
ch.i). 0- L. M.)
AMAH, the name of a family of Italian violin-makers, who
flourished at Cremona from about 1550 to 169s. According to
Fetis, Andrea and Nicolo Amati, two brothers, were the first
Italians who made violins. They were succeeded by Antonio
and Geronimo, sons of Nicolo. Another Nicolo, son of Geronimo,
was born on the 3rd of September 1506 and died on the 12th of
August 1684. He was the most eminent of the family. He im-
proved the model adopted by the rest of the Amatis and produced
instruments capable of yielding greater power of tone. His
pattern was usually small, but he also made the so-called "Grand
Amatis." Of his pupils the most famous were Andrea Enamieri
and Antonio Stradivari.
AMATITLAn, or San Joan de Amatitlan, the capital of
a department bearing the same name in Guatemala, on Lake
Amatitlan, 15 m. S.W. of Guatemala city by the transcontinental
railway from Puerto Barrios to San Josl. Pop. (1905) about
10,000. The town consists almost entirely of one-storeyed
adobe huts inhabited by mulattoes and Indians, whose chief
industry is the production of cochineal. In 1840 only a small
Indian village marked its site, and its subsequent growth was
due to the sugar plantations established by a Jesuit settlement.
The wells of the town are strongly impregnated with salt and
alum, and in the vicinity there are several hot springs. Lake
Amatitlan, 9 m. long and 3 m. broad, lies on the northern side
of the great Guatemalan Cordillera. Above it rises the four-
cratered volcano of Pacaya (8390 ft.), which was in eruption in
187a The outlet of the lake is a swift river 65 m. long, which
cuts a way through the Cordillera, and enters the Pacific at
Istapa, after forming at San Pedro a fine waterfall more than
200 ft. high.
AMAUROSIS (Gr. for " blinding,"), a term for " deprivation
of sight," limited chiefly to those forms of defect or loss of vision
which are caused by diseases not directly involving the eye.
AMAZON, the great river of South America. Before the con-
quest of South America, the Rio de las Amazonas had no general
name; for, according to a common custom, each savage tribe gave
a name only to the section of the river which it occupied — such as
Paranaguazu, Guyerma, Solimoes and others. In the year 1 500,
Vicente Yanez Pinzon, in command of a Spanish expedition,
discovered and ascended the Amazon to a point about 50 m.
from the sea. He called it the Rio Santa Maria de la Mar Dulce,
which soon became abbreviated to Mar Dulce, and for some years,
after 1 502, it was known as the Rio Grande. The principal com-
panions of Pinzon, in giving evidence in 1515, mention it as
El Ryo Mar anon. There is much controversy about the origin
of the word Maranon. Peter Martyr in a letter to Lope Hurtado
de Mcndoza in 1 513 is the first to state that it is of native origin.
Ten years after the death of Pinzon, his friend Oviedo calls it
the Maranon. Many writers believe that this was its Indian
name. We are disposed to agree with the Brazilian historian
Constancio that Maranon is derived from the Spanish word
mar ana, a tangle, a snarl, which well represents the bewildering
difficulties which the earlier explorers met in navigating not
only the entrance to the Amazon, but the whole island-bordered,
river-cut and indented coast of the now Brazilian province of
Maranhao.
The first descent of the mighty artery from the Andes to the
sea was made by Orellana in 1541, and the name Amazonas
arises from the battle which he had with a tribe of Tapuya
savages where the women of the tribe fought alongside the men,
7 8 4
AMAZON
as was the custom among alt of the Tapuyas. Orellana, no
doubt, derived the name Amazonas from the ancient Amazons
(q.v.) of Asia and Africa described by Herodotus and Diodortts.
The first ascent of the river was made in 1638 by Pedro
Texiera, a Portuguese, who reversed the route of Orellana and
reached Quito by way of the Rio Napo. He returned in 1639
with the Jesuit fathers Acufta and Artieda, delegated by the
viceroy of Peru to accompany him.
The river Amazon has a drainage area of 3,722,000 sq. m., if
the Tocantins be included in its basin. It drains four-tenths of
South America, and it gathers its waters from 5 N. to 20 S.
latitude. Its most remote sources are found on the inter-Andean
plateau, but a short distance from the Pacific Ocean; and, after
a course of about 4000 m. through the interior of Peru and
across Brazil, it enters the Atlantic Ocean on the equator. It is
generally accepted by geographers that the Marafion, or Upper
Amazon, rises in the little lake, Lauricocha, in io° 30' S. latitude,
and 100 m. N.N.E. of Lima. They appear to have followed
the account given by Padre Fritz which has since been found
incorrect. According to Antonio Raimondi, it is the Rio de Nupe
branch of the small stream which issues from the lake that has
the longer course and the greater volume of water. The Nupe
rises in the Cordillera de Huayhuath and is the true source of the
Marafion. There is a difference among geographers as to where
the Marafion ends and the Amazon begins, or whether both
names apply to the same river. The Pongo de Manseriche, at
the base of the Andes and the head of useful navigation, seems
to be the natural terminus of the Marafion; and an examination
of the hydrographic conditions of the great valley makes the
convenience and accuracy of this apparent. Raimondi terminates
the Marafion at the mouth of the Ucayali, Reclus the same, both
following the missionary fathers of the colonial period. C. M. de
la Condamine uses " Amazon " and " Marafion " indiscriminately
and considers them one and the same. Smyth and Lowe give
the mouth of the Javary as the eastern limit, as does d'Orbigny.
Wolf, apparently uncertain, carries the " Marafion or Amazon "
to the Peruvian frontier of Brazil at Tabatinga. Other travellers
and explorers contribute to the confusion. This probably arises
from the rivalry of the Spaniards and Portuguese. The former
accepted the name Marafion in Peru, and as the missionaries
penetrated the valley they extended the name until they reached
the mouth of the Ucayali; while, as the Portuguese ascended
the Amazon, they carried this name to the extent of their explora-
tions. Beginning with the lower river we propose to notice, first,
the great affluents which go to swell the volume of the main
stream.
Tributaries.
The Tocantins is not really a branch of the Amazon, although
usually so considered. It is the central fluvial artery of Brazil,
running from south to north for a distance of about 1500 m.
It rises in the mountainous district known as the Pyrenees, but
its more ambitious western affluent, the Araguay, has its extreme
southern headwaters on the slopes of the Serra Cayapo, and flows
a distance of 1080 m. before its junction with the parent
stream, which it appears almost to equal in volume. Besides
its main tributary, the Rio das Mortes, it has twenty smaller
branches, offering many miles of tanoe navigation. In finding
its way to the lowlands, it breaks frequently into falls and rapids,
or winds violently through rocky gorges, until, at a point about
100 m. above its junction with the Tocantins, it saws its way
across a rocky dyke for 12 m. in roaring cataracts. The tribu-
taries of the Tocantins, called the Maranhao and Parana-tinga,
collect an immense volume of water from the highlands which
surround them, especially on the south and south-east. Between
the latter and the confluence with the Araguay, the Tocantins
is occasionally obstructed by rocky barriers which cross it almost
at a right angle. Through these, the river carves its channel,
broken into cataracts and rapids, or cachotiras, as they are called
throughout Brazil. Its lowest one, the Itaboca cataract, is about
130 m. above its estuarine port of Cameta, for which distance
the river is navigable; but above that it is useless as a commer-
cial avenue, except for laborious and very costly transportation.
The flat, broad valleys, composed of sand and day. of both tk
Tocantins and its Araguay branch are overlooked by steep
bluffs. They are the margins of the great sandstooe ptateaia.
from 1000 to 2000 ft. elevation above sea-level, through wakfc
the rivers have eroded their deep beds. Around the estuary of
the Tocantins the great plateau has disappeared, to give pba
to a part of the forest-covered, half submerged alluvial ph*
which extends far to the north-east and west. The Pari mtr,
generally called one of the mouths of the Amazon, is ooJ> tbe
lower reach of the Tocantins. If any portion of the waters ot
the Amazon runs round the southern side of the large ishrd
of Mara jo into the river Pari, it is only through tortus
natural canals, which are in no sense outflow channels of tat
Amazon.
The Xxng6, the next large river west of the Tocantins, b 1
true tributary of the Amazon. It was but little known usd
it was explored in 1884-1887 by Karl von den Steinea froa
Cuyabi. Travelling east, 240 m., he found the river Taaita-
toaba, 180 ft. wide, flowing from a lake 25 m. io diameter. He
descended this torrential stream to the river Romero, 1300 ft
wide, entering from the west, which receives the river CotA
These three streams form the Xingfi, or Parana -xingu, vfakk,
from 73 m. lower down, bounds along a succession of npidi
for 400 m. A little above the head of navigation, 105 m. fan
its mouth, the river makes a bend to the east to find its way acrw
a rocky barrier. Here is the great cataract of Itaxnaraca, wtea
rushes down an inclined plane for 3 m. and then gives a ira 1
leap, called the fall of ltamaraca. Near its mouth, the Xirrc
expands into an immense lake, and its waters then mingle *-.ta
those of the Amazon through a labyrinth of caAos (natural asak\
winding in countless directions through a wooded archipeiara
The Tapajos, running through a humid, not and unhealth
valley, pours into the Amazon 500 m. above Pari and is abetf
1200 m. long. It rises on the lofty Brazilian plateau oca
Diamantino in 14° 25' S. lat. Near this place a number d
streams unite to form the river Arinos, which at latitude 10 s 25*
joins the Jurucna to form the Alto Tapajos, so called as be
down as the Rio Manoel, entering from the east. Thence to
Santarem the stream is known as the Tapajos. The krar
Arinos, the Alto Tapajos and the Tapajos to the last raf*i
the Maranhao Grande, is a continuous series of formkiabk
cataracts and rapids; but from the Maranhao Grande to ft
mouth, about 188 m., the river can be navigated by large vessel
For its last 100 m. it is from 4 to m. wide and much of it % err
deep. The valley of the Tapajos is bordered on both sides bf
bluffs. They are from 300 to 400 ft. high along the lower river.
but, a few miles above Santarem, they retire from the easten
side and only approach the Amazon flood-plain some miles bekm
Santarem.
The Madeira has its junction with the Amazon 870 m. by river
above Para, and almost rivals it in the volume of its waters. It
rises more than 50 ft. during the rainy season, and the largest
ocean steamers may ascend it to the Fall of San Antonio. 663 »
above its mouth; but in the dry months, from June to
November, it is only navigable for the same distance for craft
drawing from 5 to 6 ft. of water. According to the treaty d
San lldefonso, the Madeira begins at the confluence of tbe
Guapore' with the Mamore\ Both of these streams have their
headwaters almost in contact with those of the river Paraguay
The idea of a connecting canal is based on ignorance of fool
conditions. San Antonio is the first of a formidable series of
cataracts and rapids, nineteen in number, which, for a river
distance of 263 m., obstruct the upper course of the Madeira
until the last rapid called Guajara Merira (or Small Pebble',
is reached, a little below the union of the Guanor* with the
Ma more. The junction of the great river Beni with the Madcia
is at the Madeira Fall, a vast and grand display of reefs, *rirt»
pools and boiling torrents. Between Guajara-Mcrim ami tan
fall, inclusive, the Madeira receives the drainage of the north-
eastern slopes of the Andes, from Sama Cruz de la Sierra to Quscot
the whole of the south-western slope of Brazilian Matto Grasso.
and the northern one of the Chiquitos sierras, an area about
AMAZON
equal to that of France and Spain. The waters find their way
to the falls of the Madeira by many great rivers, the principal
of which, if we enumerate them from east to west, are the Guapore
or Itehez, the Baures and Blanco, the Itonama or San Miguel,
the Mamorl, Beni, and Mayutata or Madre de Dios, all of which
are reinforced by numerous secondary but powerful affluents.
The Guapore* presents many difficulties to continuous navigation;
the Baures and Itonama offer hundreds of miles of navigable
waters through beautiful plains; the Mamort has been sounded
by the writer in the driest month of the year for a distance of
500 m. above Guajara-Merim, who found never less than from
10 to 30 ft* of water, with a current of from 1 to 3 m. an hour.
Its Rio Grande branch, explored under the writer's instructions,
was found navigable for craft drawing 3 ft. of water to within
30 m. of Santa Cruz de la Sierra — a level sandy plain intervening..
The Grande is a river of enormous length, rising in a great valley
of the Andes between the important cities of Sucre and Cocha-
bamba, and having its upper waters in close touch with those of the
Pilcomayo branch of the river Paraguay. It makes a long curve
through the mountains, and, after a course of about 800 m.,
joins the Ma more near 15° S. lat The Chaparl, Securt and
Chimore, tributaries of the Mamorl, are navigable for launches
up to the base of the mountains, to within 130 m. of Cochabamba.
The Beni has a 12-ft. fall 18 m. above its mouth called
"La Esperanza"; beyond this, it is navigable for 217 m. to
the port of Reyes for launches in the dry season and larger craft
in the wet one. The extreme source of the Beni is the little river
La Paz, which rises in the inter-Andean region, a few miles south-
east of Lake Titicaca, and flows as a rivulet through the Bolivian
city of La Paz. From this point to Reyes the river is a torrent
The principal affluent of the Beni, and one which exceeds it in
volume, enters if 120 m. above its mouth, and is known to the
Indians along its banks as the Mayutata, but the Peruvians
call it the Madre de Dios. Its ramifications drain the slopes of
the Andes between 12° and 15° of latitude. It is navigable in
the wet season to within 180 m. of Cuzco. Its upper waters
are separated by only a short transitable canoe portage of 7 m.
in a straight line from those of the Ucayali. The portage on
the eastern side terminates at the Cashpajali river 22 m. above its
junction with the Manu. For the first 13 m. it is navigable all
the year for craft drawing 18 in. of water, but the remaining
m. present many obstacles to navigation. At the Manu junc-
tion the elevation above sea-level is 1070 ft., the river width
300 ft, depth 8 ft., current 1 1 m. per hour. The general direction
of the Manu is south-east for 158 m. as far as the Piicopata
river, where under the name of Madre de Dios it continues with
a flow of 22,000 cubic metres per minute. Here its elevation is
718 ft above the sea and its width 500 ft. During the above
course of 158 m. the Manu receives 135 large and small affluents.
Although the inclination of its bed is not great, the obstacles to
free navigation are abundant, and consist of enormous trees
and masses of tree-trunks which have filled the river during
the period of freshets.
From the time it receives the Manu, the Madre de Dios carries
its immense volume of waters 485 m. to the Beni over the
extremely easy slope of a vast and fertile plain. Its banks are
low, its bottom pebbly. A greater part of its course is filled with
large and small islands some 63 in number. Its average width
is about 1500 ft Below the mouth of the Tambopata, the flow
is estimated at 191,250 cubic metres per minute. The average
current is 2} m. per hour. There are two important rapids and
one cataract on the lower 300 m. of the river.
The Mayutata receives three principal tributaries from the
south— the Tambopata, Inambari and Piicopata.
The Peruvian government has sought to open a trade route
between the Rio Ucayali and the rich rubber districts of the
7 86
AMAZON
Mayutata. All of the upper branches of the river Madeira
find their way to the falls across the open, almost level Mojos
and Beni plains, 35,000 sq. m. of which are yearly flooded to an
average depth of about 3 ft. for a period of from three to four
months. They rival if they do not exceed in fertility the valley
of the Nile, and are the healthiest and most inviting agricultural
and grazing region of the basin of the Amazon.
The Pustrs, a very sluggish river, enters the Amazon west of
the Madeira, which it parallels as far 'south as the falls of the
latter stream. It runs through a continuous forest at the bottom
of the great depression lying between the Madeira river, which
skirts the edge of the Brazilian sandstone plateau, and the
Ucayali which hugs the base of the Andes. One of its marked
features is the five parallel furos 1 which from the north-west at
almost regular intervals the Amazon sends to the Purus; the
most south-westerly one being about 150 m. above the mouth
of the latter river. They cut a great area of very low-lying
country into five islands. Farther down the Purus to the
right three smaller furos also connect it with the Amazon.
Chandless found its elevation above sea-level to be only 107 ft.
590 m. from its mouth. It is one of the most crooked streams
in the world, and its length in a straight line is less than half
that by its curves. It is practically only a drainage ditch for the
half-submerged, lake-flooded district it traverses. Its width is
very uniform for 1000 m. up, and for 800 m. its depth is never
less than 45 ft. It is navigable by steamers for 1648 m. as far
as the little stream, the Curumaha, but only by light-draft craft.
Chandless ascended it 1866 m. At 1792 m. it forks into two
small streams. Occasionally a cliff touches the river, but in
general the lands are subject to yearly inundations throughout
its course, the river rising at times above 50 ft., the numerous
lakes to the right and left serving as reservoirs. Its main
tributary, the Aquiry or Acre, enters from the right about 1x04
m. from the Amazon. Its sources are near those of the Mayu-
tata. It is navigable for a period of about five months of the
year, when the Purus valley is inundated; and, for the remaining
seven months, only canoes can ascend it sufficiently high to
communicate overland with the settlements in the great india-
rubber districts of the Mayutata and lower Beni, thus these
regions are forced to seek a canoe outlet for their rich products
by the very dangerous, costly and laborious route of the falls
of the Madeira.
The JuruA is the next great southern affluent of the Amazon
west of the Purus, sharing with this the bottom of the immense
inland Amazon depression, and having all the characteristics of
the Purus as regards curvature, sluggishness and general
features of the low, half-flooded forest country it traverses. It
rises among the Ucayali highlands, and is navigable and un-
obstructed for a distance of 1133 m. above its junction with the
Amazon.
The Javary, the boundary line between Brazil and Peru, is
another Amazon tributary of importance. It is supposed to be
navigable by canoe for 000 m. above its mouth to its sources
among the Ucayali highlands, but only 360 have been found
suitable for steam navigation. The Brazilian Boundary Com-
mission ascended it in 1866 to the junction of the Shino with its
Jaquirana branch. The country it traverses in its extremely
sinuous course is very level, similar in character to that of the
Jurua, and is a fostered wilderness occupied by a few savage
hordes.
The Ucayali, which rises only about 70 m. north of Lake
Titicaca, is the most interesting branch of the Amazon next to
the Madeira. The Ucayali was first called the San Miguel, then
the Ucayali, Ucayare, Poro, Apu-Poro, . Cocama and Rio de
Cuzco. Peru has fitted out many costly and ably-conducted
expeditions to explore it One of them (1867) claimed to have
reached within 240 m. of Lima, and the little steamer " Napo "
forced its way up the violent currents for 77 m. above the junction
with the Pachitea river as far as the river Tambo, 770 m. from
* A furo is a natural canal— sometime* merely a deviation from
the main channel, which it ultimately rejoins, sometimes a connexion
across low flat country between two entirely separate streams.
the confluence of the Ucayali with the Amazon. The " Napo *
then succeeded in ascending the Urubamba branch of tat
Ucayali 35 m. above its union with the Tambo, to a point 200 a.
north of Cuzco. The remainder of the Urubamba, as shown b;
Bosquet in 1806 and Castelnau in 1846, is interrupted by
cascades, reefs and numberless other obstacles to navigatiaa
Seflor Torres, who explored the Alto Ucayali for the Pereraa
government, gives it a length of 186 m., counting from tie
mouth of the Pachitea to the junction of the Tambo and Uiv
bamba. Its width varies from 1300 to 4000 ft-, due to the gres:
number of islands. The current runs from 3 to 4 m. an boar
and a channel from 60 to 1 50 ft wide can always be found with
a minimum depth of 5 ft. There are five bad passes, doe tc
the accumulation of trees and rafts of timber. Sometias
enormous rocks have fallen from the mountains and spread ever
the river-bed causing huge whirlpools. " No greater dimcultis
present themselves to navigation by xo-knot steamers drawing
4 ft. of water."
The Tambo, which rises in the Vilcanota knot of moonzaict
south of Cuzco, is a torrential stream valueless for commercui
purposes. The banks of the Ucayali for 500 m. up axe low, asd
in the rainy season extensively inundated.
The Huallaga (also known as the Guallaga and Rio de tat
Motilones), which joins the Amazon to the west of the UcayaM.
rises high among the mountains, in about xo° 40' S. lat-, on the
northern slopes of the celebrated Cerro de Pasco. For nearly
its entire length it is an impetuous torrent running throng* s
succession of gorges. It has forty-two rapids, it&last obstractia
being the Pongo de Aguirre, so called from the traitor Agcine
who passed there. To this point, 140 m. from the Amazon, the
Huallaga can be ascended by large river steamers. Between tie
Huallaga and the Ucayali lies die famous " Pampa del Sscnv-
mento," a level region of stoneless alluvial lands covered wi:a
thick, dark forests, first entered by the missionaries in 17261
It is about 300 m. long, from north to south, and varies in widtk
from 40 to 100 m. Many streams, navigable for canoes, penetraae
this region from the Ucayali and the Huallaga. It is soil
occupied by savage tribes.
The river Maba&on rises about 100 m. to the north-east d
Lima. It flows through a deeply-eroded Andean valley in a
north-west direction, along the eastern base of the Cordillera of
the Andes, as far as 5 36' S. lat; then it makes a great bad
to the north-east, and with irresistible power cuts through the
inland Andes, until at the Pongo de Manseriche* it victo rio usly
breaks away from the mountains to flow onwards through the
plains under the name of the Amazon. Barred by reefs, and rot
of rapids and impetuous currents, it cannot become a commercui
avenue. At the point where it makes its great bend the river
Chinchipe pours into it from southern Ecuador. Just below ton
the mountains close in on either side of the Maranoo, forming
narrows or pongos for a length of 35 m., where, besides nomcroia
whirlpools, there are no less than thirty-five formidable rapids,
the series concluding with three cataracts just before reachisg
the river Imasa or Cbunchunga, near the mouth of which La
Condamine embarked in the 18th century to descend the
Amazon. Here the general level of the country begins to
decrease in elevation, with only a few mountain spurs, which
from time to time push as far as the river and. form P**gm of
minor importance and less dangerous to descend. Finally, after
passing the narrows of Guaracayo, the ctrros gradually disappear,
and for a distance of about 20 m. the river is full of islands, and
there is nothing visible from its low banks but an immenv
forest-covered plain. But the last barrier has yet to be passed,
the Pongo de Manseriche, 3 m. long, just below the mouth of the
Rio Santiago, and between it and the old abandoned missionary
station of Borja, in 38* 30' S. lat. and 77* 30' 4©* W. long.
According to Captain Carbajal, who descended it in the little
* Pongo is a corruption of the Quichua puncu and the Aymar*
bonco, meaning a door. The Pongo de Manseriche was first aaased
Marafion, then Santiago, and later Manseric, afterwards Majtssrirae
and Manseriche, owing to the great numbers of parmheets fossta
on the rocks there.
AMAZON
787
steamer " Napo " in 2868, it is a vast rent in the Andes about
2000 ft deep, narrowing in places to a width of only zoo ft, the
precipices " seeming to close in at the top." Through this dark
canon the Maranon leaps along, at times, at the rate of is m.
an hour. 1 The Pongo de Manseriche was first discovered by the
Adelantado Joan de Salinas. He fitted out an expedition at
Loxa in Ecuador, descended the Rio Santiago to the Maranon,
passed through the perilous Pongo in 1557 and invaded the
country of the Maynas Indians. Later, the missionaries of
Cuenca and Quito established many missions in the Pais de lot
Maynas, and made extensive use of the Pongo de Manseriche as
an avenue of communication with their several convents on the
Andean plateau. According to their accounts, the huge rent in
the Andes, the Pongo, is about five or six m. long, and in places
not more than 80 ft wide, and is a frightful series of torrents and
whirlpools interspersed with rocks. There is an ancient tradition
of the savages of the vicinity that one of their gods descending
the Maranon and another ascending the Amazon to communicate
with him, they opened the pass called the Pongo de Manseriche.
From the northern slope of its basin the Amazon receives many
tributaries, but their combined volume of water is -not nearly so
great as that contributed to the parent stream by its affluents
from the south. That part of Brazil lying between the Amazon
and French, Dutch and British Guiana, and bounded on the
west by the Rio Negro, is known as Brazilian Guiana. It is the
southern watershed of a tortuous, low chain of mountains running,
roughly, east and west. Their northern slope, which is occupied
by the three Guianas first named, is saturated and river-torn;
but their southern one, Brazilian Guiana, is in general thirsty
and semi-barren, and the driest region of the Amazon valley.
It is an area which has been left almost in the undisturbed
possession of nomadic Indian tribes, whose scanty numbers find
it difficult to solve the food problem. From the divortium
aquarum between French. Guiana and Brazil, known as the
Tumuc-humac range of highlands, two minor streams, the
Yary and the Parou, reach the Amazon across the intervening
broken and barren tableland. They are full of rapids and
reefs.
The Tronbetas is the first river of importance we meet on the
northern side as we ascend the Amazon. Its confluence with
this is just above the town of Obidos. It has its sources in the
Guiana highlands, but its long course is frequently interrupted
by violent currents, rocky barriers, and rapids. The inferior
zone of the river, as far up as the first fall, the Porteira, has but
little broken water and is low and swampy; but above the long
series of cataracts and rapids the character and aspect of the
valley completely change, and the climate is much better. The
river is navigable for 135 m. above its mouth.
The Neceo, the great northern tributary of the Amazon, has
its sources along the watershed between the Orinoco and the
Amazon basins, and also connects with the Orinoco by way of
the Casiquiare canal. Its main affluent is the Uaupes, which
disputes with the headwaters of the Guaviari branch of the
Orinoco the drainage of the eastern slope of the " oriental "
Andes of Colombia. The Negro is navigable for 450 m. above
its mouth for. 4 ft. of water in the dry season, but it has many
sandbanks and minor difficulties. In the wet season, it overflows
the country far and wide, sometimes to a breadth of 20 m., for
long distances, and for 400 m. up, as far as Santa Isabella, is a
succession of lagoons, full of long islands and intricate channels,
and the slope of the country is so gentle that the river has almost
no current. But just before reaching the Uaupes there is a long
series of reefs, over which it violently flows in cataracts, rapids
and whirlpools. The Uaupes is full of similar obstacles, some
fifty rapids barring its navigation, although a long stretch of its
upper course is said to be free from them, and to flow gently
through a forested country. Despite the impediments, canoes
ascend this stream to the Andes.
> One of the most daring deeds of exploration ever known in South
America was done by the engineer A. Wertheman. He fitted out
three rafts, in August 1870. and descended this whole series of rapids
and. cascades from jfcsvRio.CJunchipevto Borja.
The Braneo is the principal affluent of the Negro from the north;
it is enriched by many streams from the sierras which separate
Venezuela and British Guiana from Brazil. Its two upper main
tributaries are the Urariquira and the Takuttt. The latter almost
links its sources with those of the Essequibo. The Braneo flows
nearly south, and finds its way into the Negro through several
channels and a chain of lagoons similar to those of the latter river.
It is 350 m. long, up to its Urariquira confluence. It has numerous
islands, and, 235 m. above its mouth, it is broken by a bad series of
rapids.
Casiquiare Canal. In 1744 the Jesuit Father Roman,
while ascending the Orinoco river, met some Portuguese slave-
traders from the settlements on the Rio Negro. He accompanied
them on their return, by way of the Casiquiare canal, and after-
wards retraced his route to the Orinoco. La Condamine, seven
months later, was able to give to the French Academy an account
of Father Roman's extraordinary voyage, and thus confirm the
existence of this wonderful waterway first reported by Father
Acufia in 1639. But little credence was given to Father
Roman's statement until it was verified, in 1756, by the Spanish
Boundary-line Commission of Yturriaga y Solano. The actual
elevation of the canal above sea-level is not known, but is of
primary importance to the study of the hydrography of South
America. Travellers in general give it .at from 400 to 900 ft,
but, after much study of the question of altitudes throughout
South America, the writer believes that it does not exceed 300 ft
The canal connects the upper Orinoco, 9 m. below the mission
of Esmeraldas, with the Rio Negro affluent of the Amazon near
the town of San Carlos. The general course is south-west, and
its length, including windings, is about 200 m. Its width, at its
bifurcation with the Orinoco, is approximately 300 ft., with a cur-
rent towards the Negro of three-quarters of a mile an hour; but as
it gains in volume from the very numerous tributary streams, large
and small, which it receives en route, its velocity increases, and in
the wet season reaches 5 and even 8 m. an hour in certain stretches.
It broadens considerably as it approaches its mouth, where it is
about 1750 ft. in width. It will thus be seen that the volume of
water it captures from the Orinoco is small in comparison to
what it accumulates in its course In flood-time it is said to
■have a second connexion with the Rio Negro by a branch which
it throws off to the westward called the Itinivini, which leaves it
at a point about 50 m. above its mouth. In the dry season it
has shallows, and is obstructed by sandbanks, a few rapids and
granite rocks. Its shores are densely wooded, and the soil more
fertile than that along the Rio Negro. The general slope of the
plains through which the canal runs is south-west, but those of
the Rio Negro slope south-east. The whole line of the Casiquiare
is infested with myriads of tormenting insects. A few miserable
groups of Indians and half-breeds have their small villages
along its southern portion. It is thus seen that this marvellous
freak of nature is not, as is generally supposed, a sluggish canal
on a flat tableland, but a great, rapid river which, if its upper
waters had not found contact with the Orinoco, perhaps by cutting
back, would belong entirely to the Negro branch of the Amazon.
To the west of the Casiquiare there is a much shorter and more
facile connexion between the Orinoco and Amazon basins,
called the 'isthmus of Pimichin, which is reached by ascending
the Terni branch of the Atabapo affluent of the Orinoco. Although
the Terni is somewhat obstructed, it is believed that it could
easily be made navigable for small craft. The isthmus is 10 m.
across, with undulating ground, nowhere over 50 ft. high, with
swamps and marshes. It is much used for the transit of large
canoes, which are hauled across it from the Terni river, and
which reach the Negro by the little stream called the Pimichin.
The YapurA. West of the Negro the Amazon receives three
more imposing streams from the north-west — the Yapura, the
lea or Putumayo, and the Napo. The first was formerly known
as the Hyapora, but its Brazilian part is now called the Yapura,
and its Colombian portion the Caqueti. Barao de Marajo gives
it 600 m. of navigable stretches. Jules Crevaux, who descended
it, describes it as full of obstacles to navigation, the current very
strong and the stream frequently interrupted by rapids and
cataracts. It rises in the Colombian Andes, nearly in touch
with the sources of the Magdalena, and augments its volume-
788
AMAZON
from many branches as it courses through Colombia. It was
long supposed to have eight mouths; but Ribeiro de Sampaio,
in his voyage of 1774, determined that there was but one real
mouth, and that the supposed others are all furos or canos. 1
In 1 864- 1 868 the Brazilian government made a somewhat
careful examination of the Brazilian part of the river, as far up
as the rapid of Cupaty. Several very easy and almost complete
water-routes exist between the Yapura and Negro across the low,
flat intervening country. Barao de Marajo says there are six
of them, and one which connects the upper Yapura with the
Uaupes branch of the Negro; thus the Indian tribes of the
respective valleys have facile contact with each other.
The Ica or Putumayo, west of and parallel to the Yapura,
was found more agreeable to navigate by Crevaux. He ascended
it in a steamer drawing 6 ft. of water, and running day and
night. He reached Cuemby, 800 m. above its mouth, without
finding a single rapid. Cuemby is only 200 m. from the Pacific
Ocean, in a straight line, passing through the town of Pasto in
southern Colombia. There was not a stone to be seen up to the
base of the Andes; the river banks were of argillaceous earth.and
the bottom of fine sand.
The Napo rises on the flanks of the volcanoes of Antisana,
Sincholagua and Cotopaxi. Before it reaches, the plains it
receives a great number of small streams from impenetrable,
saturated and much broken mountainous districts, where the
dense and varied vegetation seems to fight for every square foot
of ground. From the north it is joined by the river Coca, having
its sources in the gorges of Cayambe on the equator, and also a
powerful river, the Aguarico, having its headwaters between
Cayambe' and the Colombian frontier. From the west it receives
a secondary tributary, the Curaray, from the Andean slopes,
between Cotopaxi and the volcano of Tunguragua. From its
Coca branch to the mouth of the Curaray the Napo is full of
snags and shelving sandbanks, and throws out numerous caftos
among jungle-tangled islands, which in the wet season are
flooded, giving the river an immense width. From the Coca to
the Amazon it runs through a forested plain where not a hill
is visible from the river— its uniformly level banks being only
interrupted by swamps and lagoons. From the Amazon the
Napo is navigable for river craft up to its Curaray branch, a
distance of about 316 m., and perhaps a few miles farther;
thence, by bainful canoe navigation, its upper waters may be
ascended as far as Santa Rosa, the usual point of embarkation
for any venturesome traveller who descends from the Quito
tableland. The Coca river may be penetrated as far up as its
middle course, where it is jammed between two mountain walls,
in a deep canyon, along which it dashes over high falls and
numerous reefs. This is the stream made famous by the
expedition of Gonzalo Pizarro.
The Nanay is the next Amazon tributary of importance west
"of the Napo. It belongs entirely to the lowlands, and is very
crooked, has a slow current and divides much into caftos
and strings of lagoons which flood the flat, low areas of country
on either side. It is simply the drainage ditch of districts which
are extensively overflowed in the rainy season. Captain Butt
ascended it 195 m., to near its source.
The Tig re is the next west of the Nanay, and is navigable for
125 m. from its confluence with the Amazon. Like the Nanay,
it belongs wholly to the plains. Its mouth is 42 m. west of the
junction of the Ucayali with the Amazon. Continuing west from
the Tigre we have the Parinari, Chambira, and Nucuray, all
short lowland streams, resembling the Nanay in character.
The Pastaza (the ancient river Sumatara) is the next large
river we meet. It rises on the Ecuadorian tableland, where a
branch from the valley of Riobamba unites with one from the
Latacunga basin and breaks through the inland range of the
Andes; and joined, afterwards, by several important tributaries,
finds its way south-east among the gorges; thence it turns
southward into the plains, and enters the Amazon at a point
about 60 m. west of the mouth of the Huallaga. So far as
1 A caflo, like furo,'a a kind of natural canal; it forms a lateral
discharge for surplus water from a river.
known, it is a stream of no value except for canoe navigati*.
Its rise and fall are rapid and uncertain, and it is shallow aad
full of sandbanks and snags. It is a terrible river when in food.
The Morona flows parallel to the Pastaza and intmeriiattfr
to the west of it, and is the last stream of any importance cz
the northern side of the Amazon before reaching the Pongo de
Manseriche. It is formed from a multitude of water-corns
which descend the slopes of the Ecuadorian Andes south of tie
gigantic volcano of Sangay; but it soon reaches the pUm,
which commences where it receives its Cusulima branch. The
Morona is navigable for small craft for about 300 m. above as
mouth, but it is extremely tortuous. Canoes may ascend nary
of its branches, especially the Cusulima and the ****«**. the
latter almost to the base of Sangay. The Morona has beea de
scene of many rude explorations, with the hope of finc&sg '*
serviceable as a commercial route between the inter- Asdeta
tableland of Ecuador and the Amazon river. A river caSed tse
Paute dashes through the eastern Andes from the valley of
Cuenca; and a second, the Zamora, has broken through the
same range from the basin of Loja. Swollen by their maiy
affluents, they reach the lowlands and unite their waters to forst
the Santiago, which flows into the Maranon at the head of the
Pongo de Manseriche. There is but little known of a trustworthy
character regarding this river, but Wolf says that it is probably
navigable up to the junction of the Paute with the Zamora*
The Main River.
The Amazon Main River is navigable for ocean steamers m
far as Iquitos, 2300 m. from the sea, and 486 m. higher up kt
vessels drawing 14 ft. of water, as far as Achual Point. *ty*a*
Beyond that, according to Tucker, confirmed by u i «m »
Wertheman, it is unsafe* but small steamers frequently *■**
ascend to the Pongo de Mansenche, just above Achaal Point
The average current of the Amazon is about 3 m. an boor; bet,
especially in flood, it dashes through some of its contracted
channels at the rate of 5 m. The U.S. steamer " Wflmingtoa"
ascended it to Iquitos in 1809. Commander Todd reports that
the average depth of the river in the height of the rainy seasuS
is 120 fL It commences to rise in November, and increases ia
volume until June, and then falls until the end of October. The
rise of the Negro branch is not synchronous ; for the steady
rains do not commence in its valley until February or Marcs,
By June it is full, and then it begins to fall with the Aaoaxoa
According to Bates, the Madeira " rises and sinks " two rooctis
earlier than the Amazon. The Amazon at times broadens »
4 and 6 m. Occasionally, for long distances, it divides into two
main streams with inland, lateral channels, all connected by
a complicated system of natural canals, cutting the low, 1st
igapo lands, which are never more than 15 fL above low rmr,
into almost numberless islands. 1 At the narrows of Obtdos.
400 m. from the sea, it is compressed into a single bed a nek
wide and over 200 ft. deep, through which the water rushes at
the rate of 4 to 5 m. an hour. In the rainy season it inundate*
the country throughout its course to the extent of several
hundred thousand square miles, covering the flood-plain, cal«d
vargem. The flood-levels are in places from 40 to 50 ft. high above
low river. Taking four roughly equidistant places, the rise at
Iquitos is 20 ft., at Tefie 45* near Obidos 35, and at Pari n ft
The first high land met in ascending the river is on the aorta
bank, opposite the mouth of the Xingu, and extends for abcat
1 50 m. up, as far as Monte Alegre. It is a series of steep, table-
topped hills, cut down to a kind of terrace which lies betweea
them and the river. Monte Alegre reaches an alti tod* of several
hundred feet. On the south side, above the Xingu, a line of tow
bluffs extends, in a series of gentle curves with hardly any breaks
nearly to Santarem, but a considerable distance inland, borderef
the flood-plain, which is many miles wide. Then they bend ts
the south-west, and, abutting upon the lower Tapajos, merge
1 Igapo is thus the name given to the recent alluvial tram alsrj
the margins of rivers, submerged by moderate floods. wJk rr*»
vartem is the term used for land between the levels of modcri;e aad
high floods, while for land above this the people use the term 6*rc
firmn.
AMAZON
789
into the bluffs which form the terrace margin of that river
valley. The next high land on the north side is Obidos, a bluff,
56 ft. above the river, backed by low hills. From Serpa, nearly
opposite the river Madeira, to near the mouth of the Rio Negro,
the banks are low, until approaching Manios, they are rolling
bills; but from the Negro, for 600 m., as far up as the village of
Canaria, at the great bend of the Amazon, only very low land is
found, resembling that at the mouth of the river. Vast areas of
it are submerged at high water, above which only the upper part
of the trees of the sombre forests appear. At Canaria, the high
land commences and continues as far as Tabatinga, and thence
up stream.
On the south side, from the Tapajos to the river Madeira, the
banks are usually low, although two or three lulls break the
general monotony. From the latter river, however, to the
Ucayali, a distance of nearly 1500 m., the forested banks are
just out of water, and are inundated long before the river attains
its maximum flood-line. Thence to the Huallaga the elevation
of the land is somewhat greater; but not until this river is
passed, and the Pongo de Manseriche approached, does the
swelling ground of the Andean foot-hills raise the country above
flood-levd.
The Amazon is not a continuous incline, but probably consists
of long, level stretches connected by short inclined planes of
extremely, little fall, sufficient, however, owing to its great depth,
to give the gigantic volume of water a continuous impulse towards
the ocean. The lower Amazon presents every evidence of having
once been an ocean gulf, the upper waters of which washed the
cliffs near Obidos. Only about 10 % of the water discharged by
the mighty stream enters it below Obidos, very little of which
is from the northern slope of the valley. The drainage area of
the Amazon basin above Obidos is about 1,945,000 sq. m., and,
below, only about 433,000 sq. m., or say ao%, exclusive of the
354,000 sq. m. of the Tocantins basin.
The width of the mouth of the monarch river is usually
measured from Cabo do Norte to Pun to Patijoca, a distance of
307 statute m.; but this includes the ocean outlet, 40 m. wide,
of the Pan river, which should be deducted, as this stream is
only the lower reach of the Tocantins. It also includes the ocean
frontage of Marajo, an island about the size of the kingdom of
Denmark lying in the mouth of the Amazon.
Following the coast, a little to the north of Cabo do Norte,
and for 100 m. along its Guiana margin up the Amazon, is a belt
of half-submerged islands and shallow sandbanks. Here the
tidal phenomenon called the bore, or Pororoca, occurs, where
the soundings are not over 4 fathoms. It commences with a roar,
constantly increasing, and advances at the rate of from xo to
15 m. an hour, with a breaking wall of water from 5 to 12 ft.
high. Under such conditions of warfare between the ocean and
the river, it is not surprising that the former is rapidly eating
away the coast and that the vast volume of silt carried by the
Amazon finds it impossible to build up a delta.
The Amazon is not so much a river as it is a gigantic reservoir,
extending from the sea to the base of the Andes, and, in the wet
season, varying in width from 5 to 400 m. Special attention
baa already been called to the fourteen great streams which
discharge into this reservoir, but it receives a -multitude of
secondary rivers, which in any other part of the world would also
be termed great.
For 350 years after the discovery of the Amazon, by Pinion,
the Portuguese portion of its basin remained almost an undis-
turbed wilderness, occupied by Indian tribes whom the
food quest had split into countless fragments. It is
' doubtful if its indigenous inhabitants ever exceeded
one to every 5 sq. m. of territory, this being the maxi-
mum it could support under the existing conditions of the period
in question, and taking into account Indian methods of life. A few
settlements on the banks of the main river and some of its tribu-
taries, either for trade with the Indians or for evangelizing
purposes, had been founded by the Portuguese pioneers of
European civilization. The total population of the Brazilian
portion of the Amazon basin in 1850 was perhaps 300,000, of
whom about two-thirds were white and slaves, the latter number-
ing about 25,00a The principal commercial city, Para, had from
10,000 to z 3,000 inhabitants, including slaves. The town of
Manios, at the mouth of the Rio Negro, had from 1000 to 1500
population; but all the remaining villages, as far up as Tabatinga,
on the Brazilian frontier of Peru, were wretched little groups of
houses which appeared to have timidly effected a lodgment on
the river bank, as if they feared to challenge the mysteries of
the sombre and gigantic forests behind them. The value of the
export and import trade of the whole valley in 1850 was but
£500,000.
On the 6th of September 1850 the emperor, Dom Pedro II.,
sanctioned a law authorizing steam navigation on the Amazon,
and confided to an illustrious Brazilian, Bario Maui (Irineu
Evangilista de Sousa), the task of carrying it into effect He
organized the "Compania de Navigacio e Commerdo do.
Amazonas" at Rio de Janeiro in 1852; and in the following
year it commenced operations with three small steamers, the
"Monarch," the "Marajo" and VRio Negro," At first the naviga-
tion was principally confined to the main river; and even in 1857
a modification of the government contract only obliged the
company to a monthly service between Pari and Manios,
with steamers of aoo tons cargo capacity, a second line to make
six round voyages a year between Manios and Tabatinga, and
a third, two trips a month between Pari and Cameti. The
government paid the company a subvention of £3935 monthly.
Thus the first impulse of modern progress was given to the
dormant valley. The success of the venture called attention to
the unoccupied field; a second company soon opened commerce
on the Madeira, Purus and Negro; a third established a line
between Pari and Manios; and a fourth found it profitable
to navigate some of the smaller streams; while, in the interval,
the Amazonas Company had largely increased its fine fleet
Meanwhile private individuals were building and running small
steam craft of their own, not only upon the main river but upon
many of its affluents. The government of Brazil, constantly
pressed by the maritime powers and by the countries encircling
the upper Amazon basin, decreed, on the 31st of July 1867,
the opening of the Amazon to all flags; but limited this to
certain denned points— Tabatinga, on the Amason; Cameta,
on the Tocantins; Santarem, on the Tapajos; Borba, on the
Madeira; Manios, on the Rio Negro; the decree to take effect
on the 7th of September of the same year. Pari, Manios and
Iquitos are now thriving commercial centres. The first direct
foreign trade with Manios was commenced about 1874.
The local trade of the river is carried on by the English
successors to the Amazonas Company— the Amazon Steam
Navigation Company. In addition to its excellent fleet there
are numerous small river steamers, belonging to companies and
firms engaged in the rubber trade, navigating the Negro, Madeira,
Purus and many other streams. The principal exports of the
valley are india-rubber, cacao, Brazil nuts and a few other
products of very minor importance. The finest quality of india-
rubber comes from the Acre and Beni districts of Bolivia,
especially from the valley of the Acre (or Aquiry) branch of the
river Purus. Of the rubber production of the Amazon basin,
the state of Pari gives about 35 %. The cacao tree is not
cultivated, but grows wild in great abundance. There is but one
railway in the whole valley; it is a short line from Pari towards
the coast The cities of Pari and Manios have excellent tram-
ways, many fine public buildings and private residences, gardens
and public squares, all of which give evidence of artistic taste
and great prosperity.
The number of inhabitants in the Brazilian Amazon basin (the
states of Amazonas and Pari) is purely a matter of rough
estimate. There may be 500,000 or 600,000, or more; for the
immigration during recent years from the other parts of Brazil
has been large, due to the rubber excitement The influx from
the state of Ceari alone, from 1892 to 1809 inclusive, reached
98,348.
As Commander Todd, In his report to the United States
government, says: "The crying need of the Amazon valley h
79©
AMAZONAS— AMAZONS
food for the people. . . At the small towns along the river it
is nearly impossible to obtain beef, vegetables, or fruit of any
sort, and the inhabitants depend largely upon river fish, mandioc,
and canned goods for their subsistence." Although more than
four centuries have passed since the discovery of the Amazon
river, there are probably not 25 sq. m. of its basin under
cultivation, excluding the limited and rudely cultivated areas
among the mountains at its extreme headwaters, which are
inaccessible to commerce. The extensive exports of the mighty
valley are almost entirely derived from the products of the
forest. (G. E. C.)
AMAZONAS, the extreme north-western and largest state of
Brazil, bounded N. by Colombia and Venezuela, £. by the state
of Park, S. by the state pf Matto Grosso and Bolivia, and W. by
Peru and Colombia. It embraces an area of 742,123 sq. m.,
wholly within the Amazon basin. A small part bordering the
Venezuelan sierras is elevated and mountainous, but the greater
part forms an immense alluvial plain, densely wooded, traversed
by innumerable rivers, and subjected to extensive annual
inundations. The climate is tropical and generally unfavourable
to white settlement, the exceptions being the elevated localities
on the Amazon exposed to the strong winds blowing up that
river. The state is very sparsely populated; two-thirds of the
inhabitants are Indians, forming small tribes, and subject only
in small part to government control. The principal products
are rubber, cacao and nuts; cattle are raised on the elevated
plains of the north, while curing fish and collecting turtle eggs for
their oil give occupation to many people on the rivers. Coffee,
tobacco, rice and various fruits of superior quality are produced
with ease, but agriculture is neglected and production is limited
to domestic needs. The capital, Manios, is the only dty and
port of general commercial importance in the state; other
prominent towns are Serpa and Tefft on the Amazon, Borba and
Crato on the Madeira, and Barcellos on the Rio Negro. Up to
1755 all the Portuguese territory on the Amazon formed part of
the capitania of Pari. The upper districts were then organized
into a separate capitania, called S. Jose" do Rio Negro, to facilitate
administration. When Brazil became independent in 1822, Rio
Negro was overlooked in the reorganization into provinces and
reverted, notwithstanding the protests and an attempted revolu-
tion (1832) of the people, to a state of dependence upon Pari.
In 1850 autonomy was voted by the general assembly at Rio de
Janeiro, and on the 1st of January 1852 the province of Amazonas
was formally installed. In 1889 it became a federal state in the
Brazilian republic.
AMAZONAS, a northern department of Peru, covering a
mountainous district between the departments of Loreto and
Cajamarca, with Ecuador on the N. The Marafion river forms
the greater part of its W. boundary-line. Area, 13,043 sq. m.;
pop. (1896) 70,676. The rainfall is abundant, and the soil of the
heavily wooded valleys and lower mountain slopes is exception-
ally fertile and productive. Its settlement and development is
seriously impeded by the lack of transportation facilities. The
capital, Chachapoyas, is a small town (pop. about 6000) situated
on a tributary of the Marafion, 7600 ft. above sea-level. It is
the seat of a bishopric, created in 1802, which covers the depart-
ments of Amazonas and Loreto, and one province of Ubertad. It
has an imposing cathedral and a university. The climate is
equable and delightful, the mean temperature for the year being
62 F.
AMAZONAS, a territory belonging to Venezuela, and occupy-
ing the extreme southern part of that republic, adjoining the
Brazilian state of Amazonas. It lies partly within the drainage
basin of the Orinoco and partly within that of the Rio Negro, an
affluent of the Amazon. The territory is covered with dense
forests and is filled with intricate watercourses, one of which, the
Casiquiare, forms an open communication between the Orinoco
and the Rio Negro and is navigable for large canoes. The capital
of the territory is Maroa, situated on the Guainia river, an
affluent of the Rio Negro.
AMAZONS, an ancient legendary nation of female warriors.
They were said to have lived in Pontus near the shore of the .
Euxine tea, where they formed an independent 1
the government of a queen, the capital being Themiecrn at
the banks of the river Thermodon (Herodotus iv. x 10-1x7)
From this centre they made numerous warlike excursions— to
Scythia, Thrace, the coasts of Asia Minor and the islands of tas
Aegean, even penetrating to Arabia, Syria and Egypt Tfcej
were supposed to have founded many towns, arnongw then
Smyrna, Ephesus, Sinope, Paphos. According to another
account, they originally came to the Thermodon from the Piki
Maeotis (Sea of Azov). No men were permitted to reside ii
their country; but once a year, in order to prevent their mat
from dying out, they visited the Gargareans, a neighbosriEt
tribe. The male children who were the result of these visa
were either put to death or sent back to their fathers; the
female were kept and brought up by their mothers, and trained
in agricultural pursuits, hunting, and the art of wax (Soabo
xi. p. 503). It is said that their right breast was ait off or batsi
out, in order that they might be able to use the bow bur
freely; hence the ancient derivation of 'Ajiaforcs from a-aaffe,
" without breast" But there is no indication of tfaa practice
in works of art, in which the Amazons are always rep r e s tam l
with both breasts, although the right is frequently covered
Other suggested derivations are: A (intensive) and aeffc.
breast, "full-breasted"; a (privative) and narro, tooch, * act
touching men "; mass, a Circassian word said to signify " moos,"
has suggested their connexion with the worship of a mooa-
goddess, perhaps the Asiatic representative of Artemis.
The Amazons appear in connexion with several Greek legends.
They invaded Lyda, but were defeated by Bellerophoa, who ns
sent out against them by Iobates, the king of that country, iz
the hope that he might meet his death at their hands {Jiied, n
186). They attacked the Phrygians, who were assisted by
Priam, then a young man (Iliad, iii. 189), although in his liter
years, towards the end of the Trojan war, his old opponents
took his side against the Greeks under their queen Penthcsuca.
who was slain by Achilles (Quint Smyr. L; Justin n. 4;
Virgil, Aen. i. 490). One of the tasks imposed upon Hendes
by Eurystheus was to obtain possession of the girdle of the
Amazonian queen Hippolyte (Apollodorus n. 5). He ns
accompanied by his friend Theseus, who carried off the princes
Antiope, sister of Hippolyte, an incident which led to a retaliatory
invasion of Attica, in which Antiope perished fighting by the
side of Theseus. The Amazons are also said to have undertakes
an expedition against the island of Leuke, at the mouth of the
Danube, where the ashes of Achilles had been deposited by
Thetis. The ghost of the dead hero appeared and so terrified
the horses, that they threw and trampled upon the invader*,
who were forced to retire. They are heard of in the time «tf
Alexander the Great, when their queen Thalestris visited his
and became a mother by him, and Pompey is said to have found
them in the army of Mithradates.
The origin of the story of the Amazons has been the subject
of much discussion. While some regard them as a purely
mythical people, others assume an historical foundation fox
them. The deities worshipped by them were Ares (who is
consistently assigned to them as a god of war, and as a god of
Thradan and generally northern origin) and Artemis, not the
usual Greek goddess of that name, but an Asiatic deity in some
respects her equivalent It is conjectured that the Amazons
were originally the temple-servants and priestesses (kurmtmLse\
of this goddess; and that the removal of the breast corresponded
with the self-mutilation of the galli, or priests, of Rhea Cybek.
Another theory is that, as the knowledge of geography extended,
travellers brought back reports of tribes ruled entirely by
women, who carried out the duties which elsewhere were regarded
as peculiar to man, in whom alone the rights of nobility and
inheritance were vested, and who had the supreme control of
affairs. Hence arose the belief in the Amazons as a nation of
female warriors, organized and governed entirely by women.
According to J. VOrthdm (De Ajacis oriftM, 1007), the Amazons
were of Greek origin: " all the Amazons were Dianas, as Diana
herself was an Amazon." It has been suggested that the fact
AMAZON-STONE— AMBASSADOR
791
of the conquest of the Amazons being assigned to the two
famous heroes of Greek -mythology, Heracles and Theseus—
who in the tasks assigned to them were generally opposed to
monsters and beings impossible in themselves, but possible as
illustrations of permanent danger and damage,— shows that
they were mythical illustrations of the dangers which beset the
Greeks on the coasts of Asia Minor; rather perhaps, it may be
intended to represent the conflict between the Greek culture of
the colonies on the Euxine and the barbarism of the native
inhabitants.
In works of art, combats between Amazons and Greeks are
placed on the same level as and often associated with combats
of Greeks and centaurs. The belief in their existence, however,
having been once accepted and introduced into the national
poetry and art, it became necessary to surround them as far as
possible with the appearance of not unnatural beings. Their
occupation was hunting and war; their arms the bow, spear,
axe, a half shield, nearly in the shape of a crescent, called feUa %
and in early art a helmet, the model before the Greek mind
having apparently been the goddess Athena. In later art they
approach the model of Artemis, wearing a thin dress, girt high
for speed; while on the later painted vases their dress is often
peculiarly Persian— that is, close-fitting trousers and a high
cap called the kidaris. They were usually on horseback but
sometimes on foot The battle between Theseus and the
Amazons is a favourite subject on the friezes of temples (e.g. the
reliefs from the frieze of the temple of Apollo at Bassae, now in
the British Museum), vases and sarcophagus reliefs; at Athens
it was represented on the shield of the statue of Athena Parthcnos,
on watt-paintings in the Theseum and in the Poikile Stoa.
Many of the sculptors of antiquity, including Pheidtas, Poly-
ditus, Cresilas and Phradmon, executed statues of Amazons;
and there are many existing reproductions of these.
The history of Bohemia affords a parallel to the Greek
Amazons. During the 8th century a large band of women,
under a certain Vlasta, carried on war against the duke of
Bohemia, and enslaved or put to death all men who fell into
their hands. In the 16th century the Spanish explorer Orellana
asserted that he had come into conflict with fighting women in
South America on the river Maranon, which was named after
them the Amazon (q.v.) or river of the Amazons, although others
derive its name from the Indian amassona (boat-destroyer),
applied to the tidal phenomenon known as the " bore." The
existence of " Amazons " (in the sense of fighting women) in the
army of Dahomey in modern times is an undoubted fact, but
they are said to have died out during the French protectorate.
For notable cases of women who have become soldiers, reference
may be made to Mary Anne Talbot and Hannah Sncll.
See A. D. Mordtmann, Die Amavenen (1862); W. -Strieker, Die
A. m Sage und Gesckickie (1866); A. Klugmann, Die A. in der
attischen Literatur und Kunst (1875) : H. L. Krauie, Die Amatonen-
sage O893); F. G. Bergmann, Les Auuuones dans Fhisteire ei dans
la fable (1853); P. Lacour. Les Amatones (1901); articles in Pauly-
Wwowa'i Reaiencychpadte and Roscher's Lextkon der Mytkeiogte;
Grote. Hist, of Greece, pt. 1. ch. 11. In article Grbbk Art, fig. 40
represents three types of Amazons, and fig. 70 (pi. iv.) a battle
between Amazons and Greeks.
AMAZON-STONE, or Amazonxte, a green variety of microcline-
felspar. The name is taken from that of the river Amazon,
whence certain green stones were formerly obtained, but it is
doubtful whether green felspar occurs in the Amazon district.
The modern amazon-stone is a mineral of restricted occurrence.
Formerly it was obtained almost exclusively from the neighbour-
hood of Miyask, in the Ilmen mountains, 50 m. S.W. of Chelia-
btnsk, Russia, where it occurs in granitic rocks. Of late years,
magnificent crystals have been obtained from Pike's Peak,
Colorado, where it is found associated with smoky quartz,
orthoclase and albite in a coarse granite or pegmatite. Some
other localities in the United States yield amazon-stone, and it
is also found in pegmatite in Madagascar. On account of its
lively green colour, it is cut and polished to a limited extent at
an ornamental stone. The colour has been attributed to the
presence of copper, but as it is discharged by heat it is likely
to be due to some pigment of organic origin, and an organic salt
of iron has been suggested. (See Micsocune.)
AMBARVAUA, an annual festival of the ancient Romans,
occurring in May, usually on the 29th, the object of which was
to secure the growing crops against harm of all kinds. The priests
were the Arval Brothers (q.v.), who conducted the victims— ox,
sheep and pig (suoveiauriiia)—\n procession with prayer to Ceres
round the boundaries of the agar Romanus, As the extent of
Roman land increased, this could no longer be done, and in the
Acta of the Fratres, which date from Augustus, we do not find
this procession mentioned (Henzen, Acta Fratrum Arvaiium,
1874); but there is a good description of this or a similar rite in
Virgil, Georg. L 338 ff., and in Cato's work de Re Rustica (141)
we have full details and the text of the prayers used by the Latin
fanner in thus " lustrating " his own land. In this last case
the god invoked is Mars. The Christian festival which seems
to have taken the place of these ceremonies is the Rogation
or Gang week of the Roman Church. The perambulation or
beating of bounds is probably a survival of the same type of rite.
See W. W. Fowler, Roman Festivals (1899), p. 124 ""•
(W. W. F.»)
AMBASSADOR (also Embassador, the form sometimes still
used in America; from the Fr. ambassadeur, with which
compare ItaL ambasciatore and Span, embajador, all variants
of the Med. Lat. ambasciiUor, ambassiatot, ambasator, &c,
derived from Med. Lat. ambasciare or ambactiare, " to go
on a mission, to do or say anything in another's name," from
Lat. ambactus, 1 a vassal or servant; see Du Cange, Glossarium,
s.v. ambasciare), a public minister of the first rank, accredited
and sent by the head of a sovereign state as his personal repre-
sentative to negotiate with a foreign government, and to watch
over the interests of his own nation abroad. The power thus
conferred is defined in the credentials or letters of credence
of which the ambassa d or is the bearer, and in the instructions
under the sign-manual delivered to him. The credentials consist
of a sealed letter addressed by the sovereign whom the ambassador
represents to the sovereign to whom he is accredited, and they
embody a general assurance that the sovereign by whom the
ambassador is sent will confirm whatever is done by the
ambassador in his name. In Great Britain letters of credence
are under the royal sign-manual, and are not countersigned
by a minister. Ambassadors are distinguished as ordinary and
extraordinary, which implied originally the difference between
a permanent mission and one appointed to conduct a particular
negotiation. The style of ambassador extraordinary is, however,
now often given to a minister accredited to a court for an in-
definite time and implies a somewhat more dignified rank.
By the protocol of the 19th of March 1815, afterwards embodied
in the treaty of Vienna (1815) and confirmed by an instrument
signed by the five great powers at Aix-la-Chapelle on the 21st
of November 18x8, it was finally determined that " ambassadors
and papal legates and nuncios alone have a representative
character/ 1 i.e. in the most exalted and peculiar sense, as repre-
senting the person of the sovereign, or the head of a republic,
as well as the state to which they belong. It follows that only
states enjoying " royal honours," Lt. empires, kingdoms, grand
duchies, the great republics (e.g. France, Switzerland, the
United States of America) and the Holy See, have the right to
send or to receive ambassadors. By custom it has moreover
been established that, as a general rule, only the greater " royal
states " are represented by ambassadors, and then only when
these are accredited to states esteemed, for one reason or another,
to be of equal rank. Thus the promotion of the Japanese lega-
tions in Europe and the United States to the rank of embassies,
and the corresponding change in the representation of the various
1 Ambactus u explained by Festus (Partus Diaconus ex Festo, ed.
C. O. Mailer) as a Gallic word used by Ennius and meaning servus.
Caesar (De BeUo GaUico, vL 15) says of the Gallic equites, " atque
eorum ut qutsque est genere copiisque amplissimus, pfurimos drcum
se ambactos dientesque habent." Accenting the Celtic origin of
the word, it has been connected with the Welsh ammetk, a tiller of
the ground. A Teutonic origin has. been suggested in the Old High
Ger. embaht, a retainer, which appears in a Scandinavian word
I ambokt, bondwoman or maid, in the Ormulum (c. 1200).
792
AMBATO— AMBER
powers at Tokio, marked in 1005 the definite recognition of
Japan as a great power. To this rule the United States of
America long remained an exception, and was content, in
accordance with the tradition of republican simplicity, to be
represented abroad only by ministers of the second rank. The
subordinate position given to the representatives of so great
a power, however, inevitably led to many inconveniences, and
in 1 893 an act of Congress empowered the president to accredit
ambassadors to the great powers.
The distinction between an ambassador and ministers of the
second rank is one rather of rank and dignity than of power or
functions. His special immunities he shares with other diplo-
matic representatives of all classes. The peculiar privilege
which he claims of free access to the sovereign has, in common
practice, been reduced to the right of being received on presenting
his credentials in public or private audience by the sovereign
in person, it being obviously against public policy that a foreign
representative should negotiate with the ruler otherwise than
through his responsible ministers. In Great Britain the sovereign,
when granting an audience to a foreign ambassador, is, always
attended by one or more ministers, and the same is usual in other
states.
An ambassador, however, unless specially armed with plenary
authority, cannot decide any questions beyond his instructions
without reference to his government Thus Lord Londonderry
(Lord Stewart), who represented Great Britain at the conferences
of Troppau in 1820 and Laibach in i8ax, had not the same
standing as the plenipotentiaries of the other powers present,
and efforts were even made to exclude him from some of the
more important discussions in consequence, not on the ground
of inferior rank but of defective powers.
Socially, the position of an ambassador is one of great dignity.
The pomp and magnificence which in earlier days characterized
his progresses and his " entries " are indeed no longer observed.
He is received, however, by the sovereign to whom he is accredited
with elaborate state, of which every detail is minutely regulated,
and ranks, as representing his own sovereign, next to the princes
of the blood in the court where he resides. The controversies
that once raged as to the order of precedence of the various
ambassadors accredited to any one court were settled by the
treaties already mentioned, it being decided that they should
rank in order of seniority according to the date of the presentation
of their credentials. In Roman Catholic countries, however —
as in France before the abrogation of the concordat,— -the position'
of doyen (dean) of the diplomatic body is given by courtesy to
the nuncio of the pope.
The special immunities and privileges enjoyed by ambassadors
are dealt with in the articles Exterritoriality and Diplomacy.
See also the latter for the history of the subject
The most authoritative modern hand-book on the subject is
Charles de Martens, Manuel diplomatique (Paris, 182a; new ed., 1 868).
See also Henry Wheaton, Hut. of th* Law of Nations (New York.
1845); L. Oppenheim, International Law (London, 1905); and
the Est of books attached to the article Diplomacy. - (W.A.P.)
AMBATO, or Astxnto de Ambato, an inland town of Ecuador,
capital of the province of Tunguragua, 80 m. S. of Quito by the
highway, and near the northern foot of Chimborazo. Pop. (est.)
10,00a The town stands in a bowl-like depression, 8606 ft.
above sea-level, surrounded by steep, sandy, barren mountains,
and has an equable climate, which has been likened to a perpetual
autumn. The immediate environs are very fertile and produce
a great variety of fruits, including many of the temperate zone,
but the surrounding country is arid and sterile, producing scanty
crops of barley, Indian corn and pease. The cochineal insect
is found on the cactus which grows in abundance in the vicinity,
and the town is known throughout Ecuador for its manufacture
of boots and shoes, and for a cordage made from cabuya, the
fibre of the agave plant Ambato was destroyed by an eruption
of Cotopaxi in 1698, and has been badly damaged two or three
times by earthquakes.
Ambato is also the name of a range of mountains in northern
Argentina, being a spur of the Sierra de Aconquija crossing the
province of Catamarca from north to south.
AMBER, a ruined city of India, the andent capital of Jasper
state in the Rajputana agency. The name of Amber h Sat
mentioned by Ptolemy. It was founded by the Mints and «u
still flourishing in a.d. 967. In 1037 it was taken by the Rajpcn
who held it till it was deserted. In 1718 it was supplanted rj
the modern city of Jaipur, from which it is 5 m. distant. 1st
picturesque situation of Amber at the mouth of a rocky nwsstfani
gorge, in which nestles a lovely lake, has attracted the mA —»■»■■
of all travellers, including Jacqttemont and Heber. It is no*
only remarkable for its architecture. The old palace began by
Man Sing in 1600 ranks second only to Gwalior. The chief
building is the Diwan-i-Khas built by Mirza Raja. M No sooner "
(it is related) " had Mirza completed the Diwan-i-Khas than it
came to the ears of the emperor Jehangir that his vassal had
surpassed him in magnificence, and that this last great work
quite eclipsed all the marvels of the imperial city; the cofczssa
of red sandstone having been particularly noticed as scnlptsni
with exquisite taste and elaborate detail. In a fit of jealousytst
emperor commanded that this masterpiece should be thro**
down, and sent commissioners to Amber charged with the
execution of this order; whereupon Mirza, in order to save the
structure, had the columns plastered over with stucco, so that
the messengers from Agra should have to acknowledge to the
emperor that the magnificence, which had been so much talked
of, was after all pure invention. Since then his apathetic suc-
cessors have neglected to bring to light this splendid work; and
it is only by knocking off some of the plaster that one can get a
glimpse of the sculptures, which are perfect as on the day they
were carved."
AMBER* a fossil resin much used for the mamifactcre a!
ornamental objects. The name comes from the Arab, ember,
probably through the Spanish, but this word referred origueJT
to ambergris, which is an animal substance quite distinct froa
yellow amber. True amber has sometimes been called sots**,
a word of oriental derivation signifying " that which attracts
straw," in allusion to the power which amber pos s e ms of sober-
ing an electric charge by friction. This property, first recorded
by Thalcs of Miletus, suggested the word " electricity,'' from the
Greek, *}X*Krpor, a name applied, however, not only to amber
but also to an alloy of gold and silver. By Latin writes
amber is variously called tkctnm, sucinvm (sweemmm), end
glacsum or glesum. The Hebrew haskmat seems to hare bees
amber.
Amber is not homogeneous in composition, but consists of
several resinous bodies more or less soluble in alcohol, ether sad
chloroform, associated with an insoluble bituminous substance.
The average composition of amber leads to the general forroth
CfeHuO. Heated rather below 300* C. amber suffers decomposi-
tion, yielding an " oil of amber," and leaving a black rcsdor
which is known as " amber colophony," or M amber pitch *\
this forms, when dissolved in oil of turpentine or in linseed o2,
"amber varnish " or " amber lac."
True amber yields on dry distillation succinic acid, the pro-
portion varying from about 3 to 8%, and being greatest in the
pale opaque or " bony " varieties. The aromatic and irritAt&g
fumes emitted by burning amber are mainly dne to this acid.
True Baltic amber is distinguished by its yield of succinic sod.
for many of the other fossil resins which are often termed amber
contain either none of it, or only a very small proportion; hence
the name " succinite " proposed by Professor J. D. Dana, and
now commonly used in scientific writings as a specific term for the
real Prussian amber. Succinite has a hardness between t and 3,
which is rather greater than that of many other fossil resins. Its
specific gravity varies from 1*05 to 110,
The Baltic amber or succinite is found as irregular aedaks
in a marine glauconitic sand, known as " blue earth," occurring
in the Lower Oligocene strata of Samland in East Prussia, where
it is now systematically mined. It appears, however, to asve
been partly derived from yet earlier Tertiary deposits (Eocene);
and it occurs also as a derivative mineral in later formations, such
as the drift. Relics of an abundant flora occur in assoriatioa
with the amber, suggesting relations with the flora of Eastern
AMBER
793
Asia and the southern part of North America. H. R. GOppert
named the common amber-yielding pine of the Baltic forests
Pinites succinifer, but as the wood, according to some authorities,
does not seem to differ from that of the existing genus it has been
also called Pinus svccinifero. It is improbable, however, that
the production of amber was limited to a single species; and
indeed a large number of conifers belonging to different genera
are represented in the amber-flora. The resin contains, in addi-
tion to the beautifully preserved plant-structures, numerous
remains of insects, spiders, annelids, crustaceans and other small
organisms which became enveloped while the exudation was
fluid. In most cases the organic structure has disappeared,
leaving only a cavity, with perhaps a trace of chitin. Even hair
and feathers have occasionally been represented among the
enclosures. Fragments of wood not infrequently occur, with
the tissues well-preserved by impregnation with the resin; while
leaves, flowers and fruits are occasionally found in marvellous
perfection. Sometimes the amber retains the form of drops and
stalactites, just as it exuded from the ducts and receptacles of
the injured trees. The abnormal development of resin has been
called " sucdnosis." Impurities are often present, especially
when the resin dropped on to the ground, so that the material
may be useless except for varnish-making, whence the impure
amber is called firniss. Enclosures of pyrites may give a bluish
colour to amber. The so-called " black amber " is only a kind
of jet. " Bony amber " owes its cloudy opacity to minute bubbles
in the interior of the resin.
Although amber is found along the shores of a large part of
the Baltic and the North Sea, the great amber-producing country
is the promontory of Samland. Pieces of amber torn from the
sea-floor are cast up by the waves, and collected at ebb-tide.
Sometimes the searchers wade into the sea, furnished with nets
at the end of long poles, by means of which they drag in the
sea- weed containing entangled masses of amber; or they dredge
from boats in shallow water and rake up amber from between
the boulders. Divers have been employed to collect amber from
the deeper waters. Systematic dredging on a large scale was at
one time carried on in the Kurisches Haft* by Messrs Stantien
and Becker, the great amber merchants of K6nigsberg. At the
present time extensive mining operations are conducted in quest
of amber. The " pit amber " was formerly dug in open works,
but is now also worked by underground galleries. The nodules
from the " blue earth ' ' have to be freed from matrix and divested
of their opaque crust, which can be done in revolving barrels
containing sand and water. The sea-worn amber has lost its
crust, but has often acquired a dull rough surface by rolling in
Amber is extensively used for beads and other trivial orna-
ments, and for cigar-holders and the mouth-pieces of pipes. It
is regarded by the Turks as specially valuable, inasmuch as it
is said to be incapable of transmitting infection as the pipe passes
from mouth to mouth. The variety most valued in the East is
the pale straw-coloured, slightly cloudy amber. Some of the best
qualities are sent to Vienna for. the manufacture of smoking
appliances. In working amber, it is turned on the lathe and
polished with whitening and water or with rotten stone and oil,
the final lustre being given by friction with flannel During the
working much electricity is developed.
By gradually heating amber in an oil-bath it becomes soft and
flexible. Two pieces of amber may be united by smearing the
surfaces with linseed oil, heating them, and then pressing them
together while hot. Cloudy amber may be clarified in an oil-bath,
as the oil fills the numerous pores to which the turbidity is due.
Small fragments, formerly thrown away or used only for varnish,
are now utilised on a large scale in the formation of " ambroid "
or " pressed amber." The pieces are carefully heated with
exclusion of air and then compressed into a uniform mass by
intense hydraulic pressure; the softened amber being forced
through holes in a metal plate. The product is extensively used
for the production of cheap jewellery and articles for smoking.
This pressed amber yields brilliant interference colours in
polarized light Amber has often been imitated by other resins
like copal and kauri, as well as by celluloid and even glass. True
amber is sometimes coloured artificially.
Amber was much valued as an ornamental material in very
early times. It has been found in Mycenaean tombs; it is
known from lake-dwellings in Switzerland, and it occurs with
neolithic remains in Denmark, whilst in England it is found with
interments of the bronze age. A remarkably fine cup turned in
amber from a bronze-age barrow at Hove is now in the Brighton
Museum. Beads of amber occur with Anglo-Saxon relics in the
south of England; and up to a comparatively recent period the
material was valued as an amulet. It is still believed to possess
certain medicinal virtue.
Rolled pieces of amber, usually small but occasionally of very
large size, may be picked up on the east coast of England, having
probably been washed up from deposits under the North Sea.
Cromer is the best-known locality, but it occurs also on other
parts of the Norfolk coast, as well as at Yarmouth, Southwold,
Aldeburgh and Felixstowe in Suffolk, and as far south as
Walton-on-the-Naze in Essex, whilst northwards it is not un-
known in Yorkshire. On the other side of the North Sea, amber
is found at various localities on the coast of Holland and Denmark.
On the shores of the Baltic it occurs not only on the Prussian and
Pomeranian coast but in the south of Sweden, in Bornholm and
other islands, and in S. Finland. - Amber has indeed a very wide
distribution, extending over a large part of northern Europe and
occurring as far east as the Urals. Some of the amber districts
of the Baltic and North Sea were known in prehistoric times, and
led to early trade with the south of Europe. Amber was carried
to Olbia on the Black Sea, Massilia on the Mediterranean, and
Hatria at the head of the Adriatic; and from these centres it
was distributed over the Hellenic world.
Whilst succinite is the common variety of European amber,
the following varieties also occur: —
Gedanite, or " brittle amber/' closely resembling succinite,
but much more brittle, not quite so hard, with a lower melting-
point and containing no succinic acid. It is often covered
with a white powder easily removed by wiping. The name
comes from Gedanum, the Latin name of Danzig.
Stantienite, a brittle, deep brownish-black resin, destitute of
succinic add.
Beckerite, a rare amber in earthy-brown nodules, almost
opaque, said to be related in properties to gutta-percha.
Glessite, a nearly opaque brown resin, with numerous micro-
scopic cavities and dusty endosures, named from gUsvm, an old
name for amber.
Krantzite, a soft amber-like resin, found in the lignites of
Saxony.
AllingiCe, a fossil resin allied to sucdnite, from Switzerland.
Roumanite, or Rumanian amber, a dark reddish resin,
occurring with lignite in Tertiary deposits. The nodules are
penetrated by cracks, but the material can be worked on
the lathe. Sulphur is present to the extent of more than i %,
whence the smell of sulphuretted hydrogen when the resin is
heated. According to G. Murgod the Rumanian amber is true
succinite. _
.Simetite, or Sicilian amber, takes its name from the river
Simeto or Giaretta. It occurs in Miocene deposits and is also
found washed up by the sea near Catania, This beautiful
material presents a great diversity of tints, but a rich hyadnth
red is common. It is remarkable for its fluorescence, which in
the opinion of some authorities adds to its beauty. Amber is
also found in many localities in Emilia, especially near the
sulphur-mines of Cesena. It has been conjectured that the
andent Etruscan ornaments in amber were wrought in the
Italian material, but it seems that amber from the Baltic reached
the Etruscans at Hatria. It has even been supposed that amber
passed from Sicily to northern Europe in early times—a sup-
position said to receive some support from the fact that much
of the amber dug up in Denmark is red; but it must not be
forgotten that reddish amber is found also on the Baltic, though
not being fashionable it is used rather for varnish-making than
for ornaments. Moreover, yellow amber after long burial is
794
AMBERG— AMBIGUITY
apt to acquire a reddish colour. The amber of Sicfly seems not
to have been recognized in ancient times, for it is not mentioned
by local authorities like Diodorus Siculus.
Burmite is the name under which the Burmese amber is now
described. Until the British occupation of Burma but little
• was known as to its occurrence, though it had been worked for
centuries and was highly valued by the natives and by the
Chinese. It is found in flat rolled pieces, irregularly distributed
through a blue day probably of Miocene age. It occurs in the
Hukawng valley, in the Nangotaimaw hills, where it is irregularly
worked in shallow pits. The mines were visited some years ago
by Dr Fritz NoetUng, and the mineral has been described by
Dr Otto Helm. The Burmese amber is yellow or reddish, some
being of ruby tint, and like the Sicilian amber it is fluorescent.
Burmite and simetite agree also in being destitute of succinic
acid. Most of the Burmese amber is worked at Mandalay into
rosary-beads and ear-cylinders.
Many other fossil resins more or less allied to amber have
been described. Schraufite is a reddish resin from the Carpathian
sandstone, and it occurs with jet in the cretaceous rocks of the
Lebanon; ambrite is a resin found in many of the coals of New
Zealand; rctinitc occurs in the lignite of Bovey Tracey in
Devonshire and elsewhere; whilst copaline has been found in
the London clay of Highgate in North London. Chemawinite
or cedarite is an amber-like resin from the Saskatchewan river
in Canada.
Amber and certain similar substances are found to a limited
extent at several localities- in the United States, as in the green-
sand of New Jersey, but they have little or no economic value,
A fluorescent amber is said, however, to occur in 'some abundance
in Southern Mexico. Amber is recorded also from the Dominican
Republic.
References.— See, for Baltic amber, P. Dahms. "Ucber die
Vorkommen und die Verwendung des Bernstein*. Zeitsch. fur
traktische Geologic, 1901, p. 201; H. Conwentz, Monographic der
baltischen Bernsteinbdume (Danzig, 1800); R. Klebs, Guide to Exhibit
of the German Amber Industry at World's Fair (St Louis, 1904) ; and
abstract by G. F. Kunz in Mineral Resources of the U. S. (1904).
For Sicilian amber. W. Arnold Buffum, The Tears of the Heltadcs,
or Amber as a Gem (London, 1806). For Burmese amber, papers
by Fritz Noctling and Otto Helm in Records of Gcol. Surv. of
' " i. (18?$), pp. 31, 61. For British am"
ix»u ... i>»«. Norfolk Nat. Soc.. vol. Hi. (1884) p. wi,
(1886) p. 247; and H. Conwentz in Natural Science, vol. ix.
Cement
pp. 99. 161. (F. W.
AMBERG, a town of Germany, in the kingdom of Bavaria,
formerly the capital of the Upper Palatinate, situated on both
sides of the Vils, 42 m. E. of Nuremberg by rail. Pop. 22,089.
It has a town hall with handsome rooms, a library, a gymnasium,
a lyceum, elementary schools, an arsenal, and eleven churches,
the finest of which is St Martin's, of the 15th century, with many
excellent paintings and a tower 300 ft. high. A former Jesuit
monastery is now used for a grammar school and seminary.
There are also a pilgrimage church on a hill 162 1 ft. high, a
large convict prison for men, an industrial, commercial and
other schools. The principal manufactures are firearms,
ironmongery, earthenware, woollen doth} beer, stoneware,
zinc goods, colours and salt; in the neighbourhood are iron
and coal mines. The French under Jourdan were defeated by
the Austrian* under the Archduke Charles near Amberg in 1706.
AMBERGRIS (Ambra grisea, Ambre gris, or grey amber), a
solid, fatty, inflammable substance of a dull grey or blackish
colour, the shades being variegated like marble, possessing a
peculiar sweet, earthy odour. It occurs as a biliary concretion
in the intestines of the spermaceti whale (Physettr macrocepkalus),
and is found floating upon the sea, on the sea-coast, or in the
sand near the sea-coast It is met with in the Atlantic Ocean;
on the coasts of Brazil and Madagascar; also on the coast of
Africa, of the East Indies, China, Japan and the Molucca
islands; but most of the ambergris which is brought to England
comes from the Bahama Islands, Providence, && It is also
sometimes found in the abdomen of whales, always in lumps
of various shapes and sizes, weighing from \ ox. to 100 or more
pounds. Ambergris, when taken from the intestinal canal of
the sperm whale, is of a deep grey colour, soft con^tfrnre and 1
disagreeable smell. On exposure to the air it gradually hanks*
becomes pale and develops its peculiar sweet, earthy odour, h
that condition its specific gravity ranges from 0*780 to o-v4
It melts at about 62° C. to a fatty, yellow resinous-like bqmd.
and at ioo° C. it is volatilized into a white vapour. It is sokbk
in ether, and in volatile and fixed oils; it is only feebly add
on by acids. By digesting in hot alcohol, a substance texri
ambrein, closely resembling cholesterin, is obtained, «teJ
separates in brilliant white crystals as the solution cools. Tie
use of ambergris in Europe is now entirely confined to perfanerr.
though it formerly occupied no inconsiderable place in medicat
In minute quantities its alcoholic solution is much used for
giving a " floral " fragrance to bouquets, washes and other
preparations of the perfumer. It occupies a very importzr:
place in the perfumery of the East, and there it is also used a
pharmacy and as a flavouring material in cookery. The h#
price it commands makes it peculiarly liable to adulterate ?.
but its genuineness is easily tested by its solubility in hot alcobfr.
its fragrant odour, and its uniform fatty consistency on best
penetrated by a hot wire.
AMBERT, a town of central France, capital of an anoe&a;*
ment of the department of Puy-de-Dome, on the Dote, $a -
E.S.E. of Clermont-Ferrand by raiL Pop. (1906), town. j&Sq.
commune, 7581. The town has a church of the 15th and ifca
centuries and carries on the manufacture of paper, lace, ribboa.
rosaries, &c, and trade in cheese. It is the seat of a sab-prefca
and the public institutions include tribunals of first in&taatt
and of commerce, a chamber of arts and manufactures, and *
communal college.
AMBIENT (from LaL ambi t on both sides, and ire, to e»).
Surrounding; a word implying a moving rather than a stabosu?
encircling. It is used mostly in the phrase the " ambient air, '
though Bacon applied it as an adjective to the clergy, suggestsg
" ambition." In astrology it means the sky.
AMBIGU, a French game of cards, composed of the dander-
istic elements of whist, boufllotte and piquet. A whist pad
with the court cards deleted is used, and from two to six persost
may play. Each player is given an equal number of coeatav
and a limit of betting is agreed upon. Two cards are dealt, one
at a time, to each player, after each has placed two counts
in a pool. Each player then either keeps his hand, ovist
" Enough," or takes one or two new cards from the top of the
stock, after which the stock is reshuffled and cut, and eaca
player receives two more cards, one at a time. The ptajas
then either u play " or " pass." If a person " plays,'* he bets *
number of counters and the others may equal this bet or rair
it Should no player meet the first bet, the bettor takes U-»
his bet, leaving the pool intact, and receives two counters frrr
the last player who refuses to play. When two or more bet t*s
same number, they again draw cards and " pass '* or M pUj '
as before. If all " pass," each pays a counter to the pool and a
new deal ensues. The player betting more than the others o»
wins the pool. He then exposes his hand and is paid by eaca
adversary according to its value. The hands rank as follows.—
" Point," the number of pips on two or more cards of a su
(one counter). "Prime," four cards of different suits (rw
counters). " Grand Prime," the same with the number of pips
over 30 (three counters). " Sequence," a hand containing three
cards of the same suit in sequence (three counters). " Tricm "
three of a kind (four counters). " Flush," four cards of the saw
suit (five counters). "Doublet," a hand containing two oonstrcg
combinations at once, as 2, 3, 4 and 7 of spades, amonntiaf to
both a " sequence " and a " flush " (eight counters). M Fndn~
four of a kind (the highest possible hand), ten or eleven coaatrrv.
according to the number of pips. Ties are decided by the
number of pips.
AMBIGUITY (Ft. ombituUi, med. Lat ambigmUu, from LaL
ambiguus, doubtful; ombi, both ways, agere, to drive), doube&4»
ness or uncertainty. In law an ambiguity as to the meaning of £2
words of a written instrument may be of considerable importasce
Ambiguity, in law. is of two kinds, Art*"* *»d laicnt. (t) Patent
AMBIORIX— AMBLYPODA
795
ambiguity b that ambiguity which is apparent on the face of an
instrument to any one perusing it, even if he be unacquainted
with the circumstances of the parties. In the case of a patent
ambiguity parol evidence is admissible to explain only what
bas been written, not what it was intended to write. For
example, in Saunderson v. Piper, 1830, 5 B.N.C. 425, where a
bill was drawn in figures for £245 and in words for two hundred
pounds, evidence that " and forty-five " had been omitted by
mistake was rejected. But where it appears from the general
context of the instrument what the parties really meant, the
instrument will be construed as if there was no ambiguity, as
in Saye and Self's case, xo Mod. 46, where the name of the
grantor had been omitted in the operative part of a grant, but,
as it was clear from another part of the grant who he was, the
deed was held to be valid. (2) Latent ambiguity is where the
wording of an instrument is on the face of it clear and in-
telligible, but may, at the same time, apply equally to two
different things ot subject matters, as where a legacy is given
" to my nephew, John," and the testator is shown to have
two nephews of that name. A latent ambiguity may be ex-
plained by parol evidence, for, as the ambiguity has been
Drought about by circumstances extraneous to the instrument,
the explanation must necessarily be sought for from such
circumstances. (See also Evidence.)
AMBIORIX, prince of the Eburones, a tribe of Belgian Gaul.
Although Caesar (q.v.) had freed him from paying tribute to the
Aduatuci, he joined Catuvolcus (winter, 54 B.C.) in a rising
against the Roman forces under Q. Tlturius Sabinus and L.
Aurunculeius Cotta, and almost annihilated them. An attack
on Quintus Cicero (brother of the orator), then quartered with
a legion in the territory of the Nervii, failed owing to the timdy
appearance of Caesar. Ambiorix is said to have found safety
across the Rhine.
Caesar, Bell. CaU. v. 26-51, vi. 29-43, viii. 24; Dio Casriua xl.
7-1 x ; Floras iii. 10.
AMBLESIDE, a market-town in the Appleby parliamentary
division of Westmorland, England, a mile from the head of
Windermere. Pop. of urban district (1901) 2536. It is most
beautifully situated, for though the lake is hardly visible from
the town, the bare, sharply rising hills surrounding the richly
wooded valley of the Rothay afford a series of exquisite views.
The hills immediately above this part of the valley are Wansfdl
on the east, Loughrigg Fell on the west, and
Rydal Fell and the ridge below Snarker Pike
(2006 ft) to the north. At the head of Winder-
mere is Waterhead, the landing-stage of Amble-
side, which is served by the lake steamers of the
Furness Railway Company. The chief roads
which centre upon Ambleside are — one from the
town of Windermere, following the eastern shore
of the lake; one from Ullswater, by Patterdale
and Kirkstone Pass; one from Keswick, by
Dunmail Raise and Grasmere, and the two lovdy
lakes of Grasmere and Rydal Water; and one
from the Brathay valley and the Langdales to
the west. Ambleside is thus much frequented
by tourists. In- its vicinity is Rydal Mount, for
many years the residence of the poet Wordsworth.
The town has some industry in bobbin-making,
and there are slate quarries in the neigh-
bourhood.
Cose by the lake side the outlines are still
visible of a Roman fort, the name of which is not known.
It appears to have guarded a route over the hills by Hard-
knott and Wrynose Pass to Ravenglass on the coast of
Cumberland.
AMBLYGONITB, a mineral usually found as deavable or
columnar, and compact masses; it Is translucent and has a
vitreous lustre, and the colour varies from white to pale shades
of violet, grey, green or yellow. There are good cleavages in
two directions. The hardness is 6 and the specific gravity 30.
The mineral is thus not unlike felspar in general appearance, but
it is readily distinguished from this by its chemical characters,
being an aluminium and lithium fluophosphate, Li(AlF)P0 4 ,
with part of the lithium replaced by sodium and part of the
fluorine by hydroxyl. Crystals, which are rarely distinctly
developed, bdong to the anorthic system, and frequently show
twin lamellae.
The mineral was first discovered in Saxony by A. Brdthaupt
in X817, and named by him from the Greek &ji£\fc, blunt, and
y<Ma, angle, because of the obtuse angle between the cleavages.
Later it was found at Montebras, dep. Creuse, France, and at
Hebron in Maine; and on account of slight differences in optical
character and chemical composition the names montebrasite
and hebronite have been applied to the mineral from these
localities. Recently it has been discovered in considerable
quantity at Pala in San Diego county, California, and at Caccres
in Spain. Amblygonite occurs with lepidolitc, tourmaline and
other lithia-bcaring minerals in pegmatite-veins. It contains
about 10% of lithia, and, since 1886, has been utilized as a
source of lithium salts, the chief commercial sources being the
Montebras deposits, and later the Californian. (L. J. S.)
AMBLYPODA, a suborder of primitive ungulate mammals,
taking its name from the short and Stumpy feet, which were
furnished with five toes each, and supported massive pillar-like
limbs. The brain-cavity was extremdy small, and insignificant
in comparison to the bodily bulk, which was equal to that of the
largest rhinoceroses. These animals are, in fact, descendants
of the small ancestral ungulates which have retained all the
primitive characters of the latter accompanied by a huge increase
in bodily size. They are confined to the Eocene period, and occur
both in North America and Europe. The cheek teeth are short
crowned (brachyodont) , with the tubercles more or less completdy
fused into transverse ridges, or cross-crests (lophodont type);
and the total number of teeth is in one case the typical 44, but
in another is reduced below this. The vertebrae of the neck
unite by nearly flat surfaces, the humerus has lost the foramen,
or perforation, at the lower end, and the third trochanter to the
femur may also be wanting. In the fore-limb the upper and
lower series of carpal bones scarcely alternate, but in the hind-
foot the astragalus overlaps the cuboid, while the fibula, which
is quite distinct from the tibia(as is the radius from the ulna in
the fore-limb), articulates with both astragalus and calcaneum.
The most generalized type is Corypkodon, representing the family
Restored skeleton of Uintalherium (Dinoceras) mirabile.
(After O. C. Manh.)
Coryphodontidae, from the lower Eocene of Europe and North
America, in which there were 44 teeth, and no horn-like excres-
cences on the long skull, while the femur had a third trochanter.
The canines are somewhat dongated, and were followed by a
short gap in each jaw, and the cheek-teeth were adapted for
succulent food. The length of the body reached about 6 ft. in
some cases.
In the middle Eocene formations of North America occurs
the more spedalized Uintalherium (or Dinoceras), typifying the
family Uintatkeriidae, which also contains spedes sometimes
796
AMBO— AMBOISE
separated as Tinoceras. Ulntatheres were huge creatures, with
long narrow skulls, of which the elongated facial portion carried
three pairs of bony horn-cores, probably covered with short
horns in life, the hind-pair being much the largest The dental
formula is u f ,c. \, p. & f m. §; the upper canines being long
sabre-like weapons, protected by a descending flange on each
side of the front of the lower jaw.
In the basal Eocene of North America the Amblypoda were
represented by extremely primitive, five-toed, small ungulates
such as Periptyckus and Panlolambda, each of these typifying
a family. The full typical series of 44 teeth was developed
in each, but whereas in the Pcriptyckidae the upper molars were
bunodont and tritubercular, in the PanUdambdidae they have
assumed a selenodont structure. Creodont characters (see
Creodonta) are displayed in the skeleton.
See also H. F. Osborn, " Evolution of the AmUypoda," BuB.
Amer. Mus. voL x. p. 169. (R. L.*)
AMBO, or Ambon (Gr. a>/J«r, from &ra0aLrup, to walk
up, the reading-desk of early Basilican churches, also called
irOpyos. Originally small and movable, it was afterwards made
of large proportions and fixed in one place. In the Byzantine
and early Romanesque periods it was an essential part of church
furniture; but during the middle ages it was gradually super-
seded in the Western Church by the pulpit and lectern. The
gospel and epistle are still read from the ambo in the Ambrosian
rite at Milan. The position of the ambo was not absolutely
uniform; sometimes in the central point between the sanctuary
and the nave, sometimes in the middle of the church, and some-
times at one or both of the sides of the chanceL The normal
ambo, when the church contained only one, had three stages
or degrees, one above the other, and it was usually mounted
by a flight of steps at each end. The uppermost stage was re-
served for the deacon who sang the gospel (facing the congrega-
tion); for promulgating episcopal edicts; reciting the names
inscribed on the diptychs (see Diptych); announcing fasts,
vigils and feasts; reading ecclesiastical letters or acts of the
martyrs celebrated on that day; announcing new miracles for
popular edification, professions by new converts or recantations
by heretics; and (for priests and deacons) preaching sermons, —
bishops as a general rule preaching from their own throne. The
second stage was for the sub-deacon who read the epistle (facing
the altar); and the third for the subordinate clergy who read
other parts of scripture. The inconvenience of having a
single ambo led to the substitution of two separate ambones,
between which these various functions were divided, one on the
south side of the chancel being for the reading of the gospel,
and one on the north for reading the epistle. In the Russian
Orthodox Church the term " ambo " is used of the semicircular
steps leading to the platform in front of the iconostasis (q. v.),
but in cathedrals the bishop has an ambo in the centre of the
church. In the Greek Church the older form remains, usually
placed at the side. In the Uniate Greek Catholic Church the
" ambo " has become a table, on which are placed a crucifix
and lights, before the doors of the iconostasis; here b aptisms,
marriages and confirmations take place.
Ambones were made of wood or else of costly marbles, and
were decorated with mosaics, reliefs, gilding, &c; sometimes
also covered with canopies supported on columns. They were
often of enormous size; that at St. Sophia in Constantinople
was large enough for the ceremonial of coronation.
The churches in Rome possess many fine examples of ambones
in marble, of which the oldest is probably that in S. Clemente,
reconstructed in the beginning of the rath century. Those of
slightly later date are enriched with marble mosaic known as
Cosmati work, of which the examples in S. Maria-in-Ara-Coeli,
S. Maria-in-Cosmedin and S. Lorenzo are those which are best
known. Some early ambones are found in Ravenna, and in the
south of Italy are many fine examples; the epistle ambo in the
cathedral at RaveHo (1 130), which is perhaps the earliest, shows
a Scandinavian influence in the design of its mosaic inlay, an
influence which is found in Sicilian work and may be a Norman
importation. The two ambones in the cathedral of Salerno,
which are different in design, are magnificent in effect and ass
enriched with sculpture as well as with mosaic. In the gespel
ambo in the cathedral of Ravello (1273), and also in that of the
convent of the Trinita della Cava near Salerno, the spiral colonics
inlaid with mosaic stand on the backs of lions. In the epiitle
ambo at Salerno and the gospel ambones at Cavm and Saa
Giovanni del Toro in Ravello, the columns support segmental
arches carrying the ambones; the epistle ambo at Raveilo and
all those in Rome are raised on solid marble I
See the uturjgkal and ecclesiastical dictionaries of Maft%m*.
Mtgne, and Smith and Cheetham. sub voce, where all the smau t d
references are collected together and summarized. In Campuna,
Vetera Monumenta (Rome, 1747), plates xii., xuX, are several Em-
tratkms of actual examples.
AMBOISB, GEORGES V (1460-1510), French cardinal and
minister of state, belonged to a noble family p******- * of con-
siderable influence. His father, Pierre d'Amboise, seigucui or
Chaumont, was chamberlain to Charles VII. and Louis XL and
ambassador at Rome. His eldest brother, Charles d'Amboise,
was governor of the Isle of France, Champagne and Burgundy,
and councillor of Louis XL Georges d' Amboise was only
fourteen when his father procured for him the bishopric of
Montauban, and Louis XL appointed him one of his almoners.
On arriving at manhood d'Amboise attached himself to the
party of the duke of Orleans, in whose cause he suffered im-
prisonment, and on whose return to the royal favour be was
elevated to the archbishopric of Narbonne, which alter some
time he changed for that of Rouen (1493). On the appointment
of the duke of Orleans ss governor of Normandy, d'Amboise
became his lieutenant-general. In 1498 the duke of Orleans
mounted the throne as Louis XIL, and d'Amboise was suddenly
raised to the high position of cardinal and prime minister. Hk
administration was, in many respects, well-intentioned and
useful. Having the good fortune to serve a king who was.bota
economical and just, he was able to diminish the «— pom, to
introduce order among the soldiery, and above all, by tat
ordinances of 1400, to improve the organization of -justice. He
was also zealous for the reform of the church, and partknlarr/
for the reform of the monasteries; and it is greatly to his crofts
that he did not avail himself of the extremely favourable oppor-
tunities he possessed of becoming a pluralist- He regularly
spent a large income in charity, and he laboured strenuously Is
stay the progress of the plague and famine which broke oat ia
x 504. His foreign policy, less happy and less wise, was »»"-*» t-i
by two aims — to increase the French power in Italy and to seat
himself on the papal throne; and these aims be sought is
achieve by diplomacy, not by force. He, however, sympathised
with, and took part in, the campaign which was begun in 1499
for the conquest of Milan. In 1500 he was named tienusaat-
general in Italy and charged with the organization of the con-
quest On the death of Alexander VL he aspired to the papacy.
He had French troops at the gates of Rome, by means of wkka
he could easily have frightened the conclave and induced them
to elect him; but he was persuaded to trust to his inJwence;
the troops were dismissed, and an Italian was appointed as Pits
in.; and again, on the death of Pius within the month, another
Italian, Julius II., was chosen (1503). D'Amboise r e ce i v ed ia
compensation the title of legate for b'fe in France and in the
Comtat Venaissin. He was one of the negotiators of the dis-
astrous treaties of Blois (1504), and in 1508 of the League «f
Cambrai against Venice. In 1509 he again accompanied Lous
XIL into Italy, but on his return he was seized at the city of
Lyons with a fatal attack of gout in the stomach. He died there
on the a$th of May 151a His body was removed to Roue*,
and a magnificent tomb, on which he is represented kneeling ia
the attitude of prayer, was erected to his memory in the cathedral
of that town. Throughout his life be was an enlightened pairea
of letters and art, and it was at his orders that the chateau of
Gaillon near Rouen was built
See Lettres du roi Louis XII. et dm~cardinal d'Amboise (Broads,
171a); L. Lesjendre, Vie dm cardinal d'Ambeue (Rooen. 173*}.
E. Lavisse. Htstoirt de Prance (vol. v. by H. Lemonnier. Park, 1903);
AMBOISE— AMBRACIA
797
J. A. Devilfe. Tombeaux de la calkidraU de Rouen (3rd ed.. iWl).
For a bibliography of the printed sources, see H. Hauser, Let Sources
eU Fhistoire de France. X VI* siicU, vol. L (1906). (J- D
AMBOISE, a town of central France in the department of
Indre-et-Loire, on the left bank of the Loire, 12 m. E. of Tours
by the Orleans railway. Pop. (1006) 4632. Amboise owes its
celebrity to the imposing chateau which overlooks the Loire
from the rocky eminence above the town. The Logis du Rci,
the most important portion, was the work of Charles VIII.;
the other wing was built under Louis XII. and Francis L The
ramparts are strengthened by two massive towers containing
an inclined plane on which horses and carriages may ascend.
The chapel of St Hubert, said to contain the remains of Leonardo
da Vinci, who was summoned to Amboise by Francis I., king of
France, and died there in 15 19, is in the late Gothic style; a
delicately carved relief over the doorway represents the con-
version of St Hubert. The hotel de ville is established in a
mansion of Renaissance architecture; a town gateway of the
15th century, surmounted by a belfry, is also of architectural
interest. Iron-founding, wool-weaving, and the manufacture of
boots and farm implements are among the industries.
Amboise at the end of the nth century was a lordship under
the counts of Anjou, one of whom, Hugues L, rebuilt the ancient
castle. Its territory was united to the domain of the crown of
France by Charles VII. about the middle of the 15th century,
and thenceforth the chateau became a favourite residence of
the French kings. The discovery in 1560 of the " conspiracy of
Amboise," a plot of the Huguenots to remove Francis IL from
the influence of the house of Guise, was avenged by the death of
xaoo members of that party. In 1563 Amboise gave its name
to a royal edict allowing freedom of worship to the Huguenot
nobility and gentry. After that period the chateau was fre-
quently used as a state prison, and Abd-el-Kader was a captive
there from 1848 to 1852. In 187 a it was restored by the National
Assembly to the house of Orleans, to which it had come by
inheritance from the duke of Pentbievre in the latter half of the
18th century.
AMBOTMA (Dutch Ambon), the name of a residency, its chief
town, and the island on which the town is situated, in the Dutch
East Indies.
The residency shares with that of Ternate the administration
of the Moluccas, the previous government of which was abolished
in 1867. It includes a mass of islands in the Banda Sea ( a° 30 -
8° ao' S.and ia5°45'-x35°E.), including the island-belt which
surrounds the sea on the north, east and south; and is divided
for administrative purposes into nine districts (afdeelingen):
1) Amboyna, the island of that name; (a) Saparua, with Oma
and Nusa Laut; (3) Kajeli (Eastern Bum); (4) Masareti
(Western Bum); (5) Kairatu (Western Ceram); (6) Wahai
(the northern part of Mid-Ceram); (7) Amahai (the southern
part of Mid-Ceram); (8) the Banda Isles, with East Ceram,
Ceram Laut and Gorom; (9) the islands of Aru, Kei, Timor
Laut or Tenimber, and the south-western islands. The total
area of the residency is about 19,861 sq. m., and its population
206,000, including 3400 Europeans.
Amboyna Island lies off the south-west of Ceram, on the north
aide of the Banda Sea, being one of a series of volcanic isles in
the inner circle round the sea. It is 3a m. in length, with an
area of about 386 sq. m., and is of very irregular figure, being
almost divided into two. The south-eastern and smaller portion
(called Leitimor) is united to the northern (Hitoe) by a neck of
land a few yards in breadth. The highest mountains, Wawani
(3609 ft) and Salhutu (4020 ft.), have hot springs and solfataras.
They are considered to be volcanoes, and the mountains of the
neighbouring Uliasser islands the remains of volcanoes. Granite
and serpentine rocks predominate, but the shores of Amboyna
Bay are of chalk, and contain stalactite caves. The surface is
fertile, the rivers are small and not navigable, and the roads are
mere footpaths. Cocoa is one of the products. The climate is
comparatively pleasant and healthy; the average temperature
is 8o° F., rarely sinking below 7a*. The rainfall, however, after
the eastern monsoons, is very heavy, and the island is liable to
violent hurricanes. It is remarkable that the dry season (October
to April) is coincident with the period of the west monsoon.
Indigenous mammals are poor in species as well as few in number;
birds are more abundant, but of no greater variety. The ento-
mology of the island, however, is very rich, particularly in re-
spect of Lepidoftera. Shells are obtained in great numbers and
variety. Turtle-shell is also largely exported. The vegetation
is also rich, and Amboyna produces most of the common tropical
fruits and vegetables, including the sago-palm, bread-fruit,
cocoa-nut, sugar-cane, maize, coffee, pepper and cotton. Cloves,
however, form its chief product, though the trade in them is
less important than formerly, when the Dutch prohibited the
rearing of the clove-tree in all the other islands subject to their
rule, in order to secure the monopoly to Amboyna. Amboyna
wood, of great value for ornamental work, is obtained from the
hard knots which occur on certain trees in the forests of Ceram.
The population (about 39,000) is divided into two classes —
orang burger or citizens, and orang negri or villagers, the former
being a class of native origin enjoying certain privileges conferred
on their ancestors by the old Dutch East India Company. The
natives are of mixed Malay-Papuan blood. They are mostly
Christians or Mahommedana. There are also, besides the Dutch,
some Arabs, Chinese and a few Portuguese settlers.
Amboyna, the chief town, and seat of the resident and military
commander of the Moluccas, is protected by Fort Victoria, and
is a clean little town with wide streets, well planted. Agriculture,
fisheries and import and export trade furnish the chief means
of subsistence. It lies on the north-west of the peninsula of
Leitimor, and has a safe and commodious anchorage. Its
population is about 8000. .
The Portuguese were the first European nation to visit
Amboyna (1511). They established a factory there in 1521,
but did not obtain peaceable possession of it till 1580, and were
dispossessed by the Dutch in 1600. About 1615 the British
formed a settlement in the island, at Cambello, which they
retained until 1623, when it was destroyed by the Dutch, and
frightful tortures inflicted on the unfortunate persons connected
with it In 1654, after many fruitless negotiations, Cromwell
compelled the Um'ted Provinces to give the sum of £300,000,
together with a small bland, as compensation to the descendants
of those who suffered in the " Amboyna massacre." In 1673
the poet Dryden produced his tragedy of Amboyna, or the
Cruellies of the Dutch to the English Merchants. In 1796 the
British, under Admiral Rainier, captured Amboyna, but restored
it to the Dutch at the peace of Amiens in 180a. It was retaken
by the British in 1810, but once more restored to the Dutch in
18x4.
AMBRACIA (more correctly Ampracu), an ancient Corinthian
colony, situated about 7 m. from the Ambracian Gulf, on a bend
of the navigable river Aracthus (or Aratthus), in the midst of a
fertile wooded plain. It was founded between 650 and 625 B.C.
by Gorgus, son of the Corinthian tyrant Cypselus. After the
expulsion of Gorgus's son Periander its government developed
into a strong democracy. The early policy of Ambrada was
determined by its loyalty to Corinth (for which it probably served
as an entrepot in the Epirus trade), its consequent aversion to
Corcyra, and its frontier disputes with the Amphilochians and
Acamanians. Hence it took a prominent part in the Pelopon-
nesian War until the crushing defeat at Idomene (436) crippled
its resources. In the 4th century it continued its traditional
policy, but in 338 surrendered to Philip IL of Macedon. After
forty-three years of autonomy under Macedonian suzerainty it
became the capital of Pyrrhus, king of Epirus, who adorned it
with palace, temples and theatres. In the wars of Philip V. of
Macedon and the Epirotes against the Aetolian league (220-205)
Ambrada passed from one alliance to the other, but ultimately
joined the latter confederacy. During the struggle of the
Aetolians against Rome it stood a stubborn siege. After its
capture and plunder by M. Fulvius Nobilior in 189, it fell into
insignificance. The foundation by Augustus of Nicopolis (q.v.),
into which the remaining inhabitants were drafted, left the site
desolate. In Byzantine times a new settlement took its place
798
AMBRIZ— AMBROSE
under the name of Arta (9.?.). Some fragmentary walls of large,
well-dressed blocks near this latter town indicate the early
prosperity of Ambrada.
Authorities.— Thucydides ii. 68-iiL 114; Aristotle, Polities,
1303a tqq.: Strabo p. 325; Polybius xxiL 0-13; Ltvy xxxviii.
3-9; G. Wolfe, Journal of Geographical Society (London), iii. (1833)
PP- 77-94: £• Oberhummer, Akamanien, Ambrakicn, &c. un
AlUrtumjMumch, 1887). (M. O. B. C)
AMBRIZ, a West African seaport belonging to Portugal, at
the mouth of the Loje River, in 7° 50' S., 13" E., some 70 m. N.
of Loanda. It forms a part of the province of Angola (q.v.).
The town is within the free-trade area of the conventional basin
of the Congo river. Its chief exports are rubber, gum, coffee and
copper. Pop. about 2500. Ambriz was, previously to 1884, the
northernmost point of Africa south of the equator acknowledged
as Portuguese territory.
AMBROS. AUGUST WILHKLM (1816-1876), Austrian com-
poser and historian of music, was born at Mauth near Prague.
His father was a cultured man, and his mother was the sister of
R. G. Riesewetter (1773-1850), the musical archaeologist and
collector. Ambros was well educated in music and the arts,
which were his abiding passion; but he was destined for the
law and an official career in the Austrian civil service, and he
occupied various important posts under the ministry of justice,
music being the employment of his leisure. From 1850 onwards
he became well known as a critic and essay-writer, and in i860
he began working on his magnum opus, his history of Music,
which was published at intervals from 1864 in five volumes, the
last two (1878, 1882) being edited and completed by Otto Kade
and Langhaus. Ambros became professor of the history of
music at Prague in 1869. He was an excellent pianist, and
the author of numerous compositions somewhat reminiscent of
Mendelssohn. He died at Vienna on the 28th of June 1876.
AMBR08B (fl. 1190), Norman poet, and chronicler of the
Third Crusade, author of a work called UEsUnrt de la guerre
sainte, which describes in rhyming French verse the adventures
of Richard Cceur de Lion as a crusader. The poem is known to
us only through one Vatican MS., and long escaped the notice
of historians. The credit for detecting its value belongs to the
late Gaston Paris, although his edition (1897) was partially
anticipated by the editors of the Monument a Gtrmaniae Hislorica,
who published some selections in the twenty-seventh volume of
their Scriptores (1885). Ambrose followed Richard I. as a non-
combatant, and not improbably as a~court-minstrel. He speaks
as an eye-witness of the king's doings at Messina, in Cyprus, at
the siege of Acre, and in the abortive campaign which followed
the capture of that city. Ambrose is surprisingly accurate in his
chronology; though he did not complete his work before 1195,
it is evidently founded upon notes which he had taken in the
course of his pilgrimage. He shows no greater political insight
than we should expect from his position; but relates what he
had seen and heard with a naive vivacity which compels attention.
He is prejudiced against the Saracens, against the French, and
against all the rivals or enemies of his master; but he is never
guilty of deliberate misrepresentation. He is rather to be treated
as a biographer than as a historian of the Crusade in its broader
aspects. None the less he is the chief authority for the events
of the years 1 190-1 792, so far as these are connected with the
Holy Land. The llinerarium Regis Ricardi (formerly attributed
to Geoffrey Vinsauf , but in reality the work of Richard, a canon
of Holy Trinity, London) is little more than a free paraphrase
of Ambrose.. The first book of the Itinerarium contains some
additional facts; and the whole of the Latin version is adorned
with flowers of rhetoric which are foreign to the style of Ambrose.
But it is no longer possible to regard the llinerarium as a first-
hand narrative. Stubbs's edition of the Itinerarium (Rolls Series,
1864), in which the contrary hypothesis is maintained, appeared
before Gaston Paris published his discovery.
See the edition of L'Estoire de la guerre sainte by Gaston Paris in
the Collection des documents inidiU sur Diistoire de France (1897);
the editor discusses in his introduction the biography of Ambrb»e t
the value of the poem as a historical source, and its relation to the
Itinerarium. R. Psuli's remarks (in Monumenta Cermaniae His-
toric*. Scriptores, xxvii.) also deserve attention. (H. W. C. D.)
AMBROSE; SAINT (c. 340-397)* bishop of Mnma. eat of at
most eminent fathers of the church in the 4th century. w»
a citizen of Rome, born about 337-340 in Treves, where his falser
was prefect of Gallia Narbonensis. His mother was a wemsa d
intellect and piety. Ambrose was early destined to follow fea
father's career, and was accordingly educated in Roane. Be
made such progress in literature, law and rhetoric, that the
praetor Anicius Probus 6rst gave him a place in the ccnao3 sat*
then made him consular prefect of Liguria and Eanifia, vita
headquarters at Milan, where he made an elceUent administrator
In 374 Auxentius, bishop of Milan, died, and the orthodox asd
Arian parties contended for the succession. An address deirwere£
to them at this crisis by Ambrose led to his being *~* m irtH at
the only competent occupant of the see; though hitherto eab
a catechumen, he was baptized, and a few days saw him daH
installed as bishop of Milan. He immediately betook himuk
to the necessary studies, and acquitted himself in his new afhse
with ability, boldness and integrity. Having apportioned fca
money among the poor, and settled his lands upon the chard,
with the exception of making his sister Marcrllina tenant dnrisj
life, and having committed the care of his famOy to has brother,
he entered upon a regular course of theological study, under tat
care of Simplidan, a presbyter of Rome, and devoted hhssrif
to the labours of the church" labours which were temponnj
interrupted by an invasion of Goths, which r"Tfllrri Ambrose
and other churchmen to retire to Ulyricum.
The eloquence of Ambrose soon found ample scope in tat
dispute between the Arians and the orthodox or Catholic parrr,
whose cause the new bishop espoused. Gratian, the son of tie
elder Valentinian, took the same side; but the younger Vaka»
tinian, who had now become his colleague in the empire, adopted
the opinions of the Arians, and all the arguments and ^hw y wy
of Ambrose could not reclaim the young prince to the orthodox
faith. Theodosius, the emperor of the East, also pmf i — il the
orthodox belief; but there were many adherents of Ana
scattered throughout his dominions. In this distracted state of
religious opinion, two leaders of the Arians, Palladius sad
Secundianus, confident of numbers, prevailed upon Gratiaa is
call a general council from all pans of the empire. This reqacs!
appeared so equitable that he complied without hesatabca.
but Ambrose, foreseeing the consequence, prevailed upon the
emperor to have the matter determined by a council of the
Western bishops. A synod, composed of thirty-two tnshspv
was accordingly held at Aquileia in the year 381 . Ambrose was
elected president; and Palladius, being called upon to defend ha
opinions, declined, insisting that the meeting was a partial one.
and that, all the bishops of the empire not being present.
the sense of the Christian church concerning the question ia
dispute could not be obtained. A vote was then taken, whea
Palladius and his associate Secundianus were deposed from lis
episcopal office.
Ambrose was equally zealous in combating the attempt made
by the upholders of the old state religion to resist the ennctnaeats
of Christian emperors. The pagan party was led by Qniatss
Aurelius Symmachus (q.v.), consul in 391, who presented o
Valentinian II. a forcible but unsuccessful petition praymj
for the restoration of the altar of Victory to its andent station
in the hall of the senate, the proper support of seven vestal
virgins, and the regular observance of the other pagan ceresnoeks.
To this petition Ambrose replied in a letter to Valentintaa,
arguing that the devoted worshippers of idols bad often bets
forsaken by their deities; that the native valour of the Romas
soldiers had gained their victories, and not the pretended
influence of pagan priests; that these idolatrous worshippers
requested for themselves what they refused to Christians; that
voluntary was more honourable than constrained Wrmanty;
that as the Christian ministers declined to receive •~~f*^*i
emoluments, they should also be denied to pagan priests; that
it was absurd to suppose that God would inflict a famine upon the
empire for neglecting to support a religious system contrary to
His will as revealed in the Scriptures; that the whole j
of nature encouraged innovations, and that aO
AMBROSE
799
permitted them, even in religion; that heathen sacrifices were
offensive to Christians; and that it was the duty of a Christian
prince to suppress pagan ceremonies. In the epistles of Sym-
machus and of Ambrose both the petition and the reply are
preserved. They are a strange blend of sophistry, superstition,
sound sense and solid argument.
The increasing strength of the Arians proved a formidable task
for Ambrose. In 384 the young emperor and his mother Justina,
along with a considerable number of clergy and laity professing
the Arian faith, requested from the bishop the use of two churches,
one in the city, the other in the suburbs of Milan. Ambrose
refused, and was required to answer for his conduct before the
council. He went, attended by a numerous crowd of people,
whose impetuous seal so overawed the ministers of Valentinian
that he was permitted to retire without making the surrender
of the churches. The day following, when he was performing
divine service in the Basilica, the prefect of the city came to
persuade him to give up at least the Portian church in the suburbs.
As he still continued obstinate, the court proceeded to violent
measures: the officers of the household were commanded to
prepare the Basilica and the Portian churches to celebrate divine
service upon the arrival of the emperor and his mother at the
ensuing festival of Easter. Perceiving the growing strength of
the prelate's interest, the court deemed it prudent to restrict
its demand to the use of one of the churches. But all entreaties
proved in vain, and drew forth the following characteristic
declaration from the bishop:—" If you demand my person, I
am ready to submit: carry me to prison or to death, I will not
resist; but I will never betray the church of Christ. I will not
call upon the people to succour me; I will die at the foot of the
altar rather than desert it. The tumult of the people I will not
encourage: but God alone can appease it."
Many circumstances in the history of Ambrose are strongly
characteristic of the general spirit of the times. The chief causes
of his victory over his opponents were his great popularity and
the superstitious reverence paid to the episcopal character at
that period. But it must also be noted that he used several in-
direct means to obtain and support his authority with the people.
He was liberal to the poor; it was his custom to comment severely
in his preaching on the public characters of his times; and he
introduced popular reforms in the order and manner of public
worship. It is alleged, too, that at a time when the influence
of Ambrose required vigorous support, he was admonished in
a dream to search for, and found under the pavement of the
church, the remains of two martyrs, Gervasius and Protasius.
The applause of the vulgar was mingled with the derision of the
court party.
Although the court was displeased with the religious principles
and conduct of Ambrose, it respected his great political talents;
and when necessity required, his aid was solicited and generously
granted. When Maximus usurped the supreme power in Gaul,
and was meditating a descent upon Italy, Valentinian sent
Ambrose to dissuade him from the undertaking, and the embassy
was successful. On a second attempt of the same kind Ambrose
was again employed; and although he was unsuccessful, it
cannot be doubted that, if his advice had been followed, the
schemes of the usurper would have proved abortive; but the
enemy was permitted to enter Italy; and Milan was taken.
Justina and her son fled; but Ambrose remained at his post,
and did good service to many of the sufferers by causing the
plate of the church to be melted for their relief. Theodosius,
the emperor of the East, espoused the cause of Justina, and
regained the kingdom. This Theodosius was sternly rebuked
by Ambrose for the massacre of 7000 persons at Thessalonica
in 300, and was bidden imitate David in his repentance as he
had imitated him in guilt.
In 392, after the assassination of Valentinian and the usurpa-
tion of Eugenius, Ambrose fled from Milan; but when Theodosius
was eventually victorious, he supplicated the emperor for the
pardon of those who had supported Eugenius. Soon after
acquiring the undisputed possession of the Roman empire,
Theodosius died at Milan in 395, and two years later (4th
April 397) Ambrose also passed away* He was succeeded by
Simplician.
A man of pure character, vigorous mind, unwearying zeal
and uncommon generosity, Ambrose ranks high among the
fathers of the ancient church on many counts. His chief faults
were ambition and bigotry. Though ranking with Augustine,
Jerome, and Gregory the Great, as one of the Latin " doctors,"
he is most naturally compared with Hilary, whom he surpasses
in administrative excellence as much as he falls below him in
theological ability. Even here, however, his achievements are
of no mean order, especially when we remember his juridical
training and his comparatively late handling of Biblical and
doctrinal subjects. In matters of exegesis he is, like Hilary, an
Alexandrian; his chief productions are homiletic commentaries
on the early Old Testament narratives, #4. the HexaCmeron
(Creation) and Abraham, some of the Psalms, and tbe Gospel
according to Luke. In dogmatic he follows Basil of Caesarea
and other Greek authors, .but nevertheless gives a distinctly
Western cast to the speculations of which he treats. This is
particularly manifest in the weightier emphasis which he lays
upon human sin and divine grace, and in the place which he
assigns to faith in the individual Christian life. His chief. works
in this field are De fide ad Craiianum Augustus*, Dt Spiritu
Sancto, Dt incarnationis Dominicae sacromento, De mysteriis.
His great spiritual successor, Augustine, whose conversion was
helped by Ambrose's sermons, owes more to him than to any
writer except Paul. Ambrose's intense episcopal consciousness
furthered the growing doctrine of the Church and its sacerdotal
ministry, while the prevalent asceticism of the day, continuing
the Stoic and Ciceronian training of his youth, enabled him to
promulgate a lofty standard of Christian ethics. Thus we have
the Dt officii* mnistrorum, De tiduis, Dt virginitate and Dt
patnitentia.
Ambrose has also left several funeral orations and ninety-
one letters, but it is as a hymn-writer that he perhaps deserves
most honour. Catching the impulse from Hilary and confirmed
in it by tbe success of Arian psalmody, Ambrose composed
several hymns, marked by dignified simplicity, which were not
only effective in themselves but served as a fruitful model for
later times. We cannot certainly assign to him more than four
or five (Dots Creator Omnium, Aeierne rerum conditor, Jam
surgit hora Urlia, and the Christmas hymn Vent redtmptor
gentium) of those that have come down to us. Each ot these
hymns has eight four-line stanzas and is written in strict iambic
tetrameter.
On the Ambrosian ritual see Liturgy; on the Ambrosian library
ice Libraries; on the church founded by him at Milan in 387 «e
Milan. Editions: The Benedictine (4 vols., Venice, 1748 ff.);
Migne, Patrol. Lai, xiv.-xvii. ; P. A. Ballerini (6 vols., Milan. 1875 ff.).
Literature: Th. Forster, Ambrose. B. of Mailand (Halle, 1884),
and art. in Herzog-Hauck, Realeneyk., where the literature is cited
in full; A. Ebert. Cttch. der ckrutluh-lctein. Litt. (2nd ed. ( 1889);
O. Bardenhewer, Pair olo tie (2nd ed., 1 891); A. Harnack, Hist, oj
Dogma, esp. vol. v. ; W. Bright, Age of the Fathers. (A. J. G.)
AMBROSE (Andrey Sestts-Kaiienskxy) (1 708-1771), arch-
bishop of Moscow, was born at Nezhine in the government of
Chernigov, and studied in the school of St Alexander Nevskiy,
where he afterwards became a tutor. At the age of thirty-one
he entered a monastery, where he took the name of Ambrose.
Subsequently he was appointed archimandrite of the convent of
New Jerusalem at Voznesensk. From this post be was trans-
ferred as bishop, first to the diocese of Pereyaslav, and afterwards
to that of Krusitsy near Moscow, finally becoming archbishop of
Moscow in 1 76 1. He was famous not only for his interest in
schemes for the alleviation of poverty in Moscow, but also as the
founder of new churches and monasteries. A terrible outbreak
of plague occurred in Moscow in 1771, and the populace began
to throng round an image of the Virgin to which they attributed
supernatural healing power. Ambrose, perceiving that this
crowding together merely enabled the contagion to spread, had
the image secretly removed. The mob, suspecting that he was
responsible for its removal, attacked a monastery to which he bad
retired, dragged him away from the sanctuary, and, having given
8oo
AMBROSE— AMBROSIANS
him time to receive the sacrament, strangled him. Ambrose's
works include a liturgy and translations from the Fathers.
AMBR08B (Ambroise), AUTPERT (d. 778), French Bene-
dictine monk. He became abbe" of St Vincent on the Volturno
" in the time of Desiderius, king of the Lombards." He wrote a
considerable number of works on the Bible and religious subjects
generally. Among these are commentaries on the Apocalypse
(see Bibl. Potrum, ziil 403), on the Psalms, on the Song of
Solomon; Lines of SS. Paldo, Tula and Vato (according to
Mabillon); Assumption of the Virgin; Combat between the
Virtues and the Vices.
See Mabillon, Acta sancL BoBond. HI. ft. 259. 3*6; GeoraLommd,
Der ostfrdnkiscke Reformator Ambrosius (Gieasen, 1847); BoUaodist
BiU.kag.laL (1808), 61.
AMBR08B, ISAAC (1604-1663/4), English Puritan divine,
was the son of Richard Ambrose, vicar of Ormskirk, and was
probably descended from the Ambroses of Lowick in Furness,
a well-known Catholic family. He entered Brazenose College,
Oxford, in 1621, in his seventeenth year. Having graduated
B.A. in 1624 and been ordained, he received in 1627 the little
cure of Castleton in Derbyshire. By the influence of William
Russell, earl of Bedford, he was appointed one of the king's
itinerant preachers in Lancashire, and after living for a time in
Garstang, he was selected by the Lady Margaret Hoghton as
vicar of Preston. He associated himself with Presbyterianism,
and was on the celebrated committee for the ejection of
" scandalous and ignorant ministers and schoolmasters " during
the Commonwealth. So long as Ambrose continued at Preston
he was favoured with the warm friendship of the Hoghton
family, their ancestral woods and the tower near Blackburn
affording him sequestered places for those devout meditations
and " experiences " that give such a charm to his diary, portions
of which are quoted in his Prima Media and Ultima (1650, 1659).
The immense auditory of his sermon {Redeeming the Time) at the
funeral of Lady Hoghton was long a living tradition all over
the county. On account of the feeling engendered by the civil
war Ambrose left his great church of Preston in 1654, and
became minister of Garstang, whence, however, in 1662 he was
ejected with the two thousand ministers who refused to conform.
His after years were passed among old friends and in quiet
meditation at Preston. He died of apoplexy about the 20th
of January 1663/4. As a religious writer Ambrose has a
vividness and freshness of imagination possessed by scarcely
any of the Puritan Nonconformists. Many who have no love
for Puritan doctrine, nor sympathy with Puritan experience,
have appreciated the pathos and beauty of bis writings, and his
Looking to Jesus long held its own in popular appreciation with
the writings of John Bunyan.
AMBROSE THE CAMALDULIAJf, the common name of
Ambrogio Traveisaki (1386-1430), French ecclesiastic, born
near Florence at the village of Portico. At the age of fourteen
he entered the Camaldulian Order in the monastery of Sta Maria
degli Angeli, and rapidly became a leading theologian and
Hellenist. In Greek literature his master was Emmanuel
Chrysoloras. He became general of the order in 1431, and was
a leading advocate of the papacy. This attitude he showed
clearly when he attended the council of Basel as legate of
Eugenius IV. So strong was his hostility to some of the delegates
that he described Basel as a western Babylon. He likewise
supported the pope at Ferrara and Florence, and worked hard
in the attempt to reconcile the Eastern and Western Churches.
Though this cause was unsuccessful, Ambrose is interesting as
typical of the new humanism which was growing up within the
church. Voigt says that he was the first monk in .Florence in
whom the love of letters and art became predominant over
his ecclesiastical views. Thus while among his own colleagues
he seemed merely a hypocritical and arrogant priest, in his re-
lations with his brother humanists, such as Cosiroo de Medici, he
appeared as the student of classical antiquities and especially of
Greek theological authors. His chief works are: — Hodoeporicon,
an account of a journey taken by the pope's command, during
which he visited the monasteries of Italy; a translation of
Palladius' Life of Chrysostom; of Nineteen Sermons of Bpkrom
Syrus; of the Book of St Basil on Virginity. A number of MSS.
remain in the library of St Mark at Venice. . He died on the sota
of October 1439.
See G. Voigt. Die Wiederbdebung des Mats. Aliertmus (2 T«k.
3rd ed., 1893): his Epistelae were published by Caanato (Flora**.
1759) with a life by Menus: Botlandi* Bibl. hog. laL (1898). 63:
A. Masiuf, tjber die Stellung des Kamatdulensers Ambrogio Trmeenmi
sum Papst Euten IV. und mm Batter KousU (Dobda. 1888):
Savigny, Cesckuhts rbuu RecMts, MitteL (1830), vi. 422-434-
AMBROSIA, in ancient mythology, sometimes the food,
sometimes the drink of the gods. The word has generally bee*
derived from Gr. &-, not, and ufipbns, mortal; hence the food
or drink of the immortals. A. W. VerraJl, however, denies
that there is any clear example in which the word n^efimmm
necessarily means "immortal," and prefers to explain it at
"fragrant," a sense which is always suitable; cf. W. Leaf,
Iliad (2nd ed.), on the phrase ajifofaof Vitpos (U. zS). If so,
the word may be derived from the Semitic ambar (ambergris)
to which Eastern nations attribute miraculous properties.
W. H. Roscher thinks that both nectar and ambrosia were
kinds of honey, in which case their power of conferring immor-
tality would be due to the supposed healing and drawing power
of honey (see further N ectar). Derivatively the word Amhrtae
(neut. plur.) was given to certain festivals in honour of Dionysus,
probably because of the predominance of feasting in cormnioo
with them.
The name A mbrosia was also applied by Dioscorides and Pfiny
to certain herbs, and has been retained in modern boiaojr
for a genus of plants from which it has been extended to the
group of dicotyledons called Ambrosiaceae y including Ambrest*.
Xantkium and Iva, all annual herbaceous plants represented in
America. Ambrosia mariUma and some other species occur also
in the Mediterranean region.
There is also an American beetle, the Ambrosia beetle, be-
longing to the family of Scolytidae, which derives its name froa
its curious cultivation of a succulent fungus, called ambrosia.
Ambrosia beetles bore deep though minute galleries into trees
and timber, and the wood-dust provides a bed for the growth
of the fungus, on which the insects and larvae feed.
AM BR08IAN8, the name given to several religions brother-
hoods which at various times since the 14th century have spruaj
up in and around Milan; they have about as much connexke
with St Ambrose as the " Jero mites " who were found chiefly
in upper Italy and Spain have with their patron saint. Oar/
the oldest of them, the Fratres S. Ambrosii ad Nemus, had any-
thing more than a very local significance. This order is kaoaa
from a bull of Gregory XI. addressed to the monks of the chares
of St Ambrose outside Milan. These monks, it would appear,
though under the authority of a prior, had no rule. In response
to the request of the archbishop, the pope had commanded
them to follow the rule of Augustine and to be known by the
above name. They were further to recite the Ambrosian office.
Subsequently the order had a number of independent establish-
ments in Italy which were united into one congregation by
Eugenius IV., their headquarters being at M ilan. Their discipfiat
afterwards became so slack that an appeal was made to Cardinal
Borromeo asking him to reform their houses. By Sixtus V. the
order was amalgamated with the. congregation of St Barnabas,
but Innocent X. dissolved it in 1650.
The name Ambrosians is also given to a 16th-century Ana-
baptist sect, which laid claim to immediate communication with
God through the Holy Ghost. Basing their theology upon the
words of the Gospel of St John i. o— " There was the tnte licit
which lighteth every man, coming into the world "—they dented
the necessity of any priests or ministers to interpret the Bible.
Their leader Ambrose went so far as to hold further that the
revelation which was vouchsafed to him was a higher authority
than the Scriptures. The doctrine of the Ambrosians, who
belonged probably to that section of the Anabaptists knows as
Pneumatici, may be compared with the " Inner Light " doctriae
of the Quakers.
See Herzog-Hauck's Realcncyklopadie, i. 430.
AMBROSIASTER— AMBULANCE
801
AMBR08IASTBL A commentary on St Paul's epistles,
" brief in words but weighty in matter," and valuable for the
criticism of the Latin text of the New Testament, was long
attributed to St Ambrose. Erasmus in 1527 threw doubt on
the accuracy of this ascription, and the author is usually spoken
of as Ambrosiaster or. pseudo- Ambrose. Owing to the fact that
Augustine cites part of the commentary on Romans as by
" Sanctus Hilarius " it has been ascribed by various critics at
different times to almost every known Hilary. Dom G. Morin
(Rev. d'hist. et de lilt, rdigieuses, torn. iv. 97 f.) broke new ground
by suggesting in 1890 that the writer was Isaac, a converted Jew,
writer of a tract on the Trinity and Incarnation, who was exiled
to Spain in 378-380 and then relapsed to Judaism, but he after-
wards abandoned this theory of the authorship in favour of
Decimus Hilarianus Hilarius, proconsul of Africa in 377. With
this attribution Professor Alex. Souter, in his Study of Ambrosi-
aster (Cambridge Univ. Press, 1905), agrees. There is scarcely
anything to be said for the possibility of Ambrose having written
the book before he became a bishop, and added to it in later years,
incorporating remarks of Hilary of Poitiers on Romans. The
best presentation of the case for Ambrose is by P. A. Ballerini
in his complete edition of that father's works.
In the book cited above Professor Souter also discusses the
authorship of the Quaestiones Veteris et Novi Testament*, which
the MSS. ascribe to Augustine. He concludes, on very thorough
philological and other grounds, that this is with one possible
slight exception the work of the same " Ambrosiaster." The
same conclusion had been arrived at previously by Dom Morin.
AMBROSINI. BARTOLOMEO (1588-1657), Italian naturalist,
was born and died at Bologna. He was a pupil of Aldrovandi,
several of whose works he published, and whom he succeeded
eventually as director of the university botanical garden. He
studied at the university, and became successively professor of
philosophy, of botany and of medicine; and during the plague
of 1630 in Bologna he worked assiduously for the relief of the
sufferers. He was the author of several medical works of some
importance in their day.
His brother, Giacinto Ahbrosini (1605-1672), was a dis-
tinguished botanist, who succeeded Bartolomeo as professor of
botany and director of the university garden in 1657. He
published a catalogue of its plants and also a botanical dictionary.
AMBROSIUS AUREUANUS, leader of the Britons against
the Saxons in the 5th century, was, according to the legends
preserved in Gildas and the Historic Brittonum, of Roman
extraction. There are signs of the existence of two parties in
the national opposition to the invaders, but as Pascent, son of
Vortigern, is said by Nennius to have held his dominions in the
west by leave of Ambrosius, the Roman element seems to have
triumphed. Some measure of success appears to have attended
the efforts of Ambrosius, and it has been suggested that Amesbury
in Wiltshire is connected with Emrys, the Celtic form of his name.
See Bedc, Eecl. Hist. (Plummcr), i. 16; Nennius, Hist. Brill. \ 31 ;
Gildas, De excidio Brittarum, 5 25; J. Rhys, Celtic Britain (1884),
pp. 104. 105. 107.
AMBULANCE (from the Fr. ambulance, formerly kdpital
ambulant, derived from the Lat. ambulare, to move about), a
term generally applied in England and America to the wagon or
other vehicle in which the wounded in battle, or those who have
sustained injuries in civil life, are conveyed to hospital. More
strictly, in military parlance, the term imports a hospital estab-
lishment moving with an army in the field, to provide for the
collection, treatment and care of the wounded on the battlefield,
and of the sick, until they can be removed to hospitals of a more
stationary character. In 1005-1906 the term " field ambulance "
was adopted in the British service to denote this organization,
the former division of the ambulance service into " bearer
companies " and " field hospitals " being done away with.
The description of the British service given below applies
generally to the system in vogue in the army after the experience
gained in the South African War of 1809-1902; but in recent
years the medical arrangements in connexion with the British
army hospitals have been altered in various details, and the
changes in progress showed no sign of absolute finality. Some of
these, however, were rather of nomenclature than of substance,
and hardly affect the principles as described below.
The ambulance organization which, variously modified in
details, now prevails in all civilized armies, only dates from the
last decade of the x8th century. Before that time History.
wounded soldiers were either carried to the rear by
comrades or left unattended to and exposed until the fighting
was over. Surgical assistance did not reach the battlefield till
the day after the engagement, or even later; and for many of the
wounded it was then too late. In 1792 Baron Dominique Jean
Larrey (1766-1842) of the French army introduced his system
of ambulances volantes, or flying field hospitals, capable of moving
with speed from place to place, like the " flying artillery " of
that time. They were adapted both for giving the necessary
primary surgical treatment . and for removing the wounded
quickly from the sphere of fighting. Napoleon warmly supported
Larrey in his efforts in this direction, and the system was soon
brought to a high state of efficiency in the Grande Armie. About
the same time another distinguished surgeon in the French army,
Baron Pierre Francois Percy (1 754-1825), organized a corps of
brancardiers t or stretcher-bearers. These were soldiers trained
and equipped for the duty of collecting the wounded while a
battle was in progress, and carrying them to a place of safety,
where their wounds and injuries could be attended to. An
important step towards the amelioration of the condition of the
wounded of armies in the field was the European
Convention signed at Geneva in 1864, by the terms 2at»I-
of which, subject to certain regulations, not only the dom.
wounded themselves but also the official staff of ambu-
lances and their equipment were rendered neutral, the former,
therefore, not being liable to be retained as prisoners of war, nor
the latter to be taken as prize of war. This convention has
greatly favoured the development of ambulance establishments,
but as all combatants have not the same knowledge of the
conditions of this convention, or do not interpret them in the
same way, charges of treachery and abuse of the Red Cross flag
afe but too common in modern warfare.
The American Civil War marked the beginning of the modern
ambulance system. The main feature, however, of the hospital
organization throughout that war was the railway hospital
service, which provided for the rapid conveyance of the sick and
wounded to the rearof the contending armies. Hospital carriages,
equipped with medical stores and appliances, for the transport
of cases from the front to the base, were rapidly introduced into
other armies, and played a great part in the ambulance service
of the Franco-German War.
The German hospital service as existing at the time of the
Franco-German War of 1870-71 was modified and extended by
the Kriegs SaniUUs Ordnung of 1878 and the Kriegs
Etappen Ordnung of 1887, which completed the organ-
ization by the addition in time of war of numerous
subordinate offices and departments. The main divisions of the
ambulance organization of the German army in the field fall into:
(1) sanitary detachments, (2) field hospitals, (3) flying hospitals,
(4) hospital reserve depots, (5) " committees for the transport of
the sick," and (6) railway hospital trains. The whole administra-
tion of the ambulance service of the grand army in the field is
in the hands of the chief of the ambulance sanitary staff, who is
attached to headquarters. Next in command come surgeons-
general of armies in the field, surgeons-general of army corps,
and under them again surgeons-in-chief of divisions and regiments.
Civil consulting surgeons of eminence, and professors from the
universities, are also attached to the various armies and divisions
to co-operate with and act as advisers to the surgeons of the
standing military surgical staff. The hospital transport service
on the lines of communication is highly organized and the
hospital railway carriages are elaborately equipped.
The French ambulance system, finally settled by the ^Sm
reglement of 1 884, is organized on almost ident ical lines
with the German; one of the principal peculiarities of the former
being the ambulances volantes already referred to. The peace
8o2
AMBULANCE
organization of the German and French systems does not materi-
ally differ from that of the British service.
In the Japanese army a special feature is the sanitary corps,
whose duty is the prevention of disease among the troops; it
has been brought to a great pitch of perfection, with
trsum? lne rcsu ^ lnat in the Russo-Japanese War (1004-1005)
the immunity of the troops from all forms of prevent-
able disease surpassed all previous experience. Not only was
the army accompanied by sanitary experts who advised on all
questions of camping grounds, water supply, &c, but before the
war began the Intelligence Department collected information as
to the diseases of the country likely to be the scene of operations,
unhealthy places to be avoided, and precautions to be taken.
Coming now to the ambulance system of the British army, in
which are comprised the arrangements and organization of the
medical department for the care and treatment of
J^n* the sick and wounded from the time they are injured
ayttam, or taken ill, till they are able to return to duty or are
invalided home, we will trace the progress of a wounded
man from the field of battle to his home; remembering that,
as British troops are usually engaged overseas, hospital ships
as well as land transport are necessary.
When a soldier falls wounded in action he is attended by the
regimental surgeon and stretcher-bearers, who apply some
Ftm thid ^temporized method of stopping bleeding and dress
drwtag. the'wounds with the " first field dressing " — a packet
of antiseptic material which every officer and man on
active service carries stitched to some part of his clothing,
and which contains everything necessary for dressing an ordi-
nary gunshot wound. Recent wars have demonstrated that
in all uncomplicated cases it is better to leave this dressing
undisturbed, as the wounds made by modern projectiles heal
up at once if left alone, if air and dirt have been thus excluded.
From the field he is carried on a stretcher by bearers (formerly
of the " Bearer Companies ") of the Royal Army Medical Corps
CoBecttar t0 l ^ e col,ectm 8 station, where he is placed on an
tutioa. ambulance wagon of the first line of assistance and
taken to the dressing station. Here his wound will
be examined if considered necessary, but as on the field the first
medical officer who examined him has already attached a
" specification tally " to the patient, giving particulars of the
wound, it will probably not be disturbed unless complicated
by bleeding, splintering of bone or some other condition requiring
interference. Any operation, however, which is urgently called
for will be here performed, nourishment, stimulants and opiates
administered if required, and the patient moved to the field
hospital in an ambulance wagon of the second line of assistance.
From the field hospital he is transferred as soon as possible by
the ambulance train to the general hospital at the advanced base
of operations, and from there in due time in another train to the
base of operations at the coast, from which he is ultimately either
returned to duty or sent home in a hospital ship. The organiza-
tion by which these requirements are fulfilled is the following: —
Every regiment and fighting unit has posted to it, on proceeding
on active service, a medical officer who looks after the health of
the men and advises the commanding officer on sanitary matters.
Rtgh When the regiment goes into action he takes command
mtaM of the regimental stretcher-bearers who, to the number
mZaST °* two P cr com P^ li y> ^ SiVe ^ etn m peace time instructed
in first aid and in the carrying of the wounded on
stretchers. These men leave their arms behind and wear the
Red Cross armlets, to indicate their non-combatant functions,
but in these days, when a battle is often fought at long ranges, it
is not to be wondered at, or attributed to disregard of the red cross
flag by the enemy, if medical officers and stretcher-bearers are hit.
The bearer company into whose charge the wounded man next
passes is composed of men of the Royal Army Medical Corps,
with a detachment of the Army Service Corps for transport
duties. In future, bearer sections of the Field Ambulances will
perform the duties of the bearer company. Its function is to
collect and succour the wounded on the battlefield and to hand
them over to the field hospitals, with which these bearer com-
panies are closely associated, though separately organized. Iatbe
Indian army the bearer company is provided from the ptrund
of the field hospital when there is a battle, and reverts to &
hospital again after it is over. The war in South Africa of iS;-g-
1002 clearly demonstrated the superiority of the Indian pot.
for after the action the bearer company staff should be avauabie
to give the much-needed help in the field hospital, and soec
amalgamation of the two organizations, or something alter $r
plan of the ambulance volante of the French, is necessary. Tbc
bearers afford the wounded any treatment required, supply waur
and sedatives, and then carry them back on stretchers to tk
collecting station in the rear, whence they are conveyed to t±*
dressing station in the wagons or other form of transport.
At the dressing station, which ought to be out of range of the
firing, and should have a good water supply, the patient ts n*d*
as comfortable as possible, nourishment and stimulants ate
administered, and he is then taken to the field hospital Is
times of great stress, when K is desirable to remove the wounded
quickly from the field, and there are no roads or wheeled trass-
port is not available, large numbers of bearers are employed a
carry them on stretchers, &c These men are engaged loa^j
and are soon given the slight training necessary. This was doae
in Natal after the battles on the Tugela (1899), in which there
were some thousands of wounded to be conveyed; also in Egypt
where the local troops not required for the fighting fine «ot
requisitioned; the Japanese in Mongolia employed hundreds rf
Chinese coolies for this purpose, the general use of sedan-coses
in China having accustomed the poorer class of natives ts
this kind of labour. In India, the rank and file of the Royal
Army Medical Corps not being employed, the bearer -_ -
work is carried out by natives specially enlisted and **•■»
organized into a corps. These men are bearers by
caste — a reminiscence of the system which prevailed ge&eraBy a
hundred years ago, and is still met with in out-of-the-way places,
of conveyance of travellers in dhoolies, which are dosed wooden
carriages fixed on long poles and carried on men's shou&ea.
The bearers convey the wounded in dandies, similar to dhoolies
but made mostly of canvas, so that they are much lighter. T-t
courage of these bearers on the battlefield has often been praised
The old bearer caste is, however, rapidly dying out owing to tie
general discontinuance of the use of dhoolies. Thus the ambuhsoe
organization in India is entirely different from that in other parti
of the British empire. The rank and file of the Royal Arc?
Medical Corps are not employed there, although the medio!
officers are. The warrant and non-commissioned ranks are re-
placed by a most useful body of men of Anglo-Indian or Eurasia:
(half caste) birth, called the Subordinate Medical Department
the members of which, now called assistant surgeons (former!?
apothecaries), receive a three years' training in medical wt
at the Indian medical schools and are competent to perform the
compounding of medicines and to deal with aU but the most
serious cases of injury and illness. In the hospitals the men of the
Royal Army Medical Corps are replaced by the Native Arrf
Hospital Corps, subdivided into ward-servants, cooks, water-
carriers, sweepers and washermen. The caste system necessitates
this division of labour, and the men are not so efficient or trust-
worthy as the white soldiers whose places they take. The bearers
of the wounded are a separate and distinct class, partly attached
to regiments, &c, as part of the regimental transport, and pan)?
organized into bearer companies, attached to field hospitals.
The dandies in which they carry the wounded are much acre
comfortable than stretchers, being fitted with roofs and aides ai
canvas to keep off sun and rain, thus being collapsible so that
the dandy is quite flat when not in use. Still they are heavy,
clumsy, and cannot be. folded up into a small compass for Haas-
port like a stretcher; they also take up a good deal of room m
wagons and can scarcely be carried on the backs of animals owing
to the length of the pole. Hence riding ponies and muks act
much used in Indian warfare, especially in the mountains, for
the carriage of less seriously wounded men. In India separate
hospitals are necessary for white and native troops, and the latter
have accommodation for the large numbers of 1
AMBULANCE
803
camp-followers, mule-drivers, cooks, officers' servants, &c, &c,
which constitute one of the most remarkable features of the
Indian army organization.
Field hospitals, under the new scheme furnished by tent
sections of the Field Ambulances, are each supposed to provide
accommodation for 100 patients, who live on their field
rations suitably cooked and supplemented by various
medical comforts. The patients are not supplied with
hospital clothing, nor do they have beds, but lie on straw, which
is spread on the ground and covered with waterproof sheets
and blankets; of these latter a considerable- reserve is carried.
These hospitals can and must at times accommodate more than
the regulation number of patients, but in the South African
War their resources were at times considerably overtaxed, with
consequent discomfort and hardship to the patients, the medical
equipment proving insufficient for unexpectedly heavy calls
upon its resources. These hospitals are supposed to move with
the army, snd therefore it is imperative to pass the wounded
quickly back from these to the stationary hospitals on the lines
ttotpttttg °f communication (which vary according to the length
M c*v of these lines) and thence to the general hospitals at
Jtoeso/ the base. The size of the lines of communication
JJSJJJ - *' hospitals varies according to circumstances, and they
are as a rule " dieted," that is to say, proper hospital
diets and not field rations are issued to the patients, who
also are supplied with beds and proper hospital clothing. In
these hospitals also there may be nursing sisters, who of course
are unsuited for the rough work and life nearer the front.
Sisters are also employed on the hospital trains, which were
found most useful and brought to great perfection in the South
African War, being fitted with beds, kitchens, dispensaries, &c,
so that patients were moved long distances in comfort.
Arrived at the base of operations the wounded are admitted
to the general hospitals, of which the numbers and situation
vary with circumstances, but each is supposed to
have an officers 1 ward. In the South African War,
owing to the inability of the comparatively small
Royal Army Medical Corps to meet all the requirements of the
enormous force which was ultimately employed, many of the
doctors were drawn from the civil profession, and the rank and
file from the St John's Ambulance Association and the Volunteer
Medical Staff Corps, while many nursing sisters belonged to the
Army Nursing Reserve, ordinarily employed in civil hospitals
but liable to be drafted out during war. In the South African
War the patriotism and liberality of the British public furnished
several large general hospitals, perfectly equipped, and officered
by some of the most eminent members of the medical profession
r ^ a in the United Kingdom. Among others may be men-
tioned the Princess Christian, the Imperial Yeomanry
(both field and general hospitals), the Langman, the
Portland, the Scottish, Irish and Welsh hospitals. These
were staffed entirely by civilians, except that an officer of the
Royal Army Medical Corps was attached to each as administrator
and organizer; and their personnel was made up of physicians,
surgeons, nurses, dressers (medical students and in some cases
fully qualified surgeons) and servants; the numbers, of course,
varying with the size of the hospitals. In addition to the staff
of these hospitals several eminent civil surgeons, including Sir
William MacCormac and Sir F. Treves, went out to the seat of
war as consultants: an innovation in the British service, but in
accordance with the system long in vogue in Germany.
To the Army Medical organization is affiliated in war time
that of the Red Cross Society and other charitable associations,
which during the South African War aided the Army Medical
Service greatly by gifts of clothing, money and numerous
luxuries for the sick and wounded.
Lastly, the wounded man is transferred, to a hospital ship,
which is fitted up with comfortable swinging cots in airy wards,
with refrigerators for preserving provisions and the
supply' of ice, punkahs for hot weather, &c. Each
division of an army corps is supposed to have one such
ship, with from soo to 150 beds and the same staff of doctors,
R*4Cntm
nurses, &c, as a hospital of similar size on shore, when
necessary.
Different regulations are made by various powers as to the
work of the Red Cross societies under the Geneva ffag. Whereas
in Germany and France such aid is officially recognized
and placed under direct military control, the English
Red Cross societies have acted side by side with, but
independently of, the military ambulance organization. In the
South African War (1800-1002), however, the bonds of union
were drawn considerably closer, and cordial co-operation was
brought about to prevent overlapping and waste of money. In
Germany the volunteer organization is presided over by an
imperial commission or inspector-general appointed in peace
time, who in time of war is attached to the headquarters staff.
His functions are to control the relations of the various Red
Cross societies and secure harmonious co-operation. Delegates
appointed by him are attached to the various corps and transport
commissions. No volunteer assistance can be utilized which is
not entirely subordinate to the military control, and has not
already in peace time received official recognition and been
organized on a skeleton footing. Moreover, only persons of
German nationality can be employed under it with the armies
in the field. In case of base hospitals situated in Germany
itself, the services of foreigners may be employed when specially
authorized by the war office. In France, in the main, the same
rules obtain in the case of volunteer hospital service.
Great attention has been paid to civil ambulance organization
in England. In 1878 the British ambulance association of St
John of Jerusalem was founded. Its object was to st Joto'a
render first aid to persons injured in accidents on the Am bmU a c *
road, railway, or in any of the occupations of civil life. JJJJ"* 1 *"
As the result of the initiative taken by this society,
ambulance corps have been formed in most large towns
of the United Kingdom; and police, railway servants and
workmen have been instructed how to render first aid pending
the arrival of a doctor. This Samaritan work has been further
developed and extended to most parts of the British empire,
notably Canada, Australia and India, and there is no doubt
that many lives are saved annually by the knowledge, diffused
by this association, as to how to stop bleeding, resuscitate the
apparently drowned, &c Moreover, during the South African
War this association provided a most valuable reserve for the
Royal Army Medical Corps, and drafted out some hundreds of
partially trained men whose assistance was most valuable to
the Army Medical Service in dealing with the enormous numbers
of sick and wounded who came upon their hands.
In America each dty has its own system and organization of
dvil ambulance service. In some, as in Boston, the service is
worked by the police; in others, notably New York, ctvM
by the hospitals, while Chicago has an admirable mmbo-
service under municipal control. In most of the *?£ £ .
capitals of Europe similar systems prevail.
British ambulance wagons are built very strongly to stand
rough roads, and are of several patterns; those used in the war
in South Africa were reported on as heavy, uncomfort-
able, and so unwieldy as to be incapable very often of t^cT
keeping up with the troops; but a new and more wagomM.
mobile vehicle, to convey four patients lying down as
well as six seated, or fourteen all seated (whereas the old pattern
wagons only accommodated two lying-down cases), has been
introduced. All patterns of wagons weigh from 171 to 18J
cwt., while the Boers and the British Colonial auxiliaries used
much lighter carts, which were taken at a gallop over almost
any country. The Indian ambulances are small two-wheeled
carts, called tongas, drawn by two bullocks or mules; very
strongly made, they are capable of holding two»men lying down,
or four sitting up, besides the native driver.
Various other forms of transport are found, such as mule
litters in mountainous districts, where wheeled carriages cannot
go, camel litters in the Sudan, dhoolies in India, hammocks on
the west coast of Africa, or sedan-chairs in China. In the Russo-
Japanese War an ingenious form of mule litter for serious 1
804
AMBULATORY— AMEN
was made by fixing the ends of two long springy poles about
IS fL long into each side of the pack saddles of two mules, one
in front of the other, so as to support a bed for the patient between
them; the length and resiliency of the poles prevented jolting
of the wounded man, and the mules were able to carry him long
distances over any kind of ground. The ordinary mule or camel
litter provides for a wounded man (lying down) being carried
on a sort of stretcher on either side of the animal, or in cacolcts
in which the less serious cases are slung in seats (one on each
side of the animal), sitting up.
In Great Britain, the material and equipment required are
stored in times of peace at the various headquarters stations and
carefully examined twice a year; and on orders for
A,, *" mobilization being issued, the doctors and various
ranks of attendants, who have previously been told
off to each unit, repair to the allotted station, draw the equip-
ment and transport, and embark with the brigade to which
they are attached. The tendency of the present day is towards
reduction in bulk and concentration of strength of drugs,
points which simplify the question of transport of ambulance
material. As the fighting man can carry concentrated nourish-
ment enough for thirty-six hours, in the form of an emergency
ration, in a tin the size of an ordinary cigar-case, and enough
sweetening material in the form of saccharine to last a fortnight
in a bottle smaller than an ordinary watch, so the medical
department can take their drugs in the form of compressed
tabloids, each the correct dose, and each occupying about one-
tenth of the space the drug ordinarily would; while the medical
officers can carry hypodermic cases, not so large as an ordinary
cigarette-case, containing a syringe and hundreds of doses of
highly concentrated remedies. Again, the traction engines
which now accompany an army can also supply electricity for
X-ray work, electric-lighting, ice-making, &c (J. R. D.)
AMBULATORY (Med. Lat. ombuloiorium, a place for
walking, from ambulore, to walk), the covered passage round a
cloister; a term applied sometimes to the procession way round the
east end of a cathedral or large church and behind the high altar.
AMBUSH (older form, " erabush," O. Fr. embusche, from the
Ital. imboscata, in and bosco, a wood), the hiding of troops,
primarily in a wood, and so any concealment for the purpose of
a sudden attack.
AMEDEO FBRDINANDO MARIA DI 8AV0IA, duke of
Aosta (1845-1800), third son of Victor Emmanuel II., king of
Italy, and of Adelaide, archduchess of Austria, was born at
Turin on the 30th of May 1845. Entering the army as captain
in 1859 he fought through the campaign of 1866 with the rank
of major-general, leading his brigade into action at Custozza and
being wounded at Monte Torre. In May 1867 he married the
princess Maria Carlotta del Pozzo della Cisterns, In 1868 he
was created vice-admiral of the Italian navy, but, two years
later, left Italy to ascend the Spanish throne, his reluctance to
accept the invitation of the Cortes having been overridden by the
Italian cabinet On the x6th of November 1870 he was pro-
claimed king of Spain by the Cortes; but, before he could arrive
at Madrid, Marshal Prim, chief promoter of his candidature, was
assassinated. Undeterred by rumours of a plot against his own
life, Amedeo entered Madrid alone, riding at some distance from
his suite to the church where Marshal Prim's body lay in state.
His efforts as constitutional king were paralysed by the rivalry
between the various Spanish factions, but with the approval of
his father he rejected all idea of a coup d'ttat. Though warned
of a plot against his life (August x8, 1872) he refused to take
precautions, and, while returning from Buen Retiro to Madrid
in company with the queen, was repeatedly shot at in Via
A venal. The royal carriage was struck by several revolver and
rifle bullets, the horses wounded, but its occupants escaped
unhurt A period of calm followed the outrage. On the 1 1 th of
February 1873, however, Amedeo, abandoned by his partisans
and attacked more fiercely than ever by his opponents, signed
his abdication. Upon returning to Italy he was cordially
welcomed and reinstated in his former position. His 'consort,
whose health had been undermined by anxiety in Spain, died on
the 3rd of November 1876. Not until the nth of September
1888 did Amedeo contract his second marriage, with his eject
Princess Letitia Bonaparte. Less than two years later (Jis-
uary 18,1800) he died at Turin in the arms of his elder brother.
King Humbert I., leaving four children — the duke of Aosta,
the count of Turin, the duke of the Abruzzi (issue of his fast mar-
riage), and the count of Salemi. (H. \V. S.)
AMftUE-LBS-BAINS, a watering-place of south-westers
France, in the department of Pyrcnces-Oricn tales, at the junction
of the Mondony with the Tech, 28} m. S-S.W. of Pcrpigsar.
by rail. Pop. (1006) 1247. It has numerous sulphur sprue
(68*- 1 45 F.) used as baths by sufferers from rheumatism aid
maladies of the lungs. The town is situated at a height of 770 ft
and has both a winter and summer season. There are t*»
bathing establishments, one of which preserves remains of Romas
baths, and a large military thermal hospital, The town, formerly
called Arles-les-Bains, is named after Queen Amelia, wife of
Louis Philippe.
AMELOT DB LA HOUSSAYB. ABRAHAM KTCOLAS (1634-
1706), French historian and publicist, was born at Orleans n
February 1634, and died at Paris on the 8th of December 170&
Little is known of his personal history beyond the fact that he
was secretary to. an embassy from the French court to the
republic of Venice. In his Histoire du gouvemement dt Venae
he undertook to explain, and above all to criticize, the administra-
tion of that republic, and to expose the causes of its decadence,
The work was printed by the king's printer and dedicated »
Louvois, which points to the probability that the governmet
did not disapprove of it. It appeared in March 1676, and pro-
voked a warm protest from the Venetian ambassador, Gias-
tiniani. The author was sent to the Bastille, where he remained,
however, only six weeks {Archives dt la BastUU, yoL viiL pp. 03
and 04). A second edition with a supplement, published immedi-
ately after, drew forth fresh protestations, and the edition vat
suppressed. This persecution gave the book an extraordinary
vogue, and it passed through twenty-two editions in three yean,
besides being translated into several languages; there is aa
English translation by Lord Falconbridge, son-in-law of Oliver
Cromwell. Amelot next published in 1683 a translation of Fra
Paolo Sarpi's History of the Council of Trent. This work, and
especially certain notes added by the translator, gave great
offence to the advocates of unlimited papal authority, and three
separate memorials were presented asking for its repressiaa,
Under the pseudonym of La Motte Josseval, Amelot subsequently
published a Discours politique sur Tactic, in which he analysed
the chara cter of Tiberius.
AMEN, a Hebrew word, of which the root meaning is "sts&ffity,*
generally adopted in Christian worship as a concluding formuh
for prayers and hymns. Three distinct biblical usages may be
noted, (a) Initial Amen, referring back to words of another
speaker, e.g. x Kings i. 36; Rev. xxii. 20. (6) Detached Amen,
the complementary sentence being suppressed, e.g. Neh. v. ij;
Rev. v. 14 (cf. x Cor. xiv. x6). (c) Final Amen, with no chance
of speaker, as in the subscription to the first three divisions of the
Psalter and in the frequent doxologies of the New Testament
Epistles. The uses of amen (" verily ") in the .Gospels form a
peculiar class; they are initial, but often lack any backward
reference. Jesus used the word to affirm his own utterances, not
those of another person, and this usage was adopted by the
church. The liturgical use of the word in apostolic times h
attested by the passage from 1 Cor. cited above, and Jnstxa
Martyr (c. aj>. 150) describes the congregation as responding
" amen " to the benediction after the celebration of the Eucharist
Its introduction into the baptismal formula (in the Greek Church
it is pronounced after the name of each person of the Trinity) is
probably later. Among certain Gnostic sects Amen became the
name of an angel, and in post-biblical Jewish works exaggerated
statements are multiplied as to the right method and the bliss of
pronouncing it. It is still used in the service of the synagogue,
and the Mahommedans not only add it after reciting the first
Sura of the Koran, but also when writing letters, &c, and repeat
it three times, often with the word Qimiir, as a kind of tafomsn.
AMENDMENT— AMERICA
805
AMENDMENT (through the O. Fr. amender, to correct, from
LaL mendum, a fault), an improvement, correction or alteration
(nominally at least) for the better. The word is used either of
moral character or, more especially, in connexion with " amend-
ing " a bill or motion in parliament or resolution at a meeting;
and in law it signifies the correction of any defect or error in
the record of a civil action or on a criminal indictment All
written constitutions also usually contain a clause providing for
the method by which they may be amended. Another noun,
in the plural form of " amends," is restricted in its meaning to
that of the penalty paid for a fault or wrong committed. In its
French form the amende, or amende honorable, once a public
confession and apology when the offender passed to the seat of
justice barefoot and bareheaded, now signifies in the English
phrase a spontaneous and satisfactory rectification of an error.
AMBNT1PBRAE, or Amzntaczak, a name which has been
used to include in one class several natural orders of plants
which bear their flowers in catkins (amenta). They are trees
and shrubs chiefly of temperate climates, and include many
common British trees. It comprised the following orders: —
Salicaceae, willows and poplars; Corylaceae, hazel, hornbeam;
Betulaceae, birch, alder; Pagaceae, oak, beech, chestnut;
Casuarinaceae t Casuarina (beef wood); Platanaceae, plane;
Juglandaceae, walnut; Myricaceae, bog myrtle. This class is
not retained in the most modern systems of classification.
AMERCEMENT, or Amuciament (derived, through the
Fr. & merci, from Lat. merces, pay), in English law, an arbitrary
pecuniary penalty, inflicted in old days on an offender by the
peers or equals of the party amerced. The word has in modern
times become practically a poetical synonym for fine or de-
privation. But an amercement differed from a fixed fine,
prescribed by statute, by reason of its arbitrary nature; it
represented a commutation of a sentence of forfeiture of goods,
while a fine was originally a composition agreed upon between
the judge and the prisoner to avoid imprisonment. The fixing
or assessment of an amercement was termed an afeerment. In
the lower courts the amercement was offered by a jury of the
offender's neighbours (affeerors)', in the superior courts by the
coroner, except in the case of officers of the court, when the
amount was affeered by the judges themselves. All judgments
were entered on the court roll as " in mercy " (sit in miser icordia),
and the word' misericordia, or some contracted form of it, was
wri tten on the margin. Articles twenty to twenty-two of Magna
Carta regulated the assessment of amercements.
See Stephen, History of Criminal Law; Pollock and Maitland,
History of English Law; W. S. McKechnie, Magna Carta (1905).
AMERIA (mod. Amelia), & city ot Umbria, situated about 65 m.
N. of Rome on the Via Amerina (which approached it from the
S. suiting from Faleriiand passing through Castellum Amerinum,
probably mod. Orte, where it crossed the Tiber). It has a fine
position, 2332 ft above sea-level, and still retains considerable
remains of the dty wall, built in polygonal masonry of carefully
jointed blocks of limestone, some 12 ft in total thickness, and
showing traces of reconstruction at different periods. Various
remains of the Roman period exist between the walls, including
a large water reservoir divided into ten chambers. The lofty
campanile of the cathedral was erected in 1050 with fragments
of Roman buildings. Ameria is not mentioned in the history
of the Roman conquest of Umbria, but is alluded to as a flourish-
ing place, with a fertile territory extending to the Tiber, by
Cicero in his speech in defence of Sextus Rosdus Amerinus, and
its fruit is often extolled by Roman writers. Augustus divided
its lands among his veterans, but did not plant a colony here.
The bishopric of Ameria was founded in the middle of the 4th
century.
AMERICA. L Physical Geography.— The accidental use of a
single name, America, for the pair of continents that has a greater
extension from north to south than any other continuous land area
of the globe, has had some recent justification, since the small
body of geological opinion has turned in favour of the theory of
the tetrahedral deformation of the earth's crust as affording
explanation of the grouping of continents and oceans. America,
broadening in the north as if to span the oceans by reaching to its
neighbours on the east and west, tapering between vast oceans
far to the south where the nearest land is in the little-known
Antarctic regions, roughly presents the triangular outline that is
to be expected from tetrahedral warping; and although greatly
broken in the middle, and standing with the northern and
southern parts out of a meridian line, America is nevertheless the
best witness among the continents of to-day to the tetrahedral
theory. There seems to be, however, not a unity but a duality in
its plan of construction, for the two parts, North and South
America, resemble each other not only in outline but, roughly
speaking, in geological evolution also; and the resemblances
thus discovered are the more remarkable when it is considered
how extremely small is the probability that among all the possible
combinations of andent mountain systems, modern mountain
systems and plains, two continents out of five should present
so many points of correspondence. Thus regarded, it becomes
reasonable to suppose that North and South America have in a
broad way been developed under a succession of somewhat similar
strains in the earth's crust, and that they are, in so far, favourable
witnesses to the theory that there is something individual in the
plan of continental growth. The chief points of correspondence
between these two great land masses, besides the southward taper-
ing, are as follows*— (1) The areas of andent fundamental rocks of
the north-east (Laurentian highlands of North America, uplands
of Guiana in South America), which have remained without signi-
ficant deformation, although suffering various oscillations of level,
since ancient geological times; (2) the highlands of the south-
east (Appalachians and Brazilian highlands) with a north-east
south-west crystalline axis near the ocean, followed by a belt of de-
formed and metamorphosed early Palaeozoic strata, and adjoined
farther inland by a dissected plateau of nearly horizontal later
Palaeozoic formations— all greatly denuded since the andent de-
formation of the mountain axis, and seeming to owe thdr present
altitude to broad uplifts of comparatively modern geological date;
(3) the complex of younger mountains along the western side of
the continents (Western highlands, or Cordilleras, of North
America; Andean Cordilleras of South America) of geologically
modern deformation and upheaval, with endosed basins and
abundant volcanic action, but each a system in itself, disconnected
and not standing in alignment; (4) confluent lower lands between
the highlands, giving river drainage to the north (Mackenzie,
Orinoco), east (St Lawrence, Amazon), and south (Mississippi, La
Plata). Differences of dimension and detail are numerous, but
they do not suffice to mask what seems to be a resemblance in
general plan. Indeed, some of the chief contrasts of the two con-
tinents arise not so much from geological unlikeness as from thdr
unsymmetrical situation with respect to the equator, whereby the
northern one lies mostly in the temperate zone, while the southern
one lies mostly in the torrid zone. North America is bathed in
frigid waters around its broad northern shores; its mountains
bear huge gladers in the north-west; the outlying area of Green-
land in the north-east is shrouded with ice; and in geologically
recent times a vast ice-sheet has spread over its north-eastern
third; while warm waters bring corals to its southern shores.
SoUth America has warm waters and corals on the north-east, and
cold waters and gladers only on its narrowing southern end. If
the symmetry that is so noticeable in geological history had
extended to climate as well, many geographical features might
now present likenesses instead of contrasts.
The relation of the Americas to each other and to the rest of the
world, as the home of plants and animals, is greatly affected by the
breadth of the adjacent oceans, and also by the geologically recent
changes of altitude whereby the breadth of the narrower parts of
the lands and the oceans has been significantly altered. Between
the parallels of 6b° and 70° N. the east and west widening of North
America forms more than a third of the almost continuous land
ring around a zone of sub-Arctic climate, through the middle of
which runs the Arctic circle. As a result there is a remarkable
community of resemblance of plant and animal life in the high
northern latitudes of North America and Eurasia. In strong
contrast with this relation of dose fellowship is the exceptional
8o6
AMERICA
[NISTOtY
isolation of far southern South America. Excepting the barren
lands of the Antarctic regions, with which Patagonia is somewhat
associated by a broken string of islands, the nearest continental
lands of a more habitable kind are South Africa and New Zealand.
In contrast to the sub-Arctic land ring, here is a sub-Antarctic
ocean ring, and as a result the land flora and fauna of South
America to-day are strongly unlike the life forma of the other
south-ending continents.
For further treatment of the physical geography of the
American continents, see North America, South America.
(W. M. D.)
II. General Historical Sketch.— The name America was derived
from that of Amerigo Vespucci (q.v.). In WaldseemQIIcr's map
of 1 507 the name is given to a body of land roughly corresponding
to the continent of South America. As discovery revealed the
existence of another vast domain to the north, the name spread
to the whole of the pair of continents by customary use, in
spite of the protests of the Spaniards, by whom it was not
officially used of North America till the 18th century.
The discovery of America is justly dated on the 1 2th (N.S. aist)
of October 1492, when Christopher Columbus (9.*.), the Genoese,
made his landfall on the island of Guanahani,now identified with
Walling Island in the Bahamas. In the xoth and nth centuries
Norse sea-rovers, starting from Iceland, had made small settle-
ments in Greenland and had pushed as far as the. coast of New
England (or possibly Nova Scotia) in transient visits (see Vdtland
and Lei* Ericsson). But the Greenland colony was obscure, the
country was believed to form part of Europe, and the records of
the farther explorations were contained in sagas which were only
rediscovered by modern scholarship. Throughout the middle
ages, legendary tales of mythical lands lying in the western
ocean — the Isle of St Brandan, of Brazil and Antflia— had been
handed down. Scholars, guessing from isolated passages in classic
writers, or arguing on general principles, had held that the
" Indies " could be reached by sailing due west But the venture
was beyond the resources of the ships and the seamanship of
the time. The opinions of scholars, and the fantasies of poets,
became an enthusiastic belief in the mind of Columbus. After
many disappointments he persuaded the Catholic sovereigns
Ferdinand and Isabella of Spain to furnish him with a squadron
of three small vessels. With it he sailed from Palos in Andalusia
on the 3rd of August 149a, reached Guanahani on the 12th of
October, touched on the coast of Cuba and Hispaniola, established
a small post on the latter, and returned to Lisbon on the 4th of
March 1493, ***& thence to Spain.
It was the belief of Columbus and his contemporaries that he
had reached the islands described by Marco Polo as forming the
eastern extremity of Asia. Hence he spoke of the " Indies," and
" las Indias " continued to be the official name given to their
American possessions by the Spaniards for many generations.
His feat produced a diplomatic controversy with Portugal which
was destined to have important political consequences. In 1454
Pope Nicholas V. had given the Portuguese the exclusive right of
exploration and conquest on the road to the Indies. His bull
contemplated only the use of the route by the coast of Africa to
the south and east In 1488 the Portuguese Bartholomeu Diaz
had rounded the Cape of Good Hope. After the return of
Columbus and his supposed demonstration that the Indies could
be reached by sailing west, disputes might obviously arise be-
tween the two powers as to their respective " spheres of influ-
ence." The Catholic sovereigns applied to Pope Alexander VI.,
a Spaniard, for a confirmation of their rights. The pope drew a
line from north to south one hundred leagues west of the Azores
and Cape Verde Islands, and gave the Spaniards the claim to all
to the west (May 4, 1493)- The Portuguese thought the division
unfair to them, and protested. A conference was held between
the two powers at Tordesillas in 1494, and by common consent the
line was shifted to three hundred and seventy leagues west of the
Cape Verde Islands. The boundary line corresponded to the 50th *
degree of longitude west of Greenwich, which strikes the main-
1 The exact position has been disputed. According to John Fiske,
the line would be between 41* and 44* long.
land of South America about the mouth of the Amazon,
forward the Spaniards claimed the right to exdude afl otiw
peoples from trade or settlement " beyond the fine."
Between September 1493 and the time of his last voyage (May
1502 to November 1504), Columbus explored the West lades,
reached the mainland of South America at the mouth of tie
Orinoco and sailed along the coast of Central America free
Cape Honduras to Nombre de Dios (near Colon). Henry YH cf
England allowed the Bristol merchants to fit oat a western voyage
under the command of another Genoese, John Cabot (*.*■. J. a
1497. The history of the venture is very obscure, knit Cabot a
thought to have reached Newfoundland and the mainland. Be-
tween 1500 and 1503 a Portuguese family of the name of Gortescal
carried out voyages of exploration on the eastern coast of NorA
America, with the consent of their government, and with Suit
regard for the treaty of Tordesillas. In 1 500 the Portuguese Pe&v
Alvarez Cabral, while on his way to the East Indies, sighted tat
coast of Brazil at Monte Pascoal in the Aimores, and took fcrsal
possession. The belief that the eastern extremity of Asia bai
been reached died slowly, and the great object of esxuoratke .2
America continued for some years to be the discovery of a passagr
through to the Spice Islands, in order to compete with the Porta
guese, who had reached them by the Cape route. The fee.
Spanish settlement in Hispaniola spread to the mainland by tk
adventure of Alonso de Ojeda and Diego de Nicuesa in Darien a
1500. Cuba was occupied by Diego de Velazquez in 15x1. h
151a (or 1513) Juan Ponce de Leon made the first reoar&d
exploration of the coast of Florida and the Bahama fi— «u* Is
1513, Vasco Nunez de Balboa crossed the isthmus of Danes sat*
saw the South Sea (Pacific). The hope that a passage through s»
the Spice Islands would be found near existing Spanish settle-
ments was now given up. One was sought farther south, and a
November 1530 Ferdinand Magellan (?.?.) passed through tat
strait which bears his name and sailed across the Padnc. Ai
last the existence of a continent divided by a vast stretch d
ocean from Asia, and mostly lying within the sphere of «>fln— **
assigned to Spain by the pope, was revealed to the world.
The first aim of the Spaniards had been trade with the Indies
The Casa de Contratacum, a committee for the regulation of trade,
was established at Seville in 1 503. European plants and aaixsaa
were introduced into Hispaniola and Cuba, and sugar plantation
were set up. But the main object of the Spaniards, who could cot
labour in the tropics even if they had wished to do so, was always
gold, to be won by slave labour. As the surface gold of the idaacs
was exhausted, and the feeble island races perished before tat
invaders, the Spaniards were driven to go farther afield. In 1 51a
Pedrarias Davila transferred the Darien settlement to Panic*.
In that and the following year the coasts of Yucatan mad of the
Gulf of Mexico were explored successively by Frandsco Hcrnta-
dez C6rdova and Juan de Grijalva, who both sailed from Cuba.
From Cuba it was that Hernan Cortes (q.t.) sailed on the 10th (or
1 8th) of February 1 519 for the conquest of Mexico. Hitherto the
Spaniards had met only the weak islanders, or the more robes:
cannibal Caribs, both alike pure savages. In Mexico they foci
" pueblo " or town Indians who possessed an organized govern-
ment and had made some progress in civilization. Thehegemoey
of the Aztecs, who dominated the other tribes from the centra.'
valley of Mexico, was oppressive. Cortes, the most accompGshed
and statesmanlike of the Spanish conquerors, raised the subject
peoples against them. His conquest was effected by 1 511. Rs
example stimulated the settlers at Panama, who had heard of •
great people owning vast quantities of gold to the south of thn.
Between 1524 and 1535 Francisco. Pizarro (a.t.) and Diego d*
Almagro had completed the conquest of Peru, which was foliowvi
however, by a long period of strife among the Spaniards, and of
rebellions. The country between Peru and Panama was subdued
before 1537 by the conquest of Quito by Sebastian de Bcsukazmr
and of New Granada by Jimenez de Quesada. From Peru the
Spaniards advanced southwards to Chile, which was first unsuc-
cessfully invaded (i535~37) by Diego de Almagro, aad
afterwards occupied (1540-53) by Pedro de Valdivia. TWsr
advance to the south was checked by the indomitable <
HIST0RY1 AMERICA
of the Araucanians, but from the southern Andes the Spaniards
overflowed on to the great plains which now form the interior of
the Argentine Republic. The first permanent settlement at the
mouth of the river Plate at Buenos Aires dates from 1 580. In its
main lines the Spanish conquest was complete by 1550. What
the Spaniards had then overrun from Mexico to Chile is still
Spanish America. Brazil, after a period of exploration which
began in 1510, was gradually settled by the Portuguese, though
its bounds on the south remained a subject of dispute with the
Spaniards till the 1 8th century.
The vast territories acquired by Spain in this brief period were
held to be, by virtue of the pope's bull, the peculiar property of
the sovereign. When the wide and dangerous powers granted
to Columbus by his patent were confiscated, Ferdinand first
imposed Bishop Fonseca on him as a check. In 1509 the council
of the Indies was established/but it did not take its final form till
x 524. It consisted of a president, with a board of advisers, who
possessed legislative and administrative powers, and who varied
in number at different times. There was an appeal to it from all
colonial governors and courts. The CasodcContratacum, another
board, regulated the trade. In America the crown was repre-
sented by governors. After the preliminary period of conquest
the whole of the Spanish possessions were divided into the two
" kingdoms " of New Spain, — consisting of Venezuela and the
Spanish possessions north of the isthmus— and of New Castile, a
title soon changed to Peru, which included the Central American
isthmus and all of South America except Venezuela and Brazil.
Each was ruled by a viceroy. As the Spanish dominions became
more settled, the viceroyalty of Peru was found to be unwieldy.
New Granada (which included the present republics of Venezuela,
Colombia and Ecuador) was created a viceroyalty in 17 18 (soon
abolished, but re-created in 17*0). A fourth viceroyalty for the
river Plate was formed in 1778. Other governments known as
captain-generalships were cut out of the viceroyalties at different
periods— Guatemala in 1527, Venezuela in 1773, Cuba in 1777 and
Chile in 1778. The captains-general corresponded directly with
the council of the Indies, and were independent of the viceroys
except in war time. The administrative powers of the viceroys
were very great. They were, however, checked by the audi-
encias, or law courts, of which there were eleven from the reign
of Philip IV. — Santo Domingo, Mexico, Panama, Lima, Guate-
mala, Guadalajara, Bogota, La Plata, Quito, Chile, Buenos Aires.
They acted as councils to the governors, and had civil and criminal
jurisdiction with an appeal to the council of the Indies at Seville.
The towns had municipal franchises, exercised by a governing
body comprised of Spaniards, either immigrants from Old Spain,
or Creoles, i.e. descendants of Spanish settlers. The places were
often sold, and were objects of ambition to the richer merchants.
In practice the selling of a seat in the town councils, or cabildos,
did not have the bad consequences which might have appeared in-
evitable. In the earlier stages of Spanish colonial history meet-
ings of delegates (procurators) of the town councils, in imitation
of the national cortes of Spain, were not uncommon. The kings
of Spain had obtained from the popes Alexander VI. and Julius II.
the right of levying the tithe, and of naming the holders of all
ecclesiastical benefices. These immense concessions, made when
the development of the Spanish settlements could not be foreseen,
were regretted by later popes, but the crown adhered firmly to its
regalities.
The government of Spain administered its dominions from the
beginning in the strictest spirit of the " colonial system." The
Indies were expected to supply precious metals and raw materials,
and to take all manufactures from the mother country. In order
to facilitate the regulation of the trade by the Casa de Conlratacion,
it was concentrated first in Seville, and when the Guadalquivir
was found to be becoming too shallow for the growing tonnage of
ships, at Cadiz. Merchant vessels were required for their protection
to sail in convoy. The convoys mfiotas sailed in October first to
Cartagena in South America, and from thence to Nombre de Dios
or, in later times, Porto Bello. The yearly fairs at these places
received the imports from Europe and the colonial trade of the
Pacific coast, first collected at Panama and then carried over the
807
isthmus. From Nombre de Dios or Porto Bello the convoys went
to La Vera Cruz for the trade of New Spain, and returned home in
July by the Florida straits. One-fifth of the produce of the mines
belonged to the crown. The collection of this bullion was at all
times a main object with the Spanish government, and more
especially so after the discovery of the great silver deposits of
Potosi in Bolivia. Forced labour was required to work them and
the natives were driven to the toil. The excesses of the earliest
Spanish settlers have become a commonplace, largely through
the passionate eloquence of Bartolome de Las Casts (see Las
Casas). The Spanish government made strenuous attempts to
regulate forced labour by limiting the rights of the masters. An
encomienda was required by anyone who wished to exact labour,
ix. the Indians of a district were given to him " in cammendam "
with the power to demand a conte from them and a small yearly
payment per head. The laws endeavoured to check abuses, but
there can be no doubt that they were often defeated by the greed
of the colonists — more especially in the viceroyalty of Peru, which
was always less well governed than Mexico. But the bulk of the
inhabitants of the Spanish possessions were of pure or mixed
Indian blood, and many Indians were prosperous as traders,
manufacturers, farmers and artisans.
The Portuguese settlement in Brazil was more purely colonial
than the Spanish possessions. Until 1 534 little was done to regu-
late the activity of private adventures. In that year the coast
was divided into captaincies, which were united under a single
governor-general in 1549. Between 1555 and 1567 the Portu-
guese had to contend with the French Huguenot invaders who
seized Rio, and whom they expelled. Between 157a and 1576
there were in Brazil the two governments of Rio de Janeiro and
Bahia, but its history is of little importance till the occupation of
Portugal by Philip II. drew the country into the wars of the
Spanish monarchy.
The claim of the Peninsula powers to divide the American con-
tinent between them, based as it was on an award given in entire
ignorance of the facts, would in no case have been respected. In
the great upheaval of the Renaissance and the Reformation it
was certain to be defied. As England was in general alliance with
the sovereigns of Spain during the early x6th century, English-
men turned their attention at first towards the discovery of a
route to the Spice Islands round the north of Asia, But the
rivalry of Francis I. and Charles V. gave France a strong motive
for assailing the Spaniards in the New World now revealed to the
ambition of Europe. King Francis encouraged the ill-recorded
and disputed voyages of the Florentine Giovanni da Verrazano
in 1524, and the undoubted explorations of Jacques Carrier.
Between 1534 and 154a this seaman, a native of St Malo, explored
the Strait of Belle Isle and the Gulf of St Lawrence, and visited
the Indian village of Hochelaga, now Montreal. The claims of
France to the possession of a great part of the northern half of
America were based on the voyages of Verrazano and Carrier.
The death of King Francis, and the beginning of the wars of
religion, suspended colonial enterprise under royal direction. But
the Huguenots, under the inspiration of Coligny, made three
attempts to found colonies to the south — at Rio de Janeiro in
1555-1567, near the present Beaufort, South Carolina, in 1562,
and in Florida in 1 565. These ventures were ruined partly by the
hostility of the Spaniards and Portuguese, partly by the dissen-
sions of the colonists. Meanwhile French corsairs from St Mak>
and Dieppe had been active In infesting the West Indies and the
trade route followed by the Spanish convoys. After the accession of
Queen Elizabeth, and the beginning of the breach between England
and Spain, they were joined by English sea-rovers. The English
claimed the right to trade with all Spanish possessions in or out of
Europe by virtue of their treaty of trade and amity made in the
reign of Charles V. The Spaniards disputed this interpretation of-
thc treaty, and maintained that there was " no peace beyond the
line," i.e. Pope Alexander's line as finally fixed by the conference
at Tordesillas. The English retaliated by armed smuggling
voyages.
It was, however, not till late that they attempted to found
permanent settlements. In 1 578 Sir Humphrey Gilbert obtained
8o8
AMERICA
{HISTORY
a patent for discovery and settlement In 1583 he perished in an
effort to establish a colony in Newfoundland. His work was taken
up by his half-brother Sir Walter Raleigh in 1 584. Between 1 586
and 1603 Sir Walter made successive efforts to settle a colony in
the wide territory called Virginia, in honour of Queen Elizabeth,
a name of much wider significance then than in later days. His
colony at Roanoke, in what is now the state of North Carolina,
was unsuccessful, and after his fall his patent reverted to the
crown, but the new Virginia Company carried on his schemes. In
1607 the first lasting settlement was made in Virginia, and after a
period of struggle began to flourish by the cultivation of tobacco.
In 1620 another settlement was made. A small body of reli-
gious dissentients, one hundred and one men, women and children,
including some who had fled to Holland to escape the discipline
of the church of England, secured leave from the Virginia
Company to plant themselves within its bounds. They sailed in a
single ship, the " Mayflower," and landed near Cape Cod, where
they founded the colony of Plymouth, afterwards (1621) obtain-
ing a patent from the council for New England. From these two
centres, and from later settlements, arose the " Plantations " of
the English, which gradually increased to the number of thirteen
and were destined to become the United States of America.
Two strongly contrasted types were found among them. The
Virginian or southern type, which may be said to have prevailed
from Maryland southward, were for the most part planters
producing tobacco, Indian corn, rice, indigo and cotton, largely
by the labour of negro slaves. They had no very pronounced
religious leaning, though Maryland was founded as a Roman
Catholic refuge, but they had a prevailing leaning to the church
of England. The northern or New England element began by
endeavouring to establish a Puritan theocracy which broke down.
But the tendency was towards "Independency," and the New
Englanders were farmers tilling their own land, traders and sea-
faring men. In the middle region between them religion had a
large share in promoting the formation of Pennsylvania, which
was founded by the Quaker William Perm.
The English colonies, though divided by interest or character,
were all alike jealous to defend, and eager to extend, their freedom
of self-government, based on charters granted by, or extorted
from, the crown. The settlers by degrees threw off the control of
the proprietors who had received grants from the crown and
had promoted the first settlements. It was a marked character-
istic of the English colonists, and a strong element in their
prosperity, that they were hospitable in welcoming men 6l other
races,— Germans from the Palatinate, and French Huguenots
driven out by persecution who brought with them some capital,
more intelligence and an enduring hatred of Roman Catholic
France. Though the British government gave, more or less un-
willingly, a large measure of self-government to the Plantations,
it was no less intent than the Spanish crown on retaining the
whole colonial trade in British hands, and on excluding foreigners.
Like the Spaniards it held that this trade should be confined to
an exchange of colonial raw produce for home manufactures.
Two foreign settlements within the English sphere — the Dutch
colony of New Nethcrland, now New York, and the Swedish
settlement on the Delaware— were absorbed by the growing
English element
While the English plantations were striking root along the coast,
by somewhat prosaic but fruitful industry, and were growing in
population with rapid strides, two other movements were in pro-
gress. To the south, the English, French and Dutch, though often
in rivalry with one another, combined to break in on the mono-
poly of the Spaniards. They turned the maxim that " there is
no peace beyond the line " against its inventors. They invaded
the West Indies, seized one island after another, and formed the
f reebooting communities known as the Brethren of the Coast and
the Buccaneers (q.v.). After the renewal of the war between Spain
and Holland in 1621, the Dutch invaded the Portuguese colony of
Brazil, and seized Bahia. A long period of struggle followed,
but, after the declaration of Portuguese independence in 1640,
local opposition, and the support given to the Portuguese by the
French, led to the retreat of the Dutch.
To the north, to the west and to the south of the English 9
ments on the mainland, a most characteristic French entases]
policy was being carried out. No sooner were the wars of reUgka
over than the French again set about making good their dam to
Canada, and to whatever they could represent as arising natural;
out of Canada. In 1 509, under the encouragement of Henry IV-,
speculators began to frequent the St Lawrence in pursuit of the fc
trade. Their settlements were mainly trading posts. Their cofec-
ists were not farmers but trappers, woodrangers, c t urc ur* i.% htU
who married Indian women, and formed a mixed race knows as
the bois bruits. Not a few of the leaders, notably Samuel dr
Champlain (q.v.), who founded Quebec in 1608, were brave
ingenious men, but the population provided no basis for a lasd'ex
colony. It was adventurous, small, scattered and unstable. The
religious impulse which was so strong both in the Spanish and the
English colonies was prominent in the French, but in the most
fatal form. Pious people were eager to bring about the conversna
of the Indians, and were zealously served by missionaries. The
Jesuits, whose first appearance in New France dates from z6u.
were active and devoted. Their aim was to reduce the fierce Red
men to a state of childlike docility to priests, and they discouraged
all colonization in their neighbourhood. It was true that the most
active French colonial element, the trappers, were barbarized
by the natives, and that the pursuit of the fur trade and other
causes had brought the French into sharp collision with the most
formidable of the native races, the confederation known as the
Five (or Six) Nations. During the reign of Louis XI V„ after
1660, the French government paid great attention to Canada, bet
not in a way capable of leading to the formation of a colony. Tat
king was as intent as the rulers of Spain had been to keep the
American possessions free from all taint of heresy. Therefore he
carried on the policy of excluding the Huguenots — the only
colonizing element among his subjects, — and drove them into the
English plantations. A small handful of obedient peasants.
priest-ridden and over-administered, formed the basis of the
colony. On this narrow foundation was raised a vast super-
structure, ecclesiastical, administrative and military. His priests.
and his officials civil and military, gave the French king many
daring explorers. While the English colonies were slowly cfcggfcg
their way, taking firm hold of the soil, and growing in number*,
from the sea to the Alleghanies, French missionaries and exploreo
had ranged far and wide. In 1682 Robert Cavdier, siear de h
Salle, who had already explored the Ohio, sailed down the Missb-
sippi and took possession of the region at the mouth by the naae
of Louisiana.
The problem which was to be settled by a century of strife was
now posed. On the one hand were the English plantations, popo-
lated, cultivated, profitable, stretching along the east coast of
North America; on the other were the Canadian settlemects.
poverty-stricken, empty, over-offidalled, a cause of constaat
expense to the home government, and, at a vast distance, these
of Louisiana, struggling and bankrupt The French remedy for
an unsuccessful colony has always been to annex more territory.
and forestall a possible rival. Therefore the French government
strove to unite the beggarly settlements in Canada and Loussiaaa
by setting up posts all along the Ohio and the Mississippi, in order
to confine the English between the Alleghanies and the sea.
The political history of North America till 1763 is mainly the
story of the pressure of the English colonies on this paper barrier.
As regards Spanish America, England was content to profit by the
AsUnto (q.v.) treaty, which gave her the monopoly of slave-
hunting for the Spanish colonies and an opening for contrabass
trade. In the river Plate region, where the dissensions of
Spaniards and Portuguese afforded another opening, EngSih
traders smuggled. The Spaniards, with monstrous fatuity,
refused to make use of the superb waterways provided by
the Parana and Paraguay, and endeavoured to stifle all trade.
England's main struggle was with France. It was prolonged
by her entanglement in European disputes and by political causa,
by the want of co-operation among the English colonies and thru
jealousy of control by the home government. The organization
of the French colonies, though industrially ruinous, gave theo
HIST0RY1
AMERICA
809
the command of more available military forces than were at
the disposal of the English. Thus the fight dragged on, and was
constantly maintained in Acadia, where the sovereignty had been
early disputed, and the border never properly settled. At last,
when under the leadership of the elder Pitt (see Chatham, Earl
or) England set to work resolutely to force a final settlement,
the end came. The British navy cut off the French from all help
from home, and after a gallant struggle, their dominion in Canada
was conquered, and the French retired from the North American
continent. They surrendered Louisiana to Spain, which had
suffered much in an attempt to help them, and their possessions
in America were reduced to their islands in the West Indies
and French Guiana.
The fall of the French dominion on the continent of North
America was practically the beginning of the existence of
independent nations of European origin in the New World. The
causes which led to the revolt of the Plantations, the political and
military history of the War of Independence, are dealt with under
the heading of United States (History) and American War of
Independence. The significance of these great events in the
general history of America is that from 1783 onwards there was,
in the New World, an autonomous community not wholly unified
at once, nor without strife, but self-governing and self -subsisting,
in entire separation from European control. Such a polity, sur-
rounded as it was by territory dependent on European sovereigns,
could not be without a profound influence on its neighbours. Of
deliberate direct action there was not much, nor was it needed.
The peoples of the thirteen states which had secured emancipation
from British sovereignty were wisely intent on framing their own
Federal Union, and in taking effective possession of the vast terri-
tories in the Ohio region and beyond the Mississippi But their
example worked. Their independence tempted, their prosperity
stimulated. From the freedom of the United States came the
revolt of Spanish America, and the grant by Great Britain to
Canada of the amplest rights of self-government
' The effect which the establishment of the great northern re-
public was bound to have on their own colonies was not unknown
to the wiser among the rulers of Spain. They took, however, few
and weak steps to counteract the visible peril During the later
1 7 th century and the whole of the x8th, the history of the Spanish
colonics and of the Portuguese in Brazil, was not, as has often
been said, one of pure stagnation. Apart from such a peculiar
development as the rise, formation and fall of the Jesuit missions
in Paraguay, there was growth and change. The Creole popula-
tion increased and was steadily recruited from home. Apart from
settlers who came for trade, the flow of government officials, and
soldiers, both officers and men, ended generally in recruiting the
Creole element The newcomers married in the country, and died
there, leaving their families to grow up Americans. San Martin,
the military leader of Buenos Aire! in the revolt, was the son of a
Spanish army officer and a Creole mother, and he is quoted as the
example of thousands. He was educated in Spain, and began as
an officer in the Spanish army. Increasing numbers of Creoles
came home for education, and though they rarely went beyond
Spain, yet Spain itself was being permeated by the influence of
French philosophic and economic writers. The Creoles brought
back new ideas. Slow as the Spanish government was to move,
and obstinately as it clung to old ways, it was forced to remove
restrictions on trade, largely by the discovery that it could not
prevent smuggling, which was, in fact, carried on with the con-
nivance of its own corrupt officials. The attempt to prevent all
trade on the river Plate was given up, and a vigorous commercial
community arose. A revolt of the Indians in Peru in 1 780, which
was savagely suppressed, forced the government to take note
of the abuses of its colonial administration. Many reforms were
introduced. Spanish America was never so well governed as at
the end of the 18th century, and was on the whole prosperous.
But the reforms and concessions of Spain came too late. In
commerce it had to compete with the highly developed maritime
industry of Great Britain. In government it had to meet with the
growing discontent of the Creoles, who found themselves treated
as children, and their country looked on as a milch cow. The
wars of the French Revolution and of the emperor Napoleon, in
which Spain was entangled, interrupted its communications with
its colonies, and weakened its hold on them. The defeat, in 1806
and 1807, of two British expeditions to Buenos Aires and Monte-
video, resulting in the capitulation of the English force, gave a
great impulse to the self-reliance of the colonists, to whom the
credit of the victory entirely belonged. When the intervention
of Napoleon in Spain plunged the mother country into anarchy,
the colonists began to act for themselves. They were still loyal,
but they were no longer passive. The brutality of some Spanish
governors on the spot provoked anger. The cortes assembled in
Cadiz, being under the influence of the merchants and mob, could
make no concessions, and all Spanish America flamed into revolt.
For the details of the struggle the reader must refer to the articles
Argentina, Bolivia, Chile, Colombia, Ecuador, Panama,
Peru, Paraguay, Uruguay, Venezuela. Brazil followed the
same course in a milder way and a little later. The struggle of
Spanish America for independence lasted from 1810 to 1826.
This vast extension of the area of independence in America
could not but have its proportionate effect on the general balance
of power among nations. So long as Spain retained her colonies
on the mainland, while England held Canada, and the English,
Dutch and French had possessions in Guiana, the New World must
have remained in political dependence on the Old. When the
Spanish colonies secured effective independence, and even before
their freedom was formally recognized, foreign sovereignty became
at once the exception in America. The change thus established
de facto owed its first diplomatic consecration to the develop-
ments of international politics in the Old World. The committee
of the great powers which, since the downfall of Napoleon, had
succeeded to the authority which he had usurped in Europe (see
Europe: History)* was for the few years of its unbroken exist-
ence fully occupied with the task of preserving the " European
Confederation " from the peril to its peace of renewed revolution-
ary outbreaks. AsearlyasthecongressofAix-la-Chapelle(i8i8),
however, the question of the relations of Spain and her colonies
had been brought up and the suggestion made of concerted inter-
vention, to put an end to a state of things scandalous in itself
and dangerous, if only by force of example, to the monarchical
principle. The proposal came to nothing, and fared no better
when revived at subsequent conferences, owing to the opposition
of Great Britain and of Spain herself. Spanish pride resented the
interference of an alliance in which Spain had no part; Great
Britain could not afford to allow any action to be taken which
might end in the re-establishment of the old Spanish colonial
system and the destruction of the considerable British trade, still
nominally contraband, which had grown up with the colonies
during the troubles. Had the Spanish government frankly
accepted the situation and acknowledged the trade as legitimate,
England would have had no objection to the re-establishment of
the Spanish sovereignty in America. But the stubborn blindness
of Ferdinand VII. and his ministers made any such solution
impossible, and, before the meeting of the congress of Verona, in
1822, Castlereagh had realized the eventual necessity of recogniz-
ing the independence of the South American states. Matters
were brought to a crisis by the outcome of the Verona conferences
(see Verona, Congress or), and the re-establishment, in 1823, of
the absolute power of the king in Spain by French arms and under
French influence, the logical consequence of which seemed to be
the reconquest, with the aid of France, of the Spanish colonies.
Great Britain could not afford to stand aside and watch the
accomplishment of an ambition to prevent which she had, at
immense sacrifice of blood and treasure, overthrown the power
of Louis XIV. and of Napoleon. She had exhausted every art
of diplomatic obstruction to the aggressive action of France;
her counterstroke to the unexpectedly easy victory of the
French arms was the formal recognition of the revolted colonies
as independent states. " If France has Spain," cried Canning in
parliament, " at least it shall be Spain without the Indies. We
have called a New World into existence to redress the balance of
the Old."
On the 23rd of July 1824. « commercial treaty was signed
8io
AMERICA
{ETHNOLOGY
between Great Britain and Brazil; Colombia and Mexico were
acknowledged in December of the same year; and the recognition
of the other states followed, as each was able to give guarantees
of stable government. Meanwhile the United States, acting in
harmony, but not in formal co-operation, with England, had taken
decisive action. President Monroe, in his message to Congress on
the 2nd of December 1823, laid down the rule that no part of
America was any longer res nullius, or open to colonial settlement.
Though the vast ultimate consequences of this Sudden appearance
of the great western republic in the arena of international politics
were not realized even by those in sympathy with Monroe's action,
the weight of the United States thrown into the scale on the side of
Great Britain made any effective protest by the European powers
impossible; Russia, Austria and Prussia contented themselves
with joining in a mild expression of regret that the action of Great
Britain " tended to encourage that revolutionary spirit it had
been found so difficult to control in Europe." Great Britain and
the United States were, indeed, not in complete agreement as to
the legitimacy of fresh colonial settlements in the New World, but
they were practically resolved that nobody should make any new
settlements except themselves. From President Monroe's de-
claration has grown up what is now known as the Monroe Doctrine
(q.v.) , which, in substance, insists that America forms a separate
system apart from Europe, wherein still existing European
possessions may be tolerated, but on the understanding that no
extension of them, and no establishment of European control
over a nominally independent American state, will be allowed.
The Monroe Doctrine is indeed the recognition, rather than
the cause, of undeniable fact. Europe is still possessed of some
measure of sovereign power in the New World, in Canada, in
Guiana and in the West Indian islands. But Canada is bound
only by a voluntary allegiance, Guiana is unimportant, and in the
West Indian islands, where the independence of Hayti and the loss
of Cuba and Porto Rico by Spain have diminished the European
sphere, European dominion is only a survival of the colonial epoch.
America, North and South, docs form a separate system. Within
that system power is divided as it has not been in Europe since
the fall of the Roman empire. On the one hand are the United
States and Canada. On the other are all the states formed out of
the colonial empires of Spain and Portugal. The states of the
American Union are non-tropical, adapted to the development of
European races, not mixed with Indian blood, and possessed
by long inheritance of the machinery needed for the successful
conduct of self-government They grew during the z 9th century in
population and wealth at a rate that placed them far ahead of the
Spanish and Portuguese states, which in the year 1800 were the
richer and the more populous. The Spanish and Portuguese
states of America are mainly tropical, and therefore ill adapted to
the health of a white race. Their population is divided between a
white minority, among whom there are to be found strains of
Indian blood, and a coloured majority, sometimes docile and in-
dustrious, sometimes mere savages. They inherited no machinery
of self-government Townships governed by dose corporations,
and all embedded in the despotic power of the crown, presented
none of the elements out of which a commonwealth could be
formed. It was inevitable that in the early stages of their history,
the so-called Latin communities should fall under the control of
" the single person," and no less inevitable that he should be a
soldier. The sword and military discipline supplied the only
effective instruments of government. It would have been a
miracle if the first generation of Mexican and South American
history had not been anarchical. And though in recent years
Spanish America has seemingly settled down, and republican
institutions have followed upon long periods of continual
revolution, yet over the American continent as a whole there is
an overwhelming predominance, material and intellectual, of the
communities of English speech and politically of English origin.
Authoritirs.— Separate bibliographies will be found under the
headings of the separate states. Amid the plethora of books, the
reader cannot do better than consult the Narrative and Critical
History of America, edited by Justin Winsor (1886- 1889), in eight
large octavo volumes, in which all the chapters are supplied with
copious and carefully compiled bibliographies. (D. H.) ■
III. Ethnology omd Archaeology.— A summary account b bar
given of the American aborigines, who are discussed in sua
detail under Indians, North Amejucan. Whether
with Payne it is assumed that in some remote time a ***
speechless anthropoid passed over a land bridge, now ^ m ^ mtk
the Bering Sea, which then sank behind him; or with
W. Boyd Dawkins and Brinton, that the French cave man as*
hither by way of Iceland; or with Keane, that two sDhvarie&cs.
the long-headed Eskimo-Botocudo type and the Mexican roud-
headed type, prior to all cultural developments, reached the Net
World, one by Iceland, the other by Bering Sea; or that Malayoid
wanderers were stranded on the coast of South America; or tbi
no breach of continuity has occurred since first the march d
tribes began this way— ethnologists agree that the aborigines d
the western came from the eastern hemisphere^and there b hckist
any biological evidence of Caucasoid or Negroid blood Bowing a
the veins of Americans before the invasions of >»*««*-«• tioa.
The time question is one of geology.
Following Notes and Queries on Anthropology, published by the
British Association for the Advancement of Science, the study ci
the American aborigines divides itself into two parts: that re-
lating to their biology, and that relating to their culture. In tk
four subdivisions of humanity based on the hair, the American
are straight-haired or Mongoloid. But it will free this account a
them from embarrassments if they be looked upon as a distract
subspecies of Homo sapiens. Occupying 135 degrees of latitude
living on the shores of frozen or of tropical waters; at altitude
varying from sea-level to several thousands of feet; in forest
grassy prairies or deserts; here starved, there in plenty; with 1
night here of six months' duration, there twelve hours long] bat
among health-givjng winds, and there cursed with malaris— tJba
brown man became, in different culture provinces, brunette 01
black, tall or short, long-headed or short-headed, and developed
on his own hemisphere variations from an average type.
Since the tribes practised far more in-breeding than out-breed-
ing, the tendency was toward forming not only verbal linguistic
groups, but biological varieties; the weaker the tribe, the fewer
the captures, the greater the isolation and harder the condition
— producing dolichocephaly, dwarfism and other retrogressm
characteristics. The student will find differences among anthro-
pologists in the interpretation of these marks — some averring thu
comparative anatomy is worthless as a means of subdmdmg the
American subspecies, others that biological variations point to
different Old World origins, a third class believing these stractsni
variations to be of the soil. The high check-bone and the hawkV
bill nose are universally distributed in the two Americas; so aha
are proportions between parts of the body, and the frequency cf
certain abnormalities of the skull, the hyoid bone, the humera
and the tibia. Viability, by which are meant fecundity, loagrvif>
and vigour, was low in average. The death-rate was high, throng
lack of proper weaning foods, and hard life. The readiness wi:S
which the American Indian succumbed to disease is well knova
For these reasons there was not, outside of southern Mexkc
northern Central America and Peru, a dense population. la tk
whole hemisphere there were not over ten million souls.
The materials for studying the American man bioJogfcaBy are
abundant in the United States National Museum in Washington
thePeabody Museum, at Cambridge, Massachusetts; the Amerkxa
Museum of Natural History, New York; the Academy cf
Sciences and the Free Museum of Arts and Sciences, Phfladeiphju
Pennsylvania; the Field Museum in Chicago; the Katies*!
Museum, city of Mexico, and the Museum of La Plata, la
Europe there are excellent collections in London, Cambridge,
Paris, Berlin, St Petersburg and Prague.
Professor Putnam measured for the World's Columbian Ex-
position 1700 living Indians, and the results have been stunsed
up by Boas. The breadth of the Indian face is one centim*' *
more than that of the whites, and the half-breeds are* nearer the
Indian standard; this last is true also of colour in the skin,e?«
and hair. In stature, the tall tribes exceed 170 cm.; nadd9e
suture ranges between 166 and 170; and short tribes arc under
266 cm. The Indians are on the whole a tall peopk. Tribes that
ETHNOLOGY]
AMERICA
811
bave changed residence have changed stature. The tallest
statures are on the plains in both Americas. The mountains of
the south-east and of the west reveal the shortest statures. The
whole Mississippi valley was occupied by tall peoples. The
Athapascans of New Mexico are of middle stature, the Pueblo
peoples are short. The Shoshoni, Shahaptin and Salish tribes are
of middle stature; on the coast of British Columbia, Puget
Sound, in Oregon, and northern California, are the shortest of
all the North Americans save the Eskimo, while among them,
on the Columbia, are taller tribes. The comparison of cranial
indexes is rendered difficult by intentional flattening of the
forehead and undesigned flattening of the occiput by the hard
cradle-board. The Mississippi valley tribes are nearly brachy-
cephalic; the index increases around the Great Lakes, and lessens
farther east The eastern Eskimo are dolichocephalic, the western
are less so, and the Aleuts brachycephalic On the North Paciflc
coast, and in spots down to the Rio Grande, are short heads, but
scattered among these are long heads, frequent in southern
California, but seen northward to Oregon, as well as in Sonora
and some Rio Grande pueblos.
The same variety of index exists in South America. In the
regions of greatest linguistic mixture is the greatest heterogeneity
of cephalic index.
The concepts on which the peoples of the Old World have been
classified, such as stature, colour, skeletal measurements, nation-
w - ality, and so on, cannot as yet be used in America with
thm success. The only basis of division practicable is
language, which must be kept separate in the mind
from the others. However, before the conquest, in no other part
of the globe did language tally so nearly with kinship. Marriage
was exogamic among dans in a tribe, but practically, though not
wholly, endogamic as between tribes, wife and slave capture being
common in places. In his family tree of Homo A mericanus Keane
follows out such a plan, placing the chief linguistic family names
on the main limbs, North American on one side, and South
American on the other. Deniker groups mankind into twenty-
nine races and sub-races. Americans are numbered thus: —
sx, South American sub-race; Palaeo- Americans and South
Americans, 22, North American sub-race; tall, roesocephalic.
ti, Central American race; short, brachycephalic 24, Pata-
gonian race; tall, brachycephalic 25, Eskimo race; short,
dolichocephalic.
Farrand speaks of physical, linguistic, geographic, and cultural
criteria, the first two the more exact, the latter more convenient
and sometimes the only feasible bases.
Zoologists divide the earth into biological areas or regions, so
both archaeologists and ethnologists may find it convenient to
have in mind some such scheme of provinces as the
trvJtfmt. following, named partly after the dominant ethnic
groups. — Eskimo, on Arctic shores; Dine* (Tinneh),
in north-western Canada; Algonquin-Iroquois, Canada and
eastern United States; Sioux, plains of the west; Maskhogee,
Gulf States, Tlinkit-Haida, North Pacific coast; Salish-Chinook,
Fraser-Columbia coasts and basins; Shoshoni, interior basin;
California-Oregon, mixed tribes; Pueblo province, south-
western United States and northern Mexico; Nahuatla-Maya,
southern Mexico and Central America; Chibcha-Kechua, the
Cordilleras of South America; Carib-Arawak, about Caribbean
Sea; Tupi-Guarani, Amazon drainage; Araucanian, Pampas;
Patagonian, peninsula; Fuegian, Magellan Strait. It is neces-
sary to use geographical terms in the case of California and the
North Pacific, the Caucasus or cloaca gentium of the western
hemisphere, where were pocketed forty out of one hundred or
more families of native tribes. The same is true in a limited
sense of Matto Grosso. That these areas had deep significance
for the native races is shown by the results, both in biology and
culture. The presence or absence of useful minerals, plants and
animals rendered some congenial, others unfriendly; some areas
were the patrons of virile occupations, others of feminine pursuits.
Among the languages of America great differences exist in the
sounds used. A collection of all the phonetic elements exhausts
the standard alphabets and calls for new letters. A comparison
of one family with another shows also that some are vocalic and
soft, others wide in the range of sounds, while a third set are
harsh and guttural, the speaking of them (according , m ^ r ^ m
to Payne) resembling coughing, barking and sneezing.
Powell also thinks that man lived in America before be acquired
articulate speech. The utterance of these speech elements in
definite order constitutes the roots and sentences of the various
tongues. From the manner of assemblage, all American languages
are agglutinative, or hotophrastic, but they should not be called
polysynthetic or incorporative or inflexional. They were more
or less on the way to such organized forms, in which the world's
literatures are preserved. As in all other languages, so in those of
aboriginal America, the sentence is the unit. Words and phrases
are the organic parts of the sentence, on which, therefore, the
languages are classified. 1 1 is on this basis of sentential elements
that Powell has arranged the linguistic families of North
America. He has brought together, in the Bureau of American
Ethnology in Washington, many hundreds of manuscripts,
written by travellers, traders, missionaries, and scholars; and,
better still, in response to circulars, carefully prepared vocabu-
laries, texts and long native stories have been written out by
trained collectors. A corps of specialists— Boas, Dall, Dorsey,
Gatschet, Hewitt, Mooney, Pilling, J. R. Swanton— have studied
many of these languages analytically and comparatively. Other
institutional investigations have been prosecuted, the result of all
which will be an intelligent comprehension of the philology of a
primitive race.
Attention is frequently called to the large number of linguistic
families in America, nearly 200 having been named, embracing
over 1000 languages and dialects. A few of them, how- Umnttdc
ever, occupied the greater part of lands both north 52KET
and south of Panama; the others were encysted in the
territory of the prevailing families, or concealed in euls-de-sac of
the mountains. They are, through poverty of material, unclassed
languages, merely outstanding phenomena. Factions separated
from the parent body developed dialects or languages by contact,
intermarriage and incorporation with foreign tribes. To the old-
time belief that languages multiplied by splitting and colonizing,
must be added the theory that languages were formerly more
numerous, and that those of the Americans were formed by com-
bining.
The families of North America, Middle America and South
America are here given in alphabetical order, the prevailing ones
in small capitals:—
Algonquin, E. Can., N. Atlantic States, middle States, middle
western States; Athapascan, N.W. Can.. Alaska. Wash., Or.,
Cat., Ariz., Mex.; Attacapan. La.; Beothukan, Nova North
Scotia ; Caddoan, Tex., Neb., Dak. ; Chimakuan. Wash. ; America
Chimarikan, N. Cal.; Chimmesyan, Brit. Col.; Chinoo-
kan. Or.; Chitimachan. La.; Chumashan, S. Cal.; Coahuiltccan,
Tex.; Copehan. N. Cal.; Costanoan, Cal.; Eskimauan. Arctic
province; Essclenian, Cal.; Iroquoian. N.Y., N.C., Kalapooian.
Or.; Karankawan, Tex.: Kbresan, N. Mex.; Kiowan, Neb.,
Kitunah/pn, Brit. Col.; Kolusch an, S. Alaska; Kulanapan, Cal.;
Kusan, Cal.; Lutuamian, Or.; Mariposan, Cal.; Moquctumnan,
Cal.; Muskhogban, Gulf States; Natchesan, Miss.; Palaihnihan.
Cal.; Pi man, Ariz.; Pujunan, Cal.; Quoratean. Or.; Salinan,
Cal.; Salish an, Brit. Col.; Sastcan, Or.; Shahaptian, Or.;
Siioshonban, Interior Basin; Siouan, Mo. Valley; Skittagetan.
Brit. Col.; Takilman. Or.; Tanyoan, Mcx.; Timuquanan, Fla.;
Tonikan, Miss.; Tonkawan, Tex.; Uchean, Ga., Waiilatpuan,
Or.; Wakashan, Vancouver I.; Wa&hoan, Nev.; Weitspekan, Or.;
Wishoskan, Cal. ; Yakonan, Or.; Yanan, Or.; Yukian, Cal.; Yuman.
L. Cal.; Zunyan, N. Mex.
Chapanecan, Chi.; Chinantecan, Oax.; Chontalan, S. Mex.;
Huatusan, Nic; Huavean. Tehuant.; Lencan. Hon.. Mayan, Yuc.
and Guat. ; N ahuatlan, Mcx. ; Otomitlan, Cen. Mex. ; Mtddt»
Raman, Hond.; Serian, Tiburon I.; Subtiaban, Nic; Amtrkm.
Tarascan, Mich.; Tehuantepecan, Isthmus; Tequist-
latecan, Oax.; Totonacan, Mex.; Triquian, S. Mex., Ulvan,
Nic; Xicaquean, Hond.; Zapotecan, Oax.; Zoouban. Tehuant
Alikulufan, T. del Fuego; Arauan, R. Purus; Arawakian. E.
Andes; Atacamenyan, S. Peru; Araucanian, Pampas; Aymaran,
Peru; Barbacoan, Colombia; Betoyan, Bogota; Cani- South
chanan, Bolivia; Carahan. S. Brazil; Caribian, around AmtHcm.
Caribbean Sea; Catamarenyan, Chaco; Changuinan,
Panama; Charruan, Parana R., Chibchan. Colombia; Churoyan.
Orinoco R.; Coconucan, Colombia; Cunan, Panama; Guaycuruan.
8l2
AMERICA
[ARCHAEOLOGY
Paraguay R.; Jivaroan, Ecuador; Kbchuan, Peru; Laman,
N.E. Peru; Lulean, Vermejo R.; Mainan, S. Ecuador; Matacoan,
Vermejo R.; Mocoan, Colombia; Mowtenan. E. Bolivia; On an,
T. del Fuego; Paaiquitan. Colombia; Panoan, Ucayali R., Peru;
Payaguan, Chaco; Puquinan, Titkaca L.; Samucan, Bolivia;
Tacanan, N. Bolivia; Tapuyan, Brazil; Timotean, Venezuela;
Tun an, Amazon R.; Tzonbc an, Patagonia; Yahoan.T. del Fuego;
Yuncan, Truxiilo, Peru; Yurucarian. E. Bolivia; Zaparoan,
Ecuador.
Written language was largely bierograpbic and heroic The
drama, the cult image, the pictograph, the synecdochic picture,
the tdeaglyph, were steps in a progress without a break. The
warrior painted the story of conflicts on his robe only in part, to
help him recount the history of his life; the Eskimo etched the
prompters of his legend on ivory; the Tlinkit carved them on his
totem post; the women fixed them in pottery, basketry, or
blankets. At last, the central advanced tribes made the names
of the abbreviated pictures useful in other connexions, and were
far on the way to a syllabary. Intertribal communication was
through gestures; it may be, survivals of a primordial speech,
antedating the differentiated spoken languages. See publications
of the Bureau of American Ethnology, by F. W. Hodge (1006);
Farrand, Basis of Am. History, chap, xviii. ; and Oroxco y Bern,
Gcogrofia de las lenguas, 6*c. (Mexico, 1868).
To supply their wants the Americans invented modifications
in natural materials, the working of which was their industries.
The vast collections in richly endowed European and
JJy.**" American museums are the witnessesand types of these.
There is danger of confounding the products of native
industries. The following classes must be carefully discrimin-
ated.— (a) pre-Columbian,(6) Columbian, (c) pre-conUct, (J) first
contact, («) post-contact, (/) present, and (*) spurious. Pre-
Columbian or pre-historic material is further classified into that
which had been used by Indians before the discovery, and such as
is claimed to be of a prior geological period. Columbian, or x 5th-
century material, stUl exists in museums of Europe and America,
and good descriptions are to be found in the writings of contem-
porary historians. Pre-contact material is such as continued to
exist in any tribe down to the time when they were touched by
the presence of the trade of the whites. In some tribes this would
bring the student very near to tbe present time; for example,
before Stcinen, the Indians in Matto Grosso were in the pre-
contact period. Post-contact material is genuine Indian work
more or less influenced by acculturation. It is interesting in this
connexion to study also first contact in its lists of articles, and
the effects produced upon aboriginal minds and methods. For
example, a tribe that would jump at iron arrow-heads stoutly
declined to modify the shafts. Present material is such as the
Indian tribes of the two Americas are making to-day. Spurious
material includes all that mass of objects made by whites and sold
as of Indian manufacture; some of it follows native models and
methods; the rest is fraudulent and pernicious. The question
whether similarities in technology argue for contact of tribes, or
whether they merely show corresponding states of culture, with
modifications produced by environment, divides ethnologists.
(See Farrand, chap, xviii.)
The study of mechanics involves materials, tools, processes and
products. No iron tools existed in America before the invasion of
AkaHti mi ^* e wnites - Mineral, vegetable and animal substances,
mtrt!»nki >°ft and hard, were wrought into the supply of wants
by means of tools and apparatus of stone, wood and
bone — tools for cutting, or edged tools; tools for abrading and
smoothing the surfaces of substances, like planes, rasps and sand-
paper; tools for striking, that is, pounding for the sake of pound-
ing, or for crushing and fracturing violently; perforating tools;
devices for grasping and holding firmly. These varied in the
different culture provinces according to the natural supply, and
the presence or absence of good tool material counted for as much
as the presence or absence of good substances on which to work.
As a means of grading progress among the various tribes, the tool
is valuable both in its working part and its halting, or manual
part. Fire drills were universal
Besides chipped stone knives, the teeth of rodents, sharks, and
other animals served an excellent purpose. In north-vex
America and in the Caribbean area the adze was highly de v eloped.
In Mexico, Colombia and Peru the cutting of friable stoat vita
tough volcanic hammers and chisels, as well as rode metaBvrrjr.
obtained, but the evidences of smelting are not cooyincBf
Engineering devices were almost wanting. The Eskimo lifted as
weighted boat with sheer-legs made of two paddl es ; he also had
a tackle without sheaves, formed by reaving a greased tbscf
through slits cut in the hide of a walrus. The north-west oast
Indians hoisted the logs that formed the plates of their hoax
frames into position with skids and parbuckles of rope. The
architectural Mexicans, Central Americans, and especially tfae
Peruvians, had no derricks or other hoisting devices, hot roBed
great stones into place along prepared ways and up in c lin ed pbaa
of earth, which were afterwards removed. In building the forties
of Sacsahuaman, heights had to be scaled; in Tiahuanaco store
weighing 400 tons were carried seventeen miles; in the edifice U
Ollantaytambo not only were large stones hauled up aaasceat,
but were fitted perfectly. The moving of vast objects by these
simple processes shows what great numbers of men could be
enlisted in a single effort, and how high a grade of goveraincs! ft
was which could hold them together and feed them. In Arizeei.
Mexico and Peru, reservoirs and aqueducts prove that hydr>
techny was understood. (Hodge, Am. Anikrop. vi 313.)
Time-keeping devices were not common. Sun-dials ar.d
calendar monuments were known among the more advanced
tribes. Fractional portions of time were gauged by shadow a=;
time of day indicated by the position of the sun with reference id
natural features. No standards of weighing or ineasuring wen
known, but the parts of the body were tbe units, and money as-
sisted in rare and durable vegetable and animal substances, **•:&
scarcely reached the dignity of a mechanism of exchange. If tu
interpretation of the Maya calculiform glyphs be trmtweni?.
these people had carried their numeral system into the hundred
of thousands and devised symbols for recording sack btgk
numbers. (See Bulletin a8, Bur. Am. Eiknol.)
The Americans were, in most places, flesh-eaters. The air, tte
waters and the land were their base of supplies, and canaihafta,
it is admitted, was widespread. With this animal diet ^^
everywhere vegetable substances were mixed, even in
the boreal regions. Where the temperature allowed, vegeubk
diet increased, and fruits, seeds and roots were laid under trior*
Storage was common, and also the drying of ripened fruits. TV
most favoured areas were those where corn and other plants canJt
be artificially produced, and there barbaric cultures were ebbw-
ated. This farming was of the rudest kind. Plots of grot-i
were burned over, trees were girdled, and seeds were planted \j
means of sharpened sticks. The first year the crop would be He
from weeds, tbe second year only those grew whose seeds »c»
wafted or carried by birds, the third year the crop required hotel
which was done with sticks, and then the space was abancVfld
for new ground. Irrigation and terrace culture were practacd
at several points on the Pacific slope from Arizona to Peru. Vt
steps along which plant and animal domestication passed to-
wards in artificiality are graphically illustrated in the abonpaa
food quest
Except in the boreal areas the breech-clout was nearly ujuveral
with men, and the cincture or short petticoat with women. Eva
in Mexican and Mayan sculptures the gods are arrayed
in gorgeous breech-clouts. The foot-gear in the tropics 2rS»»
was the sandal, and, passing northward, the moccasin, met
becoming the long boot in the Arctic. Trousers and the
blouse were known only among the Eskimo, and it b difficult tt
say how much these have been modified by contact. Leggep
and skin robes took their place southward, giving way at last \n
the nearly nude. Head coverings also were gradually tabooed
south of the 49th parallel Tattooing and painting the body *r*
well-nigh universal. Labrets, i.e. pieces of bone, stone, shell, *r .
were worn as ornaments in the lip (Latin, labrum) or chert **
Eskimo, Tlinkit, Nahuatlas and tribes on the Bfaxfliaa cos*
For ceremonial purposes all American tribes were expert is tar
rnasquerade and dramatic apparel A study of these ia tsc
ARCHAE0L0CY1
AMERICA
8i3
historic tribes makes plain the motives in gorgeous Mexican
sculptures.
The tribal system of family organization, universal in America,
dominated the dwelling. The Eskimo underground houses of sod
Hmbu^ an< * snow » tne D£ne" (Tinneh) and Sioux bunch of bark
Uoam or skin wigwams, the Pawnee earth lodge, the Iroquois
long house, the Tlinkit great plank house, the Pueblo
with its honeycomb of chambers, the small groups of thatched
houses in tropical America and the Patagonian toldos of skin are
examples. The Indian habitation was made up of this composite
abode, with whatever out-structures and garden plots were
needed. A group of abodes, however joined together, constituted
the village or home of the tribe, and there was added to these a
town hall or large assembly structure where men gathered and
gossiped, and where all dramatic and religious ceremonies were
held. Powell contends that in a proper sense none of the Indian
tribes was nomadic, but that, governed by water-supply, bad
seasons and superstition (and discomfort from vermin must be
added), even the Pueblo tribes often tore down and rebuilt their
domiciles. The fur trade, the horse, the gun, disturbed the sedent-
ary habit of American tribes. Little attention was paid to furni-
t ure. In the smoke- infested wigwam and hut the ground was the
best place for sitting or sleeping. The communal houses of the
Pacific coast had bunks. The hammock was universal in the
tropics, and chairs of wood or stone. Eating was from the pot,
with the hand or spoon. Tables, knives, forks and other prandial
apparatus were as lacking as they were in the palaces of kings a
few centuries before. (Morgan, Houses and House Life; Farrand,
p. 386.)
Stone-working was universal in America. The tribes quarried
by means of crowbars and picks of wood and bone. They split
the silicious rocks with stonehammers,and then chipped
.J ^ly them into shape with bone tools. Soapstonc for pot-
tery was partly cut into the desired shape in the native
ledge, broken or prised loose, and afterwards scraped into form.
Paint was excavated with the ubiquitous digging-stick, and
rubbed fine on stones with water or grease. For polished stone-
work the material was pecked by blows, ground with other stones,
and smoothed with fine material. Sawing was done by means of
sand or with a thin piece of harder stuff. Boring was effected with
the sand-drill; the hardest rocks may have been pierced with
specially hard sand. At any rate stones were sawed, shaped,
polished, carved and perforated, not only by the Mexicans, but
among other tribes. For building purposes stones were got out,
dressed, carved and sculptured with stone hammers and chisels
made of hard and tenacious rock. Stone-cutters' tools of metal
are not known to have existed, and they were not needed. Their
quarrying and stone-working were most wasteful. Those localities
where chipping was done reveal hundreds of tons of splinters and
failures, and these are often counted as ruder implements of an
earlier time. The dressed stones for great buildings were pecked
out of the ledges, and broken off with levers in pieces much too
large for their needs. (McGuire, " The Stone Hammer," Am.
Anthrop. iv.» 1801; Holmes, Archaeological Studies; see Hodge's
List, Bur. Am. Ethnol., 1906, and Handbook.)
Metals were treated as malleable stones by the American ab-
origines. No evidence of smelting ores with fluxes is offered, but
_. casting from metal melted in open fires is assumed.
Gold, silver, copper, pure or mixed with tin or silver,
are to be found here and there in both continents, and
nuggets were objects of worship. Tools and appliances for work-
ing metals were of the rudest kind, and if moulds for casting were
employed these were broken up; at least no museum contains
samples of them, and the processes are not described. In the
Arctic and Pacific coast provinces, about Lake 'Superior, in
Virginia and North Carolina, as well as in ruder parts of Mexico
and South America, metals were cold-hammered into plates,
weapons, rod? and wire, ground and polished, fashioned into
carved blocks of hard, tenacious stone by pressure or blow, over-
laid, cold-welded and plated. Soldering, brazing and the blow-
pipe in the Cordilleran provinces are suspected, but the evidence
of their existence must be further examined. A deal of study has
been devoted to the cunning Tubal Cains, the surprising produc-
tions of whose handiwork have been recovered in the art provinces
of Mexico and the Cordilleras, especially in Chiriqui, between
Costa Rica and Colombia. It must be admitted, however, that
both the tools and the processes have escaped the archaeologist,
as they did " the ablest goldsmiths in Spain, for they never could
conceive how they had been made, there being no sign of a
hammer or an engraver or any other instrument used by them,
the Indians having none such" (Herrera).
The potter's wheel did not exist in the western world, but it
was almost invented. Time and muscle, knack and touch, a
trained eye and brain and an unlimited array of patterns Al/f _ v
hanging on fancy's walls, aided by a box of dry sand, F&tt * nr '
were competent to give the charming results. No more striking
contrast can be found between forlorn conditions and refined art
products. Art in clay was far from universal in the two Americas.
The Eskimo on Bering Sea had learned to model shallow bowls for
lamps. No pottery existed in Athapascan boundaries. Algonquin-
Iroquois tribes made creditable ware in Canada and eastern
United States. Muskhogean tribes were potters, but Siouan
tribes, as a rule, in all the Mississippi drainage were not. In their
area, however, dwelt day-working tribes, and the Mandans had
the art. Moreover, the mound-builders in the eastern half of this
vast plain, being sedentary, were excellent potters. The efflor-
escence of aboriginal pottery is to be found in the Pueblo region
of south-westernUnited States, in Mexico,Central Amcrica,Carib-
bean Islands, Colombia, Ecuador, Peru and restricted areas of
eastern Brazil. (The literature on this subject is extensive. See
Cushing, Fewkes, Holmes, Hough, Stevenson.) On the Pacific
side of the continent not one of the forty linguistic families made
pottery. The only workers in clay west of the Rockies and north
of the Pueblo country belonged to the Shoshonean family of the
Interior Basin.
The study of Indian textiles includes an account of their fibres,
tools, processes, products, ornaments and uses. The fibres were
either animal or vegetable; animal fibres were hair, _
fur on the skin, feathers, hide, sinew and intestines; f £ Vf iAfi
vegetable fibres were stalks of small trees, brush, straw,
cotton, bast, bark, leaves and seed vessels in great variety as
one passes from the north southward through all the culture
provinces. The products of the textile industry in America were
bark cloth, wattling for walls, fences and weirs, paper, basketry,
matting, loom products, needle or point work, net-work, lace-
work and embroidery. In the manufacture of these the sub-
stances were reduced to the form of slender filaments, shreds,
rods, splints, yarn, twine and sennit or braid. All textile work was
done by hand; the only devices known were the bark peeler and
beater, the shredder, the flint-knife, the spindle, the rope-twister,
the bodkin, the warp-beam and the most primitive harness. The
processes involved were gathering the raw material, shredding,
splitting, gauging, wrapping, twining, spinning and braiding.
Twining and spinning were done with the fingers of both hands,
with the palm on the thigh, with the spindle and with the twister.
Ornamentation was in form, colour, technical processes and dyes.
The uses to which the textiles were put were for clothing, furniture
for the house, utensils for a thousand industries, fine arts, social
functions and worship.
In order to comprehend the more intricate processes of the
higher peoples it is necessary to examine the textile industry in all
of the culture areas. It is essentially woman's work, though
among the Pueblos, strangely enough, men are weavers.
The Eskimo woman did not weave, but was expert in sewing and
embroidering with sinew thread by means of a bodkin. The Dene*
(Tinneh) peoples used strips of hide for snowshoes and game-bags,
sewed their deerskin clothing with sinew thread, and embroidered
in split quill. Their basketry, both in Canada and in Arizona,
was coiled work. The northern Algonquin and Iroquoian tribes
practised similar arts, and in the Atlantic states wove robes of
animal and bird skins by cutting the latter into long strips, wind-
ing these strips on twine of hemp, and weaving them by the same
processes employed in their basketry. Textile work in the Sioux,
province was chiefly the making of skin garments with sinew
8 1 4
AMERICA
(ARCHAEOLOGY
thread, but in the Gulf states the existence of excellent cane and
grasses gave opportunity for several varieties of weaving. On the
Pacific coast of America the efflorescence of basketry in every form
of technic was known. This art reached down to the borders of
Mexico. Loom-weaving in its simplest form began with the
Chilkats of Alaska, who hung the warp over a long pole, and
wrought mythological figures into their gorgeous blankets by a
process resembling tapestry work. The forming of bird skins,
rabbit skins and feathers into robes, and all basketry technic,
existed from Vancouver Island to Central America. In northern
Mexico net-work, rude lace-work in twine, are followed farther
south, where finer material existed, by figured weaving of most
intricate type and pattern; warps were crossed and wrapped,
wefts were omitted and texture changed, so as to produce marvel-
lous effects upon the surface. This composite art reached its
climax in Peru, the llama wool affording the finest staple on
the whole hemisphere. Textile work in other parts of South
America did not differ from that of the Southern states of the
Union. The addition of brilliant ornamentation in shell, teeth,
feathers, wings of insects and dyed fibres completed the round of
the textile art. A peculiar type of coiled basketry is found at the
Strait of Magellan, but the motives are not American. (Consult
the works of Boas, Dixon, G. T. Emmons, Holmes, Otis T.
Mason, Matthews, John Murdoch, E. W Nelson, A. P. Niblack,
Lucien M. Turner.)
Since most American tribes lived upon flesh, the activities of life
were associated with the animal world. These activities were not
ZooUchay con ^ Tit ^ t0 ^ e * anc *» out *""* t0 do *k° ^^ those
littoral meadows where invertebrate and vertebrate
marine animals fed in unlimited numbers. An account of savage
life, therefore, includes the knowledge of the animal life of
America and its distribution, regarding the continent, not only as
a whole, but in those natural history provinces and migrations
which governed and characterized the activities of the peoples.
This study would include industries connected with capture, those
that worked up into products the results of capture, the social
organizations and labours which were involved in pursuit of
animals, the language, skill, inventions and knowledge resulting
therefrom, and, finally, the religious conception united with the
animal world, which has been named zoothcism. In the capture
of animals would be involved the pedagogic influence of animal
life; the engineering embraced in taking them in large numbers;
the cunning and strategy necessary to hunters so poorly armed
giving rise to disguises and lures of many kinds. Capture begins
among the lower tribes with the hand, without devices, develop-
ing knack and skill in seizing, pursuing, climbing, swimming, and
maiming without weapons; and proceeds to gathering with
devices that take the place of the hand in dipping, digging, hook-
ing and grasping; weapons for striking, whether dubs, missiles
or projectiles; edged weapons of capture, which were rare in
America; piercing devices for capture, in lances, barbed spears,
harpoons and arrows; traps for enclosing, arresting and killing,
such as pens, cages, pits, pen-falls, nets, hooks, nooses, clutches,
adhesives, deadfalls, impalers, knife traps and poisons; animals
consciously and unconsciously aiding in capture; fire in the form
of torches, beacons, burning out and smoking out; poisons and
asphyxia tors; the accessories to hunting, including such changes
in food, dress, shelter, travelling, packing, mechanical tools and
intellectual apparatus as demanded by these arts. Finally, in
this connexion, the first steps in domestication, beginning with the
improvement of natural corrals or spawning ground, and hunting
with trained dogs and animals. Zootechnic products include
food, clothing, ornaments, habitations, weapons, industrial tools,
textiles, money, &c.
In sociology the dependence of the American tribes upon the
animal world becomes most apparent. A great majority of all the
family names in America were from animal totems. The division
of labour among the sexes was based on zootechny. Labour
organizations for hunting, communal hunt and migrations had to
do with the animal world.
In the duel between the hunter and the beast-mind the
intellectual powers of perception, memory, reason and will
were developed; experience and knowledge by experience woe
enlarged, language and the graphic arts were fostered, tie
inventive faculty was evoked and developed, and primttne
science was fostered in the unfolding of numbers, metrics, docks,
astronomy, history and the philosophy of causation. Beheb tod
practices with reference to the heavenly world were inspired by
zoic activities; its location, scenery and environment were tk
homes of beast gods. It was largely a soopantheon; um
zootheism influenced the organization of tribes and societies h
the tribes. The place, furniture, liturgies and apparatcs of
worship were hereby suggested. Myths, folk-lore, auvu>i
charms, fetishes, superstitions and customs were based on the
same idea. (For life zones, see C H. Merriam, BiU. Swney, U.S.
Dept. of Agriculture.)
Excepting for extensive and rapid travel over the snow in me
Arctic regions by means of dog sleds, the e x t r eme l y Eanted
transportation by dog travail (or sledge) in the Sioux n± A
province, and the use of the llama as a beast of burden
throughout the Peruvian highlands, land travel was oo foot, ar4
land transportation on the backs of men and women. One of tk
most interesting topics of study is -the trails along which the
seasonal and annual migrations of tribes occurred, hrrmnicg is
Peru the paved road, with suspension bridges and wayside iass,
or Umbos. In Mexico, and in Peru especially, the human back
was utilized to its utmost extent, and in most parts of America
harness adapted for carrying was made and frequently decorated
with the best art. In the Mexican codices pictures of men tad
women carrying are plentiful. Travelling on the water was za
important activity in aboriginal times. Hundreds of fhonumdi
of miles of inland waters and archipelagoes were traversed.
Commencing in the Arctic region, the Eskimo in his kayak,
consisting of a framework of driftwood or bone c ohered wits
dressed sealskin, could paddle down east Greenland, up the west
shore to Smith Sound, along Baffin Land and Labrador, as*
the shores of Hudson Bay throughout insular Canada and the
Alaskan coast, around to Mount St Elias, and for many oiks
on the eastern shore of Asia. In addition to this most defiaie
and rapid craft, he had his umiak or freight boat, sometiaia
called woman's boat The Athapascan covered all north-westera
Canada with his open and portable birch-bark canoe, somewhat
resembling the kayak in finish. The Algonqwn-Iroquois took cp
the journey at Bear Lake and its tributaries, and by most
of paddling and portages traversed the area of middle and
eastern Canada, including the entire St Lawrence drainage.
The absence of good bark, dugout timber, and chisels of sxcae
deprived the whole Mississippi valley of creditable water-craft,
and reduced the natives to the clumsy trough for a dngoat
and miserable bull-boat, made by stretching dressed buffalo hide
over a crate. On the Atlantic coast of the United States the
dugout was improved in form where the waters were more <£»
turbed. John Smith's Indians had a fleet of dugouts. The sasw
may be said of the Gulf states tribes, although they added rafts
made of reed. Along the archipelagoes of the North Padfcc
coast, from Mount St Elias to the Columbia river, the dugost
attained its best. The Columbia river canoe resembled that
of the Amur, the bow and stern being pointed at the water-fine.
Poor dugouts and rafts, made by tying reeds together, con-
stituted the water-craft of California and Mexico until Cestui
America is reached.
The Caribs were the Haidas of the Caribbean Sea and northers
South America. Their craft would vie in form, in size, and sea-
worthiness with those of the North Pacific coast. The cata-
maran and the reed boat were known to the Peruvians. T&e
tribes of Venezuela and Guiana, according to Im Thuru, had beta
the dugout and the built-up hull. The simplest form of navi-
gation in Brazil was the woodskin, a piece of bark stripped frost
a tree and crimped at the ends. The zangada, with its platform
and sail, belonging to the Brazilian coast, is spoken of as a good
seaworthy craft. Finally, the Fucgian bark canoe, made in dure
pieces so that it can be taken apart and transported over haDs ar*d
sewed together, ends the series. The American craft was pre*
pelled by poling, paddling, rowing, and by rude sails of maitus*.
ARCHAEOLOGY] AMERICA
The aesthetic arts of the American aborigines cannot be studied
apart from their languages, industries, social organizations, lore
Ftmtmt and worships. Art was limited most of all by poverty
in technical appliances. There were just as good
materials and inspirations, but what could the best of them do
without metal tools? One and all skilful to a surpassing degree
— weavers, embroiderers, potters, painters, engravers, carvers,
sculptors and jewellers, — they were wearied by drudgery and over-
powered by a never-absent, weird and grotesque theology. The
TUltimn engraved poorly, the Dent (Tinneh) embroidered in quill,
the North Pacific tribes carved skilfully in horn, slate and cedar,
the California tribes had nimble fingers for basketry, the Sioux
gloried in feathers and painted parfleche. The mound builders,
Pueblo tribes, middle Americans and Peruvians, were potters of
many schools; gorgeous colour fascinated the Amazonians, the
Patagonians delighted in skins, and even the Fuegians saw beauty
in the pretty snail shells of their desolate island shores. Of the
Mexican and Central American sculpture and architecture a
competent judge says that Yucatan and the southern states of
Mexico are not rich in sculptures, apart from architecture; but
in the valley of Mexico the human figure/ animal forms, fanciful
life motives in endless variety, were embodied in masks, yokes,
tablets, calendars, cylinders, disks, boxes, vases and ornaments.
The Nahuatl lapidaries had at hand many varieties of workable
and beautiful stone— onyx, marble, limestone, quartz and quarts
crystal, granite, syenite, basalt, trachyte, rhyolite, diorite and
obsidian, the best of material prepared for them by nature;
while the Mayas had only limestone, and hard, tenacious rock
with which to work it, and timber for burning lime. However,
looking over the whole field of North American achievement,
architectural and non-architectural, composite and monolithic,
the palm for boldness, magnitude of proportions and infinity of
labour, must go to the sculptured mosaics of Yucatan. Maya
architecture is the best remaining index of the art achievements
of the American race. The construction of such buildings as the
palace at Uxmal and the Castillo at Chichen (Chichenitza) indi-
cates a rnastery fa architectural design. There is lack of unity in
plan and grouping, and an enormous waste of material as com-
pared with available room. At Uxmal the mass of masonry is to
chamber space about as forty to one. The builders were " ignor-
ant of some of the most essential principles of construction, and
are to be regarded as hardly more than novices in the art "
(Holmes, A rckaeolopcal Studies, &c). As for the marvels of Peru,
the walls of the temple of the sun in Cuzco, with their circular
form and curve inward, from the ground upward, are most
imposing. Some of the gates without lintels are beautiful, and
the geometric patterns in the walls extremely effective. The same
objection to over-massiveness might not apply here as in Mexico,
owing to volcanic activity.
Institutions in Europe and America have gathered abundant
material for an intelligent comprehension of American Indian
ffurlnfnjj sociology. The British Association had a committee
reporting during many years on the tribes of north-
west Canada. The American Museum in New York has prepared
a series of monographs on the tribes of the North Pacific coast, of
northern Mexico, and of the Cordilleras of South America. The
reports of the Bureau of American Ethnology in Washington
cover the Eskimo, east and west, and all the tribes of the United
£tates. In Mexico the former labours of Pimentel and Orozco y
.Berra are supplemented by those of Bandelier, Penafiel, Herrera
and Alfredo Chavero. Otto Stoll's studies in Guatemala,
Berendt's in Central America, Ernst's in Venezuela, Im Thurn's
in Guiana, those of Ehrenreich, von den Steinen, Meyer in Brazil,
or of Bandelier, Bastian, BrUhl, Middendorf, von Tschudi in
Peru, afford the historian of comparative sociology ample ground-
work for a comprehensive grasp of South American tribes. In all
parts of the western hemisphere society was organized on cognate
kinship, real or artificial, the unit being the dan. There were
tribes where the basis of kinship was agnate, but these were the
exceptions. The headship of the dan was sometimes hereditary,
sometimes elective, but each dan had a totemic name, and the
dans together constituted the tribe, the bond being not land, but
815
Women could adopt prisoners of war, in which case the
latter became their younger sons. When a confederacy was
organized under a council, intermarriage between tribes some-
times occurred; an artificial kinship thus arose, in which event the
council established the rank of the tribes as dder and younger
brother, grandfather, father and sons, rendering the relationship
and its vocabulary most intricate, but necessary in a social
system in which age was the predominant consideration and
etiquette most exacting. (See Morgan, Tables of Consanguinity,
Smithsonian Contributions, xvii.)
The Eskimo have a regular system of animal totem marks and
corresponding gentes. Powell sets forth the laws of real and arti-
ficial kinship among the North American tribes, as well as tribal
organization and government, the formation of confederacies,
and the intricate rules of artificial kinship by which rank and
courtesy were established. (Many papers in Reports of Bur. A m.
Etknol.) Bandelier declares that in Mexico existed neither state
nor nation, nor political society of any kind, but tribes represent-
ing dialects, and autonomous in matters of government, and
forming confederacies for the purposes of self-defence and con-
quest The ancient Mexican tribe was composed of twenty
autonomous kins. According to Brinton the social organization
of andent Peru was a government by a council of the gentes.
The Inca was a war chief elected by the council to carry out its
commands. Among the Caribs a like social order prevailed,
indeed, their family system is identical with the totem system
of North American Indians. Dominated by the rule of blood
relationship, the Indians regulated all co-operative activities
on this basis. Not only marriage, but speech and common '
industries, such as rowing a boat or chasing a buffalo, were under
its sway. It obtrudes itself in fine art, behaviour, law-making, lore
and religion. In larger or smaller numbers of cognate kindred,
for shorter or longer periods of time, near or far from home, the
aborigines devdoped their legislatures, courts, armies, secret
societies and priesthoods.
In organization, engineering, strategy, offence and defence, the
art of war was in the barbarous and the savage status or grade.
One competent to judge asserts that peace, not war,
was the normal intertribal habit They hdd frequent ££..
intercourse, gave feasts and presents, and practised
unbounded hospitality. Through this traffic objects travelled
far from home, and now come forth out of the tombs to perplex
archaeologists. Remembering the organization of the tribe
everywhere prevalent, it is not difficult to understand that the
army, or horde, that stands for the idea, was assembled on the
clan basis. The number of men arrayed under one banner, the
time during which they might cohere, the distances from home
they could march, their ability to hold permanently what they
had gained, together form an excellent metric scale of the culture
grade in the several American provinces, and nowhere, even in
the most favoured, is this mark high. With the Mexicans war
was a passion, but warfare was little above the raid (Bandelier,
Farrand). The lower tribes hunted their enemies as they hunted
animals. In their war dances, which were only rehearsals, they
disguised themselves as animals, and the pantomime was a
mimic hunt. They had striking, slashing and piercing weapons
hdd in the hand, fastened to a shaft or thong, hurled from the
hand, from a sling, from an atlatl or throwing-stick, or shot from
a bow. Their weapons were all individual, not one co-operative
device of offence being known among them, although they under-
stood fortification.
The term " slavery " is often applied to the aboriginal American
tribes The truth of this depends upon the definition of the word
" slave." If it means the capture of men, and especially of
women, and adoption into the tribe, this existed everywhere,
but if subjection to a personal owner, who may compel service,
sell or put to death the individual, slavery was far from universal
Nieboer finds it only on the North Pacific coast as far south as
Oregon, among the Navajo and the Cibola pueblos, and in a few
tribes of Middle and South America.
The thought life of the American aborigines is expressed in
their practical knowledge and their lore. The fascination which
816 .
AMERICA
{ARCHAEOLOGY
hangs around the latter has well-nigh obscured the former.
As in medicine theory is one thing and practice another, so among
LoMt these savages must the two be carefully discriminated.
Dorsey, again, draws a distinction between lore
narratives, which can be rehearsed without fasting or prayer,
and rituals which require the most rigid preparation. In each
culture province the Indians studied the heavenly bodies. The
Arctic peoples regulated their lives by the long day and night in
the year; among the tribes in the arid region the place of sunrise
was marked on the horizon for each day; the tropical Indians
were not so observant, but they worshipped the sun-god above all.
The Mayas had a calendar of 360 days, with intercalary days;
this solar year was intersected by their sacred year of twenty
weeks of thirteen days each, and these assembled in bewildering
cycles. Their knowledge of the air and its properties was no less
profound Heat and cold, rain and drought, the winds in rela-
tion to the points of the compass, were nearest their wants and
supplies, and were never out of their thoughts. In each province
they had found the best springs, beds of clay, paint, soapstone,
flinty rock, friable stone for sculpture and hard, tenacious stone
for tools, and used ashes for salt The vegetal kingdom was no
less familiar to them. Edible plants, and those for dyes and
medicines, were on their lists, as well as wood for tools, utensils
and weapons, and fibres for textiles. They knew poisonous
plants, and could eliminate noxious properties. The universal
reliance on animal life stimulated the study of the animal king-
dom. Everywhere there were names for a large number of
species; industries and fine arts were developed through animal
substances. Society was organized in most cases on animal clans,
and religion was largely zoomorphic. The hunting tribes knew
well the nature and habits of animals, their anatomy, their migra-
tions, and could interpret their voices. Out of this practical
knowledge, coupled with the belief in personeity, grew a folk-lore
bo vast that if it were written down the world would not contain
the books.
The religion of the American aborigines, so far as it can be made
a subject of investigation, consisted (1) in what the tribes believed
Huston aDoul spirits, or shades, and the spirit world — its
organization, place, activities and relation to our world;
and (2) in what they did in response to these beliefs. The former
was their creeds, the latter their cults or worships. In these
worships, social organization, religious dramas and paraphernalia,
amusement and gambling, and private religion or fetichism, found
place. In order to obtain an intelligent grasp of the religion of
tribes in their several culture provinces, it must be understood:
(1) That the form of belief called animism by Tylor (more
correctly speaking, personeity), was universal, everything was
somebody, alive, sentient, thoughtful, wilful. This personeity
lifts the majority of earthly phenomena out of the merely physical
world and places them in the spirit world. Theology and science
are one. All is supernatural, wakan. (a) That there existed more
than one self or soul or shade in any one of these personalities,
and these shades had the power not only to go away, but to
transform their bodily tenements at will; a bird, by raising its
head, could become a man; the latter, by going on all fours,
could become a deer (3) That the regulative side of the spirit
world was the natural outcome of the clan social system and
the tribal government in each tribe. Even one's personal name
had reference to the world of ghosts. The affirmation that
American aborigines believed in an all-pervading, omnipotent
Spirit is entirely inconsistent with the very nature of the case.
(4) Worship was everywhere dramatic Only here and there
among the higher tribes were bloody sacrifices in vogue, and
prayers were in pantomime.
In the culture areas the environment gave specific characters
to the religion. In the Arctic province the overpowering influ-
ence of meteorological phenomena manifested itself both in the
doctrine of shades and in their shamanistic practices. The raven
created the world. The Dene (Tinneh) myths resembled those of
the Eskimo, and all the hunting tribes of eastern Canada and
United States and the Mississippi valley have a mythology based
upon their zootechny and their totemism. TSe religious concep
tions of the fishing tribes on the Pacific coast bUmxu Mom* St
Elias and the Columbia river are worked out by Boa*; the trans-
formation from the hunting to the agricultural mode of Bf t »a
accompanied by changes in belief and worship quite as radkai
These have been carefully studied by Cashing, St ewsua am*
Fewkes. The pompous ceremonials of the chrfliscd tribes of
Mexico and the Cordilleras in South America, when analyst
reveal only a higher grade of the prevailing idea. Im Thorn m
oftheCarib: "All objects, animate and inanimate, KoaexuilT
of the same nature, except that they differ in the accident c
bodily form." These mythological ideas and symbols of tk
American aborigines were woven in their textiles, painted ct
their robes and furniture, burned into their pottery, dravx c
sand mosaics on deserts, and perpetuated in the only scutptuei
worthy of the name, in wood and stone. They axe xosepknil*
from industry; language, social organization and custom w&i
upon them: they explain the universe in the savage mind
The archaeology of the western hemisphere should be drc jea
as follows: (1) that of Indian activities; (>) the question d
man's existence in a prior geological period. There is
no dividing line between first-contact ethnology and ^
pre-contact archaeology. Historians of this time, both
north and south of Panama, described tools and products d
activities similar to those taken from beneath the soil near by.
The archaeologist recovers his specimens from waste places, caw
deposits, abandoned villages, caches, shell-heaps, refose-hcapt.
enclosures, mounds, hut rings, earthworks, garden beds, qcimrs
and workshops, petroglyphs, trails, graves and cemeteries, dl
and cavate dwellings, ancient pueblos, ruined stone dwelling*,
forts and temples, canals or reservoirs. The relics found in thee
places are material records of language, industries, fine am,
social life, lore and religion.
Here and there in the Arctic province remains of old vCu^c
sites have been examined, and collections brought away br
whalers and exploring expeditions. Two facts are established-
namely, that the Eskimo lived formerly farther south on tar
Atlantic coast, and that, aboriginally, they were not specu£>
adept in carving and etching. The old apparatus of hunting intf
fishing is quite primitive. The Dene (Tinneh) province in Alaska
and north-western Canada yields nothing to the spade. Algc*
quin-Iroquois Canada, thanks to the Geological Survey and tie
Department of Education in Ontario, has revealed old Inc^aa
camps, mounds and earthworks along the northern drainage d
Lakes Erie and Ontario, and pottery in a curved hne ftca
Montreal to Lake of the Woods. Throughout eastern Ceitr:
States shell-heaps, quarries, workshops and camp sites are a
abundance. The Sioux and the Muskhogee province is the mouei
area, which extends also into Canada along the Red river. The
forms of these are earth-heaps, conical mounds, waQs of ear.k
rectangular pyramids and effigies (Putnam). Thomas sums sp
the work of the Bureau of American Ethnology upon the strac*
ture, contents and distribution of these earth monuments, over a
vast area from which adobe, building stone and stone-wort:*;
material were absent. (See Hodge's List of Pubs, of the Bur. A «.
Ethnol.) No writings have been recovered, the artisans shapaz
small objects in stone were specially gifted, the potters in only a
few places approached those of the Pueblos, the fine art was poor.
and relics found in the mounds do not indicate in their makers a
grade of culture above that of the Indian tribes near by. Tfce
archaeology of the Pacific coast, from the Aleutian Islands &
written in shell-heaps, village sites, caves, and burial-places (DaE.
Harlan I. Smith, Schumacher). The relics of bone, antler, stooe.
shell and copper are of yesterday. Even the Calaveras mas is to
exception, since his skull and his polished conical pestle, the latirr
made of stone moie recent than the auriferous gravels, sho* fc.»
to have been of Digger Indian type. In Utah begin the nuns
of the Pueblo culture. These cover Arizona and New Mex-co,
with extensions into Colorado on the north and Mexico on the
south. The reports of work done in this province for scirral
years past form a library of text and illustration. Cliff dwe&irfp.
cavate houses, pueblos and casas are all brought into a series « ith-
out a break by Bandelier, Cushing, Fewkes, Holmes, Hongs,
AMERICA
Plate I.
Illustrations representative of the primitive
cultures of Central America, Mexico and Peru
(qq. r.) selected and arranged by Dr. Walter
Lehmann of theRoyal Ethnographical Museum,
Munich.
Fie. i. — Stone Sculpture, from
Teotihuacan, Mexico. Prae-Mexi-
can culture (? Totonacan).
Fig. a. — View of the Giant Pyramid of the Fig. 3. — Alabaster Vessel, with
Sun, Teotihuacan. Plateau region, Mexico, carved lizard as handle. Teotihua-
Prae- Mexican culture (? Totonacan). can, Mexico. Proto- Mexican
culture.
Fig. 6. — Sculptured Frieze of the Temple of
Xochicalco. Plateau region, Mexico. Mexican
culture with Mayan influence.
(Figs. 2 and 6 from photos by Waile, Mexico.)
Fig. 5. — Carved Stone Figure of the god
of sports and dancing (Xochipilli-Miacuil-
xochitl, "five flowers"), squatting on a stool,
decorated with flowers and tonallo emblems.
Plateau region, Mexico. Mexican culture.
Fig. 8.— Leaf 3 of the Tonalamall.
or sacred cycle of 260 days, from the
Aubin collection. Figures of the gods
Quetzalcoatl and Tepeyollotli. Mexico.
Mexican culture.
Fig. 7. — Stone Tablet in memory of
the year chicuei-acatl ("8 reeds"), a.d.
1487, when the Great Temple in Mexico
was consecrated; above are the figures
of the Kings Ticoc and Ahuitzotl, sacri-
ficing, with the date of the beginning of
the rebuilding, chicome-acatl ("7 reeds")
a.d. 1447. Mexico City. Mexican
culture.
Fig. 9. — Leaf 10 of Codex Bttrbonicus,
with figure of the god of the underworld
(Mictlantecutli) as regent of the tenth
of the 20 sections, each of 13 days of
the tonalamall, which begins with "one
flint" (ce lepcatl). Mexico. Mexican
culture.
(Figs. 8-10 from the publications of the duke of Loubat.)
Fig. 10. — Leaf 54 of Codex Borboni-
cus B., with figures of the ancient moon-
god, the twelve months, and the rabbit
as the animal moon-emblem. Mexico.
Mexican culture.
Plate II.
AMERICA
Fig. i. — Male Clay Figure, holding
weapon (?). From near Tzintzuntzan
Michoacan, Mexico. (?) Tarascan culture.
Fig. 2. — View of the Ruins of the Pyramid Temple of PapantU,
Cruz, Mexico. Totonacan culture.
Fig. 3. — Hump-Backed Clay Figure,
standing on a fish; a reed staff in one
hand, and incised lines on face. From
Tzintzuntzan. (?) Tarascan culture.
Fig. 4. — Human Figure, with
a rattle-stick in the right hand.
From near Alvarado, Vera Cruz,
Mexico. Totonacan culture.
Fig. 5. — Stone Carving, deeply txndervst,
of the so-called Palma type. From Coatrr-:.
Canton Falapa. Vera Cruz, Mexico. Tuti-a*-
can culture.
Fig. 8. — Crucified Figure, pierced vr v
arrows, of the victim at the festival c( *^-
god Xipe (Mexican Tlacaxipenak t
with the symbols of the god. Cultcr 1
Fig. 6. — Similar Carving, with Fig. 7. — Stone Yoke, carved in the so- the Mayan transitional peoples of ,4 *
human figure. From Coatepec. called frog- type. Vera Cruz, Mexico. Atlantic coast of the Gulf of Mevro.
Totonacan culture. Totonacan culture. Totonacan culture.
(Fig. 2 is from a photo by Waite, Mexico; Fig. 8 from the Codex Nuttatl, publications of the Peabody Mmstum.)
AMERICA
Plate III.
Pigs, i and 2 are
from photos by
Waite, Mexico.
Fig. 1. — Temple
Chambers, with stone
pillars, from the ruins
of Mitla, Oaxaca, with
wall mosaic of joined
stones. Zapotecan cul-
ture with proto-Mexi-
can influence.
Fig. 2 —Wall
Mosaic of joined
Stone from the ruins
of Mitla. Zapotecan
culture with proto-
Mexican influence.
Fig. 3— Stone Tablet
with seated figures, and
characteristic hierog-
lyphs (undeciphered).
From Monte Alban,
Oaxaca. Zapotecan cul-
ture.
Photo, Waile, Mexico.
Fig. 4— General View of the Ruins of Monte Alban,
Oaxaca, with terraced pyramids. Zapotecan culture.
Pjc 5. — Sepulchral Clay Urn, with
beast mask and rich head ornament.
Oaxaca. Zapotecan culture.
Fig. 6. — Sepulchral Clay Urn. in
the form of a jaguar- like human
figure, with shell ornament and loin-
cloth. Oaxaca, Zapotecan culture.
Fig. 7- — Leaf 44 of Codex Fejervary-
Mayer. Figure of the god Texcatlipoca ,
surrounded by the 20 day symbols of
the sacred cycle of 260 days, tonala-
matl. Mexican culture with Mayan
influence.
From publications of the Duke of
Loubat.
Plate IV.
AMERICA
(.■ Mj 2 — Ter:t|ik' Pyramid* with sculptured comer-
stone at base. Cop;..., Honduras, Mayan eu
It... i. Tetnj la Chamber, ^uh richly carved wall
facing glyph groups beneath the plinth,
Copan, Ito: ; an culture,
Pk>. 4. -Stone PiRureof the 1 mo lied Chac i€ol type,
with round *ly and character-
istic I ■ -itf*. Yuc&Lah. Proto-
Mexican culture.
Fig ^ —Stone $'■
omted human fufure,. thv
ing at 7 CofnA t
duras. Mayan eu'
Fie. 5. -StClllt Stele,
with humnn figure.
Chtupa*, Mexico.
Fig, 6, — I J
incised cufvi
monster, Necrep
1 urt
pal
an*
Fit.. 8. -PfjSythronn- Cliiy Unwl. with.
macoAdet border and rtenciiled fourei
in three I'uMs. Santa Harhara Necro-
polis. Guanacaite. Chorotcga cul-
ture*
deities .-in ' * «*
Agave paper Mayan
Fig. 7 — Stone Relief, with figure of a penitent {cjua-qutxtjanr) pa-Viing through his tonnue a thong
studded with thorns It is accompanied by two group* of hieroglyphs, Lorillard City, Cbupaa,
Mexico* Mayan culture.
AMERICA
Plate V.
Fig. a. — Two typical Stone Sculptures in the form of human
heads, with characteristic ornaments. Interior of Costa Rica,
Central America. Culture of the GuStar.
Fig. i. — Gold Breast Ornament from the grave of a
chief, in the form of a crocodile with three reptiles on
each side. S. E. Costa Rica (El Genera!), Central
America. Culture of the Coto and Quepo.
Fig. 4. — Stone Vessel supported by prone Human Figure.
Interior of Costa Rica, Central America. Culture of the Guitar.
Fio. 3. —Large Gold Human Figure, with a gold
coco-flask in each hand; gold diadem, nose and
ear ornaments, and chains on neck and legs.
Antioquia, Colombia. Chibcha culture.
Fig. 5. — Painted Clay Vessel in polychrome, with neck in
form of a human face with tear marks. Beneath a stencilled
bird resembling a condor. Tiahuanaco style. Pachacamac,
Peru. Pre-Inca culture.
Plate VI.
AMERICA
Fig. i. — Painted Clay Vessel in
polycnrome on white stucco ground
A human figure with pearl chain and
arrows in left hand, and parrot on a
wooden stick in the right. Nasca style.
Nasca, Peru. Prc-Inca culture.
Pic. 2. — Typical painted Clay Ves-
sel, with geornctricpattern. standing on
a conical point. Cusco style. Cuxco.
Peru.
Pig. 3. —Reddish Brown Clay
Vessel, in the form of a human
head (portrait). Trujillo style.
C him bo to, Peru. Inca culture.
Fig. 4- — Black Clay Vessel, in the
form of a human figure, with peculiar
head-gear. Trujillo, Peru. Inca cul-
ture.
Fig. 5.— Red Clay Vessel, in the forsi
of a demon shaped like a crab upon a
mussel. Trujillo style. Chimboto,
Peru. Inca culture.
AMERICA
Plate VII.
PlC, t,— Black Ctfty Vessel, in l*H
farm nf & human figuA;, with large head-
gear and ornamenlntifm of rtLnsq-eob*.
TniHUo. Pfeni, J nca euHurc.
Fn. r j,— R^l-Hnnvri Tiny Fiask, with
impressed relief reim 3 *entjn|j a mytlio-
logtcal fleets Sttpe, Peru.
Fig. 3 — Coloured Textile
with pfalurv writing. Peru.
Fabric
Fig. 4. — Female Mummy, with man-
tle of feathered mosaic; neckband,
shawls, hair-net, head-wrap over tassels
of parrot feathers. Peru. Inca culture.
Fig. 5.— Textile Fabric, with sten-
cilled human figure; colours, black,
red-brown and yellow. Peru. Inca
culture.
Plate VIII.
AMERICA
1 -.
'.
Jilt
19a
It
■:
BKS
* . i
* V 1
Kr ' fl
Fig. I. — Textile Fabric in brown and yellowish white,
with figures of birds and men holding staves and head
trophies. Inca style. Peru.
Fig. 2. — Two Gold Beakers, with human faces. IYim.
Incu culture.
Fie;. 3. — Human Clay Figure, with bead chain of mus-
sel shells and of Venetian glass in the ears and on the neck;
ist period of Spanish conquest. Chancay, Peru.
Fig. 4. — Black-painted Clay Vessel, in form of a hurrus
figure holding a mussel. Chancay, Peru.
ARCHAEOLOGY] AMERICA
Mindeteff, Nordenakjbld, Powell and Stevenson. From Cast
Grande, in Chihuahua, to Quemada, in Zacatecas, Carl S. Lum-
holtz found survival* of the cliff -dwellers. Between Quemada
and Copan, in Honduras, is an unbroken series of mural structures.
The traditions agree with the monuments, whatever may be
objected to assigning any one ruin to the Toltec, the Chichimec
or the Nahuatl, that there are distinct varieties in ground-plan,
motives, stone-craft, wall decorations and sculptures. Among
these splendours in stone the following recent explorers must be
the student's guide :— Bowditch, Charnay, Forstemann, F. T.
Goodman, Gordon, Holmes, Maudslay, Mercer, Putnam, Sapper,
Marshall H. Saville, Seler, Cyrus Thomas, Thompson. A list of
the ruins, printed in the handbook on Mexico published by the
Department of State in Washington, covers several pages. The
special characteristics of each are to be seen partly in the skill and
genius of their makers, and partly in the exigencies of the site
and the available materials. A fascinating study in this con-
nexion is that of the water-supply. The cenotes or underground
reservoirs were the important factors in locating the ruins of
northern Yucatan. From Honduras to Panama the urn burials,
the pottery, the rude carved images and, above all, the grotesque
jewellery, absorb the archaeologist's attention. (Publications of
Ptabody Museum.)
Beyond Chiriqui southward is El Dorado. Here also bewilder-
ing products of ancient metallurgy tax the imagination as to the
processes involved, and questions of acculturation also interfere
with true scientific results. The fact remains, however, that the
curious metal-craft of the narrow strip along the Pacific from
Mexico to Titicaca is the greatest of archaeological enigmas.
Bandelier, Dorsey, Holmes, Seler and Uhle have taken up the
questions anew. Beyond Colombia are Ecuador and Peru, where,
in the widening of the continent, architecture, stone-working,
pottery, metallurgy, textiles are again exalted. Among the
Cordilleras in their western and interior drainages, over a space
covering more than twenty degrees of latitude, the student comes
again upon massive ruins. The materials on the coast were clay
and gravel wrought into concrete, sun-dried bricks and pise*, or
rammed work, cut stalks of plants formed with clay a kind of staff,
and lintels were made by burying stems of cafta brava (Gynerium
Moccharoides) in blocks of pis*. On the uplands structures were of
atone laid up in a dozen ways. Walls for buildings, garden
terraces and aqueducts were straight or sloping. Doorways were
usually square, but corbelled archways and gateways surmounted
with sculptures were not uncommon. Ornamentation was in
carving and in colour, the latter far more effectively used than in
Middle America. A glance at the exquisite textiles reveals at once
the inspiration of mural decorations. The most prolific source of
Peruvian relics is the sepulchres or huacas, the same materials
being used in their construction as in building the houses. Here,
owing to a dry climate, are the dead, clad and surrounded with
food, vessels, tools and art products, as in life. The textiles and
the pottery can only be mentioned; their quality and endless
varieties astonish the technologist. In the Carib province there
are no mural remains, but the pottery, with its excessive onlaying,
recalls Mexico and the jewellers of Chiriqui. The polished stone
work is superb, finding its climax in Porto Rico, which seems to
have been the sacred island of the Caribs. For the coasts of South
America the vast shell-heaps are the repositories of ancient
history.
Since 1880 organized institutions of anthropology have taken
the spade out of the hands of individual explorers in order to know
nf the truth concerning Glacial or Pleistocene man. The
Ma* ma. geologist and the trained archaeologist axe associated.
In North America the sites have been examined by the
Peabody Museum, the Bureau of American Ethnology, and others,
with the result that only the Trenton gravels have any standing.
The so-called palaeolithic implements are everywhere. The
question is one of geology, simply to decide whether those re-
covered at Trenton are ancient. Putnam and George Frederick
Wright maintain that they are ancient, Alex. Francis Chamber-
lain and Holmes that they are post-Gladal and comparatively
recent (Am. Anthrop., N.S. i. pp. 107, 6x4). Elsewhere in the
1. !*•
817
United States fossflixed bones, crania of a low order, association
of human remains with those of fossil animals are not necessarily
evidence of vast antiquity. In South America the shell-heaps, of
enormous sire, are supposed to show that the animals have under-
gone changes in size and that such vast masses require untold ages
to accumulate. The first is a biological problem. As for the
second, the elements of savage voracity and wastefulness, of
uncertainty as to cubical contents on uneven surface, and of the
number of mouths to fill, make it hazardous to construct a chrono-
logical table on a shell-heap. Hudson's village sites in Patagonia
contain pottery, and that brings them all into the territory of
Indian archaeology. Ameghino refers deposits in Patagonia, from
which undoubted human bones and relics have been exhumed, to
the Miocene. The question is of the age of the sediments from
which these were taken. The bones of other associated animals,
says John B. Hatcher, demonstrate the Pleistocene nature of the
deposits, by which is not necessarily meant older Ouaternary, for
their horizons have not been differentiated and correlated in South
America. Hatcher believes that " there is no good evidence in
favour of a great antiquity for man in Patagonia." In a cave
near Consuelo Cove, southern Patagonia, have been found frag-
ments of the skin and bones of a large ground-sloth, Grypothenum
(Neomylodon) listai, associated with human remains. Ameghino
argues that this creature is still living, while Dr Moreno advances
the theory that the animal has been extinct for a long period, and
that it was domesticated by a people of great antiquity, who
dwelt there prior to the Indians. Rodolfo Hauthal, Walter E.
Roth and Dr R. Lehmann Nitsche- review their work with the
conclusion, not unanimously held by them, that man co-existed
here with all the other animals whose remains were found during
an inter-Glacial period. Arthur Smith Woodward sums up the
question in Proceedings of the Zoological Society of London, dosing
with this sentence: "If we accept the confirmatory evidence
afforded by Mr Spencer Moore, we can hardly refuse to believe
that this ground-sloth was kept and fed by an early race of men."
These are individual opinions, subject to revision by that court of
appeals, the institutional judgment. (Summary in H. Hesketh
Prichard, Through the Heart of Patagonia (1002), Appendix A.)
Authorities. — A valuable endowment of research in specimens,
literature and pictures, deposited in libraries, museums and galleries
since 1880, will keep ethnologists and archaeologists employed for
many years to come. The scientific inquirer will find a mass of
material in the papers and reports contributed to the numerous
societies and institutions which are devoted to anthropological
research. Museums of aboriginal culture are without number; in
Washington the Smithsonian Institution, the National Museum, the
Bureau of American Ethnology and the American Anthropologist
issue publications on every division of the subject, lists of their
publications; * '■"*• " " * ** * ' "
sue publications on every division 01 the subj
ublicationsand general bibliographies. Also the
lambridge; the American Museum of Natural Hi
. _ . . Peabody Museum,
Cambridge; the American Museum of Natural History, New York;
the Academy of Natural Sciences, Philadelphia; the Field Museum,
Chicago; the California Academy and the California University,
San Francisco; and the Canadian Institute. Toronto, publish
monographs and lists. The most comprehensive work on North
America is the Handbook of American Indians (prepared by the
Bureau of American Ethnology, under W. H. Holmes, and edited
by F. Webb Hodge).
The following represent a select list of works on the American
aborigines:— H. H. Bancroft, Native Races of the Pacific States of
North America, vols. i.-v. (1874-1876); A. F. Bandelier, Papers on
the Sedentary Indians of New Mextco (see Papers of the Archaeo-
logical Institute of America, 1881, 1890, 1892); also loth, tith,
12th Reports Peabody Museum; Franz Boas, The Central Eskimo
gith Rep. Bur. Am. Ethnol., 1888) ; also Bulls. 20, 26. 27 and Reports
rit. Assoc. 1885-1898; Charles P. Bowditch, Mexican and Central
American Antiquities; Bull. 28, Bur. Am. Ethnol.; also The
Temples of the Cross and Mayan Nomenclature (Cambridge, Mass.,
IQ06) ; David Boyle, Retorts of the Provincial Museum of Toronto on
Archaeology and Ethnology of Canada: D. G. Brinton, Library of
Abortnnrt American Literature y<A*. i.-viH.fPbiladelphta, 1822-1890) ;
The American Race (New York, 1891); Custav BrQhl, Die Cultur-
9btker Amerikas (Cincinnati, 1889); Desire Charnay, The Ancient
Cities of the New World (New York, 1887); Frank Cuahing, ZuHi
Folk Tales (New York, 1901); William H. Dali, Alaska and its
SNew York. 1905); Paul Ehrenreich, Die Votkerst&mme Brasiliens
Berlin, 1892) ; A nthropologische Studien uberdieUrbewohner Brasiliens
Berlin, 1897) ; Livingstonrairand, The American Nation: A History,
8i8
AMERICA ISLANDS— AMERICAN CIVIL WAR
pelt
V u
vol. it. (New York, 1904), with copious references; I. W. Fewkes, A
Journal of American Ethnology and Archaeology, vols, i.-iv. (Boston,
180 1- 1 894); Pliny Earle Goddard, Life and Culture of the Hupa,
Univ. of Cal., vol. i. (1903) ; papers by F. VV. Hodge, List of Publica-
tions of the Bur. Am. Ethnol., Bull. 31 (1906); VV. H. Holmes,
Handbook of the Indians North of Mexico', Alice C. Fletcher. Francis
la Flesche and John Comfort Fillmore, " A Study of Omaha Indian
Music," Peabody Museum Archaeological and Ethnological Papers,
i- (1893); George Byron Gordon, " Researches in Central America,"
Memoirs of the Peabody Museum, vol. L Nos. 1, 4. 5. 6; »«<* Proc -
Mus. Unto, of Par, William H. Holmes, Archaeological Studies
anvtr the Ancient Cities of Mexico (Chicago, 1895); Walter Hough,
Atckaeolotkal Field Work ia .V-E. Arizona, Museum-Gates Expedi-
tion of loot ; Rtpori US National Museum, 1901 ; Ales. Hrdlicka,
*"The Chichi mcc*," Am, Anthropologist, IQ03. PP- 385-440; also
papers on physical anthropology In the Handbook and Pubs, of
the National Museum and the American Museum; Archer Butler
Hultort, HutorU Highways oj A met tea, 16 vols. (Cleveland, O.) ; E. F.
Im Thurn» Among the fndtatu of British Guiana (London, 1883);
A. H. Kcant, Ethnofogy (Oimljniige, 1896); and Man, Past and
Prat** (Cambridge. 1899) t A. L. Kroeber, Papers on Eskimo,
Arepakv, IdHfiufu and Cttlture of California Tribes, in Pubs, of
California Univer&iiy and the American Museum of Natural History,
N. V. ; Albert Bucll Lewis. " Trfbej of the Columbia Valley," Mem.
Anikrop, A hoc. vol. I (1906), with bibliography; Joseph D.
MrGunr, " The Stone Hammer and its Various Uses, ' Am. Anthro-
klifl. Jv, {1S91J: Teobert Malef, " Researches in Usumatsintla
__ltcy" (1901-190,3), Peuhody Museum Mem. ii.; Clements R.
Mirkham T Cuuo (London. t»5«, and Hakluyt Soc.. 1859); Marquis
rfe NaddiUit, UAmetiour pfeh^tvrurue (Paris, 1883); H. J. Nieboer,
Stover v <u at Industrial System (Th-- Hague, 1 900) ; G. Nordenskjold,
The Cliff Zhtelteri of the Afeaa V'fte, Colorado (Stockholm, 1893):
Ztlia NuttaU, The Bank of the Life of the Ancient Mexicans (Univ. of
CaL 1903); An Ant tent Mexican Codex, special publications of the
Peabody "M li mj 11 m {Cambridge, M.jts., 1902); Eoward John Payne,
History of tk* jVrtw World tatted America (vol. i. 1892, vol. ii. 1899, Ox-
ford ) ; A n t on io Pe na fid . Man u men t*i .1 iel A rte Mexicano antig mo (Berlin,
1800} 1 James C. PiOma, " UiUi.^raphies of Indian Languages."
Bulls. Bur r Am, Ethnol j-ro; J. W. Powell, " Indian Linguistic
Families," ?th Rtp#ft Bureau, of American Ethnology (1891); H.
Hcikcth Trichard, Through 1 he Heart of Patagonia (New York, 1902)
(appendix on the co-existence of mylodon and man) ; F. W. Putnam,
" Archaeology and Ethnology," vol. vii., Wheeler Surveys, &c
S Washington, 1879) ; Charles Rau, The Palenque Tablet, Smithsonian
ontributions, \Va«hbKt n n: Caecflie Seler, Auf olten V.' en in
Mexico und Guatemala ilVrlin, 1000); HarLan I. Smith. " A: haeo-
Iogical Discoveries in North-Western America/' Bull. Am. Geo-
graphical Society (May 1906}: also Mtm. Am, Mus, A'af. History
(New York); Karl von den Steinen, VnUtt den ttalunotketn £ ntral-
B'osiliens (Berlin , 1884); E, H. Thompson, " Exploration* in l-oltun
and Labna," M '-■■in Ptcbady Museum of Affkaevt, and EM tol. i.
(1897); Max UMe> " Explorations in Peru." Memoir Unif* iff Cal.
i.; Washington Matthews, Novate Le fends (Cambridge, Mass.);
Anne Cary Maud -slay and Alfred iVrckal Maud-slay. A &'•>'• toe at
Guatemala (London, rftoyj) (Maudslay H s whole leries ilogia
Centrali Americana, 1880-1902, arc valuable*. . . The
Hill Caves of \ucoian (I'hiladelphia, 1896); Clarence B. I ,oore,
papers on archaeology of Florida and neighbouring states. Journal
Acad. Nat. Sc. (Philadelphia, vol. xiii., 1905); Lewis H. Morgan,
Smithsonian Contributions, xviL, 1869; and Ancient Society,
New York. (O. T. M.)
AMERICA ISLANDS, a name given to Christmas, Fanning,
Palmyra and attendant islets, belonging to Great Britain, in the
Central Pacific Ocean, between the equator and 6° N., and about
160 W. They are so named because frequented for their guano
by traders from the United States. Christmas Island is probably
the largest atoll in the Pacific (it is about 90 m. in circuit), and
was discovered by Captain Cook in 1777. The islands were
annexed by Great Britain in 18S8 in view of the laying of the
Pacific cable, of which Fanning Island is a station. Guano and
mother-of-pearl shells are the principal articles of export; the
population of the islands is about 300.
AMERICAN CIVIL WAR (1861-1865). 1. The Civil War
between the northern and southern sections of the United States,
which began with the bombardment of Fort Sumter on the 12th
of April 1861, and came to an end, in the last days of April 1865,
with the surrender of the Confederates, was in its scope one of the
greatest struggles known to history. Its operations were spread
over thousands of miles, vast numbers of men were employed, and
both sides fought with an even more relentless determination than
is usual when " armed nations " meet in battle. The duration of
the war was due to the nature of the country and the enormous
distances to be traversed, not to any want of energy, for the
armies were in deadly earnest and their battles and combats (of
which two thousand four hundred can be named) sterner tats
those of almost any war in modern history. The political baton
of the war, its antecedents and its consequences, are dealt with ia
the articles United States (History) and Contedeeate States
For the purposes of the military narrative it b sufficient to sty
that eleven southern states seceded from the Union and formed
the Confederate States of America. Jefferson Davis was chose
president of this confederacy, and an energetic go v ei ante s!
prepared to repel the expected attack of the M Union " states
The " resumption " by the seceding states of the coast defence
(built on land ceded by the various states to the Federal
government, and, it was argued, withdrawn therefore by the
act of secession) brought on the war.
2. Bombardment of Port Sumter.— South Carotin*, fiadkf
other means of seizing or regaining Fort Sumter at Charienn
ineffectual, ushered in the great struggle by the bombardment ef
the 1 2th of April 1861. Against overwhelming odds the Uaiiof
States troops held out until honour was satisfied; they the*
surrendered the ruins of the fort and were conveyed by warships
to the north. At once the war spirit was aroused. Presided
Lincoln called out 75,000 men. The few southern states sraidi
had not yet seceded, refused their contingents and prompdr
joined the " rebels," but there was no hesitation in the peopk of
the North, and the state troops volunteered in far greater numbea
than luid been demanded. Nearly the whole of the nation had
now definitely taken sides in the quarrel. The Confederacy as-
sisted of eleven states (Virginia, North and Sooth Caro&aa,
Georgia, Florida, Alabama, Mississippi, Louisiana., Teui
Arkansas and Tennessee). All the remaining states and terri-
tories stood by the Union, except Missouri, Kentncky tad
Maryland, in which public opinion was divided. Bat the fist
operations of the war brought about the willing or uwi&af
adhesion of these border states to the Federal cause. Citizens at
these states served on either side in the war. The smalt bet
highly efficient, regular army stood by the president, those*
large numbers of the officers, amongst them many of the best ts
the service, left it when their states seceded. The navy KkrrBt
remained national, and of its officers very few went with te-
states, for the foreign relations of the navy tended to product a
sentiment wider than local. But the Federal armaments were ac;
on such a scale as to enable the government to cope with a ** naxisa
in arms/' and the first call for volunteers was followed by box
and more, until in the end the Federals had more than a m&joa
men under arms. At first the troops on both sides were voiss-
tarily enlisted, but the South quickly, the North Inter, pot j
force conscription acts. Reducing the figures to a three yens'
average, the North furnished about 45 % of her military popsa-
tion, the South not less than 00 % for that term. Even so car
Confederacy was numerically, as in every other respect fa-*
weaker, and rarely, after the second year, opposed equal nomam
to the troops of the Union. Throughout the critical period at
the war, that is, from the beginning of 186a up to the day of
Chattanooga, three distinct campaigns were always in progreav
Virginia, separating the two hostile capitals, Richmond sad
Washington, was the theatre of the great campaigns of the an.
where the flower of both armies fought. In the centre, the
valleys of the Ohio, the Cumberland and the Tennessee were the
battle-ground of large armies attacking and defending the soats
and south-eastern states of the Confederacy, while on and beycri
the great waterway of the Mississippi was carried on the strasj^
for those interests, vital to either party, which depended on the
mighty river and its affluents. Until the end of 1863 the evrau
in these three regions remain distinct episodes; after that the
whole theatre of war is comprised in the " anaconda pose?."
which concentrated irresistible masses of troops from all sides on
the heroic remnants of the Confederacy. In Virginia and the
east, Washington, situated on the outpost line of the Ubjosl
and separated by the " border " state of Maryland from Prr-
sylvania and the North, was for some time in great peril. Mrgrrja.
and with it the Federal navy yard at Norfolk and the srv.eal
at Harper's Ferry, was controlled by the rebels. EaIu-t -it
was the scene of a bloody riot as the first Northern regie
AMERICAN CIVIL WAR
819
(6th Mas.) passed through on its way to Washington on the 19th
of April, and, until troops could be spared to protect the railway
through Maryland, all reinforcements for the national capital had
to be brought up to Annapolis by sea. When that state was
reduced to order, the Potomac became the front, and, later, .the
base, of the Northern armies.
3. Missouri and West PsVgMM.— Missouri, at the other flank of
the line, contained an even stronger Confederate element, and it
was not without a severe struggle that the energy of Mr (after-
wards General) F. P. Blair, and of Nathaniel Lyon, the Unionist
military commander, prevailed over the party of secession. In
Kentucky the Unionist victory was secured almost without a
blow, and, even at the end of 186 1, the Confederate outposts west
of the Alleghenies lay no farther north than the line Columbus*
— Bowling Green— Cumberland Gap, though southern Missouri
was still a contested ground. Between the Mississippi and the
mountains the whole of the year was spent by both sides in pre-
paring for the contest In the east hostilities began in earnest
in western Virginia. This part of the state, strongly Unionist,
had striven to prevent secession, and soon became itself a state
of the Union (1863). A force under General G. B. McClellan
advanced from the Ohio in June and captured Philippi. This
promptitude was not only dictated by the necessity of preserving
West Virginia, but imposed by the necessity of holding the
Baltimore k Ohio railway, which, as the great link between
east and west, was essential to the Federal armies. A month
later, an easy triumph was obtained by McClellan and Rosecrans
against the Confederates of Virginia at Rich Mountain.
4. First Butt Run. — The opposing forces now in the field
numbered 190,000 Unionists and half that number of Confeder-
ates; sixty-nine warships flew the Stars and Stripes and a
number of improvised ironclads and gunboats the rival "Stars
and Bars. " On the 10th of June a Federal force was defeated
at Big Bethel (near Fortress Monroe), and soon afterwards the
main Virginian campaign began. On the Potomac the Unionist
generals McDowell and Patterson commanded respectively the
forces at Washington and Harper's Ferry, opposed by the
Confederates under Generals J. £. Johnston and Beauregard
at Winchester and at Manassas. The forces of these four
commanders were raw but eager, and the people behind them
clamoured for a decision. Much against his own judgment,
Lieutenant-General Winfield Scott, the Federal general-in-chief,
a veteran of the second war with England and of the war with
Mexico, felt constrained to oider an advance against Beau-
regard, while Patterson was to hold Johnston in check on the
Shenandoah. On the a: st of July took place the first battle of
Bull Run (q.v.) between McDowell and Beauregard, fought by
the raw troops of both sides with an obstinacy that foreboded
the desperate battles of subsequent campaigns. The arrival of
Johnston on the previous evening and his lieutenant Kirby Smith
at the crisis of the battle (for Patterson's part in the plan had
completely failed), turned the scale, and the Federals, not yet
disciplined to bear the strain of a great battle, broke and fled in
wild rout The equally raw Confederates were in no condition to
pursue. A desultory duel between the forces of Rosecrans and
Robert E. Lee in West Virginia, which ended in the withdrawal
of the Confederates, and a few combats on the Potomac (Ball's
Bluff or Leesburg, October 21 ; Dranesville, December 20) , brought
to a close the first campaign in the east
5. Clou of Ike First Year.— In the end Bull Run did more
harm to the victors than to the conquered. The Southerners
undeniably rested on their laurels, and enabled McClellan, who
was now called to the chief military command at Washington, to
raise, organize and train the famous Army of the Potomac, which,
in defeat and victory, won its reputation as one of the finest
armies of modern history. Johnston meanwhile was similarly
employed in fashioning the equally famous Army of northern
Virginia, which for three years carried the Confederacy on
its bayonets. It was not until the people was stung by the
humiliation of Bull Run that the unorganized enthusiasm of the
North settled down into an invincible determination to crush
tfee rebellion, at all costs. The. men of the South were not leas in.
earnest, and the most highly individualized people in the world
was thus found ready to accept a rigorous discipline as the only
way to success. In the autumn, a spirited attempt was made by
the Arkansas Confederates to reoccupy Missouri. Frfmont, the
Federal commander, proved quite unable to deal with this, and
the gallant Lyon was defeated and killed at Wilson's Creek
(August 10). Soon afterwards, after a steady resistance, the
Unionist garrison of Lexington surrendered to Sterling Price.
But the work of Blair and Lyon had not been in vain, and the
mere menace of Fremont's advance sufficed to clear the state,
while General John Pope, by vigorous action in the field and able
civil administration, restored order and quiet in the northern
part of the state. In the central theatre (Kentucky), the only
event of importance was a daring reconnaissance of the Con-
federate fort at Columbus on the Mississippi by a small
force under Brigadier-General U. S. Grant (action of Belmont,
November 7).
6. The Blockade.— Meanwhile the Federal navy had settled
down to its fourfold task of blockading the enemy's coast against
the export of cotton and the import of war material, protecting
the Union commerce afloat, hindering the creation of a Con-
federate navy and co-operating with the land forces. From
the first months of the war the sea power of the Federals was
practically unchallenged, and the whole length of the hostile
coast-line was open to invasion. But the blockade of 3000 miles
of coast was a far more formidable task, and international law
required it to be effective in order to be respected. Nevertheless
along the whole line some kind of surveillance was established
long before the close of 1861, and, in proportion as the number
of vessels available increased, the blockade became more and
more stringent, until at last it was practically unbreakable at
any point save by the fastest steamers working under unusually
favourable conditions of wind and weather. As against the
civilian enemy the navy strangled commerce; its military pre-
ponderance nipped in the bud every successive attempt of the
Confederates to create a fleet (for each new vessel as it emerged
from the estuary or harbour in which it had been built, was
destroyed or driven back), while at any given point a secure base
was available for the far-ranging operations of the Union armies.
Two hundred and twelve warships or converted merchantmen
were in commission on the 1st of January 1862. There had been
severalcoastal successes in 186 1, notably theoccupationof Hatteras
Inlet, North Carolina, by Commodore S.H. Stringham and General
B. F. Butler (August 28-20, 1861), and the bombardment and
capture of Forts Beauregard and Walker at Port Royal, South
Carolina,by the fleet under Commodore S.F. duPont and the forces
of General T. W. Sherman (November 7, 1861). Early in 1862 a
large expedition under General A. E. Burnside and Commodore
L. M. Goldsborough captured Roanoke Island, and the troops
penetrated inland as far as Newbern (actions of February 8 and
March 14). About the same time Fort Pulaski (the main de-
fence of Savannah, Georgia) was invested and captured. But
the greatest and most important enterprise was the capture of
New Orleans (?.».) by Flag-Officer D. G. Farragut and General
Butler (April 18-25, 1862;. This success opened up the lower
Mississippi at the same # time as the armies of the west began to
move down that river under Grant, who was always accompanied
by the gunboat flotilla which had been created on the upper
waters in x86x. A slight campaign in New Mexico took place
in February 2862, in which several brilliant tactical successes
were won by the Texan forces, but no permanent foothold was
secured by them.
7. Fort Donelson.— In the early months of 1862 preparations
on a gigantic scale were made for the conquest of the South.
McClellan and the Army of the Potomac faced Johnston, who
with the Army of northern Virginia lay at Manassas, exercising
and training his men with no less care than his opponent. Major-
Genera! D. C. Bueli in Kentucky had likewise drilled his troops
to a high state of efficiency and was preparing to move against the
Confederate general Albert Sidney Johnston, whose reputation
was that of being the foremost soldier on either side. Farther
west the troops on both sides were by no means so well trained,
820
AMERICAN CIVIL WAR
yet active operations began on the Tennessee. Here Fort
Donelson on the Cumberland, Fort Henry on the Tennessee and
Columbus on the Mississippi guarded the left of the Southern line,
Sk)ney Johnston himself maintaining a precarious advanced
position at Bowling Green, with his lieutenants, ZoUicoffer and
Crittenden, farther east at Mill Springs, and a small force under
General Marshall in the mountains of eastern Kentucky. The
last-named was soon defeated by General James A. Garfield at
Prestonburg, and a few days later General G. H. Thomas won his
first victory at Mill Springs (Logan's Cross Roads). ZoUicoffer
was killed and his army forced to make a disastrous retreat
(January 10-20, 1862). The centre of Johnston's line (Forts
Henry and Donelson) was next attacked by General Grant and
Flag-Officer A. H. Foote. On the 6th of February Fort Henry
fell to Foote's gunboat flotilla, and Grant then moved overland
to Donelson. His troops were raw and possessed no decisive
superiority in numbers, and sharp fighting took place when the
garrison of Donelson tried to cut its way out. The attempt
failed when almost on the point of success, and the Federals, under
the excellent leadership of Generals C. F. Smith, Lew Wallace
and McQernand, effected a lodgment in the works. The Con-
federate commanders proved themselves quite unequal to the
crisis, and 15,000 men surrendered with the fort on the x6th of
February.
8. Island No. jo and Pea "Ridge. — This very considerable
success thrust back Johnston's whole line to New Madrid,
Corinth and the Memphis & Charleston railway. The left
flank, even after the evacuation of Columbus, was exposed, and
the Missouri divisions under Pope quickly seized New Madrid.
The adjoining river defences of Island No. 10 in the Mississippi
proved more formidable. Foote's gunboats could, and did, run
the gauntlet, but a canal had to be cut right round the batteries
for the transports, before the land forces could cross the river and
attack the works in rear; when this was accomplished, by the
skill and energy of all concerned, the place with its garrison of
7000 men surrendered at once (April 8, 1862). Meanwhile, in
the Missouri theatre, the Federal general Curtis, outnumbered
and outmanoeuvred by the forces of Price and Van Dora, fought,
and by his magnificent tenacity won, the battle of Pea Ridge
(March 7-8), which put an end to the war in this quarter. On
the whole, the first part of the western campaign was uniformly
a brilliant success for the Federal arms. General H. W. Halleck,
who was here in control of all the operations of the Federals, had
meanwhile ordered Grant's force to ascend the Tennessee river
and operate against Corinth; Buell's well-disciplined forces were
to march overland from Nashville to join him/and General O. M.
Mitchel with a division was sent straight southwards from the
same place to cut the Memphis & Charleston line. The latter
mission, brilliantly as it was executed, failed, through want of
support, to secure a foothold. Had Halleck reinforced Mitchel,
that officer might perhaps have forestalled the later victories of
Grant and Sherman. As it was, the enterprise became a mere
diversion.
9. Shiloh.— Meanwhile Grant was encamped at Pittsburg
Landing on the Tennessee with an army 0(45,000 men, and Buell
with 37,000 men about two marches away. Early on the 6th of
April A. S. Johnston and Beauregard completely surprised the
camps of Grant's divisions. The battle of Shiloh (?.».) was a
savage scuffle between two half -disciplined hosts, contested with a
fury rare even in this war. On the 6th the Unionists, scattered
and unable to combine, were driven from point to point, and at
nightfall barely held their ground on the banks of the river.
The losses were enormous on both sides, Johnston himself being
amongst the killed. The arrival of Buell enabled the Federals
to take the offensive next morning along the whole line, and by
sunset on the 7 th, after another sanguinary battle, Beauregard
was in full retreat Some weeks afterwards, Halleck with the
combined armies of Grant, Buell and 'Pope began the siege of
Corinth, which Beauregard ultimately evacuated a month later.
Thus the first campaign of the western armies, completed by
the victory of the gunboat flotilla at Memphis (June 6),
deared the Mississippi as far down as Vicksburg, and compelled
the Confederates to evacuate the Cumberland and a Urge portka
of the Tennessee basins.
10. The Peninsula. — Many schemes were disnmrri bctweea
McClellan and President Lincoln before the Army of the Potomac
finally took the offensive in Virginia. It was eventually decided
that General Banks was to oppose " Stonewall " Jackson ia the
Shenandoah Valley, Fremont to hold western Virginia against
the same general's enterprise, and McDowell with a strong carpi
to advance overland to meet McClellan, who, with the main araar,
was to proceed by sea to Fortress Monroe and thence to advance
on Richmond. The James river, afterwards so much used foe the
Federal operations, was not yet dear, and it was here, in Hampton
Roads, that the famous fight took place b etwee n the ironclads
"Merrimac" (or "Virginia") and "Monitor" (March 8-*
1863). McClellan's advance was opposed by a small forceof Cos*
federates under General Magruder, which, gradually reinforced,
hdd the historic position of Yorktown for a whole month, and
only evacuated it on the 3rd of May. Two days later McQellan't
advanced troops fought a sharp combat at Williamsburg and the
Army of the Potomac rendezvoused on the Chirk a hominy with cs
base at White House on the Pamunkey (May 7). J. E. Johnstra
had, long ere this, fallen back from Manassas towards Rkfc-
'raond, and the two armies were in touch when a serious check
was given to McGellan by the brilliant successes of Jackson ia
the Shenandoah Valley.
ix. Jackson's Valley Campaign.— The " Valley of Virginia,"
called also the " Granary of the Confederacy," was cut into keg
parallel strips by ridges and rivers, across which passages were
rare, and along which the Confederates could, with little fear of
interruption from the east, debouch into Maryland and approach
Washington itself. Here Stonewall Jackson lay with a smal
force, and in front of him at the outlet of the valley was Basks,
while Fremont threatened him from West Virginia. Jackson had
already fought a winter campaign which ended in bis defeat at
the hands of General Shields at Kemstown (March a j). Basksi
main army, early in May, lay far down the Valley st Strasheif
and Front Royal, Fremont at the town of McDowdL Jackson's
first blow fell on part of Fremont's corps, which was sharp)/
attacked and driven into the mountains (McDowell, May 8).
The victor quickly turned upon Banks, destroyed his garrison of
Front Royal and nearly surrounded his main body; barer/
escaping, Banks was again defeated at Winchester and driven
back to the Maryland border (May 23-25). These rapid sac-
cesses paralysed the Federal offensive. McDowell, instead «f
marching to join McClellan, was ordered to the Valley to assist ia
" trapping Jackson," an operation which, at one critical mosmeat
very near success, ended in the defeat of Fremont at Cross Keys
and of McDowell's advanced troops at Port Republic (June ft-f)
and the escape of the daring Confederates with trifling loss.
McClellan, deprived of McDowell's corps, fdt himself red uc ed tt>
impotence, and three Federal armies were vainly marching upasi
down the Valley when Johnston fell with all his forces upon the
Army of the Potomac. The Federals lay on both sides of the
Chickahominy river, and at this moment Johnston heard that
McDowell's arrival need not be feared. The course of the bstde
of Seven Pines or Fair Oaks (q.v.) bore some resemblance to that
of Shiloh; a sharp attack found the Unionists unprepared, and
only after severe losses and many partial defeats could McQeflaa
check the rebd advance. Here also fortune was against the
Confederates. J. £. Johnston fell severely wounded, and is the
end a properly connected and combined advance of the Army of
the Potomac drove back his successor into the lines of Richsson*'
(May 31-June 1).
1 a. The Seven Pay*.— Bad weather and skilful defence com-
pletely checked the assailants for another three weeks, and the
situation was now materially altered. Jackson with tbe Vstiey
troops hadstealthily left Harrisonburg by rail on the 1 7th of Jnnt,
and was now at Ashland in McClellan's rear. General Lee, who
had succeeded Johnston in the command of the Army of northern
Virginia, proposed to attack the Federals in their line of com-
munication with White House, and passed most of Ins forces
round to the aid of Jackson. The Seven Days* Battle (f-*)
AMERICAN CIVIL WAR
821
opened with the combat of Mechanicsville on the 26th of June,
and the battle of Gaines' Mill on the 27 th. Lee soon cut the
communication with White House, but McCIellan changed his base
and retreated towards Harrison's Landing on the James river. It
was some time before Lee realised this. In the end the Federals
were sharply pursued, but McCIellan had gamed a long start and,
fighting victoriously almost every day, at length placed himself
in a secure position on the James, which was now patrolled by the
Federal warships (June 26-July z). But the second advance on
Richmond was dearly a strategical failure.
13. The Campaign of Perryville.— M\et the capture of Corinth
Halleck had suspended the Federal advance all along the line in
the west, and many changes took place about this time. Halleck
went to Washington as general-in-chief, Pope was transferred to
Virginia, Grant, with his own Army of the Tennessee and Rose-
crans*s (lately Pope's) Army of the Mississippi, was entrusted
with operations on the latter river, while Buell's Army of the
Ohio was ordered to east Tennessee to relieve the inhabitants of
that district, who, as Unionist sympathizers, were receiving harsh
treatment from the Confederate and state authorities. Late in
July Braxton Bragg, who had succeeded Beauregard in command
of tne Confederates, transferred his forces to the neighbourhood
of Chattanooga. Tennessee was thenceforward to be the central
theatre of war, and too late it was recognized that Mitchel should
nave been supported in the spring. The forces left south of
Corinth were enough to occupy the attention of Grant and Rose-
crans, and almost contemporaneously with Lee's advance on
Washington (see below), Price and Bragg took the offensive
against Grant and Buell respectively. The latter early in August
lay near Murfreesboro, covering Nashville, but the Confederate
general did not intend to threaten that place. The valleys and
ridges of eastern Tennessee screened him as he rapidly marched
on Louisville and Cincinnati. The whole of the Southern army in
the west swung round on its left wing as the pivot, and Buell only
just reached Louisville before his opponent The Washington
authorities, thoroughly dissatisfied, ordered him to turn over the
command to General Thomas, but the latter magnanimously
declined the offer, and Buell on the 8th of October fought the
sanguinary and indecisive battle of Perryville, in consequence of
which Bragg retired to Chattanooga.
14. The Western Campaign. — The Union leader was now
ordered once more to east Tennessee, but he protested that want
of supplies made such a move impossible. Rosecrans, the victor
of Corinth and Iuka (see below), was thereupon ordered to replace
him. Buell's failure to appreciate political considerations as a
part of strategy justified his recall, but the value of his work, like
that of McCIellan, can hardly be measured by marches and
victories. T|ie disgraced general was not again employed, but the
men of the Army of the Ohio retained throughout, as did those of
the Army of the Potomac, the impress of their first general's
discipline and training. Sterling Price in the meanwhile had been
ordered forward against Grant and Rosecrans, and Van Dora
promised his assistance. Before the latter could come up, how-
ever, Rosecrans defeated Price at Iuka (September 10). The
Confederates, not dismayed thereby, effected their junction and
moved on Corinth, which was defended by Rosecrans and 23,000
Federal troops. Grant's Other forces were split up into detach-
ments, and when Van Dora, boldly marching right round Rose-
crans, descended upon Corinth from the north, Grant could
hardly stir to help his subordinate. Rosecrans, however, won the
battle of Corinth (October 3-4), though on the evening of the
3rd be had been in a perilous position. The Confederates fell
Jback to the southward, escaping Grant once more, and thus ended
the Confederate advance in the West
15. Pope's Campaign in Virginia.— -The Army of Virginia
under Pope was composed of the troops lately chasing Jackson
in the Valley—Fremont's (now Sigel's), Banks's and McDowell's
corps. Halleck (at the Washington headquarters) began by
withdrawing McCIellan from the James to assist Pope in central
Virginia; Lee, thus released from any fear for the safety of
Richmond, turned swiftly upon Pope. That officer desired to
concentrate his command on GordonsvQle, but Jackson was before
him at that place, and he fell back on Culpeper. 6n the oth of
August Banks and Jackson joined battle once more at Cedar
Mountain (or Cedar Run); the Federals, though greatly inferior
in numbers, attacked with much vigour. Banks was eventually
beaten, but he had come very near to success, and Jackson soon
retired across the Rapidan, where (the Army of the Potomac
having now begun to leave the James) Lee joined him (August
17) with the corps of Longstreet Pope now fell back behind
the Rappahannock without showing fight Here Halleck's orders
bade him cover both Washington and Aquia Creek (whence the
Army of the Potomac was to join him), orders almost impossible
of execution, as any serious change of position necessarily un-
covered one of these lines. The leading troops of the Army of the
Potomac were now landed, and set out to join Pope's army, which
faced Longstreet and Jackson on the Rappahannock between
Bealton and Waterloo. On the 24th of August Lee ordered
Jackson, to march round Pope's right wing and descend on his rear
through Thoroughfare Gap on Manassas and the old battle-ground
of 1861. Pope was at this moment about to take the offensive,
when a violent storm swelled the rivers and put an end to all
movement On the 26th of August the daring flank march of
Jackson's corps ended at Manassas Station (see Bull Run).
Longstreet followed Jackson, and Lee's army was reunited on
the battlefield. By the 1st of September the campaign of
" Second Manassas" was over. Pope's army and such of the
troops of the Army of the Potomac as had been involved in the
catastrophe were driven, tired and disheartened, into the
Washington lines. The Confederates were once more masters of
eastern Virginia.
16. Antietam.— It was at this moment that Bragg was in the
full tide of his temporary success in Tennessee and Kentucky,
and, after his great victory of Second Bull Run, Lee naturally
invaded Maryland, which, it was assumed, had not forgotten its
Southern sympathies. But Lee received no real accession of
strength, and when McCIellan with all available forces moved out
of Washington to encounter the Army of northern Virginia, the
Confederates were still but a few marches from the point where
they had crossed the Potomac Lee had again divided his army.
On the 13th of September Jackson was besieging x 1,000 Federals
in Harper's Ferry, Longstreet was at Hagerstown, Stuart's
cavalry holding the passes of the South Mountain, while
McClellan's whole army lay at Frederick. Here extraordinary
good fortune put into the enemy's hands a copy of Lee's orders,
from which it was clear that the Confederates were dangerously
dispersed. Had McGellan moved at once he could have seized
the passes without difficulty, as he was aware that he had only
cavalry to oppose him. But the 13th was spent in idleness, and
stubborn infantry now held the passes. A serious and costly
action had to be fought before the way was cleared (battle
of South Mountain, September 14). On the following day
Harper's.Ferry capitulated after a weak defence. Jackson there-
upon swiftly rejoined Lee, leaving only a division to carry ouf the
capitulation. On the x 6th McCIellan found Lee in position behind
the Antietam Creek, and on the 17th was fought the sanguinary
and obstinately contested battle of Antietam (q.v.) or Sharpsburg.
At the price of enormous losses both sides escaped defeat in the
field, but Lee's offensive was at an end and he retired into
Virginia. Thenceforward the Confederacy was purely on the
defensive. Only twice more did the forces of the South strike
out (Gettysburg, 1863; Nashville, 1864), and then the offensive
was more of a counter-attack than an advance.
if. Vicksburg in 186*.— The Confederate failures of Corinth,
Perryville and Antietam were followed by a general advance by
the Federals. It is about this time that Vicksburg becomes a
place of importance. Farragut from New Orleans, and the gun-
boat flotilla from the upper waters, had engaged the batteries in
June and July, but had returned to their respective stations,
while a Federal force under General Williams, which had appeared
before the fortress, retired to Baton Rouge. Early in August,
Van Dora, now in command o( the place, sent a force to attack
Williams, and on the 5th a hard-fought action took place at
Baton Rouge, in which Williams was killed but his troops held
822
AMERICAN CIVIL WAR
their own. At this time the minor fortress of Port Hudson was
established to guard the rear of Vicksburg. In November
Grant, with 57,000 men, began tq move down from the north
against General J. C. Pemberton, who had superseded the
talented Van Dorn. A converging movement made by Grant
from Grand Junction, W. T. Sherman from Memphis, and a force
from Helena on the Arkansas side, failed, owing to Pemberton 's
prompt retirement to Oxford, Mississippi, and complications
brought about by the intrigues of an able but intractable sub-
ordinate, McQernand, induced Grant to make a complete change
of plan. Sherman was to proceed down the great river, and join
the ships from the Gulf before Vicksburg, while Grant himself
drove Pemberton southwards along the Mississippi Central
railway. This double plan failed. Grant, as he pushed
Pemberton before him to Granada, lengthened day by day his
line of communication, and when Van Dorn, ever enterprising,
raided the great Federal depot of Holly Springs the game was up.
Grant retired hastily, for starvation was imminent, and Pember-
ton, thus freed, turned upon Sherman, and inflicted a severe
defeat on that general at Chickasaw Bayou near Vicksburg
(December 20). McQernand now assumed command, and on
the nth of January 1863 captured Fort Hindman near Arkansas
Post This was the solitary gain of the whole operation. Mean- '
while Vicksburg was steadily becoming stranger and more
formidable.
18. Fredericksburg.— McClellan, after the battle of the
Antietam, paused for some time to reorganise his forces, -some of
which had barely recovered from the effects of Pope's unlucky
campaign. He then slowly moved down the east side of the Blue
Ridge, while Lee retired up the Valley on the west side of the same
range. On the 6th of November the Army of the Potomac was at
Warrenton, Lee at Culpeper, and Jackson in the Valley. When
on the point of resuming the offensive, McClellan was suddenly
superseded by Burnside, one of his corps commanders. Like
Buell, McClellan had tempered the tools with which others were
to strike; he was not again employed, and in his fall was involved
his most brilliant subordinate, Fits John Porter (?.».). Burnside
was by no means the equal of his predecessor, though a capable
subordinate, and indeed only accepted the chief command with
reluctance. He began his campaign by cancelling McCIellan's
operation, and, his own plan being to strike at Richmond from
Fredericksburg, he moved the now augmented army to Falmouth
opposite that place, hoping to surprise the crossing of the Rappa-
hannock. Delays and neglect, not only at the front, but on the
part of the headquarters staff at Washington, permitted Lee to
seize the heights of the southern bank in time. When Burnside
fought his battle of Fredericksburg (?.».) an appalling reverse
was the result, the more terrible as it was absolutely useless
(December 13).
19. Closing Operations of 1S62. — Chickasaw Bayou and
Fredericksburg ended the Federal initiative in the west and the
east; the Army of the Cumberland under Rosecrans alone could
claim a victory. Buell's successor retained the positions about
Nashville, whilst a new Army of the Ohio prepared to operate in
east Tennessee. Bragg lay at Murfreesboro (see Stone River) ,
where Rosecrans attacked him on the 31st of December 1862. A
very obstinate and bloody two days' battle ended in Bragg's
retirement towards Chattanooga. During these campaigns the
United States navy had not been idle. The part played by the
gunboats on the upper Mississippi had been most conspicuous,
as had been the operations of Farragut's heavier ships in the lower
waters of the same river. The work of Du Pont and Goldsborough
on the Atlantic coast has been alluded to above. Charleston was
attacked without success in 1862, but from June to August 1863
it was besieged by General Gillmore and Admiral Dahlgren, and
under great difficulties the Federals secured a lodgment, though
it was not until Sherman appeared on the land side early in
1865 that the Confederate defence collapsed Fort Fisher near
Wilmington also underwent a memorable siege by land and sea.
Certain incursions were from time to time made at different
points along the whole sea-board. Minor operations moreover,
especially in Arkansas and southern Missouri, were continually
undertaken by both sides during 1862-1863, of which the battle
of Prairie Grove, Arkansas (December 7, 1862), was the most
notable incident. Meanwhile the blockade had become so strisgrsi
that few ordinary vessels could expect to break through, aad a
special type of steamer came into vogue for the purpose.
2a Capture of Vicksburg. — In 1863 the campaigns once men
divided themselves accurately into those of east, centre *zA
west This year saw the greatest successes and the heavies
reverses of the Union army, Gettysburg and Vkksburg »U
Chattanooga against Chancellorsville and Chirkamanga Open-
tions began in the west with the second advance upon Vkkabsr^
One corps of the Army of the Tennessee was detached to com
the Memphis & Charleston railway. Grant, with the other
three under Sherman, McOernand and McPherson, snoved ty
water to the neighbourhood of the fortress. Many weeks passed
without any success to the Union arms. Vkksburg and its beg
line of fortifications stood on high bluffs, all else was swamp?
lowland and intricate waterways. As Sherman in 1862, so acv
Grant was unable to obtain any foothold on the high ground, acrf
no effective attack was possible until this had been gained. At
last, after many trials and failures, Grant took a daring step.
The troops with their supplies marched round through a network
of lakes and streams to a point south of Vicksburg; Acucsa)
Porter's gunboats and the transports along with then ** raa *
the batteries. At Bruinsburg, beyond Pembertom's reach, a
landing was made on the eastern bank and, without any base of
supplies or line of retreat, Grant embarked upon a campaiga
which made him in the end master of the prize. On the 41k
of July Pemberton surrendered the fortress and 37,000 rata.
Grant's endurance and daring had won what was perhaps the
greatest success of the war. General Joseph Johnston with a
small relieving army had appeared at Jackson, Mississippi, bat
had been held in check by General F. P. Blair and a force from the
Army of the Tennessee; when Vicksburg surrendered a larger
force was at once sent against him, whereupon he retired. In the
meanwhile Banks had moved upstream from New Orleans, aad
laid siege to Port Hudson. Operations were pressed with vigour,
and the place surrendered four days after Vicksburg. A Cos-
federate attack on the post of Helena, Arkansas, was the hst
serious fight on the great river, and before the end of July the in*
merchant steamer from St Louis discharged her cargo at Kcv
Orleans
21. Chancellorsville and Gettysburg. — In Virginia Burnside sis'
made, in January 1863, an attempt to gain by manoeuvre what be
had missed in battle. The sudden swelling of rivers and dots-
pour of rain stopped all movement at once, and the " Mud
March " came to an end. A Federal general could retain his add
on the men after a reverse, but not after a farce: Burnside «as
replaced by General Joseph Hooker, who had a splendid repeti-
tion as a subordinate leader. The new commander displayed
great energy in reorganizing the Army of the Potomac, the
discipline of which had not come unscathed through a career d
failure. Lee still held the battlefield of Fredericksburg and htd
not attempted the offensive, and in April he was much weakcaoi
by the detachment of Longstreet'scorpstoa minor theatre of opera-
tions. Hooker's operations began well, Lee was outmanonrvrri
and threatened in Bank and rear, but the Federals were in the
end involved in the confused and disastrous battle of Chancefionv
ville (?.».). Stonewall Jackson was mortally wounded, bat to
men and those of Longstreet's who had remained with Lee
defeated Hooker and forced him to retire again beyond the
Rappahannock, though he bad double Lee's force. But Hooker
could at least make himself obeyed, and when Lee initiated
his second invasion of the North a month after the battle d
Chancellorsville, the Army of the Potomac was as resolute u
ever. On the 9th of June the cavalry combat of Brandy Sumo
made it clear to the Federal staff that Lee was about to use the
Valley once more to screen an invasion of Maryland. Longstrett,
A. P. Hill and Ewell (who were now Lee's corps conuaanden;
were at one time scattered from Strasburg in the Valley u>
Fredericksburg, and Hooker earnestly begged to be allowed to
a tuck them in detail. Success was certain, but the scheme was
AMERICAN CIVIL WAR
823
vetoed by the Federal headquarters and government, whose
first and ruling idea was to keep the Army of the Potomac
between Lee and Washington. Hooker was thus compelled to
follow Lee's movements. Ewell's men were raiding unchecked
as far north as the Susquehanna, while Hooker was compelled to
inactivity before the forces of Hill and Longstreet. The Federal
general, within his limitations, acted prudently and skilfully. The
Army of the Potomac crossed that river only one day later than
Lee, and concentrated at Frederick. But Hooker was no longer
trusted by the Washington authorities, and his dispositions were
interfered with. Not allowed to control the operations of his own
men, the unfortunate general resigned his command on the 28th.
He was succeeded by General G. G. Meade, who, besides steadi-
ness and ability, possessed the confidence of Lincoln and Halleck
which Hooker had lacked. Meade was thus able to move
promptly, Lee was compelled to meet him, and the Army of the
Potomac began to take up its position on Pipe Creek, screened by
Generals Reynolds and Buford at Gettysburg (q.v.). On the 1st
of July the heads of Lee's columns engaged Buford's cavalry out-
posts, and the conflict began. All troops on both sides hurried
to the unexpected battlefield, and after a great three days'
battle, the Army of the Potomac emerged at last with a decisive
victory. On the 4th, as Pemberton surrendered at Vicksburg,
Lee drew off his shattered forces. One third of the Army of
northern Virginia and one quarter of the Army of the Potomac
remained on the field. Pursuit was not seriously undertaken, and
the armies manoeuvred back to the old battle-grounds of the
Rapidan and the Rappahannock. A war of manoeuvre followed,
each side being reduced in turn by successive detachments sent
to aid Rosecrans and Bragg in the struggle for Tennessee. In
October Lee attempted a third Bull Run campaign on the same
lines as the second, but Meade's steadiness foiled him, and he
retired to the Rapidan again, where he in turn repulsed Meade's
attempt to surprise him (Mine Run, November 26-38, 1863).
aa. Chickamauga. — In the centre Rosecrans and Bragg spent
the first six months of the year, as it were glaring at each other.
Nothing was done by the main armies, but the far-ranging
cavalry raids of the Confederates under J. H. Morgan and other
leaders created much excitement, especially " Morgan's Raid "
(June 27-July 26), through Indiana, Kentucky and Ohio, which
states had hitherto little or no experience of the war on their
own soiL At last the Army of the Cumberland advanced.
Rosecrans manoeuvred his opponent out of one position after
another until Bragg was driven back into Chattanooga. These
operations were very skilfully conducted by Rosecrans and his
second-in-command, Thomas, and, at a trifling cost, advanced
the Union outposts to the borders of Georgia. Burnside and the
new Army of the Ohio had now cleared east Tennessee and
occupied Knoxville (September 2), and meanwhile Rosecrans
by a brilliant movement, in which he displayed no less daring in
execution than skill in planning, once more manoeuvred Bragg out
of his position and occupied Chattanooga. But he had to fight to
maintain his prise, and in the desperate battle of Chickamauga
(q.v.) on the 19th and 20th of September, Bragg, reinforced by
Longstreet from Virginia, won a complete victory. Thomas's
defence won him the popular title of the M Rock of Chicka-
mauga " and enabled Rosecrans to draw off his men, but the
critical position of the Army of the Cumberland in Chattanooga
aroused great alarm.
23. Chattanooga. — Grant was now given supreme command in
the west, and the Army of the Tennessee (now under Sherman)
and two corps from Virginia under Hooker were hurried by rail to
Tennessee. In spite of his good record Rosecrans was deprived of
his command. But Thomas, his successor, was one of the grea test
soldiers of the war, and Grant's three generals, all men of great
ability, set to work promptly. Hooker defeated Longstreet at
Wauhatchie and revictuallcd Chattanooga (q.v.) t and on the
23rd, 24th and 25th of November the three armies attacked
Bragg's position. On the left Sherman made little progress; on
the right, however, Hooker and the men from the Potomac army
fought and won the extraordinary " Battle above the Clouds "
on Lookout Mountain, and on the 25th the Confederate centre
on Missionary Ridge was brilliantly stormed by Thomas and the
Army of the Cumberland. Grant's triumph was decisive of the
war in the west, and with Burnside's victory over Longstreet at
Knoxville, the struggle for Tennessee was over. Vicksburg,
Gettysburg and Chattanooga ended the crisis of the war. which
had been at its worst for the Union in this year. Henceforth the
South was fighting a hopeless battle.
24. Plan of Campaign for 1864. — Grant, now the foremost
soldier in the Federal army, was on the 9th of March 1864 com-
missioned lieutenant-general and appointed general-in-chief.
Halleck, Lincoln and Stanton, the intractable, if energetic,
war secretary, now stood aside, and the efforts of the whole vast
army were to be directed and co-ordinated by one supreme
military authority. Sherman was to command in the west,
Grant's headquarters accompanied Meade and the Army of the
Potomac The general plan was simple and comprehensive.
Meade was to " hammer " Lee, and Sherman, at the head of the
armies which had been engaged at Chattanooga and Knoxville,
was to deal with the other great field army of Confederates under
Johnston, and as far as possible gain ground for the Union in the
south-east. Sherman's own plans went farther still, and in-
cluded an eventual invasion of Virginia itself from the south, but
this was not contemplated as part of the Immediate programme.
Butler with the new Army of the James was to move up that
river towards Richmond and Petersburg. Subsidiary forces were
to operate on the sea-board, in the Shenandoah Valley and else-
where. At this time took place the Red River Expedition, which
was intended for the subjugation of western Louisiana. The
troops of General Banks and the war vessels under Admiral
Porter moved up the Red river, and on the 16th of March 1864
reached Alexandria. Skirmishing constantly with the Confeder-
ates under Kirby Smith and Taylor, the Federals eventually
on the 8th and 9th of April suffered serious reverses at Sabine
Cross Roads and Pleasant Hill. Banks thereupon retreated, and,
high water in the river having come to an end, the fleet was in the
gravest danger of being cut off, until Colonel Bailey suggested,
and rapidly carried out, the construction of a dam and weir over
which the ships ran down to the lower waters. Eventually the
various forces retired to the places whence they had come.
25. The Wilderness Campaign.— Virginia was now destined to
be the scene of the bloodiest fighting of the whole war. Grant
and Meade, reinforced by Burnside's IX. Corps to a strength of
x 20,000 men, crossed the Rapidan on the 4th of May with the
intention of attacking Lee's inner flank, that nearer Richmond.
With a bare 70,000 men the Confederate general struck at the
flank of Grant's marching columns in that same Wilderness where
Jackson had won his last battle twelve months before. The
battle of the Wilderness (q.v.) went on for two days, with little
advantage to either side. On his part Grant had lost 1 8,000 men.
Lee had lost fewer, but could ill spare them, and Longstreet
had been severely wounded (May 5-6). Grant, astonished
perhaps, but here as always resolute, tried again to reach Lee's
right wing, and on the 8th another desperate battle began at
Spottsylvania (q.v.) Court House. The fighting on this field
lasted ten days, at the end of which Grant had doubled his losses
and was as far as ever from success. On the 21st of May,
with extraordinary pertinacity, he sent Meade and Burnside once
more against the inner flank of the Army of northern Virginia.
The action of North Anna ended like the rest, though on this
occasion the loss was small. A week later the Federals, again
moving to their left, arrived upon the ground on which McClellan
had fought two years before, and at Cold Harbor (Porter's battle-
field of Gaines' Mill) the leading troops of the Army of the James
joined the lieutenant-general Meanwhile the minor armies had
come to close quarters all along the line. The Army of the James
moved towards Richmond on the same day on which the Army of
the Potomac crossed the Rapidan. On the 16th of May Butler
fought the indecisive battle of 00117*3 Bluff against Beauregard,
in consequence of which he had to retire to Bermuda Hundred,
whence most of his troops were sent to join Grant. At the same
time the Union troops under Sigel in the Shenandoah Valley were
defeated at New Market (May 15). General Hunter, who
824
AMERICAN CIVIL WAR
replaced Sigel, won a combat at Piedmont, and marched on the
8th of June towards Lynchburg. The danger threatening this
important point caused Lee to send thither General Early with
the remnants of Jackson's old Valley troops. Hunter's assault
(June x8) failed, and the Federals, unable to hold their ground,
had to make a circuitous retreat to the Potomac by way of West
Virginia.
26. Cold Harbor.— On the 3rd of June at Cold Harbor fa.t.)
took place the last of Grant's " hammering " battles in. the open
fields. The attack of the Federals failed utterly; not even
Fredericksburg was so disastrous a defeat Six thousand men
fell in one hour's fighting, and the total losses on this field, where
skirmishing went on for many days, were 13,000. But Grant was
as resolute as ever. His forces once more manoeuvred against
Lee's inner flank, still found no weak spot, and eventually arrived '
upon the James. The river was crossed, Lee as usual conforming
to the movement, and on the 15th of June the Federals appeared
before the works of Petersburg (q.v.). Here, and in the narrow
neck of land between the Appomattox and the James, was the
ganglion of the Confederacy, and the struggle for its possession
was perhaps the greatest of modern history. A first assault
made at once (June 15-18) failed with a toss of 8x50 men.
Two sharp combats followed on the 22nd of June and the 2nd
of July, as Grant once more began to feel Lee's right But the
anniversary of Gettysburg saw Lee's works still intact, and
72,000 men of the Army of the Potomac and the Army of the
James had fallen since the campaign had opened two months
before. History has few examples to show comparable to this
terrible campaign in Virginia. The ruthless determination of the
superior leaders had been answered splendidly by the devotion of
the troops, but the men of Chancellorsville and Gettysburg were
mostly dead or wounded, and the recruits attracted by bounties
or compelled by the " draft," which had at last been enforced in
the North, proved far inferior soldiers to the gallant veterans
whom they replaced.
27. Petersburg.— There was no formal siege of Lee's position.
A vast network of fortifications covered the front of both armies,
whose flank extended far to the south-west, Grant seeking to
capture, Lee to defend, the Danville railway by which the Con-
federates received their supplies. Richmond, though no longer
of paramount importance, was no less firmly held than Peters-
burg, and along the whole long line fighting went on with little
interruption. On the 30th of July the Federal engineers exploded
a mine under the hostile works, and Burnside's corps rushed to
the assault But the attempt ended in failure — the first defeat
of the Army of the Potomac which could fairly be called dis-
creditable. Still, Lee was losing men, few it is true, but most
precious, since it was impossible to replace them, while the North
poured unlimited numbers into the Federal camps. The policy
of " attrition " upon which Grant had embarked, and which he
was carrying through regardless of his losses, was having its effect
About this time Early, freed from the opposition of Hunter's
forces, made a bold stroke upon Washington. Crossing the
Potomac, he marched eastward, and, defeating a motley force
(action of the Monocacy) which General Lew Wallace had collected
to oppose him, appeared before the lines of Washington. The
Federal capital was at the moment almost denuded of troops, and
forces hastily despatched from the James only arrived just in
time to save it Thereupon the Confederates retired, narrowly
escaping Hunter, and the brief campaign came to an end with
an engagement at Kernstown. Early had been nearer to the
immediate success than Lee had been in 1862 and 1863, but
he had (ailed utterly to relax Grant's hold on Petersburg,
which was becoming daily more crushing.
On the decisive theatre the Federals made their way, little by
Utile and at a heavy cost, to the Weldon railway, and beyond
it to the westward. Lee's lines were becoming dangerously
extended, but he could not allow the enemy to cut him off from
the west. On the 25th of August there was a battle at Reams
Station, in which the Federals were forced back, and the famous
II. Corps under Hancock was for the first time routed. But Grant
was tireless, and five days later another battle was fought, at
Peebles Farm, in which the lost ground wis regained. Butler aa!
the Army of the James at the same time won some successes c
front of the Richmond works. One more attempt to outflana Le
to the westward was made by Grant without success, hefat
winter came on, and the campaign closed with an expedites
under the direction of General Warren, which destroyed tie
Weldon line. Grant had not reached Lee's flank at any pcoc
and his casualties from first to last had been unprecedeateaT
heavy, but " hammering " was steadily prevailing where sk& aat*
valour had failed.
28. Sheridan's Valley Campaign.— In the dosing months of 6e
year Grant's brilliant cavalry commander Sheridan had beet
put in command of an army to operate against Early ia ca?
Valley. The Federals in this quarter had hitherto suffered fcoa
want of unity in the command (e.g. Banks, Fremont a=i
McDowell in 1862). The Army of the Shenandoah would not at
thus handicapped, for Sheridan was a leader of txcxptkdx
Character. The first encounter took place on the Opequan sea?
Winchester. Early was defeated, but not routed($eptcmber 1;',
and another battle took place near Strasburg (Fisher's Hit, ca
the 22nd. Always disposing of superior numbers, Sheridan 01
this occasion won an important victory without much loss. A
combat which took place, at Mount Jackson; during the pursed
again ended successfully, and the triumphant Federals retucd
down the Valley, ruthlessly destroying everything wfakb ns^i
be of the slightest value to the enemy. Early sharply folkm:
them up, his men infuriated by the devastation of the " Graaarr
of the Confederacy." At Cedar Creek (q.v.), during a momenta??
absence of the Federal commander, his camps were surprised by
Early (October 19). The Army of the Shenandoah was rottri
and driven towards the Potomac. But the gallant stand cf ik
old Potomac troops of the VI. Corps checked the Con fede rates
Sheridan arrived on the scene to find a new battle in progress
He was at his best at such a moment, and the rallied Feoeaa
under his command swept all before them. The victory «
decisive, and, the country being now bare of supplies, the Am?
of the Shenandoah was sent to reinforce Grant, while the reman
of Early's forces also went to Petersburg. Sheridan's cantpaifs
was a famous episode of the war. It was conducted with ska,
though, with twice the numbers of the enemy at las coouaaad,
Sheridan's victory was a foregone conclusion. But he had at
least shown that he possessed to an unusual degree the ml
attribute of a great captain — power over men.
29. Sherman and Johnston.— Meanwhile Sherman had fought as
Atlanta campaign. General Johnston opposed him almost oa tk
old Chickamauga battle-ground, where the Federal comma opt,
after a brief campaign in Mississippi and Alabama, the rexJt
of which was to clear his right flank (February 3- March i»
1864), collected his armies— the Army of the Tennessee urdtr
McPherson,theAimyoftheCumberknduno>rThosasa(He«keri
troops had now become part of this army) and the Army of the
Ohio under Schofield. In the celebrated campaign of Atlanta tk
highest manoeuvring skill was displayed by both the faawa
commanders. Whilst Grant, with his avowed object of craafcja;
Lee's army, lost no opportunity of fighting a battle c*6t* «*r ccuv.
Sherman, intent rather on the conquest of territory, scud 00
different lines. Johnston, than whom there was no better soldier
in the Confederate service when a careful defence was reqaaed.
disposed of sensibly inferior forces, and it was to be expected that
the 18th-century methods of making war by manosuvring and k?
combats, not battles, would receive a modern iDustratke: r
Georgia. Operations began early in May 1864, and five days ci
manoeuvring and skirmishing about Resaca and Rocky F**t
ended in Johnston's retirement to Resaca. A fortnight bt«
the same manoeuvres, combined with constant '* tapping " at t>*
Confederate defences, caused him to fall back again. At Adau*»
ville the same process was gone through, and Johnston retired w
Cassville, where he offered battle. Sherman was far too wary *
be drawn into an action under unfavourable conditions. If each
general had been able to obtain a great battle upon his own terau,
each would have fought most willingly, for neither desired a we*
less prolongation of the war. As it was, both declined to risk s
AMERICAN CIVIL WAR
825
decision. Johnston's inferiority in numbers was now becoming
lessened as Sherman had to detach more and more troops to his
ever-lengthening communications with Chattanooga. Another
manoeuvre brought about a heavy combat near Dallas (Pickett's
Mills and New Hope Church, May 25-27). After a time
Johnston fell back, and on the 6th of June the Federals appeared
before Marietta (q.t.). Hitherto neither leader had offered a weak
spot to his opponent, though the constant skirmishing had caused
a loss of 9000 men to Sherman and about two-thirds of that
number to the Confederates. At this moment Sherman suddenly
changed his policy and sent his troops straight against the hostile
entrenchments. The neighbourhood of Marietta witnessed for the
next fortnight very heavy fighting, notably at Pine Mountain on
the 14th and Kenesaw on the 27th, both actions being frontal
assaults gallantly pushed home and as gallantly repulsed.
Sherman acted thus in order to teach his own men and the enemy
that he was not " afraid," and the lesson was not valueless. He
then resumed his manceuvring, which was now facilitated by
improved weather and better roads.
30. Atlanta.— Johnston in due time evacuated the Marietta Ones.
On the 7th of July his fortifications on the Chattahoochee river
were turned, and he fell back into the Atlanta ($.».) position,
which was carefully prepared, like all the others, beforehand.
Here Johnston was deprived of his command. His campaign had
not been unsuccessful, for Sherman had never succeeded in taking
him at a disadvantage, but the whole of the South, including
President Davis and his chief of staff General Bragg, clamoured
for a more " energetic " policy, and General J. B. Hood was put
in command on the understanding that he should " fight." The
new general, whose bold and skilful leading had been conspicuous
on most of the Virginia battlefields, promptly did so. At first
successful, the Confederates had in the end to retire. A few days
after this battle (called Peach Tree Creek) took place the battle
of Atlanta, whkh was fiercely contested by the veterans of both
sides, and in which McPherson, one of the best generals in the
Union army, was killed. Still, Hood was again beaten. The
Army of the Tennessee, under its new commander General 0. 0.
Howard, fought and won the battle of Ezra Church on the 38th
of July, and, Atlanta being now nearly surrounded, Hood was
compelled to adopt the Fabian methods of his predecessor, and
fell back to the southward. An attack on the Army of the Ohio
near Jonesboro concluded the Atlanta campaign, which left
Sherman in control of Atlanta, but hampered by the neces-
sity of preserving his communications with Chattanooga and
weakened by a total loss of 30,000 men. In this celebrated
campaign the American generals rivalled if they did not excel
the exploits of Marlborough, Eugene and Villars, under allied
conditions.
31. The March to the Sea.— Although General Canby, with a
Federal force in the south, had been ordered to capture Mobile
early in the year— after which he was to operate towards Atlanta
— Mobile suH flew the Confederate flag, and Hood, about to
resume the offensive, was thus able to base himself on Mont-
gomery in order to attack Sherman in flank and rear. But
the Federal commander was not to be shaken off from his prize.
He held firmly to Atlanta, clearing the dty of non-combat-
ants and in other ways making ready for a stubborn defence.
Thomas and the Army of the Cumberland were sent back to
guard Tennessee. A heavy attack on the post of Allatoona (to
the garrison of which Sherman sent the famous message, " Hold
the fort, for I am coming ") was repulsed (October 5). The
main armies quickly regained contact, each edging away north-
westwards towards the Tennessee and coming into contact at
GaylesvOle, Alabama, and again at Decatur. General Slocum
with Hooker's old Potomac troops garrisoned Atlanta, and every
important post along the railway to Chattanooga was held in
force. Sherman had now resolved to execute his plan of a march
through Georgia to the sea and thence through the Carolinas
towards Virginia, destroying everything of military value en
route. With the provisos that if Lee turned upon Sherman, Grant
must follow him up sharply , and that Thomas could be left to deal
with Hood (both of which could be, and were, done), the scheme
might well be decisive of the war. Preparations were carefully
made. Fifty thousand picked men were to march through
Georgia with Sherman, and Thomas was to be reinforced by all
other forces available. There was no force to oppose the " March
to the Sea." Hood was far away on the Tennessee, which he
crossed on the 39th of October at Tuscumbia, making for
Nashville. Want of supplies checked the Confederates after a
few marches, while Schofield was pressing forward to meet them
at Pulaski and Thomas was gathering, at Nashville, a motley army
drawn from all parts of the west. It was at this same time that
Sherman broke up his railway communication, destroying Atlanta
as a place of arms, and set out on his adventurous expedition.
There was little in his path. Skirmishes at Macon and Milledge-
ville alone varied the daily routine of railway-breaking and
supply-finding, in which a belt of country 60 m. wide was absol-
utely cleared. On the 10th of December the army, thoroughly
invigorated by its march, appeared before the defences of
Savannah. On the 13th of December a division stormed Fort
McAllister, and communication was opened with the Federal
fleet. The march concluded with the occupation of Savannah
on the aoth.
3s. MuAwfle.— Hood, at a loss to divine Sherman's purpose,
hastened on into Tennessee amidst weather which would have
stopped most troops. Schofield met him on the Duck river, while
Thomas was shaping his army in rear. Hood manoeuvred
Schofield out of his lines and pushed on once more. At Franklin
Schofield had to accept battle, and thirteen distinct assaults on his
works were made, all pushed with extraordinary fury and lasting
far into the night Thomas ordered his lieutenant to retire on
Nashville, Hood following him up, impressing recruits, transports
and supplies, and generally repeating the scenes of Bragg's march
of 1862. The dvil authorities and the lieutenant-general also
urgently demanded that Thomas should advance. Constancy of
purpose was the salient feature of Thomas's military character.
He would not fight till he was ready. But this last great counter-
stroke of the Confederacy alarmed the whole North. So great was
the tension that Grant finally sent General J. A. Logan to take
command. But before Logan arrived, Thomas had on the 15th
and 16th of December fought and won the battle of Nashville
(q.v.), the most crushing victory of the whole war. Hood's army
was absolutely ruined. Only a remnant of it reassembled beyond
the Tennessee.
33. The Carolinas. — From Savannah, Sherman started on his
final march through the Carolinas. Columbia, his first objective,
was reached on the 17th of February 1865. As usual, all that
could be of possible value to the enemy was destroyed and,
by some accident, the town itself was burned. Sherman, like
Sheridan, was much criticized for his methods of reducing opposi-
tion, but it does not seem that his " bummers " were guilty of
wanton cruelty and destructiveness, at least in general, though
the cavalry naturally gave more ground for the accusation than
the main body of the army. And the methods of the Confeder-
ates had on occasion been somewhat similar. The Confederate
general Hardee managed to gather some force (chiefly from the
evacuated coast towns) wherewith to oppose the onward progress
of the Federals. As commander-in-chief, Lee now reappointed
Johnston to command, and the latter soon attacked and very
nearly defeated his old opponent at Bentonville (March 19-20).
But the " bummers" were no mere marauders, but picked
men from the armies that had won Vicksburg and Chatta-
nooga, and, though surrounded, held their ground stoutly and
successfully. Advancing once more, they were joined at Golds-
boro by the forces lately besieging Fort Fisher (see below), and
nearly 00,000 men marched northward towards Virginia, pushing
Johnston's weak army before them. Meanwhile the bulk of the
forces at Nashville had been sent to the north-east to close Lee's
escape to the mountains, and in March the final campaign had
opened at Petersburg.
34. The Pinal Campaign.-- At last Lee's men had lost heart in
the unequal struggle. Sheridan raided the upper James and
destroyed all supplies. Grant lay in front of the Army of
northern Virginia with 125,000 men, and when active operations
826
AMERICAN CIVIL WAR
began Lee had no resource but to try and escape to the south-
west in order to join Johnston. The western movement was
covered by a furious sortie from the lines of Petersburg, which
was repulsed with heavy loss. Grant felt that this was a mere
feint to screen some other move, and instantly carried the Army
of the Potomac to the westward, leaving a bare screen of troops
in his lines. On the 29th of March the movement began, followed
in rapid succession by the combats of White Oak Road and Din-
widdie Court House and Sheridan's great victory of Five Forks.
At the same time the VI. Corps at last carried the Petersburg lines
by storm. Thereupon Lee and Longstreet evacuated the Peters-
burg and Richmond lines and began their retreat Their men
were practically starving, though their rearguard showed a brave
front. The remnant of E well's corps was cut off at Sailor's Creek,
and when Sheridan got ahead of the Confederates while Grant
furiously pressed them in the rear, surrender was inevitable (April
8). On the 9th the gallant remnant of the Army of northern
Virginia laid down its arms at Appomattox Court House, and the
Confederacy came to an end. Johnston surrendered to Sherman
at Durham Statkmon the a6tfi, and soon afterwards all the remain-
ing Confederate soldiers followed their example. So ended the
gigantic struggle, as to the conduct of which it is only necessary
to quote, with a more general application, the envoi of a Federal
historian, " It has not seemed necessary to me to attempt a
eulogy of the Army of the Potomac or the Army of northern
Virginia." The general terms of surrender were that the Con-
federates should give up all material, and sign a parole not to
take up arms again. There were no manifestations of triumph or
exultation on the part of the victors, the lot of the vanquished
was made as easy as possible, and after a short time the armies
melted into the mass of the people without disturbance or
disorder. A general amnesty proclaimed by the president of
the United States on the 29th of May was the formal ending of
the Civil War.
35. Character of Ike War .— No undisciplined levies could have
fought as did the armies on both sides. . Grave faults the men had,
from the regular's point of view. They required humouring, and
their march discipline was very elastic. But in battle the " think-
ing bayonets " resolutely obeyed orders, even though it were to
attack a Marye's Hill, or a " Bloody Angle," for they had under-
taken their task and would carry it through unflinchingly. So
much may be said of both armies. The great advantage of the
Confederate— -an advantage which he had in a less degree as
against the hardier and country-bred Federal of the west— was
that he was a hunter and rider born and bred, an excellent shot,
and still not infrequently settled his quarrels by the duel The
town-bred soldier of the eastern states was a thoughtful citizen
who was determined to do his duty, but he had far less natural
aptitude for war than his enemy from the Carolinas or his comrade
from Illinois or Kansas. At the same time the more varied con-
ditions of urban life made him more adaptable to changes of
climate and of occupation than the " Southron." Irish brigades
served on both sides and shot each other to pieces as at Fredericks-
burg. They had the reputation of being excellent soldiers. The
German divisions, on the other hand, were rarely as good as the
rest. The leading of these men was in the hands, as a rule, of
regular or ex-regular officers, who made many mistakes in their
handling of large masses, but had been taught at West Point and
on the Indian frontier to command men in danger, and administer
them in camp. The volunteer officers rarely led more than a
division. When given high command at once they usually failed,
but the best of them rose gradually to the superior ranks; Logan,
for instance, became an army commander, Sickles, Terry and
others corps commanders. Cleburne, one of the best division
commanders of the South, had been a corporal in the British army.
Meagher, the leader of the " Irish brigade " at Fredericksburg,
was the young orator of the " United Irishmen." But Lee, the
Johnstons, McClellan, Grant and Sherman had all served in the old
army. Most of them were young men in x86x. Stuart was
twenty-eight, Sheridan thirty, Grant and Jackson under forty,
while some of the subordinate generals were actually fresh from
West Point.
36. Strategy and Tactics.— The roughness of much of tie
country gave a peculiar tone to the strategy of the cnmhatnui,
Roads were untrustworthy, rivers swelled suddenly, advance
and retreat were conditioned and compelled, especially in ike
case of the ill-equipped Confederates, by the exigencies of food
supply. Long forward strides of the Napoleonic type were rarer/
attempted; " changes of base " were indeed made across cosstry,
and over considerable distances, as by Sherman in rtta. bet
ordinarily either the base and the objective were cortnrrtrri by
rail or water, or else every forward step was, after the manner of
Marlborough's time, organized as a separate campaign. Hence
field fortifications played an unusually prominent part, time sad
material being available as a rule for works of soKd amstrnctna.
In isolated instances of more rapid campaigning— €4. Anbttaa
and Gettysburg— they were of subordinate importance. Tie
attack and defence of these entrenchments led to tactical
phenomena of unusual interest. Cavalry could not bins; abort
the decision in such country, and sought a field for its restles
activity elsewhere. Artillery had fallen, technically, far beted
the infantry arm, and in face of long-range rifle fire could sot
annihilate the hostile line with case-shot fire as in the days of
Napoleon. In a battle such as Chancellorsville or the Wademen
guns were almost valueless, since there was little open space ie
which they might be used. It thus fell to the infantry to attack
and defend with its own weapons, and the defence was, kcaljr,
almost inexpugnable behind its tall breastworks. One line ef
works could be stormed, but there were almost always two or
three retrenchments behind. The attacking infantry, who fouad
it necessary to cross a fire-swept xone 1000 yds. broad, had to be
used resolutely in masses, line following line, and each canyon
forward the wrecks of its predecessor. Partial attacks were
invariably costly failures. The use of masses was never pat ia
practice more sternly than by Grant in 1864. At the same time
as has been said, the cavalry arm found plenty of work. The
horses were not trained for European shock-tactics, nor did the
country offer charging room, and though melees of mounted sses
engaging with sword and pistol were not infrequent, the asm!
method of fighting was dismounted fire action, which was poe-
tised with uncommon skill by the troopers on both aides. The
far-ranging strategic " raid " was a notable feature of the war;
freely employed by both sides, it was sometimes harmful, more
usually profitable, especially to the South, by reason of the
captures in material, the information acquired and the alarm sad
confusion created. These raids, and the more ordinary ac rce nfcf
work, were never executed more brilliantly than by Lee's greet
cavalry general, "Jeb" Stuart, in Virginia, but the Federal
generals, Pleasonton and Sheridan, did excellent work in the east
as also Wheeler and Forrest on the Confederate, WSaon and
Grierson on the Federal, side in the west The technical services,
in which the mechanical skill and ingenuity of the Americas
had full play, developed remarkable efficiency. Whether it was
desired to build a railway bridge, disable a locomotive or cat a
canal, the engineers were always ready with some happy esnedv
ent On one occasion an infantry division of 8000 men repaired
xo3 miles of railway and built 182 bridges in 40 days, forging their
own tools and using local resources. Many novelties, too, cock a
the field telegraph, balloons and signalling, were employed.
37. The Union and Confederate Nowies.— The naval war had
been likewise fruitful of lessons for the future. Though wooden
ships were still largely employed, the ironclad even then had
begun to take a commanding place, and the sailing ship at hut
disappeared from naval warfare. Mines, torpedoes and sob-
marines were all employed, and with the " Monitor " may fairly
be said to have begun the application of mechanical science to the
uses of naval war. The Federal navy was enormously expanded.
Three hundred and thirteen steamers were brought into the
service. Sloops of an excellent type were built for work on the
high seas, of which the celebrated " Kearsarre'** was one. Gun-
boats were constructed so fast that they were caOed " ninety-day
gunboats." Special reversible paddle steamers (called double*
enders) were designed for service in the inlets and rarnarirs. and
sixty-six ironclads were built and employed during the four
AMERICAN CIVIL WAR
827
years. Mississippi river steamers were armed with heavy guns
and protected by armour, boiler-plates, cotton bales, &c., and
some last cruisers were constructed for ocean work, one of them
actually reaching the high speed of 17-75 m. per hour. The
existing Federal navy of i86x already included some large
and powerful modern vessels, such as the " Minnesota " and
" Powhatan." To oppose them the Confederates, limited as they
were for means, managed to construct various ironclads, and to
improvise a considerable fleet of minor vessels, and, though a
fighting navy never assembled under a Confederate flag-officer,
the Southern warships found another more damaging and more
profitable scope for their activity. It has been said that the
blockade of the Confederate coast became in the end practically
impenetrable, and that every attempt of the Confederate naval
forces to break out was checked at once by crushing numerical
preponderance. The exciting and profitable occupation of
blockade-running led to countless small fights off the various
harbours, and sometimes the United States navy had to fight
a more serious action when some new " rebel " ironclad emerged
from her harbour, inlet or sound.
38. Fort Fisher.— Many of the greater combats in which the
navy was engaged on the coast and inland have been referred to
above,and the fighting before Charleston,NewOrleans, Mobileand
Vicksburg is described in separate articles. One of the heaviest
of the battles was fought at Fort Fisher in 1864. This place
guarded the approaches to Wilmington, North Carolina. Troops
under Butler and a large fleet under Admiral Porter were destined
for this enterprise. An incendiary vessel was exploded close to the
works without effect on the 23rd-24th of December, and the ships
engaged on the 24th. The next day the troops were disembarked,
only to be called off after a partial assault. Butler then withdrew,
and Porter was informed on the 31st that " a competent force
properly commanded " would be sent out. On the 8th of January
1865 General Terry arrived with the land forces, and the armada
arrived off Fisher on the 12th. On the 13th, 6000 men were
landed, covered by the guns of the fleet, and, after Porter had
subjected the works to a terrific bombardment, Fisher was bril-
liantly carried by storm on the 15th. Reinforcements arriving,
the whole force then marched inland to meet Sherman.
39. Other Naval Actions.— Apart from this, and other actions
referred to, two incidents of the coast war call for notice— the
career of the " Albemarle " and the duel between the " Atlanta "
and the " Weehawken." The ironclad ram " Albemarle," built
at Edwards' Ferry on the Roanoke river, had done considerable
damage to the Federal vessels which, since Burnside's expedition
to Newberne, had cruised in Albemarle Sound, and in 1864 a force
of doubie-enders and gunboats, under Captain Melancton Smith,
U.S.N., was given the special task of destroying the rebel
ram. A naval battle was fought on the 5th of May 1864, in
which the double-ender " Sassacus " most gallantly rammed
the " Albemarle " and was disabled alongside her, and Smith's
vessel and others, unarmoured as they were, fought the ram at
dose quarters. After this the ironclad retired upstream, where
she was eventually destroyed in the most daring manner by a
boat's crew under Lieutenant W. B. Cushing. Making his way
up the Roanoke as far as Plymouth he there sank the ironclad at
her wharf by exploding a spar-torpedo (October 27). On the
1 7 th of June 1863 after a brief action the monitor " Weehawken "
captured the Confederate ironclad "Atlanta" in Wassaw
Sound, South Carolina. This duel resembled in its attendant
circumstances the famous fight of the " Chesapeake " and the
" Shannon." Captain John Rodgers, like Broke, was one of the
best officers, and the " Weehawken," like the "Shannon," was
known as one of the smartest ships in the service. Five heavy
accurate shots from the Federal's turret guns crushed the enemy
in a few minutes.
40. The Commerce-Destroyers.— Letters of marque were issued
to Confederate privateers as early as April 1861, and Federal
commerce at once began to suffer. When, however, surveillance
became blockade, prizes could only with difficulty be brought into
port, and, since the parties interested gained nothing by burning
merchantmen, privateering soon died out, and was replaced by
commerce-destroying pure and simple, carried out by com-
missioned vessels of the Confederate navy. Captain Raphael
Semmes of the C.S.S. " Sumter " made a successful cruise on the
high seas, and before she was abandoned at Gibraltar had made
seventeen prizes. Unable to build at home,, the Confederates
sought warships abroad, evading the obligations of neutrality by
various ingenious expedients. The " Florida " (built at Liverpool
in 1861-1862) crossed the Atlantic, refitted at Mobile, escaped
the blockaders, and fulfilled <the instructions which, as her
captain said, " left much to the discretion but more to the
torch." She was captured by the U.S.S. " Wachusett " in the
neutral harbour of Bahia (October 7, 1862). The most suc-
cessful of the foreign-built cruisers was the famous " Alabama,"
commanded by Semmes and built at Liverpool In the course of
her career she burned or brought into port seventy prizes, fought
and sank the U.S.S. " Hatteras " off Galveston, and was finally
sunk by the U.S.S. " Kearsarge," Captain Winslow, off Cherbourg
(June 19, 1864). The career of another promising cruiser, the
"Nashville," was summarily ended by the Federal monitor
"Montauk" (February 28,1863). The "Shenandoah" was
burning Union whalers in the Bering Sea when the war came to an
end. None of the various " rams " built abroad for the " rebel "
government ever came into action. The difficulties of coaling and
the obligations of neutrality hampered these commerce-destroyers
as much as the Federal vessels that were chasing them, but, in
spite of drawbacks, the guerre de course was the most successful
warlike operation undertaken by the Confederacy. The mercan-
tile marine of the United States was almost driven off the high
seas by the terror of these destructive cruisers.
41. Cost of the War.— The total loss of life in the Union forces
during the four years of war was 359,528, and of the many
thousands discharged from the services as disabled or otherwise
unfit, a large number died in consequence of injuries or disease
incurred in the army. Hie estimate of 500,000 in all may be
taken as approximately correct The same number is given as
that of the Southern losses, which of course fell upon a much
smaller population. The war expenditure of the Federal govern-
ment has been estimated at $3400,000,000; the very large sums
devoted to the pensions of widows, disabled men, &c, are not
included in this amount (Dodge). In 1879 an estimate made of
all Federal war expenses up to that date, including pension
charges, interest on loans, &c, showed a total of $6,190,000,000
(Dewey, Financial History of the United States).
BiBLiooftArHT.— The United Stetesgoveramertt'sOfiria/Jfcor&e/
the Union and Confederate Armies (70 vols., most of which are divided
into two or three " parts," and atlas, 1880-1900) include every im-
portant official document of either side that it was possible to obtain
in the course of many years' work. A similar but less voluminous
work is the Records of the Union and Confederate Navies (1804- );
The Rebellion Record (1862-1868). edited by F. W. Moore, a contem-
porary collection, has been superseded to a great extent by the
official records, but is still valuable as a collection of unofficial docu-
ments of all kinds. Battles and Leaders of the Civil War (1887-1889)
is a series of papers, covering the whole war, written by the prominent
commanders of both sides. The sixteen volumes of the Campaigns
of. the Civil War (1881-1882) and the Navy in the Civil War (1883)
(written by various authors) are of very unequal merit, but several
of the volumes are indispensable to the study of the Civil War. Of
general works the following are the best :— Comte de Paris, History
of the Civil War in America, translated from the French (1875-1888) ;
Horace Greeley, The American Conflict (1864-1866); I. Scheibert,
Der Burgerkrieg i. d. Nordam. Freistaaten (Berlin, 1874) ; Wood and
Edmonds, Civtl Wat in the United States (London, 1905)-, T. A.
Dodge, Bird's F e View of our Civil War (revised edition. 1887):
E. A. Pollard, A Southern History of the War (1866). The con-
temporary accounts mentioned should be studied with caution. Of
critical works, J. C Ropes, The Story of the Civil War (1894-1898).
G. F. R. Henderson, Stonewall Jackson and (he American Civil War
(London, 1898) and The Science of War, chapters viii. and ix. (London,
190s) ; C. C. Chesney, Essays in Military Biography (1874) : r reytag-
Loringhoven, Studien iber KrietfUhrung, 1861-166$ (Berlin. 1901-
1903), are the most important. Publications of the M ilitary Historical
Society of Massachusetts (vols, i.-x., 1881 onwards) also comprise
critical accounts of nearly all the important campaigns. A critical
account of the Virginian operations and the Chickamauga campaign
is Gen. E. P. Alexander's Military Memoirs of a Confederate (1906).
C. R. Cooper, Chronological and Alphabetical Record of the Great Civit
War (Milwaukee, 1904) may be mentioned as a work of reference.
828
AMERICAN LAW
A fairly complete bibliography will be found In J. N. Lamed, Litera-
ture of American History (Boston. 1903). and useful lists in Ropes,
ofi. at., and in the Cambridge Modem History, vol. vu. p. 81a. For
biographies, memoirs and general works, see the lists appended to the
various biographical articles and to the articles United States
and Confederate States. (C. F. A.)
AMERICAN LAW. The laws of the various states and terri-
tories of the United States rest at bottom on the same foundation
as those of England, namely, the English common law as it
existed at the beginning of the 17th century. (See English
Law.) The only exceptions worth noting are to be found in the
state of Louisiana, the territory of New Mexico, and the acquisi-
tions following the Spanish war of 1808. Those derive most of
their law from France or Spain, and thus remotely from the
principles of Roman jurisprudence. A part also, but compara-
tively a small part , of the law of Texas, Missouri, Arizona and the
Pacific states comes from similar sources. The United States as
a whole has no common law, except so far as its courts have
followed the rules of English common-law procedure in determin-
ing their own. Most of the positive law of the United States
comes from the several states. It is the right of each state to
regulate at its pleasure the general relations of persons within its
territory to each other, as well as all rights to property subject to
its jurisdiction. Each state has also its own system of adjective
law. The trial courts of the United States of original jurisdiction
follow in general the practice of the state in which they sit as to
procedure in cases of common-law character. As to that in
equity, or what means the same thing, chancery causes, they
follow in general the practice of the English court of chancery as
it existed towards the close of the 18th century, when the original
Judiciary Act of the United States was adopted. The public
statutes of the United States are to be found in the Revised Statutes
of 1873, and in the succeeding volumes of the Statutes at Large,
enacted by each Congress. Those of each state and territory are
printed annually or biennially as they are enacted by each legis-
lature, and are commonly revised every fifteen or twenty years,
the revision taking the place of all former public statutes, and
being entitled Revised Statutes, General Statutes, or Public Laws.
The private or special laws of each state, so far as such legislation
is permitted by its constitution, are in some states published
separately, and made the subject of similar compilations or
revisions; in others they are printed with the public session laws.
American courts are often given power by statute to make rules
of procedure which have the force of laws. Municipal sub-
divisions of a state generally have authority from the legislature
to make ordinances or by-jaws on certain subjects, having the
character of a local law, with appropriate sanctions, commonly
by fine or forfeiture.
Law in the United States has been greatly affected by the
results of the Civil War. During its course (1861-1865) the powers
of the president of the United States may be said to
Aaw«* have been re-defined by the courts. It was its first civil
mtm f war, and thus for the first time the exercise of the
military authority of the United States within a state
which had not sought its aid became frequent and necessary.
Next followed the amendments of the Constitution of the United
States having for their special purpose the securing beyond
question of the permanent abolition of slavery and the civil and
political rights of the coloured race. At the outset the Supreme
Court of the United States was inclined to treat them as having a
very limited operation in other directions. One of the provisions
of the XIV th Amendment is that no state shall deny to any person
within its jurisdiction the equal protection of the laws. The
benefit of this guarantee was claimed by the butchers of New
Orleans, in contending against a monopoly in respect of the
slaughter of cattle granted by the state of Louisiana to a single
corporation. Their suit was dismissed by the Supreme Court in
1873, with the expression of a doubt whether any action of a state
not directed by way of discrimination against the negroes as a
class, or on account of their race, would ever be held to come
within the purview of the provision in question. 1 The chief
justice and three of his associates dissented from the judgment,
1 The Slaughter-House Cases, 16 Wallace's Reports, 36, 81.
holding that the XlVth Amendment did protect the dtisxssaf
the United States against the deprivation of their common right
by state legislation. 1 Public sentiment supported the view of lat
minority, and it was not long before changes in the persammi
of the court, occurring in common course, led it to the saa*
conclusions. The protection of the XTVth Amendment is so*
invoked before it more frequently than is that afforded by 1=7
other article of the Constitution. In one of its recent terns
twenty-one cases of this nature were decided.* Very few of then
related to the negro. Since the decision in the Slaughter-Hire
Cases, the controversies as to the constitutional rights of the nepi
have been comparatively infrequent, but there has beesi a great
and steadily increasing number in all the courts in the country,
involving questions of discrimination in favour of or again*:
particular individuals, or of changes affecting the rights of parna
in the accustomed forms of judicial procedure.
Down to 1868, when this amendment was adopted, it wsa>u
to most matters, for the state alone to settle the dvil rights aid
immunities of those subject to its jurisdiction. If they were a
be free from arbitrary arrests, secure in liberty and property,
equal in privilege and entitled to an impartial edmimsTratinr it
was because the constitution of the state so declared. Now they
have the guarantee of the United States that the state shall never
recede from these obligations. This has read justed and reset tat
whole system of the American law of personal rights.*
The Supreme Court of the United States has used the grot
power thus confided to it with moderation. Its general rales d
decision are well stated in these words of Mr Justice Brown, fosad
in one of its recent opinions:—
" In passing upon the validity of legislation, attached aa caetavy
to the XlVth Amendment, it has not failed to recognise the fart th*
the law is, to a certain extent, a progressive science; that as son* of
the states methods of procedure, which at the time the uj— liii ■■
was adopted were deemed essential to the protectkm and safety d
the people or to the liberty of the arisen, have been toaad to at m
longer necessary: that restrictions which had formerly been laid awa
the conduct of individuals, or of classes of indrvidsals* had pre***
detrimental to their interests; while, upon the other hand, certs*
other classes of persons, particularly those engaged ia d au gj u o u s «r
unnealthful employments, have been found to be » need of e iWiissa'
protection. Even before the adoption of the roust it nrion. 1
had been done toward mitigating the severity, of the oosasaoa
particularly in the administration of its _
number of capital crimes, in this country at least, bad
decreased. Trial by ordeal and by battle had never
and had fallen into disuse in England. The '*
the common law, which denied the benefit of wi ,
accused of felony, had been abolished by statute, though, so tar m
it deprived him of the assistance of counsel and oompsdaory pros*
for the attendance of his witnesses, it had not been 1 hsaiirf a
England. But, to the credit of her American c olo tues, let k be aal
that so oppressive a doctrine had never obtained a foothold tat*.
The 19th century originated legal reforms of no leas i
The whole fabric of special pleading, once thought to be 1
the elimination of the real issue between the parties, has c
to pieces. The ancient tenures of real estate have been tar]
away, and land b now transferred almost as easily aad <
personal property. Married women have beea — ^-^r
the control of their husbands, and placed upon a practical coast?
with them with respect to the acquisition, finnnisiun and tnus-
mission of property. Imprisonment for debt has beea sliiaaaV
Exemptions from executions have beea largely added to, aad «
most of the states homesteads are rendered incapable of arias* sad
sale upon forced process. Witnesses are no longer i nc o mp e t ent bv
reason of interest, even though they be parries to the Griga&ot
Indictments have been simplified, and an indictment for the awe
serious of crimes is now the simplest of alL In several of the snaa
grand juries, formerly the only safeguard * " *
tion, have been largely abolished. 1
so far as applied to civil cases, hi
by a three-fourths majority. This ,
of opinion as to the wisdom of tliese changea, or th«v vaJassrr ss»der
the XlVth Amendment, although the substitution of f
1 recognised as valid in Bm*d*
' mentioned only for the t
information in lieu of indictment 1
v. California, 1 10 U.S. 516. They are 1
of calling attention to the probability that other c „
importance may be made in the future, aad that while the canasat
principles of justice are immutable, the methods by \ * * * '
* Ibid. 99, III, ISO.
> Guthrie on Ike Fourteenth Amendment* 17.
« Baldwin's. Modern Pelitknl I m rtitun * m$ , 111. tin.
AMERICAN LAW
829
is administered are subject to constant fluctuation, and that the
Constitution of the United States, which is necessarily and to a large
extent tnnVxihlr and exceedingly difficult of amendment, should not
be so construed as to deprive the states of the power to amend their
laws so as to make them conform to the wishes of the citizens as they
may deem best for the public welfare without bringing them into
conflict with the supreme law of the land. Of course, it is impossible
to forecast the character or extent of these changes, but in view of
the fact that from the day Magna Carta was signed to the present
moment, amendments to the structure of the law have been made
with increasing frequency, it is impossible to suppose that they will
not continue, and the law be forced to adapt itself to new conditions
of society, and particularly to the new relations between employers
and employees, as they arise." 1
The Civil War deeply affected also the course of judicial
decision in the southern states. During its progress it engaged
the attention of a very large part of the population, and the
business of the courts necessarily was greatly lessened. Upon its
dose political power passed, for a time, into new hands, and many
from the northern and western states took prominent positions
both at the bar and on the bench. Theivery basis of society was
changed by the abolition of slavery. New state constitutions
were adopted, inspired or dictated by the ideas of the North. The
transport system was greatly extended, and commerce by land
took to a large extent the place formerly filled by commerce by
navigation. Manufacturing came in to supplement agricultural
industry. Cities grew and assumed a new importance. Northern
capital sought investment in every state. It was a natural con-
sequence of all these things that the jurisprudence of the South
should come to lose whatever had been its distinctive character.
The unification of the nation inevitably tended to unify its law.
An important contribution towards this result was made by
the organization of the American Bar Association in 1878. Of
the fourteen signers of the call for the preliminary
y^,y conference, five were from the southern states. Its
teem, declared objects were " to advance the science of juris-
prudence, promote the administration of justice and
uniformity of legislation throughout the Union, uphold the
honour of the profession of the law, and encourage cordial
intercourse among the members of the American Bar."
Larger/ through its efforts, the American law schools have taken
00 a new character. The course of study has been both broadened
t and prolonged, and the attendance of students has
TjSTsai increased in full proportion to the additions to the
facilities for obtaining a more thorough training in the
profession. When the association commenced its labours, those
studying law in the offices of practising lawyers very largely out-
numbered those found in the law schooL The proportion is now
reversed. During the year 1000, for instance, the state board
of law examiners in New York examined 890 applicants for
admission to the bar of that state. Of these all but 157 had
received their legal education wholly or in part at a law school. 1
In 1878 few law schools had adopted any system of examination
for those desiring to enter them. Such a requirement for
admission is now common. In only one school were opportunities
then afforded for advanced studies by graduate students with a
view to attaining the doctorate in law. Courses of this description
sue now offered by several of the university schools.
A more scientific character has thus been taken on by American
law. It is noticeable both in legal text-books and in the opinions
KwmiM of the courts of last resort. In the latter precision of
statement and method in discussion are invited by the
uniform practice of preparing written opinions. The original
practice of reading these from the bench has been generally
discontinued. They are simply handed down to an official
reporter for publication, which is done at the expense of the
government by which the court is commissioned. With the
judicial reports of each state the lawyers of that state are required
to be familiar; and this is rendered possible, even in the larger
ones, by state digests,prepared every few years by private enter-
prise. Outside of the state their circulation is comparatively
limited, though sets of all are generally found in each state library,
* HoUrn v. Hardy, 160 United States Reports, 336, 385487.
-' Columbia Lam Review, L 99.
and of many in the Bar libraries at the principal county seats.
The private libraries of lawyers in large practice also often con-
tain the reports of adjoining and sometimes those of distant states
as well as those of their own and of the Supreme Court of the
United States. The decisions of one state, however, are now best
known in others through unofficial reports. One large publishing
concern prints every case decided in the courts of last resort
They are published in several distinct series, those, for instance,
coming from the northern Atlantic states being grouped together
as the Atlantic Reporter, and those from the states on the Pacific
coast as the Pacific Reporter. Another house has published a
compilation professing to give all the leading American cases from
the first to the latest volume of reports. Another makes a
similar selection from the decisions of each year as they appear,
and publishes them with critical annotations. There are also
annual digests of a national character, comprehending sub-
stantially all American cases and the leading English cases
reported during the preceding year.
These various publications are widely diffused, and so the
American lawyer is enabled, in preparing for the argument of any
cause involving questions of difficulty, to inform himself with
ease of such precedents as may apply. A court in Texas is thus
as likely to be made acquainted with a decision in Maine or
Oregon as with one in any nearer state, and in the development
of American law all American courts are brought in close touch
with each other.
This tendency has been advanced by the steady growth of
codification. That is beginning also to serve to bring English
and American law nearer together in certain directions, nsjflhs
A Negotiable Instruments Act, promoted by the mad
American Bar Association, and prepared by a confer- Am —
ence of commissioners appointed by the several states *"*
to conceit measures of uniform legislation, has been adopted in
the leading commercial states It is founded upon the English
" Chalmers's Act," and the English decisions giving a construction
to that have become of special importance. The acts of parlia-
ment known as the Employers' Liability Act and the Railway
and Canal Traffic Act have also served as the foundation of
similar legislation in the United States, and with the same result
Modern English decisions are, however, cited less frequently in
American courts than the older ones; and the older ones them-
selves are cited far less frequently than they once were. In the
development of their legislation, England and the United States
have been in general harmony so far as matters of large com-
mercial importance are concerned, but as to many others they
have since 1850 drawn apart Statutes, at one point or another,
probably now affect the disposition of most litigated causes in
both countries. Their application, therefore, must serve more or
less to obscure or displace general principles, which might other-
wise control the decision and make it a source of authority in
foreign tribunals. The movement of the judicial mind in the
United States, and also its modes and form of expression, have
a different measure from that which characterizes what comes
from the English bench. American judges are so numerous, and
(except as to the Supreme Court of the United States) the extent
of their territorial jurisdiction so limited, that they can give
more time to the careful investigation of points of difficulty, and
also to the methodical statement of their conclusions. Whatever
they decide upon appeal being announced in writing, and destined
to form part of the permanent published records of the state, they
are expected and endeavour to study their words and frame
opinions not only sound in law but unobjectionable as literary
compositions.
The choice of American judges, particularly in the older states,
has been not uninfluenced by these considerations. Marshall,
Bushrod Washington, Story, Kent, Ware, Bradley, and many
of their contemporaries and successors, were put upon the bench
in part because of their legal scholarship and their power of
felicitous expression. Hence the better American opinions have
more elaboration and finish than many which come from the
English courts, and are more readily accepted as authorities by
American judges. But the great multiplication of reports hat
830
AMERICAN LAW
to widened the field of citation as in effect to reduce it Each of
the larger and older states has now a settled body of legal
precedent of its own, beyond which its judges in most cases do
not look. If a prior decision applies, it is controlling. If there be
none, they prefer to decide the case, if possible, on principle
rather than authority.
While the state courts are bound to accept the construction
placed upon the Constitution and laws of the United States by
the Supreme Court of the United States, and thus uniformity of
decision is secured in that regard, the courts of the United States,
on the other hand, are as a rule obliged to accept in all other
particulars the construction placed by the courts of each state
on its constitution and laws. This often gives a seeming incon-
gruity to the decisions of the Supreme Court of the United States.
A point in a case coming up from one judicial circuit may be
determined in a way wholly different from that followed in a
previous judgment in a cause turning upon the same point, but
appealed from another circuit, because of a departure from the
common law in one state which has not been made in another.
In view of this, a doctrine originally proposed by Mr Justice
Story in 1842 * has not been infrequently invoked of late years,
which rests upon the assumed existence of a distinctive federal
jurisprudence of paramount authority as to certain matters of
general concern, as for example those intimately affecting
commerce between the states or with foreign nations. The
consequence is that a case involving such questions may be
• differently adjudged, according as it is brought in a state or in
a federal court.*
The divergences now most noticeable between English and
American law are in respect of public control over personal
liberty and private property, criminal procedure and the scope
of the powers of municipal corporations.
Under the constitutional provision that no one shall be
deprived of life, liberty or property without due process of
law, American courts frequently declare void statutes which
in England would be within the acknowledged powers of
parliament. These provisions are liberally expounded in favour
of the individual, and liberty is held to include liberty of contract
as well as of person. Criminal procedure is hedged about with
more refinements and safeguards to the accused than are found in
England, and on the other hand, prosecutions are more certain
to follow the offence, because they are universally brought by a
public officer at public expense. The artificiality of the proceed-
ings is fostered by a general right of appeal on points of law to the
court of last resort. It is in criminal causes involving questions
of common-law liability and procedure • that English law-books
and reports are now most frequently cited American municipal
corporations are confined within much narrower limits than those
of England, and their powers more strictly construed.
Trial by jury in civil causes seems to be declining in public
esteem. The expenses necessarily incident to it are naturally
TrtMlk9 increasing, and the delays are greater also from a
fc,,,. general tendency, especially in cities, where most
judicial business is transacted, to reduce the number of
hours a day during which the court is in session. The require-
ment of unanimity is dispensed with in a few states, and it has
been thus left without what many deem one of its essential
features. The judge interposes his authority to direct and
expedite the progress of the trial less frequently and less per-
1 Swift v. Tyson, 16 Peters' Reports, I, 19.
'See Forepoueh v. Delaware, Lackawanna &> Western Railroad
Company, 138 Pennsylvania State Reports, 267; Faulkner v. Hart,
82 New York Reports, 313; and Lake Shore &f Michigan Southern
Railway Company v. Prentice, 147 United States Reports, 101.
* See, as examples. Commonwealth v. Rubin, 16$ Massachusetts
Reports. 453. in which Holmes. C.J., traces the rule that, if a man
abuse an authority given him by the law, he becomes a trespasser
ab initio, back to the Year Books; and Commonwealth v. Cleary, 172
Massachusetts Reports, 175, in which the same judge refers to Glan-
ville and Fleta as authority for the proposition that the admission in
evidence, in cases of rape, of complaints made by the woman soon
after the commission of the offence is a perverted survival of the old
rule that she could not bring an appeal unless she had made prompt
hue and cry.
emptoriry than in England. A jury is waived more oftem than
formerly, and there is a growing conviction that, with a capable
and independent judiciary, justice can be looked for store
confidently from one man than from thirteen.
The United States entered on the work of simplifying the
forms of pleading earlier than England, but has not carried k m
far. Demurrers have not been abandoned, and in some states
little has been done except to replace one system of formality by
another hardly less rigid. The general plan has been to codify
the laws of pleading by statute. In a few states they haw
proceeded more nearly in accordance with the principles of the
English Judicature Act, and left details to be worked out by the
judges, through rules of court. 4
Most of the state constitutions assume that the powers of
government can be divided into three distinct departments*
executive, legislative and judicial; and direct sods T ^ lmmm
a distribution. In thus ignoring the administrative mm J!^it
functions of the state, they have left a difficult question »■■>
for the courts, upon which the legislature often seeks
in part to cast them. The general tendency has been to construe,
in such circumstances, the judicial power broadly, and bold that
it may thus be extended over much which is rather to be calkd
quasi-judicial.* A distinction is taken between entrusting jars-
diction of this character to the courts, and imposing it upon them.
Where the statute can be construed as simply permissive, the
authority may be exercised as a matter of grace, when it would be
peremptorily declined, were the meaning of the legislature that
it must be accepted.* The courts, for similar reasons, have
generally declined (in the absence of any constitutional 1
ment to that effect) to advise the legislature, at its 1
whether a proposed statute, if enacted, would be valid.
its validity, were it to be enacted, might become the subject of a
judicial decision, it is thought for that reason, if for no other, is
be improper to prejudge the point, without a bearing of parties
interested. The constitutions of several states provide for soch a
proceeding, and in these the Supreme Court is not infrequently
called upon in this wsy, and gives responses which arc always
considered decisive of legislative action, but would not be treated
as conclusive in any subsequent litigation that might arise
The general trend of opinion in the Supreme Court of the
United States since x 8 70, upon questions other than those i
under the XlVth Amendment, has been towards recog-
nizing the police power of the several states as entitled
to a broad scope. Even, for instance, in such a matter •tmmmm
as the regulation of commerce between different states,
it has been upheld as justifying a prohibition against running any
goods trains on a Sunday, and a requirement that all railway can
must be heated by steam. 7 In the " Granger Cases," * the right
of the state to fix the rate of charges for the use of a grain elevator
for railway purposes, and for general railway services of trans-
portation, was supported, and although the second of these was
afterwards overruled, 9 the principle upon which it was originafiy
rested was not shaken.
On the other hand, reasons of practical convenience have
necessarily favoured the substantial obliteration of state lines as
to the enforcement of statutory private rights. Massachusetts
in 1840, six years before the passage of Lord Campbell's Act,
provided a remedy by indictment for the negligent killing of a
man by a railway company, a pecuniary penalty being fixed which
the state was to collect for the benefit of his family. In most of
the other states by later statutes a similar result has been reached
through a civil action brought by the executor or administrator
* This has been carried furthest in Connecticut. See BaisJoH v.
Wallace, 72 Connecticut Reports, 195.
» Norwalk Street Railway Company's Appeal, 60 Connectkul
Reports, 576; 38 Atlantic Reporter, 708.
< ZaneswtUe v. ZanesvilU telephone Company, 63 Ohio Stat* Re-
ports. 44*; 59 North-Eastern Reporter, too.
' New York Railroad v. New York, 165 United States Reports, tuL
* Munn v. Illinois, 04 United States Reports. 113; Cai.'aft
Railroad Company v. Iowa, ibid. 15$.
* Wabash Railway Company v. Illinois, 1 18 United States Reports,
557; Reagan v. Farmers' Loam and Trust Company, 154 United
States Reports, 36a.
AMERICAN LITERATURE
831
as an agent of the law. In some, nowever, the state must be the
plaintiff ; in others the widow, if any there be. The accident
resulting in death often occurs in a state where the man who was
killed does not reside, or in which the railway company does not
have its principal seat It may therefore be desirable to sue in
one state for an injury in another. Notwithstanding such an
action is unknown to the common law, and rests solely on a local
statute, the American courts uniformly hold that, when civil in
form, it can be brought under such statutes in any state the
public policy of which is not clearly opposed to such a remedy.
In like manner, the responsibilities of stockholders and directors
of a moneyed corporation, under the laws of the state from which
the charter is derived, are enforced in any other states in which
they may be found. Thus a double liability of stockholders to
creditors, In case of the insolvency of the company, or a full
liability to creditors of directors who have made false reports or
certificates regarding its financial condition, is treated as of a
contractual nature, and not penal in the international sense of
that term. 1 As a judgment of one state has equal force in another,
so far as the principle of res adjudicate is concerned, the orders of
a court in a state to which a corporation owes its charter, made
in proceedings for winding it up, may be enforced to a large
extent in any other. The shareholders are regarded as parties by
representation to the winding-up proceedings, and so bound by
decrees which are incidental to it.'
The provisions of the United States law on different subjects and
the literature concerning them are given in the separate articles.
See the bibliography to the article Law: also Cooley on Tht Con-
stitutional Limitations wkuk rest upon the Legtstattoe Power of the
Slates of the American Union; Andrews on American Law, and
Russell on The Police Power of the State, and Decisions thereon as
illustrating the Development and Value of Com Law. (S. E. B.)
AMERICAN LITERATURE. The earliest books which are
commonly described as the beginnings of American literature
were written by men born and bred in England;
they were published there; they were, in fact, an
undivided part of English literature, belonging to
the province of exploration and geographical description and
entirely similar in matter and style to other works of voyagers
and colonizers that illustrate the expansion of England. They
contain the materials of history in a form of good Elizabethan
narrative, always vigorous in language, often vivid and pictur-
esque. John Smith (1570-1631) wrote the first of these, A True
Relation of suck Occurrences and Accidents of Note as hath happened
in Virginia (1608), and he later added other accounts of the
country to the north. William Strachey, a Virginian official of
whom little is known biographically, described (1610) the ship-
wreck of Sir Thomas Gates on the Bermudas, which is believed
to have yielded Shakespeare suggestions for The Tempest.
Colonel Henry Norwood (d. 1680), hitherto unidentified, of Leck-
hampton, Gloucestershire, a person eminent for loyalty in the
reign of Charles I. and distinguished in the civil wars, later
governor of Tangier* and a member of parliament for Gloucester,
wrote an account of his voyage to Virginia as an adventurer, in
1649 These are characteristic works of the earliest period, and
illustrate variously the literature of exploration which exists in
numerous examples and is preserved for historical reasons. The
settlement of the colonies was, in general, attended by such
narratives of adventure or by accounts of the state of the country
or by documentary record of events. Thus George Alsop (b. 1 638)
wrote the Character of the Province of Maryland (1606), and
Daniel Denton a Brief Description of New York (1670), and in
Virginia the progress of affairs was dealt with by William Stith
(1680-1755). Robert Beverly (f. 1700), and William Byrd (1674-
1744). Each settlement in turn, as it came into prominence or
provoked curiosity, found its geographer and annalist, and here
and there sporadic pens essayed some practical topic The
product, however, is now an indistinguishable mass, and titles
and authors alike are found only in antiquarian lore. The
1 Huntington v. Attrill. 146 United States Reports. 657.
* Great Western Telegraph Company v. Purdy, ifta United States
Reports, 3*9, «** v. Smith. 73 Connecticut Reports, 377; 47
distribution of literary activity was very uneven along the
sea-board; it was naturally greatest in the more thriving and
important colonies, and bore some relation to their commercial
prosperity and political activity and to the closeness of the con-
nexion with the home culture of England. From the beginning
New England, owing to the character of its people and its
ecclesiastical rule, was the chief seat of the early literature, and
held a position apart from the other colonies as a community
characterized by an intellectual life. There the first printing
press was set up, the first college founded, and an abundant
literature was produced.
The characteristic fact in the Puritan colonies is that literature
there was in the hands of its leading citizens and was a chief
concern in their minds. There were books of exploration and
description as in the other colonies, such as William Wood's
(d. 1639) New England's Prospect (1634), and John Josselin's
New England's Rarities (1672), and tales of adventure in the
wilderness and on the sea, most commonly described as " re-
markable providences/ 1 in the vigorous Elizabethan narrative;
but besides all this the magistracy and the clergy normally set
themselves to the labour of history, controversy and counsel, and
especially to the care of religion. The governors, beginning with
William Bradford (1300-1657) of Plymouth, and John Winthrop
(1588-1649) of Massachusetts Bay, wrote the annals of their
times, and the line of historians was continued by Winslow,
Nathaniel Morton, Prince, Hubbard and Hutchinson. The
clergy, headed by John Cotton (1585-1652), Thomas Hooker
(1586^1647), Nathaniel Ward (i579?-i6sa). Roger Williams
(1600-1683), Richard Mather (1 506-1669), John Eliot (1604-
1600), produced sermons, platforms, catechisms, theological
dissertations, tracts of ail sorts, and their line also was continued
by Shepard, Norton, Wise, the later Mathers and scores of other
ministers. The older clergy were not inferior in power or learning
to the leaders of their own communion in England, and they
commanded the same prose that characterizes the Puritan tracts
of the mother country; nor did the kind of writing deteriorate
in their successors. This body of divines in successive generations
gave to early New England literature its overwhelming ecclesi-
astical character; it was in the main a church literature, and its
secular books also were controlled and coloured by the Puritan
spirit. The pervasiveness of religion is well illustrated by the
three books which formed through the entire colonial period the
most popular domestic reading of the Puritan home. These were
The Bay Psalm Booh (1640), which was the first book published
in America; Michael Wigglesworth's (1631-1705) Day of Doom
(1662), a doggerel poem; and the New England Primer (c. 1600),
called " the Little Bible." The sole voice heard in opposition was
Thomas Morton's satirical New English Canaan (1637), whose
author was sent out of the colony for the scandal of Merrymount,
but satire itself remained religious in Ward's Simple Cobbler of
Agawam (1647). Poetry was represented in Anne Bradstreet's
(1612-1672) The Tenth Muse lately sprung up in America (1650),
and was continued by a succession of doggerel writers, mostly
ministers or schoolmasters, Noyes, Oakes, Folger, Tompson,
Byles and others. The world of books also included a good
proportion of Indian war narratives and treatises relating to
the aborigines. The close of the 17 th century shows literature
however, still unchanged in its main position as the special
concern of the leaders of the state. It is Chief -Justice Samuel
Se wall's (1652-1730) Diary (which remained in manuscript until
1878) that affords the most intimate view of the culture and
habits of the community; and he was known to his contempor-
aries by several publications, one of which, The Selling of Joseph
(1700), was the first American anti-slavery tract.
The literature of the first century, exemplified by these few
titles, is considerable in bulk, and like colonial literature else-
where is preserved for historical reasons. In general,
it records the political progress and social conditions £«.
of the Puritan state, and the contents of the Puritan
mind The* development of the original settlement took place
without any violent check. Though the colony was continually
recruited by fresh immigration, the original 20,000 who
83a
AMERICAN LITERATURE
arrived before 1640 had established the principles of the
state, and their will and ideas remained dominant after the
Restoration as before. It was a theocratic state controlled by
the clergy, and yet containing the principle of liberty. The second
and third generations born on the soil, nevertheless, showed
some decadence; notwithstanding the effort to provide against
intellectual isolation and mental poverty by the foundation of
Harvard College, they felt the effects of their situation across the
sea and on the borders of a wilderness. The people were a hard-
faring folk and engaged in a material struggle to establish the
plantations and develop commerce on the sea; their other life
was in religion soberly practised and intensely felt. They were a
people of one book, in the true sense, — the Bible; it was the
organ of their mental life as well as of their spiritual feelings.
For them, it was in the place of the higher literature. But long
resident there in the strip between the sea and the forest, cut off
from the world and consigned to hard labour and to spiritual
ardours, they developed a fanatical temper; their religious life
hardened and darkened; intolerance and superstition grew.
Time, nevertheless, ripened new changes, and the colony was to
be brought back from its religious seclusion into the normal paths
of modern development The sign was contained, perhaps, most
clearly in the change effected in the new charter granted by King
William which made property the basis of the franchise in place
of church-membership, and thus set the state upon an economic
Instead of a religious foundation. It is rather by men than by
books that these times are remembered, but it is by the men who
were writers of books. In general, the career of the three Mathers
coincides with the history of the older Puritanism,' and their
personal characteristics reflect its stages as their writings contain
its successive traits. Richard Mather, the emigrant, had been
joint author in the composition of Tke Bay Psalm Book, and
served the colony among the first of its leaders. It was in his
son, Increase Mather (1639-1723), that the theocracy, properly
speaking, culminated. He was not only a divine, president of
Harvard College and a prolific writer; but he was dominant in
the state, the chief man of affairs. It was he who, sent to repre-
sent the colony in England, received from King William the new
charter. His son, Cotton Mather (1663-1728), succeeded to his
father's distinction; but the changed condition is reflected in his
non-participation in affairs; be was a man of the study and led
there a narrower life than his father's had been. He was, never-
theless, the most broadly characteristic figure of the Puritan of
his time. He was able and learned, abnormally laborious, leaving
over 400 titles attributed to him; and at the same time he
was an ascetic and visionary. The work by which he is best
remembered, the Magnolia Ckristi Americana, or the Ecclesiastical
History of New England from Us First Planting in Ike Year 1620 1
unto ike Year of our Lord t6g8 (1703), is the chief historical
monument of the period, and the most considerable literary work
done in America up to that time. It is encyclopaedic in scope,
and contains an immense accumulation of materials relating to
life and events in the colony. There the New England of the 1 7th
century is displayed. His numerous other works still further
amplify the period, and taken all together his writings best illus-
trate the contents of Puritanism in New England. The power
df the clergy was waning, but even in the political sphere it was
far from extinction, and it continued under its scheme of church
government to guard jealously the principles of liberty. In John
Wise's (1652-1725) Vindication of Ike Government of New England
Churches (171 7) a precursor of the Revolution is felt. It was in
another sphere, however, that Puritanism in New England was
to reach its height, intellectually and spiritually alike, in the
brilliant personality of Jonathan Edwards (1703-1758), its last
great product. He was free of affairs, and lived essentially the
private life of a thinker. He displayed in youth extraordinary,
precocity and varied intellectual curiosity, and showed at the
same early time a temperament of spirtual sensitiveness and
religious ideality which suggests the youth of a poet rather than
of a logician. It was not without a struggle that be embraced
sincerely the Calvinistic scheme of divine rule, but he was able to
reconcile the doctrine in its most fearful forms with the serenity
and warmth of his own spirit; for his soul at all times seems as
lucid as his mind, and his affections were singularly tender and
refined. He served as minister to the church at Nortbainptoa;
and, driven from that post, he was for eight yean a mnrinrary
to the Indians at Stockbridge; finally he was made president of
Princeton College, where after a few weeks' incumbency he died
The works upon which his fame is founded are Treatise c ornea mmg
the Religious AJedions (1746), On Ike Freedom of Ike WsB (1 754),
Treatise on Original Sin (1758). They exhibit extraordinary
reasoning powers and place him among the moat eminent theo-
logians. He contributed by his preaching great impiring force to
the revival, known as " the Great Awakening,'' winch swept
over the dry and formal Puritanism of the age and wis its fast
great flame. In him New England idealism had come to the
birth. He illustrates, better than all others, the power of
Puritanism as a spiritual force; and in him only did that power
reach intellectual expression in a memorable way for the larger
world. The ecclesiastical literature of Puritanism, abundant as
it was, produced no other work of power; nor did the Puritaa
patronage of literature prove fruitful in other fields. If Puritan-
ism was thus infertile, it nevertheless prepared the soft. It
impressed upon New England the stamp of the mind; the entire
community was by its means intellectually as well as saoraly
bred; and to its training and the predisposition it established m
the genius of the people may be ascribed the respect for the book
which has always characterized that section, the serious temper
and elevation of its later literature and the spiritual quality of the
imagination which is so marked a quality of its authors.
lie secularization of life in New England, which went on
concurrently with the decline of the clergy in social power, was
incidental to colonial growth. The practical force of §^^^ mi ,
the people had always been strong; material pros-
perity increased and a powerful class of merchants grew up;
public questions multiplied in variety and gained in importance.
The affairs of the world had definitely obtained the upper hand.
The new spirit found its representative in the great figure of
Benjamin Franklin (1706-1790), who, born in Boston, early
emigrated to Philadelphia, an act which in itself may be thought
to forecast the transfer of the centre of interest to the west and
south and specifically to that dty where the congress was to sit.
Franklin was a printer, and the books he circulated are an index
to the uses of reading in his generation. Practical works, such
as almanacs, were plentiful, and it b characteristic that Frankfis s
name is, in literature, first associated with Poor RUhwfs
Almanack (1 73a). The literature of the 18th century outside of
New England continued to be constituted of works of exploration,
description, colonial affairs, with some sprinkling of crude science
and doctrines of wealth; but it yields no distinguished names or
remembered titles. Franklin's character subsumes the spirit of
it In him thrift and benevolence were main constituents;
scientific curiosity of a useful sort and invention Hi^tinjpi^ii^i
him; after he had secured a competence, public interests filled
his mature years. In him was the focus of the federating
impulses of the time, and as the representative of the colonies ia
England and during the Revolution in France, he was in his
proper place as the greatest citizen of his country. He was, first
of men, broadly interested in all the colonies, and in his mind the
future began to be comprehended in its true perspective and
scale; and for these reasons to him properly belongs the title of
" the first American." The type of his character set forth in the
A utobiograpky (1817) was profoundly American and prophetic of
the plain people's ideal of success in a democracy. It is by his
character and career rather than by his works or even by his great
public services that he is remembered; he is a type of the citizeo-
man. Older than his companions, and plain while they were of
an aristocratic stamp, he greatens over them in the popular miad
as age greatens over youth; but it was these companions who
were to lay the foundations of the political literature of America.
With the increasing political life lawyers as a dass had naturally
come into prominence as spokesmen and debaters. A young
generation of orators sprang up, of whom James Otis (1 7*5-1 783)
in the north, and Patrick Henry (1 736-1 700) in the south, were
AMERICAN LITERATURE
«33
the most brflfitnt; and a group of statesmen, of whom the most
nouble were Thomas Jefferson (1743-1816), James Madison
(1751-1836), and .Alexander Hamilton (1757-1804), held the
political direction of the times; in the speeches and state-papers
of these orators and statesmen and their fellows the political
literature of the colonies came to hold the first place. The chief
memorials of this literature are The Declaration of Independence
(1776), The Federalist (1788), a treatise on the principles of free
government, and Washington's Addresses (1 780-1 793-«7o6).
Thus politics became, in succession to exploration and religion,
the most important literary element in the latter half of the x 8th
century.
The more refined forms of literature also began to receive
Intelligent attention towards the close of the period. The Revolu-
tion in passing struck out some sparks of balladry and
r song, but the inspiration of the spirit of nationality
was first felt in poetry by Philip Freneau (1752-1832),
whose Poems (1786) marked the best poetical achieve-
ment up to his time. Patriotism was also a ruling motive in the
works of the three poets associated with Yale College, John
Trumbull (1750-1831), Timothy Dwight (1752-1817), and Joel
Barlow (1754-1812), authors respectively of McPintal (1782),
a Hudibrastic satire of the Revolution, The Conquest of Cancan
(1785), an epic, and The Vision of Columbus (1787), later remade
into The Columbia*, also an epic These poets gathered about
them a less talented company, and all were denominated in
common the " Hartford Wits," by which name rather than by
their works they are remembered. The national hymn, " Hail
Columbia, " was composed by Joseph Hopkinson (1770-1843) in
1 708. Fiction, in turn, was first cultivated by Charles Brockden
Brown (1771-1810), a Philadelphia*, who wrote six romantic
novels (X708-1801) after the style of Godwin, but set in the con-
ditions of the new world and mixing local description and obser-
vation with the material of mystery and terror. Fiction had been
earlier attempted by Mrs Susanna Haswell Rowson, whose
Charlotte Temple (1790) is remembered, and contemporaneously
by Mrs Hannah Webster Foster in The Coquette (1797) and by
Royall Tyler (1758-1826) in The Algerian Captive (1709); but
to Brown properly belongs the title of the first American novelist,
nor are his works without invention and intensity and a certain
distinction that secure for them permanent remembrance. The
drama formally began its career on a regular stage and with an
established company, in 1786 at New York, with the acting of
Royall Tyler's comedy The Contrast; but the earliest American
play was Thomas Godfrey's (x 736-1 763) tragedy, The Prtnce of
Partkia, acted in Philadelphia in 1767. William Dunlap (1766-
1830) is, however, credited with being the father of the American
theatre on the New York stage, where his plays were produced.
One other earlier book deserves mention, John Woolman's
(1 720-1772) Journal (1775), an autobiography with much charm.
With these various attempts the 18th century was brought to
an end. In 200 years no literary classic had been produced in
America.
The new nation, which with*the 19th century began its integral
career, still retained the great disparities which originally existed
r _ between the diverse colonies. Political unity, the
22JU*' simplest of the social unities, had been achieved; " a
more perfect union," in the language of the founders,
had been formed; but even in the political sphere the new state
bore in its bosom disuniting forces which again and again
threatened to rive it apart until they were dissipated in the Civil
War; and in the other spheres of its existence, intellectually,
morally, socially, its unity was far from being accomplished.
The expansion of its territory over the continental area brought
new local diversity and prolonged the contrasts of border con-
ditions with those of the long-settled communities. This state of
affairs was reflected in the capital fact that there was no metro-
politan centre in which the tradition and forces of the nation
were concentrated. Washington was a centre of political
administration; but that was all. The nation grew slowly,
indeed, into consciousness of its own existence; but it was with-
out united history, without national traditions of civilization and
culture, and it was committed to the untried idea of democracy.
It was founded in a new faith; yet at the moment that it pro-
claimed the equality of men, its own sodal structure and habit
north and south contradicted the declaration, not merely by the
fact of slavery, but by the life of its classes. The south long
remained oligarchic; in the north aristocracy slowly melted
away. The coincidence of an economic opportunity with a
philosophic principle is the secret of the career of American
democracy in its first century. The vast resources of an un-
developed country gave this opportunity to the individual, while
the nation was pledged by its fundamental idea to material
prosperity for the masses, popular education and the common
welfare, as the supreme test of government In this labour,
subduing the new world to agriculture, trade and manufactures,
the forces of the nation were spent, under the complication of
maintaining the will of the people as the directing power; the
subjugation of the soil and experience in popular government are
the main facts of American history. In the course of this task the
practice of the fine arts was hardly more than an incident. When
anyone thinks of Greece, he thinks first of her arts; when anyone
thinks of America, be thinks of her arts last Literature, in the
sense of the printed word, has had a great career in America;
as the vehicle of use, books, Journals, literary communication,
educational works and libraries have filled the land; nowhere has
the power of the printed word ever been so great, nowhere has the
man of literary genius ever had so broad an opportunity to affect
the minds of men contemporaneously. But, in the artistic sense,
literature, at most, has been locally illustrated by a few eminent
The most obvious fact with regard to this literature is that — to
adopt a convenient word— it has been regional. It has flourished
in parts of the country, very distinctly marked, and is in each
case affected by its environment and local culture; if it incorpor-
ates national elements at times, it seems to graft them on its own
stock. The growth of literature in these favoured soils was slow
and humble. There was no outburst of genius, no sudden move-
ment, no renaissance; but very gradually a step was taken in
advance of the last generation, as that had advanced upon its
forefathers. The first books of true excellence were experiments ;
they seem almost accidents. The cities of Boston, New York
and Philadelphia were lettered communities; they possessed
imported books, professional classes, men of education and taste.
The tradition of literature was strong, especially in New England ;
there were readers used to the polite letters of the past. It was,
however, in the main the past of Puritanism, both in England and
at home, and of the 18th century in general, on which they were
bred, with a touch ever growing stronger of the new European
romanticism. All the philosophic ideas of the 18th century were
current What was most lacking was a standard self -applied by
original writers, and in the absence of a great national centre of
standards and traditions, and amid the poverty of such small
local centres as the writers were bred in, they sought what they
desired, not in England, not in any one country nor in any one
literature, but in the solidarity of literature itself, in the republic
of letters,the world-state itself, — the master-works of all European
lands; they became either actual pilgrims on foreign soil or
pilgrims of the mind in fireside travels. The foreign influences
that thus entered into American literature are obvious and make
a large part of its history; but the fact here brought out is that
European literature and experience stood to American writers
in lieu of a national centre; it was there that both standard and
tradition were found.
American literature first began to exist for the larger world
in the persons of Washington Irving (1785-1859) and James
Fenimore Cooper (x 780-1851). Their recognition was Batiy
almost contemporaneous. The Sketch Booh (1819) was nt**n»
the first American book to win a great reputation in **r
England, and The Spy (1821) was the first to obtain a *"■**
similar vogue on the continent. The fame of both authors is
associated with New York, and that city took the first place as
the centre of the literature of the period. It was not that New
York was more intellectual than other parts of the country; but
«3+
AMERICAN LITERATURE
it was a highly prosperous community, where a mercantile
society flourished and consequently a certain degree of culture
obtained. The first American literature was not the product of a
raw democracy nor of the new nationality in any sense; there
was nothing sudden or vehement in its generation; but, as
always, it was the product of older elements in the society where
it arose and flourished under the conditions of precedent culture.
The family of Irving were in trade. Cooper's father was in the
law. A third writer, William Cullen Bryant (1704-1878), is
associated with them, and though he announced his poetic talent
precociously by Thanatopsis (1807), his Poems (183a), immedi-
ately republished in London, were the basis of his true fame.
Born in Massachusetts, he lived his long life in New York, and
was there a distinguished citizen. His father was a physician.
All three men were not supremely endowed; they do not show
the passion of genius for its work which marks the great
writers; they were, like most American writers, men with the
literary temperament, characteristically gentlemen, who essayed
literature with varying power. If the quality of this early
literature is to be appreciated truly, the fact of its provenance
from a society whose cultivation was simple and normal, a
provincial bourgeois society of a prosperous democracy, must
be borne in mind. It came, not from the people, but from the
best classes developed under preceding conditions.
Irving all his life was in the eyes of his countrymen, whatever
their pride might be in him, more a travelled gentleman than one
AviV. °f themselves. He had come home to end his days at
Sunnyside by the Hudson, but he had won his fame in
foreign fields. In his youth the beginnings of his literary work
were most humble — light contributions to the press. He was of
a most social nature, warm, refined, humorous, a man belonging
to the town. He was not seriously disposed, idled much, and
surprised his fellow-citizens suddenly by a grotesque History
of New York (1809), an extravaganza satirizing the Dutch
element of the province. He discovered in writing this work his
talent for humour and also one part of his literary theme, the
Dutch tradition; but he did not so convince himself of his
powers as to continue, and it was only after the failure of his
commercial interests that, being thrown on himself for support,
he published in London ten years later, at the age of thirty-six,
the volume of sketches which by its success committed him to a
literary career. In that work he found himself; sentiment and
distinction of style characterized it, and these were his main
traits. He remained abroad, always favoured in society and
living in diplomatic posts in Spain and England, for seventeen
years, and he later spent four years in Spain as minister. Spain
gave him a larger opportunity than England for the cultivation
of romantic sentiment, and he found there his best themes in
Moorish legend and history. On his return to America he added
to his subjects the exploration of the west; and he wrote, besides,
biographies of Goldsmith and Washington. He was, as it turned
out, a voluminous writer; yet his books successively seem the
accident of his situation. The excellence of his work lies rather
in the treatment than the substance; primarily, there is the
pellucid style, which he drew from his love of Goldsmith, and the
charm of his personality shown in his romantic interest, his pathos
and humour ever growing in delicacy, and his familiar touch with
humanity. He made his name American mainly by creating the
legend of the Hudson, and he alone has linked his memory locally
with his country so that it hangs over the landscape and blends
with it for ever; be owned his nativity, too, by his pictures of
the prairie and the fur-trade and by his life of Washington, who
had laid his hand upon his head; but he had spent half his life
abroad, in the temperamental enjoyment of the romantic sugges-
tion of the old world, and by his writings he gave this expansion
of sympathy and sentiment to his countrymen. If his tempera-
ment was native-born and his literary taste home-bred, and if his
affections gave a legend to the countryside and his feelings
expanded with the view of prairie and wilderness, and if he sought
to honour with his pen the historic associations and memory of
the land which had honoured him, it was, nevertheless, the trans-
Atlantic touch that had loosed his genius and mainly fed it, and
this fact was prophetic of the immediate course of Amerku
literature and the most significant in his career.
Cooper's initiation into literature was similar to that of Irveeg
He had received, perhaps, something more of scanty ferssa)
education, since he attended Yale College for a season, c*«k
but he early took to the sea and was a inidshipcnan.
He was thirty years old before he began to write, and it wss
almost an accident that after the failure of his first novel he
finished The Spy, so deterring was the prejudice that no Americas
book could succeed. He was, however, a man of great energy d
life, great force of will; it was his nature to persist. The way
once opened, he wrote voluminously and with great unevtmxa.
His literary defects, both of surface and construction, are petcat.
It was not by style nor by any detail of plot or character that at
excelled; but whatever imperfections there might be, bis work
was alive; it had body, motion, fire. He chose his subjects best
aspects of life familiar to him in the woods or on the sea or frost
patriotic memories near to him in the fields of the Revotatioa.
He thus established a vital connexion with his own country, sad
in so far he is the most national by his themes of any of the
American writers. What he gave was the scene of the new world,
both in the forest and by the fires of the Revelation and 00 the
swift and daring American ships; but it was especially by his
power to give the sense of the primitive wilderness and the oceaa
weather, and adventure there, that he won success. In France,
where be was popular, this came as an echo out of the real wcrid
of the west to the dream of nature that had lately grown np a
French literature; and, besides, of all the springs of interest
native to men in every land adventure in the wild is, perhaps, the
easiest to touch, the quickest and most inflaming to respond,
Cooper stood for a true element in American exp e r i en c e and cos-
ditions, for the romance in the mere presence of primeval things
of nature newly found by man and opening to his coming; tha
was an imaginative moment, and Cooper seized it by his imagina-
tion. He especially did so in the Indian elements of his tale, aad
gave permanent ideality to the Indian type. The trait of lofti-
ness which he thus incorporated belongs with the impression of
the virgin forest and prairie, the breadth, the silence aad the
music of universal nature. The distinction of his work b to opea
so great a scene worthily, to give it human dignity in rough aad
primitive characters seen in the simplicity of their being, and t»
fill it with peril, resourcefulness and hardihood. It is the oarr
brave picture of life in the broad from an American pen. Scott,
in inventing the romantic treatment of history in fiction, was the
leader of the historical novel; but Cooper, except in so far as he
employed the form, was not in a true sense an imitator of Scott;
he did not create, nor think, nor feel, in Scott's way, and be caate
far short of the deep human power of Scott's genius. He was act
great in character; but he was great in adventure, manly spaa
and the atmosphere of the natural world, an Odysseyan writer,
who caught the moment of the American planting in vivid and
characteristic traits.
This same spirit, but limited to nature in her moat elemental
forms and having the simplest generic relations to human lot,
characterizes Bryant. He, too, had slender academic mym+.
training, and came from the same social origins as
Irving and Cooper; but, owing to his extraordinary boyish
precocity, the family influences upon him and the kind of home
be was bred in are more clearly seen. He framed bin art in his
boyhood on the model of 18th-century verse, and though be felt
the liberalizing influences of Wordsworth later there always re-
mained in his verse a sense of form that suggests a severer school
than that of his English contemporaries. He lived the ttfe of a
journalist and public man in New York, but the poet In htm was
a man apart and be jealously guarded his talent in seduske.
Though he was at times abroad, he resembled Cooper in beieg
unaffected by foreign residence; he remained homebred. He
wrote a considerable quantity of verse; but it is by a quality is
it rather than by its contents that bis poetry is recalled, and tha
quality exists most highly in the few pieces that are well known
To no verse is the phrase "native wood-notes wild ** more
properly applied. His poetry gives this deep impression of
AMERICAN LITERATURE
«35
privacy; high, dear, brief in voice, and yet, as it were, as of
something hidden in the sky or grove or brook, or as if the rock
spoke, it is nature in her haunts; it is the voice of the peak, the
forests, the cataracts, the smile of the blue gentian, the distant
rosy flight of the water-fowl,— with no human element less simple
than piety, death or the secular changes of time. It is, too, an
expression of something so purely American that it seems that it
must be as uncomprebended by one not familiar with the scene
as the beauty of Greece or Italian glows; it is poetry locked in its
own land. This presence of the pure, the pristine, the virginal in
the verse, this luminousness, spaciousness, serenity in the land,
this immemorialness of natural things, is the body and spirit of
the true wild, such as Bryant's eyes had seen it and as it had
possessed his soul. In no other American poet is there this near-
ness to original awe in the presence of nature; nowhere is nature
so slightly humanized, so cosmically felt, and yet poetised.
Poetry of this sort must be small in amount; a few hundred lines
contain it all; but they alone shrine the original grandeur, not
so much of the American landscape, as of wild nature when first
felt in the primitive American world.
American romanticism thus began with these three writers,
who gave it characterization after all by only a few simple traits.
There was in it no profound passion nor philosophy nor revolt;
especially there was no morbidness. It was sprung from a new
soil. The breath of the early American world was in Bryant's
poetry; he had freed from the landscape a Druidical nature-
worship of singular purity, simple and grand, unbound by any
conventional formulas of thought or feeling but deeply spiritual.
The new life of the land filled the scene of Cooper; prairie, forest
and sea, Indians, backwoodsmen and sailors, the human struggle
of all kinds, gave it diversity and detail; but its life was the
American spirit, the epic action of a people taking primitive
possession, battling with its various foes, making its world.
Irving, more brooding and reminiscent, gave legend to the land-
scape, transformed rudeness with humour and brought elements
of picturesqueness into play; and in him, in whom the new race
was more mature, was first shown that nostalgia for the past,
which is everywhere a romantic trait but was peculiarly strong
under American conditions. He was consequently more free in
imagination than the others, and first dealt with other than
American subjects, emancipating literature from provinciality of
theme, while the modes of his romantic treatment, the way be felt
about his subjects, still owed much to his American birth. In
all this literature by the three writers there was little complexity,
and there was no strangeness in their personalities. Irving
was more genially human, Cooper more vitally intense; Bryant
was the more careful artist in the severe limits of his art, which
was simple and plain. Simplicity and plainness characterize
all three; they were, in truth, simple American gentlemen,
of the breeding and tastes that a plain democracy produced
as its best, who, giving themselves to literature for a career,
developed a native romanticism, which, however obvious and
uncomplicated with philosophy, passion or moods, represented
the first stage of American life with freshness of power, an element
of ideal loftiness and much literary charm.
Though Irving, Cooper and Bryant were associated with New
York, there was something sporadic in their germination. They
have no common source; they stood apart; and
their work neither overlapped nor blended, but
remained self-isolated. None of them can be said to
have founded a school, but Irving left a literary tradition and
Cooper had followers in the field of historical fiction. The
literary product up to the middle of the century presents gener-
ally from its early years the appearance of an indistinguishable
mass, as in colonial days, in which neither titles nor authors
are eminent. The association of American literature with the
periodical press is, perhaps, the most important trait to be
observed. New York and Philadelphia were book-markets, and
local presses had long been at work issuing many reprints.
Magazines in various degrees of importance sprang up in succes-
sion to the earlier imitations of English 18th-century periodicals,
which abounded at the beginning of the century; and as time
Omwnl
went on these were accompanied by a host of annuals of the
English Keepsake variety. Philadelphia was especially dis-
tinguished by an early fertility in magazines, which later reached
a great circulation, as in the case of Godey's and Graham's; the
Knickerbocker became prominent in New York from 1833, when it
was founded; Richmond had in The Southern Literary Messenger
the chief patron of southern writers from 1834, and there were
abortive ventures still farther south in Charleston. These
various periodicals and like publications were the literary arena,
the place of ambition for young and old, for known and unknown,
and there literary fame and what little money came of its pursuit
were found. Minor poetry flourished in it; sketches, tales,
essays, every sort of writing in prose multiplied there. A change
in the atmosphere of letters is also to be noted. The 18th
century was fairly left behind. The Philadelphian reprint of
Galignani's Paris edition of Keats, Shelley and Coleridge had
brought in the new romantic poetry with wide effect; and
Disraeli, Bulwer and, later, Dickens are felt in the prose; in
verse, especially by women, Mrs Hemans and Mrs Browning
ruled the moment. The product was large. In poetry it was
displayed on the most comprehensive scale in Rufus Wilmot
Griswold's (181 5-1857) collections of American verse, made in the
middle of the century. Mrs Lydia Sigourney. (1791-1865), a
prolific writer, and Mrs Maria Gowan Brooks (1 795-1845), known
as Southey's " Maria del Ocddente," a more ambitious aspirant,
the. " Davidson sisters " (1808-1825 : 1823-1838), and Alice
(1820-1871) and Phoebe Cary (1824-1871) illustrate the work of
the women; and Richard Henry Wilde (1780-1847), George Pope
Morris (1802-1864), Charles Fenno Hoffman (1806-1884) an< *
Willis Gaylord Clark (1810-1841) may serve for that of men. In
this verse, and in the abundant prose as well, the sentimentality
of the period is strongly marked; it continued to the times of the
Civil War. Two poets of a better type, Joseph Rodman Drake
(1795-1820), distinguished by delicacy of fancy, and Fitz-Greene
Halleck (1700-1867), who showed ardour and a real power of
phrase, are remembered from an earlier time for their brother-
hood in verse, but Drake died young and Halleck was soon
sterilized, so that the talents of both proved abortive. The
characteristic figure that really exemplifies this secondary
literature at its best is Nathaniel Parker Willis (1806-1867) who,
though born in Portland, Maine, was the chief litterateur of the
Knickerbocker period. He wrote abundantly in both verse and
prose, and was the first of the journalist type of authors, a social
adventurer with facile powers of literary entertainment, a man of
the town and immensely popular. He was the sentimentalist by
profession, and his work, transitory as it proved, was typical of a
large share of the taste, talent and ambition of the contemporary
crowd of writers. Neighbouring him in time and place are the
authors of various stripe, known as " the Literati," whom Poe
described in bis critical papers, which, in connexion with Gris-
wold's collections mentioned above, are the principal current
source of information concerning the bulk of American literature
in that period.
This world of the magazines, the Literati and sentiroentalism,
was the true milieu of Edgar Allan Poe (1800-1849)* Born in
Boston, his mother a pleasing English actress and his -^
father a dissipated stage-struck youth of a Baltimore
family, left an orphan in childhood, he was reared in the
Virginian home of John Allan, a merchant of Scottish extraction;
he received there the stamp of southern character. He was all
his life characteristically a southerner, with southern Ideals of
character and conduct, southern manners towards both men and
women and southern passions. He showed precocity in verse,
but made his real dibui in prose as editor of The Southern Literary
Messenger at Richmond in 1835. He was by his talents com-
mitted to a literary career, and being usually without definite
means of support he followed the literary market, first to Phil-
adelphia and later to New York. He was continuously associated
with magazines as editor, reviewer or contributor; they were his
means of sustenance; and, whether as cause or effect, this mode
of life fell in with the nature of his mind, which was a contempor-
ary mind. He was perhaps better acquainted with contemporary
836
AMERICAN LITERATURE
work in literature than any of his associates; he took his first
cues from Disraeli and Bulwerand Moore, and he was earliest to
recognize Tennyson and Mrs Browning; his principal reading
was always in the magazines. He was, however, more than a
man of literary temperament like Irving and Cooper; he was a
child of genius. As in their case, there was something sporadic
in his appearance on the scene. He had no American origins, but
only American conditions of life. In fact he bore little relation
to his period, and so far as he was influenced, it was for the
worse; he transcended the period, essentially, in all his creative
work. He chose for a form of expression the sketch, tale or short
story, and he developed it in various ways. From the start there
was a melodramatic element in him, itself a southern trait and
developed by the literary influence of Disraeli and Bulwer on his
mind. He took the tale of mystery as his special province; and
receiving it as a mystery that was to be explained, after the recent
masters of it, be saw its fruitful lines of development in the fact
that science had succeeded to superstition as the source of
wonder, and also in the use of ratiocination as a mode of dis-
entanglement in the detective story. Brilliant as his success was
in these lines, his great power lay in the taie of psychological
states as a mode of impressing the mind with the thrill of terror,
the thrall of fascination, the sense of mystery. It is by his tales
in these several sorts that he won, more slowly than Irving or
Cooper and effectually only after his death, continental repu-
tation, at present no American author is so securely settled in
the recognition of the world at large, and he owes this, similarly
to Cooper, to the power of mystery over the human mind uni-
versally; that is, he owes it to his theme, seconded by a marvel-
lous power to develop it by the methods of art. He thus added
new traits to American romanticism, but as in the case of living's
Spanish studies there is no American element in the theme; he
b detached from his local world, and works in the sphere of
universal human nature, nor in his treatment is there any trace
of his American birth. He is a world author more purely than
any other American writer. Though it is on his tales that his
continental reputation necessarily rests, his temperament is more
subtly expressed in his verse, in which thai fond of which his tales
are the logical and intelligible growth gives out images and
rhythms, the issue of morbid states, which affect the mind rather
as a form of music than of thought. Emotion was, in art, his
constant aim, though it might be only so simple a thing as the
emotion of colour as in his landscape studies; and in his verse,
by an unconscious integration and flow of elements within him it
must be thought, he obtained emotional effects by images which
have no intellectual value, and which float in rhythms so as to act
musically on the mind and arouse pure moods of feeling absolutely
free of any other contents. Such poems must be an enigma to
most men, but others are accessible to them, and derive from
them an original and unique pleasure; they belong outside of
the intellectual sphere. It is by virtue of this musical quality
and immediacy that his poetry is characterized by genius; in
proportion as it has meaning of an intelligible sort it begins to
fade and lower; so far as " Lenore " and " Annie " and " Annabel
Lee " are human, they are feeble ghosts of that sentimentality
which was so rife in Poe's time and so maudlin in his own
personal relations; and except for a half-dozen pieces, in which
his quality of rhythmical fascination is supreme, bis verse as
a whole is inferior to the point of being commonplace. Small
as the quantity of his true verse is, it more sustains his peculiar
genius in American eyes than does his prose; and this is because
it is so unique. He stands absolutely alone as a poet with none
like him; in his tales, as an artist, he is hardly less solitary, but
he has some ties of connexion or likeness with the other masters
of mystery. Poe lived in poverty and died in misery; but with-
out him romanticism in America would lose jts most romantic
figure, and American literature the artist who, most of all its
writers, had the passion of genius for its work.
Poe left even less trace of himself in the work of others than did
Irving, Cooper and Bryant. He stands in succession to them,
and closed the period so far as it contributed to American
romanticism anything distinguished, original or permanent.
The ways already opened had, however, bees trod, and m
notably in fiction. The treatment of manners and castes*,
essentially in living's vein, was pleasingly cultivated ia Marcus:
by John Pendleton Kennedy (1 705-1870) in S watt c m Bnli!;i
and similar tales of Old Dominion life. In Virginia, Bevtr?
Tucker (1 784-1851) in The Partisan Leader (1836), noticeable ts
its prophecy of secession, and John Eaten Cooke (1850-t**
in The Virginia Comedians ( 1854), also won a passing rtpmiL-n.
The champion in the south, however, was William Gdmore &ncs
(1806-1870), born in Charleston, a voluminous writer of fa&
prose and verse, who undertook to depict, on the same stair a
Cooper and in his manner, the settlement of the southern lorarr
and its Indian and revolutionary history; but of ms warn
novels, of which the characteristic examples are The Yemen*
(1835)1 The Partisan (1835) "d Beawchamfe (1842). *ar
attained literary distinction. The sea-novd was developed ??
Herman Melville (1810-1801) in Typee (1S46) and its sotzesan
but these tales, in spite of their being highly couaxnended ^
lovers of adventure, have taken no more hold than the work d
Simms. Single novels of wide popularity appeared from tic* a
time, of which a typical instance was The Wide, Wide F«*
(1850) by Susan Warner (18x0-1885). The grade of excefiesa
was best illustrated, perhaps, for the best current fiction *l*z
was not to be incorporated in literature, by the notds d
Catharine Maria Sedgwick (1780-1867), of a western Maw*
chusetts family, in Hope Leslie (1817) and its successors. V*
distinct Knickerbocker strain was best preserved by James Kirn
Paulding (1778-1860) among the direct imitators of Irriar
but the better part of the Irving tradition, its sentiment, soca.
grace and literary flavour, was not noticeable until it a«ok* a
George William Curtis (1824-1892), born a New Engmnrirr Ut
like Bryant, a journalist and public man of New York, vsw
novels, notes of travel and casual brief social essays brought ti»*
urbane style to an end, as in Donald Grant Mitchell (bora 1 1::
the school of sentiment, descended from the same source, 6r:
not unbecomingly in the Reveries of a Baeketar (1850) and Lktr*
Life ( 1 85 1 ) . Two poets, just subsequent to Poe, George Her?
Boker (1823-1800) and Thomas Buchanan Rend (1822-1*- j
won a certain distinction, the former especially in the drams. ?
the Philadelphia group. The single popular songs, ** The Sti*
Spangled Banner " (18x3), by Francis Scott Key (1770-18431 d
Maryland, " America " (1832) by Samuel Francis Snath (iScf-
1895) of Massachusetts, and " Home, Sweet Home " (182^ H
John Howard Payne (1792-1852) of New York, may also or
appropriately recorded here. The last distinct literary pener*
ality to emerge from the miscellany of talent in the middk of da
century, in the middle Atlantic states, was James Bayard Tsyiar
(1825-1878), who, characteristically a journalist, gained iepr.>
tion by his travels, poems and novels, but in spite of brim*
versatility and a high ambition failed to obtain permsae*
distinction. His translation of Faust (1870) b lus chief titk u
remembrance; but the later cultivation of the oriental mocn
in American lyrical poetry owes something to his example.
In New England, which succeeded to New York as the chr*
source of literature of high distinction, the progre ss of enlist ■
the post- Revolutionary period was as normal and mw
gradual as elsewhere in the country; there was no E9M
violence of development, no sudden break, hot the «**n»
growth of knowledge and taste went slowly on in con- ***
junction with the softening of the Puritan foundation of taoojK.
belief and practice. What most distinguished literature in Nc»
England from that to the west and south was its connexion w"
religion and scholarship, neither of which elements was strwc
in the literature that has been described. The noghbom hood J
Harvard College to Boston was a powerful influence in the Md *
knowledge and critical culture. The most significant fact "
respect to scholarship, however, was the residence abroad ■-
George Tlcknor (1791-1871)* author of The History of Spansi
Literature ( 1 849), of Edward Everett (1704-1865), the orator v*
of George Bancroft (1800-1891), author of the History ef m
United States ( 1 834- 1 874), who as young men brought back »r»
ideals of learning. The social connexion of Boston, not only •■
AMERICAN LITERATURE
837
England bat with the continent, was more constant, varied and
intimate than fell to the fortune of any other city, and owing
to the serious temper of the community the intellectual com-
merce with the outer world through books was more profound.
Coleridge was early deeply influential on the thought of the
cultivated class, and to him Carlyle, who found his first sincere
welcome and effectual power there, succeeded. The influence of
both combined to introduce, and to secure attention for, German
writers. Translation, as time went on, followed, and German
thought was also further sustained and advanced in the com-
munity by Frederick Henry Hedge (1805-1800), a philosophical
theologian, who conducted a propaganda of German ideas. The
activity of the group about him is significantly marked by the
issue of the series of Specimens of Foreign Standard Literature
(1838), edited by George Ripley (1802-1880), the critic, which
was the first of its kind in America. French ideas, as time went
on, were also current, and the field of research extended to the
Orient, the writings of which were brought forward especially in
connexion with the Transcendental Movement to which all these
foreign studies contributed. In New England, in other words, a
close, serious and vital connexion was made, for the first time,
with the philosophic thought of the world and with its tradition
even in the remote past. Unitarianism, which was the form in
which the old Puritanism dissolved in the cultivated class, came
In with the beginning of the century, and found its representative
in the gentle character, refined intelligence and liberal humanity
of William Ellery Channing (1780- 184 2),' who has remained its
chief apostle. It was the expression of a moral maturing and
intellectual enlightenment that took place with as little dis-
turbance as ever marked religious evolution in any community.
The people at large remained evangelical, but they also felt in a
less degree the softening and liberalizing tendency; neverthe-
less it was mainly in the field of Unitarianism that literature
flourished, as was natural, and Transcendentalism was a phe-
nomenon that grew out of Unitarianism, being indeed the excess
of the movement of enlightenment and the extreme limit of
intuitionalism, individualism and private judgment .These two
factors, religion and scholarship, gave to New England literature
its serious stamp and academic quality; but the preparatory
stage being longer, it was slower to emerge than the literature of
the rest of the country.
The first stirrings of romanticism in New England were felt, as
in the country to the south, by men of literary temperament in a
sympathetic enjoyment and feeble imitation of the contemporary
English romantic school of fiction exemplified by Mrs Radcliffe,
Lewis and Godwin. Washington Allston (1 770-1843), the
painter, born in South Carolina but by education and adoption a
citizen of Cambridge, showed the taste in Monaldi (1841), and
Richard Henry Dana (1787-1879) in Paul Felton (1833); in his
poem of the same date, " The Buccaneer," the pseudo-Byronic
element, which belongs to the conception of character and
passion in this school of fiction, appears. These elder writers
illustrate rather the stage of imaginative culture at the period,
and show by their other works also — Allston by his poems " The
Sylphs of the Seasons" (18x3), and Dana by his abortive
periodical The Idle Man (182*) issued at New York— their
essential sympathy with the literary conditions reigning before
the time of Irving. They both were post-Revolutionary, and
advanced American culture in other fields rather than imagina-
tion, Allston in art and Dana in criticism, as editor of The North
American Review, which was founded in 181 5, and was long the
chief organ of serious thought and critical learning, influential in
the dissemination of ideas and in the maintenance of the intel-
lectual life. The influence of their personality in the community,
like that of Channing, with whom they were closely connected,
was of more importance than any of their works.
The definite moment of the appearance of New England in
literature in the true sense was marked by Ralph Waldo
Emerson's (1803-1882) Nature (1836), Nathaniel Hawthorne's
(1804-1864) Twice-Told Tales (1837) and Henry Wadsworth
Longfellow's (1807-1882) Voices of the Night (1839). Of this
group of men Longfellow is the most national figure, and from
the point of view of literary history the most significant by
virtue of what he contributed to 'American romanticism in the
large. He felt the conscious desire of the people for Gumc-
an American literature, and he obeyed it in the choice n*w-
of his subjects. He took national themes, and his work
is in this respect the counterpart in poetry to that of
Cooper in prose. In Hiawatha (1855) he poetized the
Indian life; and, though the scene and figures of the poem are no
more localized than the happy hunting-grounds, the ideal of the
life of the aborigines in the wilderness is given with freshness and
primitive charm and with effect on the imagination. It is the sole
survivor of many poetic attempts to naturalize the Indian in liter-
ature, and will remain the classic Indian poem. In Evangeline
(1847), The Courtship of Miles Standish (1858) and The New
England Tragedies (1868), he depicted colonial life. Ashe thus em-
bodied national tradition in one portion of his work, he rendered
national character in another, and with more spontaneity, in
those domestic poems of childhood and the affections, simple
moods of the heart in the common lot, which most endeared him
as the poet of the household. These are American poems as truly
as his historical verse, though they are also universal for the
English race. In another large portion of his work be brought
back from the romantic tradition of Europe, after Irving's
manner, motives which he treated for their pure poetic quality,
detached from anything American, and he also translated much
foreign verse from the north and the south of Europe, including
Dante's Divine Comedy (1867). He has, more than any other
single writer, reunited America with the poetic past of Europe,
particularly in its romance. The same serenity of disposition
that marked Irving and Bryant characterized his life; and his
art, more varied than Bryant's or Irving's, has the same refine-
ment, being simple and so limpid as to deceive the reader into an
oblivion of its duality and sometimes into an unwitting disparage-
ment of what seems so plain and natural as to be commonplace.
In Longfellow, as in Irving, one is struck by that quietude, which
is so prevailing a characteristic of American literature, and which
proceeds from its steady and even flow from sources that never
knew any disturbance or perturbation. The life, the art, the
moods are all calm; deep passion is absent
Hawthorne was endowed with a soul of more intense brooding,
but he remained within the circle of this peace, He developed in
solitude exquisite grace of language, and in other respects was an
artist, the mate of Poe in the tale and exceeding Poe in signifi-
cance since he used symbolism for effects of truth. He, like
Longfellow, embodied the national tradition, in this case the
Puritan past; but he seized the subject, not in its historical
aspects and diversity of character and event, but psychologically
in its moral passion in The Scarlet Letter (1850), and less abstractly,
more picturesquely, more humanly, in its blood tradition, in The
House of the Seven Cables. In his earlier work, as an artist, he
shows the paucity of the materials in the environment, especially
in his tales; but when his residence in Italy and England gave
into his hands larger opportunity, he did not succeed so well
in welding Italy with America in The Marble Faun (i860), or
England with America in his experimental attempts at the work
which he left uncompleted, as he had done in the Puritan
romances. He had, however, added a new domain to American
romanticism; and, most of all these writers, he blended moral
truth with fiction; he, indeed, spiritualized romance, and with-
out loss of human reality,— a rare thing in any literature. Both
Longfellow and Hawthorne were happy in reconciling their art
with their country: both, not less than Poe, were universal
artists, but they incorporated the national past in their art and
were thereby more profoundly American.
Emerson, whose work lay in the religious sphere, not unlike
Jonathan Edwards at an earlier time of climax but in a different
way, marked the issue of Puritanism in pure idealism, and was
more contemporaneously associated with life in the times than
were the purely imaginative writers. He was the central figure
of Transcendentalism, and apart from his specific teachings stood
for the American spirit, disengaged from authority, independent,
personal, responsible only to himself. He reached a revolutionary
8 3 8
AMERICAN LITERATURE
extreme, but he had not arrived at it by revolutionary means;
without storm or stress, with characteristic peacef ulness, he came
to the great denials, and without much concerning himself with
them turned to his own affirmations of spiritual reality, methods
ol life and personal results. Serenity was his peculiar trait; amid
all the agitation about him he was entirely unmoved, lived
calmly and wrote with placid power, concentrating into the
slowly wrought sentences of his Essays (1841-1875) the spiritual
essence and moral metal of a life lived to Cod, to himself and to his
fellow-men. He, more than any other single writer, reunited
American thought with the philosophy of the world; more than
all others, he opened the ways of liberalism, wherever they may
lead. He was an emancipator of the mind. In his Poems (1847-
1867), though the abstract and the concrete often find themselves
awkward mates, his philosophic ideas are put forth under forms
of imagination and his personal life is expressed with nobility;
his poetic originality, though so different in kind, is as unique as
Poe's, and reaches a height xrf imaginative faculty not elsewhere
found in American verse. His poetry belongs more peculiarly
to universal art, so pure in general is its philosophic content and
so free from any temporal trait is the style; but it is as dis-
tinguished for the laconic expression of American ideas, minted
with one blow, as his prose is for the constant breathing of the
American spirit It is the less possible to define the American
traits in Emerson, because they constituted the man. He was as
purely an American type as Lincoln. The grain of the man is in
his work also; and the best that his prose and verse contain is his
personal force. In him alone is genius felt as power; in the
others it impresses one primarily as culture, modes of artistic
faculty, phases of temperament. In this, too, he brings to mind
Jonathan Edwards, the other climax of the religious spirit in New
England; in Edwards it was intellectual power, in Emerson it
was moral power; in both it was indigenous, power springing from
what was most profound in the historic life of the community.
Three other names, John Greenleaf Whittier (1807-1892),
Oliver Wendell Holmes (1800-1894), James Russell Lowell
WhMg ^^ (1810-1891), complete the group of the greater writers
mtmtti °* ^ cw England. Holmes was a more local figure, by
Lows, his humour and wit and his mental acuteness a Yankee
and having the flavour of race, but neither in his verse
nor his novels reaching a high degree of excellence and best
known by The Autocrat of the Breakfast Table (1858), which is the
Yankee prose classic His contemporary reputation was largely
social and owed much to the length of his life, but his actual hold
on literature already seems slight and his work of little permanent
value. Whittier stands somewhat apart as the poet of the soil
and also because of his Quakerism; he was first eminent as the
poet of the anti-slavery movement, to which he contributed much
stirring verse, and later secured a broader fame by Snowbound
(1866) and his religious poems of simple piety, welcome to every
faith; he was also a balladist of local legends. In general he is
the voice of the plain people without the medium of academic
culture, and his verse though of low flight is near to their life and
faith. Lowell first won distinction by The Biglow Papers (1848),
which with the second series (1886) is the Yankee classic in verse,
and is second only to his patriotic odes in maintaining his poetic
reputation; his other verse, variously romantic in theme and
feeling, and latterly more kindred to English classic style, shows
little originality and was never popularly received; it is rather
the fruit of great talent working in close literary sympathy with
other poets whom from time to time he valued. His prose
consists in the main of literary studies in criticism, a field in
which he held the first rank. Together with Holmes and Whittier
he gives greater body, diversity and illustration to the literature
of New England; but in the work of none of these is there the
initiative or the presence of single genius that characterize
Emerson, Hawthorne and Longfellow. Lowell was a scholar with
academic ties, a patriot above party, master of prose and verse
highly developed and finished, and at times of a lofty strain
owing to his moral enthusiasm; Whittier was a Quaker priest,
vigorous in a great cause of humanity, with fluent power to
express in poetry the life of the farm, the roadside and the legends
that were like folklore in the memory of the settlement; Hocbs
was a town wit and master of occasional verse, with notes hen*
and there of a higher strain in single rare poems.
The secondary literature that accompanied the work of these
writers was abundant. It was largely the product of Traav
cendentalism and much of it gathered about Emerson. ^
In The Dial (1840), the organ of Transcendentalism, he I:" 1 -"
introduced to the public his young friend, Henry David
Thoreau (1817-1862), author of W olden (1854) and the father of
the nature-writers, who as a hermit-type has had some European
vogue and shows an increasing hold as an exception among me*,
but whose work has little literary distinction; and together w.ts
him, his companion, William Ellery Channing (1818-1001V a
poet who has significance only in the transcendentalist grocpk
With them should be named Emerson's coeval, Amos Broosco
Alcott (1 700-1888), the patriarch of the so-called Coeenri
philosophers, better esteemed for his powers of monologue tkaa
as a writer in either prose or verse. Emerson's associatc-edrjr
in The Dial was Sarah Margaret Fuller, afterwards Marchfcmes
d'Ossoli (1810-1850), a woman of extraordinary qualities a<rd
much usefulness, who is best remembered by her Woman m the
Nineteenth Century (1844), but contributed no permanent work
to literature. She was a leading figure at Brook Farm, the
socialistic community founded by members of the group, asd
especially by Ripley, who like her afterwards emigrated to New
York and together with her began a distinguished critical career
in connexion with The New Yorh Tribune. Transcendeauhfli
produced also its peculiar poet in Jones Very (1813-1881), whose
Poems (1839) have original quality though slight merit, and its
novelist in Sylvester Judd (1813-1853), whose Margaret (1845'
is a unique work in American fiction. Other transcendenuBst
poets were Christopher Pearse Cranch (18 13- 1892), and Charles
Timothy Brooks (1813-1883), who translated Faust (1856V
besides a score of minor names. Outside of this group Thomas
William Parsons (1810-1892), who translated Dante's Imfew
(1843), was a poet of greater distinction, but his product was
slight The prose of the movement, though abundant, yiekkd
nothing that is remembered.
The literary life of Boston was, however, by no means conficed
within this circle of thought. It was most distinguished in the
field of history, where indeed the writers rivalled the n*mn.
imaginative authors in public fame. They were,
besides George Bancroft already mentioned, John Gorhaa
Palfrey(i 796-1881), author of TheH istory of New £»******( 185*),
William Hickling Prescott (1706-1859), whose field was Spaaaa
and Spanish-American history, John Lothrop Motley (1814-
1877), whose attention was given to Dutch history, and Jared
Sparks (1789-1866), whose work lay in biography. In the
writings of Prescott and Motley the romanticism of the period
is clearly felt, and they attained the highest distinction in the
literary school of history of the period. Oratory also flonrished
in Daniel Webster (1 782-1852), Edward Everett (1 704-1865)
Ruf us Choate (1700-1859), Wendell Phillips (181 1-1884), Charts
Sumner (181 1-1874), and Robert Charles Winthrop (1809-1894).
the last survivor of a long line of fiery or classic oratory in which
New England was especially distinguished and had q^m
rivalry only from Henry Clay (1 777-1852) of Virginia,
and John Caldwell Calhoun (1782-1850) of South Carolina. The
church also produced two powerful speakers in Theodore Parker
(1810-1860), the protagonist of the liberals in Boston, and Henry
Ward Beecher (1813-1887), who sustained a liberal form of New
England Congregationalism in Brooklyn, New York, where he
made Plymouth Church a national pulpit. The single memorabk
novel of the period was Mrs Harriet Beecher Stowe's j^m.
(1811-1896) Uncle Tom's Cabin (1852), which had a
world-wide vogue; it is the chief contribution of the anti-slavery
movement to American literature and stands for plantation lie
in the old south. Another female writer, Mrs Lydia Maria ChJi
(1802-1880), remembered by her PhUothea (1836), deserves
mention in the tine of notable American women who served their
generation in literary ways and by devotion to public causes.
Criticism was served excellently by Edwin Percy Whipple (1819-
AMERICAN LITERATURE
839
1885), and leas eminently by Henry Theodore Tuckerman (1813-
1871), who emigrated to New York; but scholarship in general
flourished under the protection of Harvard College,
tr fr where Ticknor, Longfellow and Lowell maintained a
high ideal of literary knowledge and judgment in the
chair they successively filled, and were accompanied in English
by Francis James Child (1825-1806), whose English and Scottish
Ballads, first issued in 1858, was brought to its final and monu-
mental form in 1892. Cornelius Conway Felton (1807-1862),
president of Harvard College, stood for Greek culture, but the
classical influence was little in evidence. Elsewhere In New
England George Perkins Marsh (1801-1882) of Vermont, long
minister to Italy, and William Dwight Whitney (1827-1894) of
Yale, were linguistic scholars of high distinction. The develop-
• ment of the colleges into universities was already prophesied
in the presence and work of these men. Outside of New England
scholarship had been illustrated in New York by Charles Anthon
(1797-1867), the classical editor, by the Duyckincks, Evert
Augustus (1816-1878) and George Long (1823-1863), editors of
the Cyclopaedia of American Literature (1855), and by Giulian
Crommelin Verplanck (1786-1870), editor of Shakespeare (1846).
New England thus, standing somewhat apart, produced a
characteristic literature, more deeply rooted in the community
fiNiTfcr tnan was the caae elsewhere; and this literature, blend-
ts*fc» ing with what was produced to the south and west,
•'Nw became a predominant share of what has been nation -
^yiTf . *My accepted as standard American literature. It is
also the more profound and scholarly share; and if
quantity as well as quality be counted, and, as is proper, Bryant
be included as the product of Puritan culture, it is the more
artistic share. American standard literature, so constituted,
belongs to romanticism, and is a phase of the romanticism which
was then the general mood of literature; but it is a native
product, with traits of its own and inward development from
local conditions, not only apparent by its themes, but by its
distinct evolution. Though it owed much to contact with Europe
through its travelled scholars and its intellectual commerce
by means of translations and imported books, and often dealt
with matter detached from America both in prose and poetry,
it was essentially self-contained. It was, in a marked way, free
from the passions whose source was the French Revolution and
its after-throes from 1789 to 1848; it is by this fact that it
differs most from European romanticism. Just as the Puritan
Rebellion in England left the colonies untouched to their own
development, the political revolutions in Europe left the new
nation unaffected to its normal evolution. There was never any
revolution, in the French sense, in America whether social,
political, religious or literary; its great historical changes, such
as the termination of English rule, the passing away of Puritan-
ism, the abolition of slavery with the consequent destruction of
the old South, were in a true sense conservative changes, normal
phases of new life. In literature this state of things is reflected in
the absence in it of any disturbance, its serenity of mood, its air
of quiet studies. It is shown especially in its lack of passion.
The only ardours displayed by its writers are moral, patriotic
or religious, and in none of them is there any sense of conflict
The life which they knew was wholesome, regular, still free from
urban corruption, the experience of a plain, prosperous and law-
abiding people. None of these writers, though like Hawthorne
they might deal with sin or like Poe with horror and a lover's
despair at death, struck any tragic note. No tragedy was
written, no love-poetry, no novel of passion. No literature is so
maiden-pure. It is by refinement rather than power that it is
most distinguished, by taste and cultivation, by conscientiousness
in art, in poetic and stylistic craft; it is romance retrospectively
seen in the national past, or conjured out of foreign lands by
reminiscent imagination, or symbolically created out of fantasy;
and this is supplemented by poetry of the domestic affections,
the simple sorrows, all " that has been and may be again " in
daily human lives, and by prose similarly related to a well-
ordered life. If it is undistinguished by any work of supreme
genius, it reflects broadly and happily and in enduring forms
the national tradition and character of the land in its dawning
century.
The original impulse of this literature had spent its force by
1 861— that is, before the Civil War. The greater writers had,
in general, already done their characteristic work, and though
the survivors continued to produce till toward the dose of the
century, their works contained no new element and were at most
mellow fruits of age. The war itself, like the Revolution, left
little trace in literature beyond a few popular songs and those
occasional poems which the older poets wrote in the course of the
conflict. Their attitude toward it and (with the exception of
Whittier and Lowell) toward the anti-slavery movement which
led up to it was rather that of citizens than of poets, though in the
verse of Longfellow and Emerson there is the. noble stamp of the
hour, the impress of liberty, bravery and sorrow. Lowell is the
exception; he found in the Commemoration Ode (1865) his loftiest
subject and most enduring fame. The work began to fall into
new hands, and a literature since the war grew up, which was,
however, especially in poetry, a continuation of romanticism and
contained its declining force. It was contributed to from all
parts of the older country, and also from the west, and a genera-
tion has now added its completed work to the sum. No author,
in this late period, has received the national welcome to the same
degree as the men of the elder time; none has had such personal
distinction, eminence or public affection; and none has found
such honourable favour abroad, either in England or on the
continent. Poetry has felt the presence of the art of Tennyson,
which has maintained an extreme sensitiveness among the poets
to artistic requirements of both material and technique; and it
also has taken colour from the later English schools. It has,
however, yielded its pre-eminent position to prose. The novel
has displaced romance as the highest form of fiction, and the
essay has succeeded the review as the form of criticism. The
older colleges have grown into universities, and public libraries
have multiplied throughout the north and west. The literature
of information, meant for the popularization of knowledge of all
kinds, has been put forth in great quantity, and the annual
increase in the production of books keeps pace with the general
growth of the country. Literature of distinction, however, makes
but a small part of this large mass.
In poetry the literary tradition was continued in Boston by
Thomas Bailey Aldrich (1836-1907), essentially a stylist in verse,
brief, definite, delicate, who carried the lighter graces of
the art, refinement, wit, polish, to a high point of excel-
lence. His artistic consanguinity is with Herrick and
Landor, and he takes motive and colour for his verse from every
land, as his predecessors had done, but with effects less rich. He
divided attention between drama and lyric, but as his dramas
look strictly to the stage, it is on the lyrics that his reputation
rests. He was master also of an excellent prose and wrote
novels, sketches of travel, and especially stories, strongly marked
by humour, surprise and literary distinction. In New York,
Edmund Clarence Stedman (1833-1908) became the chief repre-
sentative of the literary profession. He was both poet and critic,
and won reputation in the former and the first rank in the latter
field. His Victorian Poets (1875) and Poets of America (1885),
followed by comprehensive anthologies (1894-1900), together
with The Nature and Elements of Poetry (1892), are the principal
critical work of his generation, and indeed the sole work that
is eminent His verse, less practised as time went on, was well
wrought and often distinguished by flashes of spirited song and
balladry. With him is associated his elder friend, Richard Henry
Stoddard (1825-1903), who made his appearance before the Civil
War, and whose verse belongs in general character to the style of
that earlier period and is as rapidly forgotten. Both Stedman
and Stoddard were of New England birth, as was also the third
to be mentioned, William Winter (born 1836) , better known as the
lifelong dramatic critic of the metropolis. The last of the New
York poets of established reputation, Richard Watson -Gilder
(b. 1844 inNew Jersey ;d. 1 909) ,wasat first affiliated with the school
of Rossetti, and his work in general, Five Books of Song (1894),
strongly marked by artistic susceptibility, is in a high degree
840
AMERICAN LITERATURE
refined and delicate. In the country at large popular success,
in England as well as in America, was won by Charles Godfrey
Leland (1824-1903), in Hans Brcitmonn's Ballads (1871),
humorous poems in the Pennsylvania Dutch dialect. Born in
Philadelphia, he spent the greater part of his mature life abroad
and wrote numerous works on diverse topics, but his reputation
is chiefly connected with his books on gypsy life and lore.
Another foreign resident who deserves mention was William
Wetmore Story (1819-1895), the sculptor, of Massachusetts,
connected with the Boston group, whose verse and prose gave
him the rank of a liltirateur. The South again entered into
literature with the work of Sidney Lanier (1842-1881), in succes-
sion to Henry Timrod (1820-1867) and Paul Hamilton Hayne
(1830-1886), who find a place rather by the affection in which
they are held at the South than by positive merit Lanier
showed originality and a true poetic gift, but his talents were
little effectual. From the West humorous poetry was produced by
Francis Bret Harte (1830-1902), born in Albany, in The Heathen
Chinee (1870) and similar verse, but he is better remembered as
the artistic narrator of western mining life in his numerous stories
and novels. Verse of a similar kind also first brought into
literary notice John Hay (1838-1905), in Pike County Ballads
(1871), who also wrote in prose; but his reputation was rather
won as a statesman in the closing years of his life. Minor poets
of less distinction but with a vein superior to that of the earlier
period, more excellent in workmanship and more coloured with
imagination and mood, arose in all parts, of whom the most
notable arc Julia Ward Howe (born 1819), in Boston, the vener-
able friend of many good causes, Henry Howard Browncll (1820-
1872) of Rhode Island, author of the most vigorous and realistic
poetry of the Civil War, War Lyrics (1866), Edward Rowland Sill
(1841-1887), born in Connecticut but associated with California,
Henry Van Dyke (born 1852), in New York, better known by his
prose in tale and essay, Silas Weir Mitchell (born 1830), in
Philadelphia, whose repute as a novelist has overshadowed his
admirable verse, Eugene Field (1850-1895) of Chicago, James
Whitcomb Riley (born 1853) of Indiana, both distinguished for
their humorous and childhood verse, and Joaquin Miller (born
1 841) of Oregon, whose first work, Songs of the Sierras (1871),
had in it much of the spirit of the wild land, the colour of
the desert, the free, adventurous character of the filibuster, All
strangely mixed with pseudo-Byronic passions.
Apart from all these, whether minor or major poets, stands Walt
Whitman (1819-1892), whose Leaves of Crass (1855) first appeared
WhMmam before the war, but whose fame is associated rather
WhMmma ' with its successive editions and its companion volumes,
and definitely dated, perhaps, from 1867. He received attention
in England, as did Miller, on an assumption that his works
expressed the new and original America, the unknown demo-
cracy, and he has had some vogue in Germany mainly owing to
his naturalism. His own countrymen, however, steadily refuse
to accept him as representative of themselves, and his naturalism
is uninteresting to them, while on the other hand a group appar-
ently increasing in critical authority treat his work as significant.
It is, in general, only by those few fine lyrics which have found
a place in all anthologies of American verse that he is well known
and highly valued in his own land.
The chief field of literary activity has been found in the novel,
and nowhere has the change been so marked as here. The
tmtmm romantic treatmentof the novel practically disappeared,
2J^ and in its place came the realistic or analytic treatment,
rendering manners by minute strokes of observation or
dissecting motives psychologically. This amounted to a substitu-
tion of the French art of fiction, in some of its forms, for the
English tradition of broad ideality and historical picturesqueness.
The protagonist of the reform was William Dean Howclls (born
1837), a cultivated literary scholar, and a various writer of essays,
travel sketches, poetry and plays, editor of many magazines and
books, whose career in letters has been more laborious and mis-
cellaneous than any other contemporary, but whose main work
has been the long series of novels that he has put forth almost
annually throughout the period. He not only wrote fiction, but
he endeavoured to make known to Americans fiction as it was
practised in other lands, Russia, Italy, Spain, and to bring the art
that was dearest to him into line with the standard of the
European world. He was an apostle of the realistic school, and
directed his teaching to the advocacy of the novel of obscrvauoa,
which records life in its conditions and attempts to realize what a
in the daily lives and experience of man rather than what bekaa?
to adventure, imagination or the dreaming part of life. Of ha
works, The Lady of the Aroostook (1879)* The Risa of Sits
Lapham (1885), A Howard of Hem Fortunes (1889), are character-
istic examples. He won a popular vogue, and if it is now leas than
it was, it is because after a score of years tastes and faihtoas
change. The conscientiousness of his art continues the tradition
of American writers in that respect, and he fe master of an affable (
style. His work, including all its phases, is the most important
body of work done in his generation. Henry James (bora 1844),
who mainly resided abroad, is his compeer, and in a similar way
has followed French initiative. He also has been a various writer
of criticism and travel and the occasional essay; but his equafiy
long series of novels sustains his reputation. He has* developed
the psychological treatment of fiction, and of his work The
Portrait of a Lady (1881), The Princess C a sanasri mo (18S6) aad
The Tragic Muse (1800) are characteristic He has had less vogue
owing to both matter and style, but in certain r e sp e cts hb power.
more intellectual than that of Howclls, has greater artistic
elements, while the society with which he deals is more comntri.
He is really a cosmopolitan writer and has no other connexkm with
America than the accident of birth. A third novelist, aba a
foreign resident, Frauds Marion Crawford (1854-1909), falls into
the same category. A prolific novelist, in the beaten track of
story-telling, he has always a story to tell and excellent narrative
power. The work regarded as most important from bis hand is
Saracinesco (1887) and its sequels; but his subjects are cosmo-
politan, his talent is personal, and he has no effectual con-
nexion with his own country. The romantic tradition of the older
time was continued by Lew Wallace (1827-1905) of Indiana,
a distinguished general and diplomat, in his Mexican tale, The
Pair Cod (1873), md hb oriental romances, Ben Bur (1880). one
of the most widely circulated of American books, and The Prima
of India (1893). A mode of the novel which was wholly uniqae
was practised by Francis Richard Stockton (1834-1902) in Us
droll tales, of which Rudder Grange (1879) is the best known.
The principal minor product of the novel lay in the provincial
tale. The new methods easily lent themselves to the portraiture
of local conditions, types and colour. Every part of the country
had its writers who recorded its traits in this way. For New
England Mrs Harriet Beecher Stowe described the older life ia
Old Town Folks (1869), and was succeeded by Sarah Orne Jewett
(1849-1909) tad Mar} Eleanor Wilkins (born 1862). The West
was notably treated by Edward Eggleston (1837-1902) in The
Booster School Master (1871), Mary Hallock Foote (born 1847) ia
Led-Horse Claim (1883) and Hamlin Garland (born i860) ia
Main Travelled Roads (1891). The South was represented by
Mary Noailles Murfree 1" Charles Egbert Craddocfc"] (bora
1850) in In the Tennessee Mountains (1884) and its successors,
by Thomas Nelson Page (born 1^53) in Morse Chan (1887) aad
other tales of the reconstruction in Virginia, and with moit
literary grace by George Washington Cable (born 1844), wheat
novels of Louisiana are remarkable for their poetic charm. The
list is sufficiently illustrative of the general movement, which
made what was called the dialect novel supreme for the seaaoa
This was succeeded by a revival of the historical novel in local
fields, of which Winston Churchill (born 187 «) in Richard Cm**
(1809) » the leading exponent, and together with it the sword aad
dagger tale of the Dumas type, the special contemporary plot
invented by Anthony Hope, and romance in its utmost forms ei
adventure and extravagance, came in like a flood at the dose 01
the Spanish War. There were during the period from 1 870 to 1000
many other writers of fiction, who often proceeded in con-
ventional and time-honoured ways to tell their tale, but none of
them is especially significant for the general view or as showing
any tendencies of an original sort. The pfetistk novel, fst
AMERICAN LITERATURE
841
example, was produced with immense popularity by Edward
Paysoo Roe (1838-1888), who shared the same vogue aa Josiah
Gilbert Holland (1810-1881), and both fell heir to the same
audience which in the earlier period had welcomed The Wide,
Wide World with the same broad acceptance.
The essay, and the miscellaneous work which may be classed
with it, was cultivated with most distinction by Thomas Went-
rM tnjMa worth Higginson (born 1823), one of the Boston group,
a writer of the greatest versatility, as in his life he
followed many employments, from that of preaching in a Uni-
tarian pulpit to that of commanding a negro regiment in the
Civil War. He has written good verse and excellent prose, and
his familiar style, often brilliant with life and wit, especially
becomes the social essay or reminiscent paper in which be
excelled, and gives agreeableness to his writings in every form.
Atlantic Essays (1871) is a characteristic book; and, in general,
in his volumes is to be found a valuable fund of reminiscence
about the literature and the times of his long life, not elsewhere
so abundant or entertaining. Charles Dudley Warner (1820-1900)
of Hartford, also in close touch in the later years with the Boston
group, was more gifted with gentle humour and of a literary
temperament that made the social essay his natural expression.
He won popularity by My Summer in a Garden (1870), and was
the author of many volumes of travel and several novels, but the
familiar essay, lighted with humour and touched with a reminis-
cence of the Irving quality in sentiment, was his distinctive work.
The long life of Edward Everett Hale (1822-1909), minister at
Boston, waa fruitful in many miscellaneous volumes, including
fiction of note, The Man Without a Country (1868), but the most
useful writing from his pen falls into prose resembling the essay
in its form and manner of address, though cousin, too, to* the
sermon. John Burroughs (b. 1837) of New York carried on in
essay form the nature tradition of Thoreau, touched with
Emersonianism in the thought, and after his example books of
mingled observation, sentiment and literary quality, with an
out-of-door atmosphere, have multiplied.
American humour often cultivates a form akin to the essay,
but it also falls into the mould of the tale or scene from life. In
amm9mk the period before the Civil War, to sum up the whole
subject in this place, it had the traits which it has
since maintained, as its local tang, of burlesque, extravaganza,
violence, but it recorded better an actual state of manners ana
scene of life in raw aspects. Its noteworthy writers were Seba
Smith (1792-1868) of Maine, author of the Letters of Major Jack
Downing, which began to appear in the press in 1830; Augustus
Baldwin Longstreet of Georgia in Georgia Scenes (1835); William
Tappan Thompson (181 2-1882), born in Ohio but associated with
the South by descent and residence, in Major Jones* Courtship
(1840), a Georgian publication; Joseph G. Baldwin (1815-1864)
in Flush Times in Alabama and Mississippi (1853); * n d
Benjamin Penhallow ShiHaber (1814-1890) in Life and Sayings of
Mrs Partington (1854). A fresh form, attended by whimsicality,
appears in George Horatio Derby's (1823-1861) Phoenixiana
(1855). In the war-times Robert Henry Newell (1836-1901) and
David Ross Locke (1833-1888), respectively known as " Orpheus
C. Kerr " and " Petroleum V. Nasby " cultivated grotesque
orthography in a characteristic vein of wit; and with more
quaintness and drollery Henry Wheeler Shaw (18x8-1885) and
Charles Farrar Browne (1834-1867), known as " Josh Billings "
and " Artemus Ward," won immense popularity which extended
to England. These latter writers were men of Northern birth, but
of Western and wandering journalistic experience as a rule. Their
works make up a body of what is known as " American humour,"
a characteristic native product of social conditions and home
talent. One poet, John Godfrey Saxe (18 16-1887) of Vermont,
attempted something similar in literary verse after the style of
Tom Hood. The heir to this tradition of farce, drollery and joke
was Samuel Langhorne Clemens (1835-1910), known as " Mark
Twain," born in Missouri, who raised it to an extraordinary
height of success and won world-wide reputation as a great and
original humorist. His works, however, include a broader
1 of fiction, greater humanity and reality, and ally him to
the masters of humorous creation. Joel Chandler Harris (1848-
1008) of Georgia introduced a new variety in Nights with Uncle
Remus (1883), which is literary negro folklore, and Finley Peter
Dunne (born 1857) of Chicago, the creator of " Mr Dooley,"
continues the older American style in its original traits.
History was represented in this period with a distinction not .
inferior to that of the elder group by Francis Parkman (1823-
1893) of Boston, who, however, really belongs with ntrttty
the preceding age by his affiliations; his series of
histories fell after the Civil War by their dates of publication,
but they began with History of the Conspiracy of Pontiac (1851);
he was the contemporary of Lowell and differed from the other
members of the elder group, who survived, only by the fact of the
later maturing of his work. He was not less eminent than Motley
and Prescott and his history is of a more modern type. In the
next generation the field of American' history was cultivated by
many scholars, and a large part of local history and of national
biography was for the first time recorded. James Ford Rhodes'!
(1848) History of the United States (1892) holds standard rank; the
various writings of John Fiske (1842-1901), distinguished also as a
philosophical writer, in the colonial and revolutionary periods are
valued both for scholarship and for excellent literary style; and
Theodore Roosevelt's (born 1858) The Winning of the West (1889)
and his several biographical studies deserve mention by their
merit as well as for his eminent position. The historians, how-
ever, have seldom sought literary excellence, and their works
belong rather to learning than to literature. The same state-
ment is true of the scholarship of the universities in general, where
the spirit of literary study has changed. In the department of
scholarship little requires mention beyond Horace Howard
Furness's (born 1833) lifelong work on his Variorum Edition
of Shakespeare, the Shakespearian labours of Henry Norman
Hudson (1814-1886) and Richard Grant White (1821-1885), the
Chaucerian studies of Thomas Raynesford Lounsbury (born 1838)
of Yale, and the translations of Dante (1867, 1892) by Charles
Eliot Norton (1827-1908) of Harvard.
The period has been one of great literary activity, effort and
ambition, but it affects one by its mass rather than its details;
it presents few eminent names. The romantic motives
fixed in early colonizing history as a taking possession of
the land by a race of Puritans, pioneers, river-voyagers,
backwoodsmen, argonauts, have been exhausted; and no new
motives have been found. The national tradition has been
absorbed and incorporated, so far as literature was able to
accomplish this. The national character on the other hand has
been expressed rather in local types, the colour of isolated com-
munities and provincial conditions for their picturesque value
and human truth, and in commonplace characters of average life;
but no broadly ideal types of the old English tradition have been
created, and the great scene of life has not been staged after the
manner of the imaginative masters of the past There has been
no product of ideas since Emerson; he was, indeed, the sole
author who received and fertilized ideas as such, and he hra had no
successor. America is, in truth, perhaps intellectually more
remote from Europe than in its earlier days. The contact of its
romanticism with that of Europe was, as has been seen, imperfect,
but its touch with the later developments and reactions of the
movement in Europe is far more imperfect With Tolstoy, Ibsen,
d'Annunzio, Zola, Nietzsche, Maeterlinck, Sudermann, the
American people can have no effectual touch; their social
tradition and culture make them impenetrable to the present
ideas of Europe as they are current in literary forms. Nor has
anything been developed from within that is fertile in literature.
The political unity of the nation is achieved, but it is not an
integral people in other respects. It has not the unity of England
or France or even of the general European mind; it rather
contains such disparate elements as characterize the Roman or
the Turkish empire. It is cleft by political tradition and in social
moral conviction, north and south, and by intellectual strata of
culture east and west; it is still a people in the making. Its
literature has been regional, as was said, centred in New England,
New York, Philadelphia, contributed to sporadically from the
8+2
AMERICAN WAR OF INDEPENDENCE
South, growing up in Western districts like Indiana or gertninating
in Louisville in Kentucky, abundant in California, but always
much dependent on the culture of its localities; it blends to some
extent in the mind of the national reading public, but not very
perfectly. The universities have not, on the whole, been its
sources or fosterers, and they are now filled with research, useful
for learning but impotent for literature. The intellectual life is
now rather to be found in social, political and natural science than
elsewhere; the imaginative life is feeble, and when felt is crude;
the poetic pulse is imperceptible.
BiDLiOGKAffTY, — The bett general historic* of Americantitcrature
are by Barrett Wendell (1900) and William P. Trent (1903).
Historic* of particular jieriods or topici. most ■ervieeaute h are
M . C Tyler's History of A merkan Literature during the CotoniaJ Tim*
{3 vols., I -S7* J 1 Literary History of the American Revolution (1 vol*.,
I897); J- r. Jameson, History of Historical Writing tn America
ii&9ih D. D. Addison, The Clergy in American Life and L* iters
190a); W, H- Venahle. Bfiinntngs of Literary Culture in the Okie
'alley (|Boi); M. Nicholson, The Hooiitrs (tooo); AH. Smith,
Philadelphia Mn£Qzinti and their Contributors, X?4t-tS$Q ll£ot);
W. 6. Cairns, Development of American Literature, /arc-j$fjj ti&w;
O. B, Frcth£rtgh.am h Transcendental*. im in Neto Ertj*laru{ (1876);
L, Swift. Brook Farm (1900); T, \V t Hiramon, Old Cambridge
(1900). The *nr ire field is covered encyclopaedically by S (ed man and
Hutchinson, Library of A merican Literature ( 1 1 vols., r888- 1 Soo) and
the Duyckinctos, Cyclopaedia hrd ed„ 1875). and portion! of n in
R. W. Griswold's successive collections, Poets and Poetry of America
lea
Prose Writer* of America (1847)* Female Poets 0.
; Trent and Wells, Colonial Prose and Poetry (j vol
if Ameriti
if Americt
►Is., 1901)
Louise Manty, Southern Literature (1900), and E. C\ Siedman,
American Anthology (1900). The American Men of Letter 1 scries
(Houghton. Mifflin & Oo-, Boston) and the English Men of Letters.
American Series fMacmillan, New York), present the biographical
and critical view in general, to which may be added E. C. Stedman,
Poet* of America (1885)1 W, C. Lawton, The tiev En eland Poets
{ 1 flo8 ) , 2 nd G . E . Wood berry , A menu in Literature ( l 003) . Del ai ted
and admirable bibliographies for aU aspects of the subject are to be
found in Wendell's and Trent a Histories „ and abundant and minute
biographical detail in Stedman 'a indexes of authors in his collections.
Sec also the separate bibliographies to the articles in this work on
each individual writer. (G. E. \V.)
AMERICAN WAR OF IUDBPEKDEMCB (1775-1781). This
war, by which the United States definitely separated themselves
from the British connexion, began with the affair of Lexington in
Massachusetts, on the 19th of April 1775, and was virtually ended
by the capitulation of Cornwallis at Yorktown, Virginia, on the
19th of October 1 781. In this article the progress of the war itself
is alone considered, its political side being treated under United
States: History, From a military standpoint as well as politically
it was a conspicuous and instructive conflict, — conspicuous, or
even unique, as being the most famous struggle in history where
colonial dependencies defeated their powerful parent state, and
instructive as presenting exceptional conditions and consequent
errors in the attempt to break down the revolt. The reasons for
Great Britain's failure appear in the progress of the war, which
assumed two distinct stages, operations in the north followed by
operations in the south. In point of time and energy military
activity was about equally divided between these two.fields. As
the naval operations in connexion with the war have a European
interest as well, they are dealt with in a separate sectiqn.
To strike at the rebellion first in the north was natural and
inevitable. To King George and his ministry, Massachusetts was
the hotbed of disloyalty, the head and front of opposi-
' tion to their colonial policy, and there coercion should
begin. It was also a convenient point for a prompt
display of authority, as the town of Boston was the headquarters
of General Gage, recently appointed royal governor of Massa-
chusetts and commander of the king's troops in North America.
He had with him four regiments of regulars, the initial force with
which to overawe the restless and defiant population in his
vicinity. While Gage is to be credited with advising his govern-
ment that not less than 20,000 men would be necessary for
the work in hand, he proceeded at once to suppress demon-
strations around Boston. His principal expedition brought
about the skirmish of the 19th of April 1775 (see Lexington), in
which a detachment sent to seize some military stores collected
at Concord suffered heavily at Lexington, Concord and other
places, at the hands of the surrounding militia. This <
roused the New England colonies, and in a few days some to.ooo
of their townsmen marched in small bands upon Boston to
protest against and resist further similar incursions, and ia tka
irregular body we have the nucleus of the colonial forces wt -
carried the war through. A noteworthy incident of the Concert
affair, and characteristic of the attitude which the provincials had
maintained and continued to maintain for another year, was tfc*
official representation to the king by the Massachusetts people
that the regulars were the first to fire upon them, and that they
returned the fire and fought through the day in strict defence of
their rights and homes as Englishmen. They repeated their
professions of loyalty to his majesty and the principles of the
English Constitution. Conscious, nevertheless, that a struggle
impended, they instantly sent word to all the other colonies,
whose whig elements sympathetically responded to the alare
The war had opened.
The home government extended its precautions and prepara-
tions. General (Sir) William Howe, who succeeded Gage in the
chief command in October, and Generals (Sir) Henry Omtoa
and John Burgoyne were sent out at once with reinforcements
Cornwallis followed a year later. These four generals vers
identified with the conduct of the principal operations on the
side of the British. The force at Boston was increased! to 10,000
men. The American Congress at Philadelphia, acting far all tk
thirteen colonies, voted general defensive measures, called out
troops and appointed George Washington of Virginia con-
mander-in-chief. Before he reached the camp forming aroord
Boston, a second and more important collision took place. Oa
the 17th of June 1775 occurred the battle of Bunker m mmtm .
Hill (q.v.) t in which, although victorious, the British n
suffered heavily, losing one-third of their force in storm-
ing the hastily constructed lines of the " rebels." Hie latter'*
most serious loss was that of General Joseph Warren, one of the
prominent leaden of the revolutionary movement in Massa-
chusetts. In moral effect the battle proved anything but a
defeat to the Americans, who now drew a cordon of works arocad
Boston, hemming Howe's army in a contracted, and, as it proved,
untenable, position. On the 3rd of July Washington took
command of the American army at Cambridge and proceeded
with what is known as the " siege of Boston," which was marked
by no special incident, and dosod with the evacuation of the tows
by the British on the 17th of March 1776, Howe sailing away to
Halifax, Nova Scotia. While the main interest centred at tba
point, the year 1775 was marked by two enterprises ebewheie-
Fort Ticonderoga, die key to the passage of Lakes George aad
Champlain to Canada, was surprised and taken on the 10th of
May by a small band under Colonel Ethan Allen, while CoJoad
Benedict Arnold headed an expedition through the Maine woods
to effect the capture of Quebec, where Sir Guy Carletoa cobv
manded. Arnold joined General Richard Montgomery, who was
already near the city, and the combined force assaulted Quebec
on the 31st of December, only to meet with complete defeat
Montgomery was killed and many of his men taken prisoners.
Demonstrations against Canada were soon discontinued, Arson
drawing off the remnant of his army in May 1776.
The events of 1775, though favourable to America, were but 1
prelude to the real struggle to come. For the campaign of 17:*
both sides made extensive preparations. To the home govera-
ment the purely military problem, although assuming larger
dimensions and more difficulties, still seemed to admit of a
simple solution, namely, to strike hard where the rebellion was
most active and capable of the longest resistance. Defeated
there, it would quickly dissipate in all quarters. As much ven
than one-half of the population and resources of the cokroi>ts
lay north of Chesapeake Bay— New England aldbe having at
estimated population of over 700,000 persons — it was ody
a question as to what point in this area should be made the
future base of operations. Largely upon the represen tations
of Howe, Burgoyne and others, it was determined to shift the
field from Boston to New York city, from there to bold the
line of the Hudson river in co-operation with a force to awe
AMERICAN WAR OF INDEPENDENCE
843
down from Canada under Carieton and Burgoyne, and thus
effectually to isolate New England.
Upon this plan the new campaign opened in June 1776. Howe,
heavily reinforced from home, sailed on the xoth from Halifax
to New York and on the 5th of Jury encamped on Staten Island.
Washington, anticipating this move, had already marched from
Boston and fortified the city. His left flank was thrown across
the East river beyond the village of Brooklyn, while his front and
right on the harbour and North or Hudson river were open to a
combined naval and military attack. The position proved
untenable. Howe drove Washington Out of it, and forced the
abandonment of the whole of Manhattan Island by three well-
directed movements upon the American left On the sand of
L August be crossed the Narrows to the Long Island
i22rf. shore "it iS.ooo troops, increasing the number to
30,000 on the 35th, and on the 27th surprised the
Americans, driving them into their Brooklyn works and inflicting
a loss of about 1400 men. Among the prisoners were Generals
J. Sullivan and W. Alexander, soi-disant earl of Stirling.
(See Long Island.) Howe has been criticised, rightly or
wrongly, for failing to make full use of his victory. Washington
skilfully evacuated his Brooklyn lines on the night of the 29th,
and in a measure relieved the depression which the defeat had
produced in his army. On the 1 5th of September Howe crossed
the East river above the city, captured 300 of the militia
defending the lines and occupied the dty. Washington had
withdrawn his main army to the upper part of the island.
A skirmish, fought the next day, opposite the west front of
the present Columbia University, and known as the affair of
Harlem Heights, cost the British a loss of seventy of their
light infantry. Delaying until the x 2th of October, Howe again
moved forward by water into Westchester county, and marching
toward White Plains forced another retreat on Washington.
In the fight on Chatterton Hill at the Plains, on the 28th of
October, an American brigade was defeated. Instead of pressing
Washington further, Howe then returned to Manhattan
y^ if| ^ Island, and on the 16th of November captured Fort
4mm , Washington with nearly 3000 prisoners. This was
the heaviest blow to the Americans throughout the
war in the north. The British then pushed down through
New Jersey with designs on Philadelphia. Washington, still
retreating with a constantly diminishing force, suddenly turned
upon Lieutenant-Colonel Rail's advanced corps of. Hessians at
Trenton on the 26th of December and captured nearly xooo
prisoners. This brilliant exploit was followed by another on the
3rd of January, when Washington, again crossing the Delaware,
outmarched Cornwallis at Trenton, and marching to his rear
defeated three British regiments and three companies of light
cavalry at Princeton, New Jersey. Marching on to Morristown,
Washington encamped there on the flank of the British advance
in New Jersey, thus ending the first campaign fought on the new
issue of American Independence, which had been declared on the
4th of July 1776.
While these closing successes inspirited the Americans, it was
undeniable that the campaign had gone heavily against them.
Having raised a permanent force for the war called the Conti-
nental Line, they awaited further operations of the enemy.
Following up the occupation of New York, Howe proceeded in
1 777 to capture Philadelphia. Complete success again crowned
bis movements. Taking his army by sea from New York to the
bead of the Chesapeake, he marched up into Pennsylvania,
whither Washington had repaired to watch him, and on the 26th
of. September entered the city. The Americans attempted to
check the advance of the British at the river Brandy-
wine, where an action occurred on the nth, resulting
in. their defeat (see Brandywine) ; and on the 4th of
October Washington directed a well-planned attack upon the
enemy's camp at Germantown on the outskirts of the city, but
failed of success. (See Gebmantown.)
Howe's victorious progress in Pennsylvania was neutralised by
disasters farther north. Burgoyne marched from Canada in June
I777» with » strong expeditionary force, to occupy Albany and
put himself in touch with Howe at the other end of the Hudson.
Driving the Americans under General Arthur St Clair out of
Ticonderoga, and making his way through the deep woods with
difficulty, he reached the Hudson at Fort Edward on the 30th of
July. General Philip Schuyler, commanding the Americans in
that quarter, retreated to Stillwater, 30 m. above Albany,
barricading the roads and impeding Burgoyne's progress. Dis-
satisfaction with his conduct led Congress to replace him in
command by General Gates. On the 13th of August Burgoyne
despatched a force to Bennington, Vermont, under the German
colonel Friedrich Baum, to capture stores and overawe the
country. On the 16th Baum was attacked by General John
Stark with the militia from the surrounding country, and was
overwhelmed. Colonel Breyman, marching to his relief, was
also routed. The misfortune cost the British 1000 men.
Equally unfortunate was the fate of an expedition sent sarmttm,
under Colonel Barry St Leger to co-operate with
Burgoyne by way of the Mohawk Valley. On the 6th of August
he was met at Oriskany by General Nicholas Herkimer and forced
to retreat. Despite these disasters Burgoyne pushed south to
Stillwater, where he was defeated by Gates's improvised army
of continentals and militia in two battles on the 19th of September
(Freeman's Farm) and the 7th of October (Bemis's Height).
On the x 7 th he was forced to surrender. (See Saratoga, Battlb
of.) This disaster was followed by the alliance between America
and France in 1778, and later by the addition of Spain to
England's enemies— events of far-reaching importance.
A movement of importance, in 1778-79, was the expedition of
George Rogers Clark, under the authority of the state of Virginia,
against the British posts in the north-west. With a company of
volunteers Clark captured Kaskaskia, the chief post in the
Illinois country, on the 4th of July 1778, and later secured the
submission of Vincennes, which, however, was recaptured by
General Henry Hamilton, the British commander at Detroit.
In the spring of 1779- Clark raised another force, and recaptured
Vincennes from Hamilton. This expedition did much to free the
frontier from Indian raids, gave the Americans a hold upon the
north-west, of which their diplomats duly took advantage in the
peace negotiations, and later, by giving the states a community
of interest in the western lands, greatly promoted the idea of
union.
In 1778 Sir Henry Clinton succeeded Howe in the chief com-
mand in America. With fewer resources than his predecessor
had disposed of, he could accomplish practically nothing in the
north. In June 1778 he evacuated Philadelphia, with the
intention of concentrating his force at New York. Washington,
who had paased the winter at Valley Forge, overtook him at
Monmouth, NJ., and in an action on the 28th of June both
armies suffered about equal loss. Thereafter (except in the winter
of 1779, at Morristown) Washington made West Point on the
Hudson the headquarters of his army, but Clinton avowed
himself too weak to attack him there. In 1779 he attempted
to draw Washington out of the Highlands, with the result that
in the manoeuvres he lost the garrison at Stony Point, 700
strong, the position .being stormed by Wayne with the American
light infantry pn the x6th of July. During the summer General
John Sullivan marched with a large force against the Indians (all
the Iroquois tribes except the Oneidas and part of the Ttiscaroras
siding with the British during the war) and against the Loyalists
of western New York, who had been committing great depreda-
tions along the frontier; and on the 29th of August he inflicted
a crushing defeat upon them at Newtown, on the site of the
present Elmira. In addition several Indian villages and the
crops of the Indians were destroyed in the lake region of western
New York.
Meanwhile the co-operation of the French became active. In
July Count Rochambeau arrived at Newport, Rhode Island.
That place had been occupied by the British from 1776 to the
close of 1779. An unsuccessful attempt was made to drive them
out in x 778 by the Americans assisted by the French admiral
d'Estaing and a French corps. The year x 780 is also marked by
the treason of General Benedict Arnold (q.v.), and the consequent
844
AMERICAN WAR OF INDEPENDENCE
execution of Major Andrl. Minor battles and skirmishes
occurred until in August 1781 Washington conceived the pro-
ject of a combined American-French attack on Cornwallis at
Yorktown, Va., the success of which was decisive of the war
(see below).
The inadequate results of the British campaigns against the
northern colonies in 1776 and 1777 led the home government to
turn its attention to the weaker colonies in the south.
Operations in the north were not to cease, but a power-
ful diversion was now to be undertaken in the south
with a view to the complete conquest of that section. Success
there would facilitate further movements in the north. An
isolated attack on Charleston, South Carolina, had been made by
Sir Henry Clinton and Sir Peter Parker as early as June 1776,
but this was foiled by the spirited resistance of General William
Moultrie; after 1778 the southern attempts, stimulated in part
by the activity of the French in the West Indies, were vigor-
ously sustained. On the 39th of December of this year Colonel
Archibald Campbell (1739-1701) with an expeditionary corps of
3500 men from Clinton's army in New York, captured Savannah,
Georgia, defeating the American force under General Robert
Howe. In the following month he pushed into the interior and
occupied Augusta. General Benjamin Lincoln, succeeding Howe,
undertook to drive the British out of Georgia, but General
Augustine Prevost, who had commanded in Florida, moved up
and compelled Lincoln to retire to Charleston. Prevost, making
Savannah his headquarters, controlled Georgia. In September
1779 he was besieged by Lincoln in conjunction with a French
naval and military force under Admiral d'Estaing, but success-
fully repelled an assault (October 9), and Lincoln again fell back
to Charleston. In this assault Count Casimir Pulaski, on the
American side, was mortally wounded.
The prestige thus won by the British in the south in 1779 «u
immensely increased in the following year, when they victoriously
swept up through South and North Carolina. Failing, as stated,
to achieve any advantage in the north in 1779, Sir Henry Clinton,
under instructions from government, himself headed a combined
military and naval expedition southward. He evacuated New-
port, R.I. (October 25), left New York in command of the
German general Wilhelm von Knyphausen, and in December
sailed wfth 8500 men to join Prevost at Savannah. Cornwallis
accompanied him, and later Lord Rawdon joined him with an
additional force. Marching upon Charleston, Clinton
2J***" cut off the city from relief, and after a brief siege
compelled Lincoln to surrender on the iath of May.
(See Charleston.) The loss of this place and of the 5000 troops
included in the surrender was a serious blow to the American
cause. The apparent submission of South Carolina followed.
In June Clinton returned to New York, leaving Cornwallis in
command, with instructions to reduce North Carolina also.
Meanwhile an active and bitter partisan warfare opened. The
British advance had been marked by more than the usual
destruction of war; the Loyalists rose to arms; the whig
population scattered and without much organization formed
groups of riflemen and mounted troopers to harass .the enemy.
Little mercy was shown on either side. The dashing rider,
Colonel Banastre Tarleton, cut to pieces (April 14, 1780) a
detachment of Lincoln's cavalry,, and followed it up by practi-
cally destroying Buford's Virginia regiment near the North
Carolina border. On the other hand, daring and skilful leaders
such as Francis Marion and Thomas Sumter kept the spirit of
resistance alive by their sudden attacks and surprises of British
outposts. Hanging Rock, Ninety-Six, Rocky Mount and other
affairs brought their prowess and devotion into notice. By the
month of August 1780, with the main British force encamped
near the North Carolina line, the field seemed dear for the next
advance.
The threatening situation fa the Carolina* alarmed Congress
and Washington and measures were taken to protect the dis-
tressed section. Before Cornwallis could be brought to bay he
was faced successively by four antagonists— Generals Gates,
Greene, Lafayette and Washington. They found in him the
most capable and dangerous opponent of the war.
him " the modern Hannibal" With Lincoln's auu e ud e i of
nearly all the continental soldiers in the south, a new force had to
be supplied to meet the British veterans. Two thousand men.
mainly the Maryland line, were hurried down from Washington's
camp under Johann de Kalb; Virginia and North Carolina pot
new men into the field, and the entire force was placed under
command of General Gates. Gates marched towards
Camden, S.C., and on the 16th of August «
Cornwallis near that place. Each army by a
attempted a surprise of the other, but the British tactics prevailed,
and Gates was utterly routed. The reputation he had won at
Saratoga was ruined on the occasion by over-confidence and
incompetence. De Kalb was killed in the action. General
Greene, standing next to Washington as the ablest and most
trusted officer of the Revolution, succeeded Gates. Cornwall
marched leisurely into North Carolina, but before meeting Greene
some months later he suffered the loss of two detachments sect
at intervals to disperse various partisan corps of the Americans.
On the 7th of October 1780 a force of xioo men under Major
Patrick Ferguson was surrounded at King's Mountain, S. Cnear
the North Carolina line, by bands of riflemen under r th^h
Isaac Shelby, James Williams, William Campbell and others,
and after a desperate fight on the wooded and rocky slopes,
surrendered. Ferguson himself was killed. On the 17th of
January 1781 General Daniel Morgan was attacked at Cowpens,
south-west of King's Mountain, by Colonel Tarleton with ha
legion. Both were leaders of repute, and a most stirring actios
occurred in which Morgan, with Colonel William Washington
leading his cavalry, practically destroyed Tarletoo*s corps.
Despite the weakening his army suffered by these losses, Corn-
wallis marched rapidly through North Carolina, giving Greene s
hard chase nearly to the Virginia line. On the istn of March
the two armies met at Guilford Court House (near the
present Greensboro, N.C.), and a virtually drawn rSt
battle was fought. The British, by holding their am
ground with their accustomed tenacity when engaged
with superior numbers, were tactically victors, but were further
weakened by a loss of nearly 600 men. Greene, cautiously
avoiding another Camden, retreated with his forces intact. With
his small army, less than 2000 strong, Cornwallis declined
to follow Greene into the back country, and retiring to HflS-
borough, N.C, raised the royal standard, offered protection
to the inhabitants, and for the moment appeared to be master
of Georgia and the two Carolina*. In a few weeks, however, be
abandoned the heart of the state and marched Co the coast at
Wilmington, N.C, to recruit and refit his command.
At Wilmington the British general faced aserious problem, the
solution of which upon his own responsibility unexpectedly led
to the close of the war within seven months. Instead of remain-
ing in Carolina he determined to march into Virginia, justifying
the move on the ground that until Virginia was reduced he could
not firmly hold the more southern states he had just overraa.
This decision was subsequently sharply criticised by Clinton as
unmilitaryi and as having been made contrary to his instructions.
To Cornwallis he wrote in May: " Had you intimated the proba-
bility of your intention, I should certainly have endeavoured u»
stop you, as I did then as well as now consider such a move likely
to be dangerous to our interests in the Southern Colonies.* The
danger lay in the suddenly changed situation in that direction;
as General Greene, instead of following Cornwallis to the coast,
boldly pushed down towards Camden and Charleston, S.C. with
a view to drawing his antagonist after him to the points where he
was the year before, as well as to driving back Lord Rawdoa.
whom Cornwallis had left in that field. In his main object, the
recovery of the southern states, Greene succeeded by the dose of
the year; but not without hard fighting and repeated reverses.
" We fight, get beaten, and fight again," were his words. On the
25th of April 1 781 he was surprised in his camp at Hobkirk*
Hill, near Camden, by Lord Rawdon and defeated, both sides
suffering about an equal loss. On the sand of May he attempt^
to storm the strong British post at Ninety-Six but was repunvd;
AMERICAN WAR OF INDEPENDENCE
»45
and finally on the 8th of September he fought the last battle
of the war in the lower southern states at Eutaw Springs, S.C.
In the first part of the action Greene was successful
after a desperate conflict; in the pursuit, however,
the Americans failed to dislodge the British from
a stone house which they held,*nd their severe loss in both
engagements was over 500 men. The British lost about 1000,
one-half of whom were prisoners. Better success attended the
American partisan operations directed by Greene and conducted
by Marion, Sumter, Andrew Pickens, Henry Lee and William
Washington. They fell upon isolated British posts established
to protect the Loyalist population, and generally captured or
broke them up. Rawdon found himself unable with his diminish-
ing force to cover the country beyond Charleston; and he fell
back to that place, leaving the situation in the south as it had been
in the early part of 1780. On the American side, Greene was
hailed as the deliverer of that section.
Cornwallis, meantime, pursued his Virginia project. Leaving
Wilmington, N.C., on the 25th of April 1781, he reached Peters-
burg on the 20th of May. There he found British
detachments, 2000 strong, composed of troops whom
Clinton had sent down separately under Generals
Benedict Arnold and William Phillips to establish a base in the
Chesapeake, as a diversion in favour of the operations of Corn-
wallis in the Carolinas. Virginia at the moment presented a
clear field to the British, and they overran the state as far north
as Fredericksburg and west to Charlottesville. At the latter
place Jefferson, governor of the state, barely escaped capture by
Tarleton's men. A small American force under Lafayette, whom
Wayne reinforced during the summer, partially checked the
enemy. At Green Spring, near Jamestown Island, Lafayette
boldly attacked his antagonist on the 6th of July, but had to save
himself by a hasty retreat. Early in August Cornwallis retired
to York town to rest and await developments. There he fortified
himself, and remained until the American-French military and
naval combination, referred to above, appeared and compelled
his surrender. (See Yorttown.)
With this event war operations ceased. Preliminary articles
of peace, signed on the 30th of November 178a, were followed
by a definitive treaty concluded on the 3rd of September 1783.
Charleston, S.C, was evacuated late in 178a; New York on the
a 5th of November 1783. The reasons of Great Britain's mis-
fortunes and failure may be summarized as follows:— Miscon-
ception by the home government of the temper and reserve
strength of her colonists, a population mainly of good English
blood and instincts; disbelief at the outset in the probability of
a protracted struggle covering the immense territory in America;
consequent failure to despatch sufficient forces to the field; the
safe and Fabian generalship of Washington; and finally, the
French alliance and European combinations by which at the close
of the conflict England was without a friend or ally on the
continent.
Brnt-ioctAPHT.— The most exhaustive reference work for thb
period is vol. vL of Winsor's Narrative and Critical History of America
(Boston, 1887). Its nine chapters, prepared by different writer*, give
a complete review of the struggle, both military and naval, and each
doses with numerous illustrative notes, editorial criticisms and a full
list of authorities. The volume is interspersed, far more extensively
and richly than any other treatise on the war, with reproductions of
contemporary plans, maps, documents, portraits and prints. Supple-
menting Wtnsor and bringing the material down to recent date
is ProfT C. H. Van Tyne's American Revolution (Harper's " Am.
Nation M Series, New York, 1005), chap. xviiL, on bibliographical
aids and authorities. General histories of the war are mainly of
American authorship, luck as: George Bancroft's History 0} the
United States (Boston, 1883-1885) which, in spite of minor errors of
fact and judgment, will remain standard; J. Fiske's American Revolu-
tion (a vols.. Boston, 1891); Carrington's Battles of the American
Revolution (New York, 1876) is a critical study by a military officer;
B. J. Lossing's Pictorial Field Book of ths Resolution (2 vols.,
New York, 1850-1859), not always accurate, but preserves local
traditions and details. Monographs on single events or campaigns
abound: Dawson's papers on Ticonderoga, " Storming of Stony
Point," Ac (New York, 1866- ); Johnston's "Campaign of
1776 around New York" (L. I. Hist. Soc, 1877). " Yorktown
Campaign " (New York, 1881), Ac; Sargent's Lift of Major John
Andri (Boston. 1861), one of the best of Revolutionary biographies;
Gen. William Stryker's Battles of Trenton and Princeton (Boston,
1808) ; and others mentioned in Wiosor and Van Tyne.
English works of importance are Lord Mahon's History of England,
vol. vu; Sir George O. Trevelyan's American Resolution (Mew-York
and London; vol. i., 1899; 4 vols, published. 1908), a new study
of cabinet and parliamentary politics of the period, with review of
the military events; Hon. J. W. Fortescue, History of Iks British
Army, voL in. (1003); Stedman's American War (2 vols., 1794);
Col. Tarleton's Southern Campaigns, 1780-1781 (London. 1787); the
pamphlet controversy between Sir Henry Clinton and Lord Corn*
warns (1783). see Winsor, vi., p. 516, n.; Burgoyne's Stats of the
Expedition from Canada in 1777 (London, 1780). (H. P. J.*)
The naval operations of the War of Independence divide them- ,
selves naturally into two periods, (x) From 1775 till the summer
of 1778 the British navy was engaged in co-operating ~^/ w
with the troops employed against the insurgents, on m^nm
the coasts, rivers and lakes of North America, or in
endeavouring to protect British commerce against the enterprise
of American privateers. (2) During the second period the
successive interventions of France, Spain and*HoUand extended
the naval war till it ranged from the West Indies to the Bay of
Bengal This second period lasted from the summer of 1778 to
the middle of 1783, and it included both such operations as had
already been in progress In America, or for the protection of
commerce, and naval campaigns on a great scale carried out by.
the Bttts of the maritime powers.
First Period,— The history of the naval war from 177s to 1778
was made up of many small operations. The naval force at the
disposal of the admirals commanding on the station, who until
Lord Howe took up the command on the 12th of July 1776
were Samuel Graves and Molyneuz Shuldham, was insufficient
to patrol the long line of coast. A large part of such squadrons
as there were was necessarily limited to aiding General Gage
and Sir W. Howe at Boston, In seeking stores for the army and
in supplying naval brigades. At other points of the coast the
British navy was employed in punitive expeditions against the
coast towns—as for example the burning of Falmouth (now
Portland, Maine) In October 1775— which served to exasperate,
rather than to weaken the enemy, or the unsuccessful attack on
Charleston, S.C., in June x 776. It was wholly unequal to the task
of blockading the many towns from which privateers could be
fitted out. British commerce therefore suffered severely, even as
far off as the Irish coasts, where it was found necessary to supply
convoy to the Belfast linen trade. The Americans were not yet
in a position to provide a fleet. On the 23rd of March 1776
Congress did indeed issue letters of marque and reprisal, -and
efforts were made to fit out a national force. But the so-called
" continental " vessels which sailed with the commission of the
Congress hardly differed in character, or in the nature of their
operations, from the privateers. The British navy was able to
cover the retreat of the army from Boston to Halifax in April
x 776, and to convey it to New York in June. It assisted in the
expedition to Philadelphia in July 1777. On the St Lawrence,
and the Lakes it was able to play a more aggressive part. The
relief of Quebec by Captain— afterwards Sir Charles— Douglas
in May 1776 forced the American general Arnold to retreat.
The destruction of his squadron on Lake Champlain in
October covered the frontier of Canada, and supplied a basis for
the march of General Burgoyne in 1777 which ended in the
surrender at Saratoga.
Second Period.— The disaster at Saratoga was followed in
1778 by war with France, which had already given much
private help to the American privateers and to their forces
in the field. The rupture came in March when the British
ambassador, Lord Stormont, was recalled from Paris, but as
neither fleet was ready for service, actual conflict did not take
place till July. The French government was somewhat more
ready than the British. On the 13th of April it despatched a
squadron of twelve sail of the line and four frigates from Toulon
to America under the command of the Count d'Estaing. As no
attempt was made to stop him in the Straits of Gibraltar, he
passed them on the 16th of May, and though the rawness of his
8 4 6
AMERICAN WAR OF INDEPENDENCE
crews and his own error in wasting time in pursuit of prizes
delayed his passage, he reached the mouth of the Delaware on
the 8th of July unopposed. The French government, which by
the fault of the British administration was allowed to take the
offensive, had three objects in view — to help the Americans, to
expel the British from the West Indies and to occupy the main
strength of the naval forces of Great Britain in the Channel.
Therefore a second and more powerful fleet was fitted out at Brest
under the command of the Count d'Orvilliers. The British
government, having neglected to occupy the Straits of Gibraltar
in time, despatched Admiral Byron from Plymouth on the 9th of
June with thirteen sail of the line to join Admiral (Lord) Howe,
Sir William's brother, In America, and collected a strong
force at home, called the Western Squadron, under Viscount
Keppel. Keppel, after a preliminary cruise in June, brought
d'Orvilliers to action off Brest on the 27th of July. The fleets
were equal and the action was indecisive,— as the two forces
merely passed one another, cannonading. A violent quarrel
exacerbated by political differences broke out among the British
commands, which lec^to two courts-martial and to the resignation
of Keppel, and did great injury to the discipline of the navy.
No further event of note occurred in European waters. On the
coast of America the news of the approach of d'Estaing com-
pelled the British commanders to evacuate Philadelphia on the
x8th of June. Howe then concentrated his force of nine small
line-of-battle ships at Sandy Hook on the 29th of June, and on the
nth of July he learnt that d'Estaing was approaching. The
French admiral did not venture to make an attack, and on
the 22nd of July sailed to co-operate with the Americans in an
endeavour to expel the British garrison from Rhode Island.
Howe, who had received a small reinforcement, followed. The
French admiral, who had anchored above Newport, R.L, came
to sea to meet him, but both fleets were scattered by storms.
D'Estaing sailed to Boston on the 21st of August Howe
received no help from Byron, whose badly appointed fleet was
damaged and scattered by a gale on the 3rd of July in mid-
Atlantic His ships dropped in by degrees during September.
Howe resigned on the 25th of that month, and was succeeded by
Byron. The approach of winter made a naval campaign on the
coast of .North America. dangerous. The operations of naval
forces in the New World were largely dictated by the facts that
from June to October are the hurricane months in the West
Indies, while from October to June includes the stormy winter
of the northern coast On the 4th of November d'Estaing sailed
for the West Indies, on the very day that Commodore William
Hotham was despatched from New York to reinforce the British
fleet in those waters. On the 7th of September the French
governor of Martinique, the marquis de Souffle*, had surprised
the British island of Dominica. Admiral Samuel Barrington, the
British admiral in the Leeward Islands, had retaliated by seizing
Santa Lucia on the 13th and 14th of December after the arrival
of Hotham from North America. D'Estaing, who followed
Hotham closely, was beaten off in two feeble attacks on Barring-
ton at the Cul-de-Sac of Santa Lucia on the 15th of December.
On the 6th of January 1779 Admiral Byron reached the West
Indies. During the early part of this year the naval forces in the
West Indies were mainly employed in watching one another.
But in June, while Byron had gone to Antigua to guard the trade
convoy on its way home, d'Estaing first captured St Vincent,
and then on the 4th of July Grenada. Admiral Byron, who had
returned, sailed in hopes of saving the island, but arrived too
late. An. indecisive action was fought off Grenada on the 6th
of July. The war now died down in the West Indies. Byron
returned home in August. D'Estaing, after co-operating un-
successfully with the Americans in. an attack on Savannah, in
September also returned to Europe. In European waters the
Channel had been invaded by a combined French and Spanish
fleet of sixty-six sail of the line, Spain having now joined the coa-
lition against Great Britain. Only thirty-five sail of the line could
be collected against them under the command of Sir Charles
Hardy. But they came late and did nothing. The allies retired
early in September and were not even able to molest the British
trade convoys. In the meantime the Spaniards had fanned the
siege of Gibraltar.
So far the British navy had stood on the defensive, wbhoat
material loss except in the West Indies, bat without triuraeiL
The operations of 1 780 went on much the same lines. The British
government, not feeling strong enough to block adr Brest and tie
Spanish ports, was compelled to regulate its movements by those
of its opponents. In the Channel it was saved from disaster by
the ineptitude of the French and Spanish fleets. The only red
success achieved by this numerically imposing force was the
capture on the 8th and oth of August of a large British convoy ci
ships bound for the East and West Indies carrying troops, Bat
on the American coast and in the West Indies more vtgoor was
displayed. Early in the year Admiral Marriot Arbnthsot ns
sent to take command in North America. On the French skfc
the count de Guichen was sent with reinforcements to the Vest
Indies to take command of the ships left in the pte vkius year by
d'Estaing. He arrived in March, and was able to confine the
small British force under Sir Hyde Parker at Grow Islet Bay a
Santa Lucia. In May M. d'Arzac de Ternay was sent from Brest
with seven line-of-battle ships, and a convoy carrying (xao
French troops to act with the Americans. He had a bra*
with a small British force under Cbrnwsllis near Bermuda oa the
20th of June, and reached Rhode Island on the nth of July
During the rest of the year, and part of the nest, the British and
French naval forces in North American waters remained at the*
respective headquarters, New York and Newport, watching
one another. The West Indies was again the scene of the
most important operations of the year. In February and March
a Spanish force from New Orleans, under Don Bernardo de
Galvez, invaded West Florida with success. Bat the allies made
no further progress. At the dose of 1779 Sir George Rodney
had been appointed to command a large naval force which was
to relieve Gibraltar, then closely blockaded, and send stores to
Minorca. Rodney was to go on to the West Indies with part of
the fleet He sailed on the 29th of December 1 779 with the trade
for the West Indies under his protection, captured a Spans*
convoy on his way off Finisterre on the 8th of January, defeated
a smaller Spanish force near Cape St Vincent on the i6d,
relieved Gibraltar on the 19th, and left for the West Indies as
the 13th of February. On the 27th of March he joined Sir Hyde
Parker at Santa Lucia, and Guichen retired to Fort Royal m
Martinique. Until July the fleets of Rodney and Gmchea, of
equal strength, were engaged in operations round the island of
Martinique. The British admiral endeavoured to force onacksc
engagement. But in the first encounter on the 17th of April to
leeward of the island, Rodney's orders were not executed by as
captains, and the action was indecisive. He wished to concen-
trate on the rear of the enemy's line, but his captains scattered
themselves along the French formation. In two sabsequest
actions, on the 15th and 19th of May. to windward of Martuuqse.
the French admiral would not be brought to dose action. The
arrival of a Spanish squadron of twelve ships of the line in June
gave a great numerical superiority to the allies, and Rodney
retired to Gros Islet Bay in Santa Lucia. But nothing decisive
occurred. The Spanish fleet was in bad health, the French mack
worn-out The first went on to Havana, the second to Saa
Domingo. In July, on the approach of the dangerous hurricane
season, Rodney sailed for North America, reaching New York ea
the 14th of September. Guichen returned home with the most
worn-out of his ships. On the 6th of December Rodney was back
at Barbadoes from the North American station, where he was
not able to effect anything against the French in Karraga&srtt
Bay.
The rambling operations of the naval war uH the dose of t?So
— directed by the allies to such secondary objects as the capture
of West Indian islands, or of Minorca and Gibraltar, and by
Great Britain to defensive movements— began to assume a
degree of coherence in 1781. Holland having now joined the
allies, the British government was compelled to withdraw part
of its fleet from other purposes to protect the North Sea trade.
A desperate battle was fought on the Dogger Bank on the $th
AMERICAN WAR OF i8m
847
of August between Sir Hyde Parker and the Dutch admiral
Zoutman, both being engaged in protecting trade; but Holland
did not affect the general course of the war. The allies again
failed to make a vigorous attack on the British forces in the
Channel They could not even prevent Admiral George Darby
from relieving Gibraltar and Minorca in ApriL The second of
these places was closely invested later on, and was compelled to
surrender on the 5th of February 178a. But a vigorous policy
was carried out by France in the West Indies and America, while
she began a most resolute attack on the British position in the
East Indies.
In the West Indies Rodney, having received news of the
breach with Holland early in the year, took the island of St
Eustatius, which had been a great depot of contraband of war,
on the 3rd of February. The British admiral was accused of
applying himself so entirely to seizing and selling his booty that
he would not allow his second in command, Sir Samuel Hood,
who had recently joined him, to take proper measures to impede
the arrival of French forces known to be on their way to Martin-
ique. The French admiral, the count de Grasse, reached the
island with reinforcements in ApriL Until July he was engaged
in a series of skilful operations directed to menacing the British
islands while he avoided being brought to battle by Rodney.
In July he sailed for the coast of North America, whither he
was followed in August by Sir S. Hood, Rodney having been
compelled to return home in ill-health.
On the coast of North America the war came to its crisis. In
the earlier part of the year the British at New York and the
French at Newport continued to watch one another. In April
the British admiral Arbuthnot did indeed succeed in baffling
an attempt of the French to carry reinforcements to the
American cause in Virginia. The action he fought off the capes
of Virginia on the 16th of April was ill conducted, but his main
purpose was achieved. Washington, who was wisely anxious to
concentrate attack on one or other of the centres of British
power in Virginia or New York, had to wait till the arrival
of Grasse before he could see his ideas applied. The French
admiral gave the allies a superiority of naval strength on the
coast of Virginia, and Lord Cornwallis, the British commander,
was beleaguered in Yorktown. Admiral Thomas Graves,
Arbuthnot's successor, who had been joined by Hood from the
West Indies, endeavoured to drive off the French fleet But the
feeble battle he fought on the 5th of September failed to shake
the French hold on the Chesapeake, and Grasse having been
reinforced, Graves sailed away. Yorktown fell on the 19th of
October, and the war was settled as far as the coast of North
America was concerned.
The French admiral, having rendered this vital service to his
ally, now returned to the West Indies, whither he was followed
by Hood, and resumed the attacks on the British islands. In
January and February 1782 he conquered St Christopher, in
spite of the most determined opposition of Hood, who with a
much inferior force first drove him from his anchorage at
Basseterre, and then repulsed his repeated attacks. The next
purpose of the French was to combine with the Spaniards for an
attack on Jamaica. Sir George Rodney, having returned to his
command with reinforcements, baffled this plan by the series of
operations which culminated in the battle of the 12th of April
1 782. (See Saints, Battle of.) No further operations of note
occurred in the West Indies. At home Howe relieved Gibraltar
for the last time in September and October 1782.
The war in the East Indies formed a separate series of episodes.
In 1778 the British authorities had little difficulty in seizing the
French settlement of Pondicherry. A naval engagement of a
very feeble kind took place on the xoth of August in the Bay
of Bengal, between the British naval officer in command and
M de Tronjoly. But the French were too weak in these seas
for offensive movements, and therefore remained quiescent at
Bou rbon and Mauritius till the beginning of 1 782. In the spring
of 1 781 the bailli de Suffren was sent to the East with a small
squadron; on his way he fell upon a British force which had been
•ent to take the Cape from the Dutch, and which he found in
the Portuguese anchorage of Porto Praya, on the 16th of ApriL
Having provided for the security of the Cape, Suffren went on to
the French islands. He sailed from them early in 1782 to carry
out a vehement attack on the British forces in the Bay of Bengal.
From the 17th of February 1782 to the 20th of June 1783 he
fought a series of fine actions against Sir Edward Hughes, by
which he secured a marked superiority on the water. Though
he had no port in which to refit and no ally save Hyder Ali,
he kept the sea and did not even return to the French islands
during the north-easterly monsoon. Suffren failed in his
main purpose, which was to make such a capture as would put
his government in a strong position during the negotiations
for peace. But his capture of Trincomalee in July 1782 in
spite of Sir Edward Hughes, and the heavy loss he inflicted
on the British fleet in several of the actions he fought, consti-
tute the most honourable part of the French naval operations
in the war.
Authorities.^/"** UfiveneeofSea Pm*rup&i History. by Captain
Mahan, pivtfl ihc best crii iral examination of the na val aspect* of the
war. The French *idc wilj b* found in the Ilistaire de /o man**
jronqaiie prndanJ la Guerre de l* Independence ammcaine (Paris,
1877J. by Captain CheviJier. For account* of the American vivy «^
CO. Tallin. The Navy of ike American Repolmitm (Chicago, 1906}?
E. S. Moctay Huiory of the US, Naoy< vol I (New York, 1897);
C. H. Lincoln. Nftvat Rrtordi oj the A me*uan Rev<ilion (Washington.
IQ06) ; and Edward Field, Eiti Hopkins ; Commander ^in^htfj of
the Continental Navy during ike American Rrvoiutian (Providence,,
R.L„ J&>d), For detail* of actions the reader may be referred
to Beat son's Naval and dfiViijry Memoir* aj Great Britain from
1727 U i?&3 (London* tfta|>. and to Sir W. Laird Clowes'*
The Royal Navy: A Hutcry {London, 1S07, 4c-). (D. H,)
AMERICAN WAR OF 1812. The war between the United
States and Great Britain, commonly known as "of 18x2," began
by the American declaration of war on the 18th of June of that
year, and lasted till the beginning of 18x5. The treaty of peace
signed at Ghent on the 24th of December 18 14 was ratified
by the president of the United States on the 17th of February
1815. These two years and a half of conflict were filled with
isolated encounters which can hardly be reduced to coherent
and ordered operations. Although the outbreak of war had been
preceded by years of angry diplomatic dispute, the United States
were absolutely unready, while Great Britain was still hard
pressed by the hostility of Napoleon, and was compelled to re-
tain the greater part of her forces and her best crews in European
waters, till the ruin of the Grande Armie in Russia and the rising
of Germany left her free to send an overwhelming force of ships
to American waters.
The forces actually available on the American side when the
war began consisted of a small squadron of very fine frigates and
sloops in an efficient state. Twenty-two was the extreme limit
of the naval force the States were able to commission. The
paper strength of the army was 35,000, but the service was.
voluntary and unpopular, while there was an almost total want
of trained and experienced officers. The available strength was
a bare third of the nominal The militia, called in to aid the
regulars, proved untrustworthy. They objected to serve beyond
the limits of their states, were not amenable to discipline, and
behaved as a rule very ill in the presence of the enemy. On the
British side, the naval force in American waters under Sir John
Borlase Warren, who took up the general command on the 26th
of September 181 2, consisted of ninety-seven vessels in all, of
which eleven were of the line and thirty-four were frigates, a
power much greater than the national navy of America, but in-
adequate to the blockade of the long coast from New Brunswick
to Florida. The total number of British troops present in Canada
in July 1812 was officially stated to be 5004, consisting in part
of Canadians.
The scene of operations naturally divided into three sections:—
(1) the ocean; (2) the Canadian frontier, from Lake Huron, by
Lakes Erie and Ontario, the course of the St Lawrence and Lake
Champlain; (3) the coast of the United States. As the opera-
tions on these three fields had little interaction on one another
it will be more convenient to take them separately than to follow
the confusing chronological order.
8+8
AMERICAN WAR OF 1812
Operations on ike Ocean. — These cover all cruises of sea-going
ships, even when they did not go far from the coast. They again
subdivide into the actions of national vessels, and the raids of the
privateers. The first gave to the United States the most brilliant
successes of the war. When it began two small squadrons were
getting ready for sea at New York; the frigate " President " (44)
and sloop " Hornet " (18), under Commodore John Rodgers, who
had also the general command; and the frigates" United States"
(44) and " Congress " (38), with the brig " Argus " (16) to which
two guns were afterwards added, under Captain Stephen Decatur.
Rodgers would have preferred to keep his command together, and
to strike with it at the main course of British commerce, but he
was overruled. He sailed on the 2 xst of June, and after chasing
the British frigate " Belvidera " (36), which escaped into Halifax
by throwing boats, &c, overboard, stood across the North Atlantic
in search of a West Indian convoy, which he failed to sight, re-
turning by the 31st of August to Boston. While he was absent,
Captain Isaac Hull, commanding the " Constitution " (44), sailed
from the Chesapeake, and after a narrow escape from a British
squadron, which pursued him from the x8th to the 20th of July,
reached Boston. Going to sea again on the and of August he
captured and burned the British frigate " Gucrriere " (38). On
the 8th of October Rodgers and Decatur sailed — the first on a
cruise to the east, the second to the south. Commodore Rodgers
met with no marked success, but on the 25th of October Captain
Decatur in the " United States " captured the British frigate
" Macedonian " (38), which he carried back to port. At the dose
of the month Captain Bainbridge sailed with the " Constitution*"
" Essex "(3 a) and " Hornet " (18) on a southerly cruise. On the
99th of December, when off Bahia,he fell in with the British frigate
" Java " (38), which was carrying General Hislop, the governor
of Bombay, to India, and took her after a sharp action. The
"Essex" and "Hornet" were not in company. The first, under
the command of Captain David Porter, went on to the Pacific,
where she did great injury to British trade, till she was captured
off Valparaiso by the British frigate " Phoebe "<38) and the sloop
" Cherub " (24) on the 28th of March 1814. In these actions,
except the last, the Americans had the advantage of greater size
and a heavier broadside, but they showed excellent seamanship
and gunnery. The capture of three British frigates one after
another caused a painful impression in Great Britain and stimu-
lated her to greater exertions. Vessels were accumulated on the
American sea-board, and the watch became more strict. On the
xst of June 1813 the capture of the U.S. frigate " Chesapeake "
(s$). by the British frigate " Shannon " (38), a vessel of equal
force, counterbalanced the moral effect of previous disasters. The
blockade of American ports was already so close that the United
States ships found it continually more difficult to get to sea, or
to keep the sea without meeting forces of irresistibly superior
itrength.
The operations of American privateers were too numerous
and far-ranging to be told in detail. They continued active till
the close of the war, and were only partially baffled by the strict
enforcement of convoy by the British authorities. A signal
instance of the audacity of the American cruisers was the capture
of the U.S. sloop " Argus " (20) by the British sloop " Pelican "
(x8) so far from home as St David's Head in Wales on the 14th
of August 1 81 3. The " Pelican's " guns were heavier than those
of the " Argus."
Operation* on the Lakes. — The American people, who had
expected little from their diminutive navy, had calculated with
confidence on being able to overrun Canada. As, however, they
had taken no effectual measures to provide a mobile force they
were disappointed. The British general, Sir George Prevost, was
neither able nor energetic, but his subordinate, Major-General
Isaac Brock, was both. In July, before the Americans were ready.
Brock seised Mackinac at the head of Lake Huron; and on the
1 6th of August Detroit in the channel between Huron and Erie
was surrendered. Kingston was held at the east end of Ontario.
Montreal on the St Lawrence was a strong position on the British
•side to which, however, the Americans had an easy road of
approach by Lake Champlain. Sound reasoning would have led
the Americans to direct their chief attacks on Kingston tad
Montreal, since success at those points would have woilatrrf *Jx
British posts on Lakes Ontario, Erie and Huron- But they vet
much influenced by fear of the Indians, who had been won ots
to the British side by the energy of Brock. They therefor*
looked more carefully to the lakes than to the coarse of the St
Lawrence, and it may be added that their leaders showed 1=
utter want of capacity for the intelligent conduct of war.
The impracticable character of the communications by hri
made it absolutely necessary for both parties to obtain oar—!
of the water. Neither had made any preparations, and »*e
war largely resolved itself into a race of shipbolkxing. TV
Americans, who had far greater facilities for bwhting that
the British, allowed themselves to be forestalled. In the secoad
half of 181 2 the British general, Sir Isaac Brack, ■estesaav
governor of Upper Canada, adopted measures for oppojag
the Americans on the frontier line, between Huron and Erie
The American brigadier-general William Hull invaded Cazada
on the 12th of July from Detroit, just below the sell-
Lake of St Clair between Huron and Erie. His army ««s
mainly composed of militiamen, who behaved very badly, as£
his papers having been captured in a boat, his phuu wre
revealed. General Brock drove him back and forced kin tc
surrender at Detroit on the 16th of August. Brock now prompt
transferred himself to the western end of Erie, where tSt
American general Henry Dearborn was attempting a&o-.hr*
invasion. Brock fell in action on the 13th of October, waue
repulsing Dearborn's subordinate Van Rensselaer, a poJitic±i
named to command by favour, and ignorant of a sojdkr>
business. The Americans were driven back. In this field ate
their militia behaved detestably. The Canadians on the ot>e
hand, both the French who were traditionally amenable 1-
authority and those of English descent, who being largely aces
of loyalists of the War of Independence had a bitter hatred of *Js
Americans, did excellent service. The discontent of New En£ac i
with the war both hampered the American generals and ski
aided the British, who drew their supplies to a great extent foa
United States territory. On the 22nd of January xSx>. ■:
French town, the American troops under Winchester surrendered
to a British and Indian force under Procter.
During the winter both sides were busy in building ships. Cn
Ontario the Americans pushed on their preparations at Sicken >
Harbour under Isaac Chauncey; the English were samirT
engaged at Kingston. Sir James Lucas Yeo took command ca
the 15th of May 1813. On Erie the American headquarters «er?
at Presqu' Isle, now the city of Erie; the English at Fort Makks
The American commander was Captain Oliver Perry, the Briisi
commander, Captain Robert Barclay. On Lake Ontario Yeo
formed a more mobile though less powerful force than Chauscejr i»
and therefore manoeuvred to avoid being brought to close actio.
Three engagements, on the xoth of August, nth of Septeskf
and 28th of September, led to no decisive result. By the dca?
of the war Yeo had constructed a ship of 102 guns which gave La
the superiority, and the British became masters of Lake Ontara
On Lake Erie the energy of Captain Perry, aided by what appeus
to have been the misjudgment of Barclay, enabled him to get i
superior force by the 4th of August, and on the 10th of September
he fought a successful action which left the Americans master* d
Lake Erie. The military operations were subordinate to lit
naval. In April 1813 the Americans took York (now Toroat*'.
and in May moved on Fort George; but a counter-attack by
Yeo and Prevost on Sackett's Harbour, on the *oth. of Mi?.
having made the Americans anxious about the safety of tSr-
base, naval support failed the American generals, and they «e*
paralysed. A success was gained by them (October 5) at ibr
Thames, where the Indian chief Tccumseh fell, but they made 00
serious progress. The Americans turned to the east of Oatirc.
intending to assail Montreal by the St Lawrence in combinatica
with their forces at Lake Champlain. But the corobicataa
failed; they were severely harassed on the St Lawrence, and the
invasion was given up.
The operations of 18x4 bear a dose resemblance to those d
AMERICUS— AMES
849
1813, with, however, one important difference. Tne American
generals, having by this time brought their troops to order, were
able to fight with much better effect. Their attack on the
Niagara peninsula fed to hot fighting at Chippewa (July 5) and
Luody's Lane (July *s)t the first a success for the Americans,
the second a drawn battle. The fall of Napoleon having now
freed the British government from the obligation to retain its
army in Europe, troops from Spain began to pour in. But on the
Canadian frontier they made little difference. In August 1814
Sir George Provost attacked the American forces at Champlain.
But his naval support, ill prepared, was hurried into action by
him at Plattsburg on the nth of September, and defeated.
Prevost then retired. His management of the war, more
especially on Lake Champlain, was severely criticised, and he
was threatened with a court-martial, but died before the trial
came on. A British occupation of part of the coast of Maine
proved to be mere demonstration.
Operations on the American Cms!.— When the war began the
British naval forces were unequal to the work of blockading the
whole coast. They were also much engaged in seeking for
the American cruisers under Rodgers, Decatur and Bainbridge.
The British government, having need of American foodstuffs for
its army in Spain, was willing to benefit by the discontent of the
New EngUnders. No blockade of New England was at first
attempted. The Delaware and Chesapeake were declared in a
state of blockade on the a6th of December 181 a. This was
extended to the whole coast south of Narragansett by November
1813, and to the whole American coast on the 31st of May
1 814. In the meantime much illicit trade was carried on
by collusive captures arranged between American traders and
British officers. American ships were fraudulently transferred
to neutral flags. Eventually the United States government was
driven to issue orders for the purpose of stopping illicit trading,
and the commerce of the country was ruined. The now over-
powering strength of the British fleet enabled it to occupy the
Chesapeake and to execute innumerable attacks of a destructive
character on docks and harbours. The burning by the American
general McClure.on the lothof December 1 813, of Newark(Niagara
on the Lake), for which severe retaliation was taken at Buffalo,
was made the excuse for much destruction. The most famous of
these destructive raids was the burning of the public buildings at
Washington by Sir Alexander Cochrane, who succeeded Warren
in April in the naval command, and General Robert Ross. The
expedition was carried out between the 19th and 29th of August
1814, *nd was well organised and vigorously executed. 1 On the
*4th the American militia, collected at Bladensburg to protect
the capital, fled almost before they were attacked. A subse-
quent attack on Baltimore, in which General Ross was killed
(September 1a, 1814), was a failure. The expedition to New
Orleans (q.v.) is separately dealt with.
Authorities.— 1 n his Sea Power in Us Rotations to tko War of 18 1 2
Captain Mahan has given a careful account of the war by land and
sea with reference toaervices. Ths Naval War of 1812, by Theodore
Roosevelt (New York, 188a), is lively but somewhat passionate, and
not free from prejudice. A vehement statement of the Canadian
side will be found in How Canada was held (or the Empire, by James
Ha nnay (London.Edinbufvh.Toronto, 1005). See also The Canadian
War of 1812, by Charles P. Lucas (Oxford. 1906). (D. H.)
AMERICUS, a city and the county-seat of Sumter county,
Georgia, U.S.A., about 71 m- S.S.W. of Macon. Pop. (1880)
3* 33; (1*90) 6398; (1900) 7674 (4661 of negro descent); (1910)
£06 j. It is served by the Central of Georgia and the Seaboard
Air Line railways, and b the seat of the Third Congressional
District Agricultural High School, a branch of the state uni-
versity of Georgia. The city is in a rich sugar-cane and fruit
country, is a large cotton and mule and horse market, and has
division shops of the Seaboard Air Line railway. Among the
city's manufactures are cotton-seed ofl, fertilizers, chemicals,
iron, carriages and wagons and harness (especially horse
collars). The city owns the waterworks; the water-supply is
a The burning of Washington was an act of vandalism by no means
approved of by many of the British officer* who were compelled to
lake part in it. (See Smith, Sir Hswav Gxoaca Wakelyn.)
1.1S
obtained from artesian wells. Americas was settled in 1832, and
was first chartered as a dty in 1855.
AM BRSFOORT, a town in the province of Utrecht, Holland,
on the navigable Eem, and a junction station 14 m. by rail
N.E. by E. of Utrecht Pop. (1900) 19,089. It is situated in the
midst of picturesque and undulating country, consisting of wide
sandy heaths and woods, and dotted with many fine country
houses. One of the most interesting of its few historic monu-
ments is the Koppdpoort, an old gateway situated at the end of
a fine avenue of trees bordering the canaL Close by is a lofty
Gothic tower (1 500), which belonged to the ancient church of St
Mary, which was wrecked by an explosion of gunpowder in 1787.
The large plain church of St George dates from the first half of the
13th century. There is also a Jansenist church, to which a
seminary is attached. Besides these there are a town hall, a court
of primary jurisdiction, industrial and other schools. Amersfoort
has a large garrison, consisting chiefly of artillery, and manu-
factures woollen goods, cotton, silk, glass and brandy. It has also
a considerable trade in tobacco, grown in the neighbourhood,
and in corn and fish.
AMERSHAM, a market town in the Wycombe parliamentary
division of Buckinghamshire, England, 34 m. W.N.W. of London
by the Metropolitan railway. Fop. (1001) 3674. It is pleasantly
situated in the narrow valley of the Misbourne stream, which b
flanked by the well-wooded slopes of the Chiltern Hills. The
church of St Mary is almost entirely Perpendicular, and has a
beautiful south porch, brasses of the 1 5th, 16th and 1 7th centuries
and numerous monuments, several of which, in a chantry,
commemorate members of the family of Drake, lords of the
manor. The town hall was built by Sir William Drake in 1643.
At Coleshill, near Amersham, Edmund Waller the poet was
born in 1606; he sat in parliament for the former borough of
Amersham. The town has flour mills and breweries, and some
straw-plaiting and lace-making are carried on in the vicinity.
The district is one of the most beautiful near London; the village
of Chcnics, overlooking the valley of the Chess, is especially
picturesque.
Amersham (Elmodcsham, Agmondesham, Hagmondesham,
Aumundcsham, Homcrsham) at the time of the Domesday
Survey was divided into no less than six holdings. The manor,
or chief of them, was held by Geoffrey de Mandeville. At the
time of Edward the Confessor it was held by Queen Edith. The
manor afterwards descended to the families of Fits Piers, Bohun
and Strafford, and was granted by Henry VIII. to Sir John
Russell, ancestor of the carls of Bedford. In 1638 Francis, earl
of Bedford, conveyed it to William Drake, by whose descendants
it is still held. The north chapel in the church of St Michael,
Chenies, has been the burial-place of the Russell family since its
erection in 1336, and contains a number of fine memorials, notably
that of Anne, countess of Bedford (d. 1958). who founded the
chapel. Amersham was formerly a parliamentary borough by
prescription, and returned two members in 1300, 1306, 1307 and
1309. In 1623 this privilege was restored, and was only annulled
by the Reform Bill of 183s. The annual fair, in September, b
held under a charter secured by Geoffrey Fits Peter, earl of
Essex, in 1200, that on Whit Monday under a charter of 1614,
secured by Edward, earl of Bedford, which transferred the Frir ay
market, also granted under the earlier charter, to Tuesday.
AMES, FISHER (1 758-1808), American statesman, orator and
political writer, son of Nathaniel Ames, a physician, was born at
Dedham, Massachusetts, on the 9th of April 1 758. He graduated
at Harvard College in 1774, and began the practice of the law
at Dedham in 1781, but eventually abandoned that profession
for the more congenial pursuit of politics. He was a prominent
member of the Massachusetts convention which (February 1788)
ratified for that state the Federal Constitution, and in the same
year, having entered the lower house in the state legislature, he
distinguished himself greatly by his eloquence and readiness in
debate. During the eight years of Washington's administration
(1 789-1 797) he was a prominent Federalist member of the national
House of Representatives. On the 28th of April 1706, when the
Republicans, hostile to the Jay Treaty, were on the point of
holding up the appropriation necessary for its execution, Ames,
who had just arisen from a sick-bed, made what has been con-
sidered the greatest speech of his life; before the delivery of his
850 AMES
speech his opponents had claimed a, majority of six, but the
appropriation was finally passed, in the committee of the whole,
by the casting vote of the chairman. When Washington retired
from the presidency, Congress voted him an address and chose
Ames to deliver it. In 1797 he returned to Dedham to resume
the practice of the law, which the state of his health after a few
years obliged him to relinquish. He published numerous essays,
chiefly in relation to the contest between Great Britain and
revolutionary France, as it might affect the liberty and prosperity
of America. Ames was one of the group of New England ultra-
Federalists known as the " Essei Junto," who opposed the
French policy of President John Adams in 1798, and were
conspicuous for their British sympathies. Four years before his
death he was chosen president of Harvard College, an honour
which his broken state of health obliged him to decline. He died
on the 4th of July 1808.
His writings and sp eeche s , which abound in sparkling passages,
displaying great fertility of imagination, were collected and pub-
lished, with a memoir of the author, in 1809, by the Rev. Dr J. T.
KirkJand, in one large octavo volume. A more complete edition in
two volumes was published by his son, Seth Ames, at Boston,
Mass., in 1854.
AMES, JOSEPH (1689-1759), English author, was bora at
Yarmouth on the 23rd of January 1680. He wrote an account of
printing in England from 147 1 to 1600, Typographical Antiquities
(1749). Ames sent out circular letters with a list of two hundred
and fifteen English printers with whose works he intended to deal,
asking for any available information. He earned the gratitude
of subsequent bibliographers by disregarding printed lists and
consulting the title-pages of the books themselves. An inter-
leaved copy of the work with many notes in the author's hand is
now in the British Museum. Editions of his works were published
with added information by William Herbert (3 vols., 1785-1790),
and T. F. Dibdin (4 vols., 1810-1819). Ames's occupation is
variously given. It is uncertain whether he was a ship-chandler,
a patten-maker, a plane-iron maker or an ironmonger; but he led
a prosperous life at Wapping, and amassed valuable collections
of antiquities. He died on the 7th of October 1750. His other
works are catalogues of English printers, of the collection of coins
which belonged to the earl of Pembroke, of some two thousand
English portraits, and Parentalia (1750), a memoir of the Wrens,
undertaken in conjunction with Sir Christopher Wren's grand-
son, Stephen Wren. Part of his correspondence in bibliography
is included in Nichols's Literary Anecdotes and Illustrations.
AMES, OAKES ( 1 804-1873), American manufacturer, capitalist
and politician, was born in Easton, Massachusetts, on the 10th of
January 1 804. As a manufacturer of shovels, in association with
his father and his brother Oliver (1807-1877), he amassed a large
fortune. In i860 he became a member of the executive council
of Massachusetts, and from 1863 to 1873 wasa republican member
of the national House of Representatives. As a member of the
committee on railroads he became interested in the project,
greatly aided by the government, to build a trans-continental
railway, connecting the eastern states with California. Others
having failed, he was induced in 1865 to assume the direction of
the work, and to him more than to any other one man the credit
for the construction of the Union Pacific railway was due. The
execution was effected largely through a construction company,
the Credit Mobilier Company of America. In disposing of some of
the stock of this company, Ames in 1867-187 1 sold a number of
shares to members of Congress at a price much below what these
shares eventually proved to-be worth. This, on becoming knowo,
gave rise in 1872-1873 to a great congressional scandal. After an
investigation by a committee of the House, which recommended
the expulsion of Ames, a resolution was passed on the 28th of
February 1873, " that the House absolutely condemns the con-
duct of Oakes Ames ... in seeking to secure congressional atten-
tion to the affairs of a corporation in which he was interested, and
whose interest directly depended upon the legislation of Congress,
by inducing members of Congress to invest in the stocks of said
corporation." Many have since attributed this resolution to
partisanship, and the influence of popular clamour, and in 1883
the legislature of Massachusetts passed a resolution vindicating
the tth of
VE
Amen, He died at North Easton, Mam, em
May 1873. His son, Ouvxa Am* (1831-1895), wi
governor of Massachusetts from 1883 until 1887, 1
from 1887 to 1890.
See Credit Mobtlibk or Amtica and the
For a defence of Oakes Ames, see Oakes Ames, A Mi
(Cambridge, Mass., 1884).
AMES, WILLIAM (1 576-1633), English Puritan divine, better
known, especially in Europe, as Amesius, was bora of sb
ancient family at Ipswich, Suffolk, in 1576, and was rrfssrafrrl at
the local grammar school and at Christ's College, Camhrifor,
where, as throughout his life, he was an omnivorous slnrtral Be
was considerably influenced by his tutor, the celebrated WiXss
Perkins, and by his successor, a man of kindred tntcsVct tsd
fervour, Paul Bayne. He graduated B. A. and M.A. in due comae,
and was chosen to a fellowship in Christ's College. He wis
universally beloved in the university. His own college (Cfenstt)
would have chosen him for the mastership; but a party opposi-
tion led to the election of Valentine Cary, who bad already
quarrelled with Ames for disapproving of the surplice and other
outward symbols. One of Ames's sermons became historical is
the Puritan controversies. It was delivered on St ThocnasH da?
(1609) before the feast of Christ's nativity, and in it he rebuked
sharply " lusory lotts " and the " heathenish debauchery M of tat
students during the twelve days ensuing. The scathing veheav
ence of his denunciations led to his being summoned before the
vice-chancellor, who suspended him " from the exercise of km
ecclesiastical function and from all degrees taken or to be takes.*
After Cary's election he left the university and would have ac-
cepted the great church of Colchester, but the bishop of Lends*
refused to grant institution and induction. Like p e rscmtJ BB
awaited him elsewhere, and at last he passed over to HoOasd,
being aided by certain wealthy English merchants who wished
him to controvert the supporters of the English church in Lesdea.
At Rotterdam, clad in the fisherman's habit donned far the
passage, he opposed Grevinchovius (Nicholas Ciev inck hor ea, d.
1632), minister of the Arminian or Remonstrant church, and over-
whelmed him with his logical reasoning from Phil. fi. 13. *• It is
God that worketh in us both to will and to do.'* The nsbensaa-
controversialist made a great stir, and from that day became
known and honoured in the Low Countries. Subsequently Arses
entered into a controversy in print with Grevinchovius on uni-
versal redemption and election, and cognate problems. He
brought together all he had maintained in bis Corouis ad CaBeti-
onem Hagiensem — his most masterful book, which figures largely
in Dutch church history. At Leiden, Ames became intimate with
the venerable Mr Goodyear, pastor of the English church there.
While thus resident in comparative privacy he was sent for to the
Hague by Sir Horatio Vere, the English governor of BriB, whs
appointed him a minister iu the army of the states-general anl
of the English soldiers in their service, a post held by some of the
greatest of England's exiled Puritans. He married a daughter of
Dr Burgess, who was Vere's chaplain, and, on bis father-in-law's
return to England, succeeded to his place.
It was at this time he began his memorable controversy witk
Episcopius, who, in attacking the Coronis, railed against tat
author as having been " a disturber of the public peace in he
native country, so that the English magistrates had hai*««k~i hia
thence; and now, by bis late printed Cotonis, he was raising new
disturbances in the peaceable Netherlands." It was a miserable
libel and was at once rebutted by Goodyear The Cewonis has
been primarily prepared for the synod of Dort, which sat frosi
November 16x8 until May 1610. At this celebrated synod tat
position of Ames was a peculiar one. The High Church party ia
England had induced Vere to dismiss him from the chaplaincy;
but he was still held, deservedly, in such reverence, that it was
arranged he should attend the synod, and accordingly he was
retained by the Calvinist party at four florins a day to watch
the proceedings on their behalf and advise them when necessary.
A proposal to make him principal of a theological college at
Leiden was frustrated by Archbishop Abbot; and when hue?
invited by the state of Friesland to a professoriate at Franehst,
AMES— AMESBURY
851
the opposition was renewed, but thb time abortively. He was
installed at Franeker on the 7th of May 1622, and delivered
a most learned discourse on the occasion on " Urim and
Thummin." He soon brought renown to Franeker as pro-
fessor, preacher, pastor and theological writer. He prepared
his Medulla Theologiae, a manual of Calvinistic doctrine, for
bis students. His De Conscientia, ejus Jure at Casibus (163a),
an attempt to bring Christian ethics into clear relation with
particular cases of conduct and of conscience, was a new thing
in Protestantism. Having continued twelve years at Franeker
(where he was rector in 1626), his health gave way, and he
contemplated removal to New England. But another door was
opened for him. He yearned for more frequent opportunities of
preaching to his fellow-countrymen, and an invitation to Rotter-
dam gave him such opportunity. His friends at Franeker were
passionately opposed to the transference, but ultimately ac-
quiesced. At Rotterdam he drew all hearts to him by his elo-
quence and fervour in the pulpit, and his irrepressible activity as
a pastor. Home-controversy engaged him again, and he prepared
his Fresh Suit against Ceremonies— the book which made Richard
Baxter a Nonconformist. It ably sums up the issues between the
Puritan school and that of Hooker. It was posthumously pub-
lished. He did not long survive his removal to Rotterdam
Having caught a cold from a flood which inundated his house, he
died in November 1633, at the age of fifty-seven, apparently in
needy circumstances. He left, by a second wife, a son and a
daughter. His valuable library found a home in New England.
Few Englishmen have exercised so formative and controlling an
influence ort European thought and opinion as Ames. He was
a master in theological controversy, shunning not to cross swords
with the formidable Bellarmine. He wasa scholar among scholars,
being furnished with extraordinary resources of learning. His
works, which even the Biographia Britannica (1 778) testifies were
famous over Europe, were collected at Amsterdam in 5 vols. 410.
Only a very small proportion was translated into his mother
tongue. His Lectiones in emnes Psalmos Dandis (1635) is ex-
ceedingly suggestive *nd terse in its style, reminding of Bengel's
Gnomon, as does also his Commentarius utriusque Bpist. S. Petri.
His " Replies " to Bishop Morton and Dr Burgess on " Cere-
monies " tell us that even kinship could not prevent him from
" contending earnestly for the faith.'*
See John Quick's MS. Icones Sacra* AngUcanae, which gives the
fisherman anecdote on the personal authority of one who was
present; Life by Nethenus prefixed to collected edition of Latin
works (5 vols., Amsterdam. 1658); Winwood's Memorials, vol. sit.
PP 346-347; Neal's Puritans. 1. 33a; Fuller's Cambridge (Christ s
College): Hanbury's Hist Memorials, i. 53}; Collections 0} the
Massachusetts Historical Society, vol vLTiourth
PP- 376-377.
1863,
AMES, a city of Story county, Iowa, U.S.A., about 35 m. N. of
Des Moines, at the intersection of two lines of the Chicago ft
North- Western railway. Pop. (1800) 2276; (1900) 342a; (19x0
U. S. census) 4223. The city is the seat of the state college of
agriculture and mechanic arts; this institution, opened in 1869,
has for its use about 11 75 acres of land, on which the state has
erected, at a cost of $1,200,000, thirty-two college buildings,
besides dwelling-houses and buildings for farm purposes. On the
college campus are beautiful groves containing several hundred
varieties of trees, and in a central position stands a campanile with
excellent chimes. The coUegeoffers f our-yearcourses in agronomy,
animal husbandry, dairying, domestic economy, general science,
veterinary medicine, and civil, mechanical, electrical and mining
engineering. In 1909-1910 it had an enrollment of 2631 students
(including 706 in the winter short course) and a library of 23,000
volumes. The cost of instruction and experimentation is met by
the income from national grants (under the Morrill Acts of 1862
and 1882) and by state appropriations. Ames has a Carnegie
library, and owns and operates its electric-lighting plant and
waterworks. It was laid out as a town in 1864 and was named in
honour of Oakes Ames, at the time one of the proprietors of the
Cedar Rapids ft Missouri River railway (now part of the Chicago
Ml North- Western); five years later it was incorporated.
AnnURY, a small town m the Wilton parliamentary
division of Wiltshire, England, 8 m. N. of Salisbury, on the London
ft South- Western railway. Pop. (1001) 1143. It stands on a
wooded upland, amid the chalk downs of Salisbury Plain. The
church of St Mary is cruciform, with a low square tower, and is
largely Early English, with some richly decorated windows in the
chancel. A curious two-storeyed building which adjoins the
north transept consists of a chapel with a piscina below and a
priest's chamber above. Amesbury Abbey, a beautiful house
built by Inigo Jones for the dukes of Queensberry, stands close to
the village, in a park watered by the river Avon, here famous for
its trout. Stonehenge (?.».), the greatest surviving megalithic
work in the British Isles, is a mile and a half distant; and on a
hill near the village is Vespasian's Camp or the Ramparts, a large
earthwork, which is undoubtedly of British, not Roman, origin.
At Amesbury (Ambresberia, Aumbresbery) a witenagemot
was held in 932, while about 980 Alfthryth (Ethelfrida), queen-
dowager of Edgar, erected here a nunnery in expiation of the
murder of her stepson. The house afterwards acquired such ill
repute that in 1177 the nuns were dispersed and the house was
attached to the abbey of Fontevrault, by whom it was re-estab-
lished. From this date, by a succession of royal charters and
private gifts, the nunnery a massed vast wealth and privileges,
and became a fashionable retreat for ladies of high rank, among
whose number were Eleanor, widow of Henry III., and Mary,
daughter of Edward I. After the dissolution in 1 540 the site was
granted to Edward, earl of Hertford, afterwards duke of Somerset
and protector of the kingdom. It subsequently passed to the duke
of Queensberry. According to the Domesday, Amesbury was a
royal manor and did not pay geld, but was under the obligation
of providing one night's entertainment for the king. In 13 1 7 the
prioress obtained a Saturday market and a three days' fair at the
feast of St Melor (Meliorus). The market was subsequently
changed to Friday, and three additional fairs were granted. Pipe-
clay abounds in the neighbourhood, and in the 17th century
Amesbury was famous for the best pipes in England, many of
which are preserved in Salisbury museum.
See Victoria County History— Wiltshire-. Sir Richard Colt Hoare,
History of Modem Wiltshire (1822-1844).
AMESBURY, a township of Essex county, in N.E. Massa-
chusetts, U.S. A., situated on the Merrimac river, about 6 m. above
its mouth. Pop. (1800) 9798; (1900) 9473, of whom 2448 were
foreign-born; (iqio, U.S. census), 0804. Amesbury is served by
two divisions of the Boston & Maine railway, and is connected
by electric line with Haverhill and Newburyport, Mass., and
with Hampton Beach, New Hampshire, and Salisbury Beach,
Mass., two summer resorts. The township covers a land area
of about 13 sq. m. The surface is hilly. The Powow river, a
small stream, passes through the centre of the township. There
is a public library. Among Amesbury's manufactures are hats,
cotton goods, carriages, automobile bodies, carriage and auto-
mobile lamps, thermometers, brass castings and motor boats.
In 1 905 the factory products were valued at $3,6 1 4 ,692 . Ames-
bury was settled about 1644 as a separate part of Salisbury, and in
1654. by mutual agreement of the old and new " towns," became
practically independent, although not legally a township until
1666 (named Amesbury, from the English town in Wilts, in
1667). It suffered repeatedly in the course of the colonial Indian
wars. Quakers settled here as early as 1701. Josiah Bartlett
(1729-1795)1 * signer of the Declaration of Independence, was
born here, and is commemorated by a statue (1888) by Karl
Gerhardt. Shipbuilding was an important industry in the 18th
and especially the first quarter of the 19th century, and the
U.S. frigate "Alliance" was built at Salisburypoint in 1778.
A nail factory, one of the earliest in the country, was built on the
Powow in 1796. The manufacture of iron began about 1710, of
hats in 1 769, of carriages in 1800 and of cotton goods in 1812. Paul
Moody, who with F. C. Lowell constructed in 1814 at Waltham
the first successful power-loom in America, was engaged in the
manufacture of cotton goods in Amesbury. The township was the
home of John G. Whittier from 1836 to 1892; here were written
most of the poems of his middle and later life, many of which
8 S 2
AMETHYST— AMHERST
describe the surrounding country. In 1876 Merrimac township
was created out of the territory of Amesbury; in 1886 the west
part of the old township of Salisbury was united to Amesbury.
See Joseph Merrill. History of Amesbury (Haverhill, 1880); S. T.
Pkkard, WkitHer-land, A Handbook of North Essex (Boston, New
York, 1904).
AMETHYST, a violet or purple variety of quarts used as
an ornamental stone. The name is generally said to be derived
from the Gr. A, "not/ 1 and neWwce**, "to intoxicate,"
expressing the old belief that the stone protected its owner
from strong drink. It was held that wine drunk out of a cup
of amethyst would not intoxicate. According, however, to the
Rev. C. W. King, the word may probably be a corruption of
an Eastern name for the stone.
The colour of amethyst is usually attributed to the presence of
manganese, but as it is capable of being much altered and even
discharged by heat it has been referred by some authorities to an
organic source. Ferric thiocyanate has been suggested, and
sulphur is said to have been detected in the mineral On
exposure to heat, amethyst generally becomes yellow, and much
of the cairngorm or yellow quartz of jewellery is said to be merely
M burnt amethyst" Veins of amethystine quartz are apt to lose
their colour on the exposed outcrop.
Amethyst is composed of an irregular superposition of alter-
nate lamellae of right-handed and left-handed quarts. (See
Quartz.) It has been shown by Prof. J. W. Judd that this
structure may be due to mechanical stresses. In consequence of
this composite formation, amethyst is apt to break with a rippled
fracture, or to show " thumb markings," and the intersection of
two sets of curved ripples may produce on the fractured surface a
pattern something like that of " engine turning." Some mineral-
ogists, following Sir D. Brewster, apply the name of amethyst to
aU quartz which exhibits this structure, regardless of its colour.
The amethyst was used as a gem-stone by the ancient
Egyptians, and was largely employed in antiquity for intaglios.
Beads of amethyst are found in Anglo-Saxon graves in England.
Amethyst is a very widely distributed mineral, but fine clear
specimens fit for cutting as ornamental stones are confined to
comparatively few localities. Such crystals occur either in
cavities in mineral-veins and in granitic rocks, or as a lining in
agate gcodes. A huge geode, or " amethyst-grotto," from near
Santa Cruz in southern Brazil, was exhibited at the Dusseldorf
Exhibition of 1002. Many of the hollow agates of Brazil and
Uruguay contain a crop of amethyst-crystals in the interior.
Much fine amethyst comes from Russia, especially from near
Mursinka in the Ekaterinburg district, where it occurs in drusy
cavities in granitic rocks. Many localities in India yield
amethyst; and it is found also in Ceylon, chiefly as pebbles.
Purple corundum, or sapphire of amethystine tint, is called
Oriental amethyst, but this expression is often applied by jewellers
to fine examples of the ordinary amethystine quartz, even when
not derived from Eastern sources.
Amethyst occurs at many localities in the United States, but
rarely fine enough for use in jewellery. Among these may be men-
tioned Amethyst Mountain, Texas; Yellowstone National Park;
Delaware Co., Pennsylvania; Haywood Co., North Carolina; Deer
Hill, and Stow, Maine. It is found also in the Lake-Superior dis-
trict. See G. F. Runz, Gems brc. of North America (1800), and
Report for nth Census (vol "Mines and Quarries"). (F.W.R.*)
All H ARA, the central province of Abyssinia. The chief town ,
Gondar (?.».), by which name the province is also known, was the
residence of the negus negusti, or emperor, of Abyssinia from
the middle ages up to 1854. The speech of the inhabitants,
Amharic, which differs in several features from the dialects
spoken in Tigre and Shoa, is the official language of Abyssinia.
AMHERST, JEFFREY AMHERST, Baron (1717*1707),
British soldier, was the son of Jeffrey Amherst of Riverbead,
Sent, and by the interest of the duke of Dorset obtained an
ensigncy in the Guards in 173 1. He served in Germany and the
Low Countries as aide-de-camp to General (Lord) Ligonier, and
was present at Dettingen, Fontenoy and Roucoux. He then
served on Cumberland's staff, and took part with the duke in the
later campaigns of the Austrian Succession war, in the battle of
Val, and the North German campaign of 1757, indoding the
battle of Hastenbeck. A year previously be had been j
to a lieutenant-colonelcy. In x 7 58 William Pitt caused
to be made a major-general, and gave him mmmssri of am
expedition to attack the French in North America. Fort
plan of conquering Canada, Pitt chose young and a
with Amherst, distinguished for steadiness and self-control, as
their commander-in-chief. The first victory of the expedition,
the capture of Louisburg (July so, 1758), was soon fallowed by
other successes, and Amherst was given the chief command of al
the forces in the theatre of war. In the campaign of 1759
Amherst's own share was the capture of Tkonderoga and Don
Point, while Fort Niagara fell to another column, and Quebec
was taken by Wolfe. In 1760 a concentric march on Montreal
was carried out with complete success. Amherst was imnwdi-
ately appointed governor-general of British North America, and
in the following year was made a K.B. His conduct of the
operations against the Indians under Pbntiac was, however, far
from being as successful as his generalship against regular troops;
and he returned to England in 1763, being made g ov e r nor of
Virginia and colonel of the 60th regiment in the same year. la
1768 the king, who had had a quarrel with Amherst, made
amends by giving him another colonelcy; in 1770 be was nude
governor of Guernsey , and two years later, though not yet a tafl
general, he was made lieutenant-general of the ordnance aad
acting commander-in-chief of the forces. In this capacity he
was the chief adviser at headquarters during the American War
of Independence. He was created a peer in 1 776, was 1
general in 1778 and became colonel of the and Horse <
(2nd Life Guards) two years later. He aided in suppressing the
Gordon riots of 1780. The rest of his active life, with a short
interval in 1782-1783, he spent at the Horse Guards as com-
mander-in-chief, but he was no longer capable of good service,
and in 1795 be was succeeded by the duke of York. In 1706
Lord Amherst was made field-marshal; and he died on the 3rd
of August 1797 *t " Montreal," his residence in Kent.
AMHERST. WILLIAM PITT AMHERST. Eael (1771-1857).
governor-general of India, was the nephew of Jeffrey. Baton
Amherst, and succeeded to his title in 1797 by the remainder
provided when the patent of nobility was renewed in 1788. la
1816 he was sent as ambassador extraordinary to the court of
China, with a view of establishing more satisfactory co mmc t u al
relations between that country and Great Britain. On arriving
in the Peiho he was given to understand that he could only he
admitted to the emperor's presence on condition of performing
the ko-tou (kow-tow), a ceremony which Western nations consider
degrading, and which is, indeed, a homage exacted by a Chinese
sovereign from his tributaries. To this Lord Amherst, following
the advice of Sir George T. Staunton, who accompanied him as
second commissioner, refused to consent, as Lord Macartney had
done in 1793, unless the admission was made that his so v miga
was entitled to the same show of reverence from a mandarin of ks
rank. In consequence of this he was not allowed to enter Fekm,
and the object of his mission was frustrated. His ship, the
" Alceste,*' after a cruise along the coast of Korea and to the Loo-
Choo Islands, on proceeding homewards was totally wrecked oa a
sunken rock in Caspar Strait. Lord Amherst and part of hn
shipwrecked companions escaped in the ship's boats to Bauvia.
whence relief was sent to the rest. The ship in which be returned
to England in 1817 having touched at St Helena, he had several
interviews with the emperor Napoleon (see Ellis's Frexeodtnp ef
the Late Embassy to China, 181 7 ; M'Leod's Narrathe of a Voymft
in HM.S. "Alceste," 1817). Lord Amherst held tneomcecf
governor-general of India from August 1823 to February 181I
The principal event of his government was the first Burmese war
of 1824, resulting in the cession of Arakan and Tenassrrim t»
Great Britain. He was created Earl Amherst of Arakan in 1&26.
On his return to England he lived in retirement till his death ia
March 1857.
See A Thackeray and R. Evans. Lord Amherst {" Rulersof I ado *
* i). 1894-
AMHERST— AMICABLE NUMBERS
853
T, a town and district in the Tenasserim division of
Lower Burma. The town is situated about 30 m. S. of Moul-
mein. It was founded by the British in x8a6 on the restoration of
the town of Martaban to the Burmese, and named in compliment
to the governor-general of India of that day; but in 1897 the
headquarters were transferred to Moulmein. Amherst has been
eclipsed in prosperity by the latter city, and is now merely a
bathing-place for Moulmein.
The district forms a narrow strip of land between the Indian
Ocean and the mountains which separate it from the independent
kingdom of Siam. It has an area of 706a sq. m. and had a
population in 1001 of 300,173; it consists partly of fertile valleys
formed by spurs of mountain system which divides it from
Siam, and partly of a rich alluvial tract created by the great rivers
which issue from them. The most important of these are the
Salween and the Gyaing, formed by the junction of the Hlaingbwe
and Haungtharaw rivers. The river highways bring down inex-
haustible supplies of rice to Moulmein, the chief town of the
district, as also of the province of Tenasserim. The district is
subject to very heavy rainfall approaching 1 50 in. in the year, and
has a uniform temperature of about 8o° F. throughout the twelve-
month.
AMHERST, a village of Amherst township, Hampshire county,
Massachusetts, U.S.A., in the central part of the state, about
7 m. N.E. of Northampton. Fop. of the township (1800) 4512;
(1000) 5028; (1910, U. S. census) 511s. It is served by the
Boston ft Maine and the Central Vermont railways, and by inter-
urban electric railways to Northampton, Holyoke, Sunderland
and Pelham. The village is picturesquely situated on a plateau
within a rampart of hills on the E. side of the Connecticut river
valley. About 3 m. to the S. are the Holyoke Mountains (so
called), while on the three remaining sides the land slopes to
meadows, beyond which rise on the W. the Hampshire and Berk-
shire HiDs, on the N. the Sugar Loaf Mountains and Mt. Toby,
and on the E. the Pelham Hills, including Mt Lincoln (1246 ft.).
Two small rivers (Mill and Fort) flow through the township.
Amherst is a quiet, pleasing, academic village of attractive homes.
It is noteworthy as the seat of Amherst College one of the best
known of the smaller colleges of the United States. Amherst
Academy (opened about 18x4, chartered x8x6), a co-educational
school at which Mary Lyon, the founder of Mt Holyoke College,
was educated, preceded the college (not co-educational),which was
opened in x8ax and was chartered in 1825. It was originally a
collegiate charitable institution, its basis being a fund for the
schooling of ministers, and the charity element has remained very
large relatively to other colleges. The principal college buildings
are College Hall (1828); College Chapel (1828); the Henry T.
Morgan Library; Wflliston Hall, containing the Mather Art
Museum, the rooms of the Young Men's Christian Association,
and several lecture-rooms; Walker Hall, with college offices and
lecture-rooms; Hitchcock Hall; Barrett Hall (1859), the first
college gymnasium built in the United States, now used as a lecture
hall ; the Pratt Gymnasium and Natatorium and the Pratt Health
Cottage, Whose donors also gave to the college the Pratt Field;
an astronomical observatory; and the two dormitories, North
College and South College, supplemented by several fraternity
bouses. The natural history collections (including the very large
ichnologkal collection of President Hitchcock, and Audubon's
collection of birds) are of exceptional richness. At Amherst is
also theMassachusettsAgriculturalCollege(co-educational ; x 867)
and experiment station (1887). Among the presidents of Amherst
College have been in 1845-1834 and in 1876-1800 respectively—
Edward Hitchcock, the famous geologist, and the Rev. Julius H.
Seelye (1824-X805), a well-known educationalist The township
seems to have been first settled in 1731; it was incorporated in
1759 as a " district" (».«. having aH the rights of a township save
corporate representation in the legislature) and in 1776 as a
44 town "(township). It was originally part of Hadley. Its name
was given to it in honour of General Jeffrey Amherst (1717-1797)-
During the Shays' Rebellion Amherst was a centre of disaffection
and a rallying-point of the insurgents. Noah Webster lived in the
village from x8xs to 1822, when working on his Dictionary; and
Emily Dickinson and Helen M. Fiske (later Helen Hunt-Jackson,
" H. H.") were born here.
See William Seymour Tyler, A History of Amherst CeUege (New
York. 1896). and Carpenter and Morehouse, The History of the Town
of Amherst (New York, 1896).
AMHERST, the county town of Cumberland county, and port
of entry in Novia Scotia, Canada, at the head of Chignecto Bay
and on the Intercolonial railway, 138 m. from Halifax. Pop
(1901) 4964. It is situated in a rich agricultural and mining
district, and contains county and railway buildings and numerous
mills and factories. It is the distributing centre for the surround-
ing district, and exports railway carriages, engines, boilers,
stoves, ftc
AMHURST, NICHOLAS (1697-x 742), English poet and political
writer, was born at Marden, Kent, on the 16th of October 1697.
He was educated at the Merchant Taylors' School, and received
an exhibition (1716) to St John's College, Oxford. In X7i9he was
expelled from the university, ostensibly for his irregularities of
conduct, but in reality, according to his own account, because of
his whig principles, which were sufficiently evident in a congratu-
latory epistle to Addison, in Protestant Popery; or the Convoca-
tion (X7 18), an attack on the opponents of Bishop Hoadly, and in
The Protestant Session . . ,bya member of the Constitution Club
at Oxford (17x9), addressed to James, first Earl Stanhope, and
printed anonymously, but doubtless by Amhurst He had satir-
ised Oxford morals in Stephen's Revenge; a Satire on the Oxford
Toasts (17x8), and he attacked from time to time the administra-
tion of the university and its principal members. An old Oxford
custom on public occasions permitted some person to deliver from
the rostrum a humorous, satirical speech, full of university
scandal. This orator was known as Terras filius. In 1721
Amhurst produced a series of bi-weekly satirical papers under
this name, which ran for seven months and incidentally provides
much curious information. These publications were reprinted in
x 7 26 in two volumes as Terras Pilius; or the secret history of the
University of Oxford; in several essays. ... He collected his
poems in x 7 20, and wrote another university satire, Ocuius BrU
tanniae, in 17 24. On leaving Oxford for London he became a
prominent pamphleteer on the opposition side. On the 5th of
December 1726 he issued the first number of the Craftsman, a
weekly periodical, which he conducted under the pseudonym of
Caleb D' An vers. The paper contributed largely to the final over-
throw of Sir Robert Walpole's government, and reached a circu-
lation of 10,000 copies. For this success Amhurst's editorship was
not perhaps chiefly responsible. It was the organ of Lord Boling-
broke and William Pulteney, the latter of whom was a frequent
and caustic contributor. In 1737 an imaginary letter from CoUey
Cibber was inserted, in which he was made to suggest that many
plays by Shakespeare and the older dramatists contained passages
which might be regarded as seditious. He therefore desired to be
appointed censor of all plays brought on the stage. This was
regarded as a " suspected " libel, and a warrant was issued for
the arrest of the printer. Amhurst surrendered himself instead,
and suffered a short imprisonment On the overthrow of the
government in 174a the opposition leaders did nothing for the
useful editor of the Craftsman, and this neglect is said to have
hastened Amhurst's death, which took place at Twickenham on
the 27t h of A pril 1742.
AMIANTHUS, a corruption of amiantus (Gr. d/itoirof , unde-
nted), a name applied to the finer kinds of asbestos (?.».), in conse-
quence, it is said, of the mineral being unaffected by fire. Some
of the finest amianthus, with long silky flexible fibres, occurs in the
district of the Tarentaise in Savoy. According to Dr J. W. Evans,
the ancient amianthus, derived mostly from Karystos in Euboea
and from Cyprus, was probably a fibrous serpentine, or chrysotile
(now called locally rapraxoreroa. or cotton-stone).
See Mineralogical Mag. (London) voL xiv. no. 63 (1906), art by
J. W. Evans.
AM1GABLB NUMBERS, two numbers so related that the sum
of the factors of the one is equal to the other, unity being con-
sidered as a factor. Such a pair are 220 and 284; for the factors
of 220 are 1,2,4,5,10,11,20,22,44,55 and xio, of which the sum is
284; and the factors of 284 are 1,2,4,71, and xas, of which the sum
85+
AMICE— AMICIS
b aao. Amiable number* were known to the Pythagoreans,
who accredited them with many mystical properties. A general
formula by which these numbers could be derived was invented
by the Arabian astronomer Tobit ben Korra (836-001): if
p-3'2* — 1, f—3'a"- 1 — 1 and r— 9- a*"-* — 1, where « is an
integer and p t q/ prime numbers, then 2" pq and 2" r are a pair
of amicable numbers. This formula gives the pairs 220 and 284,
17,296 and 18,416, 0,463,584 and 9,437.056- The pair 6232 and
6368 are amicable, but they cannot be derived from this formula.
Amicable numbers have been studied by Al Madshritti (d. 1007),
Rene Descartes, to whom the formula of Tobit ben Korra is some-
times ascribed, C. Rudolphus and others.
AMICE (earlier forms: amyt, omys, 0. Fr. amit, LaL amictus,
from omicire, to throw or wrap round, the change of t to * being
probably due to an early confusion with the aumuce: see
Almuce), a liturgical vestment of the Western Church. It is a
rectangular piece of doth which is wrapped round the neck,
shoulders and breast Sometimes, more particularly in Germany,
it is called the kumcrale (from humerus, shoulder). According to
modern Roman use, laid down by the decree of the Congregation
of Rites in 18x9, the amice must be of linen or of a hempen
material, not wool; and, as directed by the new Roman Missal
(1570), a small cross must be sewn or embroidered in the middle
of it. In putting it on it is first laid on the head, then allowed to
fall on the shoulders, and finally folded round the chest and tied
with the strings attached for that purpose (see fig. 1). The amice
is now worn under
the alb, except at
Milan and Lyons,
where it is put on
, over it. The vest-
ment was at first a
perfectly plain white
doth, but in the 1 2th
Fn» ^Jfe%»gtf&* *"**■ century the custom
Fig, i.-Amfce of the Present Day. Jf 096 * dea ?*S Ig
' the upper border
with a band of embroidery, the parure (parura) or " apparel."
This was abandoned at Rome about the end of the 15th
century and is not prescribed in the Missal; it survived,
however, in many parts of Europe till much later. This apparel,
when the vestment has been adjusted, forms a sort of stiff collar
which appears above the chasuble or dalmatic (see fig. 2). In
w/FwSm
Redrawn from Bran, IMmfiteht Ctwmdimg.
Fig. 2.— Medieval Method of putting on the Amice.
some exceptional cases, as at Milan, it has become detached from
the amice and is fixed like a collar to the chasuble.
The Latin word amictus was applied to any wrap-like garment,
and, according to Father Braun, the liturgical amice originated
in the ordinary neck-doth worn by all classes of Romans. It had
at the outset no liturgical significance whatever, and was simply
adopted by the dergy for the same reason that the dergy of the
1 8th century wore wigs— because it was part of the full dress of
ordinary life. The first record of its ccdesiastical use is at Rome
in the 8th century, when it was worn only with the dalmatic and
was known as the anabotagium (anagolaium, anagolagium f from
Gr. dra/36Xaior), a name it continued to bear at Rome till
the 13th century. In the 9th century it spread to the other
countries that adopted the Roman use: it is mentioned in an
inventory of vestments given by Abbot Angilbert (d. 8x4) to the
monastery at Centula (St Rigtder) and in the is t
tutiotu of Hrabanus Maurus (c. 820). The amice was worn first
simply as a shoulder-doth, but at the end of the oth century the
custom grew up of putting it on over the head and of wearing it
as a hood, either while the other vestments were being pot on or,
according to the various uses of local churches, during part of
the Mass, though never during the canon. This ceased at Rone at
the same time as the apparel disappeared; but two refics of it
survive — (1) in the directions of the Missal for potting on the
amice, (2) in the ordination of subdeacons, when the bishop lajrs
the vestment on the ordinandi bead with the words, " Take tie
amice, which symbolizes disdpline over the tongue, &c" The
priest too in putting it on prays, " Place on my bead the helmet
of salvation, &c"
The amice, whatever its origin or symbolism, became specific-
ally a vestment associated with the sacrifice of the Mass, and
as such it was rejected with the other " Mass vestments " m
England at the Reformation. Its use has, however, been revered
in many Anglican churches, the favourite form being the medi-
eval apparelled amice. (See Vestments.) A vestment akin i»
the amice is also worn in the Armenian and some other oriental
churches, but it is unknown to the Orthodox Eastern Church.
Akin to the amice is a vestment peculiar to the popes, the
fanone (Med. Lat. fano, " doth," Goth, fana, " doth," Mod.
Ger. Fakne, "a flag"),
also called the oraU (from
ora, an edge, border).
This is at present a
circular broad collar of
two thicknesses of silk,
ornamented with gold
stripes and a gold-em-
broidered cross (see fig. 3).
It is put on after the alb, I
&c, and under the tunide, \
dalmatic and chasuble,
but then drawn up so
as to fall over the latter
like a collar. The fanone
was originally a doth
like the amice and was
wrapped round neck and
shoulders; until the 15th
century, moreover, it was
not worn with the amice. Since then, however, both 1
have been worn, one under, the other over, the alb. It i
by the popes only on certain special days or <
forms part of the vestments in which they are buried.
See Joseph Braun. S. J., Dig Uturgiscke Ctmamdmmg. pp.
(Freiburg im Breugau, 1907), and bibliography to tne «
Vestments.
AMICI, GIOVANNI BATTISTA (1786-1863), Italian astronomer
and microscopist, was born on the 25th of March 1786 at Modes*.
After studying at Bologna, he became professor of mathematics
at Modena, and in 183 1 was appointed inspector-general of stadia
in the duchy. A few years later he was chosen director of the
observatory at Florence, where be also lectured at the museum tf
natural history. He died at Florence on the 10th of April 1863.
His name is best known for the improvements he effected in the
mirrors of reflecting tdescopes and especially in the con str mt i ua
of the microscope. He was also a diligent and skilful observer.
and busied himself not only with astronomical subjects, such as
the double stars, the satellites of Jupiter and the me asui esaeet
of the polar and equatorial diameters of the sun, out also with
biological studies of the circulation of the sap in plants, the
fructification of plants, infusoria, Ac
AMICIS, EDMONDO DB (1846-1908), Italian writer, was bars
at Oneglia, in Liguria, on the aist of October 1846. After sosst
schooling at Cuneo and Turin, he was sent to the Military Schod
at Modena, from which he was appointed to a lieutenancy in tie
3rd regiment of the line in 1865. He fought at the battle ef
Custoasa in 1806. In 1867 be became director of the fissfif
From Bran. IMmgimkiC
Fig. 3.— The Papal Fa
*.-*
AMICUS CURIAE— AMIENS
855
Jfffstere, Florence. In the following year be published his first
book, La Vila MUitare, which consisted of sketches of military
life, and attained wide popularity. After the overthrow of the
pope's temporal power in 1870, De Amitis retired from the army
and devoted himself to literature, making his headquarters at
Turin. Always a traveller by inclination, he found opportunity
for this in bis new leisure, and some of his most popular books
have been the product of his wanderings. Several of these have
been translated into English and the other principal languages of
Europe. The moat important of these are bis descriptions of
Spain (1873), Holland (1874), Constantinople (1877) and Morocco
(1879;. These gained him a well-deserved reputation as a
brilliant depicter of scenery and the external aspects of life; solid
information is not within their sphere; and much of their success
is owing to the opportunities they afford for spirited illustration.
Subsequently De Amids greatly extended his fame as a writer of
fiction, especially by // Romamo <f un Maestro, and the wffiely
read // Cuore (translated into English as An Italian Schoolboy's
Journal); later volumes from bis pen being La Corona di tutti
(centring round an electric tram), Memorie, Speranu e glorie,
Ricordi «T mfamia e di scuola, V Idioma gentile, and a volume of
short stories, Net Regno dell* Amort. He died suddenly of heart
disease at Bordighera on the 12th of March 1008.
AMICUS CURIAE (LaL for " a friend of the court "), a term
used primarily in law, signifying a person (usually a member of
the bar) who, having special knowledge but not being engaged
in the suit, intervenes during its hearing to give information for
the assistance of the court, either upon some fact relevant to the
issue or upon a point of law, such as the hearing of a local custom,
the precedent of some decided case, &c
AM1DINES, in organic chemistry, the name given to compounds
of general formula RC: (NH)» NH«, which maybe considered as
derived from the acid-amides by replacement of oxygen by the
divalent imino («NH) group. They may be prepared by the
action of ammonia or amines on imide chorides, or on thiamides
(O. Wallach, A. Bernthsen); by the action of ammonium
chloride or hydrochlorides of amines on nitriles; by condensing
amines and amides in presence of phosphorus trichloride; by the
action of hydrochloric add on acid-amides (0. Wallach, Ber. r
1882, 15, p. 208); and by the action of ammonia or amines on
imino-ethers (A. Pinner, Ber., 1883, 16, p. 1647; 1884, 17, p. 179).
They are monacid bases, which are not very stable; they
readily take up the elements of water (when boiled with adds or
alkalies) .yieldLsg amides and ammonia. On dry distillation they
yield nitriles and ammonia. When warmed with sulphuretted
hydrogen they yield thiamides, RC : (NH)-NHR+H,S-
R-C(NH,)(SH)NHR-R-CSNH,+NHrRoT RCSNHR+NH,.
With 6-ketonic esters, H0(CH,)C : CH- C0,R, they yield oxy-
pyrimidines (A. Pinner, Ber. t 1890, 23, p. 3820).
Fornuunidme, HC: (NH)NH*, is only known in the form of its
salts, the hydrochloride being obtained by the action of ammonia
on the hydrochloride of formimido-ethyl ether (A. Pinner, Ber. t
i83 3 , x6, p. 357). Acetamidine, CH.C : (NH)NH,, is alkaline
in reaction, and readily splits up into acetic add and ammonia
when wanned with adds. Its hydrochloride melts at 163 C,
and crystallizes from alcohol in colourless deliquescent prisms.
Acetic anhydride converts* the base into an acetamino-dimethyl
pyTimidine, acetic add and acetamide being also formed.
Bemamidine, G»H»C: (NH)NH,, forms colourless crystals
which mdt at 75-80° C. When warmed it breaks down into
ammonia and cyanphenine (s-triphenyl triazine). It condenses
with acetic anhydride to form a methyldiphenyl triazine acet-
amide being also formed; with acetyl-acetone to form dtmethyl-
phenyl pyrimidine (A. Pinner, Ber., 1893, 2 °» P- 2125); and with
trimethylene bromide to form a phenyl tetrahydropyrimidine
(Pinner). H.v. Pechmann (Ber., 1895, 28, p. 2362) has shown
that amidines of the type RC : (NY)-NHZ sometimes react as if
they possessed the constitution RC : (NZ) NHY; but this only
appears to occur when Y and Z are groups which function in the
same way. If Y and Z are groups which behave very differently,
then there is apparently no tautomerism and a definite formula
can be given to the compound.
ft-CH.
QHrC/ Vh.
tjh-chT
The formulae of the ringed compounds mentioned above are
here shown:
N-C— (CHO N-C— (CHO
RC( %CH CHrCf \ CH
N-C-(0H) N«£—(NHCOCH0
Oxypyrinudine. Acetaminorfimrthyi pyrimidinr.
Methyldiphenyl triazine. Phenyl tetrahydropyrimidine.
AMIEL, HENRI FR*DiRIC (1821-1881), Swiss philosopher
and critic, was born at Geneva on the 27th of September 1821.
He was descended from a Huguenot family driven to Switzerland
by the revocation of the edict of Nantes. • Losing his parents at
an early age, he travelled widdy, became intimate with the
intellectual leaders of Europe and made a special study of
German philosophy in Berlin. In 1849 he was appointed
professor of aesthetics at the academy of Geneva, and in 1854
became professor of moral philosophy. These appointments,
conferred by the democratic party, deprived him of the support
of the aristocratic party; which comprised nearly all the culture
of the dty. This isolation inspired the one book by which Amiel
lives, the Journal Intime, which, published after his death,
obtained a European reputation. It was translated into English
by Mrs Humphry Ward. Although second-rate as regards
productive power, Amiel's mind was of no inferior quality, and
bis journal gained a sympathy which the author had failed to
obtain in his life. In addition to the Journal, he produced
several volumes of poetry and wrote studies on Erasmus, Madame
de Stael and other writers. He died in Geneva on the 11 lb
of March 1881. His chief poetical works are Grains de mil, 11
penseroso, Part du reve, Lcs Etrangeres, Charles te Ttmtraire,
Romancero historique. Jour d jour.
See Life of Amid by Mdlle Berthe Vadier (Paris, 1885); Paul
Bourget, Nouveaux essais (Paris, 1885); E. Scherer, introd. to the
Journal and in Etudes sur la litt. contemp. (vol. viit.).
AMIENS, a dty of northern France, capital of the department
of Somme, on the left bank of the Somme, 81 m. N. of Paris on the
Northern railway to Calais. Pop. (1006) 78,407. Amiens was
once a place of great strength, and still possesses a dtadd of the
end of the x6lh century, but the ramparts which surrounded
it have been replaced by boulevards, bordered by handsome
residences. Suburbs, themsdves bounded by another line of
boulevards, have arisen beyond these limits, and the dty also
extends to the right bank of the Somme. The busy quarter of
Amiens lies between the river and the railway, which for some
distance follows the inner line of boulevards. The older and
more picturesque quarter is situated directly on the Somme; its
narrow and irregular streets are intersected by the eleven arms of
the river and it is skirted on the north by the canal derived
therefrom. Besides its boulevards Amiens has the ample park
or Promenade de la Hotoie to the west and several fine squares,
notably the Place Longueville and the Place St Denis, in which
stands the statue of the famous 17th-century scholar Charles
Ducange. The cathedral (see Architecture: Romanesque and
Gothic Architecture in France; and Cathedral), which is perhaps
the finest church of Gothic architecture in France, far exceeds the
other buildings of the town in importance. Erected on the plans
of Robert de Luzarches, chiefly between 1 220 and 1 288. it consists
of a nave, nearly 140 ft. in hdght, with aisles and lateral chapels,
a transept with aisles, and a choir (with deambulatory) ending
in an apse surrounded by chapels. The total length is 469 ft ,
the breadth 216 ft. The facade, which is flanked by two square
towers without spires, has three portals decorated with a pro-
fusion of statuary, the central portal having a remarkable statue
of Christ of the 13th century; they are surmounted by two
galleries, the upper one containing twenty-two statues of the
kings of Judah in its arcades, and by a fine rose-window. A
slender spire rises above the crossing. The southern portal
is remarkable for a figure of the Virgin and other statuary. In the
interior, which contains beautifully carved stalls, a choir screen
8 5 6
AMINES
in the flamboyant style and many other works of art, the most
striking features are the height of the nave and the boldness
of the columns supporting the vaulting. The chief of the other
churches of Amiens is St Germain (i 5th century), which has some
good stained glass. The hotel deville, begun in 1550, a belfry of
the 14th and 18th centuries and several old mansions are of
interest Amiens has a rich library and admirable collections of
paintings, sculptures and antiquities in the museum of Picardy.
Its learned associations include the Society des Antiquaires de
Picardie, by whom the museum was built in 1854-1864. The
city is the seat of a bishop, a prefect, a court of appeal and a
court of assizes, and headquarters of the II. Army Corps. There
are also tribunals of first instance and of commerce, a board of
trade-arbitrators, a chamber of commerce and a branch of the
Bank of France. The educational institutions include lycees for
boys and girls, training-colleges for teachers, a preparatory school
of medicine, a school of music and a school of iron-working and
wood-working. The textile industries for which Amiens has been
celebrated since the middle ages include manufactures of velvet,
cotton-, wool-, silk-, hemp- and flax-spinning, and the weaving
of hosiery and a variety of mixed fabrics. Manufactures of
machinery, chemicals, blacking, polish and sugar, and printing,
dyeing and iron-founding are also carried on. Market gardens,
known as kortillattnages, intersected by small canals derived from
the Sorame and Avre, cover a considerable area to the north-east
of Amiens; and the city has trade in vegetables, as well as in
grain, sugar, wool, oil-seeds and the duck-pasties and macaroons
for which it is renowned.
Amiens occupies the site of the ancient Samarobrivo, capital of
the Ambiani, from whom it probably derives its name. At the
beginning of the 4th century Christianity was preached there by
St Firmin, its first bishop. During the middle ages its territory
formed the countship of Amienois. The authority of the counts
was, however .balanced by that of the bishops,and early in the 1 ath
century the citizens, profiting by this rivalry, gained a charter of
enfranchisement The fief became for the first time a dependency
of the French crown in 1185, when Philip of Alsace, count of
Flanders, ceded it to Philip Augustus. It more than once passed
out of the power of the French kings, notably in 1435, when, by
the treaty of Arras, it came into the possession of the dukes of
Burgundy, to whom it belonged till 1477. Surprised by the
Spaniards in 1 597, the city was recaptured from them after a long
siege by Henry IV. Till 1 700 it was the capital of the gouverne-
men! of Picardy (q.v.) . The famous treaty between Great Britain,
France, Spain and Holland which took its name from Amiens
was signed in the hotel de ville on the 35th of March X802.
During the war between France and Germany, Amiens, after an
important action, fell into the hands of the Prussians on the 38th
of November 187a (See Franco-German Wax.)
See A. de Calonne, Histoire de la title d' A miens (1900); John
Ruskin, The Bible of Amiens (1881); La Picardie kistanque el
monumental*, tome i., published by the Sodete des Antiquaires
de Picardie (1893).
AMINES, in chemistry, derivatives of ammonia in which one or
more of the hydrogen atoms are replaced by alkyl or aryl groups.
The replacement of one hydrogen atom by one alkyl or aryl group
gives rise to primary amines; of two hydrogen atoms by two
groups, to secondary amines; of three hydrogen atoms by three
groups, to tertiary amines. The tertiary amines possess the power
of combining with one molecular proportion of an alkyl iodide to
form quaternary ammonium salts. The structural relations of
these compounds may be shown thus: NH»; NHjR;
Ammonia; primary amine;
NHR,; NR,; NRJ.
secondary amine; tertiary amine; quaternary ammonium iodide.
Aliphatic amines. — These compounds possess properties very
similar to those of ammonia, the lowest members of the series
being combustible gases readily soluble in water. The next
higher members of the series are liquids of low boiling point also
readily soluble in water, the solubility and volatility, however,
decreasing with the increasing carbon content of the molecule,
until the highest members of the series are odourless solids of high
boiling point and are insoluble in water. They are all strong
bases, readily forming nits with the mineral adds and <
salts with the chlorides of gold, platinum and ncrary. They
are ionised in aqueous solution to a much greater extent than
ammonia, the quaternary ammonium bases being the moat mazed,
and the secondary bases being more strongly ionised than the
primary or tertiary bases. For data concerning the oooductrnty
of the organic bases see G. Bredig (ZcsX/nr fays. CMemu, 1894,
13, p. 289).
Many methods have been devised for the preparation of the
amines, the first amine having been isolated in 1849 by A. Wuxts
on boiling methyl isocyanate with caustic potash, CON-CHVf
2KHO-CH*NH,+K,CO* The primary amines mar *■» be
prepared by heating the alkyl iodides with ■mmonia (A. W. HnV
mann); by the reduction of nitriles with alcohol and siodnan
(A. Ladenburg, Ber., x886, 19, p. 783); by heating the eaten of
nitric acid with alcoholic ammonia at ioo° C (0. WaDadb, Ber-,
1881, 14, p. 421); by the action of reducing agents on nitro*
paraffins; by the action of zinc and hydrochloric acid on nlde hyu e
ammonias (German Patent 73,8x2); by the reduction of the
phenylhydrazones and oximes of aldehydes and kr tones with
sodium amalgam in the presence of alcohol and sodium acetate
(J. Tafel, Bar., 1886, 19, P- 1925; 1889, 22, p. 1854; H- GeU-
schmidt, Ber., 1886, 19. P- 3*5*); by the action of dflste hydse*
chloric add on the isonitriles, R-NC+2HiO-R-NHrr-H«C0fc
by heating the mustard oils with a mineral add, by the hydse*
lysis of the alkyl phthalimides (S. Gabriel, Ber^ 1887, so, pw ft***;
1891, 24, p. 3x04),
yCdT fel XXK 2H«0 XOOH
QH< NK "* QH< NR "* C,1U CoOH +NH,R:
by distilling the amino-adds with baryta; by the
bromine and caustic potash on the add-amides (A. W.
c£fc0N&,^&^ftHBr4^r^0Nfer-»
CH.NCO-frCIUNH.:
and by the hydrolysis of substituted urethanes (Th. Curtis*, Ber..
,8M,n * PW:,896 aU ,44) ' HONO
RCOOH-^R-COOR 1 -»-» RCONH NH, -»
add ester hydraride _
CtH<OrI HCt
R-CON, -» R-NH-COiCH. -» RNH,
aside methane
The secondary amines are prepared, together with the primary
and tertiary, by the action of ammonia on the alkyl iodides (see
below) , or by the hydrolysis of para-nitroso derivatives of tertiary
aromatic amines, such as para-m'trosodiinethylaiifline, than:
NO-CHVN(CH,)t + rW) - NOCAOH + NH(CH^ By
the action of ammonia on the alkyl iodides a compleT mixture of
primary, secondary and tertiary amines, along with a quaternary
ammonium salt, is obtained, the separation of which is oxffindt,
The method worked out by A. W. Hofmann is as follow*?— the
mixture is distilled with caustic potash, when the primary,
secondary and tertiary amines distil over, and the quaternary
ammonium salt remains behind unaffected. The aqueous soh>
tion of the amines is now shaken up with diethyl oxalate, when
the primary amine forms a crystalline dialkyi oxamide and the
secondary amine an insoluble liquid, which is an ethyl dnJkyl
oxamate, the tertiary amine not reacting: (COhCAM-
2NH,R - (CONHR), + 2C«H«0H; (COiCtH»)« + NH*, -
GH»0,C-CONR,+C,H,OH. The tertiary amine is then da-
tilled off, the residual products separated by filtration and finally
bydrolysed by a caustic alkali.
The primary, secondary and tertiary amines may be rendSy dhv
tinguished by their behaviour with various reagents Prhnarr
amines when heated with alcoholic potash and chloroform yield
isonitriles, which are readily detected by their offensive snsel.
The secondary and tertiary amines do not give this reaction.
With nitrous add, the primary amines yield alcohols, the
secondary amines yield nitrosamines and the tertiary anuses
do not react: R NH,+ONOH-R-OH+N,+H,0; R*NH+
ONOH-R,N NO+H.O. With benzene sulphochloride in the
presence of alkali, the primary amines yield compounds of the tyae
C»H«SOiNHR soluble in alkalies, whilst the 1
AMINES
857
yield compounds of the type CASC^NR* insoluble in alkalies
(O. Hinsberg, Ber., 1800, 23, p. 1963). Primary amines heated
with carbon bisulphide in alcoholic solution are converted into
mustard oils, when the m'thiocarbamate first produced is
heated with a solution of mercuric chloride.
Methylamine, CH*NH,, occurs in Mercurial** perennis, in
bone-oil, and herring brine. It is also a decomposition product of
many alkaloids. At ordinary temperatures it is a gas, but may be
condensed to a liquid which boils at- 6° C. It has a strong am-
moniacal smell, burns readily and is exceedingly soluble in water.
Its critical temperature is 155° C. and critical pressure 72 atmos.
(C. Vincent, J. Chappuis, Jakresb., 1886, p. 202). Dimethylamine,
(CH*)jNH, is found in Peruvian guano. It is a heavy vapour
which condenses at 7 C. to a liquid, having a pronounced fish-like
unelL Trimethylamine, (CH*)$N, is very similar to dimethyl-
amine, and condenses to a«h*quid which boils at 3< 2-3*8° C. It
is usually obtained from " vinasses," the residue obtained from
the distillation of beet sugar alcohol, and is used in the manufac-
ture of potassium bicarbonate by the Solvay process, since its
hydrochloride is much more soluble than potassium carbonate.
Tetramethylammonium iodide, N(CH»)J, is the chief product
obtained by the action of methyl iodide on ammonia (Hofmann).
It crystallises in quadratic prisms and has a bitter taste. By
warming its aqueous solution with an excess of silver oxide it is
converted into tetramethylammonium hydroxide, N(CHa)<OH,
which crystallizes in hygroscopic needles, and has a very alkaline
reaction. It forms many crystalline salts and absorbs carbon
dioxide. It precipitates many metallic hydroxides. On dry dis-
tillation it is resolved into trimethylamine and methyl alcohol
If the nitrogen atom in the quaternary ammonium salts be in
combination with four different groups, then the molecule is
asymmetrical, and the salt can be resolved into optically active
enantiamorphous isomerides. W. J. Pope (Jour. Chem. Soc. t
1001, 70, p. 828) has resolved bensyl-aUyl-pbenyl-methylamine
iodide by boiling with silver tf-camphoisulphonate in a nearly
Anhydrous mixture of acetone and ethyl acetate. The silver
iodide is separated and the solvent distilled off. The residue
crystallises slowly, and the crystalline product is almost wholly
o^rjenzyl-aJryl-phenyl-ammonium-d-sulphonate, the correspond-
ing ^compound remaining as a syrupy residue. The correspond-
ing iodides are obtained by the addition ot potassium iodide to
solutions of the sulphonates, and are optically active antipodes.
Diamines.— The diamines contain two amino groups and bear
the same relation to the glycols that the primary monamines bear
to the primary alcohols. They are of importance, since the higher
homologues are identical in many cases with the ptomaines pro-
duced by the putrefactive action of some bacteria on albumen
and other related substances. Ethylene diamine, CACNHt)*,
may be prepared by heating ethylene dibromide with alcoholic
ammonia to 100* C. (F. S. Cloez, Jakresb., 1853, p. 468); or by
the action of tin and hydrochloric add on cyanogen (T. Fairley,
Ann. Suppl., 3, 1864, p. 372). It is an alkaline liquid, which
when anhydrous boils at 116-5* C Nitrous add converts it into
ethylene oxide. It combines directly with many metallic salts.
(See S. F. Jorgensen, Jour. pr. Chem., 1889 (2), 39, p. 8.) Tri-
methylene diamine, NHr(CHa)»NH, f is prepared by the action
of ammonia on trimethylene bromide (E. Fischer, Ber., 1884, 17,
p. 1 700). It is a liquid which boils at 135-136* C, and is readily
soluble in alcohol, ether, chloroform and benzene. Tetramethyl-
ene diamine (putrescine), NHr(CHs)«-NH 9 , is prepared by re-
ducing ethylene dicyanide (sucdnonitrile) with sodium in absolute
alcoholic solution (A. Ladenburg, Ber., 1886, 19, p. 780). It
melts at 27* C, and is easily soluble in water. Pentamethylene
diamine (cadaverine), NHr(CHj)»-NH,,is prepared by reducing
trimethylene cyanide in ether solution by zinc and hydrochloric
acid (A. Ladenburg, Ber., 1883, 16, p. 1151). J. v. Braun (Ber.,
S004, 37, p. 3583) has prepared pentamethylene derivatives from
pipertdine by the action of phosphorus pentachloride. On heat-
ing prperidine with phosphorus pentachloride to 2oo°C. in a sealed
tube pentamethylene dichloride is obtained, and this on treat-
ment with potassium phthalimide gives a condensation product
of composition, CrfU CO]sN(CH«).NlCO],Cda« f which is finally
hydrotysed by hydrochloric add. Cadaverine is a syrup at ordin-
ary temperatures, and boils at x 78-x 79° C. It is readily soluble
in water and alcohol, but only slightly soluble in ether.
Aromatic Amines.— The aromatic amines in some respects
resemble the aliphatic amines, since they form salts with adds,
and double salts with platinum chloride, and they also distil
without decomposition. On the other hand, they are much
weaker bases than the aliphatic amines, their salts undergoing
hydrolytic dissociation in aqueous solution. The primary
aromatic amines may be prepared by the reduction of the
nitro-hydrocarbons, the reducing agents used being tither
alcoholic-ammonium sulphide (N. Zinin), sine and hydrochloric
add (A. W. Hofmann), an alcoholic solution of stannous chloride
(containing hydrochloric add) (R. Anschutx, Ber., 1886, 19, p.
2161), tin and hydrochloric add, or, on the manufacturing scale,
iron and hydrochloric add. They may also be obtained by the
reduction of nitroso compounds and of hydrazo compounds and
of hydrazones (J. Tafel, Ber., x886, 19, p. 1924), by distilling
the amide-adds with lime, by heating phenols with zinc chloride
ammonia (V. Men, Ber., x88o, 13, p. x2o8), and by heating the
secondary and tertiary bases with concentrated hydrochloric add
to about x8o° C.
At a temperature of about 300-400° C. the alkyl chloride
formed in this reaction attacks the benzene nucleus and replaces
hydrogen by an alkyl group or groups, forming primary amines
homologous with the original amine; thus methylaniline hydro-
chloride Is converted into para- and ortho-toluidine hydro-
chloride, and trimethyi phenyl ammonium iodide is converted
into mesidine hydriodide. It is to be noted that only traces of the
aromatic amines are produced by heating the halogen substituted
benzenes with ammonia, unless the amino group be situated in
the side chain, as in the case of benzylamine.
The primary amines are colourless liquids or crystalline solids,
which are insoluble in water, but readily soluble in the common
organic solvents. When heated with alkyl or aryi iodides, they
are converted into secondary and tertiary amines. Concentrated
nitric add attacks them violently, produdng various oxidation
products, but if the amino group be "protected" by being
previously acetylated, then nitro derivatives are obtained. When
heated with concentrated sulphuric add for some time, they
are sulphonated. They form condensation products with alde-
hydes, benzaldehyde and aniline forming benzylidene aniline,
C»H*N:CHCiH«, and when heated with adds they /orm
anilides. They give the isonitrOe reaction (see above) when
warmed with chloroform and a caustic alkali, and form alkyl
thioureas when heated with an alcoholic solution of carbon
bisulphide. When warmed with a solution of nitrous add, they
are converted into phenols; if, however, nitrous add be added to
an ice-cold solution of a primary amine in excess of mineral add,
a diazonium salt is formed (see Azo Compounds and Diazo
Compounds), or in absence of excess of add, a diazoamine is
produced.
The secondary amines may be of two types— namdy, the purely
aromatic amines, and the mixed secondary amines, which contain
an aromatic residue and an alkyl group. The purely aromatic
amines result upon heating the primary amines with their
hydrochlorides, and, in some cases, by heating a phenol with
a primary amine and anhydrous zinc chloride. The mixed
secondary amines are prepared by the action of alkyl iodides on
the primary amines, or by heating salts of the primary amine
with alcohols under pressure. The mixed secondary amines have
basic properties, but the purely aromatic secondary amines are
only very feeble bases. Both classes readily exchange the imide
hydrogen for add radicals, and give nitrosamines with niwous
add. The secondary amines do not give the isonitrile reaction.
The tertiary amines may also be of two types, the purely
aromatic and the mixed type. The mixed tertiary amines are
produced by the action of alkyl halides on the primary amines.
The simplest aromatic tertiary amine, triphenylamine, is prepared
by the action of brombenzene on sodium diphenylamine (C.
Heydrich, Ber n 1885, x8, p. 2x56). The simplest aromatic
monamine is aniline (q.i.), and the simplest mixed amines are
858
AMIOT— AMIS ET AMILES
mono- and di-mcthyi aniline. These substances are treated in
the article Aniune,
The aromatic amine resembling the aliphatic amines is ben-
sylamine, C»H»CHrNHj, which may be prepared by reducing
benzonitrile in alcoholic solution by means of zinc and acetic add
(O. Mendius, Ann. 186 a, 121, p. 144), or by metallic sodium
(E. Bamberger, Ber. t 1887, 20, p. 1709). It can also be obtained
by the action of ammonia on benzyl chloride (S. Cannizzaro,
Ann., 1865, 134, p. 1 28), but di- and tri-benzylamines are simul-
taneously formed. It is a liquid, which boils at 183° C, and
is misdble in all proportions with water, alcohol and ether. It
is basic in character, and has a strongly alkaline reaction. Di-
phenylamine, (OHi)tNH, is the simplest representative of the
true aromatic secondary amines. It is prepared by heating
aniline and aniline hydrochloride for some hours to 3x0-240° C,
(Ch. Girard and G. de Laire, ZeUjUr. Chem., 1866, p. 438). It
crystallizes in white plates, which melt at 45° C. and boil at 302° C
It is almost insoluble in water, but readily volatilizes in steam.
When heated with monobasic saturated adds and zinc chloride it
yields acridines.
Aromatic Diamines— Tht diamines are prepared by reducing
the nitranilines or the dinitrohydrocarbons. They crystallize
in plates, and for the most part distil without decomposition.
Orthophenylene diamine, Ctfi (NH*)«, crystallizes from water in
plates, which mdt at 102-103° C. and boil at 256-258° C. When
heated with 10% hydrochloric add to 180° C it yields pyro-
catechin (Jacob Meyer, her., 1897, 30, p. 2569). The ortho-
diamines are characterized by the large number of condensation
products they form. (See Imidazoles, Quinoxalines, &c.).
Metaphenylene diamine crystallizes in rhombic plates which mdt
at 63° C. and boil at 287* C. It is easily soluble in water and
alcohol. When heated with zo % hydrochloric add to 180° C
it yields resordn (J. Meyer). Paraphenylene diamine may be
prepared as above, and also by the reduction of amidoazobenzene.
It crystallizes in tables which mdt at 140° C. and boil at 267° C.
When heated with 10% hydrochloric add to 180° C. it yields
hydroquinone (J. Meyer). Manganese dioxide and dilute sul-
phuric add oxidize it to quinone. The three classes of diamines
may be distinguished by their behaviour towards nitrous add.
The ortho-compounds condense to azimido benzenes, the meta-
compounds yidd azo-dyestuffs, and the para-compounds yield
bis-diazo compounds of the type XNrORVNtX.
AMIOT, JEAN JOSEPH MARIE (17x8-1793), French Jesuit
missionary, was born at Toulon in February 17 18. He entered
the Sodety of Jesus in 2737 and was sent in 1750 as a missionary
to China. He soon won the confidence of the emperor Kien-lung
and spent the remainder of his life at Pekin, where he died on the
9th of October x 793. Amiot was eminently fitted to make good
use of the advantages which his situation afforded, and his works
did more than had ever been done before to make known to
the Western world the thought and life of the Far East. His
Dictionnaire latarc-mantchou-francais (Paris, 1789) was a work of
great value, the language having been previously quite unknown
in Ecrope. His other writings are to be found chiefly in the
Mhnoircs concemant Pkistoire, les sciences et les arts de Ckinois
(15 vols., Paris, 1776-1701)- The Vie de Confucius, the twelfth
volume of that collection, is complete and accurate.
For full bibliography see De Backer and C. Sommervogel,
BiUiotheque de la Cie. de Jesus, L 294-303; for his works on Chinese
mime see F. J. Fetis, Bieg. unmers. des musiciens (Brussels, 1837-
1844).
AMIR, or Aran (an Arabic word meaning " commander,"
from the root amr, " commanding "), a title common in the
Mahommedan East The form emir is also commonly employed
in English. The word originally signified a military commander,
but very early came to be extended to anyone bearing rule,
Mahomet himself being styled by the pagan Arabs amir of
Mecca. Thus the term gradually came to be applied to any high
office-bearer, or to any lord or chief. The caliph has the style of
Amirul Omara, " lord of lords. ** The title Amirul Muminim,
or " commander of the faithful," now borne by the sultan of
Turkey f was first assumed by Abu Bear, and was taken by most of
the various dynasties which daimed the caHpnafr, fnrmtlng At
Fatimites, .the Spanish Omayyads and the Almohades. The
Almoravides and the Merinides assumed the style of Amir ai
Muslimin, "commander of the Mussulman*."
The use of the word is, in fact, dosdy akin to thai of tie
English " lord," sometimes connoting office, as in Aum •£
ahghal ( minister of finance) under the Almohades (cf. " lord of
the treasury "), sometimes mere dignity, as in the case of the titk
of honour borne by all descendants of the Prophet, or of the title
Mir assumed by men of great rank in the Far East. Sometina
it implies a temporary office of dignity and command— tf
the Amtr ul-kaj, " commander of the pilgrimage " (to Mecca).
Sometimes again it connotes the meaning of " sovereign bid,*
in which sense it was early assumed by the princes of Sind and bf
the rulers of Afghanistan and Bokhara, the title implying a lesser
dignity than that of sultan. Thus too it is very generally
applied in the East to the chiefs of independent or semi-inde-
pendent tribes. In the Lebanon both the Christian dans and tat
Druses are ruled by hereditary amirs. Finally the word (con-
fused not unnaturally with the particle usually attached to it)
was borrowed by the West, and is the origin of the Engma
" admiral."
AMIS ET AMILES, the tide of an old French romance based <a
a widespread legend of friendship and sacrifice. In its earner
and simpler form it is the story of two friends, one of whom, Ama,
was smitten with leprosy because he had committed perjury to
save his friend. A vision informed him thai be could only be
cured by bathing in the blood of Amiles's children. Whea
Amiles learnt this he killed the children, who were, ho we wet,
miraculously restored to life after the cure of Amis. The tale
was probably of Oriental origin, and introduced to the West by
way of Byzantium. It found its way into French literature
through the medium of Latin, as the names Amicus and Amefiss
indicate, and was eventually attached to the Camfingian cycle
in the 12th-century chanson de teste of Amis et Amdlcs. Thn
poem is written in decasyllabic assonanced verse, each staaa
being terminated by a short line. It belongs to the hook
period of French epic, containing some passages of great beauty,
notably the episode of the slaying of the children, and mminn^M
a high level of poetry throughout Amis has married Lotus
and become count of Blaives (Blaye), while Amiles has beoosse
seneschal at the court of Charlemagne, and is seduced by the
emperor's daughter, BellisanL The lovers are betrayed, and
Amiles is unable to find the necessary suppor t ers to enable
him to dear himself by the ordeal of single combat, and feats,
moreover, to fight in a false cause. He b granted a reprieve,
and goes in search of Amis, who engages to personate him in the
combat He thus saves his friend, but in so doing perjures him-
self. Then follows the leprosy of Amis, and, after a lapse of years,
his discovery of Amiles and cure. There are obvious reminb-
cences in this story of Damon and Pythias, and of the classical
instances of sacrifice at the divine command. The legend of
Amis and Amiles occurs in many forms. with slight variations, the
names and positions of the friends being sometimes reversed
The crown of martyrdom was not lacking, for Amis and Amiles
were slain by Ogier the Dane at Novara on their way home fres
a pilgrimage to the Holy Land. Jourdam de Blaiecs, a ekansam
degsste which partly reproduces the story of ApoUomimsof Tyre,
was attached to the teste of Amis by making Jourdsin ha
The versions of Amis and Amiles mdude— (•) 1
recensions in prose and verse, notably that given by Vincent <b
Beauvais in his Speculum historiale (lib. nriii. cap. 169-166 and 169):
(6) an Anglo-Norman version in snort rhymed couplets, which a
not attached to the Charlemagne legend and agree* fairly closely via
the English Amis and Amilcun (Midland dialect. 13th oeatsry);
these with the old None version are printed by E Kolbiaf . AtxnJ.
Bibl. vol. it. (1889), and the Eiigush romance also in H. Weber,
Metrical Romances, vol. U. (1810): (c) the 19th-century Fvesck
chanson de teste analysed by P. Paris in Hist. UiLdela Fmute (vxL
jorii.). and edited by R. Hofmann (Erlangen, 1889) with the admass
of Jourdain de Blames; (d) the Latin Vita SamcL Amid et Amdrn
for. by Kolbing. qfr. at.) and its Old-French translation. U 4
AMITERNUM— AMM1ANUS
859
4m an* eQde (Paris, 1836); (e) a 14th-century drama, Un Minds
de Notre Dame fAmis et Amile, ed. L. J. N. Moomerque and
F. MkhdinTkidtrefr.auinoyendt*(iBs9)i (/)<*! Norse, Icelandic,
Danish versions, Ac (see K. Hofmaan, op. air.): (f) an imitation
which under the name of Oiteer and Artns was current in many
et Amy*, printed by A. Verard (Paris, c. 1503). Ac. for which see
G. Branet, Manuel du libradrt, s.v. " Millet." A different version of
the legend is inserted at considerable length in V Ystoire des sept sates
(ed. C. Paris, Sec. des one. lexlesfr., 1876), in which the friends are
called Alexandre and Louis, and Bemsant Florentine. For a further
bibliography see L. Gautier, BiU. des chansons de teste (Paris. 1897).
William Morris's version of the French romance was printed at the
Kelmscott Press in 1894. See also the essay by W. Pater in The
Renaissance, 1893.
AMTTERNUM, an ancient town of the Sabines, situated about
5 m. N. of Aqmla, in the broad valley of the Ateraus, from which,
according to Varro, it took its name. It was stormed by the
Romans in 293 B.C., and though it suffered from the wan of the
Republican period, it seems to have risen to renewed prosperity
under the empire. This it owed largely to its position. It lay
at the point of junction of four roads— the Via Caedlia, the Via
Claudia Nova and two branches of the Via Salaria, which joined
it at the 64th and 89th miles respectively. The fertility of its
territory was also praised by ancient authors. There are con-
siderable remains of an aqueduct, an amphitheatre and a theatre
(the latter excavated in 1880— see Notttie degli scavi, 1880, 290,
3S<>» 379), *11 of which belong to the imperial period, while
in the lull on which the village of S. Vittorino is built are some
Christian catacombs. Amiternum was the birthplace of the
historian SaJlust In a gorge ij m. east are massive remains
of cydopean walls {i.e. in rough blocks), probably intended to
regulate the flow of the stream (N. Persichetti in Romische
Milteilungen, 1909, 134 *tq.).
AMLWCH (Uwch- " lake "), a market town of Anglesey, North
Wales, situated on slightly rising ground on the N, coast of the
island, 15 m. N.W. of Beaumaris and 262 m. from London, by
the London ft North- Western railway. Pop. of urban district
(1901) 2094. Originally it owed its whole importance to the copper
mines of the Parys (probably, Parry's) mountain, as, before ore
was discovered in March 1 768, it was a small hamlet of fishermen.
The mines once produced 3000 tons of metal annually, copper
amelting being largely carried on, but have now almost ceased
working. Though apparently not mentioned by Ptolemy, they
were perhaps Roman. Robert Parys, chamberlain of North
Wales under Henry IV., is often given as their godfather. The
poor harbour called the " port," protected by a breakwater, has
been cut out of the rock (shingle). Amlwch is the terminus of the
branch railway from Gaerwen to Amlwch, formerly the Anglesey
Central Railway Company. Porthllechog, or Bull Bay (so
called from the Bull Rock), at a mile's distance, is a small but
favourite watering-place. Beyond, on the coast, some 3 m.
distant, are the remains of a British fort and of the Llanllaianau
monastery, opposite the Middle Mouse islet and dose to Llanba-
drig old church and Cemmaes. Industries include slate quarry-
ing, shipbuilding, iron and brass foundries, alum, vitriol, manure,
guano and tobacco works. At Llanllaianau was found, in 184X,
a stone coffin, holding a well-preserved skeleton of 7 J ft. in length.
The coffin was apparently of Aberdovey (Aberdyfi) limestone,
much corroded. At Llangefni, not far from Amlwch, in 1 829, and
at Llangristiolus, 3 m. distant from Llangefni, about 1770, were
found human bones of a high antiquity, between Glan Hwfa and
Fron, and at Capel, respectively. The town has an old Anglican
church (St Eleth's).
AMMAN, JOHANN CONRAD (i66o-<M73o), Swiss physician,
was born at Schaffhausen in 1669. After graduating at Basel in
1687 he began to practise at Amsterdam, where he gained a great
reputation. He was one of the earliest writers on the instruction
of the deaf and dumb, and first called attention to his method in
his Surdus loquens (Amsterdam, 1692), which was often reprinted,
and was reproduced by John Walks in the Philosophical Trans-
actions (1698). His process consisted principally in exciting the
attention of bis pupils to the motions of his Upa and larynx while
bespoke, and then inducing them to imitate these movements, till
he brought them to repeat distinctly letters, syllables and words.
The .edition of Caelius Aurelianus, which was undertaken by the
Wetsteins in x 709, was superintended by Amman. He died about
1730 at Warmoud, n ea r I/fwdm.
AMMAN, JOST (1530-1591), Swiss artist, celebrated chiefly for
his engravings on wood, was born at Zurich. Of his personal
history little is known beyond the fact that he removed in 1560
to Nuremberg, where he continued to reside until his death in
March 1 591 . His productiveness was very remarkable, as may be
gathered from the statement of one of his pupils, that the draw-
ings he made during a period of four yean would have filled a hay
wagon. A large number of his original drawings are contained
in the Berlin collection of engravings. The genuineness of not a
few of the specimens to be seen elsewhere is at least questionable.
A series of copperplate engravings by Amman of the kings of
France, with short biographies, appeared at Frankfort in 1576.
He also executed many of the woodcut illustrations for the Bible
published at Frankfort by Sigjsmund Fderabend. Another serial
work, the PanopUa Omnium Liberalium Meckanicarum et Seden-
toriarum Arn'um Genera Conlinens, containing 115 plates, is of
great value. Amman's drawing is correct and spirited, and his
delineation of the details of costume, &c., is- minute and accurate.
He executed too much, however, to permit of his reaching the
highest style of art. Paintings in oil and on glass are attributed
to him, but no specimen of these is known to exist.
AMMAN, PAUL (1634-1691), German physician and botanist,
was born at Breslau in 1634. In 1662 he received the degree of
doctor of physic from the university of Leipzig, and in 1664 was
admitted a member of the society Naturae Curiosorum, under the
name of Dryander. Shortly afterwards he was chosen extra-
ordinary professor of medicine in the above-mentioned university;
and in 1674 he was promoted to the botanical chair, which he
again in 1682 exchanged for the physiological. He died at
Leipzig in 1691. He seems to have been a man of critical mind
and extensive learning. His principal works were: Medicina
CriHca (1670) ; Paroenesis ad Docentes occupata circa InstUutionum
Medicarum EmendaHonem (1673) '* Irenicum Numae Pompilii cum
Hippocrate (1689); SupeUex Botanica (1675); "d Character
Naturalis Plantarum (1676).
AMMANATI, BARTOLOMEO (151 1-1 592), Florentine architect
and sculptor. He studied under Bandinelli and Jacopo Sanso-
vino, and closely imitated the style of Michelangelo. He was
more distinguished in architecture than in sculpture. He de-
signed many buildings in Rome, Lucca and Florence, an addition
to the Pitti Palace in the last-named city being one of his most
celebrated works. He was also employed in 1569 to build the
beautiful bridge over the Arno, known as Ponte della Trinita—
one of his celebrated works. The three arches are elliptic, and
though very light and elegant, have resisted the fury of the river,
which has swept away several other bridges at different times.
Another of his most important works was the fountain for the
Piazza della Signoria. In 1550 Ammanati married Laura
Battiferri, an elegant poet and an accomplished woman.
AMMIANUSx MARCBLLHTO&, the last Roman historian of
importance, was bora about a.d. 325-330 at Antioch; the
date of his death is unknown, but he must have lived till 391 , as
he mentions Aurelius Victor as the dty prefect for that year. He
was a Greek, and his enrolment among the protectores domestici
(household guards) shows that he was of noble birth. He entered
the army at an early age, when Constantius II. was emperor of the
East, and was sent to serve under Ursicinus, governor of Nisibis
and magister militias. He returned to Italy with Ursicinus, when
he was recalled by Constantius, and accompanied him on the
expedition against Silvanus the Frank, who had been forced by
the unjust accusations of his enemies into proclaiming himself
emperor in Gaul. With Ursidnus he went twice to the East, and
barely escaped with his life from Amida or Amid (mod.Diarbekr),
when it was taken by the Persian king Shapur (Sapor) II. When
Ursicinus lost bis office and the favour of Constantius, Ammianut
seems to have shared his downfall; but under Julian.Constantius's
86o
AMMIRATO— AMMON
siicoeasor, he regained his position. He accompanied this em-
peror, for whom he expresses enthusiastic admiration! in his
campaigns against the Alamanni and the Persians; after his
death he took part in the retreat of Jovian as far as Antioch, wjiere
he was residing when the conspiracy of Theodoras (37 1) was dis-
covered and cruelly put down. Eventually he settled in Rome,
where, at an advanced age, he wrote (in Latin) a history of the
Roman empire from the accession of Nerva to the death of Valens
(96-378), thus forming a continuation of the work of Tacitus.
This history (Rerun GtsUtrum Libri XXXI.) was originally in
thirty-one books; of these the first thirteen are lost, the eighteen
which remain cover the period from 353 to 378. As a whole it is
extremely valuable, being a clear, comprehensive and impartial
account of events by a contemporary of soldierly honesty,
independent judgment and wide reading. "Ammianus is an
accurate and faithful guide, who composed the history of his own
times without indulging the prejudices and passions which usually
affect the mind of a contemporary "(Gibbon). AlthoughAmmianus
was no doubt a heathen, his attitude towards Christianity is that
of a man of the world, free from prejudices in favour of any form
of belief. If anything he himself inclined to neo-Platonism. His
style is generally harsh, often pompous and extremely obscure,
occasionally even journalistic in tone, but the author's foreign
origin and his military life and training partially explain this.
Further, the work being intended for public recitation, some
rhetorical embellishment was necessary, even at the cost of
simplicity. It is a striking fact that Ammianus, though a pro-
fessional soldier, gives excellent pictures of social and economic
problems, and in his attitude to the non-Roman peoples of the
empire he is far more broad-minded than writers like Livy and
Tacitus; his digressions on the various countries he had visited
are peculiarly interesting. In his description of the empire — the
exhaustion produced by excessive taxation, the financial ruin of
the middle classes, the progressive decline in the morale of the
army— we find the explanation of its fall before the Goths
twenty years after his death.
The work was discovered by Poggio, who copied the original MS.
Editio pruuep* (bks. 14-26) by Sabinus, 1474; completed by
Accumus, 1533; with variorum notes, by Wagner-Erfurdt, 1808;
latest edition of text, Gardthauten 1874-1875. English translations
by P. Holland, 1609; Yooge (Bonn 7 * ClaatkaUXibrary), 1863;
also Max Badinger, Ammianus MarceUmus und die Ei&naH seines
9vn WOT* (Toulouse, 1889). a work containing a number of very
doubtful theories. For a criticism of his views on Roman society mat
S. Dill, Roman Society m the Last Century of the Western Empire
(London, 1898).
AMMIRATO, SCIPIOKB (x 531-1601), Italian historian, bora at
Lecce, in the kingdom of Naples. His father, intending him for the
profession of law, sent him to study at Naples, but his own decided
preference for literature prevented him from fulfilling his father's
wishes. Entering the church, he resided for a time at Venice, and
afterwards engaged in the service of Pope Pius IV. In 1569
he went to Florence, where he was fortunate in securing the
patronage and support of Duke Cosimo L, who gave him a resid-
ence at the Medici Palace and the Villa Zopa ja on the understand-
ing that he should write his I storie Florentine (1600), the work by
which he is best known. In 1595 he was made a canon of the
cathedral of Florence. He died in 160 1. Among the other works
of Ammirato, some of which were first published after his death,
may be mentioned discourses on Tadtus and genealogies of the
families of Naples and Florence.
AMMON, the Gnedxed name of an Egyptian ddty, in the
native language AmQn, connected by the priests with a root
meaning " conceal" He was, to begin with, the local ddty of
Thebes, when it was an unimportant town on the east bank of the
river, about the region now occupied by the temple of Karnak.
The Xlth dynasty sprang from a family in the Hermonthite nome
or perhaps at Thebes itself, and adorned the temple of Karnak
with statues. AmenemhC, the name of the founder of the XHth
dynasty, was compounded with that of AmQn and was borne by
three of his suc ces sors. Several Theban kings of the later part
of the Middle Kingdom adopted the same name; and when the
Theban family of the XVUth dynasty drove out the Hyksas*
Amnion, as the god of the royal dty, was again prominent.
It was not, however, until the rulers of the XVHIth dynasty
carried their victorious arms beyond the Egyptian frontiers sa
every direction that Amxnon began to assume the pr op or ti o ns of
a universal god for the Egyptians, eclipsing aU their other deities
and asserting his power over the gods of all foreign lands,
To Amnion the Pharaohs attributed all their suc ce ssfu l cate**
prises, and on his temples they lavished their wealth and
captured spoil.
Amnion is figured of human form, wearing on his head a phva
deep circlet from which rise two straight paja^phunea, perhaps
representing the tafl feathers of a hawk. Two main types arc
seen: in the one he is seated on a throne, in the other he is stand-
ing, ithyphallic, holding a scourge, predady like Min, the sod of
CoptosandChemmis(Akhmim). The latter may be Ua original
form, as a god of fertility, before whom the king "»»*—— ■friH y
breaks up the ground for sowing or cuts the ripe coca. His
consort was sometimes called Amaune (feminine of Amfla), bet
more usually Mut, " mother ": she was human-headed, wearing
the double crown of Upper and Lower Egypt, and their sect was
Khons (Chon or Chons), a lunar god, represented as a youth
wearing the crescent and disk of the moon. A great temple was
built to Mat at Karnak not later than the XVIIIth dynasty, and
another to Khons not later than the XXth dynasty.
The name of Re, the sun-god, was generally joined to i
especially in his title as " king of the gods M : the rule of
belonged to the sun-god in the Egyptian c
cation with Re" was only logical for a supreme ddty.
was entitled " lord of the thrones of the two lands,** or, snore
proudly still, " king of the gods." Such indeed was has en-
questioned position when suddenly he was overthrown and his
worship proscribed. Not even a henothebtfeivcndy worshipping
one of many gods, Amenophis (Amenhotp) IV. of the XVIIIth
dynasty became the monothdst Akhenaton; discarding all the
gods of Egypt, and especially persecuting Amnion the arch-god*
he devoted himself to the purer and more sublime worship of Atom,
the sun. But he failed to win the permanent adhesion of the
people to his reform, or to conciliate or entirely crush the enor-
mously powerful priesthood of Amnion. A few years after the
reformer's death, the old cults were re-estabH&bed and the monu-
ments of Aton studiously defaced. Hymns were then addressed
to Amen-rC, which are almost monotheistic in rrprrisfawi The
cult of the supreme god spread throughout Egypt and was
carried by the Egyptian conquerors into other lands, Syria,
Ethiopia and Libya, and was accepted by the natives both m
Ethiopia and in the Libyan cases, where dvilixation was low and
Egyptian influence permanent. After the XXth dynasty the
centre of power was removed from Thebes, and the authority of
Ammon began to wane. In the XXIst dynasty the secondary
line of priest kings of Thebes uphdd his dignity to the best of their
power, and the XXIInd dynasty favoured Thebes: but as the
sovereignty weakened the division between Upper and Lower
Egypt asserted itself, and thereafter Thebes would have rapidly
decayed had it not been for the piety of the kings of g -*fc«*rfr
towards Ammon, whose worship had long prevailed in their
country. Thebes was at first their Egyptian capital, and they
honoured Ammon greatly, although their wealth and culture were
not sufficient to effect much. Ammon (Zeus) continued to be the
great god of Thebes in its decay, and notwithstanding that a
nome-capital in the north of the Delta and many la
from El Hibeh in Middle Egypt to Canopus on the 1
(edged Ammon as thrir supreme divinity, he probably in 1
degree represented the national aspirations of Upper Egypt as
opposed to Middle and Lower Egypt: he also remained the
national god of Ethiopia, where his name was pronounced Anas*.
The priests of Amane at Meroe and Napata, in fact, regulated
through his oracle the whole government of the country, ffriwtrf
the king, directing his military expeditions (and even oompdhag
him to commit suidde, according to Diodorus) until in the 3rd
century B.C. Arkamane (Ergamenes) broke through the bondagi
AMMON— AMMONIA
861
and dew the priests. Amnion had yet another outburst of glory.
There was an oracle of Amnion established for some centuries
in Libya, in the distant oasis of Siwa. Such was its reputation
among the Greeks that Alexander journeyed thither, after the
battle of Issus, and during his occupation of Egypt, in order to be
acknowledged the son of the god. The Egyptian Pharaohs of the
XVIIIth dynasty had likewise been proclaimed mystically sons
of this god, who, it was asserted, had impregnated the queen-
mother; and on occasion wore the ram's horns of Amnion, even
as Alexander is represented with them on coins.
The Egyptian goose (ekenalopex) is figured in the XVIIIth
dynasty as sacred to Amnion; but his most frequent and cele-
brated incarnation was the woolly sheep with curved (" Amnion")
bonis (as opposed to the oldest native breed with long horizontal
twisted horns and hairy coat, sacred to Khnum or Chnumis).
It is found as representing Amnion from the time of Amenophis
III. onwards.
As king of the gods Ammon was identified by the Greeks with
Zeus and his consort Mut with Hera. Khnum was likewise
identified with Zeus probably through his similarity to Ammon;
bis proper animal having early become extinct, Ammon horns in
course of time were attributed to this god also.
See Erman, Handbook of Egyptian Rdigion (London, 1007): Ed.
Meyer, ait. " Ammon " in Roacher's Lexikon der grieckiscken und
romischen ifytkologie; PSetschmann, arts. " Ammon, Ammoneion"
in Pauly-WiHowa, Realeneyclopddie; and works on Egyptian religion
quoted under Ecvrr, section Religion. (F. Ll. G.)
AMMON, CHRISTOPH FRIEDRICH VON (1766-1850),
German theological writer and preacher, was born at Baireuth.
He studied at Erlangen, held various professorships in the
philosophical and theological faculties of Erlangen and Gottingen,
succeeded Franc Reinhard (1753-1812) in 1813 as court preacher
and member of the consistorial court at Dresden, retired from
these offices in 1840, and died on the aist of May 1850. Seeking
to establish for himself a middle position between rationalism
and supernaturalism, he declared for a "rational supernatural-
ism," and contended that there must be a gradual development
of Christian doctrine corresponding to the advance of knowledge
and science. But at the same time he sought, like other repre-
sentatives of this school of thought, such as K. G. Bretschneider
and Julius Wegschdder, to keep in close touch with the historical
theology of the Protestant churches. He was a man of great
versatility and extensive learning, a philologist and philosopher
as well as a theologian, and a very voluminous author. His
principal theological work was the Foribildung des Ckrislentkums
zur Weltreligion, in 4 volumes (Leipzig, 1833-1840). Entwurf
titter reinbiblischen Tkeologie appeared in 1793 (and ed., 1801),
Summa Tkeologiae Ckrisiianae in 1803 (other editions, 1808,
1816, 1830); Das Lebtn Jesu in 1842, and Die wakre undfalscke
Orthodoxie in 1849. Von Amnion's style in preaching was terse
and lively, and some of his discourses are regarded as models of
pulpit treatment of political questions.
See Herzor-Hauck, Realencyklopadie ; Otto Pfleiderer, The Develop-
ment of Theology in Germany since Kant, pp. 89 ff.
AMMONIA (NH»). Salts of ammonia have been known from
very early times; thus the term Hammonsacus sal appears in the
writings of Pliny (Nat. Hist. xxxi. 39), although it is not known
whether the term is identical with the more modern sal-ammoniac
(f.».). In the form of sal-ammoniac, ammonia was known, how-
ever, to the alchemists as early as the 13th century, being
mentioned by Albertus Magnus, whilst in the 15th century Basil
Valentine showed that ammonia could be obtained by the action
of alkalies on sal-ammoniac At a later period when sal-ammoniac
was obtained by distilling the hoofs and horns of oxen, and
neutralizing the resulting carbonate with hydrochloric add, the
name spirits of hartshorn was applied to ammonia. Gaseous
ammonia was first isolated by J. Priestley in 1774 and was termed
by him " alkaline air.' 1 In 1777 K. W. Scheele showed that it
contained nitrogen, and C. L. BerthoUet, in about 1785, ascer-
tained its composition.
Ammonia is found in small quantities as the carbonate in the
atmosphere, being produced from the putrefaction of nitrogenous
animal and vegetable matter; ammonium salts are also found
in small quantities in rain-water, whilst ammonium chloride
(sal-ammoniac) and ammonium sulphate are found in volcanic
districts; and crystals of ammonium bicarbonate have been
found in Patagonian guano. Ammonium salts too are found
distributed through all fertile soil, in sea-water, and in most plant
and animal liquids, and also in urine.
Ammonia can be synthesized by submitting a mixture of
nitrogen and hydrogen to the action of the silent electric dis-
charge, the combination, however, being very imperfect. It is
obtained by the dry distillation of nitrogenous vegetable and
animal products; by the reduction of nitrous add and nitrites
with nascent hydrogen; and also by the decomposition of
ammonium salts by alkaline hydroxides or by slaked lime, the
salt most generally used bring the chloride (sal-ammoniac,
ft.) thus 2NH«Cl+Ca(OH),-CaClt+2H4)-|-2NH,. It also
results on decomposing magnesium nitride (Mg»Nt) with water,
MgiN, + 6H£ - 3Mg(OH), + 2NH». Urge quantities of
ammonia and ammonium salts are now obtained from the am*
moniacal liquor of gas-works.
Ammonia is a colourless gas possessing a characteristic pungent
smell and a strongly alkaline reaction; it is lighter than air, its
spedfic gravity being o- 589 (air - 1). It is easily liquefied and the
liquid boils at— 33-7°C.,and solidifies at— 75° C. toa mass of white
crystals. It is extremely soluble in water, one volume of water
at o° C. and normal pressure absorbs 1148 volumes of ammonia
(Roscoe and W. Dittmar). All the ammonia contained in an
aqueous solution of the gas may be expelled by boiling. It does
not support combustion; and it does not burn readily unless
mixed with oxygen, when it burns with a pale yellowish-green
flame. Ammonia gas has the power of combining with many
substances, particularly with metallic halides; thus with caldum
chloride it forms the compound CaClj-bNHj, and consequently
caldum chloride cannot be used for drying the gas. With silver
chloride it forms two compounds (F. Isambert, Comptes rendus,
1868, lxvi. p. 1259)— one, AgCl*3NH« at temperatures below
IS* C; the other, 2AgCl*3NHi at temperatures above 20° C. On
heating these substances, ammonia is liberated and the metallic
chloride remains. It was by the use of silver chloride ammonia
compounds that in 1823 M. Faraday was first able to liquefy
ammonia. It can be shown by Isambert's results that the com-
pound AgCl-3NH» cannot be formed above 20° C, by the action
of ammonia on silver chloride at atmospheric pressure; whilst
2AgCl>3NHa, under similar conditions, cannot be formed above
about 68 s C Liquid ammonia is used for the artificial prepara-
tion of ice. It readily dissolves sodium and potassium giving in
each case a dark blue solution. At a red heat ammonia is easily
decomposed into its constituent dements, a similar decomposi-
tion being brought about by the passage of electric sparks through
the gas. Chlorine takes fire when passed into ammonia, nitrogen
and hydrochloric add being formed, and unless the ammonia be
present in excess, the highly explosive nitrogen chloride NCU is
also produced. With iodine it reacts to form nitrogen iodide.
This compound was discovered in 181 2 by Bernard Courtois, and
was originally supposed to contain nitrogen and iodine only, but
in 1840 R.F. Marc hand showed that it contained hydrogen, whilst
R. Bunsen showed that no oxygen was present As regards its
constitution, it has been given at different times the formulae
NIs, NHIa, NHJ, NsHA, &c, these varying results being due
to the impurities in the substance, owing to the different investi-
gators working under unsuitable conditions, and also to the
decomposing action of light. F. D. Chattaway determined its
composition as NsHJ*, by the addition of excess of standard
sodium sulphite solution, in the dark, and subsequent titration
of the excess of the sulphite with standard iodine. The con-
stitution has been definitely determined by O. Silberrad (Jour,
of Ckem. Soe. t 1005, lxxxvii. p. 55) by the interaction of
nitrogen iodide with zinc ethyl, the products of the reaction being
triethylamine and ammonia; the ammonia liberated was ab-
sorbed in hydrochloric add, and 95 % of the theoretical amount
of the ammonium chloride was obtained. On these grounds
O. Silberrad assigns the formula NH*NL to the compound.
862
AMMONIA
and explains the decomposition as taking place, 2NHi-NIrh
6Zn(C«H,),-6ZnC,H* I+2NH,+2N(C«H,),. The hydrogen in
ammonia is capable of replacement by metals, thus magnesium
burns in the gas with the formation of magnesium nitride Mg*N»,
and when the gas is passed over heated sodium or potassium,
sodamide, NaNHi, and potassamide, KNH,, are formed.
One of the most characteristic properties of ammonia is its
power of combining directly wiih acids to form salts; thus with
hydrochloric acid it forms ammonium chloride (sal-ammoniac);
with nitric acid, ammonium nitrate, &c. It is to be noted that
H. B. Baker (Journal of Ckem. Soc., 1804, lxv. p. 612) has
shown that perfectly dry ammonia will not combine with per-
fectly dry hydrochloric acid, moisture being necessary to bring
about the reaction. The aqueous solution of ammonia is very
basic in its reactions, and since it is a weak electrolyte, one must
assume the solution to contain a certain amount of ammonium
hydroxide NH4OH, although it is probably chiefly composed
of a solution of ammonia in water. (On the constitution of
aqueous ammonia solutions see also Carl Frenzel, ZcitfUr angew.
Chemie, xxxii. 3, p. 319.) Ammonia finds a wide application in
organic chemistry as a synthetic reagent; it reacts with alkyl
iodides to form amines ($.».), with esters to form acid amides
(q.v.), with halogen fatty adds to form amino-acids; while it
also combines with isocyanic esters to form alkyl ureas and
with the mustard oils to form alkyl thioureas. Aldehydes also
combine directly with ammonia.
Liquid ammonia possesses strong ionizing powers, and solutions
of salts in liquid ammonia have been much studied. For details
see E. C. Franklin and C. A. Kraus, Amer. Ckem. Jour., 1809,
xxi. p. 8; 1900, xxiv. p. 83; xeoa, xxviiL p. 377; also Carl
Frenzel, Zeitsfur Elcktrochemie, 1900, vi. p. 477.
The salts produced by the action of ammonia on adds are
known as the ammonium salts and all contain the compound
radical ammonium ( NHJ . Numerous attempts have been made
to isolate this radical, but so far none have been successful.
By the addition of sodium amalgam to a concentrated solution
of ammonium chloride, the so-called ammonium amalgam is
obtained as a spongy mass which floats on the surface of the
liquid; it decomposes readily at ordinary temperatures into
ammonia and hydrogen; it does not reduce silver and gold salts,
a behaviour which distinguishes it from the amalgams of the
alkali metals, and for this reason it is regarded by some chemists
as being merely mercury inflated by gaseous ammonia and
hydrogen. M. le Blanc has shown, however, that the effect of
ammonium amalgam on the magnitude of polarization of a battery
is comparable with that of the amalgams of the alkali metals.
Many of the ammonium salts are made from the ammoniacal
liquor of gas-works, by heating it with milk of lime and then
absorbing the gas so liberated in a suitable add. (See Gas:
Manufacture.)
Ammonium bromide, Nr^Br, can be prepared by the direct
action of bromine on ammonia. It crystallizes in colourless
prisms, possessing a saline taste; it sublimes on heating
and is easily soluble in water. On exposure to air it gradually
assumes a yellow colour and becomes add in its reaction.
Ammonium chloride, NH4CL (See Sal-Ammoniac.)
Ammonium fluoride, NHJF, may be obtained by neutralizing
ammonia with hydrofluoric add. It crystallizes in small prisms,
having a sharp saline taste, and is exceedingly soluble in water.
It decomposes silicates on being heated with them.
Ammonium iodide, NHJ, can be prepared by the action of
hydriodic add on ammonia. It is easily soluble in water, from
which it crystallizes in cubes, and also in alcohol It gradually
turns yellow on standing in moist air, owing to decomposition
with liberation of iodine.
Ammonium chlorate, NHiCIO*, is obtained by neutralizing
chloric add with either ammonia or ammonium carbonate, or
by predpitating barium, strontium or cala'um chlorates with
ammonium carbonate. It crystallizes in small needles, which are
readily soluble in water, and on heating, decompose at about
io2* C, with liberation of nitrogen, chlorine and oxygen. It is
somale ia dilute aqueous alcohol, but insoluble in strong alcohol
Ammonium carbonates. The conmMsdal salt is known as tai-
volatile or salt of hartshorn and was formerly obtained by the dry
distillation of nitrogenous organic matter such as hair, horn,
decomposed urine, &c, but is now obtained by heating a mixture
of sal-ammoniac, or ammonium sulphate and chalk, to redness si
iron retorts, the vapours being condensed in leaden recovers.
The crude product is refined by sublimation, when it is ohramrd
as a white fibrous mass, which consists of a mixture of hydrogen
ammonium carbonate, NH4-HCO*, and ammonium carbamate.
NH1COONH4, in molecular proportions; on account of its
possessing this constitution it is sometimes called ammonium
sesquicarbonate. It possesses a strong ammoniacal smell, and cb
digestion with alcohol the carbamate is dissolved and a rcssdae
of ammonium bicarbonate is left; a similar decomposition taking
place when the sesquicarbonate is exposed to air. Ammonia gas
passed into a strong aqueous solution of the sesqukarbanate con-
verts it into normal ammonium carbonate, (NHihGOb, which can
be obtained in the crystalline condition from a solution prepared
at about 30 C. This compound on exposure to air gives off
ammonia and passes back to ammonium bicarbonate.
Ammonium bicarbonate, NH< HCQj, is formed as shown above
and also by passing carbon dioxide through a solution of the
normal compound, when it is deposited as a white powder, witch
has no smell and is only slightly soluble in water. The aqueous
solution of this salt liberates carbon dioxide on exposure to air or
on heating, and becomes alkaline in reaction. The aqueous sofa-
tions of all the carbonates when boiled undergo dW o tnpoai riaa
with liberation of ammonia and of carbon dioxide.
Ammonium nitrate, NH4NO3, is prepared by neutralizing nitric
add with ammonia, or ammonium carbonate, or by doable
decomposition between potassium nitrate and ammonium
sulphate. It can be obtained in three different crystalline forms,
the transition points of which are 35° C, 83° C. and 1*5° C It
is easily soluble in water, a considerable lowering of tempera-
ture taking place during the operation; on this account it is
sometimes used in the preparation of freezing mixtures. Ob
gentle heating, it is decomposed into water and nitrous aside.
P. E. M. Berthdot in 1883 showed that if ammonium nitrate
be rapidly heated the following reaction takes place with
explosive violence :— 2NH«NQ^ 4H<0+2N t +0»>
Ammonium nitrite, NH4NO1, is formed by oxidizing •»»■«■»■
with ozone or hydrogen peroxide; by predpitating barium or
lead nitrites with ammonium sulphate, or silver nitrite with
ammonium chloride. The precipitate is filtered off and the
solution concentrated. It forms colourless crystals which are
soluble in water and decompose on heating, with the formarjoa
of nitrogen.
Ammonium phosphates. The normal phosphate, (NH0»rXXJi
obtained as a crystalline powder, on mixing concentrated solu-
tions of ammonia and phosphoric add, or on the addition of ex-
cess of ammonia to the add phosphate (NHOjHPO*. It is soluble
in water, and the aqueous solution on boiling loses ammonia and
the add phosphate Nr^HjPQ* is formed. Diammoni'um hydro-
gen phosphate, (NH<),HPQ«, is formed by evaporating a sohjuea
of phosphoric add with excess of ammonia. It crystallizes ia
large transparent prisms, which mdt on heating and decompose,
leaving a residue of metaphosphoric add, (HPOj). Ammoniaai
dihydrogen phosphate, NH4 H>PO«, is formed when a solution of
phosphoric add is added to ammonia until the solution is dis-
tinctly add. It crystallizes in quadratic prisms.
Ammonium sodium hydrogen phosphate, NflVNaHrXViHA
(See Micsocosmic Salt.)
Ammonium sulphate (NHO3SQ1 is prepared commercially from
the ammoniacal liquor of gas-works (see Gas: Manufacture) and
is purified by recrystallization. It forms large rhombic prams,
has a somewhat saline taste and is easily soluble in water. The
aqueous solution on boiling loses some ammonia and forms an add
sulphate. It is used largely as an artificial manure, and also for
the preparation of other ammonium salts.
Ammonium persulphate (NH«) a SiOh has been prepared by
H. Marshal] (Jour, of Ckem. Soc., 1891, lix. p. 777) by the method
used for the preparation of the corresponding potassium salt
AMMONIACUM— AMMONITES
863
(seeSutniui). Pure specimens are difficult to obtain. It is very
soluble in cold water, a large fall of temperature accompanying
solution.
Ammonium sulphide, (NHihS, s obtained, in the form of
micaceous crystals, by passing sulphuretted hydrogen mixed with
a slight excess of ammonia through a well-cooled vessel; the
hydrosulphide NHi-HS is .formed at the same time. It dissolves
readily in water, but is probably partially dissociated in solution.
The kydrosulpkide NHVHS can be obtained as a white solid, by
mixing well-cooled ammonia with a slight excess of sulphuretted
hydrogen. According to W. P. BIoxamC/<w«r.o/CA«i«.5oc M 1895,
lxvii. p. 383), if sulphuretted hydrogen is passed into strong
aqueous ammonia at ordinary temperature, the compound
(NH0,S aNHJiS is obtained, which, on cooling to o° C. and
passing more sulphuretted hydrogen, forms the compound
(NH«)»S-!2NH<HS. An ice-cold solution of this substance kept
at o° C. and having sulphuretted hydrogen continually passed
through it gives the hydrosulphide. Several complex poly-
sulphides of ammonium have been isolated, for details of which
see Bloxam's paper quoted above. Compounds are known which
may be looked upon as derived from ammonia by the replacement
of its hydrogen by the sulpho-group (HSO»); thus potassium
ammon-trisulphonate,N(SQ»K)r aHsO^s obtained as a crystalline
precipitate on the addition of excess of potassium sulphite to a
solution of potassium nitrite, KNOi+3KtSO»+ aH,0- N(SOjK),
+4KHO. Jt can be recrystallized by solution in alkalies. On
boiling with water, it is converted, first into the disulphonate
NH(SO,K), thus, N(SftK),+H4>-NH(SO>K),+KHSQ., and
ultimately into the monosulphonate NHjSOjK. The disulphon-
ate is more readily obtained by moistening the nitrilosulphonate
with dilute sulphuric acid and letting it stand for twenty-four
hours, after which it is recrystallized from dilute ammonia. It
forms monosymmetric crystals which by boiling with water
yield amidosulphonic acid. (See also E. Divers, Jour, of Chem.
Soc. t 1892, bri. p. 943) Amidosulphonic acid crystallizes in
prisms, slightly soluble in water, and is a stable compound.
Ammonia and ammonium salts can be readily detected, in very
minute traces, by the addition of NessUr*s solution, which gives a
distinct yellow coloration in the presence of the least trace of
ammonia or ammonium salts. Larger quantities can be detected
by warming the salts with a caustic alkali or with quicklime, when
the characteristic smell of ammonia will be at once apparent.
The amount of ammonia in ammonium salts can be estimated
quantitatively by distillation of the salts with sodium or potassium
hydroxide, the ammonia evolved being absorbed in a known
volume of standard sulphuric acid and the excess of acid then
determined volume trically; or the ammonia may be absorbed
in hydrochloric acid and the ammonium chloride so formed pre-
cipitated as ammonium chlorplatinate, (NtDsPtCI*.
AMMOMIACUM, or Gun Ammoniac, a gum-resin exuded from
the stem of a perennial herb {Dorema ammoniacum), natural order
Umbelliferae. The plant grows to the height of 8 or 9 ft., and
its whole stem is pervaded with a milky juice, which oozes out on
an incision being made at any part. This juice quickly hardens
into round tears, forming the " tear ammoniacum " of commerce
" Lump ammoniacum," the other form in which the substance is
met with, consists of aggregations of tears, frequently incorporat-
ing fragments of the plant itself, as well as other foreign bodies.
Ammoniacum has a faintly fetid, unpleasant odour, which
becomes more distinct on heating; externally it possesses a
reddish-yellow appearance, and when the tears or lumps are
freshly fractured they exhibit a waxy lustre. It is chiefly collected
in central Persia, and comes to the European market by way of
Bombay. Ammoniacum is closely related to asafetida and gal-
banum (from which, however, it differs in yielding no umbclli-
ferone) both in regard to the plant which yields it and its thera-
peutical effects. Internally it is used in conjunction with squills
in bronchial affections; and in asthma and chronic colds it is
found useful, but it has no advantages over a number of other
substances of more constant and active properties (Sir Thomas
Fraser). Only the " tear ammoniacum " is official.
African ammomntum hi the product xfi a plant said to be
Ferula tingitana, which grows in North Africa; it is a dark
coloured gum-resin, possessed of a very weak odour and a
persistent acrid taste.
AMMONITES, or the " children of Amnion," a people of east
Palestine who, like the Moabites, traced their origin to Lot, the
nephew of the patriarch Abraham, and must have been regarded,
therefore, as closely related to the Israelites and Edomites. Both
the Ammonites and Moabites are sometimes spoken of under the
common name of the children of Lot (Deut. ii. 19; Ps. Ixxxiii. 8) ,
and the whole history shows that they preserved throughout the
course of their national existence a sense of the closest brother-
hood. According to the traditions, the original territory of the
two tribes was the country lying immediately on the east of the
Dead Sea, and of the lower half of the Jordan, having the Jabbok
for its northern boundary; and of this tract the Ammonites kid
claim to the northern portion between the Arnon and the Jabbok,
out of which they had expelled the Zamzummim (Judg. xi. 13;
Deut. ii. ao sqq.; cf. Gen. xiv. 5), though apparently it had been
held, in part at least, conjointly with the Moabites, or perhaps
under their supremacy (Num. xxi. 26, xxii. 1; Josh, xiii 32).
From this their original territory they had been in their turn ex-
pclled by Sihon, king of the Amorites, who was said to have been
found by the Israelites, after their deliverance from Egypt, in
possession of both Gilead and Bashan, that is, of the whole country
on the left bank of the Jordan, lying to the north of the Arnon
(Num. xxL 13). By this invasion, as the Moabites were driven to
the south of the Arnon, which formed their northern boundary
from that time, so the Ammonites were driven out of Gilead
across the upper waters of the Jabbok where it flows from south
to north, which henceforth continued to be their western boundary
(Num. xxi. 24; Deut. ii. 37, Hi. 16). The other limits of the
Ammonitis, or country of the Ammonites ('Apjiatfm x»pa> >
Mac iv. 26), there are no means of exactly defining. On the south
it probably adjoined the land of Moab; on the north it may have
met that of the king of Geshur (Josh. xii. 5); and on the east it
probably melted away into the desert peopled by Amalekites and
other nomadic races.
The chief city of the country, called Kabbah, or Rabbath of the
children of Ammon. ij. the metropolis of the Ammonites (Deut. iii.
1 1). and Rabbathammana by the later Greeks (Polyb. v 7. 4). whose
name was changed into Philadelphia by Ptolemy Philadelphus, a
large and strong city with an acropolis, was.situatcd on both sides of
a branch of the Jabbok, bearing at the present day the name of
Nahr 'AmmAn, the river of Ammon. whence the designation " city of
waters " (a Sam. xii. 27; see Surety of £. Pal (Pal. Explor. Fund),
pp. 19 sqq. The ruins called Amman Dy the nativesarcextensiveand
imposing. The country to the south and east of Amman is distin-
guished by its fertility ; and ruined towns are scattered thickly over
it. attesting that it was once occupied by a population which, however
fierce, was settled and industrious, a fact indicated also by the tribute
of corn paid annually to Jotham (2 Chron. xxvii. 5).
The traditional history of Ammon as related in the Old Testa-
ment is not free from obscurity, due to the uncertain date of
the various references and to the doubt whether the individual
details belong to the particular period to which each is ascribed.
(See further Moab ) From the Assyrian inscriptions we learn
that the Ammonite king Ba'sa (Baasha) (son) of Ruhubi,
with 1000 men joined Ahab and the Syrian allies against
Shalmaneser II at the battle of Karkar in 854. In 734 their
king Sanip(b)u was a vassal of Tiglathpileser IV., and his
successor, P(b)udu-ilu, held the same position under Senna-
cherib and Esarhaddon. Somewhat later, their king Amminadab
was among the tributaries who suffered in the course of the
great Arabian campaign of Assurbanipal. With the neighbour-
ing tribes, the Ammonites helped the Babylonian monarch
Nebuchadrezzar against Jehoiakim (2 Kings xxiv. 2); and
if they joined Zedekiah's conspiracy (Jcr xxvii. 3), and were
threatened by the Babylonian army (Ezek. xxi. to sqq.), they do
not appear to have suffered punishment at that period, perhaps
on account of a timely submission. When, after the destruction
of Jerusalem, the fugitive Jews were again gathered together, it
was at the instigation of Baalis. king of Ammon, that Gcdaliah,
the ruler whom Nebuchadrezzar had appointed over them, was
murdered, and new calamities were m eu r r cd CJer. xi. 14). and
86 4
AMMONIUS GRAMMATICUS— AMMUNITION
when Nchemiah prepared to rebuild the walls of Jerusalem an
Ammonite was foremost in opposition (Neh. ii. 10,19, iv. 1-3). 1
True to their antecedents, the Ammonites, with some of the
neighbouring tribes, did their utmost to resist and check the re-
vival of the Jewish power under Judas Maccabaeus ( 1 Mace v. 6;
cf. Jos. Ant. Jud. xii. 8. 1.). The last notice of them is in Justin
Martyr {Dial, cum Tryph. fi 119), where it is affirmed that they
were still a numerous people. The few Ammonite names that
have been preserved (Nahash, Hanun, and those mentioned
above, Zelek in 2 Sam. xxiii. 37 is teztually uncertain) testify, in
harmony with other considerations, that their language was
Semitic, closely allied to Hebrew and to the language of the
Moabites. Their national deity was Molech or Milcon. (See
Moloch.) (S.A.O
AMMONIUS GRAMMATICUS, the supposed author of a
treatise entitled Vital buaUar «o2 Ua<b6potr \l£tuv (On the
Differences of Synonymous Expressions), of whom nothing is
known. He was formerly identified with an Egyptian priest who,
after the destruction of the pagan temple at Alexandria (389),
fled to Constantinople, where he became the tutor of the ecclesi-
astical historian Socrates. But it seems more probable that the
real author was Herennius Philo of Byblus, who was born during
the reign of Nero and lived till the reign of Hadrian, and that the
treatise in its present form is a revision prepared by a later
Byzantine editor, whose name may have been Ammonium,
Text by Valckenaer, 1739, Schafer, 1822; Kopp, De Ammonii . . .
Dishnctumibus Synonymicxs, 1883.
AMMONIUS HBRMIAB (5th century aj>.), Greek philosopher,
the son of Hermias or Hermeias, a fellow-pupil of Proclus.
He taught at Alexandria, and had among his scholars Asclcpius,
John Philoponus, Damascius and Simplidus. His commen-
taries on Plato and Ptolemy are lost Those on Aristotle are
all that remain of his reputedly numerous writings. Of the
commentaries we have — (1) one on the Isagoge of Porphyry
(Venice, 1500 fol.); (2) one on the Categories (Venice, 1503 fol.),
the authentidty of which is doubted by Brandis; (3) one on
the De Inter pretatione (Venice, 1503 fol.). They are printed in
Brandis's scholia to Aristotle, forming the fourth volume of the
Berlin Aristotle; they are also edited (1891-1899) in A. Busse's
Commcntaria in Aristot. Graeca. The special section on fate
was published separately by J. C. Orelli, Alex. Aphrod., Ammonii,
el aliorum de Fato quae supersunt (Zurich, 1824). A life of
Aristotle, ascribed to Ammonius, but with more accuracy to John
Philoponus, is often prefixed to editions of Aristotle. It has been
printed separately, with Latin translation and scholia, at Leiden,
1 6a 1, at Helmstadt, 1666, and at Paris, 185a Other com-
mentaries on the Topics and the first six books of the Meta-
physics still exist in manuscript. Of the value of the logical
writings of Ammonius there are various opinions. K. Prantl
speaks of them with great, but hardly merited, contempt.
For a list of his works see J. A. Fabricius, Bibliotheca Graeca,
v. 704-707 : C. A. Brandis. Ober d. Reihenf. d. Bucher d. Aristot. Org.,
283 f . ; K. Prantl, Gesch. d. Logxh, I 642.
AMMONIUS SACCAS (3rd century A.D.), Greek philosopher of
Alexandria, often called the founder of the neo- Platonic school.
Of humble origin, he appears to have earned a livelihood as a
porter; hence his nickname of "Sack-bearer" (Zaxxas, for
<ra«ffo06pos). The details of his life are unknown, insomuch
that he has frequently been confused with a Christian philosopher
of the same name. Euscbius (Church History, vi. 19), who is
followed by Jerome, asserts that he was born a Christian,
remained faithful to Christianity throughout his life, and even
* The allusions in Jer. xlix. 1-6; Zeph. ii. 8-1 1 ; Ezek. xxi. 28-32;
Judg xi. 12-28, have been taken to refer to an Ammonite occupa
lion of Israelite territory after the deportation of the east Jordanic
Israelite* in 734, but more probably belong to a later event. The
name Chephar-Ammoni (in Benjamin ; Josh, xviii. 24) seems to imply
that the village " became a settlement of " Ammonites." Some
light is thrown upon the obscure history of the post-exile period by
the references to the mixed marriages which aroused the reforming
seal of Ezra and culminated in the exclusion of Ammon and Moab
from the religious community— on the ground of incidents which
were ascribed to the time 01 ihe "exodus" (Deut. -Xxiii. 3 aqq.;
Car. ix, I iqq.; Neb. xiij. 1 «qq.).
produced two works called The flormony of Iteus ami Jena
and The Diatessaron, or Harmony of the Four Gospels, which m
said by some to exist in a Latin version by Victor, bishop cf
Capua. Porphyry, quoted by Eusebius, ib. vi 10. 6, 1
says that he apostatized in later life and left no writ'
him. There seems no reason, therefore, to doubt that Easehna
is here referring to the Christian philosopher. After long seedy
and meditation, Ammonius opened a school of p hi lo so ph y si
Alexandria. His principal pupils were Herennfas* the two
Origens, CassiusLonginusand Plotinus. Ashe designedly wrote
nothing, and, with the aid of bis pupils, kept his views secret,
after the manner of the Pythagoreans, his philosophy onset he
inferred mainly from the writings of Plotinus. As Zefler poists
out, however, there is reason to think that his doctrines wee
rather those of the earlier Platonists than those of Flotiam
Hierocies, writing in the 5th century aj>., states that bis hsnda-
mental doctrine was an eclecticism, derived from a critical study
of Plato and Aristotle. His admirers credited him with haviag
reconciled the quarrels of the two great schools. His death a
variously given between aj>. 240 and 245. See Neo-Plstowsm,
Okicen.
Bibliography.— <C. Rosier, De commtuHtus pkuesopeume Am*
moniaceae fraudibus et noxis (Tubingen, 1786); L. J. Dehaoc Earn
historians sur la vie et la doctrine d' A mmontus Saccas (Br us sel s , 1*3*);
E. Zefier, " Ammonius Saccas und Plotinus," Arch. L Cmxk. e\
Philos. vii., 1804, pp. 295-312; E. Vacherot, HisL cnL de fensr
fAUzandwie (Paris. 1846) ; T. Whittaker, The Neo-pUtomisU (Ca«t^
loot): Eusebius, Hist. Eccles.. trans. A. C. M Gfflert (Oxford asd
New York, 1890), notes on passages quoted above.
AMMUNITION, a military term (derived, through the French,
from Lat. munire, to provide), for consumable stores used m
attack or defence, such as rifle cartridges, cartridges, projectiles,
igniting tubes and primers for ordnance, &c
The components of ammunition intended for rifles and ordnaace
may be divided into (a) explosives and propellants (see Ex-
plosives and Gunpowder), (b) projectiles of all kinds, and {c)
cartridges. The military classification of explosives differs some'
what from that of the Explosives Act 1875, but, broadly speaking,
they are divided into two groups. The first of these coxaprises
explosives in bulk, made-up cartridges for cannon, and filled qnxk-
firing cartridges; Group II. contains small-arm cartridges, hues,
primers, tubes, filled shells (fused or unf used), &c Each groep
is subdivided, and arrangements are made for storing certain
divisions of Group I. in a magazine in separate compartments.
All the divisions of Group IL are, and the remaining divisoss
of Group I. (comprising wet gun-cotton, picric acid and QJ.
cartridges) may be, stored in ammunition stores.
These general conditions apply to the storage ofammuuiticm in
fortresses. Here the positions for the magazine and ammunitjea
stores are so chosen as to afford the best means of protection frost
an eraemy's fire. Huge earth parapets cover these bufldSags,
which are further strengthened, where possible, by traverses
protecting the entrances. For the purpose of filling, emptyisg
and examining cannon cartridges and shell, a laboratory is gener-
ally provided at some distance from the magazine. The varirea
stores for explosives are classified into those under magaziae
conditions (viz. magazines, laboratories and cartridge stores) asd
those with which these restrictions need not be observed (via
ammunition and shell stores). The interior walls of a magazine
are lined and the floors laid so that there may be no exposed irca
or steel. At the entrance there is a lobby or barrier, inside whsch
persons about to enter the magazine change their clothes for s
special suit, and their boots for a pair made without nails. In aa
ammunition or shell store these precautions need not be takes
except where the shell store and the adjacent cartridge store
have a common entrance; persons entering may do so in the*/
ordinary clothes. A large work may have a main magazine asd
several subsidiary magazines, from which the stock of cartridges
is renewed in the cartridge stores attached to each group of gass
or in the expense cartridge stores and cartridge recesses. The
same applies to main ammunition stores which supply the shefl
stores, expense stores and recesses.
The supply of ammunition may be divided roughly into (a) that
AMMUNITION
865
for guns forming the movable armament, (b) that for guns placed
in permanent positions. The movable armament will consist of
guns and howitzers of small and medium calibre, and it is neces-
sary to arrange suitable expense cartridge stores and shell stores
in dose proximity to the available positions. They can generally
be constructed to form part of the permanent work in the pro-
jected face of traverses or other strong formations, and should be
arranged for a twenty-four hours' supply of ammunition. These
stores are refilled from the main magazine every night under
cover of darkness. Light railways Join the various positions.
The guns mounted in permanent emplacements are divided into
groups of two or three guns each, and usually each group will
require but one calibre of ammunition. A cartridge store, shell
store and a general store, all well ventilated, are arranged for the
especial service of such a group of guns. In the cartridge store
the cylinders containing the cartridges are so placed and labelled
that the required charge, whether reduced or full, can be immedi-
ately selected. In the shell store also for the same reason the
common shell are separated from the armour-piercing or shrapnel.
Each nature of projectile is painted in a distinctive manner to
Tender identification easy. The fuzes, tubes, &c, are placed in
the general store with the tools and accessories belonging to the
guns. The gun group is distinguished by some letter and the guns
of the group by numerals; thus, f » No. x gun of group A. The
magazine and shell stores are also indicated by the group letter,
and so that mistakes, even by those unaccustomed to the fort,
may be avoided, the passages are pointed out by finger posts and
direction boards. For the immediate service of each gun a few
cartridges and projectiles are stored in small receptacles— -called
cartridge and shed recesses respectively— built in the parapet as
near the gun position as practicable. In some cases a limited
number of projectiles may be placed close underneath the parapet
if this is conveniently situated near the breech of the gun and not
exposed to hostile fire.
In order to supply the ammunition sufficiently rapidly for the
efficient service of modern guns, hydraulic, electric or hand-
power hoists are employed to raise the cartridges and shell from
*&»&m&&A***xia.
^g^t^^SSf£m-
Fio. 1.— i
Ammmmon
gjflv.gg . vw
the cartridge store and shell store to the gun floor, whence they
are transferred to a derrick or loading tray attached to the
mounting for loading the gun.
Projectiles for B.L. guns above 6-in. calibre are stored in shell
stores ready filled and fuzed standing on their bases, except
shrapnel and high-explosive shell, which are fuzed only when about
to be used. Soulier sizes of shells are laid on their sides in layers,
each layer pointing in the opposite direction to the one below
to prevent injury to the driving bands. Cartridges are stored in
brass corrugated cases or in zinc cylinders. The corrugated cases
are stacked in layers in the magazine with the mouth of the case
towards a passage between the stacks, so that it can be opened
and the cartridges removed and transferred to a leather case when
required for transport to the gun. Cylinders are stacked, when
possible, vertically one above the other. The charges are sent to
the gun in these cylinders, and provision is made for the rapid
removal of the empty cylinders.
The number and nature of rounds allotted to any fortress
depends on questions of policy and location, the degrees of resist-
ance the nature of the works and pcnonnd could reasonably
be expected to give, and finally on the nature of the arma-
ment. That is to say, for guns of large calibre three hundred
to four hundred rounds per gun might be sufficient, while for
light Q.F. guns it might amount to one thousand or more rounds
per gun. (A. G. H.)
With every successive improvement in military arms there has
necessarily been a corresponding modification in the method of
supplying ammunition and in the quantity required to s^pty •/
be supplied. When hand-to-hand weapons were the ammmmh
principal implements of battle, there was, of course, no **** '■
such need, but even in the middle ages the archers and **• aM *
crossbowmen had to replenish the shafts and bolts expended in
action, and during a siege stone bullets of great size, as well as
heavy arrows, were freely used. The missiles of those days were,
however, interchangeable, and at the battle of Towton (1461)
the commander of the Yorkist archers, by inducing the enemy to
waste his arrows, secured a double supply of ammunition for his
own men. This interchangeabOity of war material was even
possible for many centuries after the invention of firearms.
At the battle of Liegnitz (1760) a general officer was specially
commissioned by Frederick the Great to pack up and send away,
for Prussian use, all the muskets and ammunition left on the
field of battle by the defeated Austrian*. Captured material is,
of course, utilized whenever possible, at the present time, and in
the Chine-Japanese War the Japanese went so far as to prepare
beforehand spare parts for the Chinese guns they expected to
capture (Wei-Hai-Wd, 1895), but it is rare to find a modern army
trusting to captures for arms and ammunition; almost the only
instance of the practice is that of the Chilean civil war of 1891,
in which the army of one belligerent was almost totally dependent
upon this means of replenishing stores of arms and cartridges.
But what was possible with weapons of comparatively rough
make is no longer to be thought of in the case of modern arms.
The Lee-Metford bullet of -303 in. diameter can scarcely be used
in a rifle of smaller calibre, and in general the minute accuracy
of parts in modern weapons makes interchangeabOity almost
impossible. Further, owing to the rapidity with which, in
modern arms, ammunition is expended, and the fact that, as
battles are fought at longer ranges than formerly, more shots have
to be fired in order to inflict heavy losses, it is necessary that
the reserves of ammunition should be as close as possible to the
troops who have to use them. This was always the case even with
the older firearms, as, owing to the great weight of the ammuni-
tion, the soldier could carry but few rounds on his person.
Nevertheless it is only within the past seventy years that there
has grown up the elaborate system of ammunition supply which
now prevails in all regularly organized armies. That which is
described in the present article is the British, as laid down in the
official Combined Training (1005) and other manuals. The new
system designed for stronger divisions, and others, vary only in
details and nomenclature.
Infantry. — The infantry soldier generally carries, in pouches,
bandoliers, &c, one hundred rounds of small-arms ammunition
(S.A.A.), and it is usual to supplement this, when an action is
imminent, from the regimental reserve (see below). It is to be
noticed that every reduction in the calibre of the rifle means an
increase in the number of rounds carried. One hundred rounds of
866
AMMUNITION
the Martini-Henry ammunition weighed xotb 10 oz.; the same
weight gives 1 55 with -303 ammunition (incl. charges), and if a '256
calibre is adopted the number of rounds will be still greater. It
is, relatively, a matter of indifference that the reserves of ammuni-
tion include more rounds thin formerly; it is of the highest im-
portance that the soldier should, as far as possible, be independent
of fresh supplies, because the bringing up of ammunition to troops
closely engaged is laborious and costly in lives. The regimental
reserves are carried in S.A.A. carts and on pack animals. Of the
former each bat talion has six, of the latter eight. The six carts are
distributed, one as reserve to the machine gun, three as reserve
to the battalion itself, and two as part of the brigade reserve,
which consists therefore of eight carts. The brigade reserve
communicates directly with the brigade ammunition columns of
the artillery (see below). The eight pack animals follow the
eight companies of their battalion. These, with two out of the
three battalion carts, endeavour to keep close to the firing line,
the remaining cart being with the reserve companies. Men also
are employed as carriers, and this duty is so onerous that picked
men only are detailed. Gallantry displayed in bringing up
ammunition is considered indeed to justify special rewards. The
amount of S.A.A. in regimental charge is 100 rounds in the
possession of each soldier, 1000 to 2200 on each pack animal,
and 16,000 to 17,600 in each of four carts, with, in addition, about
4000 rounds with the machine gun and 16,000 more in the fifth
cart.
Artillery.— The many vehicles which accompany batteries (see
Aktillery) carry a large quantity of ammunition, and with the
contents of two wagons and the limber each gun may be con-
sidered as well supplied, more especially as fresh rounds can be
brought up with relatively small risk, owing to the long range at
which artillery fights and the use of cover. Each brigade of
artillery has its own ammunition column, from which it draws its
reserve in the first instance.
Ammunition Columns.— An ammunition column consists of
military vehicles carrying gun and S.A. ammunition for the
combatant unit to which the column belongs. Thus the am-
munition columns of a division, forming part of the brigades of
field artillery, carry reserve ammunition for the guns, the machine
guns of the infantry and the rifles of all arms. Generally speak-
ing, the ammunition column of each of the artillery brigades
furnishes spare ammunition for its own batteries and for one
of the brigades of infantry. All ammunition columns are
officered and manned by the Royal Artillery. They are not
reserved exclusively to their own brigades, divisions, &c,
but may be called upon to furnish ammunition to any unit
requiring it during an action. The officers and men of the R.A.
employed with the ammunition column are, as a matter of course,
immediately available to replace casualties in the batteries.
Teams, wagons and maUricl generally are also available for the
same purpose. The horse artillery, howitzer and heavy brigades
of artillery have each their own ammunition columns, organ-
ised in much the same way and performing similar duties. The
ammunition column of the heavy brigade is divisible into three
sections, so that the three batteries, if operating independently,
have each a section at hand to replenish the ammunition
expended. The horse artillery brigade ammunition columns
carry, besides S.A.A. for all corps troops other than artillery, the
reserve of pom-pom ammunition. In action these columns are on
the battlefield itself. Some miles to the rear are the divisional and
corps troops columns, which on the one hand replenish the empty
wagons of the columns in front, and on the other draw fresh
supplies from the depots on the line of communication. These
also are in artillery charge; a divisional column is detailed to
each division (ix. to replenish each set of brigade ammuni-
tion columns), and the corps troops column supplies the columns
attached to the heavy, howitxer and horse artillery brigades.
The ammunition thus carried includes ordinarily seven or eight
kinds at least. S.A.A., field, horse, howitzer and heavy gun
shrapnel, howitzer and heavy gun lyddite shells, cartridges for
the four different guns employed and pom-pom cartridges for the
cavalry,— in all twelve distinct types of stores would be carried
for a complete army corps. Consequently the rounds of each saw
in charge of each ammunition column must vary m accordant
with the work expected of the combatant unit to which it bdo££>
Thus pom-pom ammunition is out of place in the bnxvfe
ammunition columns of field artillery, and S.A-A. is rea\u*t.*
unnecessary in that attached to a heavy artillery brigade.
Under these circumstances a column may be unable to meet tie
particular wants of troops engaged in the vicinity; for insuso.
a cavalry regiment would send in vain to a heavy amfiery
ammunition section for pom-pom cartridges. The point to be
observed in this is that the fewer the natures of weapons «£.
the more certain is the ammunition supply. (C. F. A J
The first projectiles fired from cannon were the darts aad stc-f
shot which had been in use with older weapons. These dun
(" garros ") had iron heads or were of iron wrapped M
with leather to fit the bore of small guns, and con-
tinued in use up to nearly the end of the 1 6th cen tury. Spberia
stone shot were chosen on account of cheapness; forged irr-
bronze and lead balls were tried, but the expense prevented thw
general adoption. Further, as the heavy metal shot necessitated
the use of a correspondingly large prope l ling charge, too grc!
a demand was made on the strength of the feeble guns of &
period. Stone shot being one-third the weight of those of 'am
the powder charge was reduced in proportion, and this ai*
effected an economy. Both Iron and stone shot were occasaooalT
covered with lead, probably to preserve the interior of the bort 3
the gun. Cast iron, while known in the 14th century, was aot
sufficiently common to be much used for the manufacture of shot
although small ones were made about that time. They were used
more, frequently at the latter part of the following centarj.
Towards the end of the 1 6th century nearly aU shot were of iron,
but stone shot were still used with guns called Petrieroe s (beset
the name) or Patararoes, for attacking weak targets like ships at
short range.
Case shot are very nearly as ancient as spherical shot. The?
can be traced back to the early part of the 1 5th century, and the?
have practically retained their orig-
Ufbmf ****** m9 \ form up to the present date.
They are intended for use at ck*c
quarters when a volley of small ska
is required. With field guns they Kt
not of much use at ranges exceedir*
about four hundred yards; those for
heavy guns are effective up to ose
thousand yards. In the earlier
forms lead or iron shot were pack**
in wood casks or in canvas bags tied
up* with twine like the later qaiked
shot. In the present (fig. 2) type
small shot are placed in a cylirdh-
cal case of sheet iron, with iroe
ends, one end being provided mtk
handles. For small guns the bnikts
are made of lead and antimony-
like shrapnel bullets— while for
larger calibres they are of cast
iron weighing from two ounces to three aad a half ponads
each.
Crape shot is now obsolete. It consisted generally of three ben
of cast-iron balls separated by iron plates and held in place by is
iron boll which passed through the centre of the plates.
There was also another type called quilted shot which consisted
of a number of small shot in a canvas covering tied up by rope
Chain shot, in the days of sailing ships, was much in favour as a
means of destroying rigging. Two spherical shot were fastened
together by a short length of chain. On leaving the gun they
began gyrating around each other and made a formidable nussde.
Red-hot shot were invented in 1579 by Stephen Batory. katf
of Poland. They were used with great effect by the Eag&ftt
during the siege of Gibraltar, especially on the 13th of September
1782, when the French floating batteries were destroyed, together
with a large part of the Spanish fleet. Martin's shtU was •
Fie. 2.— Case Shot.
AMMUNITION
867
modified form; bete a cast-iron shell wa» filled with molten cast
iron and immediately fired. On striking the side of a ship the
shell broke up, freeing the still molten iron, which set fire to the
vessel
Rotation.— Projectiles intended for R.MX. guns were at first
fitted with a number of gun-metal studs arranged around them
in a spiral manner corresponding to the twist of rifling. This was
defective, as it allowed, as in the old smooth-bore guns, the
powder gas to escape by the clearance (called " windage ")
between the projectile and the bore, with a consequent loss of
efficiency; it also quickly eroded the bore of the larger guns.
Later the rotation was effected by a cupped copper disc called a
" gas check " attached to the base end of the projectile. The
powder gas pressure expanded the rim of the gas check into the
rifling grooves and prevented the escape of gas; it also firmly
fixed the gas check to the projectile, thus causing it to rotate.
A more regular and efficient action of the powder gas was thus
ensured, with a corresponding greater range and an improvement
in accuracy. With the earlier Armstrong (R.B.L.) guns the
projectiles were coated with lead (the late Lord Armstrong's
system), the lead being forced through the rifling grooves by the
pressure of the exploded powder gas. The lead coating is, how-
ever, too soft with the higher velocities of modern B.L. guns.
Mr Vavasseur, C.B., devised the plan of fitting by hydraulic
pressure a copper " driving band " into a groove cut around the
body of the projectile. This is now universal. It not only fulfils
the purpose of rotating the projectile, but renders possible the
use of large charges of slow-burning explosive. The copper
band, on being forced through the gun, gives rise to considerable
resistance, which allows the propelling charge to burn properly
and thus to exert its enormous force on the projectile.
The laws which govern the designs of projectiles are not well
defined. Certain formulae arc used which give the thickness of
the walls of the shell for a known chamber pressure in the gun,
and for a particular stress on the material of the shell. The exact
proportions of the shell depend, however, greatly on experi-
mental knowledge.
Armour-piercing Shot and Shell.— On the introduction of iron
ships it was found that the ordinary cast-iron projectile readily
pierced the thin plating, and in order to protect the vital parts
of the vessel wrought-Lron armour of considerable thickness was
placed on- the sides. It then became necessary to produce a
projectile which would pierce this armour. This was effected
by Sir W. Palliser, who invented a method of hardening the head
of the pointed cast-iron shot By casting the projectile point
downwards and forming the head in an iron mould, the hot metal
was suddenly chVled and became intensely hard, while the
remainder of the mould being formed of sand allowed the metal
to cool slowly and the body of the shot to be made tough.
These shot proved very effective against wrought-iron armour,
but were not serviceable against compound and steel armour.
A new departure had, therefore, to be made, and forged steel
shot with points hardened by water, &c, took the place of the
Palliser shot. At first these forged steel shot were made of
ordinary carbon steel, but as armour improved in quality the
projectiles followed suit, and, for the attack of the latest type of
cemented steel armour, the projectile is formed of steel— either
forged or cast— containing both nickel and chromium. Tungsten
steel has also been used with success.
Armour-piercing shot or shell are generally cast from a special
mixture of chrome steel melted in pots; they are afterwards
forged into shape. The shell is then- thoroughly annealed, the
core bored and the exterior turned up in the lathe. The shell is
finished in a similar manner to others described below. The final
or tempering treatment is very important, but details are kept
strictly secret. It consists in hardening the head of the projectile
and tempering it in a special manner, the rear portion being
reduced in hardness so as to render it tough. The cavity of these
projectiles is capable of receiving a small bursting charge of about
3 % of the weight of the complete projectile, and when this is
used the projectile is called an armour-piercing shell. The shell,
whether fused or unf used, will burst on striking a medium thick-
ness of armour. Armour-piercing shells, having a bursting
charge of about 3 % of the weight of the complete projectile, are
now often fitted with a soft steel cap (fig. 3) for the perforation of
Fio. 3.-€tpped A.P. Shefl.
hard steel armour. For the theory of the action of the cap see
Armour Plates.
Even with these improvements the projectile cannot, with a
reasonable velocity, be relied upon to pierce one calibre in thick-
ness of modern cemented steel armour.
Explosive shells do not appear to have been in general use
before the middle of the 16th century. About that time hollow
balls of stone or cast iron were fired from mortars. The n -
balls were nearly filled with gunpowder and the remain-
ing space with a slow-burning composition. This plan was
unsatisfactory, as the composition was not always ignited by the
flash from the discharge of the gun, and moreover the amount
of composition to
burn a stipulated
time could not easily
be gauged. The shell
was, therefore, fitted
with a hollow forged
iron or copper plug,
filled with slow-burn-
ing powder. It was
impossible to ignite
with certainty this
primitive fuse simply
by firing the gun;
the fuze was con-
sequently first ignited
and the gun fired
immediately after-
wards. This entailed
Fuxc Hou.
Samt.
Rivrr
Pig. 4.— Spherical Common Shell.
the use of a mortar or a very short piece, so that the fuse could
be easily reached from the muzzle without unduly endangering
the gunner. Cast-iron spherical common shell (fig. 4) were in
use up to 1871. For guns they were latterly fitted with a
wooden disc called a sabot,
/oxe Holc attached by a copper rivet,
intended to keep the fuse
Lirrwe Eta. central when loading. They
were also supposed to reduce
the rebounding tendency of
the shell as it travelled
along the bore on discharge.
Mortar shell (fig. 5) were not
fitted with sabots.
Cast iron held its own as
c %m ev it tne most convenient material
Fio. 5.— Mortar Shell. for p ro jectiles jip to recent
years, steel supplanting it, first for projectiles intended for
piercing armour, and afterwards for common shell for high-
velocity guns where the shock of discharge has been found too
severe for cast iron.
Common shell is essentially a material destructor. Filled with
ordinary gunpowder, the larger natures are formidable projectiles
for the attack of fortifications and the unarmoured portions of
warships. On bursting they break up into somewhat large pieces,
which carry destruction forward to some distance from the point
of burst. For the attack of buildings common shell are superior
to shrapnel and they are used to attack troops posted behind
cover where it is impossible for shrapnel to reach them; their
effect against troops is, however, generally insignificant When
868
AMMUNITION
filled with lyddite, melinite, &c, they are called high-explosive
(H . E.) shell (see below) . Common shell for modern high- velocity
guns may be made of cast steel or forged steel; those made of
cast iron are now generally made for practice, as they are found to
break up on impact, even against earthworks, before the fuze has
time to act; the bursting charge is, therefore, not ignited or only
ignited after the shell has broken up, the effect of the bursting
charge being lost in either case. So long as the shell is strong
enough to resist the shocks of discharge and impact against earth
or thin steel plates, it should be designed to contain as large a
bursting charge as possible and to break up into a large number
of medium-sized pieces. Their effect between decks is generally
more far-reaching than lyddite shell, but the purely local effect is
less. Light structures, which, at a short distance from the point
of burst, successfully resist lyddite shell and confine the effect of
the explosion, may be destroyed by the shower of heavy pieces
produced by the burst of a large common shell.
To prevent the premature explosion of the shell, by the friction
of the grains of powder on discharge, it is heated and coated intern-
ally with a thick lacquer, which on cooling presents a smooth
surface. Besides this the bursting charge of all shell of 4-in.
calibre and upwards (also with all other natures except shrapnel)
is contained in a flannel or canvas bag. The bag is inserted
through the fuze hole and the bursting charge of pebble and fine
grain powder gradually poured in. The shell is tapped on the out-
side by a wood mallet to settle the powder down. When all the
powder has been got in, the neck of the bag is tied and pushed
through the fuze hole. A few small shalloon primer bags, filled
with seven drams of fine grain powder, are then inserted to fill up
the shell and carry the flash from the fuze through the burster
bag.
In the United States specially long common shell called
torpedo shell, about 4*7 calibres in length, are employed with the
coast artillery 12-in. mortars. They weie made of cast steel,
but owing to a premature explosion in a mortar, supposed to be
due to weakness of the shell, they are now made of forged steel.
The weight of the usual projectile for this mortar is 850 lb.
The torpedo shell, however, weighs xoco lb and contains 137 lb
of high explosive; it is not intended for piercing armour but for
producing a powerful explosion on the armoured deck of a war-
ship. The compression, and consequent generation of heat on
discharge of the charge in these long shell, render them liable to
premature explosion if fired with high velocities. Some inventors
have, therefore, sought to overcome this by dividing the shell
transversely into compartments and so making each portion of
the charge comparatively short.
Cast-steel common shell (fig. 6) are cast in sand moulds head
downwards from steel of the required composition to give the
proper tenacity. A large head, which
is subsequently removed, is cast on the
base to give solidity and soundness to
the castings. The castings are annealed
by placing them in a furnace or oven
until red hot, then allowing them to
cool gradually. The process of casting
is very similar to that for the old cast-
iron common shell, which, however, were
cast base downwards. The steel cast-
ings after being annealed are dressed
and carefully examined for defects.
The exterior of the body is generally
ground by an emery wheel or turned
In a lathe; the groove for the driving
band is also turned and the fuze hole
**** **•* fitted with a gun-metal bush. Forged-
- a#m P*tq steel common shell are made from solid
steel billets. These are heated to red-
Fig. 6.— Pointed Com- ness and shaped by a series of punches
mon Shell (cast steel), which force the heated metal through
steel dies by hydraulic pressure. If the
shell is intended for a nose fuze the base end is shaped by the
press and the head subsequently formed by a properly shaped die,
Fie. 7. — Lyddtot
Shell (forged ssedi.
or, in the case of small sheO, the head can, when ted box, be spa
up in a lathe by a properly formed toot For a base hoe shd
the head is produced by the punches and dies, and the base a
subsequently formed by pressing in the metal to the denied
shape. The shell is then completed as described above.
High-explosive shell (fig. 7), as used in the English service, a*
simply forged-steel common shell filled with lyddite and having a
special nose fuze and exploder. The base
end of lyddite shell is made solid to prevent
the possibility of the gas pressure in the gun
producing a premature explosion. Infilling
the shell great precautions are necessary to
prevent the melted lyddite (picric add) from
coming in contact with certain materials
such as combinations of lead, soda, ftc, which
produce sensitive picrates. The shell are
consequently painted externally with a
special non-lead paint and lacquered inside
with special lacquer. The picric add is
melted in an oven, the temperature being
carefully limited. The melted material is
poured into the shell by means of a bronze
funnel, which also forms the space for the
exploder of picric powder. On cooling,
the material solidifies into a dense, hard
mass (density x -6), in which state it is called
lyddite. The fuze on striking ignites the
exploder and in turn the lyddite. When
properly detonated a dense black smoke
is produced and the projectile is broken up
into small pieces, some of which are almost
of the fineness of grains of sand. The radius
of the explosion is about 2$ yds., but the
local effect is intense, and hence on light
structures in a confined space the destruction
is complete. The shell is only of use against
thin plates; against modern armour it is ineffective. Wbn
detonation has not been complete, as sometimes happens wits
small shells, the smoke is yellowish and the pieces of the •fLufaj
shell are as large as when a powder burster is used.
The French high-explosive shell obus torpilU or obus d ssfisnSr
was adopted in x886. The melinite was originally filled into the
ordinary cast-iron common shell (obus ordinaire) with thick wain,
but soon afterwards a forged-steel thin- walled shell (ohm «£m|J)
was introduced. To explode the shell a sted receptacle (called a
gatne) is screwed into the nose of the shell. It is filled wftk
explosive and fitted with a detonator which tt r*i4pdrd by a
percussion fuze. Except for the means adopted to ensue
detonation this shell is practically the same as die lyddite sfceiL
Picric add in some form or other is used in nearly all coastne
for filling high-explosive shell. In some the explosive is melted
and poured into cardboard cases instead of being poured duecd?
intotheshell. The cases are placed in the shell dther by the hoi
of the shell unscrewing from the body or by a removable base
plug. The French m&inite and the Italian fertile are believed ta
be forms of picric add. Russia and the United States use cce-
pressed wet gun-cotton (density 1- a) as the charge for their higa-
explosi ve shell. The gun-cotton is packed in a thin sine or copper
case and is placed in the shell dther by the head or base of the
shell being removable. The gun-cotton is detonated by a power-
ful exploder, the form of which differs in each country. Asnssanai
is also used in high-explosive shell, but owing to Its light density
it is not in great favour. For field-gun and other small high-
explosive shells, ordinary smokeless powder is often used.
Double shell is a term given to a common shell which was seabV
abnormally long, so as to recdve a large bursting charge. They
were intended to be fired with a reduced charge at short range.
They are now practically obsolete; thdr place with modern BX.
guns has been taken by high-explosive shell. Star saeff aie
intended for illuminating the enemy's position. They are very
similar to shrapnel shell, composition stars made op in cyfiadrkal
paper cases taking the place of the bullets. TbeshcBonl
AMMUNITION
869
blows off the head and scatter* the ignited stars. This shell is
only supplied to mountain guns and howitzers, and takes the
place of the older types of illuminating shell, via. the ground light
ball and the parachute light ball.
Hand grenades were used at the assault of entrenchments or in
boat attacks. Although generally regarded as obsolete, they
were much used by the Japanese at the siege of Port Arthur, 1904.
In the British service they were small, thin, spherical common
shell weighing 3 lb for land service and 6 lb for sea service,
filled with powder. They were fitted with a small wood time
fuze to burn 7*s seconds. The grenade was held in the hand and
— BuROTHO CMMQt.
Diaphragm
Fig. 8.— Boxer ShrapneL
the fuze lighted by a port-fire. It was then thrown some 20 to
30 yds. at the enemy's works or boats. Sometimes a number
were fired from a mortar at an elevation of about 30° so that none
should strike the ground too near the mortar. New types of
grenades filled with high explosives deton-
ated by a percussion fuze have been pro-
duced of late years, and it is probable that
they will be again introduced into most
countries.
Shrapnel shell were invented by Lieu-
tenant (afterwards Lieu tenant-General) Henry
Shrapnel, R.A. (1761-1842), in 1784. They
were spherical common shell with lead bullets
mixed with the bursting charge. Although
far superior to common shell in man-killing
effect, their action was not altogether satis-
factory, as the shell on bursting projected
the bullets in all directions, and there was a
liability of premature explosion. In order to
overcome these defects Colonel Boxer, R.A.,
separated the bullets from the bursting charge
by a sheet-iron diaphragm— hence the name
of " diaphragm shell " (fig. 8). The bullets
were hardened by the addition of antimony,
and, as the bursting charge was small, the
shell was weakened by four grooves made
inside the shell extending from the fuze hole
to the opposite side.
Fig. 9.—Shiapnel With rifled guns the form of the shell
v** 11 altered, but its character remained. The
body of the shell was still made of cast iron with a cavity at
the base for the bursting charge; on this was placed a thick
steel diaphragm with a hollow brass tube which communi-
cated the flash from the nose fuze to the bursting charge. The
body was filled with hard lead bullets, and a wood head covered
with sheet iron or steel surmounted it and carried the fuze. By
making the body of toughened steel (fig. 9) and by slightly
reducing the diameter of the bullets, the number of bullets
contained was much increased. In the older field shrapnel,
bullets of x8 and 34 to the lb were used; for later patterns see
Fig. 10.
table in Ordnance: Field Equipments.
Thus with the cast-iron body the percentage
of useful weight, i.e. the proportion of the
weight of the bullets to the total weight of
the shell, was from 26 to 28 %, while with
modern steel shell it is from 47 to 53 %.
The limit of the forward effect of shrapnel
at effective range is about 300 yds. and the
extent of front covered 25 yds.
[Fig. 10 shows in plan the different effects of (a) shrapnel and of
(£) high-explosive, burst in the air with a time fuze in the usual
way. It will be seen that the shrapnel bullets sweep an area of
about 250 yds. by 30 yds., half the bullets falling on the first
50 yds. of the beaten zone. With the high-explosive shell,
however, the fragments strike the r~s
ground closer to the point of burst
and beat a shallow, but broad, area
of ground (about 7 yds. by 55 yds.).
These areas show the calculated
performance of the German field
gun (06 N.A.), firing at a range of
3300 yds. In the case of the high-
explosive shell, the concussion of
the burst is highly dangerous, quite
apart from the actual distribution
of the fragments of the shell.]
The term " shooting shrapnel n
is given to certain howitzer shrap-
nel, which are designed to contain
a large bursting charge for the pur-
pose of considerably augmenting
the velocity of the bullets when the
shell bursts.
High-explosive shell of a com-
pound type have also lately ap-
peared. Messrs Krupp have made
a kind of ring shell with a steel
body; a central tube conveys the
flash from the fuze to a base maga-
zine containing a smoke-producing
charge, while surrounding the
central tube is a bursting charge of
ordinary smokeless nitro-powder.
A shrapnel on somewhat similar
lines has been made by Ehrhardt;
in form (fig. xx) it is an ordinary
shrapnel with base burster, but
near the head is a second magazine
filled with a high-explosive charge;
this is attached to the end of the
fuze and is so arranged that when
the shell is burst as time shrapnel
the flash from the fuze passes clear
of the high-explosive magazine and
ignites only the base magazine, the bullets being blown out in
the usual manner. When, however, the fuze acts on graze, the
percussion part detonates the high-explosive charge and the
bullets are blown out sideways and thus reach men behind
shields, &c. (fig. xo). There is some loss of bullet capacity in
this shell, and it appears likely that the bullets will be materially
Fig.
Shrapnel (]
11.— High-Explosive
' ;Ehrhardt).
870
AMMUNITION
deformed when detonation occurs; the advantages may, how-
ever, counterbalance their objections.
Segment and ring shell are varieties of shrapnel, the interior of
the shell being built up of cast-iron segments or rings (which
break up into segments) about a tinned-iron cylinder which
formed the magazine of the shell. The shell was completed by
a cast-iron body formed around the segments or rings. The
German army in 1870 employed ring shell almost exclusively
against the French. The French found that common shell (obus
ordinaire) when made of cast iron broke up on bursting into a
small number of irregularly shaped pieces, and in order to obtain a
systematic fragmentation for small shells they adopted a variety
of projectiles of the segment and shrapnel types. With the
improvements made latterly these have become obsolete, and the
French system does not now materially differ from that employed
in England and other countries. The old shell are, however, of
sufficient interest to be enumerated; thus the " double-walled
shell " (obus a double poroi) was built up of two shells, the
internal portion had a cylindrical chamber for the bursting charge,
but on the outside it was so shaped as to break* up into well-
defined pieces; the external portion of the shell was cast around
the internal part, and also broke up into a number of pieces; this
shell was liable to premature explosion. The obus d couronnes de
belles (1879) was practically a segment shell with cast-iron balls
in lieu of segments; thin iron partitions separated each layer,
and the balls were flattened where they came in contact with the
plates. The obus a balles libres, adopted in x88o, were of the same
type, but there were no separating plates. The obus d anneaux
was simply a ring shell of the same type as used in England.
The obus d mitraille adopted in 1883 for field and siege guns had a
cast-iron disc for its base with the body built up of segments and
steel balls; a hollow ogival head surmounted this and a thin steel
envelope bound all together. The head was filled with powder
and fitted with a fuze; on explosion the head burst and ruptur-
ing the envelope set free the balls and segments.
It is of importance in firing shrapnel shell that the position of
the burst shall be plainly seen. With the larger patterns of shell
this presents no difficulty, but with the shrapnel for field guns
which contain a small bursting charge only, and at long range
in certain states of the atmosphere, the difficulty becomes
pronounced. The problem has been solved in some cases by
packing the bullets in fine grain black powder (instead of resin)
and compressing both bullets and powder in order to prevent
the generation of heat when the bullets set back on the discharge
of the gun. In Germany a mixture of red amorphous phosphorus
and fine grain powder is used for the same purpose and produces
a dense white cloud of smoke. In Russia a mixture of magnesium
and antimony sulphide is used.
Fuses .—The fuzes first used were short iron or copper tubes
filled with slow-burning composition. They were roughly screwed
on the exterior to fit a similar thread in the fuze hole of the shell
There was no means of regulating the length of time of burning,
but later, about the end of the 17th century, the fuze case was
made of paper or wood, so that, by boring a hole through the outer
casing into the composition, the fuze could be made to burn
approximately for a given time before exploding the shell — or the
fuze could be cut to the correct length for the same purpose.
Early attempts to produce percussion fuzes were unsuccessful,
but the discovery of fulminate of mercury in 1799 finally afforded
the means of attaining this object Some fifty years, however,
elapsed before a satisfactory fuze was made. This was the
Pettman fuze, in which a roughened ball covered with detonating
composition was released by tic discharge of the gun. When the
shell hit any object, the ball struck against the interior walls of
the fuze, the composition was exploded and thence the bursting
charge of the shclL At present there are three types of per-
cussion fuzes — (1) those which depend on the gas pressure in the
gun setting the pellet of the fuze free — this type is necessarily a
base fuze; (a) those which rely on the shock of discharge or the
rotation of the shell setting the pellet free, as in various kinds of
nose and base fuzes; (3) those relying on direct impact with the
object. I
1
Smr+tj *fcy
The British base percussion rose (fig. it) ilnsfialrt type OX
In this, before firing, the needle pellet is held back by a ceataf
n ifr nmgt sptndk withapm-
sure plate *r***+*4
,^^^ ,f * toitsrearend. For
additional safety 1
.„$pr;*$ centrifugal bait a
added which a re-
leased by the roa-
Mr*dtfntoof ban of the aVJ.
Body On discharge, the
"J***iP **1 «. «** preaaurc pasta
C*»tr*f U p«3o* fhc pte9TO pfcj,
in, the cecal!
5f>;«*te spindle is carried
p * . p*t*turr «sflr forward with it sod
J k**"' ' n 1 unlocks the ceata-
.1 ,,..,.J"j...jy^t forKty withdrawn by tie
Fie. ia.— Base Percussion Fuse rotation of tk
shell, and the neede
pellet is then free to move forward and explode the detoaa&at
cap when the shell strikes.
Type (2) is that usually adopted in small base faxes And is tk
percussion part of " time and percussion " fuzes. Here tk
ferrule, on shock of discharge, moves back relatively to the per*
cussion pellet by collapsing the stirrup spring; this leaves tk
pellet free to move forward, on the sheU striking, and ita detonator
to strike the needle fixed in the fuze body. A spiral epcaf
prevents any movement of the pellet during flight.
The direct-action or impact fuzes of type (3) are very sunpk
(see fig. 13 of direct-action fuse). They are made of sack
a strength that during dis-
charge nothing happens,
but on striking an object
the needle disc is crushed
in and the needle explodes
the detonating composition
and thence the powder.
The action of all time
fuzes is started by the
discharge of the gun. By
this the pellet strikes the
detonator and so ignites
a length of slow-burning
composition which is pressed into a wood tube or into s
channel formed in a metal ring. To regulate the tin* of
burning of the wood fuze, a hole is bored through into tk
composition as before stated, so that when it has burnt dove to
this hole one of the side channels filled with powder is ignited sat
explodes the shell. Wood fuzes are now only used for ILftCL. gam
With modern long-burning fuzes (fig. 14), two composition time
rings are used. The lower of these rings is made movable so t! at
it can be turned to bring any desired place over a hofe in the body
of the fuze, which is filled with powder and communicates vitk
the magazine. On the gun being fired the detonator is eapfocei
and its flash ignites the upper time ring. This barns round to s
passage made in the lower ring, when the lower ring begins to bora
and continues to do so until the channel to the magariae a
reached. The gases from the ignited composition escape from aa
external hole made in each time ring.
Mechanical time fuzes depending on the rotation of the sad re
give a regular motion to clockwork have been tried, bat so fsr no
practicable form of these fuzes has been found.
It is important that all fuzes should be rigidly guarded agaiast
dampness, which tends to lengthen their time of burning; hence
they are protected either by being kept in hermetically seakrf
tins holding one or more fuzes, or by some similar means.
Tubes and Primers. — In ancient times various devices vent
adopted to ignite the charge. Small guns were fired by tkrosthaf
a hot wire down the vent into the charge, or slow-burmaf
powder was poured down the vent and ignited by a hot wwa
FlC. 13.— Direet-Actioo 1
Fuse
AMMUNITION
871
Later the priming powder was ignited by a piece of alow match
held in a lint-stock (often called linstock). About a.o. 1700 this
was effected by means of a port-fire (this was a paper case about
Fie. 14.— Fuze, Time and Percussion, No. 80, Mk. I.
16 in. long filled with slow-burning composition which burnt
rather more than 1 in. per minute). Later again the charge
was exploded by paper tubes (sometimes called Dutch tubes)
filled with powder and placed in the vent and ignited by a port-
fire. In comparatively modern times friction tubes have been
used, while in the latest patterns percussion or electric tubes are
employed.
In most B.L. guns it is essential to stop the erosion of the metal
of the vent by preventing the escape of gas through it when the
gun is fired. For this purpose the charges in such guns are
Ignited by " vent-sealing tubes." For M.L. guns and small B .L.
guns radially vented, especially those using black powder, the
amount of erosion in the vent is not so serious. The charge b
fired by ordinary friction tubes, which are blown away by the
escape of gas through the vent. In all guns axially vented, vent-
sealing tubes, which are not blown out, must be employed so that
the men serving the gun may not be injured.
The common friction tube is a copper tube, driven with powder,
having at the upper end a short branch (called a nib piece) at
right angles. This branch is filled with friction composition in
which a friction bar is embedded. On the friction bar being
sharply pulled out, by means of a lanyard, the composition is
ignited and sets fire to the powder in the long tube; the flash is
conveyed through the vent and explodes the gun charge. For
........ Holfrooodeoppotwiro
.' /w&od andfSSfnoJttd
6un Mo*/ Hood
-loop dippod in sotdor
Shoorina miro H» and Qatmooe
Soft eoppor do//
3 No** ^
Corkplua shH/oxod
-5*e//oc it moot
Fig. 15.— T-headed Friction Tube.
naval purposes, in order that the sailors should not be cut about
the face or hurt their feet, tubes of quill instead of copper were
used. If friction tubes are employed when cordite or other
smokeless powder charges are used, the erosion of the vent is very
rapid unless the escape of the gas is prevented; in this case
T-beaded tubes (fig. 15) are used. They are similar in action to
the ordinary type, but are fixed to the vent by the head fitting a
bayonet joint formed with the vent. The explosion blows a small
21
flight AW spirit
.SsrcoMf
LJL
Pton of H**d
L™*w*»
Copptr miro Uulohd wMs»
■■•■j' 1 iffy
..towwik
t . Cofipor potts costsd with pert Nm
1 ftjtl*tim sihror wtr$
.JAm/ £l *it*
~to*pm*mw ptimUtq
rPtpordiXO '
I -Xoro die
Fie 16.— Electric Tube,
ball upwards and blocks the coned hole at the top of the tube and
so prevents any rush of gas.
The vent-sealing tube accurately fits into a chamber formed at
the end of the vent, and is held
in place by the gun lock or some
similar means. The force of
the explosion expands the tube
against the walls of its chamber,
while the internal structure of
the tube renders it gas-tight,
any escape of gas through the
vent being thus prevented.
In the English service electric
tubes (in the United States
called "primers") are mostly
used, but percussion or friction
tubes are in most favour on the
continent, and electric tubes are
seldom or never used. There are
two types of electric tube, one
with long wires (fig. 16) for join-
ing up with the electric circuit
3 -&/*Uzt dtsc
l7-^L.t*Hff*ttd KTifW
1 — -Bf4ss Scdf
.-„£&erifetn*i/*bo{*
. . ff'0 JJ Cvttff
.„fr?rt*^ffl^ert Priming
. tins* aji
• - - Ki' *?■>.•?
Fig. 17.— Wireless Tube,
and the other without external wires. The first type has two insu-
lated wires led into the interior and attached to two insulated
8 7 2
AMMUNITION
brass cones which ate connected by a wire " bridge " of platinum
silver. This bridge is surrounded by a priming composition of gun-
cotton dust and mealed powder and the remainder of the tube is
filled with powder. On an electric current passing, the bridge is
heated to incandescence and ignites the priming composition.
In the wireless tube (fig. 17) the lock of the gun makes the
electric contact with an insulated disc in the head of the
tube. This disc is connected by an insulated wire to a
brass cone, also insulated, the bridge being formed from
an edge of the cone to a brass wire which is soldered to the
mouth of the tube. Priming composition surrounds the bridge
and the tube is filled with powder. The electric circuit passes
from the gun lock to the disc, thence through the bridge to the
body of the tube, returning through
the metal of the gun and mounting.
The percussion tube (fig. 18) has
a similarly shaped body to the wire-
less electric tube, but the internal
construction differs; it is fitted
with a striker, below which is a
percussion cap on a hollow brass
anvil, and the tube is filled with
powder.
With Q.F. guns (that is, strictly,
. _ „ fi/it cw* P»*d& thoseusing metallic cartridge cases)
the case itself is fitted with the
igniting medium; in England these
are called primers. For small guns
the case contains a percussion
primer, usually a copper cap filled
with a chlorate mixture and resting
against an anvil The striker of
the gun strikes the cap and fires
the mixture. For larger guns an
electric primer (fig. 19) is used, the internal construction and
action of which are precisely similar to the wireless tube already
described; the exterior is screwed for the case. For percussion
wfttrprtur oeaewr
... Br*tl5Jak*r
Fie. 18.— Primer.
-* in* *— f0* Ai mlte
«■ Tun at fm*—tfn ymtm
, wJtoim *crmw ca/Ssr
k«M SOk
— w&rmwt Cam
Buck Thm*
wuh m* tmrttmlt—4
£tnmto dp «cr*w»*
Flo. 19.— Electric Primer,
firing an ordinary percussion tube is placed in an adapter
screwed into the case. In some foreign services a combined
electric and percussion primer is used; the. action of this will
be understood from fig. 20.
The first cartridges for cannon were made up of gunpowder
packed in a paper bag or case. For many years after the intro-
duction of cannon the powder was introduced into the
bore by means of a scoop-shaped ladle fixed to the
end of a long stave. The ladle was made of the same
diameter as the shot, and it had a definite length so that it was
filled once for the charging of small guns but for larger guns the
- Ptmcwwswn 0»
jK 1 ! 4*rvn„
Fio. ao.— Combined P rim er.
1 then fired 0?
ladle had to be filled twice or eves thrice. The rate wss ti
make the powder charge the same weight aa that of the shsL
Cartridges made up In paper or canvas bags wese ste-
wards used In forts at
night-time or on board
ship, so that the guns
could be more rapidly
loaded and with less risk
than by using a ladle.
Before loading, a piece
of the paper or canvas
covering had to be cut
open immediately under
the vent; after the shot
had been rammed home
the vent was filled with
powder from a priming horn, and the gun 1
means of a hot iron, quick match or port-fire.
Tlieajidcntbreech-k)a<lingguiiswcreiK*sodiificwlttok»iij
the powder chamber of the gun was removable and was chaifed
by simply filling it up with powder and ramming a wad oa tap
to prevent the escape of the powder.
Paper, canvas and similar materials are pa r ti cu la rl y Sable 10
smoulder after the gun has been fired, hence the necessity of vd
sponging the piece. Even with this precaution accidents oeta
occurred owing to a cartridge being ignited by the still gkrocc
dibris of the previous round. In order to prevent this, bap d
non-smouldering material, such as flannel, seise or silk dots is
used; combustible material such as woven gun-cotton doth ka
also been tried, but there arc certain disadvantages attending tan.
All smokeless powders are somewhat difficult to ignite ia s
gun, so that in order to prevent hang-fires every cartridge hast
primer or igniter, of ordinary fine grain gunpowder, placed so a
to intercept the flash from the tube; the outside of the bagca-
taining this igniter is made of shalloon, to allow the flash to pes*-
trate with ease. The charge for heavy guns (above 6 mj a
made up in separate cartridges containing half and quarts
charges, both for convenience of .handling, and to allow of a
reduced charge being used.
The cartridges are made of a bundle of cordite, or other smoke-
less powder, tightly tied with silk, placed in a silk doth bag wid
the primer or igniter stitched on the unclosed end; the exterisr
is taped with silk cloth tape so as to form a stiff cartridge. Far
X7
— M^WSMft*
Fig. si.— 10-inch BX. Gun Cartridge.
some of the longer guns, the exterior of the cartridge is conven-
iently made of a coned shape, the coned form being produced by
building up layers outside a cylindrical core. In these large
cartridges a silk cord becket runs up the centre with a loop at tat
top for handling (fig. si).
AMMUNITION
873
For howitzers, variable charge* are used, and are made op to
that the weight can be readily altered. The following typical
instance (fig. ax) will ierve to show the general method of making
--.-.-. 4 Q f pity jf ttrtiU fww# k**A
Fig. aa.— 6-ioch B.L. Howitzer Cartridge.
up such charges, whether for B.L. or Q.F. howitzers. Small size
cordite is used, and the charge is formed of a mushroom-shaped
core, made up in a shalloon bag; on the stalk, so as to be easily
removed, three rings of cordite are placed. The bottom of the
corecontains the primer, and the rings can be attached to the core
by two silk braids. The weight of the rings is graduated so that
by detaching one or more the varying charges required can be
obtained.
For quick-firing guns the charge is contained in a brass case to
which is fitted a primer for igniting the charge. This case is
4 Sifk ttttst
tStfk twist /V
m fat*<ftr nr
3§4)h00
Flo. 23.— 6-pc. Q S. Cartridge
inserted into the gun, and when fired slightly expands and tightly
fits the chamber of the gun, thus acting as an obturator and
preventing any escape of gas from the breech. This class of
ammunition h especially useful for the smaller calibres of
guns, such as 3-pr., 6-pr. and field guns, but Messrs Krupp
also employ metallic cartridge cases for the largest type of
gun, probably on account of the known difficulty of ensuring
trustworthy obturation by any other means practicable with
sliding wedge guns.
The charges for these cases are made up in a very similar
manner to those already de- tmtrtosefi* Ui
scribed for BX. guns. Where 3 '""*>'* w *^
necessary, distance pieces
formed of papm-mtoM tubes
and felt wads are used to
fill up the space in. the case
and so prevent any move-
ment of the charge. The
mouth of the case is closed
either by the base end of
the projectile (fig. 23), in
which case it is called "fixed
ammunition " or " simultane-
ous loading ammunition," or
by a metallic cap (fig. 24),
projectile and charge being ^
thus loaded by separate operations. (A. G. H.)
The Bullet.— The original musket bullet was a spherical leaden
ball two sizes smaller than the bore, wrapped in a loosely fitting
paper patch which formed the cartridge. The loading m ^ mM _
was, therefore, easy with the old smooth-bore Brown Ml 4HB .
Bets and similar military muskets. The original ■■■sfn
muzzle-loading rifle, on the other hand, with a closely
fitting ball to take the grooves, was loaded with difficulty, particu-
larly when foul, and for this reason was not generally used for
military purposes.
In 1826 Delirque, a French infantry officer, invented a breech
with abrupt shoulders on which the spherical bullet was rammed
down until it expanded and filled the grooves. The objection in
this case was that the deformed bullet had an erratic flight The
Brunswick rifle, introduced into the British army in the reign of
William IV., fired a spherical bullet weighing 557 gn. with a belt
to fit the grooves. The rifle was not easily loaded, and soon
fouled. In 1835 W. Greener produced a new -expansive bullet,
an oval ball, a diameter and a half in length, with a flat end,
perforated, in which a cast metallic taper plug was inserted.
The explosion of the charge drove the plug home, expanded the
bullet, filled the grooves and prevented windage. A trial of the
Greener bullet in August 1835, *t Tynemouth, by a party of the
60th (now King's Royal) Rifles, proved successful The range and
accuracy of the rifle were retained, while the loading proved as
easy as with a smooth-bore musket. The invention was, however,
rejected by the military authorities on the ground that the bullet
was a compound one. In 1852 the government awarded Minie,
a Frenchman, £20,000 for a bullet of the same principle, adopted
into the British service. Subsequently, in 1857, Greener was
also awarded £1000 for "the first public suggestion of the
principle of expansion, commonly called the Minie principle, in
1836." The Mini* bullet contained an iron cup in a cavity in
the base of the bullet. The form of the bullet was subsequently
changed from conoidal to cylindro-conoidal, with a hemispherical
iron cup. This bullet was used in the Enfield rifle introduced
into the British army in 1855. It weighed 530 grs., and was
made up into cartridges and lubricated as for the Minie rifle. A
boxwood plug to the bullet was also used. The bullet used in the
breech-loading Martini-Henry rifle, adopted by the British
government in 1871 in succession to the Snider-Enfield rifle,
weighed 480 grs., and was fired from an Eley-Boxer cartridge-
case with a wad of wax lubrication at the base of the bullet.
Between 1854 and 1857 Sir Joseph Whitworth conducted a long
series of rifle experiments, and proved, among other points, the
advantages of a smaller bore and, in particular, of an elongated
bullet. The Whitworth bullet was made to fit the grooves of the
rifle mechanically. The Whitworth rifle was never adopted by
the government, although it was used extensively for match
purposes and target practice between 1857 and 1866.
8 7 4
AMMUNITION
it was gradually superseded by Metford's system mentioned
The next important change in the history of the rifle bullet
occurred in 1883, when Major Rubin, director of the Swiss
Laboratory at Thun, invented the small -calibre rifle, one of
whose essential features was the employment of an elongated
compound bullet, with a leaden core in a copper envelope.
About 1862 and later, W. E. Metford had carried out an ex-
haustive series of experiments on bullets and rifling, and had
invented the important system of light rifling with increasing
spiral, and a hardened bullet The combined result of the above
inventions was that in December 1888 the Lee-Metford small-bore
•303 rifle, Mark L, was finally adopted for the British army. The
latest development of this rifle is now known as the -303 Lee-
Enfield, which fires a long, thin, nickel-covered, leaden-cored
bullet 1-25 in. long, weighing only 2x5 grs., while the Martini-
Henry bullet, 1*27 in. in length and -45 in. in diameter, weighed
480 grs.
The adoption of the smaller elongated bullet, necessitated by
the smaller calibre of the rifle, entailed some definite disad-
vantages. The lighter bullet is more affected by wind. Its
greater relative length to diameter necessitates a sharper pitch
of rifling in order properly to revolve the bullet (one turn in 10 in.
for the »303 rifle as compared with one turn in 22 in. for the
Martini-Henry). This, in its turn, necessitates a hard nickel
envelope for the leaden bullet in order to prevent its " stripping,"
or being forced through the barrel without rotation. The general
result is that, while the enveloped bullet has a much higher
penetrative power than one of lead only, it does not usually
inflict so severe a wound, nor has it such a stunning effect as the
old lead bullet It cuts a small clean hole, but does not deform.
This fact is of some military importance, as, for example, in
warfare with savages. In which the chief danger is usually a rush
of large numbers at close quarters. The advantages, however,
of the smaller calibre and the lighter bullet and ammunition are
considered to outweigh the disadvantages, and they have been
universally adopted for all military rifles.
Bullets for target and sporting-rifles have, In the main,
followed, or occasionally preceded, the line of progress of military
rifle bullets. In 1861 Henry introduced a modification of the
grooving of the cylindrical Whitworth bullet, and In 1864 and
1865 the Rigby mechanically fitting bullet was used with success
at the National Rifle Association meeting, and in the second stage
of the Queen's prise. The bullets of sporting rifles, and particu-
larly those of Express rifles, are often lighter than military
bullets, and made with hollow points to ensure the expansion of
the projectile on or after impact The size and shape of the
hollow in the point vary according to the purpose required and
the nature of the game hunted. If greater penetration is needed,
the leaden bullet is hardened with mercury or tin, or the military
nickel-coated bullet is used with the small-bore, smokeless-
powder rifles. Explosive bullets filled with detonating powder
were at one time used in Express and large-bore rifles for large
game. The use of these bullets is now practically abandoned
owing to their uncertainty of action and the danger involved in
handling them. Their use in warfare is prohibited by inter-
national law.
The nickel-covered bullet, when used in a modern small-bore
rifle for sporting purposes, is made into an expanding bullet,
either by leaving the leaden core uncovered at the nose of the
bullet, with or without a hollow point, or by cutting transverse
or longitudinal nicks of varying depth in the point or circumfer-
ence of the bullet
A cone-shaped sharp-pointed bullet, named the Spitzer bullet,
has been tried In the United States under the auspices of the
Ordnance Department, in a Springfield rifle, which is practically
identical with the British service -303 Lee-Enfield. This bullet
is lighter than the Lee-Enfield bullet (150 grs. as against
sis grs.) » and when fired with a heavier charge of powder (51
grs. as against 31 grs.) gives, it is claimed, better results in
musxie-velodty, trajectory, deflexion from wind and wear and
tsar of rifling, than the present universally used cylinder-shaped
bullet In 1906 details of topsototype, the Gersnan'S "1
(SpibteseMoss), and of the French "D" ballet, we
The Cartridge.— The original cartridge far nufitary aval sra
dates from 1 586. It consisted of a charge of powder and a b_fet
in a paper envelope. This cartridge was used with the amxsav
loading military firearm, the base of the cartridge being ripped*
bitten off by the soldier, the powder poured into the band, satf
the bullet then rammed home. Before the invention of the fet-
lock or flint-lock, about 1635, the priming was originally pet irss
the pan of the wheel-lock and snaphancr muskets from a task
containing a fine-grained powder called serpentine powder
Later the pan was filled from the cartridge above de s cri b ed betas
The mechanism of the flint-lock musket, in which oe
pan was covered by the furrowed steel struck by the tat
rendered this method of priming unnecessary, as, in i^**»g. a
portion of the charge of powder passed from the barrel through
the vent into the pan, where It was held by the cover sad
The next important advance in the method of ignition was tie
introduction of the copper percussion cap. This was only gener*
ally applied to the British military musket (the Brown Bess) a
1842, a quarter of a century after the invention of rjnr i m is n
powder and after an elaborate government test at Woolwich ■
1834. The invention which made the percussion cap possbfc
was patented by the Rev. A. J. Forsyth in 1807, and ™—t^«^ of
priming with a fulminating powder made of chlorate of potash.
sulphur and charcoal, which exploded by c onces sio n . Tin
invention was gradually developed, and used, first in a steel cap,
and then in a copper cap, by various gunmakers and private
individuals before coming into general military use nearly thirty
years later. The alteration of the military flint-lock to the per-
cussion musket was easily accomplished by replacing the powder
pan by a perforated nipple, and by replacing the cock or hammer
which held the flint by a smaller hammer with a hoflow to fit 01
the nipple when released by the trigger. On the nipple was
placed the copper cap containing the detonating consposiooa.
now made of three parts of chlorate of potash, two of fuinaaatr
of mercury and one of powdered glass, The detonating cap thus
invented and adopted, brought about the invention of the
modern cartridge case, and rendered possible the general adop-
tion of the breech-loading principle for aO varieties of rifles* shot
guns and pistols. Probably no invention connected with fire-
arms has wrought such changes in the principle of gun construc-
tion as those effected by the expansive cartridge case. Tan
invention has completely revolutionised the art of j
AMNESTY— AMOEBA
875
has been successfully applied to all descriptions of firearms, and
has produced a new and important industry— that of cartridge
manufacture.
Its essential feature is the prevention of all escape of gas at the
breech when the weapon is fired, by means of an expansive
cartridge case containing its own means of ignition. Previous to
this invention shot guns and sporting rifles were loaded by
means of powder flasks and shot flasks, bullets, wads and copper
caps, all carried separately. The earliest efficient modern
cartridge case was the pin-fire, patented, according to tome
authorities, by Houfller, a Paris gunsmith, in 1847; and,
according to others, by Lefaucheux, also a Paris gunsmith, in or
about 1850. Jt consisted of thin weak shell made of brass and
paper which expanded by the force of the explosion, fitted
perfectly into the barrel, and thus formed an efficient gas check.
A small percussion cap was placed in the middle of the base of the
cartridge, and was exploded by means of a brass pin projecting
from the side and struck by the hammer. This pin also afforded
the means of extracting the cartridge case. This cartridge was
introduced In England by Lang, of Cockspur Street, London,
about 1855.
The central-fire cartridge was Introduced into England in 1861
by Daw. It is said to have been the invention of Pottet of Paris,
improved upon by Schneider, and gave rise to much litigation in
respect of its patent rights. Daw was subsequently defeated in
his control of the patents by Eley Bros. In this cartridge the cap
in the centre of the cartridge base is detonated by a striker
passing through the standing breech to the inner face, the
cartridge case being withdrawn, or, in the most modern weapons,
ejected by a sliding extractor fitted to the breech end of the
barrel, which catches the rim of the base of the cartridge.
This is practically the modern cartridge case now in universal
use. In die case of shot guns it has been gradually inproved in
small details. The cases are made either of paper of various
qualities with brass bases, or entirely of thinbrass. The wadding
between powder and shot has been thickened and improved in
quality; and the end of the cartridge case is now made to fit
more perfectly into the breech chamber. These cartridges vary
in size from 32 bore up to 4 bore for shoulder guns. They are also
made as small as *4io and '360 gauge: their length varies from
r| in. to 4 in. Cartridges for punt guns are usually i} In. in
diameter and of in. in length.
In the case of military rifles the breech-loading cartridge case
was first adopted in principle by the Prussians about 1841 in the
needle-gun (9.9.) breech-loader. In this a conical bullet rested
on a thick wad, behind which was the powder, the whole being
enclosed in* strong lubricated paper. The -detonator was in the
hinder surface of the wad, and fired by a needle driven forward
from the breech, through the base of the cartridge and through
the powder, by the action of a spiral spring set free by the pulling
of the trigger.
In 1867 the British war office adopted the Eley-Boxer metallic
central-fire cartridge case in the Enfield rifles, which were
converted to breech-loaders on the Snider principle. This con-
sisted of a block opening on a hinge, thus forming a false breech
against which the cartridge rested. The detonating cap was in
the base of the cartridge, and was exploded by a striker passing
through the breech block. Other European powers adopted
breech-loading military rifles from i860 to 1868, with paper
instead of metallic cartridge cases. The original Eley-Boxer
cartridge case was made of thin coiled brass. Later the solid-
drawn, central-fire cartridge case, made of one entire solid piece of
tough hard metal, an alloy of copper, &&, with a solid head of
thicker metal, has been generally substituted.
Central-fire cartridges with solid-drawn metallic cases contain-
ing their own means of ignition are now universally used in all
modern varieties of military and sporting rifles and pistols.
There is great variety in the length and diameter of cartridges for
the different kinds and calibres of rifles and pistols. Those for
military rifles vary from s*a in. to 2*25 in. in length, and from
•356 to -315 gauge. For sporting rifles from 2$ in. to 3 J in. in
length, and through numerous gauges from '256 in. to -ooo in.
For revolvers, pistols, rook and rabbit rifles, and for Morris tubes,
cartridges vary from *2a in. to -301 in. In gauge. All miniature
cartridges with light charges are made for breech adapters to
enable -303 military rifles to be used on miniature rifle ranges.
All the above cartridges are central-flre. Rim-fire cartridges for
rifles, revolvers and pistols vary from *ss in. to *s6 in. gaum
according to the weapon for which they are required. The
cartridge for the British war office miniature rifle is *ss calibre,
with 5 grs. of powder and a bullet weighing 40 grs. Most
modern military rifles are supplied with clip or charger loading
arrangements, whereby the msgsrine Is filled with the required
number of cartridges in one motion. A clip b simply a case of
cartridges which is dropped into the magazine; a charger is a
strip of metal holding the bases of the cartridges, and is placed
over the m s gsrine , the cartridges being pressed out into the
latter. Both dips and chargers, being consumable stores, may be
consid ered as ammunition. (H. S.-K.)
AMNESTY (from the Gr. ajufffrfa, oblivion), an act of
grace by which the supreme power in a state restores those
who may have been guilty of any offence against it to the
position of innocent persons. It includes more than pardon,
inasmuch as it obliterates all legal remembrance of the offence.
Amnesties, which may be granted by the crown alone, or by act
of parliament, were formerly usual on coronations and similar
occasions, but are chiefly exercised towards associations of
political criminals, and are sometimes granted absolutely, though
more frequently there are certain specified exceptions. Thus, In
the case of the earliest recorded amnesty, that of Thrasybulus at
Athens, the thirty tyrants and a few others were expressly
excluded from its operation; and the amnesty proclaimed on
the restoration of Charles IL did not extend to those who had
taken part in the execution of his father. Other celebrated
amnesties are that proclaimed by Napoleon on the 13th of March
181 s, from which thirteen eminent persons, including Talleyrand,
were excepted; the Prussian amnesty of the 10th of August
1840; the general amnesty proclaimed by the emperor Francis
Joseph of Austria in 1857; the general amnesty granted by
President Johnson after the Civil War in 1868; and the French
amnesty of 1005. The last act of amnesty passed in Great
Britain was that of 1 747, which proclaimed a pardon to those who
had taken part in the second Jacobite rebellion.
AMOEBA, the Greek equivalent of the name " Amine " given
by Bery St Vincent to the Proteus animalcule of earlier natural-
ists, used as a quasi-popular term for any simple naked protist
the sole external organs of which are pseudopodia, •*.«. temporary
outgrowths of the clearer outer layer of the soft protoplasmic
body. It is also used as a generic name, and in its present
limitations by E. Penard includes only those the pseudopodia
of which are constantly changing, blunt outgrowths. In the
former wider sense, amoebae are found in sluggish waters, fresh
and salt, all over the world; they readily make their appearance
in infusions putrefying after infection from aerially carried germs,
and the leucocytes or colourless blood corpuscles of Metazoa
are essentially amoebae in their structure and behaviour. The
protoplasm of the individual is divided into a centrally placed
body, the nucleus, of relatively stable shape, and the cytoplasm,
itself divided into an outer, clearer ectoplasm (" ectosarc ") and
an inner, more granular endoplasm (" endosarc "), passing into
one another. The movements of amoebae are of several kinds.
(1) The amoeba may grow out irregularly into blunt lobes, the
pseudopodia, some being emitted while others are retracted, and
so may advance in any direction by the emission of pseudopodia
thitherward, and the enlargement of these by the passage of the
organism into them. (2) Again, it may advance by a sort of
rolling: the lower surface, or that in contact with the sub-
stratum over or under which it is passing, is viscid and adheres
to* the substratum, the superficial dorsal layer passing forward
and bending over to the ventral side; whilst the converse action
takes place at the hinder end; (3) or again, the pseudopodia,
when long, well marked and relatively permanent, may serve as
actual limbs on which the body is supported and on which it
moves. In the outgrowth of a pseudopod the process may take
876
AMOL— AMORT
place gradually, the ectoplasm growing as it stretches, or it may
take place by the limiting layer of the ectosarc bursting, as it
were, and a rounded prominence of the endosarc protruding and
at once forming a new " skin " or pellicle. This last mode,
termed M eruptive," is common in the case of the enormous,
multinucleate amoeba termed Pdomyxa pahutris, which attains
a diameter when contracted and spherical of as much as a line
(over a mm.). From the ease with which amoebae are obtained
and kept alive under the microscope, as well as from their identity
in structure with the primitive elements of Metazoa, they have
always been favourite objects of study for protoplasmic physi-
ology under its simplest conditions. Among the investigators of
protoplasmic movements we may dte F. Dujardin, O. Btttschli,
L. Rhumbler and H. S. Jennings. The opening to the exterior
of the contractile vesicle has been found here. Pelomyxa has
yielded to A. E. Dixon and M. Hartog a peptic ferment, such as
has been extracted by C. F. W. Krukenbergfromthe Myxomycete
Fuligo (Flowers of Tan), which is the largest known naked mass
of protoplasm without cellular differentiation.
Amoeba shows also the multiplication by fisskm, so character-
istic of the cell : for the study of other modes of reproduction,
spore formation and syngamic (or so-called fertilization) pro-
cesses, fresh-water or salt-water amoebae are ill suited, and up to
this date we do not know the life cycle of any free-living naked '
amoeba, though that of some parasitic forms and shell-bearers
have been fully made out. Some amoebae are certainly young
states of Myxomycetes. Encystment, the excretion of a mem-
brane around the cell to tide over unfavourable circumstances,
has been noted in almost all species.
Amoeba coii and A. histolytica are parasites in the gut of man,
the former relatively harmless, the latter the cause of severe
dysentery and hepatic abscess, common in India.
H. S. Jennings has recently made a full study of the move-
ments of Amoeba, and of its general behaviour, and found therein
many indications that these are on the whole such as we should
expect of an organism working by " trial and error " rather than
the uniform modes of non-living beings. Thus the operations of
an amoeba ingesting a round, encysted Eugfena are summed up
thus: " One seems to see that the amoeba ia trying to obtain
this cyst for food, that it shows remarkable pertinacity in
continuing its attempts to put forth efforts to accomplish this
in various ways, and that it shows remarkable pertinacity in
continuing its attempts to ingest the food when it meets with
difficulties. Indeed the scene could be described in a much
more vivid and interesting way by the use of terms still more
anthropomorphic in tendency." (M. Ha.)
AJIOL, or Amul, a town of Persia, in the province of Mazan-
daran, 93 m. W. of Barfurush, in 36° 2? N. Lat and 52 23' £.
long Fop. about 10,000. It is situated on both banks of the
Heraz, or Herhaz river, which is crossed here by a very narrow
stone bridge of twelve arches and flows into the Caspian Sea 1 2 m.
lower down. Amol is not walled and is now a place of little
importance, but in and around it there are ruins and ancient
buildings which bear witness to its former greatness. Of these
the most conspicuous is the mausoleum of Seyed Kawam ud-din,
king of Mazandaran, who died in 1379, and one old mosque dates
from aj>. 793. The town has spacious and well-supplied bazaars
and post and telegraph offices.
AMONTONS, GUILLAUMB (1663-1705), French experimental
philosopher, the son of an advocate who had left his native
province of Normandy and established himself at Paris, was born
in that dty on the 31st of August 1663. He devoted himself
particularly to the improvement of instruments employed in
physical experiments. In 1687 he presented to the Academy of
Sciences an hygrometer of his own invention, and in 1695 he
published his only book, Remarque* et experiences physiques sur la
construction (Tune nouvdle depsydre, sur la barometres, les
tkermomctrcs et les hygrometres. In 1699 he published some in-
vestigations on friction, and in x 702-1 703 two noteworthy papers
on thermometry. He experimented with an air-thermometer,
in which the temperature was defined .by measurement of
the length of a column of mercury; and he pointed out that
the extreme cold of such a thermometer \
reduced the " spring " of the air to nothing, thus bexsuT. the irst is
recognize that the use of air as a thermoasetrk snhstaacc kd it
the inference of the existence of a zero of fni i pcratm c. In 1704
he noted that barometers are affected by heat as well as by Ik
weight of the atmosphere, and in the following year he df s njhul
barometers without mercury, for use at sea. Amnrnnas , was
through disease was rendered almost completely deaf is eaa>
youth, died at Paris on the nth of October 1705.
'AMORA (Hebrew for "speaker" or - discovxaer -), a Wk
applied to the rabbis of the 2nd to sth centuries, ix. to theceav
pliers of the Talmud. Each Isao— or rabbi of t
had a spokesman, who repeated to large audiences the 4
of the tana. But the 'amora soon ceased to be a 1
and developed into an original expounder of auipmi e aad
tradition .
AJfORJTBS, the name given by the Israelites to the earns
inhabitants of Palestine. They are regarded as a p owerfu l peopfc.
giants in stature" like the height of the cedars,- who hat
occupied the land east and west of the Jordan. The BthEcd
usage appears to show that the terms M Canaamtn M sad
" Amorites " were used synonymously, the former being char-
acteristic of Judaean, the latter of Ephisimite and Desjteroaossk
writers. A distinction is sometimes maintained, however, wars
the Amorites are spoken of as the people of the past, whereas the
Canaanites are referred to as still surviving. The old name bo
ethnic term, evidently to be connected with the tens Assam
and Amar, used by Assyria and Egypt r espe cti vely. Ia tat
spelling Mar-tu, the name is as oM as the first BAbyioaian dynasty,
but from the 15th century B.c and downwards its syflafak
equivalent Amurru is applied primarily to the land 1 11 1 miflat
northwards of Palestine as far as Kadesh 00 Use Oroatea. The
term " Canaan," on the other hand, is confined more enpedafr
to the southern district (from Gebal to the south of Pakstsse).
But it is possible that die terms at an early date were inter-
changeable, Canaan being geographical and Amorite ethnical
The wider extension of the use of Amurru by the Babylonians aaf
Assyrians is complicated by the fact that it was even applied fes a
district in the neighbourhood of Babylonia. If the people of tat
first Babylonian dynasty (about 21st century bx.) called thea-
selves *'Anx>rites, H asRaiikeseemstohaveshow^itKpQaBlsf
that some feeling of common origin was recognised at that ca&>
date.
SotJUnk^Bob.Exped.Pennsyl9ania,9ts^T>.^3ims^.i^fei
general information, W. M. MaUer.il sien u. Europ*,* i7«qq. ; Pmcncs,
Old Testament, Index («.). The people of/
the Egyptian monuments with yellow akin, blue eyes, n
and beard, whence it has been conjectured that they w
the Libyans (Sayce, Expositor, July 1888). Senir, the '
name of Hermon (Deut. iii. 9). appears to be ioVmiral with Ssan is
the Lebanon, mentioned by Shalmaneser II. In the Old Te
the chief references may be classified as foBows:-
ants generally, Is. xviL 9 (on text see comm.), Ei
W. of Jordan, Josh. x. yjutg. 1 34-3*: Deut. i „ . „ .
xlviiL ax; E. of Jordan, Num. xxL 13, 21 sqq.; Josh. a. 10, jqbv. K
Judg. x. 8. See further Can aajc, Palsstwb,
AHOBFHBH (from a, privative, and aopsM, Conn), a test
used In chemistry and mineralogy to denote the abscace el
regular or crystalline structure in a body; the adjective " amor-
phous," formless or of irregular shape, being also used »— ■*— ^*»j
in biology, &c
AMORT, EUSEBITJS (1692-1775), German Cathofic th— «ffr «y
was born at BibermQhle, near Tola, in Upper Bavaria, on rat
x 5th of November 1692. He studied at Munich, and at an early
age Joined the Canons Regular at Polling, where, shortly after
his ordination in 1717, he taught theology and philosophy. Is
1733 he went to Rome as theologian to Cardinal Nkcolo Mam
Lercari (d. 1757). He returned to Polling in 173s and devote*
the rest of his life to the revival of learning in Bavaria. He died
at Polling on the 5th of February 1775. Amort, who had rat
reputation of being the most learned man of his age, was s
voluminous writer on every conceivable subject, from poetry
I' to astronomy, from dogmatic theology to mysticism. Hh best
known works are: a manual of theology in 4 vofcv, Tmmiepi
i. in ukuw lenses
lows:" pfunstfve naaba-
iO.Eaek.xvi j j;*p«opk
>eiit.k7.44;Cea.siv.7.
AMORTIZATION— AMOS
877
acUdica, mordis et scholastic* (Augsburg, 175a; revised by
Benedict XTV. for the 1753 edition published at Bologna);
a defence of Catholic doctrine, entitled Demonstratio critica
retigienis Cathoticae (Augsburg, 1751); a work on Indulgences,
which has often been criticized by Protestant writers, De Origin*,
Progressu, V alert, et Pructu Indulgentiorum (Augsburg, 1735);
a treatise on mysticism, De Revclatumibus et Visionibus, etc.
(a vols., 1744); &nd the astronomical work Nona philosophies
phnetarum et arUs criticoe systemata (Nuremberg, 1733). The
list of his other works, including his three erudite contributions to
the question of authorship of the ImitoHo Christi, will be found in
C. Toussaint's scholarly article in A. Vacant's Did. do Ihiotogie
(iooo, cols. 1115-1117).
AMORTIZATION (derived through the French from Lat a4,
and mortem, to death), literally an extinction or doing to death,
a word formerly used of alienating lands in mortmain, and now
for the paying off of a debt, particularly by means of a regular
sinking-fund; thus " amortization " and " amortization fund "
generally refer to the latter method of extinguishing some
pecuniary liability.
AMORT, THOMAS (c. 1691-1788), British author, was born
about 1691, his father being the secretary for the forfeited estates
In Ireland. He was an eccentric character and seems to have
lived a very secluded life. He published Memoirs; containing
the liees of several Ladies of Great Britain; a History of A ntiquities
&**• (1755) and Life of John Bunde Esq. (1756 and 1766). Both
books are an extraordinary mixture of fiction, autobiography,
scenic description and theological discussion. Amory died on the
35th of November 1788.
AMOS, in the Bible, an Israelitish prophet of the 8th century B.C.
He was a native of Tekoa, i.e. as most suppose, a place which still
bears the same name 6 m. S. of Bethlehem. He was a shepherd,
or perhaps a sheep-breeder, but combined this occupation with
that of a tender of sycomore figs. It is true, the Tekoa just
mentioned lies too high for sycomores; so it has been almost too
ingeniously supposed that Amos may have owned a plantation of
sycomores in the hill country leading down to PhiUstia, techni-
cally called the Shephtlah (R. V., " lowland "). Here there were
sycomores in abundance (1 Kings x. a 7). That this was his usual
occupation we learn from a better source than the heading (i. 1),
via. a narrative (vii. 10, 17), evidently of early origin, which
interrupts the series of prophetic visions on the fall of the
kingdom of Israel. Amos, it appears, though himself a Judahite,
had been prophesying in the northern kingdom, when his activity
was brought to an abrupt dose by the head priest of the royal
sanctuary at Bethel, Amaziah, who bade him escape to the land
of Judah and get his living there. The reply of Amos is full of
instruction. "No prophet am I; no prophet's son am I; a
shepherd am I, and one who tends sycomore-figs. And Yahweh
took me from behind the flock; and Yahweh said to me, Go,
prophesy against my people Israel" The following words show
that a prophet in ancient Israel had the utmost freedom of speech.
It was far otherwise in the period of the fall of Judah. (See
jEXJtMlAH.)
But what had Amos said that appeared so dangerous to the
head priest ? Amaziah summarizes it thus, " Jeroboam shall die
by the sword, and Israel shall go away into captivity from his
own land " (vii. xx; cf. vii. 9b, v. 27, vL 7). He omits all the
reasons for this stern prophecy. The reasons are that the good
old Israelitish virtue of brothexiiness is dying away, that oppres-
sion and injustice are rampant (it 6-8, iii. 9, 10, iv. 1, v. ix, xa,
viii. 4-6), and that rites are practised in the name of religion
which are abhorrent to Yahweh, because they either have no
moral meaning at all, and are mere forms (v. a 1-83), or else,
judged from Amos's purified point of view, are absolutely
immoral (ii. 7; cf. viii. 14). On the details of the captivity
Amos preserves a mysterious vagueness. The fact, however, he
puts forward with the confidence of one who is intimate with his
God (iii. 7), and most probably it was at some great festival that
he spoke the words which so perturbed Amaziah. The priest
may not indeed himself have believed them, but he probably
feared their effect on the moral courage of the people. And it is
perhaps not arbitrary to suppose that the splendour of the ritual
in Amos's time implies a tremulous anxiety that Israel's seeming
prosperity under Jeroboam II. (see Jews) may not be as secure
as could be wished. For Amos cannot have been quite alone
either in Israel or in Judah; there must have been a little
flock of those who felt with Amos that there was small reason
indeed to " desire the day of Yahweh " (v. 18; see Harper's
note).
But why did Amos so emphatically decline to be called a
prophet? A prophet in some true sense he certainly was, a
prophet who, within his own range, has not been surpassed. He
means this— that he is no mere ecstatic enthusiast or " dervish/'
whose primary aim is to keep up the warlike spirit of the people,
taking for granted that Yahweh is on the people's side, and that
he is perfectly free from the taint of selfishness, not having to
support himself by his prophesying. He could not indeed tell
Amaziah this, but it is nevertheless true that he was the founder,
or one of the founders, of a new type of prophet. He was also
either the first, or one of the first, to write down, or to get
written down, the substance of his spoken prophecies, and perhaps
also prophecies which he never delivered at all. This was the
consequence of his ill success as a public preacher. The other
prophets of the same order may be presumed to have been hardly
less unsuccessful. Hence the new phenomenon of written
prophecies. The literary skill of Amos leads one to suppose that
he had prepared in advance for this, perhaps we may say, not
altogether unfortunate necessity.
That there are many hard problems connected with the fascin-
ating book of Amos cannot be denied. The one point on which
we have indicated a doubt, viz. as to the situation of Tekoa,
ought strictly to be accompanied by others. For instance, how
came Amos to transfer himself to northern Israel ? How hard it
must have been to obtain a footing there while he was a mere
student and observer! And how came he by his wide knowledge
of people outside the limits of Israel? The most recent and
elaborate commentator even calls him an " ethnologist," And
lastly, whence came his mastery of the poetical and literary arts ?
Is he really the Columbus of written prophecy ? And behind
these questions is the fundamental problem of the text, which has
been somewhat too slightly treated. The text of Hosea may be
in a much worse condition, but a keen scrutiny discloses many
an uncertainty, not to say impossibility, in the traditional form
of Amos. That the text has been much adapted and altered is
certain; not less obvious are the corruptions due to carelessness
and accident.
The main divisions of the book are plain, viz. chaps. i.-tL,
chaps. iii-vL, and chaps. vii.-ix. This arrangement, however,
is probably not due to Amos himself, or to his immediate disciples,
but to some later redactor. A number of passages seem to have
been inserted subsequently to the time of Amos, on which see
Ency, Bib., " Amos," and the introduction to Robertson Smith's
Prophets of Israel (■), though in some cases the final decision will
have to be preceded by a more thorough examination of the
traditional text. The most obvious non-Amosian passage in the
book is the concluding passage, ix. 8-15, which has evidently
supplanted the original close of the section. The meaning of the
phrase " the tabernacle (booth) of David that is fallen " (ver. xx)
is not perfectly clear. Beyond reasonable doubt, however, the
writer seeks to take out the sting of the preceding passage in
which Israel is devoted to utter destruction. The penitent and
God-fearing Jews of the post-exilic age needed some softening
appendix, and this the editor provided.
English readers are now well supplied with books on Amos.
Driver's Joel and Amos (see Joel) (1897) and G. A. Smith's Twelve
Prophets, vol. i. (1896), supplement and illustrate each other. Harper's
than the two former. The German commentaries on the Minor
Prophets by Nowack (and ed., loot) and (especially) Marti (1004)
must not, nowever, be neglected, wellhauaen's briefer work (3rd
ed., 1808) is especially suggestive for textual criticism. Cheyne's
Critica Bibtica (1904), cf. his review of Harper in Hibbert Journal*
iii. 824 a., breaks new ground. (T. K. C)
878
AMOS— AMPERE
AMOS, SHELDON (1835-1886), English jurist, was educated
at Clare College, Cambridge, and was called to the bar as a
member of the Middle Temple in 1862. In i860 he was appointed
to the chair of jurisprudence in University College, London, and
in 1873 became reader under the council of legal education and
examiner in constitutional law and history to the university of
London. Failing health led to his resignation of those offices,
and he took a voyage to the South Seas. He resided for a short
time at Sydney, and finally settled in Egypt, where he practised
as an advocate. After the bombardment of Alexandria, and the
reorganization of the Egyptian judicature, he was appointed
judge of the court of appeal, but being without any previous
experience of administrative work he found the strain too great
for his health. He came to England on leave in the autumn of
1885, and on his return to Egypt he died suddenly at Alexandria
on the 3rd of January 1886I His principal publications are:
Systematic View of the Science of Jurisprudence (187a); Lectures
on International Law (1873); Science of Law (1874); Science of
Politics (1883); History and Principles of the Civil Law of Rome
as Aid to the Study of Scientific and Comparative Jurisprudence
(1883), and numerous pamphlets. His wife, Mrs Sheldon Amos
(Sarah Madardie Bunting), took a prominent part in Liberal
Nonconformist politics and in movements connected with the
position of women. She died at Cairo on the 21st of January
1908.
AMOY, a city and treaty-port in the province of Fuh-lrien,
China, situated on the slope of a hill, on the south coast of a small
and barren island named Hiamen, in 24° 28' N. and 1 18° 10' E.
It is a large and exceedingly dirty place, about 9 m. in
circumference, and is divided into two portions, an inner and an
outer town, which are separated from each other by a ridge of
hills, on which a citadel of considerable strength has been built
Each of these divisions of the city possesses a large and com-
modious harbour, that of the inner town, or city proper, being
protected by strong fortifications. There are dry-docks and an
excellent anchorage. Amoy may be regarded as the port of the
inland city of Chang-chow, with which it has river communication,
and its trade, both foreign and coastwise, is extensive and valuable.
The chief articles imported are sugar, rice, raw cotton and opium,
as well as cotton cloths, iron goods and other European manu-
factures. The chief exports are tea, porcelain and paper. The
trade carried on by means of Chinese junks is said to be large,
and the native merchants are considered to be among the
wealthiest and most enterprising in China. By other vessels the
trade in 1870 was.*— imports, £i,9iSA*7\ exports, £1,440,000.
In 1904 the figures were: — imports, £2,081,494; exports,
£384,494. The falling off of exports is due to the decreased
demand for China tea, for which Amoy was one of the chief
centres. The native population is now estimated at 300,000, and
the foreign residents number about 280. A large part of the trade
is that carried on with the neighbouring Japanese island of
Formosa. The province of Fuh-Irien is claimed by the Japanese
as their particular sphere of influence. Amoy was captured by
the British in 1841, after a determined resistance, and is one of the
five ports that were opened to British commerce by the treaty of
1842; it is now open to the ships of all nations.
AMPELIUS, LUCIUS, possibly a tutor or schoolmaster, and
author of an extremely concise summary — a kind of index — of
universal history (Liber Memorialis) from the earliest times to
the reign of Trajan. Its object and scope are sufficiently indi-
cated in the dedication to a certain Macrinus: " Since you desire
to know everything, I have written this ' book of notes/ that
you may learn of what the universe and its elements consist,
what the world contains, and what the human race has done."
It seems to have been intended as a text-book to be learnt by
heart. The little work, in fifty chapters, gives a sketch of cosmo-
graphy, geography, mythology (chaps, i.-x.), and history (chap,
x-end). The historical portion, dealing mainly with the
republican period, is untrustworthy, and the text in many places
corrupt; the earlier chapters are more valuable, and contain
some interesting information. In chap. viii. (Miracula Mundi)
occurs the only reference in an ancient writer to the famous
sculptures of Pergamum, discovered in 1871, excavated in rK
and now at Berlin: " At Pergamum there is a great marble aae.
40 ft. high, with colossal sculptures, representing a battle ef tk
giants. " Nothing is known of the author or of the date at vats
he lived: the times of Trajan, Hadrian, Antoninus Pan, J*
beginning of the 3rd century, and the age of Diodetiaa &a£
Constantinc have all been suggested. The M a crinu s to vbss
the work is dedicated may have been the e mp eror, who roped
217-218, but the name is not uncommon, and it seems smk
likely that he was a young man with a thirst for unrversal knav-
ledge, which the Liber Memorialis was compiled to satisfy.
There is no English edition or translation. The 6nt edited a
Ampclius was published in 1638 by Salinaftiua (Sammair) fmrt 1*
Dijon MS., now lost, together with the Epitome of Floras; the bus
edition is by WoUflin (1854), based on Salmasias'a copy of tk k*
codex.
See Glaser, Rheinischts Museum, u. (1843); Safe. Eos, i- ds*n.
Wolfflin, De L. Ampdtt Libra Memorial* (1854).
AHPBLOPSIS (from Gr. oprcXot , vine, and o#«, appear-
ance, as it resembles the grape-vine in habit), a gens d
the vine order Ampdideae and nearly allied to the grape-vje.
The plants are rapidly-growing, hardy, ornamental drabrc*
which flourish in common garden soil, and are readily propagate*
by cuttings. They climb by means of tendrik. A . qmiuqarfdu.
Virginian creeper, a native of North America, introduced ia
Europe early in the 17th century, has palmately cosnpoud
leaves with three to five leaflets. A. tricuspids*, better karvi
as A, Veilchii, a more recent introduction (186S) from Japs*,
has smaller leaves very variable in shape; it dings readi> ::
stone or brick work by means of suckers at the ends of tk
branched tendrils.
AMPERE, ANDRE MARIE (1775-1836), French pnyskisL
was born at Polcmieux, near Lyons, on the 22nd of Jaasirr
1775. He took a passionate delight in the pursuit of knomklp
from bis very infancy, and is reported to have worked oat ks£
arithmetical sums by means of pebbles and biscuit crumbs beta*
he knew the figures. His father began to teach him Latin, br.
ceased on discovering the boy's greater inclination and aptiinfc
for mathematical studies. The young Ampere, however, woo
resumed his Latin lessons, to enable him to master the works a*
Euler and Bernoulli. In later life he was accustomed to say tan
he knew as much about mathematics when he was eighteen n
ever he knew; but his reading embraced nearly the whole romt
of knowledge — history, travels, poetry, philosophy and tk
natural sciences. When Lyons was taken by the army of tat
Convention in 1703, the father of Ampere, who. holdi&g tk
office oijugc de paix, had stood out resolutely against the pmina
revolutionary excesses, was at once thrown into prison, and socs
after perished on the scaffold. This event produced a profo«£j
impression on his susceptible mind, and for more than a year he
remained sunk in apathy. Then his interest was aroused fc?
some letters on botany which fell into his hands, and from nous?
he turned to the study of the classic poets, and to the writing ai
verses himself. In 1 706 he met Julie Carron, and an attachssen
sprang up between them, the progress of which he naively records
in a journal (Amor urn). In 1700 they were married. From abort
1706 Ampere gave private lessons at Lyons in mathrmaba.
chemistry and languages; and in 1801 he removed to Bovrg, as
professor of physics and chemistry, leaving his ailing wife vd
infant son at Lyons. She died in 1804, and he never recovered
from the blow. In the same year he was appointed professor *~
mathematics at the lycee of Lyons. His small treatise. CVsroi**-
tions sur la thiorie mathematique dujeu, which demonstrated that
the chances of play are decidedly against the habitual gambler,
published in 1802, brought him under the notice of J. B J
Delambre, whose recommendation obtained for him the Lyees
appointment, and afterwards (1804) a subordinate positioa is
the polytechnic school at Paris, where he was elected professor el
mathematics in 1 809. Here he continued to prosecute his scieatiic
researches and his multifarious studies with unabated diligence
He was admitted a member of the Institute in 1814. It is 00 ik
service that he rendered to science in establishing the relatieas
between electricity and magnetism, and in developing tk
AMPERE— AMPEREMETER
879
■deuce off dectrotnagnetism, or, as he called It, electrodynamics,
that Ampere's fame mainly rests. On the nth of September
18 jo he heard of R C Oersted's discovery that a magnetic needle
is acted on by a voltaic current. On the x8th of the same month
he presented a paper to the Academy, containing a far more
complete exposition of that and kindred phenomena. (See
Eixctsodnetics,) The whole field thus opened up he explored
with characteristic industry and care, and developed a mathe-
matical theory which not only explained the electromagnetic
phenomena already observed but also predicted many new ones.
His original memoirs on this subject may be found in the Ann.
Ckim. Phys. between i8so and x8s8. Late in life he prepared a
remarkable Essai sur la pkihsopkie des sciences. In addition, be
wrote a number of scientific memoirs and papers, including
two on the integration of partial differential equations (Jour,
stcote Pdyteckn. x., ».), He died at Marseilles on the xoth of
June 1836. The great amiability and childlike simplicity of
Ampere's character are well brought out in his Journal si corre-
spondence (Paris, 187 a).
AMPftRB, JEAN JACQUES (1800-1864), French philologist
and man of letters, only son of Andre 1 Marie Ampere, was born at
Lyons on the 12 th of August 1800. He studied the folk-songs
and popular poetry of the Scandinavian countries in an extended
tour in northern Europe. Returning to France, he delivered in
1830 a series of lectures on Scandinavian and early German poetry
at the Athenaeum in Marseilles. The first of these was printed as
De VHisloirt de la peesie (1830) , and was practically the first intro-
duction of the French public to the Scandinavian and German
epics. In Paris he taught at the Sorbonne, and became professor
of the history of French literature at the College de France. A
journey in northern Africa (1841) was followed by a tour in
Greece and Italy, in company with Prosper Merimee and others.
This bore fruit in his Voyage danlesque (printed in his Grtce,
Rome el Dante, 1848), which did much to popularize the study of
Dante in France. In 1848 be became a member of the French
Academy, and in 1851 he visited America. From this time he
was occupied with bis chief work, UHisUrire romaine & Rome
(4 vols., 1861-1864), until his death at Pau on the 27th of March
1864.
The Correspondence et souvenirs (2 vols.) of A. M. and J. J. Ampere
(1805-1854) was published in 1875. Notices of J. J. Ampere are
to be found in Sainte-Beuve's Portraits litUrairts, vol. iv., and
Nonveaus Lundis, vol. xiii.; and in P. Merimee's Portraits his-
toriques et UtUraires (and ed., 1875).
AMPEREMETER, or Ammeter, an instrument for the
measurement of electric currents in terms of the unit called the
ampere. (See Electro kinetics; Conduction, Electric; and
Units, Physical) Since electric currents may be either con-
tinuous, ijs, unidirectional, or alternating, and the latter of high
or of low frequency, amperemeters may first be divided into
those (1) for continuous or direct currents, (2) for low frequency
alternating currents, and (3) for high frequency alternating
currents. A continuous electric current of one ampere is defined
to be one which deposits electrolytically 0-001 118 of a gramme
of silver per second from a neutral solution of silver nitrate. 1 An
alternating current of one ampere is defined to be one which
produces the same heat in a second in a wire as the unit continu-
ous current defined as above to be one ampere. These definitions
provide a basis on which the calibration of amperemeters can
be conducted. Amperemeters may then be classified according
to the physical principle on which they are constructed. An
electric current in a conductor is recognized by its ability (a) to
create heat in a wire through which it passes, (b) to produce a
magnetic field round the conductor or wire. The heat makes
itself evident by raising the temperature and therefore elongating
the wire, whilst the magnetic field creates mechanical forces
which act on pieces of iron or other conductors conveying electric
currents when placed in proximity to the conductor in question.
Hence we may classify ammeters into (1) Thermal; (3) Electro-
magnetic, and (3) Electrodynamic instruments.
1 See T. A. Fleming. A Handbook for the Electrical Laboratory and
Testing Room, vol. i. p. 341 (1901), also A. Gray. Absoluts Measure-
ments %n Electricity and Magnetism, vol. U. pC u. p. 412 (1893).
1.
i. Thermal Antmeters.—Thtsit instruments are also called
hot-wire ammeters. In their simplest form they consist of a wire
through which passes the current to be measured, some arrange-
ment being provided for measuring the small expansion produced
by the heat generated in the wire. This may consist simply in
attaching one end of the wire to an index lever and the other to a
fixed support, or the elongation of the wire may cause a rotation
in a mirror from which a ray of light is reflected, and the move-
ment of this ray over a scale will then provide the necessary
means of indication. It is found most convenient to make use of
the sag of the wire produced when it is stretched between two
fixed points (K a K» fig. 1) and then heated. To render the elonga-
tion evident, another wire
is attached to its centre l a
St, this last having a thread
fixed to its middle of which O— —
the other end is twisted **
round the shaft of an in-
dex needle or in some way
connected to it through a
multiplying gear. The ex-
pansion of the working wire
when it is heated will then
increase or create a sag in
it owing to its increase in Fig. i.— Diagram showing the arrange-
length, and this is multi- ments^of £artmann arKTBraun s Hot-
... . . , wire Ammeter,
plied and rendered evi-
dent by the movement of the index needle. In order that
this may take place, the heated wire must be flexible and
must therefore be a single fine wire or a bundle of fine wires. In
ammeters for small currents it is customary to pass the whole
current through the heating wire. In instruments for larger
currents the main current passes through a metallic strip acting
as a bye-pass or shunt, and to the ends of this shunt are attached
the ends of the working wire. A known fraction of the current
is then indicated and measured. This shunt is generally a strip
of platinoid or constantin, and the working wire itself is of the
same metal There is therefore a certain ratio in which, any
current passing through the ammeter is divided between the
shunt and the working wire.
Thermal ammeters recommend themselves for the following
reasons:— (i) the same instrument can be used for continuous
currents and for alternating currents of low frequency; (2) there
is no temperature correction; (3) if used with alternating currents
no correction is necessary for frequency, unless that frequency is
very high. It is, however, requisite to make provision for the
effect of changes in atmospheric temperature. This is done by
mounting the working wire on a metal plate made of the same
metal as the working wire itself; thus if the working wire is of
platinoid it must be mounted on a platinoid bar, the supports
which carry the ends of the working wire being insulated from
this bar by being bushed with ivory or porcelain. Then no
changes of external temperature can affect the sag of the wire,
and the only thing which can alter its length relatively to the
supporting bar is the passage of a current through it Hot-wire
ammeters are, however, liable to a shift of aero, and means are
always provided by some adjusting screw for slightly altering the
sag of the wire and so adjusting the index needle to the zero of
the scale. Hot-wire ammeters are open to the following objec-
tions:— The scale divisions for equal increments of current are not
equal in length, being generally much closer together in the lower
parts of the scale. The reason is that the heat produced in a
given time in a wire is proportional to the square of the strength
of the current passing through it, and hence the rate at which the
heat is produced in the wire, and therefore its temperature,
increases much faster than the current itself increases. From
this it follows that hot-wire ammeters are generally not capable
of giving visible indications below a certain minimum current
for each instrument. The instrument therefore does not begin to.
read from zero current, but from some higher limit which, gener-
ally speaking, is about one-tenth of the maximum, so that an
ammeter reading up to 10 amperes will not give much visible
88o
AMPEREMETER
indication below i ampere. On the other hand, hot-wire instru-
ments are very " dead-beat," that is to say, the needle does not
move much for the small fluctuations in the current, and this
quality is generally increased by affixing to the index needle a
small copper plate which is made to move in a strong magnetic
field (see fig. a). Hot-wire instruments working on the sag
principle can be used in
any position if properly
constructed, and are very
portable. In the construc-
tion of such an instrument
it is essential that the wire
should be subjected to a
process of preparation or
" ageing/' which consists
in passing through it a
fairly strong current, at
least the maximum that
it will ever have to carry,
and starting and stopping
this current frequently.
The wire ought to be so
« .. A . . treated for many hours
F1c2.-H0t.w1re Ammeter. Mon u j, placcd m
the instrument. It is also necessary to notice that shunt
instruments cannot be used for high frequencies, as then the
relative inductance of the shunt and wire becomes important
and affects the ratio in which the current is divided, whereas for
low frequency currents the inductance is unimportant. In con-
structing a hot-wire instrument for the measurement of high
frequency currents it is necessary to make the working wire of a
number of fine wires placed in parallel and slightly separated
from one another, and to pass the whole of the current to be
measured through this strand.
In certain forms, hot-wire instruments are well adapted for the
measurement of very small alternating currents. One useful
form has been made as follows:— Two fine wires of diameter not
greater than *oox in. are stretched parallel to one another and
a or 3 mm. apart. At the middle of these parallel wires, which
are preferably about x m. in length, rests a very light metallic
bridge to which a mirror is attached, the mirror reflecting a ray
of light from a lamp upon a screen. If a small alternating
current is passed through one wire, it sags down, the mirror is
tilted, and the spot of light on the screen is displaced. Changes
of atmospheric temperature affect both wires equally and do
not tilt the mirror. The instrument can be calibrated by a
continuous current. Another form of hot-wire ammeter is a
modification of the electric thermometer originally invented by
Sir W. Snow Harris. It consists of a glass bulb, in which there is
a loop of fine wire, and to the bulb is attached a U-tube in which
there is some liquid. When a current is passed through the wire,
continuous or alternating, it creates heat, which expands the air
in the bulb and forces the liquid up one side of the U-tube to a
certain position in which the rate of loss of heat by the air is
equal to the rate at which it is gaining heat The instrument can
be calibrated by continuous currents and may then be used for
high frequency alternating currents.
2. Electromagnetic A mmcters.— Another large class of ammeters
depend for their action upon the fact thatan electric current create >
an electric field round its conductor, which varies in strength from
point to point, but is otherwise proportional to the current. A
small piece of iron placed in this field tends to move from weak to
strong places in the field with a force depending on the strength
of the field and the rate at which the field varies. In its simplest
form an electromagnetic ammeter consists of a circular coil of
wire in which is pivoted eccentrically an index needle carrying at
its lower end a small mass of iron. The needle is balanced so that
gravity compels it to take a certain position in which the fragment
of iron occupies a position in the centre of the field of the coil
where it is weakest. When a current is passed through the coil
the iron tends to move nearer to the coil of the wire where the
field is stronger and so displaces the index needle over the scale.
Such an instrument is called a soft-iron gravity assarts.
Another type of similar instrument consists of a coil of wire
having a fragment of iron wire suspended from one arm <tf u
index needle near the mouth of a cofl. When a current is pises'
through the wire forming the coil, the fragment of iron is dan
more into the aperture of the coil where the field is stronger asd
so displaces an index needle over a scale. In the coostracttoaflf
this soft-Iron instrument it is essential that the fragment of im
should be as small and as well annealed as possible and ast
touched with tools after annealing; also it should be pref entry
not too elongated in shape so that it may not acquire permaneat
magnetization but that its magnetic condition may foflo* the
changes of the current in the coil. If these conditions are aot
fulfilled sufficiently, the ammeter will not give the same iadka-
tions for the same current if that current has been reached («) by
increasing from a smaller current, or (*) by deoeasing frost t
larger current. In this case there is said to be hysteresis is tar
readings. Although therefore most simple and cheap tocoastrecx,
such soft-iron instruments are not well adapted for accurate wet
A much better form of electromagnetic ammeter can be coe-
structed on a principle now extensively employed, which consols
in pivoting |n the strong field of a permanent magnet a md
coil through which a part of the current to be measured is seat
Such an instrument is called a shunted movable coil ammeter,
and is represented by a type of instrument shown in fig. 3. The
Fie. 3.— Shunted Movable Coil Ammeter. Isenthal & Co.
construction of this instrument is as follows: — Within the
instrument is a horseshoe magnet having soft-iron pole pieces
so arranged as to produce a uniform magnetic field. Id ths
magnetic field is pivoted a small circular or rectangular col
carried in jewelled bearings, the current being passed into tad
out of the movable coil by fine flexible conductors. The co3
carries an index needle moving over a scale, and there is genetiE?
an iron core in the interior of the coil but fixed and independesi
of it. The coil is so situated that, in its zero position %heo »
current is passing through it, the plane of the coil is parallel to the
direction of the lines of force of the field. When a current a
passed through the coil it rotates in the field and displaces the
index over the scale against the control of a spiral spring tike the
hairspring of a watch. Such instruments can be made to hart
equidi visional scales and to read from zero upwards. It a
essential that the permanent magnet should be subjected to 1
process of ageing so that its field may not be liable to chaafe
subsequently with time.
In the case of ammeters intended for very small cuntsts.
the whole current can be sent through the coil, but for Urfcr
currents it is necessary to provide in the instrument a shunt which
carries the main current, the movable coil being connected to
the ends of this shunt so that it takes a definite small fraction of
the current passed through the instrument. Instruments of tan
type with a permanent magnetic field are only available for the
measurement of continuous currents, but soft-iron instruments af
AMPEREMETER
881
(he stove-described gravity type can be employed with certain
restrictions for the measurement of alternating oirrenU. Direct
reading equidivisional movable coQ ammeteri can be made in
various portable forms, and are very much employed as laboratory
instruments and also as ammeters for the measurement of large
electric currents in electric generating stations. In this last
case the shunt need not be contained in the instrument itself
but may, be at a considerable distance, wires being brought
from the shunt which carries the main current to the movable
coil ammeter itself, which performs the function simply of an
indicator,
j. Ekctroiynamic Ammeters.— Instruments of the third class
depend for their action on the fact discovered by Ampere, that
mechanical forces exist between conductors carrying electric
currents when those conductors occupy certain relative positions.
If there be two parallel wires through which currents are passing,
then these wires are drawn together if the currents are in the same
direction and pressed apart if they are in opposite directions.
(See ELEcmoDNrncs.) Instruments of this type are called
Elcctrodynamometers, and have been employed both as
laboratory research instruments and for technical purposes. In
one well-known form, called a Siemens Electrodynamometer,
there is a fixed coil (fig. 4), which is surrounded by another
coil having its axis at right angles to that of the fixed coil. This
second coU is suspended by a number of sflk fibres, and to the
coil is also attached a spiral spring the other end of which is
fastened to a torsion head. If then the torsion head is twisted,
the suspended coil experiences a torque and is dis p laced through
Fig. 4. — Siemens Electrodynamonieter.
P, Fixed coil; D, Movable coil: S, Spiral spring; T, Torsion
head; MM, Mercury cups; /, Index needle.
an angle equal to that of the torsion head. The current can be
passed into and out of the movable coil by permitting the ends of
the coil to dip into two mercury cups. If a current is passed
through the fixed coil and movable coil in series with one another,
the movable coil tends to displace itself so as to bring the axes of
the coils, which are normally at right angles, more into the same
direction. This tendency can be resisted by giving a twist to the
torsion' head and so applying to the movable coil through the
spring a restoring torque, which opposes the torque due to the
dynamic action of the currents. If then the torsion bead is
provided with an index needle, and also if the movable coil is
provided with an indicating point, it is possible to measure the
torsional angle through which the head must be twisted to bring
the movable coil back to its aero position. In these circum-
stances the torsional angle becomes a measure of the torque and
therefore of the product of the strengths of the currents in the
two coils, that is to say, of the square of the strength of the
current passing through the two coils if they are joined up in
aeries. The instrument can therefore be graduated by passing
through it known and measured continuous currents, and it then
becomes available for use with either continuous or alternating
currents. The instrument can be provided with a curve or table
showing the current corresponding to each angular displacement
I. 15*
of the torsion head. It has the disadvantage of not being direct
reading when made in the usual form, but can easily be converted
into a direct reading instrument by appropriately dividing the
scale over which the index of the torsion head moves.
Ampere Balanced—Very convenient and accurate instruments
based on the above principles have been devised by Lord Kelvin,
and a large variety of these ampere balances, as they are called,
suitable for measuring currents from a fraction of an ampere up
to many thousands of amperes, have been constructed by that
illustrious inventor. The difficulty which has generally pre-
sented itself to those who have tried to design instruments on the
Fig. 5.— Kelvin Flexible Metallic Ligament.
electrodynamometer principle for use with large currents has
been that of getting the current into and out of the movable
conductor, and yet permitting that conductor to remain free to
move under very small force. The use of mercury cups is open
to many objections on account of the fact that the mercury
becomes oxidized, and such instruments are not very convenient
for transportation. The great novelty in the ampere balances of
Lord Kelvin was a joint or electric coupling, which is at once
exceedingly flexible and yet capable of being constructed to carry
with safety any desired current. This he achieved by the intro-
duction of a device which is called a metallic ligament The
general principle of its construction is as follows:— Let+A,- A
(fig. 5), be a .pair of semi-cylindrical fixed trunnions which are
carried on a supporting frame and held with flat sides downwards.
Let + B,— B, be two smaller trunnions which project out from
the sides of the two strips connecting together a pair of rings CC
The rings and the connecting strips constitute the circuit which
is to be rendered movable. A current entering by the trunnion
+ B flows round the two halves of the circuit, as shown by
the arrows, and comes out at the trunnion — B. In fig. 5 the
current is shown dividing round the two rings; but in all
the balances, except those intended for the largest currents, the
current really circulates first round one ring and then round the
other. To make the ligament, a very large number of exceedingly
fine copper wires laid close together are soldered to the upper
surface ,of the upper trunnion. The movable circuit CC thus
bangs by two ligaments which are formed of very fine copper
wires. This mode of suspension enables the conductor CC to
vibrate freely like a balance, but at the same time very large
currents can easily be passed through this perfectly flexible joint.
Above and below these
movable coils, which form
as it were the two scale-
pans of a balance, are fixed
other stationary coils, and
the connexions of all these v*L^ — *.
six coils (shown in fig. 6) *" / U ^ * y
are such that when a cur- _ „ . ^ , .. , .
— «♦ :. m.^1 ti.MM.~i, »h« Fic - 6.— Connexions of Kelvin
rent is passed through the Ampere Balance,
whole of the coils in series,
forces of attraction and repulsion are brought into existence which
tend to force one movable coil upwards and the other movable
coU downwards. This tendency is resisted by the weight of a
mass of metal, which can be caused to slide along a tray attached
to the movable coils. The appearance of the complete instru-
ment is shown by fig. 7. When a current is passed through the
instrument it causes one end of the movable system to tilt down-
wards, and the other end upwards; the sliding weight is then
moved along the tray by means of a silk cord until equilibrium is
again established. The value of the current in amperes is then
G*}
882
AMPERSAND— AMPHIARAUS
obtained approximately by observing the position of the weight
on the scale, or it may be obtained more accurately in the follow-
Fie. 8.— Slider of Kelvin Ampere
FlO. 7.— Lord Kelvin's Ampere Balance.
ing manner:— The upper edge of the shelf on which the weights
slide (see fig. 8) is graduated into equal divisions, and the weight
is provided with a sharp
tongue of metal in order
that its position on the
shelf may be accurately
determined. Since the cur-
rent passing through the
balance when equilibrium
is obtained with a given
weight is proportional to
the square root of the
couple due to this weight,
it follows that the current
strength when equilibrium
is obtained is proportional
to the productof the square
root of the weight used
and the square root of the
displacement distance of this weight from its zero position. Each
instrument is accompanied by a pair of weights and by a square
root table, so that the product of the square root of the number
corresponding to the position of the sliding weight and the
ascertained constant for each weight, gives at once the value of
the current in amperes. Each of these balances is made to cover
a certain range of reading. Thus the centi-ampere balance ranges
from x to xoo centi-amperes, the ded-ampere balance from x to 100
deti-amperes, the ampere balance from x to xoo amperes, the
deka-ampere balance from x to xoo amperes, the hecto-ampere
balance from 6 to 600 amperes, and the kilo-ampere balance from
xoo to 2500 amperes. They are constructed for the measurement
not only of continuousorun varying butalsoof alternatingcurrents.
In those intended for alternating currents, the main current
through the movable coil, whether consisting of one turn or more
than one turn, is carried by a wire rope, of which each component
strand b insulated by silk covering, to prevent the inductive
action from altering the distribution of the current across the
transverse section of the conductor. To avoid the creation of
induced currents, the coil frames and the base boards are con-
structed of slate. Kelvin ampere balances are made in two
types— (x) a variable weight type suitable for obtaining the
ampere value of any current within their range; and (2) a fixed
weight type intended to indicate when a current which can be
varied at pleasure has a certain fixed value. An instrument of
the latter type of considerable accuracy was designed by Lord
Kelvin for the British Board of Trade Electrical Laboratory, and
it is there used a» the principal standard ampere balance. A
fixed weight is placed on one coil and the current is varied gradu-
ally until the balance is just in equilibrium. In these circum-
stances the current is known to have a fixed value in amperes
determined by the weight attached to the instrument.
Calibration.— The calibration of ammeters is best conducted
by means of a series of standard low resistances and of a potentio-
meter (f.t.). Hie ammeter to be calibrated is placed m sede
with a suitable low resistance which nay be -i ohm, -ox ohn
•001 ohm or more as the case may be. A steady com iaa nn
current is then passed through the ammeter and low mi i f
placed in series with one another and adjusted so as to gr*c say
required scale reading on the ammeter. The potential difference
of the ends of the low resistance is at the same time measwred as
the potentiometer, and the quotient of this potential difference by
the known value of the tow resistance gives the true value of ik
current passing through the ammeter. This can be then comparai
with the observed scale reading and the error of the ammeter
noted. 1
A good ammeter should comply with the foDowinf canEscs-
tions:— (1) its readings should be the same for the 1
whether reached by increasing from a lower <
from a higher current; (a) if used for alternating emits a its
indications should not vary with the frequency within the raaat
of frequency for which it is likely to be used; (j) *t should not be
disturbed by external magnetic fields; (4) the scale d ha n a—
should, if possible, be equal in length and there should be no dead
part in the scale. In the use of ammeters in which the control a
the gravity of a weight, such as the Kelvin ampere balances aad
other instruments, it should be noted that the scale 1
indication of the instrument will vary with the
latitude and with the height of the instrument j
above the mean sea-level. Since the difference J
between the acceleration of gravity at the pole and I
at the equator is about § %, the correction for
latitude will be quite sensible in an instrument 1
which might be used at various times in high
and low latitudes. If C is the acceleration of
gravity at the equator and g that at any lati-
tude X, then f«G(x +0-00513 sin**). In the
case of an instrument with gravity control, the Fig. 9-—
latitude at which it is calibrated should there- gdaVyjae^
fore be stated. Ammeter"^
Switchboard A minders. — For switchboard use in fCetria aV
electric supply stations where space is valuable, Jane* WW**
instruments of the type called edgewise ammeters Ltd.
are much employed. In these the indicating needle moves onr
a graduated cylindricaHy shaped scale, and they are for (k
most part electromagnetic instruments (see fig. o).
Bibliography.— Lord Kelvin (Sir W. Thomson). - New Seasdsw
and Inssectiofial Electrical Measuring Instruments," JProc Sm.
Tdepopk Engineers, 1888, X7, p. 540; J. A. Fleming. A Ha w ibmt fm*
the Electrical Laboratory and Testing Room (a vots^ London, taas,
'903) ;G.D.A»pinall Pair. Electrical Measuring I n if r um t n fj (Glasgow
1903); J- Swinburne, ''Electric Light Measuring I neuuaw ea O K
Proc. Inst. C». fine., 1891-1893, no. pt 4; K. Edecnmbe aad
F. Punga, " Direct Reading Measuring Instruments for Svkcbbovri
Use," Jonr. Inst. Elec. Eng. t 1904, 3$, p. 6sa 0- A. FJ
AMPERSAND (a corruption of the mixed English and Lata
phrase, " and per se and," of which there are many dialect form
as " ampussyand," or " araperseand "), the name of the sip 0*
or &, which is a combination of the letters e, I, of. the Lax. st-
and. The sign is now usually called " short and." la aU-
fashioned primers and nursery books the name aad sign sen?
always added at the end of the alphabet.
AHFHIARAUS, in Greek mythology, a celebrated seer aad
prince of Argos, son of Ofcles (or Apollo) and Hyperxnestra, eas
through his father descended from the prophet Mdampas
(Odyssey, xv. 244). He took part in the voyage of the Argoaaan
and in the chase of the Calydoniaa boar; but has chief fame at
in connexion with the expedition of the Seven against Tbebet
organised by Adrastus, the brother of his wife Eripbyfc, for tae
purpose of restoring Polyneices to the throne. Amphiaraus. fane-
seeing the disastrous issue of the war, at first refused to share a
it; he had, however, promised Eriphyle when he married her
that, in the event of any dispute arising between her brother aad
«See "The Electrolysis of Copper Sulphate ia Seaadanfisaa
Electrical Instruments,* by A. W. Meikle, read before the PfcywoJ
Society of Glasgow University on the a7th of January iSSf. orj- A
Fleming, A Handbook for Ike Electrical Labo rat o ry ami Tmnmng bom.
voLLp.343.
AMPHIBIA— AMPHIBOLE
883
If, ibe ihonld decide between than; and now Eriphyfe,
bribed by Polyneices with the fatal necklace given by Cadmus
to Hannonia, persuaded him against his better judgment to set
out on the expedition. Knowing his doom, he bade his sons,
Alcmaeon and Amphifbchus, avenge his death upon their mother,
upon whom, as be stepped into his chariot, he turned a look of
anger. This scene was represented upon the chest of Cypselus
described by Pausanias (v. 17).
The assault on Thebes was disastrous for the Seven; and
Amphiaraus, pursued by Pcriclymenus, would have been slain
with his spear, had not Zeus with a thunderbolt opened a chasm
into which the seer, with his chariot, horses and charioteer,
disappeared. Henceforth he was numbered with the immortals
and worshipped as a god. Near Oropus, on the supposed site of
his passing, his sanctuary arose, with healing springs, and an
oracle famous for its interpretation of dreams (Pausanias i. 34).
The ruins of this temple, with inscriptions which identify it, have
been discovered and preserved at Mavrodilisi, in the provinces of
Boeotia and Attica. There was another temple dedicated to him
on the road from Thebes to Potniae, and here was the oracle of
Amphiaraus consulted by Croesus and Mardonius
Homer, Odyssey, xL 326; Herodotus viii. 134; Pindar. Olympus,
vi, Nemea, ix.; ApoUodorus iii. 6.
AMPHIBIA, a zoological term originally employed by Linnaeus
to denote a class of the Animal Kingdom comprising crocodiles,
lizards and salamanders, snakes and Caeciliae, tortoises and turtles
and frogs; to which, in the later editions of the Syslema Naturae
he added some groups of fishes. In the TabUau EUmentatre,
published in 1705, Cuvier adopts Linnaeus 's term in its earlier
sense, but uses the French word " Reptiles," already brought into
use by Brisson, as the equivalent of Amphibia. In addition
Cuvier accepts the Linnaean subdivisions of Amphibia- Reptilia
for the tortoises, lizards (including crocodiles), salamanders and
frogs; and Amphibia-Serpents for the snakes, apodal lizards
and Caeciliae.
In 1 709' Alexandre Brongniart pointed out the wide differences
which separate the frogs and salamanders (which he terms
Batrackia) from the other reptiles; and in 1804 P. A. Latreille*
rightly estimating the value of these differences, though he was
not an original worker in the field of vertebrate zoology, proposed
to separate Brongniart's Batrackia from the class of Reptilia
proper, as a group of equal value, for which he retained the
Linnaean name of Amphibia,
Cuvier went no further than Brongniart, and, In the Rittte
A nimal, he dropped the term Amphibia, and substituted Reptilia
for it J. F. Meckel,* on the other hand, while equally accepting
Brongniart's classification, retained the term Amphibia in its
earlier T.innacan sense; and his example has been generally
followed by German writers, as, for instance, by H. Stannius, in
that remarkable monument of accurate and extensive research,
the Handbuck der Zootomie (2nd ed., 1856).
In 1 816, de BlainvOle/ adopting LatrefiVs view, divided the
Linnaean Amphibia into Squamijeres and Nudipelliferes, or
Ampkibiens; though he offered an alternative arrangement, in
which the class Reptiles is preserved and divided into two sub-
classes, the Omitkoides and the Ichthyoides. The latter are
Brongniart's Batrackia, plus the Caeciliae, whose true affinities
bad, in the meanwhile, been shown by A. M. C. Dumeril; and,
rn this arrangement, the name Ampkibiens is restricted to Proteus
ind Siren.
B. Merrcm's Pholidota and Batrackia (1820), F. S. Leuckart's
Vfonopnoa and Dipnoa (1821), J. Mailer's Squamata and Nuda
1 83 2), are merely new names for de BlainvUle's Omitkoides and
f chtkyoidcs, though Mttllcr gave far better anatomical characters
>f the two groups than had previously been put forward. More-
1 Brongniart's. Essai tune classification nahtreOe des reptiles
vas not published in full till 1803. It appears in the volume of the
Vlimoires prisenUs a Flnttitut par divers savans for 1803.
* Nouneau dictionnaire d'histoir* natureUe, xxiv., cited in
.atreille's Families natureUes du regne animal.
* System der vertleichenden Anatomic (1821).
* " Prudio m e d une Nouvdle Distribution du Regne Animal,"
tulleSin des sciences par la Soeiiti Philomatiauede Paris (1816). p. 113.
over, following the indications already given by K. E. von Baer
in 1828,* Mailer calls the attention of naturalists to the important
fact, that while all the Squamata possess an amnion and an
allantois, these structures are absent in the embryos of all the
Nuda, An appeal made by MttUer for observations on the
development of the Caeciliae, and of those Amphibia which re-
tain gflb or gill-clefts throughout life, has unfortunately yielded
no fruits.
In 1825 P. A. Latreille* published a new classification of
the Vertebrata, which are primarily divided into Haemat henna,
containing the three classes of iiammifera, Uonotremata and
Aves; and Haemacryma, also containing three classes— Reptilia,
Amphibia and Pisces. This division of the VerUbrala into hot
and cold blooded is a curiously retrograde step, only intelligible
when we reflect that the excellent entomologist had no real
comprehension of vertebrate morphology; but he makes some
atonement for the blunder by steadily upholding the class
distinctness of the Amphibia. In this he was followed by Dr
J. E. Gray; but Dumenl and Bibron in their great work/ and
Dr Gflnther in his Catalogue, in substance, adopted Brongniart's
arrangement, the Batrackia being simply one of the four orders of
the class Reptilia. Huxley adopted Latreille's view of the dis-
tinctness of the A mphibia, as a class of the Vertebrata, co-ordinate
with the Mammalia, Aves, Reptilia and Pisces; and the same
arrangement was accepted by Gegenbaur and Haeckel. In the
Huntcrian lectures delivered at the Royal College of Surgeons in
1863, Huxley divided the Vertebrata into Mammals, Sauroids
and Ichthyoids, the latter division containing the Amphibia and
Pisces. Subsequently he proposed the names of Sauropsida and
Icklhyopsida for the Sauroids and Ichthyoids respectively.
Sir Richard Owen, in his work on The Anatomy of Vertebrates,
followed Latreille in dividing the Vertebrata into Haematotherma
and Haematocrya, and adopted Leuckart's term of Dipnoa for the
Amphibia. T. H. Huxley, in the ninth edition of this Encyclo-
paedia, treated of Brongniart's Batrackia, under the designation
Amphibia, but this use of the word has not been generally
accepted. (See Batkacbia.). (T.H.H.; P.C.M.)
AMPHIBOLE* an important group of rock-forming minerals,
very similar in chemical composition and general characters to
the pyroxenes, and like them falling into three series according to
the system of crystallization. They differ from the pyroxenes,
however, in having an angle between the prismatic cleavage of
56° instead of 87 ; they are specifically lighter than the corre-
sponding pyroxenes; and, in their optical characters, they are
extinguished by their stronger pleochroism and by the wider
angle of extinction on the plane of symmetry.
They are minerals of either original or secondary origin; in
the former case occurring as constituents (hornblende) of igneous
rocks, such as granite, diorite, andesite, &c Those of secondary
origin have either been developed (tremolite) in limestones by
contact-metamorphism, or have resulted (actinolite) by the
alteration of augite by dynamo-metamorphism. Pseudomorphs
of amphibole after pyroxene are known as uralite.
The name amphibole (from the Gr. d/u^/SoXot, ambiguous)
was used by R. J. Hafly to include tremolite, actinolite and
hornblende; this term has since been applied to the whole group.
Numerous sub-species and varieties are distinguished, the more
important of which are tabulated below in three series. The
formulae of each will be seen to conform to the general meta-
silicate formula R"SiOb.
Okthorhombic Sxxzss.
Anthopbyllite. . (Mg,Fe)SiO»-
Monocunic SBans.
Tremolite • • CaMgt(SiO ( )«.
Actinolite . Ca(Mg,Fe)i(SK)s)«.
Cummingtonite . (Fe.Mg)SiOa.
Richterite * . (K,,Na,,Mg,Ca,Mn)SiO».
( Ca(Mg,Fe),(SiO,)« with
, NaAKSiO,), and (Mg.Fe) (Al.FeKSKV.
Hornblende
* Entwichetungs-Gesckichie der Thiere, p. 362.
* Families natureUes du regne animal.
1 ErpHotogie ghUraU, on htstoire uaturette complete des reptiles
(1836).
88 4
AMPHIBOLITE— AMPHIBOLOGY
Monoclxnic Series— continued.
Glaucophane . . NaAl(SiO,),-(Fe.Mg)SiO».
Crocidolite . , NaFe(SiOs)i'FeSiOs.
Ricbeckite ♦ . 2NaFe(Si0a)iFeSi0s.
Arfvedsoaite . „ Na.(Ca,Mg),(Fe,Mn)i4(Al t Fe}sSiaOM.
Xnorthic Series.
Aenigmatite . „ Na«Fe%Al Fe" (Si,Ti) B 0».
Of these, tremolite, hornblende and crocidolite, as well as
the important varieties, asbestos and jade, are treated under
their own headings. Brief mention only need be here made
of some of the others. Naturally, on account of the wide
variations in chemical composition, the different members vary
considerably in characters and general appearance; the specific
gravity, for example, varies from 2-0 in tremolite to 3*8 in
aenigmatite.
Anthophyllite occurs as brownish, fibrous or lamellar masses
with hornblende in mica-schist at Kongsberg in Norway and some
other localities. An aluminous variety is known as gedrite, and a
deep green, Russian variety containing little iron as kupfferite.
Actinolite is an important member of the monoclinic series,
forming radiating groups of acicular crystals of a bright green or
greyish-green colour. It occurs frequently as a constituent of
crystalline schists. The name (from dxrit , a ray, and Xlfof,
a stone) is a translation of the old German word SlroklsUin,
radiated stone.
Glaucophane, crocidolite, riebeckite and arfvedsonite form
a somewhat special group of alkali-amphiboles. The two former
are blue fibrous minerals occurring in crystalline schists, and are
the result of dynamo-metamorphic processes; the two latter
are dark green minerals which occur as original constituents
of igneous rocks rich in soda, such as nepheline-syenite and
phonolite.
Aenigmatite and its variety cossyrite are rare minerals forming
constituents of igneous rocks of the nepheline-syenite and
phonolite groups. (L. J. S.)
AMPHIBOLITE, the name given to a rock consisting mainly of
amphibole (hornblende), the use of the term being restricted,
however, to metamorphic rocks. Holocrystalline plutonic
igneous rocks composed essentially of hornblende are known
as hornblendites. As is the case with most petrological terms
the exact connotation is not very strictly denned; most authors
allow that accessory minerals such as felspar, garnet, augite and
quartz may be present In variable and often considerable amount.
A foliated or schistose structure, though often developed in these
rocks, is not universal. The hornblende is usually dark green
(actinolite) but may be nearly black in the hand specimen; in the
microscopic slide it is commonly green of various shades, but
may be brown, blue or. nearly colourless. It frequently occurs
in elongated bladed prisms, but rarely shows good crystal faces.
The term hornblende-schist is employed by many writers as
nearly synonymous with amphibolite; most hornblende-schists
contain felspar and iron oxides, while sphene, futile, quartz and
apatite are rarely absent Reddish garnets are often conspicu-
ous in the rocks of this group (garaet-amphibolites), and when
in addition a green-coloured augite occurs the rocks are inti-
mately allied to the bornblende-eclogites. Epidote also, in yellow
grains, is common (epidote-amphibolites), and in these rocks the
hornblende may be of the blue and richly pleochroic variety
known as glaucophane (gUucophane-epidote-schists). Horn-
blende-schists containing dark green ferriferous hornblende
(gruncrite-schists) are abundant in some parts of North America.
Tremolite-schists consist essentially of white or very pale green
amphibole; occasionally they are black from the presence of
numerous minute grains of iron oxide or of graphite. Many
tremolite-schists contain much talc and chlorite, and as these
rocks have been derived from peridotites they not infrequently
show residual grains of olivine. Nephrite (Gr. rc^pos, a kidney)
is a very compact, hardly schistose amphibolite, consisting of
fine interwoven fibres of hornblende. Among other accessory
minerals biotite, chlorite, talc, scapolite and tourmaline may be
mentioned; if abundant they give rise to special varieties such as
biotite-amphibolite, &c
The amphibolites are typical rocks of the 1
and as such attain a large development in afl regfcmsof crystalfci*
schists and gneisses such as the Alps, Ardennes, Harz, Scottaa
Highlands, and the Lakes district of North America. They
occur in two ways, viz. as large circular or elliptical 1
mark the site of old plutonic stocks or bosses of basic rock, and u
long narrow strips intercalated among outcrops of other meta-
morphic rocks. Regarded from the point of view of their onga
they fall into two groups, the ortho-ampfcibolites, which as
modified igneous rocks, and the para-amphibolites, which as
altered sediments. The former are far the more qmibct
Igneous rocks which contain much augite fcg. doiexites, gabbras,
diabases, pyroxenites and many peridotites) are usually con-
verted into amphibolites when they are subjected to pi mm
and interstitial movements during earth-folding. If felspar be
present also, epidote may form, while part of the f dspsx recrystal-
lizes as a species of the same mineral richer in alkalies or as sacs.
Olivine and ilmenite, the other common constituents of these
rocks, may, alone or in conjunction with the above-names'
minerals, yield garnet, talc, sphene, rutSe, &c. There is httk
or no alteration in the bulk composition of the rock, but as
component elements enter into new, combinations. Chrranl
analysis, accordingly, will often enable us to identify an ignores
rock (diabase, &c.) under the guise of an amphibolite. The trass-
formation of the rock may be complete, so that no trace is left of
the original structures or minerals. Very often, however, it is
only partial, and by obtaining a sufficiently large number of
specimens a series of intermediate or transitional stages may he
studied; these prove conclusively the nature of the process,
though its causes are less clearly understood. Green hornbkede
may be seen gradually replacing augite, at first in needle-hac
crystals, for which gradually more compact masses are substi-
tuted. The felspar breaks up- into a mosaic in which a&xte,
§>idote or zoisite, quartz and garnet may often be identiaed.
iotite and primary hornblende suffer comparatively hrtie
change; olivine disappears, and garnet, tak and trenofite or
anthophyllite take its place. The original structures of this cross
of rocks (ophitic, porphyritic, poQulitic, vesicular, Ac) gradiuSy
fade away, and merge into those of the metamorphic empb>-
bolites. Even when the greater part of the rock mass has suneea
complete reconstruction, kernels or phacoids may remain, shov-
ing the old igneous structures, though the minerals are greatly
altered. The transitional stages from gabbro or diabase to
amphibolite are so common that they form a widespread aad
important group of rocks, which have been described under the
names greenstone, greenstone-schist, naser-pbbro, saussuriir-
gabbro, meta-diabase, &c The ortho-amphibolites also indeds
a small group of igneous rocks, which have a foliated or banded
structure due to movements and pressure during coosolidsnos,
€.g. foliated diorite or diorite-schist.
The sedimentary amphibolites or para-amphibolites, lest
common than those above described, are frequent in sobs
districts, such as the northern Alps, southern MgM*«**« of
Scotland, Green Mountains, U.S.A. Many of them have beta
ash-beds, and their conversion into hombknde-schisU follows
exactly similar stages to those exemplified by basic crystaEce
igneous rocks. Others have been greywackes of varied com-
position with epidote, chlorite, felspar, quarts, iron oxides, fcc
and may have been mixed with volcanic materials, or may be
partly derived from the disintegration of basic rocks. Whes
they are most metamorphosed they are often very hard u>
distinguish from igneous rton&lende-schists; yet they rarely
fail to reveal signs of bedding, pebbly structure, sedimentary
banding and gradual transition into undoubtedly sedimcsi-
ary types of gneiss and schist Deposits containing dofomitr
and siderite also readily yield amphibolites (tremolite-scbists,
grunerite-schists, Ac.) especially where there has been a cer-
tain amount of contact mctamorphism by adjacent granitic
masses. (J. S. F.)
AMPHIBOLOGY, or Amfhxboiy (Gr. A/tfrfioUah in logic
a verba] fallacy arising from ambiguity m the grammatksl
structure of a sentence (Aristot., Orgamm t Sopk. t EL> chap* r»<^
AMPHICTYONY
885
It occnn frequently In poetry, owing to the alteration for metrical
reasons of the natural order of words; Jevons quotes am an
example Shakespeare, Henry VI.i "The duke yet lives that
Henry shall depose."
AHPHICTTONT (Gr. d/i^urrvorfa, le, a body composed of
dp^ucrtorcs, a ji^urfom, " dwellers around "), an association of
ancient Greek communities centring in a shrine. As the extant
sources do not define the term, and as they apply it to but five or
six associations, the majority of which are little known, modern
scholars are in doubt as to the essential character of the
institution, and hesitate therefore to extend the name beyond
this limited list. The word itself indicates that the association
primarily comprised neighbours, though the Delphic amphictyony
came in time to include relatively distant communities (Strabo
i** 3. 7)- For the origin of the institution it is safe to assume
that neighbouring communities, whether tribes (Jfon) or cities,
desiring friendly intercourse with one another chose the sanctu-
ary of some deity conveniently situated, at which to hold their
periodical festival for worship -and their fair for the interchange
of goods. If the limited use of the word according to our sources
is not purely accidental, at all events there were many Greek
leagues, not expressly termed amphictyonies, which had the
characteristics here stated.
The Delian amphictyony probably reached the* height of its
splendour early in the 7th century B.C. The Hymn to the Ddian
Apollo, composed about that time, celebrates the gathering of the
Ionians with their wives and children at the shrine of their god on
the island of Delos, to worship him with music, dancing and
gymnastic contests (w. 146-164; cf. Thuc iii. 104). The later
misfortunes of the Ionians caused a decline of the festival
Pcisistratus, taking possession of Delos, seems to have used the
sanctuary as a means of extending his political influence. When
after the great war with Persia the Aegean cities under the
leadership of Athens united in a political league (477 B.C.), they
chose as its centre the temple of the Delian Apollo, doubtless
through a desire to connect the new alliance with the associations
of the old amphictyony. How far the council and other institu-
tions of the Delian confederacy were based upon the amphictyonic
organization cannot be determined. The removal of the treasury
to Athens in 454 B.C. deprived Delos of political importance,
though the amphictyony continued. The council gradually
dwindled, and probably came to an end without formal abolition.
In 426 B.C. the' Athenians purified the island and instituted a
great festival to be held under their presidency every four years
(Thuc iii. 104). In 42 a they expelled the Delians (Thuc. v. 1).
At the end of the Peloponncsian War Athens was deprived of
Delos along with her other possessions, but she appears to have
regained control of the island after the victory of Cnidus (304).
An inscription of 300 B.C. proves that at this date Athenian
authority had been restored. The affairs of the temple were
managed by a board of five Athenian amphictyons, assisted by
some Delian officials (inscrr. in Bull. Hell. viii. 284, 304, 307 f.) ;
and in the 4th century we again hear of a council in addition to
the board {CIG. L 1 58). At this time the amphictyony is known
to have embraced both the Athenians and the inhabitants of the
Cyclades; but a strong Delian party bitterly opposed Athenian
rule (cf. inscr. in Bull. Hell. iii. 473 f.), which came to an end with
the supremacy of Macedon. The dissolution of the amphictyony
soon followed.
Far more famous is the Delphic, or more strictly, the
Pylaeic-Delphic, amphictyony. It was originally composed
of twelve tribes dwelling round Thermopylae— the Thessalians,
Boeotians, Dorians, Ionians, Perrhaebians, Magnetes, Locrians,
Oetaeans, Fhthiotes, Malians, Phodana (Aeschin. ii. 116), and
Dolopians (Paus. x. 8. a). The name of the council (pytaeo) and
of one set of deputies (Pylagori), together with the important
place held in the amphictyony by the temple of Demeter at
Anthela, near Thermopylae, suggests that tins shrine was the
original centre of the association. How and when Delphi
became a second centre is quite uncertain. The council of the
league included deputies of two different kinds— pylagori and
kieromnemonts. The latter were twenty-four in number, two
from each tribe. As the league was originally made up of
neighbours, the Dorian tribe must have comprised simply the
inhabitants of Doris; the Locrians were probably the eastern
(Opuntian) branch; and the Ionians were doubtless limited to
the adjacent island of Euboea. Afterwards, by affiliating them-
selves to Doris, the Peloponncsian Dorians gained admission, and
Athens must have entered as an Ionian city before the first
Sacred War. Henceforth Athens monopolized one of the two
Ionian votes, while the other passed in rotation among the
rernaining Ionic, perhaps only among the Eubodc, dries. In the
same way Doris held one Dorian vote and the other passed In
rotation amontf the Dorian dries of Peloponnesus; and the east
and west Locrians came to have one each. When after the second
Sacred War the Photians were expelled, Macedon received their
two votes (346 B.C.). About the same time the Perrhaebians and
the Dolopians were deprived of half thdr representation, and the
two votes were transferred to the Ddphians (inscrr. in N. JakrL
f. cl. PkUd. dv. 74a, d. 743, 753; Bull. Hell. xxj. 32a, d. 325$
Bourguet, Sand. Pylk. 145, 147). In the following century the
Aetolians gained such dominance in the amphictyony as to>
convert the council into an organ of their league. Recent
research has made it appear certain (d. Pomptow, ib. 754 ff.)
that they were never formally admitted to membership, but that
they maintained their supremacy in the council (Livy xxxi. 33.3}
Polyb. iv. a j. 8) by controlling the votes of their allies, who-*
called Aetolians in the inscriptions— were often in the majority.
They made no material change in its composition, which, accord*
ingfy, after the dissolution of their league by the Romans is
found to be nearly as it was after the second Sacred War. A
few minor changes came in under the supremacy of the Roman
republic; and finally Augustus increased the number of votes to
thirty, and distributed them according to his pleasure. In the
age of the Antonines the association was still in existen ce (Paus.
X.8.4O.
Although the hieromncmones of the Thessalians, who hdd the
presidency, and perhaps of a few other communities^ must have
been elected, the office was ordinarily, as at Athens, filled by lot*
As a rule they were renewed annually (Aristoph. Clouds, 623 f.|
Foucart, in Bull. Hell. vii. 41 1, 413 f.). Each hieromnemon was
accompanied by two pylagori, elected semi-annually (Demosth*
xviii. 149; Aeschin. iii. 115; Tim. Lex. Pint., x.o. ' A^xt6op«)>
and representing the same tribe, though not necessarily the
same dty. On one occasion Athens is known to have sent three..
The hieromncmones were formally superior, but because of the
method of appointment they were necessarily men of mediocre
ability, inexperienced in speaking and public business, and fof
that reason they readily became the tools of the pylagori, whd
were orators and statesmen. In the literary sources, accordingly*
the latter are rightly given credit for the acts of the council; it
was the pylagori who set a price on the head of the traitor
Ephialtes( Herod. viL ai3),andwho on the motion of Themistodes
rejected the proposition of Lacedaemon for the expulsion of the
states which had sided with Persia (Plut. Them. 20). The pylagori
had a right to propose measures and to take part in the delibera-
tions; they as well as the hieromnemones were required to take
the juror's oath; and the acts of the council were inscribed
officially as resolutions of the hieromnemones and pylagori
conjointly. The hieromnemon, however, cast the vote of hit
community, though in the record his two pylagori were made
equally responsiblefor it Thenecessary inferencefrom these facts
is that the vote was determined by a majority of the three
deputies (inscr. in Bull. Hell, xxvii. xo6-ni, A 20-33; B i-io).
The council dedded all questions which fell within its competence*
Matters of greater importance, as the levy of an extraordinary
fine on a state or the declaration of a sacred war, it presented
in the form of a resolution to an assembly (Ux\ri<rla), com-
posed of the deputies, the amphictyonic priests, and any other
rit|ze*s of the league wjio chanced to be present (Aeschin. iii
124; d. Hyp. iv. 7, 26 f.). This assembly was relatively unlm*
portant, however, and is mentioned only by the two authorities
here dted.
It is now well established by epigraphic evidence (Bull. Bett,
886
AMPHILOCHUS— AMPHIOXUS
vii. 412 f., 417; Pomptow, in N. Jakrb. /. d, Philol. cxlix.
826*829) that the amphictyons met both in the spring and in
the autumn at Delphi, and the literary sources should alone
be sufficient authority for meetings in the same seasons at
Thermopylae (Hyp. iv. 7, 25 ff.; Strabo ix. 3, 7, 4, 17;
Harpocration, s.v. U0\<u). It is known, too, that the meeting
at Thermopylae followed that at Delphi (inscr. in Bull. HelL
xxiv. 136 f.).
The primary function of the council was to administer the
temporal affairs of the two shrines, of which the sanctuary of
Apollo at Delphi claimed by far the greater share of attention.
The hieromnemones were required periodically to inspect the
lands belonging to this god, to punish those who encroached, and
to see that the tenants rendered their quota of produce; and the
council held the states responsible for the right performance of
such duties by their respective deputies (CIA. iL 545; inscr. in
Bull. Hell. vii. 428 f.). Another task of the council was to super-
vise the treasury, to protect it from thieves, and by investments to
increase the capital (Strabo ix. 3, 7; Isoc xv. 232; Demosth.
xxi. 144; Plut Sull. Z2). Naturally, too, it controlled the
expenditure. We find it, accordingly, in the 6th century B.C.
contracting for the rebuilding of the Delphic temple after it had
been destroyed by fire (Herod, v. 62; Paus. x. 5. 13), and in the
4th century creating an Hellenic college of temple-builders for
the purpose (inscrr. in Bull. Hdl. xx. 202 f., 206, xxi 478,
xxiv. 464), adorning the interior with statues and pictures (Diod.
xvi. $$), inscribing the proverbs of the Seven Sages on the walls
(Paus. x. 24. 1), bestowing crowns on benefactors of the god
(CIG. i. 1689 6), preparing for the Pythian games, awarding the
prizes (Pind. Pytk. iv. 66, x. 8 f.), instituting a board of
treasurers (inscr. in Bourguet, Sand. Pytk. 175 ff.) and issuing
coins. It was also in the material interest of Apollo that the
council passed a law which forbade the Greeks to levy tolls on
pilgrims to the shrine (Aeschin. Hi. 107; Strabo ix. 3, 4), and
another requiring the amphictyonic states to keep in repair their
own roads which led towards Delphi (CIA. ii. 545). A law of
great interest, dating from the beginning of the institution,
imposed an oath upon the members of the league not to destroy
an amphictyonic city or to cut it off from running water in war
or peace; but to wage war upon those who transgressed this
ordinance, to destroy their cities, and to punish any others who
by theft or plotting sought to injure the god (Aeschin. ii. 115).
In this regulation, which was intended to mitigate the usages of
war amongst the members of the league, we have one of the
origins of Greek interstate law. Though other regulations were
made to secure peace at the time of the festival (Dion. Hal. iv.
25. 3), and though occasionally the council was called upon to
arbitrate in a dispute (cf. Demosth. xviii. 135), no provision was
made to compel arbitration.
For the enforcement of such laws and for administrative effi-
ciency in general it was necessary that the council should have
judicial power. As jurors the deputies took an oath to decide
according to written law, or in cases not covered by law, accord-
ing to their best will and judgment (CIA. ii. 545). The earliest
known amphictyonic penalty was the destruction of Crisa for
having levied tolls on pilgrims (Aeschin. iii. 107; Strabo ix. 3, 4;
cf . Paus. x. 37. 5-8). This offence was the cause of the first Sacred
War. The second and third Sacred Wars, fought in the 4th
century B.C., were waged by the amphictyons against the
Phocians and the Amphissaeans respectively for alleged tres-
passing on the sacred lands (Aeschin. iii. 124, 128; Diod. xvi;
23 1 3 - f r)- In the 5th century the council fined the Dolopians for
having disturbed commerce by their piracy (Plut. Cirn. 8), and
in the 4th century the Lacedaemonians for having occupied the
citadel of Thebes in time of peace (Diod. xvi. 23, 29).
The judgments of the council were sometimes considered
unfair, and were occasionally defied by the states affected. The
Lacedaemonians refused to pay the fine above mentioned; the
Athenians protested against the treatment of Amphissa, and were
slow in accepting thedecisions given under the influence of Mace-
don. The inability of the council to enforce its resolutions was
chiefly due to its composition; the majority of the communities
represented were even in combination no match for SBoswral
cities like Athens, Sparta or Thebes. The council was a power a
politics only when manipulated by a great state, as Thebes
Macedon or Aetolia, and in such a case its decrees were most
likely to give offence by their partisanship. Although the
council sometimes championed the Hellenic cause, as ootid
any association or individual, it never acquired a rrcngu i ara '
authority over all Greece; and notwithstanding its frequent par-
ticipation in political affairs, it remained essentially a rehgioei
convocation.
In addition to the three associations thus far mentioned these
was an amphictyony of Onchestus (Strabo ix. 2, 33). It may be
inferred from a comparison of Pans. iv. 5. 2 with Herod, vi 91
that there was an amphictyony of Argos of which Epidanras aad
Aegina were members. An amphictyony of Corinth has, with
less justification, been assumed on the strength of a pawiflr ia
Pindar (Nem. Od. vi. 40-42).
Authorities— Fbucart. " Amphietyaflea,'* ta Dvcmben ■■- 1
Saelia. Did. d. axtiq. grgeg. tt ram. (I»TJ) L 215-136; F Cuff
" Am phi kty on La." in Pauly-W&Mowa, RtsitntycL a. nf, A itur m mi w^
(iflmJ i. 1 004-1935; Pomptow. Fasti DtitM^i. tL in Afr&c Jaart
I it PkM> (1S94J cxlix. 497-55* civ. (tfifl?) 737-7^ 7****
E. A. Freeman. Hulory of Frdfral CflvemmeTU i* Gme* mi Ia*>
(2nd ed. p London ani New York, ii* "'
Delia n Amphictyony." in Cianui
Sch&marm-Liiniui, Grietkiuhe Atltrtkilmtr
Bourpuet, VAdminiitratian ftnanciire du umclvaire
Slide aeant J.-C (Paria. 1905). The earlier literature h
deprived of aereat part of it* value by recent dlucoves
tiona. many of which may be found in the Bulletin £tt
hcUlmqvtt iii. vii. viii. x, xx. xxi. xxiv. xxvL
Commentary chieflv by Bourvuet. Colin. Fouca/t mod
See also If . CollitfjSaminffiivc d. |nVr*. Diattto-I**cknfto* M & p. ^j
kal Rent* (tool), *». Jf-t*
crtkuma (10O3K m* 39*44 E
ff. and Nos. 3508 ff., edited by Daunack.
taw. pi
AMPHILOCHUS, in Greek legend, a famous seer, see of
Amphiaraus and Eriphyle and brother of Akmaeon. Acc ordia g
to some he assisted in the murder of Eriphyle, which, accordiag
to others, was carried out by Alcmaeon alone (Apollodorus i£
6, 7). He took part in the expedition of the Eptgoni agues:
Thebes and in the Trojan War. After the fall of Troy he feuded,
in conjunction with Mopsus, another famous seer, the otade of
Mallos in Cilida. The two seers afterwards fought for its posses-
sion, and both were slain in the combat. Amphflochus is aho
said to have been killed by Apollo (Strabo xiv. 67s, 676). Accord-
ing to another story, he returned to Argos from Troy, but, heme
dissatisfied with the condition of things there, left it for Acaraacia,
where he founded Amphilochian Argos on the Ambeadaa gaS.
He was worshipped at Oropus, Athens and Sparta,
Strabo xiv pp. 675, 676; Thucydides iL 68; Paoaaaias I 34
iii. 15.
AMPHION and ZETHU8, in ancient Greek mythology, the
twin sons of Zeus by Antiope. When children, they were exposed
on Mount Cithaeron, but were found and brought op by a
shepherd. Amphion became a great singer and musician, Zetbss
a hunter and herdsman (Apollodorus iiL s). After prniwhtrf
Lycus and Dirce for cruel treatment of Antiope (q .9 .), they bait
and fortified Thebes, huge blocks of stone forming themselves into
walls at the sound of Amphion 's lyre (Horace, Odes, fiL xx>
Amphion married Niobe, and killed himself after the loss of ha
wife and children (Ovid, Metam. vi. 270). The brothers were
buried in one grave and worshipped as the Dioscuri " with white
horses " (Eurip. Pkoen. 009).
AMPHIOXUS, or Lancelet, the name of small, fish-Eke,
marine creatures, forming the class Cephalochorda, of the phytam
Vertcbrata. Lancelets are found in brackish or salt water,
generally near the coast, and have been referred to several green
and many species. They were first discovered by P. S. Pallas
in 1778, who took them to be slugs and described them uader
the name Limax lanceolotus. The true position in the animal
kingdom was first recognised in 1834 by O. G. Costa, who eased
the genus Branckiostoma, and it has since been dealt with W
many writers.
The theoretical interest of Arophioxus depends upon a variety
of circumstances. In its manner of development from the egg,
AMPHIOXUS
887
and in the constitution of its digestive, vascular, respiratory
(branchial), excretory, skeletal, nervous and muscular systems
it exhibits what appears to be a primordial condition of vertebrate
organization, a condition which is, in fact, partly recapitulated
in the course of the embryonic stages of craniate vertebrates. In
comparative morphology it provides many illustrations of im-
portant biological principles (such, for example, as substitution
and change of function of organs), and throws new light upon, or
at least points the way to new ideas of, the primitive relations of
different organic systems in respect of their function and topo-
graphy. One of the most puzzling features in its structure, and,
at the same time, one of the greatest obstacles to the view that it
is essentially primitive and not merely a degenerate creature, is
the entire absence of the paired organs of special sense, olfactory,
optic and auditory, which are so characteristic of the higher
vertebrates. Although it is true that there is a certain amount
of gradation in the degree of development to which these organs
have attained in the various orders, yet it is hardly sufficient to
enable the imagination to bridge over the gap which separates
Amphioxus from- the lowest fishes in regard to this feature of
organization.
Classification.— On account of the absence of anything in the
nature of a skull, Amphioxus has been regarded as the type of a
division, Acrania, in contrast with the Crania U which comprise
all the higher Chordata. The ordinal name for the genera and
species of Amphioxus is Cephalochorda, the term referring to the
extension of the primary backbone or notochord to the anterior
extremity of the body; the family name is Branchiostomidae.
The amount of generic divergence exhibited by the members of
this family is not great in the mass, but is of singular interest in
detail. There are two principal genera — z . Branchiostoma Costa,
having paired sexual organs (gonadic pouches); a. Heleropteuron
Kirkaldy, with unilateral gonads. Of these, the former includes
two subgenera, Amphioxus (s. str.) Yarrtll and Dolickorkynekus
WQley. The species belonging to the genus HeleropUuron are
divided among the three subgenera Parampkioxus Haeckel,
Epigonickthys Peters, and Asymmctron Andrews. The generic
characters are based upon definite modifications of form which
affect the entire fades of the animals, while the specific diagnoses
depend upon minor characters, such as the number of myotonia
or muscle-segments.
Habits and Distribution.— With regard to its habits, all that
need be said here is that while Amphioxus is an expert swimmer
when occasion requires, yet it spends most of its time burrowing
in the sand, in which, when at rest, it lies buried with head pro-
truding and mouth wide agape. Its food consists of microscopic
organisms and organic particles; these are drawn into the mouth
Fig. M.—Epitmicklkys cuttettus from below and from the left aide.
(Slightly altered from Kirkaldy.) rm and lm. Right and left meta-
pleur; at, atriopore; an, anut; #, "eyespot" at anterior end of
neurochord projecting beyond the myotomes (my); », notochord;
rgo % gonads of right side only showing through by transparency;
go 30, the last gonad: dfr, dorsal fin with fin chambers and fin rays;
tfc. ventral fin chambers.
together with currents of water induced by the action of the
vibratHe cilia which are abundant along special tracts on the
sides and roof of the vestibule of the mouth and in the walls of the
perforated pharynx ("ciliary ingestion "). Amphioxus favours a
littoral habitat, and rarely if ever descends below the 50-fathom
lane. Species occur in all seas of the temperate, tropical and
subtropical zones The European species, A . lanceolatus, is found
in the Black and Mediterranean Seas, and on the coasts of France,
Great Britain and Scandinavia, while a closely allied species or
subspecies, A. caribacus, frequents the Caribbean region from
Chesapeake to La Plata. A. califomknsis occurs on the coast of
California, and A. bdeheri extends its area of distribution from
Queensland through Singapore to Japan. A recently described
species, Doiichorhynchus mdicus, characterized by the great length
of the praeoral lobe or snout, has been dredged in the Indian Ocean.
Parampkioxus bassanus occurs on the coast of Australia from
Port Phillip to Port Jackson ; P. cmgolcnsis at Ceylon. Epigon-
icMkys culUUus (fig. 1) inhabits Torres Strait, and has also been
FlC. i.—AmpkioxHS tanecolatus, Yarrell (Branchiostoma lubncum,
Coste). (From Ray Lankester.) (1) Lateral view of adu t, to show
general form, the myomeres, fin rays and gonads. A, Oral tentacles
«8 to 3s in full-grown animals. 20 to 34 m half-Brown specimens);
B, praeoral hood or praeoral epipleur; C, plicated ventral surface of
atrial chamber; D», D", D», gonads, twenty-six pairs, coincident
with myotomes 10 to 36; E, metapleur or lateral ridee on atr»l
epipleur; F, atripore, coincident with myotome 36: G\ G u , G M ,
double ventral fin rays, extending from myotomes 37 to 52, but
having no numerical relation to them; H, position of anus, between
myotomes 51 and 52; I, notochord, projecting beyond myotomes;
K», K", K«, myotomes or muscular segments of body-wall, 62 in
number; L m , L»», L***, dorsal fin rays, about 250 in number, the
hard substance of the ray being absent at the extreme ends of the
888
AMPHIOXUS
body (these have no constant numerical relation to the myomere*);
M T notochord as seen throtifih the transparent myotomes, the thin
double-lined *pace* being the connect ive- tissue septa and the
broader spare* the muscular tissue of the myotomes; N. position
of brown funnel of left side {atrio-coelomk canal); O r nerve tube
resting on notochord,
(a) Dissection of A mpTtioxtn. By a horizontal incision on each aide
of the body a large vent ral area his been separated and turned over.
a* it were on a hinge, to the animal's Mt side* The perforated
pharyngeal region has then been detached from the adherent epi-
pleura or opercular folds (wall of atrial or branchial chamber) by
cutting the fluted pharyngo- pleural membrane d, and separated by
* vertical cut from the intestinal region. a t Edge of groove formed
by adhesion of median dorsal surface of alimentary canal to sheath
of notochord; ft, median dorsal surface of alimentary canal: C* left
dorsal aorta; cc. single dorsal aorta, formed by union of the two
anterior vessels; re', same vessel resting on intestine; d. Cut edge
of pharyngo- pleura I folds of atrial tunic, really the original outer
body; wall before the downgrowth of epipleura; a"', atrial tunic
(original body-iwall) at non- perforate region. Cut and turned tuck
fo ,i* fi> rxfuiHT firi-trtteric coelom and intestine r; r\ upstanding
fold* of body-wall (fiharynfC- pleural fotds) on alternate bars of per-
forate rtgien of body; f, atrio^coelomic canals or brown funnels
(cellar-pores of Baianngfetmsy, f, cavity of a gunad-sac; iw r cut
musculature of body-wall; h, anus; e, post-atriaporat extension
of atrial chamber in farm of a tubular caecum- p, arriupore; q,
hepatic caecum ; r. intestine; i, coelom; f. area of adhesion between
alimentary canal and sheath of notochord i i'. atrial chamber or
branchial cavity; u\ post-atrioporal portion of intestine; jfc canals
of met a pleura exposed by cutting; E, probe passing through atrio-
porc into atrial or branch*! chamber; FF , probe passing from
coelom. where it expands behind the atrioporc. into narrower peri-
enteric coelom of pracatrioporal region ,
(3) Portion, of {2) enlarged to show atrio-eoclcmic canals ("brown
funnels " of Lanlcester), Lettering as in (2).
(4) Section taken transversely through praeoral region ntar tcr-
tni nation of nerve tube. a. Olfactory ciliated pit on animal's left
side, its wall confluent with substance of nerve tube; b* pigment
spot (rudimentary eye) on anterior termination of nerve tube: c. first
pair of nerve* in section; d r fin ray; i, myotome; /, notochord;
g, space round myotome (?ariilact or coelom); k, subchorial
canal (? blood-vessel); i, a symmetrical epipleura of praeoral
found at Ternate. Asymmetron luccyanum b the Bahamaa
representative* of the family, with a subspecies, it. caudatum,
in the South Pacific from New Guinea to the Loyalty Islands.
The Peruvian species, Branchiostoma dongatum, with nearly
eighty myotomes, cannot at present be assigned to its proper
subgenus.
External Form. — The following description, Unless otherwise
stated, refers to A. lanctoUUus. Amphioxus is a small fish-like
creature attaining a maximum length of about 3 in., semi-
transparent in appearance, showing iridescent play of colour.
The body is narrow, laterally compressed and pointed at both
ends. The main musculature can be seen through the thin skin
to be divided into about sixty pairs of muscle-segments (myo-
tomes) by means of comma-shaped dissepiments, the myocommas,
which stretch between the skin and the central skeletal axis of the
body. These myotomes enable it to swim rapidly with char-
acteristic serpentine undulations of the body, the movements
being effected by the alternate contraction and relaxation of the
longitudinal muscles on both sides K Apparently correlated with
this peculiar locomotion is the anatomical fact of the alteration
of the myotomes on the two sides. Symmetrical at their first
appearance in the embryo, the somites (from which the myotomes
are derived) early undergo a certain distortion, the effect of, which
is to carry the somites of the left side forwards through the length
of one half-segment For example, the twenty-seventh myotome
of the left side is placed opposite to the twenty-sixth myocomma
of the right side. The back of the body is occupied by a crest,
called the dorsal fin, consisting of a hollow ridge, the cavity of
which is divided into about 250 compartments or fin chambers,
into each of which, with the exception of those near the anterior
and posterior end of the body, projects a stout pillar composed of
characteristic laminar tissue, the fin ray. The dorsal crest is
continued round both extremities, becoming expanded to form
the rostral fin in front and the caudal fin behind. Even in
external view, careful inspection will show that the body is
divisible into four regions, namely, cephalic, atrial, abdominal
and caudal. The cephalic region includes the rostrum or praeoral
Fig. 3/— Transverse sections of Amphioxus. (From Lankester.) A.
Section through region of atrio-codomtc canals, ». B.Sectk»infroBtaf
mouth ; the riant and left sides are transposed. «, Cavity l
ing fin ray; a , fin ray; 6, muscular tissue of myotome;
cord; d, notochord; c, left aorta; /, thickened ridges of <
of praeoral chanfber (Rader organ); g, coiled tube lying
coelomic space on right side of praeoral hood, apparently aa artery;
a, cuticle of notochord: t, connective-tissue sheath of notochord;
ik, median ridge of skeletal canal of nerve-cord; f, skeletal canal
protecting nerve-cord; m, intersegmental skeletal septum of
myotome; ft, subcutaneous skeletal connective tissue; #, ditto of
metapleor (this should be relatively thicker than it is); e, sub-
cutaneous connective tissue of ventral surface of atrial wall (not s
canal, as supposed by Stieda and others); r, eptblastic ephhefitna;
*. gonad-sac containing ova; I, pharyngeal bar in section, one of the
''tongue" bars alternating with the main bars and devoid of
pharyngo-pleural fold and coelom; v, atrio-coeJomic funnel; w. so»
called ' dorsal " coelom ; x, lymphatic space or canal of mccaptror:
y, sub-pharyngeal vascular trunk; a, blood-vessel (portal vein) ea
wall of hepatic caecum; aa, space of atrial or branchial chamber;
feo, ventral groove of pharynx (anteriorly this takes the form of a
ridge); cc, hyperbranchial groove of pharynx; da*, lumen or space
of hepatic caecum; **, narrow coelomic apace surrounding hepatic
caecum;/, lining cell-layer of hepatic caecum; gf, inner face of a
the outer face coveted
ck
a)
pharyngeal bar clothed with hypoblast, the outer face om
with epiblast (represented black) ; aft, a main pharyngeal bar
projecting pharyngeal fold (on which the reference line 1
projecting r _.__, „_ . _ ,
in section, showing coelomic
transverse ventral muscle
beneath the black epiblast;
epipleura; Aft, raphe or paste of
fusion of two down-grown epipleura; U, space and nucleated eels
on dorsal face of notochord; asm, similar apace and calls on to
ventral face. '
AMPHIOXUS
889
lobe and the mouth. Aa already stated, the notochord extends
beyond the mouth to the tip of the rostrum. The mouth consists
of two portions, an outer vestibule and an inner aperture oris;
the latter is surrounded by a sphincter muscle, which forms the
so-called scf as*. The vestibule of the mouth is the space bounded
by the oral hood; this arises by second-
ary downgrowth of lid-like folds over
the true oral aperture, and is provided
with a fringe of tentacular cirri, each of
which is supported by a solid skeletal
axis. The oral hood with its cirri has
a special nerve supply and musculature
by which the cirri can be either spread
out, or bent inwards so that those of one
side may interdigitate with those of the
other, thus completely closing the en-
trance to the mouth. The velum is also
provided with adrcletof twelve tentacles
(in some species sixteen) which hang
backwards into the pharynx; these are
the velar tentacles. The atrial region
extends from the mouth over about two-
thirds of the lengthof the body, terminat-
ing at a large median ventral aperture,
the atriopore; this is the excurrent
orifice for the respiratory current of
water and also serves for the evacuation
r«. m J-Ai,w. of the generative products. This region
1^2^ Wdopn Cen^ » "&Y «* branchiogenital region, al-
trally. (After Ratlike, though the fact is not apparent In exter-
•lightly altered.) m, nal view. The ventral side of the body
Mouth appearing as an in ^ atrU1 n ^ on fa broftd ^ convex,
JebSd (as in W SS to that the body presenU the appearance
lamprey); p, perforated of a spherical triangle in transverse sec-
pharynx; e, endostyle; tion, the apex being formed by the dorsal
f, gonads; L liver; at, fi D and the angles borderedby two hoUow
level of atnopore; _t, £oWj> ^ i^apfe,^ foWlf ^j, rf
which contains a continuous longitudi-
nal lymph-space, the metapleural canal
In the genus BranxJtiostoma the meta-
pleural folds terminate symmetrically
shortly behind the atriopore, but in
HeUropUuron the right metapleur passes uninterruptedly into
the median crest of the ventral fin (fig. z). In this connexion it
may also be mentioned that in all cases the right half of the oral
hood is directly continuous with the rostral fin (fig. a). The
abdominal region comprises a short stretch of body between
atriopore and anus, the termination of the alimentary canal. It
is characterized by the presence of a special development of the
lophioderm or median fin-system, namely, the ventral fin, which
is composed of two portions, a lower keel-like portion, which
underlies an upper chambered portion, each chamber containing
typically a pair of gelatinous fin rays. Finally, the caudal region
comprises the post-anal division of the trunk. The keel of the
ventral fin is continued past the anus into the expanded caudal
fin, and so it happens that the anal opening is displaced from the
middle line to the left side of the fin. In Asymmetron the caudal
region is remarkable for the curious elongation of the notochord,
which is produced far beyond the last of the myotomes.
Alimentary , Res pirotorxond Excretory Systems. — Although the
function of the two latter systems of organs is the purification
of the blood, they are not usually considered together, and it is
therefore the more remarkable that their close association in
A mphunus renders it necessary to treat them in common. The
alimentary canal is a perfectly straight tube lined throughout by
ciliated epithelium. As food particles pass in through the mouth
they become enveloped in a slimy substance (secreted by the
endostyle) and conveyed down the gut by the action of the
vibratile cilia as a continuous food-rope, the peristaltic move-
ments of the gut-wall being very feeble. The first part of the
alimentary canal consists of the pharynx or branchial sac, the side
walls of which are perforated by up wards of sixty pairs of elongated
of atriopore; t,
intestine; an, anus. In
this species the atrium
is produced as an asym-
metrical blind pouch
behind the atriopore as
far as the anus.
slits, the gill-clefts. Each primary gffl-ddt becomes divided into
two by a tongue-bar which grows down secondarily from the
upper wall of the cleft and fuses with the ventral wall. New
clefts continue to form at the posterior end of the pharynx during
the adult life of the animal The gill-clefts open directly from the
cavity of the pharynx into that of the atrium, and so give egress
to the respiratory current which enters the mouth with the food
(fig. 4). The atrium or atrial chamber is a peripharyngeal cavity
of secondary origin effecting the enclosure of the gill-clef U, which
in the larva opened directly to the exterior. The atrium is thus
analogous to the opercular cavity of fishes and tadpoles, and, as
stated above, remains in communication with the exterior by
means of the atriopore. The primary and secondary bars which
separate and divide the successive gill-clef ts from one another are
traversed by blood-vessels which run from a simple tubular con-
tractile ventral branchial vessel along the bars into a dorsal aorta.
The ventral branchial vessel lies below the hypobranchial groove
or endostyle, and is the representative of a heart. As water for
respiration streams through the clefts, gaseous interchange takes
place between the circulating colourless blood and the percolat-
ing water. The pharynx projects freely into the atrium; it is
surrounded at the sides and below by the continuous atrial
cavity, but dorsally it is held in position in two ways. First,
its dorsal wall (which is grooved to form the hyperpharyngeal
groove) is closely adherent to the sheath of the notochord; and
secondly, the pharynx is attached through the intermediation
of the primary bars. These are suspended to the muscular body-
wall by a double membrane, called the ligamentum denticulalum,
which forms at once the roof of the atrial chamber and the floor
of a persistent portion of the original body-cavity or coelom (the
dorsal coelomic canal on each side of the pharynx). The liga-
mentum dentictdatum is thus lined on one side by the epiblastic
atrial epithelium, and on the other by mesoblastic coelomic
epithelium. Now this ligament is inserted into the primary bars
some distance below the upper limits of the gill-clefts, and it
therefore follows that, corresponding with each tongue-bar, the
atrial cavity is produced upward beyond the insertion of the
ligament into a series of bags or pockets, which may be called the
atrial pouches. At the top of each of these pouches there is a
minute orifice, the aperture of a small tubule lying above each
pouch in the dorsal coelom. These tubules are the excretory
tubules or nephridia. They communicate with the coelom by
several openings or nephrostomes, and with the atrium by a
single opening in each case, the nephridiopore. It is important
to emphasize the fact that in Amphioxus the excretory tubules
are co-extensive with the gill-clefts. The perforated pharynx
terminates some distance in front of the atriopore. At the level
of its posterior end a pair of funnel-shaped pouches of the atrium
are produced forwards into the dorsal coelom. These are the atrial
coelomic funnels or brown funnels, so called on account of the
characteristic pigmentation of their walls. There are reasons for
supposing that these funnels are vestiges of an ancient excretory
system, which has given way by substitution to the excretory
tubules described above. In the same region of the body, namely,
close behind the pharynx, a large diverticulum is given off from
the ventral side of the gut- This is the hepatic caecum (fig. 2,1, 0,
fig. 4, /), which is quite median at its first origin, but, as it grows
in length, comes to lie against the right wall of the pharynx.
Although within the atrial cavity, it is separated from the latter by
a narrow coelomic space, bounded towards the atrium by coelomic
and atrial epithelium. No food passes into the hepatic caecum,
which hasbeendefinitely shown on embryological andphysiological
grounds to be the simplest persistent form of the vertebrate liver.
Nervous System.— As has already been indicated, a solid sub-
cylindrical elastic rod, the notochord, surrounded by a sheath of
laminar connective tissue, the cordal sheath, lies above the ali-
mentary canal in contact with its dorsal wall, and extends beyond
it both in front and behind to the obtusely pointed extremities of
the body. This notochord represents the persistent primordial
skeletal axis which, in the higher Craniate (though not so in the
lower), gives way by substitution to the segmented vertebral
column. Immediately above the notochord there lies another
890
AMPHIOXUS
subcylindricsJ cord, also surrounded by a sheath of connective
tissue. This cord is neither elastic nor solid, but consists of nerve
tissue, fibres and ganglion cells, surrounding a small central canal
For the sake of uniformity in nomenclature this nerve-cord may
be called the neurochord. It is the central nervous system, and
contains within itself the elements of the brain and spinal marrow
of higher forms. The neurochord tapers towards its posterior end,
where it is coextensive with the notochord, but ends abruptly in
front, some distance behind the tip of the snout. The neurochord
attains its greatest thickness not at its anterior end but some way
behind this region; but the central canal dilates at the anterior
extremity to form a thin-walled cerebral vesicle, in the front wall
of which there is an aggregation of dark pigment cells constituting
an eyespot, visible through the transparent skin (fig, z). There
are two pairs of specialized cerebral nerves innervating the
praeoral lobe, and provided with peripheral ganglia placed near
the termination of the smaller branches. Corresponding with each
pair of myotomes, and subject to the same alternation, two pairs
of spinal nerves arise from the neurochord, namely, a right and
left pair of compact dorsal sensory roots without ganglionic
enlargement, and a right and left pair of ventral motor roots
composed of loose fibres issuing separately from the neurochord
and passing directly to their termination on the muscle-plates
of the myotomes. The first dorsal spinal nerve coincides in
position with the myocomma which separates the first myotome
from the second on each side, and thereafter the successive dorsal
roots pass through the substance of the myocommata on their
way to the skin; they are therefore septal or intersegmental in
position. The ventral roots, on the contrary, are myal or seg-
mental in position. In addition to the cerebral eyespot there are
large numbers of minute black pigmented bodies beside and
below the central canal of theneuro-
chord, commencing from the level
of the third myotome. It has been
determined that these bodies are of
the nature of eyes ( Bukerauft*, R.
Hesse), each consisting of two cells,
a cup-shaped pigment cell and a
triangular retinal celL These may
be called the spinal eyes, and it is
said that they are disposed in such
a way as to receive illumination
preferentially from the right side,
although this fact has no relation
with the side upon which Ampki-
oxus may lie upon the sand. When
kept in captivity the animal often
lies upon one side on the surface of
the sand, but on either side indiffer-
ently. Over the cerebral eye there
isa small orifice placed to the left of
the base of the cephalic fin, leading
into a pit which extends from the
surface of the body to the surface of
the cerebral vesicle; this is known
as A. von Kolliker's olfactory pit.
Reproductm System.— The sexes
are separate, and the male or female
Fie. 5— Diagram of embryo gonads, which are exactly similar
of A mphioxus seen from above {q outward appearance, occur as a
cho^headiU^of 1 ^ {«* **•*• *** «?* « the
bryo; ec, collar-cavity (firat base of the myotomes (figs, s, 3, 4).
somite); s»y, mesodermic At the breeding season the walls of
somites (myocoelomic or the ^4^ hurst and the sexual
ssssff jt&la *— i- p~ <•» £• •?*■*
tube (neurochord) lying upon whencethey are discharged through
it; np, anterior neuropore; the atriopore into the water, where
m, position of posterior neur- fertilization takes place,
enteric canal. Development.— The development
of Amphioxus possesses many features of interest, and cannot
fail to retain its importance as an introduction to the study of
embryology. The four principal phases In the
are: (1) Btastnla, (s) Gastrula, (j) Flagellate Easbryo, (4)
Larva. The segmentation or cleavage of the ovum which I
upon fertilisation terminates In the achievement of the 1
form, a minute sphere of cells surrounding a central cavity.
Then follows the phenomenon of gastralatkn, by which oat-
half of the blastula is in vagina ted into the ether, so as to
obliterate the segmentation cavity. The embryo now consists
of two layers of cells, epiUast and hypoblast, snrroonrlieg a
cavity, the archenteron, which opens to the exterior by the
orifice of invagination or blastopore. One important fact stoats'
Fio. 6. — Anterior region of two pelagic larvae of A. 1
• • • • 'athoma, a
taioed by the tow-net in 8-10 fathoms, showing the atyetr; of
the large lateral sinistral mouth with its ciliated margin em and the
dextral series of simple primary gill-attts (i**-i4*«). The f
swim normally like the adult or suspend theanaeh
(not shown in the figures) vertically in mid-water.
' of life which will afford
in their mode <
bytSMar
There isi
explanation of the asym-
metry which b a developmental phenomenon, laflprwag «j mppm
fttnn.—UMp, Anterior neural pore; be, rudiment of buccal afccsetoa:
c, ctlia; «6, ciliated band; «, ciliated amove; ess, cilia at ■niaia
of mouth; ff, external opening of dub shaped gjsaad: Ire,
Hatachek'a nephridium; law, left m e tap le ur ; a, ao t c ch u n l; pp.
praeoral pit; ps. primary gul-alits, 1, 5, and 13; ram, right
pleur allowing through. Lettering #/ Umm jffttra ~
alimentary canal; Is, blood-veaad; cs, <
dorsal section of myocod (•■fin apacea); #,
endostyle; ff, dub-ehaped gland; lm\ edg e of left l
lower edge of mouth; a, notochord; nl» pigmen ted 1
ps, primary gUl-elita, 1, 9, and 14; re, renal cells on atrial Boar:
nw, edge of right metapleur; as, sense organ opening mto ptacocal
pit, ss, thickenings, the rudiments of the row of secondary gin sin
be noted with regard to the gastrula, in which it
differ from the gastrulae of invertebrate. After f
is completed, the embryo begins to elongate, the blastopore
becomes narrower, and the dorsal wall of the gastrula loses
its convexity, and becomes flattened to form the dorsal
plate, the outer layer of which Is the primordhun of the
neurochord and the inner layer the primordium of the nets-
chord. While stul within the egg-membrane the eptbbstk
cells become flagellated, and the gastrula routes within the
membrane. About the eighth hour after commencement of
development the membrane ruptures and the oval embryo
escapes, swimming by means of its flageUa at the surface of the
sea for another twenty-four hours, during which the principal
organs are laid down, although the mouth does not open nntj the
close of this period. The primordium of the neurochord (neural
or medullary plate) referred to above becomes dosed in from
the surface by the overgrowth of surrounding epflilast, and its
edges also bend up, meet, and finally fuse to form a tube, the
medullary or neural tube. An important fact to note is that the
blastopore is included in this overgrowt h of epiblaat, so that the
neural tube remains for some time in open communication vita
the archenteron by means of a posterior neurenteric canal It m
stul longer before the neural tube completes its closure in frost,
exhibiting a small orifice at the surface, the anterior n e ui opor e.
It is thus possible that the neurenteric canal is due to the cos-
junction of a posterior neuropore with the blastopore, ue. it is 1
complex and not a simple structure. Paired arcbenteric peerhes
AMPHIPOLIS— AMPHITHEATRE
&91
meanwhile appear at the tide* of the axial notochordal tract, the
mesoblutic somites. The first of these differs in several respects
from those which succeed, and has been called the collar cavity
(MacBride). In front of the latter there remains a portion of the
archentcron, which becomes constricted off as the head cavity.
This becomes divided into two, the right half forming the cavity
of the rostrum, while the left acquires an opening to the exterior,
and forms the praeoral pit of the larva, which subsequently gives
rise to special ciliated tracts in the vestibule of the mouth
mentioned above. The larval period commences at about the
thirty-sixth hour with the perforation of the mouth, first gfll-def t
and anus. The larva is curiously asymmetrical, as many aa
fourteen gill-clefts appearing in an unpaired series on the right
side, while the mouth is a large orifice on the left side, the anus
being median. The adult form is achieved by metamorphosis,
which cannot be further described here. One point must not be
omitted, namely, the homogeny of the endostyle of Amphioxus
and the thyroid gland of Craniate,
References.— T. Bcveri. " Die Nkre*iean&fchen de* AmphL
exus," Zooi Jakrb. An i v, 05$?)* p. 420; T~ Felix, " Btitrfige
stir Entwickdungsgeschkhtt; der Salmonidcn," Anal Htjte Arb.
viii. 1897; AmPkioxus, p. 333; T, Gafbowsld, Hl Amphioxus als
Grundlage der Mesoderm throne,'* Anai An. aiv. (189&). p 473 »
R. Hesse, " Die Seborcanc ilc? Amphi&xus" Zeiiickr. whs. Zool.
Ixiii. (1898), p 456; I. \V. Kirkaldy, H A Revision of the Genera And
Species of the BraiKniotttW.b?.' Quart. X Mic Sti. xjncvii ( rS$5).
p. 30^; E. R. Lankesu-r, " QonU (tuitions to the Knowledge of
Amphioxus lonceoktus (Yarn! I) , op. cU., xxU* {1**9}, p. 365
LworT, " Die Bildung der primirto Keimblatter und die Ei
steh ting der Chorda und !■ NfesodMtns bet den Wirbdihicren." fTi.„.
Soc. Moscow (1894); E. \V, MacBride, " The early Development of
' Die Bildung dir primirtn Keicnblatter und die Eat-
' ~ ' ' 'Me '
-- -..---,_„._ .Ml..
Am^hioxus" Quirt. J.^fkr. Sci. xL (1897)* P- 5*p. and xliti. {1900):
"* ' ""he Gasirulation of AmpkimnJ,'
T. H. Morgan and A. P> Hikh, + ' The
X. Morpkd. xvi. (1900). p. £69; P^ Sammasaa, " Studien iiber den
Einfluss dea Doners auj die Gaitrulatioti und die Bildung der
primlrea Ketmbtttter der Wirbehhiere : iv. Amphioxus" Auk. f.
Entwich. Meek. vii. (1696), p i ; G. Schneider, " Lijiigc* uber
Resorption und Excretion bei Amphiexus tanccolatui," Anal. An.
xvi. (1899), p. 601; J. Sobotta H * Die Reifung und Befruchtung ties
Eies von Amphioxus lanctolatus." Anh. mikr. Anai. I, (1897), p 15:
F.' E. Weiss, "Excretory tubules in Amphiwrtu Tanteotatus,
Quart, /. Micr. Sci. xxx\ (1890), p. 4*9 : A. U'illcy. AmfiMMus
and tke Ancestry of the Vertebrate* ( 1894) ; Remarks on some recent
Work on the Protochorda/' QuurL J. Mkr. Sci. aliii. (1899) P "3»
•' Dotichorhynchus indie jb" ib. U901); W, B. B^nham, " Hetero-
pleuron of New Zealand." ib. (1901); E* Burdiardt, "Finer
Anatomy of Amphioxus," with bibliography, Jam ZeUsthr. xxxiv.
(1900), p. 719. V (A.W.*)
AMPHIPOLIS (mod. Yens Keui), an andent dty of Macedonia,
on the east bank of the river Strymon, where it emerges from Lake
Cerdnitis, about 3 m. from the sea. Originally a Thradan town,
known as 'En4a *08ot (" Nine Roads "), it was colonized by
Athenians with other Greeks under Hagnon in 437 B.C., previous
attempts— in 497, 476 (SchoL Aesch. Defalt, let- 31) and 465—
having been unsuccessful In 424 b.c it surrendered to the
Spartan Brasidas without resistance, owing to the gross negli-
gence of the historian Thucydides, who was with the fleet at
Thasos. In 42s B.C. Qeon led an unsuccessful expedition to
recover it, in which both he and Brasidas were slain. The im-
portance of Amphipolis in andent times was due to the fact that
it commanded the bridge over the Strymon, and consequently the
route from northern Greece to the Hellespont; it was important
also aa a depot for the gold and silver mines of the district,
and for timber, which was largely used in shipbuilding. This
importance is shown by the fact that, in the peace of Nldaa
(421 B.C.), its restoration to Athens is made the subject of a
special provision, and that about 4x7, this provision not having
been observed, at least one expedition was made by Nidas with
a view to its recovery. Philip of Macedon made a special point of
occupying it (357), and under the early empire it became the
headquarters of the Roman propraetor, though it was recognized
aa independent Many inscriptions, coins, &c, have been found
here, and traces of the ancient fortifications and of a Roman
aqueduct are visible.
AMPHIPROSTTLB (from the Gr. aii/fl, on both sides, and
*-p6*rv\ot, a portico), the term for a temple (q.i.) with a portico
both in the front and in the rear.
AMPHI8BABH A (a Greek word, from aiijlt, both ways, and
palrur, to go), a serpent in ancient mythology, beginning or
ending at both head and tail alike. Its fabled existence has been
utilized by the poets, such as Milton, Pope and Tennyson. In
modern zoology it is the name given to the main genus of a
family of worm-shaped lizards, most of which inhabit the tropical
parts of America, the West Indies and Africa. The commonest
spedes in South America and the Antilles is the sooty or dusky
A. fuHginosa. The body of the amphisbaena, from 18 to 20 in.
long, is of nearly the same thickness throughout The head is
small, and there can scarcely be said to be a tail, the vent being
dose to the extremity of the body. The animal lives mostly
underground, burrowing in soft earth, and feeds on ants and
other small animals. From its appearance, and the ease with
Which it moves backwards, has arisen the popular belief that the
amphisbaena has two heads, and that when the body is cut in
two the parts seek each other out and reunite. From this has
arisen another popular error, which attributes extraordinary
curative properties to its flesh when dried and pulverized.
AMPHITHEATRE (Gr. dp#, around, and Bkarpov, a place
for spectators), a building in which the seats for spectators
surround the scene of the performance. The word was doubtless
coined by the Greeks of Campania, since it was here that the
gladiatorial shows for which the amphitheatre was primarily
used were first organized as public spectacles. The earliest
building of the kind still extant is that at Pompeii, built after
80 b.c It is called speetacula in a contemporary inscription.
The word ampkitkeatnsm is first found in writers of the
Augustan age.
In Italy, combats of gladiators at first took place in the
forums, where temporary wooden scaffoldings were erected for
the spectators; and Vitruvius gives this as the reason why
in that country the forums were in the shape of a parallelo-
gram instead of being squares as in Greece. Wild beasts
were also hunted in the circus. But towards the end of the
Roman republic, when the shows increased both in frequency
and in costliness, special buildings began to be provided for
The first amphitheatre at Rome was that constructed, 59 b.c,
by G- Scribonius Curia Pliny tells us that Curio built two
wooden theatres, which were placed back to back, and that after
the dramatic representations were finished, they were turned
round, with all the spectators in them, so as to make one circular
theatre, in the centre of which gladiators fought; but the story
is incredible, and must have arisen from the false translation
of d/i^iarpor by " double theatre." It is uncertain whether
Caesar, in 46 b.c, constructed a temporary amphitheatre of wood
for bis shows of wild beasts; at any rate, the first permanent
amphitheatre was built by C. Staulius Taurus in 29 b.c Probably
the shell only was of stone. It was burnt in the great fire of
aj>. 64.
We hear of an amphitheatre begun by Caligula and of a wooden
structure raised in the year aj>. 57 by Nero; but these were
superseded by the Ampkitkeatntm Planum (known at least since
the 8th century as the Colosseum, from its colossal size), which
was begun by Vespasian on the site of an artificial lake induded
in the Golden House of Nero, and inaugurated by Titus in
a.d. 80 with shows lasting one hundred days. It was several
times restored by the emperors, having been twice struck by
lightning in the 3rd century and twice damaged by earthquake
in the 5th. Gladiatorial shows were suppressed by Honorius in
aj>. 404, and wild beast shows are not recorded after the reign of
Theodoric (d. a.d. 526). In the 8th century Bede wrote Quamdim
stabit Coliseus, stabit ct Roma; quando cadet Coliseus, cadet et
Roma. A large part of the western arcades seem to have
collapsed in the earthquake of a.d. 1349, and their remains were
used in the Renaissance as a quarry for building materials (*./.
for the Palazzo di Venezia, the Cancelleria and the Palaz-o
Farnese).
Rome possesses the remains of a second amphitheatre on the
Esqufline, called by the chronologist of a.o. 354 Amphitkeatnm
Castrense, which probably means the " court " or " imperial "
892
AMPHITHEATRE
amphitheatre. Its fine brickwork seems to date from Trajan's
reign. It was included by Aurelian in the circuit of his wall.
The remains of numerous amphitheatres exist in the various
provinces of the empire. The finest are — in Italy, those of
Verona (probably of the Flavian period), Capua (built under
Hadrian) and Pozzuoli; in France, at Nlmes, Aries and Frejus;
in Spain, at Italica (near Seville); in Tunisia, at Thysdrus
(El-Jem); and at Pola, in Dalmatia. The builders often took
advantage of natural features, such as a depression between hills;
and ruder structures, mainly consisting of banked-up earth, are
found, e.g. at Silchester (Calleva) . The amphitheatre at Pompeii
(length 444 ft, breadth 342 ft, seating capacity 20,000) is formed
by a huge embankment of earth supported by a retaining wall
and high buttresses carrying arches. The stone scats (of which
there are thirty-five rows in three divisions) were only gradu-
ally constructed as the means of the community allowed.
Access to the highest seats was given by external staircases,
and there was no system of underground chambers for wild
beasts, combatants, &c.
In contrast to this simple structure the Colosseum represents
the most elaborate type of amphitheatre created by the architects
of the empire. Its external elevation consisted of four storeys.
The three lowest had arcades whose piers were adorned with
engaged columns of the three Greek orders. The arches numbered
eighty. Those of the basement storey served as entrances;
seventy-six were numbered and allotted to the general body of
spectators, those at the extremities of the major axis led into the
arena, and the boxes reserved for the emperor and the presiding
magistrate were approached from the extremities of the minor
axis. The higher arcades had a low parapet with (apparently) a
statue in each arch, and gave light and air to the passages which
surrounded the building. The openings of the arcades above the
principal entrances were larger than the rest, and were adorned
with figures of chariots. The highest stage was composed of a
continuous wall of masonry, pierced by forty small square
windows, and adorned with Corinthian pilasters. There was also
a series of brackets to support the poles on which the awning was
stretched.
The interior may be naturally divided into the arena and the
cavea (see annexed plan, which shows the Colosseum at two
different levels).
The arena was the portion assigned to the combatants, and
derived its name from the sand with which it was strewn, to
absorb the blood and prevent it from becoming slippery. Some
of the emperors showed their prodigality by substituting precious
powders, and even gold dust, for sand. The arena was generally
of the same shape as the amphitheatre itself, and was separated
from the spectators by a wall built perfectly smooth, that the wild
beasts might not by any possibility climb it At Rome it was
faced inside with polished marble, but at Pompeii it was simply
painted. For further security, it was surrounded by a metal
railing or network, and the arena was sometimes surrounded also
by a ditch (euripus), especially on account of the elephants.
Below the arena were subterranean chambers and passages. Creo
which wild beasts and gladiators were raised on movable pbl-
forms (pegmata) through trap-doors. Such chambers have beet
found in the amphitheatres of Capua and Pozzuoli as well as in
the Colosseum. Means were also provided by which the ansa
could be flooded when a sea-fight (naumackia) was exhibited, as
was done by Titus at the inauguration of the Colosseum.
The part assigned to the spectators was called catm. It was
divided into several galleries (maeniana) concentric with the
outer walls, and therefore, like them, of an elliptical form. The
place of honour was the lowest of these, nearest to the arena, and
called the podium. The divisions in it were larger, so as to be
able to contain movable seats. At Rome it was here that the
emperor sat, his box bearing the name of snggeMns, cuhkuimm or
pulvinar. The senators, principal magistrates, vestal virgtas,
the provider (editor) of the show, and other persons of note,
occupied the rest of the podium. At Nlmes, besides the high
officials of the town, the podium had places assigned to the
principal gilds, whose names are still seen inscribed upon it whk
the number of places reserved for each. In the Colosseum there
were three maeniana above the podium, separated from cadi
other by terraces (praecinctiones) and walls {ballet), and divided
vertically into wedge-shaped blocks (canes) by stairs. The lowest
was appropriated to the equestrian order, the highest was
covered in with a portico, whose roof formed a terrace 00 whka
spectators found standing room. Numerous passages (swattoru)
and small stairs gave access to them; while long covtrtu
corridors, behind and below them, served for shelter in the eveai
of rain. At Pompeii each place was numbered, and elsewhere
their extent is defined by little marks cut in the stone. The
spectators were admitted by tickets (tesserae), and order preserved
by a staff of officers appointed for the purpose.
The height of the Colosseum is about 160 ft.; but the fourth
storey in its present form is not earlier in date than the yi
century a.o. It seems to have been originally of wood, since aa
inscription of the year a.o. 80 mentions the summum mmnoi
in iigneis. It is stated in the Notitia Urbis Romae (4th century)
that the Colosseum contained 87,000 places; but Huetsea calcs-
lates that the seats would accommodate 45,000 persons at most
besides whom 5000 could find standing room. The exaggerated
estimate is due to the fact that space was allotted to corporate
bodies, whose numbers were taken as data. The greatest lesgtk
is about 615 ft, and the length of the shorter axis of the ellipse
about 510 ft The dimensions of the arena were 181 ft by 1 77 ft-
Thc following table, giving the dimensions of some of the
principal amphitheatres, is based mainly on the figures gives by
Fricdlander (/.c.).—
Entiie Building.
AasxA.
Greater
Shorter
Greater
«
Rome (Colosseum) .
Axis.
Axis.
Axis.
Axis.
615
510I
281
177
Capua ....
Julia Caesarea .
Italica (Seville) . .
557
55 «
*.
25°
459
148
197
5U
4391
Verona ....
5<"f
a
248
usl
Thysdrus ....
488
308
197
Tarraco ....
486
1
277
1*1
Pozzuoli ....
482
*36|
137}
Tours
472
2*3
9*
Pola
4491
367»
«30
to!
Aries
448
352
229,
1*9
Pompeii ....
444
34*
2181
1^5
Ntmes ....
440
336
227
i*oi
BiBLiocaAPHY. — Arts. " Amphitheatrum ** in Smith'* Dicti**srj
of Creek and Roman Antiquities (3rd ed., 1890), and in Damaberf
and Saglio's Dictionnaire des anhquitis; Friedl&nder, £crs*ntfa«frs
ousderSittentesckichte Rams (6th ed.. 188&-1890), vol. iL pp. 551 -6ao;
Durm, CescktchU der Baukunst, II. 1 (1905). 360 n. Of oMer iwH
J. Lipsius, De Ampkilheatris (1585): Carlo Fonrana. UAnpfZ*
Flamo (1725); and Maffd, Verona IUustnta, voL u. (1826). art
worthy of mention. For the amphitheatre at Pompeii, tee Maw-Kefae*
AMPHITHEATRE
Plate II.
AMPHITHEATRE
Plate IV.
AMPHITHEATRE
AMPHITRITE— AMPTHILL
893
Pempeti, Us Lift and Art (and ed. 1904), chap. 30; (or the Colos-
"* J " Remains of Ancient Rom
Flavium Amphitheatrura
sewn, Middleton, JRemains of Ancient Rome, it. pp. 78-1 io, and
"in Pauly-WiMowa,
Huelsen's art.
ReaUncydopddu.
(H. S. J.)
AHPHiTHiTfi, in ancient Greek mythology, a. sea-goddess,
daughter of Nereus (or Oceanus) and wife of Poseidon. She
was so entirely confined in her authority to the sea and the
creatures in it, that she was never associated with her husband
either for purposes of worship or in works of art, except when he
was to be distinctly regarded as the god who controlled the sea.
She was one of the Nereids, and distinguishable from the others
only by her queenly attributes. It was said that Poseidon saw
her first dancing at Naxos among the other Nereids, and carried
her off (Schol. on Od. iii. 91). But in another version of the myth,
she then fled from him to the farthest ends of the sea, where the
dolphin of Poseidon found her, and was rewarded by being placed
among the stars (Eratosthenes, Catast. 32). In works of art
the is represented either enthroned beside him, or driving with
him in a chariot drawn by sea-horses or other fabulous creatures
of the deep, and attended by Tritons and Nereids. In poetry her
name is often used for the sea.
AMPHITRYON, in Greek mythology, son of Alcaeus, king of
Tiryns in Argolis. Having accidentally killed his uncle Electryon,
king of Mycenae, he was driven out by another uncle, Sthenelus.
He fled with Alcmene, Electryon 's daughter, to Thebes, where he
was cleansed from the guilt of blood by Creon, his maternal uncle,
king of Thebes. Alcmene, who had been betrothed to Amphi-
tryon by her father, refused to marry him until he had avenged
the death of her brothers, all of whom except one had fallen in
battle against the Taphians. It was on his return from this
expedition that Electryon had been killed. Amphitryon accord-
ingly took the field against the Taphians, accompanied by Creon,
who had agreed to assist him on condition that he slew the
Teumessian fox which had been sent by Dionysus to ravage
the country. The Taphians, however, remained invincible until
Comaetho, the king's daughter, out of love for Amphitryon cut
off her father's golden hair, the possession of which rendered
him immortal. Having defeated the enemy, Amphitryon put
Comaetho to death and handed over the kingdom of the Taphians
to Cephalus. On his return to Thebes he married Alcmene, who
gave birth to twin sons, Iphides being the son of Amphitryon,
Heracles of Zeus, who had visited her during Amphitryon's
absence. He fell in battle against the Minyans, against whom
he had undertaken an expedition, accompanied by the youthful
Heracles, to deliver Thebes from a disgraceful tribute. Accord-
ing to Euripides (Hercules Furens) he survived this expedition,
and was slain by his son in his madness. Amphitryon was the
title of a lost tragedy of Sophocles; the episode of Zeus and
Alcmene forms the subject of comedies by Plautus and Moliere.
From Molierc's line " Le veritable Amphitryon est I'Ainphitryon
oil Ton dine " (Amphitryon, iii. 5), the name Amphitryon has
come to be used in the sense of a generous entertainer, a good
host.
Apollodorus ii. 4; Herodotus v. 59; Pausanias viii. 14, ix, 10,
11,17; Hesiod, Shield, 1.56 ; Pindar, Pythia, ix. 81 .
AMPHORA (a Latin word from Gr. A/i^opcfc, derived from
6/u0t, on both sides, and $kpav t to bear), a large big-bellied
vessel used by the ancient Greeks and Romans for preserving
wine, oil, honey, and fruits; and in later times as a cinerary urn.
It was so named from usually having an ear or handle on each
aide of the neck (di&ta). It was commonly made of earthenware,
but sometimes of stone, glass or even more costly materials.
Amphorae either rested on a foot, or ended in a point so that
they had to be fixed in the ground. The older amphorae were
oval-shaped, such as the vases filled with oil for prizes at the
Panathenaic festival, having on one side a figure of Athena, on
the other a representation of the contest; the latter were tall
and slender, with voluted handles. The first class exhibits black
figures on a reddish background, the second red figures on a black
ground. The amphora was a standard measure of capacity
among both Greeks and Romans, the Attic containing nearly
nine gallons, and the Roman about six. In modern botany it is a
technical term sometimes denoting the lower part of the capsule
called pyxidium, attached to the flower stalk in the form of an
urn,
AMPUATIVE (from Lat. ampliare, to enlarge), an adjective
used mainly in logic, meaning " extending " or " adding to that
which is already known." In Norman law an " ampliation "
was a postponement of a sentence in order to obtain further
evidence.
AMPLITUDE (from Lat ampins, large), in astronomy, the
angular distance of the rising or setting sun, or other heavenly
body, from the east or west point of the horizon; used mostly by
navigators in finding the variation of the compass by the setting
sun. In algebra, if a be a real positive quantity and » a root
of unity, then a is the amplitude of the product a».. In elliptic in-
tegrals, the amplitude is the limit of integration when the integral is
expressed In the tormff^i-N* sin 1 d<p. The hyperbolic or
Gudermannian amplitude of the quantity * is tan (sinh x).
In mechanics, the amplitude of a wave is the maximum ordinate.
(See Wave.)
AMPSANCTUS, or Axsanctus (mod. SorgenU Mejita), a small
lake in the territory of the Hirpini, 10 m. S.E. of Aedanum,
close to the Via Appia. There are now two small pools which
exhale carbonic acid gas and sulphuretted hydrogen. Close by
was a temple of the goddess Mephitis, with a cave from which
suffocating vapours rose, and for this reason the place was
brought into connexion with the legends of the infernal regions.
Virgil's description (Aeneid, vii. 563) is not, however, ytty
accurate.
AMPTHILL, 0D0 WILLIAM LEOPOLD RUSSELL, ist Baron
(1829-2884), British diplomatist and ambassador, was born in
Florence on the 30th of February 1829. He was the son of Major-
General Lord George William Russell, by Elizabeth Ann, niece of
the marquess of Hastings, who was governor-general of India
during the final struggle with the Mahrattas. His education,
like that of his two brothers— Hastings, who became eventually
9th duke of Bedford, and Arthur, who sat for a generation in the
House of Commons as member for Tavistock— was carried on
entirely at home, under the general direction of his mother, whose
beauty was celebrated by Byron in Beppo. Lady William
Russell was as strong-willed as she was beautiful, and certainly
deserved to be described as she was by Disraeli, who said in con-
versation, " I think she is the most fortunate woman in England,
for she has the three nicest sons." If it had not been for her strong
will it is as likely as not that all the three would have gone through
the usual mill of a public school, and have lost half their very
peculiar charm. In March 1849 Odo was appointed by Lord
Malmesbury attache* at Vienna. From 2850 to 1852 he was
temporarily employed in the foreign office, whence he passed to
Paris. He remained there, however, only about two months,
when he was transferred to Vienna. In 1853 he became second
paid attache 1 at Paris, and in August 1854 he was transferred
as first paid attache* to Constantinople, where he served under
Lord Stratford de Reddiffe. He had charge of the embassy
during his chief's two visits to the Crimea in 1855, but left the
East to work under Lord Napier at Washington in 1857. In the
following year he became secretary of legation at Florence, but
was detached from that place to reside in Rome, where he
remained for twelve years, till August 2870. During all that
period he was the real though unofficial representative of England
at the Vatican, and his consummate tact enabled him to do all,
and more than all, that an ordinary man could have done in a
stronger position. A reference, however, to his evidence before
a committee of the House of Commons in 1872 will make it clear
to any unprejudiced reader that those were right who, during the
early 'fifties, urged so strongly the importance of having a duly
accredited agent at the papal court. The line taken by him
during the Vatican council has been criticized, but no fault can
justly be found with it. Abreast as he was of the best thought of
his time — the brother of Arthur Russell, who, more perhaps than
any other man, was its most ideal representative in London
society— he sympathized strongly with the views of those who
8 9 4
AMPTHILLr-AMRAOTI
laboured to prevent the extreme partisans of papal infallibility
from having everything their own way. But in his capacity of
clear-headed observer, whose business it was to reflect the actual
truth upon the mind of his government, he was obliged to make
fl quite clear that they had no chance whatever, and in conversing
wtth those whose opinions were quite unlike his own, such as
Cardinal Manning,he seems to have shown that he had no illusions
about the result of the long debate. In z868 Odo Russell
married Lady Emily Theresa ViUiers, the daughter of Lord
Clarendon. In 1870 he was appointed assistant under-secretary
at the foreign office, and in November of that year was sent on a
special mission to the headquarters of the German army, where he
remained till 1871.
It was in connexion with this mission that an episode occurred
which at the time threw much discredit upon Gladstone's
government. Russia had taken advantage of the collapse of
France and her own cordial relations with Prussia to denounce
the Black Sea clauses of the treaty of Paris of 1856. Russell, in
an interview with Bismarck, pointed out that unless Russia
withdrew from an attitude which involved the destruction of a
treaty solemnly guaranteed by the powers, Great Britain would
be forced to go to war " with or without allies." This strong
attitude was effective, and the question was ultimately referred
to and settled by the conference which met at London in 2871.
Though the result was to score a distinct diplomatic success for
the Liberal government, the bellicose*method employed wounded
Liberal sentiment and threatened to create trouble for the
ministry in parliament. On the 16th of February 1871, accord-
ingly, Gladstone, in answer to a question, said that " the argu-
ment used by Mr Odo Russell was not one which had been
directed by her Majesty's government," that it was used by him
" without any specific instructions or authority from the govern-
ment/ 1 but that, at the same time, no blame was to be attached
to him, as it was " perfectly well known that the duty of diplo-
matic agents requires them to express themselves in that mode
in which they think they can best support and recommend the
propositions of which they wish to procure acceptance." This
Gladstonian explanation was widely criticized as an illegitimate
attack on Russell. What is certain is that the foreign office
and the country profited by Russell's firmness. (See Morley's
Gladstone, ii. 534.)
A little later in the same year he received the well-deserved
reward of his labours by being made ambassador at Berlin.
During the months he passed at the foreign office he was
examined before the committee of the House of Commons,
already alluded to, and had an opportunity of staling very dis-
tinctly in public some of his views with regard to his profession.
" If you could only organize diplomacy properly/' he said, " you
would create a body of men who might influence the destinies of
mankind and ensure the peace of the world." In these words
we have the key to the thought and habitual action of one of the
best and wisest public servants of the time.
Russell remained at Berlin, with only brief intervals of
absence, from the x6th of October 1871 till his death at Potsdam
on the 2 5th of August z 884. He was third plenipotentiary at the
Berlin congress, and is generally credited with having prevented,
by his tact and good sense, the British prime minister from
making a speech in French, which he knew very imperfectly and
pronounced abominably. In 1874 Odo Russell received a patent
of precedence raising him to the rank of a duke's son, and after
the congress of Berlin he was offered a peerage by the Conservative
government This he naturally declined, but accepted the
honour in i88z when it was offered by the Liberals, taking the
title of Baron AmpthilL He became a privy councillor in 2872
and was made a G.CJ3. somewhat later. At the conference about
the Greek frontier, which followed the congress of Berlin, he was
the only British representative. During all his long sojourn in
the Prussian capital, he did everything that in him lay to bring
about dose and friendly relations between Great Britain and
Germany. He kept on the best of terms with Bismarck, carefully
avoiding everything that could give any cause of offence to that
most jealous and moat unscrupulous minister, whom he, however,
did not hesitate to withstand when his unscrupcdoesneas wot
the length of deliberately attempting to deceive.
He was succeeded as 2nd baron by his son, AjtTHum Ouvxx
Viluers Russell (b. 1869), who rowed in the Oxford eight (ifi&*
1800, 1891) and became a prominent Unionist polilirim. Ha
was private secretary to Mr Chamberlain, 1805-1897, and
governor of Madras, 1890-1006. In 1904 he acted tenparaorj
as Viceroy of India. (U. G. Dj
AMPTHILL* a market town in the northern partis snqilsrj
division of Bedfordshire, England, 44 m. N-N.W. of London by
the Midland railway. Pop. of urban district (1901) «77- h
lies on the southern slope of a low range of hills, in a weB-woodea
district. The church of .St Andrew ranges in date froen £an>
English to Perpendicular. It contains a monument to Rkhaed
Nicolls (1624-1672), who, under the patronage of the duke of
York, brother to Charles II., to whom the king had granted the
Dutch North American colony of New Nethertand, r ec ei ved the
submission of its chief town, New Amsterdam, in 1664, and
became its first English governor, the town taking the name cf
New York. Nicolls perished in the action between the Engfiafc
and Dutch fleets at Solebay, and the ball which killed him n
preserved on his tomb. Houghton Park, fn the vicinity, contains
the ruins of Houghton House, built by Mary, countess erf Pem-
broke, in the time of James I. To this countess Sir Philip Sidney
dedicated the Arcadia. Ampthill Park became in 181 8 thescatof
that Lord Holland in whose time Holland House, in Kensington.
London, became famous as a resort of the most djstjnenwnwl
intellectual society. In the park a cross marks the site of AmpcktU
Castle, the residence of Catherine of Aragon while her drvorce
from Henry VIII. was pending. A commemorative i
on the cross was written by Horace Walpole.
plaiting and lace-making are carried on in AmpthilL
AMPULLA (either a diminutive of amphora, or from Lavt. «■**,
both, and olla, a pot), a small, narrow-necked, round-bodied vase
for holding liquids, especially oil and perfumes. It is the Laun
term equivalent to the Greek Xfctdot. It was used in ancient
times for toilet purposes and anointing the bodies of the dead, being
then buried with them. Gildas mentions the use of amaaWlm at
established among the Britons in his time, and St Cohunhnis said
to have employed one in the coronation of King Aidan. Bon
the name and the function of the ampulla have sur v iv e d in the
Western Church, where it still signifies the vessel containing thecal
consecrated by the bishop for ritual uses, especially in the sacra-
ments of Confirmation, Orders and Extreme Unction. The word
occurs repeatedly in the service of coronation of the English
sovereign in connexion with the ancient ceremony of anointinf
by the archbishop of Canterbury, which is still observed. The
ampulla of the regalia of England takes the form of a golden eagk
with outspread wings. The most celebrated "»p«^ in feostorj
was that known as la sainte ampoule, in the abbey of St Read at
Reims, from which the kings of France were anointed. Accord-
ing to the legend it had been brought from heaven by a dove for
the coronation of Clovis, and at one period the kings of France
claimed precedence over all other sovereigns on account of it. It
was destroyed at the Revolution. The word " ampulla " is used
in biology, by analogy from the shape, for a certain portion of the
anatomy of a plant or animaL
AMRAM (d. 875), a famous goon or bead of the Jewish
Academy of Sura (Persia) in the 9th century. He was author of
many " Responsa,^ but his chief work was liturgicaL He was
the first to arrange a complete liturgy for the synagogue, and hn
Prayer-Book (Siddur Rab *Amram) was the foundation of meat
of the extant rites in use among the Jews, The Siddm was
published in Warsaw in two parts (1865).
AM RAOTI, or Umxawattee, a town and district of IndU. si
Bcrar, Central Provinces. The district was reconstituted m
1005, when that of Ellichpur was incorporated with it. The
town has a station 6^ m. from Badnera junction on the
Great Indian Peninsula line. Pop. (ioot) 34,116, showing aa
increase of 39% in the decade. It is the richest town of Berar,
with the most numerous and substantial commercial population
It possesses a branch of the Bank of Bombay, aadhasthelaifeat
AMRAVATI— AMRITSAR
8 9S
cotton mart, where an average of 80,593 lojas of cotton are bought
and sold annually. It has also a large grain market, cotton
presses, ginning factories and oil mills. Amraoti raw cotton is
quoted on the Liverpool Exchange.
The district of Amraoti has an area of 4754 sq. m. In 1901
the population was 630,245, showing a decrease of 4% in the
decade; on the area as now constituted it was 809,490. The
district is an extensive plain, about 800 ft above sea-level, the
general flatness being only broken by a small chain of hills,
running in a north-westerly direction between Amraoti and
Chandor, with an average height from 400 to 500 ft above the
lowlands. The principal towns, besides Amraoti, are Karinja,
Kolapur, and Badnera, which lies on the Great Indian Peninsula
railway, the main line of which crosses the district Severe
drought visited Amraoti in 1800-1900.
AMRAVATI, or Amaravati, a ruined city of India in the
Guntur district of the Madras presidency, on the south bank
of the Kistna river, 62 m. from its mouth. The town is of
great interest for the antiquary as one of the chief centres of
the Buddhist kingdom of Vengi, and for its stupa (sepulchral
monument). Amravati has been identified with Hsuan Tsang's
To-na-kie-tse-kia and with the Rahmi of Arab geographers.
Subsequent to the disappearance of Buddhism from this region
the town became a centre of the Sivaite faith. When Hsuan
Tsang visited Amravati in aj>. 639 it had already been deserted
for a century, but he speaks in glowing terms of its magnificence
and beauty. Very careful and artistic representations of the stupa
with its daghoba and interesting rail, pillars and sculptures will
be found in Fergusson's Tree and Serpent Worship, and in his
History of Indian Architecture (1876). Its elaborate carvings
illustrate the life of Buddha. Some are preserved in the
British Museum; others in the museum at Madras.
An account by Dr James Burgess was published in 1877 as one of
the volumes of the Archaeological Survey of Southern India.
'AMR-IBN-EL-ASS, or 'Amr (strictly 'Amr b. 'As), one of the
most famous of the first race of the Saracen leaders, was of the
tribe of Koreish (Qureish). In his youth he was an antagonist of
Mahomet. His zeal prompted him to undertake an embassy to
the king of Ethiopia, in order to stimulate him against the con-
verts whom he had taken under his protection, but he returned a
convert to the Mahommedan faith and joined the fugitive prophet
at Medina. When Abu Bekr resolved to invade Syria, he en-
trusted 'Amr with a high command. 'Amr soon perceived that
his troops were not sufficient for a serious battle. Reinforced by
Khalid b. al-Walld, whom Abu Bekr sent in all haste from Irak to
Syria, he defeated the imperial troops, commanded by Theodoras,
the brother of Heraclius, not far from Ramleh in Palestine, on
the 31st of July 634. When Omar became caliph he made
Khftlid chief commander of the Syrian armies, 'Amr remaining in
Palestine to complete the submission of that province. It is not
certain that 'Amr assisted Khalid in the siege of Damascus, but
very probable that he took part in the decisive battle of Yarmuk,
20th of August 636. After this battle he laid siege to Jerusalem,
in which enterprise he was seconded a year later by Abu Obeida,
then chief commander. After the surrender of Jerusalem 'Amr
began the siege of Caesarca, which, however, was brought to a
successful end in September or October 640 by Moawiya, 'Amr
having obtained Omar's sanction for an expedition against
Egypt Towards the end of 639 he led an army of 4000 Arabs
into that country. During his march a messenger from Omar
arrived with a letter containing directions to return if he should
have received it in Syria, but if in Egypt to advance, in which
case all needful assistance would be instantly sent to him. The
contents of the letter were not made known to his officers until he
was assured that the army was on Egyptian soil, so that the
expedition might be continued under the sanction of Omar's
orders. Having taken Farama (Pelusium), he advanced to Misr,
north of the ancient Memphis, and besieged it and the strong
fortress of Babylon for seven months. Although numerous rein-
forcements arrived, he would have found it very difficult to storm
the place previous to the inundation of the Nile but for treachery
within the citadel; the Greeks who remained there were either
made prisoners or put to the sword. On the same spot 'Amr
built a city named Fostat (" the encampment "), the ruins of
which are known by the name of Old Cairo. The mosque which
he erected and called by his own name is described in Asiatic
Journal (1800), p. 759. 'Amr pursued the Greeks to Alexandria,
but finding that it was impossible to take the place by storm, he
contented himself with blockading it with the greater part of his
army, and reducing the Delta to submission with the rest At
the end of twelve months Alexandria sued for peace, and a treaty
was signed on the 8th of November 641. To 'Amr acting on
Omar's command has been attributed the burning of the famous
Alexandrian library. (See Libraries and Alexandria.) Not
only is this act of barbarism inconsistent with the characters of
Omar and his general, but the earliest authority for the story is
Abulfaragius (Barhebraeus), a Christian writer, who lived six
centuries later. After the conquest of Egypt 'Amr carried his
conquests eastward along the North African coast as far as Barca
and even Tripolis. His administration of Egypt was moderate
and statesmanlike, and under his rule the produce of the Nile
Valley was a constant source of supply to the cities of Arabia.
He even reopened a canal at least 80 m. long from the Nile to the
Red Sea with the object of renewing communication by sea.
Removed from his office by Othman in 647, who replaced him by
Ibn abi Sarh, he sided with Moawiya in the contest for the cali-
phate, and was largely responsible for the deposition of Ali (q.v.)
and the establishment of the Omayyad dynasty. (See Caliphate,
section B.) In 658 he reconquered Egypt in Moawiya's interest,
and governed it till his death on the 6th of January 664. In a
pathetic speech to his children on his deathbed, he bitterly
lamented his youthful offence in opposing the prophet, although
Mahomet had forgiven him and had frequently affirmed that
" there was no Mussulman more sincere and steadfast in the
faith than 'Amr."
Sir W. Muir, The Caliphate (London, 1891); E. Gibbon's Decline
and Fall; M.J. de Goeje, Mimoire sur la conquHe de la Syrie (Leiden,
1900); Butter, Arab Conquest oj Egypt (Oxford, 1902); art, Egypt,
History, Mahommedan Period.
'AMR IBN KULTHtlM, Arabian poet, author of one of the
Mo'allakat Little or nothing is known of his life save that he
was a member of the tribe of Taghlib and that he is said to have
died of excessive wine-drinking. Some stories of him are told in
the Book of Songs (see Abulfaraj), vol. ix. pp. 181-185.
AMRITSAR, or Umritsar, a city and district of British India,
in the Lahore division of the Punjab. The city has a station on
the North Western railway 32 m. E. of Lahore, its position on
which has greatly assisted its development. Amritsar is chiefly
notable as the centreof the Sikh religion and the site of the Golden
Temple, the chief worshipping place of the Sikhs. Ram Das, the
fourth guru, laid the foundations of the city upon a site granted
by the emperor Akbar. He also excavated the holy tank from
which the town derives its name of Amrita Turas, or Pool of
Immortality. It is upon a small island in the middle of this
tank that the Golden Temple is now situated. About two
centuries afterwards, in the course of the struggle between the
Sikhs and the Mahommedans, Ahmad Shah Durani routed the
Sikhs at the great battle of Panipat, and on his homeward march
he destroyed the town of Amritsar, blew up the temple with
gunpowder, filled in the sacred tank with mud, and defiled the
holy place by the slaughter of cows. But when Ahmad Shah
returned to Kabul the Sikhs rose once more and re-established
their religion. Finally the city and surrounding district fell under
the sway of Ranjit Singh at Lahore, and passed with the rest of
the Punjab into the possession of the British after the second
Sikh war. The Golden Temple is so called on account of its
copper dome, covered with gold foil, which shines brilliantly in
the rays of the Indian sun, and is reflected back from the waters
of the lake; but the building as a whole is too squat to have
much architectural merit apart from its ornamentation. Marble
terraces and balustrades surround the tank, and a marble cause-
way leads across the water to the temple, whose gilded walls,
roof, dome and cupolas, with vivid touches of red curtains,
are reflected in the still water. The temple was considerably
896
AMROHA— AMSTERDAM
enriched by the spoils taken by Ranjit Singh in his conquests.
The population of Amritsar in 1001 was 162,429. A Sikh college
for university education was opened in 1897. The other public
buildings include two churches, a town hall and a hospital.
Amritsar is famous for its carpet-weaving industry. It was the
first mission station of the church of England in the Punjab.
The district is bounded on the N.W. by the river Ravi, on the
S.E. by the river Beas, on the N.E. by the district of Gurdaspur,
and on the S.W. by the district of Lahore. Amritsar district is a
nearly level plain, with a very slight slope from east to west.
The banks of the Beas are high, and on this side of the district
well-water is not found except at 50 ft. below the surface; while
towards the Ravi wells are less than 20 ft. in depth. The only
stream passing through the district is the Kirni or Said, which
takes its rise in a marsh in the Gurdaspur district, and after
traversing part of the district empties itself into the Ravi.
Numerous canals intersect the district, affording ample means of
irrigation. The Sind, Punjab and Delhi railway (North Western)
and Grand Trunk road, which runs parallel with it, afford the
principal means of land communication and traffic The area
of the district is 160 1 sq. m.; pop. (1901) 1,023,828, showing an
increase of 3 % on the previous decade. It is the headquarters of
the Sikh religion, containing 264,329 Sikhs as against 280,985
Hindus and 474,976 Mahommedans. The principal crops are
wheat, pulse, maize, millet, with some cotton and sugar-cane.
There are factories for ginning and pressing cotton.
AMROHA, a town of British India, in the Moradabad dis-
trict of the United Provinces. It contains the tomb of a Mahom-
medan saint, Shaikh Saddu, and has been for many centuries
a Mahommedan centre. Pop. (xooi) 40,077.
AMRUM , or Amsom, a German island in the North Sea, off the
coast of Schleswig-Holstein to the south of SylL Pop. (1900) 900.
It is 6 m. long and 3 m. broad, with an area of 10$ sq. m., and is
reached from the mainland by a regular steamboat service to
WittdUn, a favourite sea-bathing resort; or at low water by
carriage from Ftthr. The larger part of Amrum consists of a
treeless sandy expanse, but a fringe of rich marshes affords
good pasture-land. The principal place is Nebel, connected by a
light railway with Wittdun. (See also Frisian Islands.)
AMRU'-UL-QAIS, or Iintu'-ui. Qais, IBN HUJR, Arabian
poet of the 6th century, the author of one of the Mo'allakit (?.«.),
was regarded by Mahomet and others as the most distinguished
poet of pre-Islamic times. He was of the kingly family of Kinda,
and his mother was of the tribe of Taghh'b. While he was still
young, his father was killed by the Bani Asad. After this his life
was devoted to the attempt to avenge his father's death. He
wandered from tribe to tribe to gain assistance, but his attempts
were always foiled by the persistent following of the messengers
of Mundhir of Hira (rjlra). At last he went to the Jewish
Arabian prince, Samu'al, left his daughter and treasure with
him, and by means of Harith of Ghassan procured an introduc-
tion to the Byzantine emperor Justinian. After a long stay in
Constantinople he was named phylarch of Palestine, and received
a body of troops from Justin II. With these he started on his
way to Arabia. It is said that a man of Asad, who had followed
him to Constantinople, charged him before the emperor with the
seduction of a princess, and that Justin sent him a poisoned
cloak, which caused his death at Ancyra.
His poems are contained in W. Ahlwardt's The Divans of Ike six
Dichter und Konig (Stuttgart, 1 843). Many stories of his life are told
in the Kitdb ul-Aghdni, voL viii. pp. 62-77. (G. W. T.)
AMSDORP, NICOLAUS VON (1483-1565), German Protestant
reformer, was born on the 3rd of December 1483 at Torgau, on
the Elbe. He was educated at Leipzig, and then at Wittenberg,
where he was one of the first who matriculated (1502) in the
recently founded university. He soon obtained various academi-
cal honours, and became professor of theology in 1511. Like
Andreas Carlstadt, he was at first a leading exponent of the older
type of scholastic theology, but under the influence of Luther
abandoned his Aristotelian positions for a theology based on the
Augustinian doctrine of grace. Throughout his Kfe he 1
one of Luther's most determined supporters; was with hua at
the Leipzig conference (25x9), and the diet of Worms (1521);
and was in the secret of his Wartburg seclusion. He assisted tht
first efforts of the Reformation at Magdeburg (1524)* ** Cosh*
(1531) and at Einbeck (1534); took an active part in the debases
at Schmalkalden (1537), where he defended the use of the sacra-
ment by the unbelieving; and (1539) spoke out strongly *ga*ast
the bigamy of the landgrave of Hesse. After the death of ibt
count palatine, bishop of Naumburg-Zcttz, he was imtaBrd
there (January 20, X542), though in opposition to the chapter, by
the elector of Saxony and Luther. Hfc position was a patinful one,
and he longed to get back to Magdeburg, but was pc rr waiVd
by Luther to stay. After Luther's death (x $46) and the battle of
Mtthlberg (1547) he had to yield to his rival, Julius von Pfhig. a&d
retire to the protection of the young duke of Weimar. Here he
took part in founding Jena University (1548); opposed the
" Augsburg Interim " (1548); superintended the publiratkn of
the Jena edition of Luther's works; and debated an the freedom
of the will, original sin, and, more noticeably, oa the Christian
value of good works, in regard to which he held that they were
not only useless, but prejudicial He urged the separation of the
High Lutheran party from Melanchthon (i$57)t got the Saxaa
dukes to oppose the Frankfort Recess (1558) and continued to
fight for the purity of Lutheran doctrine. He died at Eisenach oa
the 14th of May 1565, and was buried in the church of St George
there, where his effigy shows a well-knit frame and sharp-cm
features. He was a man of strong will, of great aptitude far
controversy, and considerable learning, and thus exercised a
decided influence on the Reformation. Many letters and other
short productions of his pen are extant in MS^ especially fire
thick volumes of Amsdorfiana, in the Weimar library- They are
a valuable source for our knowledge of Luther. A snail sect,
which adopted his opinion on good works, was called after hon;
but it is now of mere historical interest.
Bibliography.— Life, in Th. Presset. Lebeu «. amigrmSlIt* Stii ijL
RuAe*cyh.S*r proL TheologU (3rd ed., Leipzig, 1896).
AMSLBR, SAMUEL (1791-1849), Swiss engraver, was horn at
Schinsnach, in the canton of Aargau. He studied hts art under
Johan Heinrich Lips (1758-18x7) and Karl Ernst Hess, at
Munich, and from x8x6 pursued it in Italy, and chiefly at Rome,
till in 1829 he succeeded his former master Hess as professor
of copper engraving in the Munich academy. The works he
designed and engraved are remarkable for the grace of the
figures, and for the wonderful skill with which he retains and
expresses the characteristics of the original paintings and
statues. He was a passionate admirer of Raphael, and had great
success in reproducing his works. Amsler's principal engravings
are: "The Triumphal March of Alexander the Great," and
a full-length " Christ," after the sculptures of Thorwaldsen
and Dannecker; the "Entombment of Christ," and two
" Madonnas " after Raphael; and the " Union between ReUgxa
and the Arts," after Overbeds, his last work, on whkh he spent
six years.
AMSTERDAM, the chief city of Holland, m the province of
North Holland, on the south side of the Y or Ij, an arm of the
Zuidcr Zee, in 52° 22' N. and 4° 53' E. Pop. (xooo) 523.557-
It has communication by railway and canal in every direction;
steam-tramways connect it with Edam, Purmercnd, AOunaar
and Hilversum, and electric railways with Haarlem and the sea-
side resort of Zandvoort. Amsterdam, the " dam or dyke of the
Amstcl," is so called from the Amstcl, the canalised river whka
passes through the city to the Y. Towards the land the city s
surrounded by a semicircular fosse or canal, and was at one time
regularly fortified; but the ramparts have been demolished and
arc replaced by fine gardens and houses, and only one gateway,
the Muidcrpoort, is still standing. Within the city arc four
similar canals (grockten) with their ends resting on the Y, cstesd»
ing in the form of polygonal crescents nearly parallel to each
AMSTERDAM
897
other and Co the outer canaL Bach of these canals marks the
fine of the city wails and moat at different periods. Lesser
canab intersect the others radially, thus virtually dividing the
city into a number of islands; whence it has been compared with,
Venice. The nucleus of the town lies within the innrrmost
crescent canal, and, with the large square, the Dam, in the centre,
represents the area of Amsterdam about the middle of the 14th
century. At one extremity of the enclosing canal is the Schrd-
jerstoren (1482) or " Weepers' Tower," so called on account of
its being at the head of the ancient harbour, and the scene in
former days of sorrowful leave-takings. Between this and the
next crescent of the Heeren Gracht sprang up, on the east, the
labyrinthine quarter where for more than three centuries the
large Jewish population has been located, and in the middle of
which the painter Rembrandt lived (1640-1656) and the philo-
sopher Spinoza was born (163a). Beyond the Heeren Gracht lie
the Keizers Gracht and the Prinsen Gracht respectively, and these
three celebrated canals, with their tree-bordered quays and plain
but stately old-fashioned houses, form the principal thorough-
fares of the dty. West of the Prinsen Gracht lies the region
called De Jordaan, a corruption of Le Jardin, the name which it
acquired from the fact of its streets being called after various
flowers. It was f ormedby the settlement of French refugees here
after the revocation of the edict of Nantes. The outermost
crescent canal is called the Singel Gracht (girdle canal), and
marks the boundary of the dty at the end of the 17th century.
The streets in the oldest part of Amsterdam are of ten narrow and
irregular, and the sky-line is picturesquely broken by fantastic
gables, roofs and towers. The site of the dty befog originally a
peat bog, the foundations of the houses have to be secured by
driving long piles (4-20 yds.) into the firm day below, the palace
on the Dam being supported on nearly 14,000 piles. As late
as 1822, however, an overladen corn magazine sank into the
mud. Modern Amsterdam extends southward beyond the Singd
Gracht, and here the houses are often very handsome, while
the broad streets are planted with rows of large trees. In the
middle of this new region lies the Vondd Park, named after the
great national poet Joost van den Vondd (d. 1679), whose statue
stands in the park. The Willems Park adjoining was added
in later times. In the older part of the town the chief open space
Is the Zoological Gardens in the north-eastern corner. They
belong to a private society called Naiura ArtisMagistro, and came
into existence in 1838. They have, however, been much enlarged
since then, and bear a high reputation. In connexion with the
gardens there are an aquarium (1882), a library, and an ethno-
graphical and natural history museum. Concerts are given here
in summer as well as in the Vondd Park. Close to the Zoological
Gardens are the Botanical Gardens, and a small park, also the
property of a private society, in which there is a variety theatre.
The public squares of the dty indude the Sophbplein, with the
picturesque old mint-tower; the Rembrandtpldn, with a monu-
ment (1852) to the painter by Lodswyk Royer; the Thorbecke-
plcin, with a monument to the statesman, J. R. Thorbecke
(1798-1872), and the Leidscheplein, with the large town theatre,
rebuilt in 1890-1894 after a fire.
Buildings and Institutions.— -The Dam b the vital centre of
Amsterdam. All the tramways meet here, and some of the
busiest streets, and here too are situated the Nieuwe Kerk and
the palace. In the middle of the Dam stands a monument to
those who fell in the Bdgian revolution of 1830-1831, and called
the Metal Cross after the war medals struck at that time. The
palace is an imposing building in the classical style, originally
built as a town-hall in 1648-1655 by the architect Jacob van
Kempen. It was first given up to royalty on the occasion of the
visit of the Stadtholder William V. in 1768, and forty years later
was appropriated as a royal palace by Louis Bonaparte, king of
Holland. But King William I. afterwards formally returned the
palace to the dty, and the sovereign is therefore actually the
city's guest when residing in it. Beautifully decorated on the
exterior with gable reliefs by Artus Quellinus (1600-1668) of
Antwerp, Its great external defect is the absence of a grand
entrance. . The architectural and ornamental sculpture of the
interior b mostly by the tame artist, and there are a few interest-
ing pictures, as well as some realistic wall paintings by the 18th-
century artist Jacob de Wit similar to those in the Huis ten
Bosch near the Hague. The great hall bone of the most splendid
of its kind in Europe. Like most of the lesser apartments, it b
lined with white Italian marble, and in spite of its enormous
dimensions the roof b unsupported by pillars. Ancient flags
captured in war decorate the walls, and in the middle of the marble
floor b a representation of the firmament inlaid in copper. The
Nieuwe Kerk (St Catherine's), in which the sovereigns of Holland
are crowned, b a fine Gothic building dating from 1408. Inter-
nally it b remarkable for its remains of ancient stained glass,
fine .carvings and interesting monuments, induding one to
the famous Admiral de Ruyter (d. 1676). A large stained-glass
window commemorates the taking of the oath by Queen Wilhd-
mina in 1898. The new exchange (xoox) b a striking building
in red brick and stone, and lies a short distance away between the
Dam and the fine central station (1889). The Oude Kerk (St
Nicholaas), so called, was built about the year 1300, and contains
some beautiful stained glass of the x6th and 17th centuries, by
Pieter Aertsen of Amsterdam (1508-1575) and others. One
window contains the arms of the burgomasters of Amsterdam
from 1578 to 1767. Among the monuments are those to various
naval heroes, induding Admirals van Heemskerk (d. 1607),
Sweers (d. 1673) and van der Hubt (d. 1666). The North
Church was the last work of the architect Hendrik de Keyser
(1565-1621) of Utrecht. The Roman Catholic church of St
Nicholaas (x886) was built to replace the accommodation
previously afforded by a common dwelling-house, now the
Museum Amstelkring of ecclesiastical antiquities. Among the
numerous Jewish synagogues, the largest is that of the Portuguese
Jews (1670), which b said to be an imitation of the temple of
Solomon. Other buildings of interest are the St Antonieswaag,
built as a town gate in 1488-1585, and now containing the dty
archives; the Trippenhub, built as a private house in 1662, and
now the home of the Royal Sodety of Sdence, Letters and Fine
Arts; the Netherlands Bank (1865-1869), built by the architect
W. A. Froger; the new building (i860) of the Seamen's Institute,
founded in 1785; the cellular prison; and the so-called Palds
van Volksvlijt, an immense building of iron and glass with a fine
garden, built by Dr Samud Sarphati, and used for industrial
exhibitions, the performance of operas, &c The museums and
picture galleries of Amsterdam are of great interest The Ryks
Museum, or state museum, b the first in Holland. It b a large,
ha nd s om e and findy situated building designed by Dr P. J. H.
Cuyper in the Dutch Renaissance style, and erected in x 876-1 885.
The exterior b decorated with sculptures and tile-work, and
internally it-b divided, broadly speaking, into a museum of
general antiquities below, and the large gallery of pictures of
the Dutch and Flemish schools above. The nudeus of this
unsurpassed national collection of pictures was formed out
of the collections removed hither from the Pavilion at Haarlem,
consisting of modern paintings, and from the town-hall, the' van
der Hoop Museum and the Trippenhub in Amsterdam. The
important van der Hoop collection arose out of bequests by
Adrian van der Hoop and his widow in 1854 and x88o; but the
most famous pictures in the Ryks Museum are perhaps the three
which come from the Trippenhub, namely, the so-called " Night-
watch " and the " Syndics of the Cloth Hall " by Rembrandt,
and the " Banquet of the Civic Guard," by van der Heist The
Trippenhuis gallery consisted of the pictures brought from the
Hague by Louis Bonaparte, king of Holland, and bdonging
to the collection of the Orange family dispersed during the
Napoleonic period. The munidpal museum contains a collection
of furniture, paintings, &c, bequeathed by Sophia Lopez-Suasso
(1890), a metfco-pliarmaceutical collection, and the National
Guard Museum. The Joseph Fodor Museum (i860) contains
modern French and Dutch pictures. The private collection
founded by Burgomaster Jan Six (d. 1702), the friend and patron
of Rembrandt, was sold to the state in 1007; the pictures, except
the family Rembrandt*, are in the Ryks Museum. Close to this b
the Willet-Holthuystn Museum (1895) °* furniture, porcelain, &c
8 9 8
AMSTERDAM
Education and Charities.— That are two universities in
Amsterdam: the Free University (1880), and the more ancient
state university of Amsterdam, originally founded in 1632, but
reconstructed in 1887. In addition to the numerous science
laboratories the state university possesses a very fine library
of about 100,000 volumes, including the Rosenthal collection
of over 8000 books on Jewish literature. Modern educational
institutions include a school of engineering (1879), a school for
teachers (1878) and a school of industrial 411(1879). Amsterdam
is also remarkable for the number and high character of its
benevolent institutions, which are to a large extent supported
by voluntary contributions. Among others may be mentioned
hospitals for the sick, the aged, the infirm, the blind, the deaf,
the dumb, the insane, and homes for widows, orphans, foundlings
and sailors. The costumes of the children educated at the
different orphanages are varied and picturesque, those of the
municipal orphanage being dressed in the city colours of red and
black* In the Walloon orphanage are some interesting pictures
by van der Heist and others. The Society for Public Welfare
{Maalschappij tot nut van het Algemeen), founded in 1785, has for
its object the promotion of the education and improvement of
all classes, and has branches in every part of Holland. Among
other Amsterdam societies are the Felix Mentis (1776), and the
Arti et Amidtiao (1839), whose art exhibitions are of a Ugh
order.
Harbour and Commerce.— The first attempt which the city of
Amsterdam made to overcome the evils wrought to its trade by
the slow formation of the Pampus sandbank at the entrance to
the Y from the Zuider Zee, was the construction of the North
Holland canal to the Helder in 1825. But the route was too
long and too intricate, and in 1876 a much larger and more
direct ship canal was built across the isthmus to the North
Sea at Ymuiden. The serious rivalry of Rotterdam, especially
with regard to the transit trade, and the inadequacy of the
Keulsche Vaart, which connected the city with the Rhine, led to
the construction in 1892 of the Merwetie canal to Gorinchem.
Meanwhile a complete transformation took place on the Y to suit
the new requirements of the dty's trade. The three islands built
out into the river serve to carry the railway across the front of the
city, and form a long series of quays. On either side are the large
East and West docks (1825-1834), and beyond these stretch the
long quays at which the American and East Indian liners are
berthed. On the west of the West dock is the timber dock,
and east of the East dock is another series of islands Joined
together so as to form basins and quays, one of which is the State
Marine dock (1790-1795) with the arsenal and admiralty offices.
Opening out of one of the crescent canals which penetrate the
city from the Y is the State Entrepot dock (1000), the free
harbour of Amsterdam, where the produce from the Dutch
East Indies is stored. On the north side of the Y are the dry
docks and the petroleum dock (1880-1890). The principal
imports are timber, coal, grain, ore, petroleum and colonial
produce, Under the last head fall tobacco, tea, coffee, cocoa,
sugar, Peruvian bark and other drugs. Diamond-cutting has
long been practised by the Jews and forms one of the most
characteristic industries of the city. Other industries include
sugar refineries, soap, oil, glass, iron, dye and chemical works;
distilleries, breweries, tanneries; tobacco and snuff factories;
shipbuilding and the manufacture of machinery and stearine
candles. Although no longer the centre of the banking transac-
tions of the world, the Amsterdam exchange is still of considerable
importance in this respect The celebrated Bank of Amsterdam,
founded in 1609, was dissolved in 1796, and the present Bank of
the 'Netherlands was established in 1814 on the model of the
Bank of England. The money market is the headquarters of
companies formed to promote the cultivation of colonial produce.
History.— In 1204, when Giesebrecht IL of Amstel built a
castle there, Amsterdam was a fishing hamlet held in fee by the
lords of Amstel of the bishops of Utrecht, for whom they acted
as baflifts. In 1240 Giesebrecht IIL, son of the builder of the
castle, constructed a dam to keep out the sea. To these two,
then, the origin of the dty may be ascribed. The first mention
of the town Is in 1 275, in a charter of Floris IV, eotmt
exempting it from certain taxes.
In x 206 the place passed out of the hands of the lordi of Aastd.
owing to the part taken by Giesebrecht IV. m the murder ef
Count Floris V. of Holland. Count John (d. 1304), after comag
to an understanding with the bishop of Utrecht, bestowed the
fief on his brother, Guy of Hainaut Guy gave the town fits
first charter in 1300. It established the usual type of govern-
ment under a bailiff (sckout) and judicial assessors (srmkini t m
scMoppenen), the overlord's supremacy being guarded, and as.
appeal lying from the court of the tcabini, in case of their dis-
agreement, to Utrecht In 1342 more extensive privileges wen?
granted by Count William IV., including freedom from tolb by
land and water in return for certain annual dues. In X4S2 the
town was surrounded with walls; and in the 16th century, deriag
the religious troubles, it received a great increase of prosperity
owing to the influx, of refugees from Antwerp and Brabant
Amsterdam, influenced by its trading interests, did not join the
other towns in revolt against Spain until 1578. In 1587 the earl
of Leicester made an unsuccessful attempt to seize it. The great
development of Amsterdam was due, however, to the treaty of
Westphalia in 1648, by which its rival, Antwerp, was rained,
owing to the closing of the Scheldt The city held out obstin-
ately against the pretensions of the stadtholdecs, and in 1650
opened the dykes in order to prevent William IL from seising it
The same device was successful against Louis XIV. in 167a; and
Amsterdam, now reconciled with the stadtholder, was one of the
staunchest supporters of William IIL against France. After the
revocation of the edict of Nantes in 1685 it opened its sates to
numerous French refugees; but this hardly compensated it for
its losses during the war. In 1787 Amsterdam was o c c up i ed by
the Prussians, and in 1795 by the French under Pichegra. It
was now made the capital of the Batavian Republic and after,
wards of the kingdom of Holland. When, in 1810, this was
united with the French empire, Amsterdam was Koogaised
officially as the third town of the empire, ranking next after Pan
and Rome.
SeeJ.taGoim,GescJuedenissvoMAwuter^m(jiwtU^Anm t a flam .
187 9-1881), a full history with documents.
AMSTERDAM (New Amsterdam), an uninhabited and
almost inaccessible island in the Indian Ocean, in 37* 4/ S,
and 77 34' E., about 60 m. N. of St Paul Island, and Beady
midway between the Cape of Good Hope and Tasmania. It is
an extinct volcano, rising 2989 ft from the sea. It was dis-
covered by Anthony van Diemen in 1633, and annexed by France
in 1893. It may have been sighted by the companions of
Magellan returning to Europe in 1 522, and by a Dutch vessel, the
"Zecwolf,"inz6i7. In 1871 the British frigate "Megaera"w3S
wrecked here, and most of the 400 persons on board had to remain
upwards of three months on the island. The iHmoirts of a
Frenchman, Captain Francois Peron (Paris, 1824), who was
marooned three years on the island (1793-1793), are of maca
interes t
AMSTERDAM, a dty of Montgomery county, New York,
U.S.A., on the north bank of the Mohawk river, about 33 m. N.W.
of Albany. Pop. (1890) 17436; (1900) 20,929, of whom 5575
were foreign-born; (1910) 31,267. It is served by the New
York Central & Hudson River and the West Shore taffways,
and by the Erie Canal Hills on both sides of the river oocamasd
fine views of the Mohawk Valley. Amsterdam has two hospfttlsj
a free public library and St Mary's Institute (Roman Catholic).
Manufacturing is the most important industry, and carpets asd
rugs, hosiery and knit goods are the most important produc t* .
In 1905 the dty's factory products were valued at $15,007,270
(an increase of 41 % over their value in 1900); carpets and rap
being valued at $5,667,742, and hosiery and knit goods (ia the
manufacture of which Amsterdam ranked third among the cfties
of the country) at $4,667,022, or 3*4 % of the total product ef
the United States, Among the other manufactures are brushes
brooms, buttons, silk gloves, paper boxes, electrical rappbes,
dyeing machines, cigars, and wagon and carriage rprinm
Amsterdam was settled about 177$, and was called Vctdci^betg
AMUCK—AMUR
899
until 1804, whan Its present name wis adopted. Itwaaincorpor-
ated as a village in 1830, and was chartered as a city in 1885.
AMUCK, BUNKING (or more properly Amok), the native term
(or the homicidal mania which attacks Malays. A Malay will
suddenly and apparently without reason rush into the street
armed with a kris or other weapon, and slash and cut at every-
body be meets till he is killed. These frenzies were formerly
regarded as due to sudden insanity. It is now, however, certain
that the typical amok is the result of circumstances, such as
domestic jealousy or gambling losses, which render a Malay des-
perate and weary of his life. It is, in fact, the Malay equivalent
of suicide. " the act of running amuck is probably due to causes
over which the culprit has some amount of control, as the custom
has now died out in the British possessions in the peninsula, the
offenders probably objecting to being caught and tried in cold
blood "(W.W.Skeat).
Though so intimately associated with the Malay there is some
ground for believing the word to have an Indian origin, and the
act is certainly far from unknown in Indian history. Some
notable cases have occurred among the Rajputs. Thus, in 1634,
the eldest son of the raja of Jodhpur ran amuck at the court of
Shah Jahan, failing in his attack on the emperor, but killing five
of His officials. During the z8th century, again, at Hyderabad
(Sind), two envoys, sent by the Jodhpur chief in regard to a
quarrel between the two states, stabbed the prince and twenty-
six of his suite before they themselves fell.
In Malabar there were certain professional asuassfm known
to old travellers as Amoucki or Amuco. The nearest modern
equivalent to these words would seem to be the Malayalim A mar-
kkou," a warrior " (from amor," fight ")* The Malayalim term
ckaver applied to these ruffians meant literally those "who
devote themselves to death." In Malabar was a custom by
which the aamorin or king of Calicut had to cut his throat in
public when he bad reigned twelve years. In the 17th century
a variation in his fate was made. He had to take his seat, after
a great feast lasting twelve days, at a national assembly,
surrounded by his armed suite, and it was lawful for anyone
to attack him, and if he succeeded in killing him the murderer
himself became aamorin (see Alex. Hamilton, " A new Account of
the East Indies," in Pinkerton's Voyages and Travels, viiL 374).
In 1600 thirty would-be- assassins were killed in their attempts.
These men were called Amor-khan, and it has been suggested that
their action was " running amuck " in the true Malay sense.
Another proposed derivation for amoucki is Sanskrit omokskya,
" that cannot be loosed," suggesting that the murderer was
bound by a vow, an explanation more than once advanced for
the Malay amuck; but amokskya in such a sense is unknown
in Malayalim.
See Sir F. A. Swettenham. Malay Sketches (1895); H. Clifford,
Studies in Brown Humanity (1898).
AMULET (Late Lat amulelum, origin unknown; falsely con-
nected with the Arab, (tim&lak, a cord used to suspend a small
Koran from the neck), a charm, generally, but not invariably,
hung from the neck, to protect the wearer against witch-
craft, sickness, accidents, && Amulets have been of many
different kinds, and formed of different substances,— stones,
metals, and strips of parchment being the most common, with or
without characters or legends engraved or written on them.
Gems have' often been employed and greatly prized, serving for
ornaments as well as for charms. Certain herbs, too, and animal
preparations have been used in the same way. In setting them
apart to their use as amulets, great precautions have been taken
that fitting times be selected, stellar and other magic influences
propitious, and everything avoided that might be supposed
to destroy or weaken the force of the charm. From the earliest
ages the Oriental races have had a firm belief in the prevalence of
occult evil influences, and a superstitious trust in amulets and
similar preservatives against them. There are references to, and
apparently correctives of, these customs in the Mosaic injunctions
to bind portions of the law upon the hand and as frontlets be-
tween the eyes, as well as write them upon the door-posts and the
gates; but, among the later Jews especially, the original design
and meaning of these usages were lost sight of; and though it has
been said that the phylacteries were not strictly amulets, there is
no doubt that they were held in superstitious regard. Amulets
were much used by the ancient Egyptians, and also among
the Greeks and Romans. We find traces of them too in the early
Christian church, in the emphatic protests of Chrysostom,
Augustine and others against them. The fish was a favourite
symbol on these charms, from the word IxfNn being the
initials of 'IqevOt Xpurct 0*90 uttt attrkp. A firm faith in
amulets still prevails widely among Asiatic nations. Talisman,
also* from the Arabic, is a word of similar meaning and use,
but some distinguish it as importing a more powerful charm.
A talisman, whose " virtues are still applied to for stopping blood
and in cases of canine madness," figures prominently in, and gives
name to, one of Sir Walter Scott's novels.
See also Arpe, De Prodigus Naturae et Artis Opertbus TaKsmaues
et Amuleta dicHs (Hamburg. 1717) : Ewele, Veber Amulete (1827) ; and
Koop's Pataeogfuphica Critic*, vols, iii and hr. (1829).
AMUR (known also as the Sakhalin-ula) t a river of eastern
Asia, formed by the confluence of the Argun and the Shilka, at
Ust-Stryelka, in 53° 19' N. lat. and 1 20 30' E. long. Both these
rivers come bom the south-west: the Argun, or Kerulen as it is
called above Lake Kulun (Dalai-nor), through which it flows about
half way between its source and Ust-Stryelka, rises in 49° N.
lat and too E. long.; the Shilka is formed by the union of the
Onon and the Ingoda, both of which have their sources a little
farther north-east than the Kerulen (Argun). The Amur proper
flows at first in a south-easterly direction for about 800 m., as far
as long. 132' E., separating Manchuria from the Amur govern-
ment; it then turns to the north-east, cuts its way through the
Little Khingan mountains in a gorge 2000 ft wide and 140 m.
long, and after a total course of over 1700 m. discharges into the
Sea of Okhotsk, opposite to the island of Sakhalin. It is esti-
mated to drain an area of 772,000 sq.m. Its principal tributaries
from the south are the' Sungari, which the Chinese consider to be
the true head-river of the Amur, and the Usuri; from the north
it receives, the Oldoi, Zeya, Bureya, Kur, Gorin and Axngun.
As the mouth is choked with sandbanks, goods are disembarked at
Mariinsk and carried by train (9 m.) to Alexandrovsk at the head
of the Gulf of Tartary. Navigation on the river is open from
April to early in November.
See T. W. Atkinson, Travels ht the Xenon of the Amoor (i860); '
Collins, Etcttoratum of the Amoor (ed. 1864) and Voyage down the
Amoor (1866); Andree, Das Amurgebiet (ed. 1876); and Grum-
Grshimaylo, Account of the Amur (Russian, 1894).
AMUR, a government of East Siberia, stretching from the
Stanovoi (Yablonoi) mountains southwards to the left bank of
the Amur river. It includes the basins of the Oldoi, Zeya and
Bureya, left-bank tributaries of the river Amur, and has the
governments of Transbaikalia oh the W., Irkutsk and Yakutsk on
the N., the Maritime province on the E., and Manchuria on the
S.W. and S. Area, 172,848 sq. m. Immense districts are quite
uninhabited. All the north-western part is occupied by a high
plateau, bordered by the Great Khingan range, whose exact
position in the region is not yet definitely settled. Next comes
a belt of fertile plateaus bounded on the east by the Little
Khingan, or Dusse-alin, a picturesque well-wooded range, which
stretches in a north-easterly direction from Kirin across Man-
churia, is pierced by the Amur, and continues on its left bank,
separating the Bureya from the Amgun. To the east of it
stretches in the same direction a strip of marshy lowlands. In
the ranges which rise above the high plateau in the north-west,
in the vidnity of the Stanovoi watershed, gold mines of great
richness are worked. Coal of inferior quality is known to exist
on the Oldoi, Zeya and Bureya. The Russians are represented
by the Amur Cossacks,, whose villages, e.g. Albasin, Kumara,
Ekaterino-Nikolsk and Mikhailo-Semenovsk, are strung at
intervals of 17 to 20 m. along the whole course of the river;
by peasant immigrants, chiefly nonconformists, who are the
wealthiest part of the population; and by a floating population
of gold miners. Nomadic Tungus (Orochons), Manegres and
Golds hunt and fish along the rivers. Steamers ply regularly
900
AMYGDALIN— AMYNTAS
along the Amor for 6} months, from Khabarovsk to Stryetensk,
on the Shilka tenninus of the Trans-Siberian railway; but only
light steamers with 2 to 3 ft. draught can navigate the upper
Amur and Shilka. In the winter the frozen river is the usual
highway. Rough roads and bridle-paths only are found in the
interior. The great engineering difficulties in building a railway
along the Amur induced the Russian government to obtain from
China permission to build a railway through Manchuria, but
the project for a railway from Khabarovsk to Stryetensk
received imperial sanction in the summer of 1906. The Amur
government has a continental climate, the yearly average at
Blagovyeshchensk (50° N. lat.) being 30 Fahr. (January, 17°;
July, 70°). It benefits from the influence of the monsoons. Cold
north-west winds prevail from October to March, while in July
and August torrential rains fall, resulting in a sudden and very
considerable rise in the Amur and its right-bank tributaries. The
only town is Blagovyeshchensk, but the centre of the adminis-
tration is Khabarovsk in the Maritime province. The settled
population in 1807 was 119,909, of whom 3*15*5 lived in towns.
The governor-generalship of Amur includes this government
and the Maritime province, the total area being 888,830 sq. m.,
and the total population in 1897, 330,127. This region became
known to the Russians in 1639. In 1640-2651 a party of
Cossacks, under Khabarov, built a fort at Albazin on the Amur
river, but in 1689 they withdrew in favour of the Chinese. From
1847 onwards they once more turned their attention to this
region, and began to make settlements, especially after 1854,
when a powerful flotilla sailed from Ust-Stryelka down to the
mouth of the river. Four years later China ceded to Russia the
whole left bank of the Amur, and also the right bank below the
confluence of the Ussuri, and in i860 all the territory between the
Ussuri and the Eastern Sea. (P. A. K.)
AMYGDALIN (from the Gr. &faryU\% almond), C»H 9 NOii,
a glucoside isolated from bitter almonds by H. E. Robiquct
and A. F. Boutron-Charlard in 1830, and subsequently
investigated by Liebig and Wohler, and others. It is extracted
from almond cake by boiling alcohol; on evaporation of the
solution and the addition of ether, amygdalin is precipitated
as white minute crystals. Sulphuric add decomposes it into
tf-gmcose, benzaldehyde and prussic add; while hydrochloric
add gives mandelic add, rf-ghicose and ammonia. The decom-
position induced by enzymes may occur in two ways. Maltese
partially decomposes it, giving rf-glucose and mandelic nitrile
glucoside, C«H»CH(CN)OC»HuOi; this compound is isomeric
with sambunigrin, a glucoside found by £. £. Bourquelot and
Danjou in the berries of the common elder, Sambucus nigra.
y.fnn^in i on the other hand, decomposes it into benzaldehyde,
prussic add, and two molecules of glucose; this enzyme occurs
in the bitter almond, and consequently the seeds invariably
contain free prussic add and benzaldehyde. An " amorphous
amygdalin" is said to occur in the cherry-laurel. Closely
related to these glucosides is dhurrin, C M HnO>N, isolated by
W. Duns'tan and T. A. Henry from the common sorghum or
"great millet," Sorghum vulgare; this substance is decom-
posed by emulain or hydrochloric add into rf-glucose, prussic
add, and ^-hydrozybenzaldehyde.
AMYGDALOID, a term meaning " almond-shaped," used in
anatomy and geology.
AMYL ALCOHOLS (QHuOH). Eight amyl alcohols are
known: normal amyl alcohol CHj-(CH t )«OH, isobutyl carbinol
or isoamyl alcohol (CH,),CHCHjCH,OH, active amyl alcohol
(CH«)(C«H»):CHCHiOH,tertiarybutylcarbinol(ClUCCHiOH,
diethyl carbinol (CtH»)tCH-OH, methyl (n) propyl carbinol
(CHrCHrCHOCCH^CH.-OH, methyl isopropyl carbinol
(CH,),:CH(CH.):CHOH, and dimethyl ethyl carbinol
(CHi)r(C«H»)!C-OH. Of these alcohols, the first four are
primary, the last one a tertiary, the other three secondary
alcohols; three of them, viz. active amyl alcohol, methyl (n)
propyl carbinol, and methyl isopropyl carbinol, contain an asym-
metric carbon atom and can consequently each exist in two
optically active, and one optically inactive form.
The most important is isobutyl carbinol, this bdng the chief
constituent of fermentation amyl alcohol, tad consequently s
constituent of fusd (q.v.) oil. It may be separated from had
oil by shaking with strong jbrine solution, separating the o2r
layer from the brine layer and distilling it, the portion balar.
between 115° and X40°C. being collected. For further pnriwratrfu
it may be shaken with hot milk of lime, the ofly layer separ-
ated, dried with caldum chloride and fractionated, the fracass
boiling between 1 28° and i3a°C. only being collected. It may he
synthetically prepared from isobutyl alcohol by conversion iau
isovaleryl-aldehyde, which is subsequently reduced to isobars
carbinol by means of sodium amalgam.
It is a colourless liquid of specific gravity 0-8*48 (o°C) ( boZiec
at 131 •6°C, slightly soluble in water, easily soluble in alcohol
ether, chloroform and benzene. It possesses a characterise*
strong smell and a sharp burning taste. When perfectly- pure, i:
is not a poison, although the impure product is. On passing its
vapour through a red-hot tube, it undergoes decompostioo we*
production of acetylene, ethylene, propylene, Jrc. It is coacUztd
by chromic add mixture to isovaleryl-aldehyde; and it I
crystalline addition compounds with calcium ann
chlorides.
The other amyl alcohols may be obtained synthetically. Of
these, tertiary butyl carbinol has been the moat difficult to
obtain, its synthesis having only been accomplished in x8ox, by
L. Ussier (CompUs Rendus, 1891, xia, p. 1065) by the reductioa
of a mixture of trimethyi acetic add and trimcthviacetvi chloride
with sodium amalgam. It is a solid which melts at 4S*-5»" C
and boils a t 111 *3° C
AMYL NITRITB (isoamyl nitrite), QHn-ONO, a Squid
prepared by passing nitrous fumes (from starch and cancesv
trated nitric add) into warm isoamyl alcohol; or by **>«»»»"•([
a mixture of 26 parts of potassium nitrite in 15 parts of water
with 30 parts of isoamyl alcohol in 30 parts of sulphuric acid
(Renard, Jahresb., 1874, p. 35a). It is a ydkm-col uui cd Eqtad
of specific gravity 0-877, boiling at about 05*-o6* C It has a
characteristic penetrating odour, and produces m ark ed effects
on the system when its vapour is inhaled. It is inaohihle ia
water, but dissolves readily in alcohol, ether, glacial acetic add,
chloroform and benzene. On heating with methyl alcoU it is
converted into isoamyl alcohol, methyl nitrite bdng produced at
the same time; a similar reaction takes place with ethyl alcohol
but the change is less complete. It is readily decomposed fey
nascent hydrogen, with the formation of ■Mim^f*- and isoamyl
alcohol; and on hydrolysis with caustic potash it foca
potassium nitrite and isoamyl alcohol When the liquid is
dropped on to fused caustic potash, it forms potassium valerate.
Amyl nitrite finds application in medicine, and in the prepara-
tion of anhydrous diazonium salts (E. Knoevenagel, xMcs*,
x8oo, S3, p, 2004).
AMYMONB, in andent Greek legend, daughter of Dana*.
With her sisters, she had been sent to look for water, the district
of Argos bdng then parched through the anger of Poseidon.
Amymone having thrown her spear at a stag, missed it, but hi
a satyr asleep in the brake. The satyr pursued her, and she
called for help on Poseidon, who appeared, and for love of her
beauty caused a spring to well up, which received her name.
Aeschylus wrote a satyric drama on the subject By the god
Amymone became the mother of Nauplius, the wrecker. Her
meeting with Posddon at the spring is frequently represented so
andent coins and gems.
Apollodorus ii. x, 4; Hyginns, Fab. 169; Propertius u. 26.
AMYNTAS 'I., king of Macedonia (c. 540-408 n.c). was s
tributary vassal of Darius Hystaspes. With him the history d
Macedonia may be said to begin. He was the first of its rulers t»
have relations with other countries; he entered into an aHUarr
with the Pdsistratidae, and when Hippias was driven out d
Athens he offered him the territory of Anthemus on theTherauic
Gulf, with the object of turning the Greek party feuds to his o»
advantage (Herodotus v. 17, 04; Justin viL »; Thucytfids
ii. 100; Pausanias ix. 40). See Macedonia* Emr**.
AMYNTAS II. (or III.), son of Arrhidaeus, great-grandson d
Alexander I., king of Macedonia from 303 (or 389) to 369 ax
AMYOT— AMYRAUT
90 x
He came to the throne after the ten yean of confusion which
followed the death of Archelaus, the patron of art and literature,
and showed the same taste for Greek culture and its representa-
tives. But he had many enemies at home; in 383 he was driven
out by the lllyrians, but in the following year, with the aid of the
Thessalians, he recovered his kingdom. He concluded a treaty
with the Spartans, who assisted him to reduce Olynthus (370).
He also entered into a league with Jason of Pherae, and assidu-
ously cultivated the friendship of Athens. By his wife, Eurydice,
he had three sons, the youngest of whom was the famous Philip
of Macedon.
Diodorus xhr. 89, xv. 29, 60; Xenophon, Hellenica, v. 3; Justin
vii. 4.
AMYOT, JACQUES (1513-1593), French writer, was born of
poor parents, at Melun, on the 30th of October x 513. He found
bis way to the university of Paris, where he supported himself
by serving some of the richer students. He was nineteen when he
became MA. at Paris, and later he graduated doctor of civil law
at Bourges. Through Jacques Colure (or Colin), abbot of St
Ambrose in Bourges, he obtained a tutorship in the family of a
secretary of state. By the secretary he was recommended to
Marguerite de Valois, and through her influence was made
professor of Greek and Latin at Bourges. Here he translated
Thiagene et CkarkUe from Heliodorus (1547 fol.), for which he
was rewarded by Francis I. with the abbey of Bellozane. He was
thus enabled to go to Italy to study the Vatican text of Plutarch,
on the translation on whose Lives (1 559; 1565) he had been some
time engaged. On the way he turned aside on a mission to the
council of Trent. Returning home, he was appointed tutor to
the sons of Henry II., by one of whom (Charles IX.) he was after-
wards made grand almoner (1561) and by the other (Henry III.)
was appointed, in spite of his plebeian origin, commander of the
order of the Holy Ghost Pius I. promoted him to the bishopric
of Auierre, and here he continued to live in comparative quiet,
repairing his cathedral and perfecting his translations, for the
rest of his days, though troubled towards the close by the insub-
ordination and revolts of his clergy. He was a devout and
conscientious churchman, and had the courage to stand by his
principles. It is said that he advised the chaplain of Henry III.
to refuse absolution to the king after the murder of the Guise
princes. He was, nevertheless, suspected of approving the
crime. His house was plundered, and he was compelled to leave
Auxerre for some time. He died on the 6th of February 1593,
bequeathing, it is said, x 200 crowns to the hospital at Orleans for
the twelve " deniers " he received there when " poor and naked "
on his way to Paris. He translated seven books of Diodorus
(1554), the Daphnis et Chloe of Longus (1559) and the Optra
Moralia of Plutarch (1572). His vigorous and idiomatic version
of Plutarch, Via da homma iUustra, was translated into
English by Sir Thomas North, and supplied Shakespeare with
materials for his Roman plays. Montaigne said of him," I give
the palm to Jacques Amyot over all our French writers, not only
for the simplicity and purity of his language in which he surpasses
all others, nor for his constancy to so long an undertaking, nor for
his profound learning . . . but I am grateful to him especially
for his wisdom in choosing so valuable a work." It was indeed
to Plutarch that Amyot devoted his attention. His other trans-
lations were subsidiary. The version of Diodorus he did not
publish, although the manuscript had been discovered by him-
self. Amyot took great pains to find and interpret correctly
the best authorities, but the interest of his books to-day lies
in the style. His translation reads like an original work. The
personal method of Plutarch appealed to a generation ad-
dicted to memoirs and incapable of any general theory of history.
Amyot's book, therefore, obtained an immense popularity, and
exercised great influence over successive generations of French
writers.
There is a good edition of the works of Amyot from the firm of
Didot (25 vols., 1818-18*1). See also AugustedeBHgnieres t £;Mi w
Amyot et Us traducteurs fratqais au xri» siide (Paris, 1851).
AMYRAUT, HOSES (1596-1664), also known as Amyraldus,
French Protestant theologian and metaphysician, was born at
BourgueO, in the valley of Anjou, in 1506. His father was a
lawyer, and, designing Moses for his own profession, sent him on
the completion of his study of the humanities at Orleans to the
university of Poitiers. Here he took the degree of licentiate
(B.A.) of laws. On his way home from the university he passed
through Saumur, and, having visited the pastor of the Protestant
church there; was introduced by him to Philippe de Mornay,
governor of the city. Struck with young Amyraut's ability and
culture, they both urged him to change from law to theology.
His father advised him to revise his philological and philosophical
studies, and read over Calvin's Institutions, before finally deter-
mining. He did so, and decided for theology. He thereupon
removed to Saumur-— destined to be for ever associated with his
name — and studied under J. Cameron, who ultimately regarded
him as his greatest scholar. He had a brilliant course, and was
in due time licensed as a minister of the French Protestant
Church. The contemporary civil wars and excitements hindered
his advancement His first church was in St Aignan, in the
province of Maine. There he remained two years. The eminent
theologian, Jean Daille, being then removed to Paris, advised the
church at Saumur to secure Amyraut as his successor, praising
him " as above himself." The university of Saumur at the same
time had fixed its eyes on him as professor of theology. The
great churches of Paris and Rouen also contended for him, and
to win him sent their deputies to the provincial synod of Anjou.
Amyraut had left the choice to the synod. He was appointed
to Saumur in 1633, and to the professor's chair along with the
pastorate. On the occasion of his inauguration he maintained
for thesis De Sacerdotio Ckristi. His co-professors were Louis
Cappel and Josut de la Place, who also were Cameron's pupils.
Very beautiful was the lifelong friendship of these three remark,
able men, who collaborated in the Theses Solnutrienses, a collec-
tion of theses propounded by candidates in theology prefaced by
the inaugural addresses of the three professors. Full of energy,
Amyraut very speedily gave to French Protestantism a new force.
In 163 1 he published his TraiU des religions, a book that still
lives; and from this year onward he was a foremost man in the
church. Chosen to represent the provincial synod of Anjou,
Touraine and Maine at the national synod held in 1631 at
Charenton, he was appointed as orator to present to the king
" The Copy of their Complaints and Grievances for the Infrac-
tions and Violations of the Edict of Nantes." Previous deputies
had addressed the king on their bended knees, whereas the repre-
sentatives of the Catholics had been permitted to stand. Amy-
raut consented to be orator only if the assembly authorized him
to stand. There was intense resistance. Cardinal Richelieu
himself, preceded by lesser dignitaries, condescended to visit
Amyraut privately, to persuade him to kneel; but Amyraut
held resolutely to his point and carried it. His " oration " on
this occasion, which was immediately published in the French
Mercury, remains a striking landmark in the history of French
Protestantism. During his absence on this matter the assembly
debated " Whether the Lutherans who desired it, might be
admitted into communion with the Reformed Churches of France
at the Lord's Table." It was decided in the affirmative previous
to his return; but he approved with astonishing eloquence, and
thereafter was ever in the front rank in maintaining inter-
communication between all churches holding the main doctrines
of the Reformation. P. Bayle recounts the title-pages of no
fewer than thirty-two books of which Amyraut was the author.
These show that lie took part in all the great controversies on
predestination and Arminianism which then so agitated and
harassed all Europe. Substantially he held fast the Calvinism
of his preceptor Cameron; but, like Richard Baxter in England,
by his breadth and charity he exposed himself to all manner of
misconstruction. In 1634 he published his TraiU de la pre-
destination, in which he tried to mitigate the harsh features of
predestination by his " Universalismus hypotheticus." God,
he taught, predestines all men to happiness on condition of their
having faith. This gave rise to a charge of heresy, of which he
was acquitted at the national synod held at Alencon in 1637,
and presided over by Benjamin Basnage (1580-1652). The
902
ANA
charge was brought up again at the national synod of Charenton
in 1644, when he was again acquitted. A third attack at the
synod of Loudun in 1659 met with no better success. The
university of Saumur became the university of French Pro-
testantism. Amyraut had as many as a hundred students in
attendance upon his prelections. Another historic part filled by
Amyraut was in the negotiations originated by Pierre le Gouz
de la Berchere (1600-1653), first president of the parlement
of Grenoble, when exiled to Saumur, for a reconciliation and
reunion of the Catholics of France with the French Protestants,
Very large were the concessions made by Richelieu in his personal
interviews with Amyraut; but, as with the Worcester House
negotiations in England between the Church of England and
nonconformists, they inevitably fell through. On all sides the
statesmanship and eloquence of Amyraut were conceded. His
De Y&toalion de la Joy el dc rabaissemenl de la raison en la crtance
da mystkres de la religion (1641) gave him early a high place as a
metaphysician. Exclusive of his controversial writings, he left
behind him a very voluminous series of practical evangelical
books, which have long remained the fireside favourites of the
peasantry of French Protestantism. Amongst .these are Estal
des fidiles apres la mort; Sur Voraison dominieaU; Du merit*
des emvres; Traili de la justification; and paraphrases of books
of the Old and New Testament His dosing years were
weakened by a severe fall he met with in 1657. He died on the
x8th of January 1664.
See Edm. Saigey, Moses Amyraut, sovieetses ierits (1840) ; Alex.
Schweiier in Tub. Iked. Jakrbb., 185a, pp. 41 ff. 15s IT., Protestant.
Ce*tral-Dogmen(i8$4 ff.). U. aaj ff., and in Hcrsog-Hauck, Real-
encyklopddu; Bayle, s.v.; Biog. Univ., a. v.; John Quick's Synod.
in Call. Reform, pp. 353-357; Ibid. MS. Icones Sacrae CaUicanaei
Life of Cameron.
ANA, a Latin neuter plural termination appropriated to various
collections of the observations and criticisms of eminent men,
delivered in conversation and recorded by their friends, or dis-
covered among their papers after their decease. Though the
term Ana is of comparatively modern origin, the introduction
of this species of composition is not of recent date. It appears,
from d'Herbelot's Bibliolheque Orientate, that from the earliest
periods the Eastern nations were in the habit of preserving the
maxims of their sages. From them the practice passed to the
Greeks and Romans. Plato and Xenophon treasured up and
recorded the sayings of their master Socrates; and Arrian, in
the concluding books of his Enchiridion, now lost, collected the
casual observations of Epictetus. The numerous apophthegms
scattered in Plutarch, Diogenes Laertius and other writers,
show that it was customary in Greece to preserve the colloquially
expressed ideas of illustrious men. It appears that Julius Caesar
compiled a book of apophthegms, in which he related the bans
mots of Cicero; and Quintilian informs us that a freedman
of that celebrated wit and orator composed three books of a
work entitled De Jocis Ciceronis. We are told by Suetonius
that Caius Melissus, originally the slave but afterwards the
freedman and librarian of Maecenas, collected the sayings of
his master; and Aulus Gcllius has filled his Nodes Atticae with
anecdotes which he beard from the eminent scholars and critics
whose society he frequented in Rome.
But though vestiges of Ana may be traced in the classical
ages, it is only in modern times that they have come to be
regarded as constituting a distinct species of composition,
comprising literary anecdotes, critical reflexions, and historical
Incidents, mingled with the detail of bons mots and ludicrous tales.
The term Ana seems to have been applied to such collections
as far back as the beginning of the 15th century. Francesco
Barbara, in a letter to Poggio, says that the information and
anecdotes which Poggio and Bartolommeo of Montepuldano had
picked up during a literary excursion through Germany will be
called Ana: " Quemadmodum mala ab Appfo e Claudia gente
Appiana, et pira a Mallio MaUiana cognominata sunt, sic haec
literarum quae vestra ope et opera Germania in Italiam defe-
rentur, aliquando et Poggiana et Uontepolitiana voeabuntur."
Poggio Bracdolini, to whom this letter is addressed, and to
whom the world is indebted for the preservation of so many
classical remains, is the first eminent person of modem tana
whose jests and opinions have been transmitted to posterity
Poggio was secretary to five successive popes. Daring the
pontificate of Martin V., who was chosen in 1417, Poggio ani
other members of the Roman chancery were in the habit of
assembling in a common hall adjoining the Vatican, in order
to converse freely on all subjects. Being more studious of vi
than of truth, they termed this apartment Buggiale, a word woks
Poggio himself interprets Mendaciorum Oficins. Here Pccpo
and his friends discussed the news and scandal of the day;
communicated entertaining anecdotes; attacked what they
did not approve (and they approved of little); and indutgec*
in the utmost latitude of satiric remark, not sparine even the
pope and cardinals. The jests and stories which o ccur red a
these unrestrained conversations were collected by Poggio, ami
formed the chief materials of his Facetiae, first printed, aeoordjag
to de Bure, in 1470. This collection, which forms a priadptl
part of the Poggiana, is chiefly valuable as recording interests^
anecdotes of eminent men of the 14th and 15th centuries. It
also contains a number of quibbles or /rax de mats, and a stfl
greater number of facetiae, idle and licentious stories. These
Facetiae form, upon the whole, the most am using and interesriag
part of the Poggiana printed at Amsterdam in 1710; bat this
collection also comprehends additional anecdotes of Poggkt's
life, and a few extracts from his graver compositions.
Though Poggio was the first person whose remarks and torn
mots were collected under the name of Ana, the ScmdigeramM,
which contains the opinions of Joseph Scaliger, was the first
worked published under that appellation, and accordingly may be
regarded as having led the way to that dass of publications.
There are two collections of Scaligerana— the Prima and Sacnmia.
The first was compiled by a physician named Francois Vertunien.
sieur de Lavau, who attended a family with whom Joseph
Scaliger resided. He, in consequence, had frequent opportunities
of meeting the celebrated critic, and was in the custom of com-
mitting to writing the observations which dropped from him ia
the course of conversation, to which he occasionally added
remarks of his own. This collection, which was chiefly Latin.
remained in manuscript many years after the death of the com-
piler. It was at length purchased by M. de Sigogne, who rmhihard
it in 1669, under the title of Prima Scaligerana, nusqnmm aaafcojc
edita, calling it prima in order to preserve its daim of priority
over another Scaligerana, which, though published three years
before, had been more recently compiled. This second work,
known as Secunda Scaligerana, was collected by two brothers
of the name of Vassan, students of the university of Leiden,
of which Scaliger was one of the professors. Being particularly
recommended to Scaliger, they were received in his house, and
enjoyed his conversation. Writing down what they had heard,
particularly on historical and critical subjects, they soon made
up a large manuscript volume, in which, however, there was
neither connexion nor arrangement of any description. After
passing through various hands this manuscript came into the
possession of M. Daille, who for his own use arranged in alpha-
betical order the articles which it contained. Isaac Vossius,
obtaining the manuscript in loan from M. Daille, tianacribed it.
and afterwards published it at the Hague, under the title of
Scaligerana, site Excerpta ex Ore Joseph* ScaUgeru This edition
was full of inaccuracies and blunders, and a more correct im-
pression was afterwards published by M. Daille, with a preface
complaining of the use that Vossius had made of the manuscript,
which he declares was never intended for publication, and was
not of a nature to be given to the world. Indeed, moat literary
men in that age conceived that the Scaligerana, particubrly
the second, detracted considerably from the reputation of the
great scholar. Joseph Scaliger, with more extensive erudition,
but, as some think, less genius than his father Julius Caesar
Scaliger, had inherited his vanity and dogmatical spirit. Con-
versing with two young students, he would probably be but little
cautious in the opinions he expressed, as his literary errors could
not be detected or exposed. Unfortunately the blind ■4«ninti«*
of his pupils led them to regard his opinions as the responses
ANABAPTISTS
903
of an oracle, and his most unmerited censures as just condemna-
tions. The Scaligerana, accordingly, contains many falsehoods,
with much unworthy personal abuse of the most distinguished
characters of the age.
In imitation of the Scaligerana, a prodigious number of
similar works appeared in France towards the end of the 17th
and beginning of the 18th century. At first these collections
were confined to what had fallen from eminent men in con-
versation; but they were afterwards made to embrace fragments
found among their papers, and even passages extracted from
their works and correspondence. Of those which merely record
the conversations of eminent men, the best known and most
valuable is the iienagiana. GQles Menage was a person of good
sense, of various and extensive information and of a most
communicative disposition. A collection of his oral opinions
was published in 1693, soon after his death; and this collection,
which was entitled iienagiana, was afterwards corrected and
enlarged by Bernard de la Monnoye, in an edition published by
himini7i5.
The Perroniana, which exhibits the opinions of Cardinal du
Perron, was compiled from his conversation by C. Dupuy, and
published by Vossius in 1666, by the same contrivance which put
him in possession of the Scaligerana. The Thuana, or observa-
tions of the president de Thou, have usually been published along
with the Perroniana, but first appeared in 1669.
The Vaksiana is a collection of the literary opinions of the
historiographer Adrien de Valois, published by his son. M. de
Valois was a great student of history, and the Valesiana accord-
ingly comprehends many valuable historical observations, par-
ticularly on the works of du Cange.
The Puretcriana (1696) contains the bons mots of Antoine
Furetiire, the Academician, the stories which he was in the habit
of telling, and a number of anecdotes and remarks found in his
papers after his decease.
TheChevraeana (1697), so called from Urbain Chevreau, is more
scholarly than most works of a similar description, and probably
more accurate, as it differs from the Ana proper, of which the
works described above are instances, in having been published
during the life of the author and revised by himself.
Parrkasiana (1 699-1 701 ) is the work of Jean le Clerc, a professor
of Amsterdam, who bestowed this appellation on his miscel-
laneous productions with the view of discussing various topics
of philosophy and politics with more freedom than he could have
employed under his own name.
The Huetiana contains the detached thoughts and criticisms of
P. D. Huet, bishop of Avranches, which he himself committed to
writing when he was far advanced in life. Huet was born in 1630,
and in 171a be was attacked by a malady which impaired his
memory, and rendered him incapable of the sustained attention
necessary for the completion of a long or laborious work. In this
situation he employed himself in putting his detached observa-
tions on paper. These were published by the Abbe" d'Olivet the
year after his death (172a).
The Casauboniana presents us with the miscellaneous observa-
tions, chiefly philological, of the celebrated Isaac Casaubon.
During the course of a long life that eminent commentator was
in the daily practice of committing to paper anything remarkable
which he heard in conversation with his friends, especially if it
bore on the studies in which he was engaged. He also made
annotations from day to day on the works he read, with which
he connected his judgments concerning the authors and their
writings. This compilation was styled Ephemerides. His Adver-
toria, and materials amassed for a refutation of the Ecclesiastical
4 nnals of Baronius, were bequeathed by his son Meric Casaubon
o the Bodleian Library at Oxford. These were shown to J. C.
,VoIf during a visit which he paid to that university; and having
wen transcribed by him, were published in 27x0 under the title
>f Casauboniana.
Besides the above a great many works under the title of Ana
ppeared in France about the same period. Thus, the opinions
nd conversation of Charpentier, Colomesius and St Evremond
fere recorded jh the Carpenteriana, Colomesiana and St Evre-
moniana; and those of Segrais in the Segraisiana,—* collection
formed by a person stationed behind the tapestry in a house
where Segrais was accustomed to visit, of which Voltaire declared,
" que de tous les Ana e'est celui qui merite le plus d'etre mis au
rang des mensonges imprimes, et surtout des mensonges
insipides." The Ana, indeed, from the popularity which they
now enjoyed, were compiled in such numbers and with so little
care that they became almost proverbial for inaccuracy.
In x 743 the Abbe* d'Olivet spoke indignantly of " ces ana, dont
le nombre,se multiple impunement tous les jours a la honte de
noire siecle." About the middle of the x8th century, too, they
were sometimes made the vehicles of revolutionary and heretical
opinions. Thus the evil naturally began to cure itself, and by a
reaction the French Ana sank in public esteem as much below
their intrinsic value as they had formerly been exalted above it.
Of the examples England has produced of this species of
composition, perhaps the most interesting is the Walpoliana,
a transcript of the literal y conversation of Horace Walpole, earl
of Orford. Most other works which in England have been
published under the name of j( Ma, as Baconiana, Alterburyona,
&&, are rather extracts from the writings and correspondence of
eminent men than memorials of their conversation.
There are some works which, though they do not bear the title,
belong more strictly to the class of Ana than many of the collec-
tions which are known under that appellation. Such are the
Mtianges d'kistoire et de littirature, published under the name of
Vigneul Morrill*, though the work of a Benedictine, d'Axgonne;
and the Locorum Communium Collectanea, ex Lectionibus Philippi
Melonchthonis,—* work of considerable reputation on account
of its theological learning, and the information it communi-
cates concerning the early state of the Reformed Church. But
of those productions which tjelong to the class, though they
do not bear the name, of Ana, the most celebrated are the.
Colloquia Mensalia of Luther and Selden's Table-Talk. The
former, which comprehends the conversation of Luther with his
friends and coadjutors in the great work of the Reformation, was
first published in 1566. Captain H. Bell, who translated it into
English in the time of the Commonwealth, informs us that, an
edict having been promulgated commanding the works of Luther
to be destroyed, it was for some time supposed that all the copies
of the Colloquia Mensalia had been burned; but in x6a6, on the
foundation of a house being removed, a printed copy was found
lying in a deep hole and wrapped up in a linen cloth. The book,
translated by Bell, and again by the younger Hazlitt in 1847,
was originally collected by Dr Anton Lautcrbach (1502-1569)
" out of the holy mouth of Luther." It consists chiefly of
observations and discussions on idolatry, auricular confession,
the mass, excommunication, clerical jurisdiction, general councils,
and all the points agitated by the reformed church in those
early periods. The Table-Talk of Selden contains a more genuine
and undisguised expression of the sentiments of that eminent
man than we find in his more studied productions. It was
published after his death by Richard Milward, his amanuensis,
who affirms that for twenty years he enjoyed the opportunity
of daily hearing his discourse, and made it his practice faithfully
to commit to writing " the excellent things that usually fell from
him."
The most remarkable collection of Ana in the English language
—and, indeed, in any language—is to be found in a work which
does not correspond to the normal type either in name or in form.
In his Life of Samuel Johnson, LL.D., Boswell relates that to his
remark, d propos of French literature, " Their Ana are good,"
Johnson replied, " A few of them are good; but we have one
book of that kind better than any of them— Selden's Table- Talk,"
BosweU's own work, however, is incomparably superior to all.
J. C. Wolf has given a history of the Ana in a preliminary dis-
course to his edition of the Casauboniana, published in 1710. In
the Rlpertoire de bibliographies speciaUs, curteuses, et ihstructtves, by
Peignot, there is a Notice bMiographique of these collections; but
many of the books there enumerated consist of mere extracts from
the writings of popular authors.
ANABAPTISTS (" re-baptixers," from Gr. a>& and /farrff &>), a
name given by their enemies to various sects .arhich on the
9°+
ANABAPTISTS
occasion of Luther's revolt from Romanism denied the validity
of infant baptism, and therefore baptized those whom they quite
logically regarded as not having received any Christian initiation
at all.
On the 27th of December 1521 three " prophets " appeared
in Wittenberg from Zwickau, Thomas MOnzer, Nicolas Storch
and Mark Thomas Sttibner. Luther's reform was not thorough
enough for them. He professed to rest all upon Scripture, yet
accepted from the Babylon of Rome a baptism neither scriptural
nor primitive, nor fulfilling the chief conditions of admission into
a visible brotherhood of saints, to wit, repentance, faith, spiritual
illumination and free surrender of self to Christ. Melanchthon,
powerless against the enthusiasts with whom his co-reformer
Carlstadt sympathized, appealed to Luther, still concealed in the
Wartburg. He had written to the Waldenses that it is better
not to baptize at all than to baptize little children; now he was
cautious, would not condemn the new prophecy off-hand; but
advised Melanchthon to treat them gently and to prove their
spirits, less they be of God. There was confusion in Wittenberg,
where schools and university sided with the " prophets " and
were closed. Hence the charge that Anabaptists were enemies
of learning, which is sufficiently rebutted by the fact that the
first German translation of the Hebrew prophets was made and
printed by two of them, Hetzer and Denk, in 1527. The
first leaders of the movement in Zurich — Grebel, Manz, Blaurock,
Hubmaier— were men learned in Greek, Latin and Hebrew. On
the 6th of March Luther returned, interviewed the prophets,
scorned their " spirits," forbade them the city, and had their
adherents ejected from Zwickau and Erfurt. Denied access to
the churches, the latter preached and celebrated the sacrament
in private houses. Driven from the cities they swarmed over
the countryside. Compelled to leave Zwickau, MOnzer visited
Bohemia, resided two years at Alltstedt in Thuringia, and in
1524 spent some time in Switzerland. During this period he
proclaimed his revolutionary doctrines in religion and politics
with growing vehemence, and, so far as the lower orders were
concerned, with growing success. The crisis came in the so-
called Peasants' War in South Germany in 1525. In its origin
a revolt against feudal oppression, it became, under the leader-
ship of M (Inzer, a war against all constituted authorities, and an
attempt to establish by force his ideal Christian commonwealth,
with absolute equality and the community of goods. The total
defeat of the insurgents at Frankenhausen (May 15, 1525),
followed as it was by the execution of Munzer and several other
leaders, proved only a temporary check to the Anabaptist move-
ment Here and there throughout Germany, Switzerland and
the Netherlands there were zealous propagandists, through
whose teaching many were prepared to follow as soon as another
leader should arise. A second and more determined attempt
to establish a theocracy was made at MOnster, in Westphalia
(1532-1535). Here the sect had gained considerable influence,
through the adhesion of Rothmann, the Lutheran pastor, and
several prominent citizens; and the leaders, Johann Matthys-
zoon or Matthiesen, a baker of Haarlem, and Johann Bockholdt,
a tailor of Leiden, had little difficulty in obtaining possession
of the town and deposing the magistrates. Vigorous prepara-
tions were at once made, not only to hold what had been gained,
but to proceed from Mlinster as a centre to the conquest of the
world. The town being besieged by Francis of Waldeck, its
expelled bishop (April 1534), Matthiesen, who was first in
command, made a sally with only thirty followers, under the
fanatical idea that he was a second Gideon, and was cut off with
his entire band. Bockholdt, better known in history as John of
Leiden, was now supreme. Giving himself out as the successor
of David, he claimed royal honours and absolute power in the
new "Zion." He justified the most arbitrary and extrava-
gant measures by the authority of visions from heaven, as
others have done in similar circumstances. With this pre-
tended sanction he legalized polygamy, and himself took four
wives, one of whom he beheaded with his own hand in the
market-place in a fit of frenzy. As a natural consequence of
such licence, Munster was for twelve months a scene of unbridled
profligacy. After an obstinate resistance the town was take*
by the besiegers on the 24th of June 1535, and in Jaanarj
1536 Bockholdt and some of his more prominent followers, aftrr
being cruelly tortured, were executed in the market-place. The
outbreak at Munster was the crisis of the Anabaptist movement
It never again had the opportunity of wwHimmg potitkal im-
portance, the civil powers naturally adopting the most stringrei
measures to suppress an agitation whose avowed object was t»
suppress them. It is difficult to trace the subsequent history of the
sect as a religious body. The fact that, after the Munster insurrec-
tion the very name Anabaptist was proscribed in Europe, k a
source of twofold confusion. The enforced adoption of new names
makes it easy to lose the historical identity of many who reafij
belonged to the Munster Anabaptists, and, on the other hand,
has led to the classification of many with the Munster sect who
had no real connexion with it The latter mistake, it is to he
noted, has been much more common than the former. The
Mennonites, for example, have been identified with, the earner
Anabaptists, on the ground that they included among their
number many of the fanatics of MOnster. But the contiguity
of a sect is to be traced in its principles, and not in its adherents,
and it must be remembered that Menno and his followers
expressly repudiated the distinctive doctrines of the Munster
Anabaptists. They have never aimed at any social or political
revolution, and have been as remarkable for sobriety of conduct
as the Munster sect was for its fanaticism (see Mekkoxztes).
In English history frequent reference is made to the Anabaptists
during the x6th and 17th centuries, but there b no evidence
that any considerable number of native Englishmen e%er
adopted the principles of the MOnster sect. Manx of the
followers of MUnzer and Bockholdt seem to have fled from
persecution in Germany and the Netherlands to be subjected
to a persecution scarcely less severe in England. The mildest
measure adopted towards these refugees was banishment from
the kingdom, and a large number suffered at the stake. It was
easier to burn Anabaptists than to refute their arguments,
and contemporary writers were struck with the intrepidity and
number of their martyrs. Thus Stanislaus Hosius (1 504-1 570),
a Polish cardinal and bishop of Warmie, wrote {Opera, Venire,
1573, P. *»).—
" They are far readier than followers of Luther and ZwtogE to
meet death, and bear the harshest tortures for their faith. For they
run to suffer punishments, no matter how horrible, as if to a bnoqaK :
so that if you take that as a test either of the truth of doctriae or of
their certitude of grace, you would easily conclude that is no other
sect is to be found a faith so true or grace so certain. But as Pad
wrote: ' Even if I give my body up to be burned and have not
charity, it avails me naught.' But he has not charity who divides
the unity. ... He cannot be a martyr who is not in the Church."
The excesses of John of Leiden, the Brigham Young of that
age, cast an unjust stigma on the Baptists, of whom the vast
majority were good, quiet people who merely carried out a
practice the early Christian ideals of which their persecutors
prated. They have been reckoned an extreme left wing of the
Reformation, because for a time they followed Luther and
Zwingli. Yet their Christology and negative attitude towards
the state rather indicate, as in the case of Wicklif, Hus and the
Fraticelli, an affinity to the Cathari and other medieval sects.
But this affiliation is hard to establish. The earliest Anabaptists
of Zurich allowed that the Picardi or Waldensians had, in contrast
with Rome and the Reformers, truth on their side, yet did not
claim to be in their succession; nor can it be shown that their
adult baptism derived from any of the older Baptist sects, whkh
undoubtedly lingered in parts of Europe, Later on Hermans
Schyn claimed descent for the peaceful Baptists from the
Waldensians, who certainly, as the records of the Flemish inquisi-
tion, collected by P. Fredericq, prove, were wide-spread during
the 15th century over north France and Flanders. It would
appear from the way in which Anabaptism sprang op eveiywhcie
independently, as if more than one ancient sect took in and
through it a new lease of life. Ritschl discerned in it the leaves
of the Fraticelli or Franciscan Tertiaries. In Moravia, if what
Alex. Rost related be true, namely that they called themselves
ANABASIS— ANACHRQNISM
Apostolici, and went barefooted healing the sick, they must have
at least absorbed into themselves a sect of whom we hear in the
1 2th century in the north of Europe as deferring baptism to the
age of 30, and rejecting oaths, prayers for the dead, relics and
invocation of saints. The Moravian Anabaptists, says Rost,
went bare-footed, washed each other's feet (like the Fraticelli),
had all goods in common, worked everyone at a handicraft, had
a spiritual father who prayed with them every morning and
taught them, dressed in black and had long graces before and
after meals. Zeiler also in his German Itinerary (16 18) describes
their way of life. The Lord's Supper, or bread-breaking, was a
commemoration of the Passion, held once a year. They sat at
long tables, the elders read the words of institution and prayed,
and passed a loaf round from which each broke off a bit and ate,
the wine being handed round in flagons. Children in their
colonies were separated from the parents, and lived in the school,
each having his bed and blanket They were taught reading,
writing and summing, cleanliness, truthfulness and industry, and
the girls married the men chosen for them. In the following
points Anabaptists resembled the medieval dissenters: — (1)
They taught that Jesus did not take the flesh from his mother,
but either brought his body from heaven or had one made for him
by the Word. Some even said that he passed through his mother,
as water through a pipe, into the world. In pictures and sculp-
tures of the 15th century and earlier, we often find represented
this idea, originated by Maroon in the and century. The
Anabaptists were accused of denying the Incarnation of Christ:
they did, but not in the sense that he was not divine, they rather
denied him to be human. (2) They condemned oaths, and also
the reference of disputes between believers to law-courts.
(3) The believer must not bear arms or offer forcible resistance
to wrongdoers, nor wield the sword. No Christian has the jus
gladii. (4) Civil government belongs to the world, is Caesar The
believer who belongs to God's kingdom must not fill any office,
nor hold any rank under government, which is to be passively
obeyed. (5) Sinners or unfaithful ones are to be excommunicated,
and excluded from the sacraments and from intercourse with
believers unless they repent, according to Matt, xviii 15 seq.
But no force is to be used towards them.
Some sects calling themselves Spiritual*! or Perfecti also held
that the baptized cannot sin, a very ancient tenet
They seem to have preserved among them the primitive manual
called the Teaching of the Apostles, for Bishop Longland in Eng-
land condemned an Anabaptist for repeating one of its maxims
" that alms should not be given before they did sweat in a man's
hand." This was between 15x8 and 1522
On the 1 2th of April 1 549, certain London Anabaptists brought
before a commission of bishops asserted —
" That a man regenerate could not tin ; that though the outward
nan sinned, the inward man sinned not; that there was no Trinity
>f Persons: that Christ was only a holy prophet and not at all
Sod : that all we had by Christ was that he taught us the way to
leaven; that he took no flesh of the Virgin, and that the baptism
ii infants was not profitable."
The Anabaptists were great readers of Revelation and of the
Bpistle of James, the latter perhaps by way of counteracting
Luther's one-sided teaching of justification by faith alone. Luther
eebly rejected this scripture as " a right strawy epistle." English
Vnabaptists often knew it by heart- Excessive reading of
Revelation seems to have been the chief cause of the aberrations
>f the MOnster fanatics.
In Poland and Holland certain of the Baptists denied the
Trinity, hence the saying that a Socinian was a learned Baptist
see Socinus). With these Menno and his followers refused to
told communion.
One of the most notable features of the early Anabaptists is
hat they regarded any true religious reform as involving social
melioration. The socialism of the 16th century was necessarily
Christian and Anabaptist. Lutheranism was more attractive to
rand -ducal patriots and well-to-do burghers than to the poor
nd oppressed and disinherited. The Lutherans and Zwinglians
tever converted the Anabaptists. Those who yielded to stress
905
of persecution fell back into Papalism and went to swell the tide
of the Catholic reaction.
Authorities.— Fkjssli, Kitchen- und Kctxerhtstorte der mtttlem
Zett (cGmaifiA Dulling r); Zwinglius, In catabapttstarum strophes
elemrituj (15*7) (<7f*«J ui- 35 J Bullinger, Der Wtedertdufer Unfitting
(1560) ; Citseirr, EirUm^tuuU History, Engl. tr. v. 344, Spannctm.
Dc ortgtne AH&bapt, (Lucd. 1 643); Ranke's History of the Re-
formntwH , M'.hii'.lir h.-.n. Die Histone von Th. hdUntxer (1525) (in
Luihtri Werkt> cd. Walch. svi. 199). Strobel. Leben Th. Muntxers
(iTOSh c A - Cornelius, Die niederldndischen Wtedertdufer, in
publication* of Bav.tfi.in Academy (1869); J G. Walch, Hist, u
thfoteg. EiticUuni (jtna, I/3J): Mosheim, Ecclesiastical History,
Gcrbcrt, Gtuk. 4. Strenf. Sektenbewegunt (Strasbourg. 1889),
W Mar Her, Htrtnty of thr Christian Church, tr by Frccse. i960;
To* v. Beck, Dim Gtuhuki. bucket der Wtedertdufer in Osterr-Ung.
(Wfen, iHJi.iJ. (Fonki rrru»t Austr II. xliii., a valuable history of
the ^cc frum ihcir own early documents); Ritschl. Ceschtchie des
Pietismus, vol. i. (Bonn, 1880); Loserth. B. Hubmater und die
Anfdnge der Wiedertaufer in Udhren (Brunn, 1893); Kolde. in
Kirchengesch. Studten (Leipzig, 1888); Kessler. Sabbata: Lecndertz
and Zur Linden, M. Hofmann (Haarlem. 1883-188O: Erbkam,
Kirchengesch. Studten (Leipzig, 1888); Kessler.
and Zur Linden, Af. Hofmann (Haarlem, iBl„ ... _.„„_„.,
Cesch. der prot Sehten der Reform. (1848). Justus Menius. Der
Wtedertdufer Lehre (Wittenberg, 1534): Johann Cloppenburg and
Fr .">■*,. *pnn}>--\<n t Cangraena theologtae Anabaptistwae (Franekerd,
l6yi) . ! ir Lydius. Waldensta, id est conservatto verae Ecclesiae
^Rotterdam. 1616); Herman Schyn, His tor toe Mennomtarum
Amsterdam. I 729); I oh. Henr _Ott"
B.i-nN-.ir 1773); Karl Rembert, Die Wiedertaufer tn Herzottum
Jtdich (MUnner, 1871); Universal Lexicon, art. " Wiedertaufer "
(Leipfisi. Iftl). Tielmann Janssen van Bracht. Marlyrotogta
*m (Haarlem 1615-1631). Joh. Castii, Tractat. de
iio (Basel. 1545) Jehring, History of the Baptists,
i Burnit. or hymns written by and of the Baptist martyrs
1 (5J&-K'„'0, first printed without date or place, reprinted
_ (FCC)
ANABASIS (avadacrt, a march up country), the title given by
Xenophon (q.v.) to his narrative of the expedition of Cyrus the
younger against his brother, Artaxcrxes of Persia, 401 b.c , and
adopted by Arrian for his history of the expedition of Alexander
the Great.
ANABOUSH (Gr 4*4, up. 0o\4, a throw), the biological term
for the building up in an organism of more complex from simpler
substances, constructive metabolism. (See Physiology )
ANACHARSIS, a Scythian philosopher, who lived about 600
B.c He was the son of Gnurus, chief of a nomadic tribe of the
Euxine shores, and a Greek woman. Instructed in the Greek
language by his mother, he prevailed upon the king to entrust
him with an embassy to Athens about 589 B.C. He became
acquainted with Solon, from whom he rapidly acquired a know-
ledge of the wisdom and learning of Greece, and by whose influence
he was introduced to the principal persons in Athens He was
the first stranger who received the privileges of citizenship He
was reckoned one of the Seven Sages, and it is said that he was
initiated into the Eleusinian mysteries. After he had resided
several years at Athens, he travelled through different countries
in quest of knowledge, and returned home oiled with the desire
of instructing his countrymen in the laws and the religion of the
Greeks. According to Herodotus he was killed by his brother
Saulius while he was performing sacrifice to the goddess Cybele.
It was he who compared laws to spiders' webs, which catch small
flies and allow bigger ones to escape. His simple and forcible
mode of expressing himself gave birth to the proverbial expression
" Scythian eloquence," but his epigrams are as unauthentic as
the letters which are often attributed to him. According to
Strabo he was the first to invent an anchor with two flukes.
Barthilemy borrows his name as the title for his Anacharsis em
Greet.
Herodotus iv. 76; Lucian, Scytka: Cicero. Tusc. Dxsp. v 32;
Diog. Laert. i. tot.
ANACHRONISM (from 4*4, back, and xp6w, time), a neglect
or falsification, whether wilful or undesigned, of chronological
relation. Its commonest use restricts it to the ante-dating of
events, circumstances or customs; in other words, to the
introduction, especially in works of imagination that rest on a
historical basis, of details borrowed from a later age Ana-
chronisms may be committed in many ways, originating, for
instance, in disregard of the different modes of life and thought
that characterize different periods, or in ignorance of the progress
906
ANACQLUTHON— ANACREON
of the sits and sciences and the other ascertained facts of history,
and may vary from glaring inconsistency to scarcely perceptible
misrepresentation Much of the thought entertained about the
past is so deficient in historical perspective as to be little better
than a continuous anachronism. It is only since the close of the
1 8th century that this kind of untruthfulness has jarred on the
general intelligence Anachronisms abound in the works of
Raphael and Shakespeare, as well as in those of the meanest
daubers and playwrights of earlier times. In particular, the
artists, on the stage and on the canvas, in story and in song,
assimilated their dramatis persona* to their own nationality and
their own time The Virgin was represented here as an Italian
contadina, and there as a Flemish frow; Alexander the Great
appeared on the French stage in the full costume of Louis
XIV down to the time of Voltaire, and in England the
contemporaries of Addison could behold, without any suspicion
of burlesque,
* Cato'a long wig, flower'd gown, and lacquer'd chair '
Modern realism, the progress of archaeological research, and
the more scientific spirit of history, have made an anachronism
an offence, where our ancestors saw none.
ANACOLUTHON (Gr. for " not following on "), • grammatical
term, given to a defectively constructed sentence which does not
run on as a continuous whole; this may occur either, in a text,
by some corruption, or, in the case of a writer or speaker, simply
through his forgetting the way in which he started. In the case
of a man who is full of his subject, or who is carried along by the
passion of the moment, such inconsequents are very apt to occur.
Of Niebuhr it is told that his oral lectures consisted almost
entirely of anacoluthic constructions. To this kind of licence
some languages, as Greek and English, readily lend themselves,
while the grammatical rigidity of others, as Latin and French,
admits of it but sparingly In Herodotus. Thucydides, Aeschylus,
Pindar and Plato, abundant specimens are to be found, and the
same is true of the writers of the Elizabethan age in English.
The following is an example:—" And he charged him to tell no
man, but go show thyself" &c. (Luke v 14)
ANACONDA, a city and the county-seat of Deer Lodge county,
Montana, U.S.A., situated in the mountains on the W. side of
Deer Lodge Valley, in the S.W part of the state, about 26 m.
N VV of Butte, and at an altitude of about 5300 ft Pop. (1800)
3075. (1000) 045J, of whom 3478 were foreign-born; (iqio,
census) 10,134. It is connected with Butte by the Butte,
Anaconda & Pacific railroad Among its public buildings are the
county court-house and the Hearst free public library (1808)
Industrially, Anaconda is essentially a smelting camp for the
copper ores from the Butte mines, probably the largest copper-
smelter in the world being located here, the principal copper-mine
at Butte — one of the most famous copper-mines in the world— is
called the Anaconda In 1005 the capital invested in manu-
facturing was $13,728,456, and the factory product was valued at
$28,581,530. Electric power generated at the Helena Power
Transmission Company's plant on the Missouri river, 18 m. from
Helena, comes to Anaconda over x xo m. of wire at 70,000 voltage
Anaconda is to a large degree the market and trading-place of the
Big Hole Basin cattle country in the north-western part of
Beaverhead county; with Wisdom, in the Big Hole Basin, it
was connected in 1005 by a 65 m. telephone line Anaconda was
first settled in 1884 and was chartered as a city in 1888.
ANACONDA, an aquatic boa, inhabiting the swamps and
rivers of the dense forests of tropical South America It is the
largest of all modern snakes, said to attain over 30 ft in length.
The Eunectes murinus (formerly called Boa murina) differs from
Boa by the snout being covered with shields instead of small
scales, the inner of the three nasal shields being in contact with
that of the other side. The general colour is dark olive-brown, with
large oval black spots arranged in two alternating rows along the
back, and with smaller white-eyed spots along the sides. The
belly is whitish, spotted with black. The anaconda combines an
arboreal with an aquatic life, and feeds chiefly upon birds and
mammals, mostly during the night. It lies submerged in the
water, with only a small part of its head above the surface.
waiting for any suitable prey, or it establishes itself upon mt
branches of a tree which overhangs the water or the track d
game. Being eminently aquatic this snake is viviparous. It is
the only large boa which is decidedly ill-tempered.
ANACREON, Greek lyric poet, was born about 960 ic,
at Teas, an Ionian city on the coast of Asia Minor. Littk n
known of his life, except a lew scattered notices, not In all casa
certainly authentic He probably shared the voluntary eaJe
of the mass of his fellow-townsmen, who, when Cyrus the Great
was besieging the Greek cities of Asia (S45>» rather than surrender
their city to his general Harpagus, sailed to Abdera in Thrace,
where they founded a colony Anacreon seems to have takes
part in the fighting, in which, on his own admission, he did not
distinguish himself, but, like Aicaeus and Horace, threw away
his shield and fled. From Thrace he removed to the court of
Polycrates of Samoa, one of the best of those old " tyrants,*
who by no means deserved the name in its worst sense. He is
said to have acted as tutor to Polycrates; that he enjoyed tat
tyrant's confidence we learn on the authority of Herodotas
(iii. til), who represents the poet as sitting in the royal chaaber
when audience was given to the Persian herakL In return im
his favour and protection, Anacreon* wrote many complimentary
odes upon his patron. Like his fellow-lyrist, Horace, who was ore
of bis great admirers, -and in many respects of a kindred spin:,
Anacreon seems to have been made for the society of courts.
On the death of Polycrates, Hipparchus, who waa then in power
at Athens and inherited the literary tastes of his father Pdsn-
tratus, sent a special embassy to fetch the popular poet to Athens
in a galley of fifty oars. Here he became acquainted with tht
poet Simonides, and other members of the brilliant circle which
had gathered round Hipparchus. When this circle was broken
up by the assassination of Hipparchus, Anacreon seems to have
returned to his native town of Tens, where, according to a
metrical epitaph ascribed to his friend Simonides, he died and
was buried. According to others, before returning to Tecs,
he accompanied Simonides to the court of Echecrates, a Thessafcaa
dynast of the house of the Aleuadae. Lucian mentions Anacreca
amongst his instances of the longevity of eminent men, as havisx
completed eighty-five years. If an anecdote given by PUry
(Nat Hut vii. 7) is to be trusted, he was choked at last by *
grape-stone, but the story has an air of mythical adaptauja
to the poet's habits, which makes it somewhat apocrvpfcjii
Anacreon was for a long time popular at Athens, where k-s
statue was to be seen on the Acropolis, together with that of his
fnend Xanthippus, the father of Pericles. On several cots
of Teos he is represented, holding a lyre in his hand, sometios
sitting, sometimes standing. A marble statue found in 1835
in the Sabine district, and now in the Villa Borgbese, is said
to represent Anacreon. Anacreon had a reputation as a compose?
of hymns, as well as of those bacchanalian and amatory lyrics
which are commonly associa ted with hjs name. Two short hymns
to Artemis and Dionysus, consisting of eight and eleven fanes
respectively, stand first amongst his few undisputed remains,
as printed by recent editors. But pagan hymns, especiaa/
when addressed to such deities as Aphrodite, Eros and Dionysus,
are not so very unlike what we call " Anacreontic " poetry as
to make the contrast of style as great as the word might seen
to imply The tone of Anacreon *s lyric effusions has probably
led to an unjust estimate, by both ancients and moderns, of tht
poet's personal character The " triple worship " of the Moses,
Wine and Love, ascribed to him as his religion in an old Greek
epigram (Antkoi iii. 25,51), may have been as purely professional
in the two last cases as in the first, and his private character em
such points was probably neither much better nor worse thai
that of his contemporaries. Athenaeus remarks acutely that he
seems at least to have been sober when he wrote; and he him-
self strongly repudiates, as Horace does, the brutal characteristics
of intoxication as fit only for barbarians and Scythians (Fr 6*j.
Of the five books of lyrical pieces by Anacreon which Suidat
and Athenaeus mention as extant in their time, we have now
but the merest fragments, collected from the citations oi lir
writers. Those graceful little poems (most of them first printed
ANACREONTICS— ANAESTHESIA
907
from the MSS by Henry Stephens in 1554). which long passed
among the learned for the songs of Anacreon, and which are
well-known to many English readers in the translations of
Cowley and Moore, are really of much later date, though possibly
here and there genuine fragments of the poet are included.
Modern critics, however, regard the entire collection as
imitations belonging to different periods— the oldest probably
to Alexandrian times, the most recent to the last days of
paganism. They will always retain a certain popularity from
their lightness and elegance, and some of them are fair copies
of Anacreon's style, which would lend itself readily enough to a
clever imitator. A strong argument against their genuineness
lies in the fact that the peculiar forms of the Ionic Greek, in which
Anacreon wrote, are not to be found in these reputed odes,
while the fragments of his poems quoted by andent writers are
full of Ionicisms. Again, only one of the quotations from
Anacreon in ancient writers is to be found in these poems, which
further contain no references to contemporaries, whereas Strabo
(jdv. p. 638) expressly states that Anacreon's poems included
numerous allusions to Polycrates. The character of Love as a
mischievous little boy is quite different from that given by
Anacreon, who describes him as " striking with a mighty axe,
like a smith," and is more akin to the conceptions of later
literature
The best edition of the genuine fragments of Anacreon. as well as
of the Anacreontea. is by Bergk {Poctae lyricx froers. 188a). He
includes in an appendix a similar collection of imitations from the
Atucdota graeea of P. Matranga (1850). which had their origin in the
beginning of the middle ages, and resemble the Christian anacreontics
of Sophrooius.
ANACREONTICS (from the name of the Greek poet Anacreon).
the title given to short lyrical pieces, of an easy kind, dealing
with love and wine. The English word appears to have been
first used in 1656 by Abraham Cowley, who called a section
of his poems " anacreontiques," because they were paraphrased
out of the so-called writings of Anacreon into a familiar measure
which was supposed to represent the metre of the Greek Half
a century later, when the form had been much cultivated, John
Phillips (163 1-1706) laid down the arbitrary rule that an ana-
creontic line " consists of seven syllables, without being tied to
any certain law of quantity." In the 1 8th century, the antiquary
William Oldys (1696-1761) was the author of a little piece which
is the perfect type of an anacreontic this begins.*—
'* Busy, curious, thirsty fly,
Drink with me. and drink as 1 ;
Freely welcome to my cup,
Could'st thou rip and rip it up.
Make the most of life you may.
Life is short and wears away.
In 1 800 Tom Moore published a collection of erotic anacreontics
which are also typical in form; Moore speaks of the necessity
of catching " the careless facility with which Anacreon appears
to have trifled." as a reason why anacreontics are often tame
and worthless. He dwells, moreover, on the absurdity of writing
" pious anacreontics," a feat, however, which was performed
by several of the Greek Christian poets, and in particular by
Gregory of Naxianzus and John of Damascus. (E G.)
ANADTOHENB (' AvaSvo tikyr}), an epithet of Aphrodite
(Venus), expressive of her having sprung from the foam of the
sea In a famous picture by Apclles she was represented under
this title as if just emerged from the sea and in the act of wringing
ber tresses This painting was executed for the temple of
Asciepius at Cos, from which it was taken to Rome by Augustus
in part payment of tribute and set up in the temple of Caesar.
In the time of Nero, owing to its dilapidated condition, it was
replaced by a copy made by the painter Dorotheus (Pliny, Not
Hist, xxxv 36) There are several epigrams on it in the Greek
anthology.
ANADYR* (1) a gulf, and (2) a river, in the extreme N.E. of
Siberia, in the Maritime Province. The gulf extends from Cape
Chukchi on the north to Cape Navarin on the south, forming part
of the Bering Sea. The river, taking its rise in the Stanovoi
mountains as the Ivashki or Ivachno. about 67° N. lat. and 173°
E long., flows through the Chukchi country, at first south-west
and then east, and enters the Gulf of Anadyr after a course of
about 500 m. The country through which it passes is thinly
populated, barren and desolate. For nine months of the year the
ground is covered with snow. Reindeer, upon which the in-
habitants subsist, are found in considerable numbers.
ANAEMIA (from Gr. &j% privative, and alua, blood), literally
" want of blood," a word used as a generic term for various forms
of disease characterized by a defective constitution of the blood
For different types of anaemia see the article Blood, section
Pathol ogy.
ANAESTHESIA and ANAESTHETICS (Gr. a>aia0»*(a, from
ais privative, and aloBims, sensation), terms used in medicine
to describe a state of local or general insensibility to external
impressions, and the substances used for inducing this state
In diseases of the brain or spinal cord anaesthesia is an occasional
symptom, but in such cases it is usually limited in extent,
involving a limb or a definite area of the body's surface Com-
plete anaesthesia occurs in a state of catalepsy or trance—
conditions associated with no definite lesion of the nervous
system
The artificial induction of anaesthesia has come to occupy a
foremost place in modern medicine, but there is abundant
evidence to show that it is a practice of great antiquity Besides
the mention by Homer of the anaesthetic effects of nepenthe, and
the reference by Herodotus to the practice of the Scythians of
inhaling the vapours of a certain kind of hemp to produce
intoxication, the employment of anaesthetics in surgery by the
use of mandragora is particularly alluded to by Dioscorides and
Pliny It also appears, from an old Chinese manuscript laid
before the French Academy by Stanislas Julien, that a physician
named Hoa-tho, who lived in the 3rd century, gave his patients
a preparation of hemp, whereby they were rendered insensible
during the performance of surgical operations. Mandragora was
extensively used as an anaesthetic by Hugo de Lucca, who
practised in the 13th century The soporific effects of mandrake
are alluded to by Shakespeare, who also makes frequent mention
of anaesthetizing draughts, the composition of which is not
specified.
In the Medical Gazette, vol xii p. 515. Dr Sylvester, quoting
from a German work by Meissner, published in 1782, mentions
the case of Augustus, king of Poland, who underwent amputation
while rendered insensible by a narcotic But the practice of
anaesthesia never became general, and surgeons appear to have
usually regarded it with disfavour When, towards the close of
the 18th century, the discoveries of Priestley gave an impetus to
chemical research, the properties of gases and vapours began to
be more closely investigated, and the belief was then entertained
that many of them would become of great medicinal value In
1800, Sir Humphry Davy, experimenting on nitrous oxide (the
so-called " laughing gas "). discovered its anaesthetic properties,
and described the effects it had on himself when inhaled with
the view of relieving local pain He suggested its employment
in surgery in the following words:—" As nitrous oxide, in its
extensive operation, seems capable of destroying physical pain,
it may probably be used with advantage in surgical operations
in which no great effusion of blood takes place " His suggestion,
however, remained unheeded for nearly half a century The
inhalation of sulphuric ether for the relief ol asthma and other
lung affections had been employed by Dr Pearson of Birmingham
as early as 1785; and in 1805 Dr J C Warren of Boston. USA
used this treatment in the later stages of pulmonary consumption
In 1818 Faraday showed that the inhalation of the vapour of
ether produced anaesthetic effects similar to those of nitrous
oxide; and this property of ether was also shown by the
American physicians. John D Godman 08«) James Jackson
(1833). Wood and Bacbe (1834)
These observations, however, appear to have been regarded
in the light of mere scientific curiosities and subjects for lecture
rodra experiment, rather than as facts capable of being applied
practically in the treatment of disease, till December 1844. when
Dr Horace Wells, a dentist of Hartford, Connecticut, underwent
908
ANAESTHESIA
in his own person the operation of tooth-extraction whik rendered
insensible by nitrous oxide Satisfied, from further experience,
that teeth could be extracted in this way without pain, Dr Wells
proposed to establish the practice of painless dentistry under the
influence of the gas; but in consequence of an unfortunate failure
in an experiment at Boston he abandoned the project. On the
30th of September 1846 Dr W T G. Morton, a dentist of Boston,
employed the vapour of ether to procure general anaesthesia
in a case of tooth-extraction, and thereafter administered it in
cases requiring surgical operation with complete success This
great achievement marked a new era in surgery Operations were
performed in America in numerous instances under ether in-
halation, the result being only to establish more firmly its value
as a successful anaesthetic The news of the discovery reached
England on the 1 7th of December 1846 On the 1 gth of December
Mr Robinson, a dentist in London, and on the aist Robert Liston,
the eminent surgeon, operated on patients anaesthetized by
ether, and the practice soon became general both in Great
Britain and on the continent.
Sir James Simpson was the first to apply anaesthesia by ether
to midwifery practice, this he did in 1847, and found that the
pains of labour could be abolished without interference with
uterine contractions or injury to the child. On the 8th of March
1847 M J P Flourens read a paper before the Academie des
Sciences on the effect of chloroform on the lower animals, but no
notice was taken of what has since proved to be a discovery of
epoch-making importance In November of the same year
Simpson announced his discovery of the anaesthetic properties
of chloroform, the trial of which had been suggested to him
by Waldie. a chemist of Liverpool As the result, chloroform
came to be widely used instead of ether, though it was found
by several casualties that it was not the absolutely safe anaes-
thetic that had at first been hoped It, however, remained the
drug that was chiefly used till Dr J T Clover (1825-1882)
of London introduced his regulating ether-inhaler in 1876,
embodying a new principle — that of limiting the quantity of
air during etherization and regulating the strength of the vapour
During the intervening period, as the results of the labours of
John Snow, Sir Benjamin Ward Richardson, Thomas Nunnely.
and Colton amongst others, several drugs were found to possess
anaesthetic properties. Of these one, ethyl chloride, which was
speedily given up, has come into deserved prominence at the
present time, and another, nitrous oxide, which had been lost
sight of since Wells's failure at Boston, was reintroduced, and
it became and has remained the most popular anaesthetic in
dental practice.
Since 1876 no new drugs have been introduced, the progress
has been in the direction of improvements in the technique of
anaesthctization. The most important of these is the administra-
tion of oxygen with nitrous oxide, resulting from the recogni-
tion of the fact that this drug does not owe its anaesthetic
properties to partial asphyxia, as was thought till the contrary
was shown by Edmund Andrews of Chicago in 1868 It was not
till twenty years later that this knowledge was put to practical
use, when F W Hewctt introduced his regulating stopcock,
which enabled the anaesthetist to exhibit the nitrous oxide and
oxygen in such proportions as were demanded by the patient's
condition At the present time the anaesthetics in common
use are the following.—
(1 ) Nitrous oxide gas, or laughing gas, NjO This is a colour-
less, odourless gas, which for convenience is carried about in
liquid form in iron cylinders. When about to be used, it is
allowed to escape into a large rubber bag, connected with a closely-
fitting face-piece, which covers up the nose and mouth, and allows
of inspiration only from the bag of gas, expiration being into the
air When thus given the patient is exposed to a certain degree
of asphyxia This asphyxia is not only not necessary but is
harmful, and may be obviated by giving oxygen in small amounts
simultaneously by means of Hewett's regulating stopcock. This
drug is used chiefly for dental operations, and for minor surgery
where absolute muscular relaxation is not required. When
mixed with oxygen, it can be given if necessary for an hour or
longer It has an induction period of * few breaths only, and
the recovery is as a rule unaccompanied by excitement or
nausea. It is also used as a preliminary to ether; the gas is
given till unconsciousness is reached, the unpleasant taste of the
ether being thus avoided and the induction period shortened
The mortality from nitrous oxide is small, and from the gas
and oxygen in expert hands niL
(2) Ethyl chloride, C*H»C1, a colourless liquid of a pleasant
odour, boiling at 1 a. 5 C It isusedm the same class of operatins
as the last anaesthetic. It is best given in an apparatus that
consists of a mask closely adapted to the face, and a rubber bag
of small capacity, with which is connected the bottle coo taming
the ethyl chloride The vapour supplied from the bottk is
breathed backwards and forwards from the bag, fresh air besg
admitted in small quantities only The period of jnductiaa
is shorter than in the case of nitrous oxide, the patient losing
consciousness in two or three breaths, the stage of recovery
is not so uniformly pleasant, headache, nausea and vomiting
occurring not infrequently It is difficult at present to estimate
the mortality, as it has only recently come into general use, bat
it seems to occupy an intermediate position between ether and
chloroform
(3) Ether, or ethyl oxide, (C,H 4 )A a colourless, volatile
liquid, boiling at 36 5° C It has a pungent odour It is best
administered, as in the case of ethyl chloride, by Emiting the
amount of air during inhalation The induction is much slower
than in the case of the last two drugs, and it is accompanied by
a feeling of suffocation, owing to the pungent odour of the ether.
On that account tho anaesthetic is best started with nitrous
oxide or ethyl chloride The recovery is always marked by son*
nausea and very frequently by vomiting The mortality is small
during the actual operation, but fatalities from respiratory
complications later on are not uncommon.
(4) Chloroform, CHCIj, a colourless liquid of a penetrating
odour, boiling at 63° C It is administered in such a way as to
ensure the free admixture of air To secure this the face-piece
must be loosely-fitting, and the strength of the vapour so
gradually increased that the patient is never inconvenienced or
impelled to hold the breath. The induction is slow, occupying
two or more minutes, but it is not at all unpleasant; nausea
and vomiting during recovery are rarer than in the case of ether,
but if they do occur they last longer The mortality on the table
is about 1 in 2500
The question as to which is the better anaesthetic, ether or
chloroform, for long operations, is a moot point. In the hands
of an experienced anaesthetist there is probably nothing to
choose as regards safety, and the anaesthetic advantages of the
latter are incontestable In the hands of the less-experienced
anaesthetist, ether is the more suitable drug. At the extremes of
life, chloroform is well tajten, as it is also by women in labour,
and it is indicated where there has been recent inflammation of
the air passages. In operations, too, about the mouth .chJoroiorn
must be the drug used, as a closely-fitting mask b obviously
impossible
The introduction by inhalation of any of the above drugs
into the organism produces an anaesthesia, the degree of which
at any moment varies directly as the amount or tension of the
vapour in the blood, and therefore also as the tension of the
vapour in the inspired air. The organism in this case may be
compared to an electric lamp, of which the voltage is, say 100.
a current of any less voltage will only produce a red heat, however
many amperes are forced through, with the voltage at too the
filament will be white hot, at over 100 the filament will fuse.
So with these drugs: with the vapour at a low tension a certai*
low depth of anaesthesia is obtained, if the administrator
increases the tension, true surgical anaesthesia is produced,
if he increases it again, the filament fuses and the patient dies
This is the principle which guides the anaesthetist; it is the
quality of the vapour that decides the depth of the anaesthesia,
not the quantity. An infinite quantity of chloroform may be
absorbed with impunity if the tension be low, but a few drops
will kill if the tension be high. For practical purposes four
ANAESTHESIA
909
degrees of anaesthesia are described, through which a patient
passes from unconsciousness to (in the last resort) death:—
(1) A state of disordered consciousness, with analgesia; the
patient's ideas are confused, the special senses are disturbed,
and though the application of stimuli to the skin causes no
mental impression, yet in response to them there may be what
look like purposeful movements.
(a) In the second stage there is complete loss of consciousness,
and though the reflexes persist, the movements in response to
the stimuli are purposeless. The muscles generally act strongly.
(3) The stage of surgical anaesthesia; there is a general
muscular relaxation, with the loss of many of the reflexes, **.«.
an operation may be performed without evoking any movement
on the part of the patient, while the vital reflexes and the vital
centres in the medulla are still active,- and the heart muscle
is not paralysed.
(4) Finally, the stage of paralysis of the medulla, when the
respiratory and circulatory centres are paralysed, and the heart
muscle itself is poisoned and death ensues.
The aim of the anaesthetist is to keep the patient in the third
Jegree of anaesthesia, thus avoiding the movements of the
second and the dangers of the fourth; he therefore keeps the
xitient under close observation, and by watching the respiration,
>ulse and facial aspect, is able to judge the condition of the
aspiration and circulation. He has a further guide in the lid-
eflex, i.e. the movement ot the eyelid when the globe is touched;
his and the size of the pupil tell him to what extent the central
tervous system is depressed and complete the information he
equires.
It will have been observed that the administration of the above
[rugs is by inhalation, and has to be continued throughout the
peration, the reason being that all the drugs are as rapidly
xcreted as they are absorbed, especially by the lungs, and
herefore no other method would be of any avail. That there
re drugs which are sufficiently slowly eliminated to allow of an
peration being performed between the moment of induction
nd that of recovery, cannot be doubted, and their discovery and
se can only be a matter of time. Even at the present time
lcre is one, urcthane, which, if injected with a hypodermic needle,
>on produces a profound general anaesthesia. It has only been
scd on the lower animals, as its depressing effect on the re-
>iratory centre contra-indicates its use in human beings.
Local Anaesthesia.— Much attention has recently been devoted
1 the discovery of methods by which the insensibility may be
tnnned to the area of operation and the loss of consciousness
roided. Such a procedure has been common for many years
r small operations, but it is only lately that it has been success-
lly applied to the severer ones. It is very doubtful whether
caJ anaesthesia will ever replace general in the latter class,
bough the preliminary starvation is avoided, and the patient
ls the shock of operation alone to recover from, without the
rdiac depression resulting from the anaesthetic during
c operation, the patient, unless of a very apathetic tempera-
rnt, is in that state of severe nervous strain, when any un-
pected movement or remark, or sight of a soiled instrument,
ly produce an alarming or fatal syncope. The earliest local
aesthetic was cold, produced by a mixture of ice and salt. In
ice of this cumbersome method, the skin is now frozen by
rans of a fine spray of ether or ethyl chloride directed upon
The spraying is discontinued when the skin becomes white,
d it is then allowed to regain its colour. The moment this
rurs the incision is made and will be quite painless. The
overy, like that from any other frost-bite, is very painful, and
: time during which an operation can be done is very short; con-
luently this method has been very largely superseded by the
; of drugs. The drugs chiefly used are cocaine and its de-
atives. Cocaine has by far the highest anaesthetic properties;
is, however, in certain individuals a most powerful cardiac
>rcssant and has caused numerous fatalities, and further, it
mot be sterilized by heat, as it undergoes decomposition,
caine has now largely taken its place, though its anaesthetic
perties are less; it is, however, less toxic, and can be
sterilized by heat In combination with these drugs there is
usually given some of the extract of the suprarenal body of the
sheep; this substance increases and prolongs the anaesthetic
effect by constricting the blood-vessels, the result of which is to
reduce the haemorrhage, and also to prevent the too rapid
absorption of the drug into the general system, confining it to
the area of operation.
The chief methods of bringing about local anaesthesia are as
follows:—
(1) Painting or spraying a solution of the drugs on to the area
on which it is proposed to operate.
(a) Injection by means of a needle of the solution into the skin
and the deeper structures.
(5) Spinal analgesia. The method of inducing analgesia by
injecting solutions into the sheath surrounding the spinal cord
was devised by Bier in 1808, and for the purpose he employed a
solution of cocaine. It was found, however, that there was con-
siderable danger with this drug, so the method was not adopted
to any great extent, until Fourneau discovered stovaine in 1904.
The principle involved in spinal anaesthesia is this: that a
substance in solution is injected into the sac containing the
spinal cord in the lumbar region. The spinal cord as such ends
at the level of the first lumbar vertebra in a leash of nerves
termed the cauda equina. When giving an injection there is
little danger of injuring these nerves because in this situation
there is a space filled with fluid between the wall of the sac and
the nerves. The substances injected, by virtue of their specific
action on nervous tissues, cause loss of painful sensations in the
lower limbs and for a variable distance up the trunk. It has
been found that the specific gravity of the solution injected hat
some influence on the height to which the analgesia will extend up
the trunk, and this distance can also be controlled by altering the
position of the patient The canal in which the cord is situated
is not a straight tube, but is curved backwards in the sacral
and upper dorsal regions, and forwards in the lower dorsal and
lumbar regions. Therefore with the patient lying on his back, any
solution injected that has a greater specific gravity than that
of the cerebrospinal fluid which bathes the cord, tends to gravitate
towards the sacral and upper dorsal regions; and, conversely,
any solution of lower specific gravity than that of the cerebro-
spinal fluid tends to rise and produce analgesia at a still higher
level. In this way the situation of the fluid producing analgesia
can be controlled to some extent It has been found that a very
serious danger exists if the solution passes up to the brain, or even
if it passes higher than the sixth cervical nerve. It is important
that the osmotic pressure of the solutions employed should be
as nearly as possible that of the cerebrospinal fluid, that is to say,
the nearer the solution is isotonic with the cerebrospinal fluid,
the better will be the analgesia, and the less will be the harmful
effects. At present it has not been found possible to separate
in any of the substances ernployed the radicle which produces
motor effects from that which blocks the advent of sensory
stimuli. Although both effects last only a short time there
seems to be a certain risk due to the temporary muscular par-
alysis, and in a patient with a tendency to bronchitis this is a
matter of considerable moment
The fluid is injected in the following manner. A puncture is
made with a special trocar and canula in the lumbar region be-
tween the second and third or third and fourth lumbar spines. The
sheath of the sac having been entered, as is evidenced by the loss
of resistance to the point of the trocar, and by the fact that
cerebrospinal fluid escapes when the trocar is withdrawn, the dose
of the fluid selected is injected through the canula, which is then
withdrawn. An important point is that the operation must be
absolutely aseptic; great care is taken to sterilize thoroughly
the instruments, site of operation and fluid used. The patient
is placed in that position which will yield the best and safest
analgesia for the operation; it is essential, however, that the
patient's head be raised well above the level of the spine. The
injection is followed very quickly, generally within three to five
minutes, by the production of analgesia, which lasts for a period
varying from half an hour to two hours. Various substances have
gio
ANAGNIA— ANAGRAM
been used for the injection, of which the following are the chief
— tropacocaine, stovaine, novocainc, cocaine, cucainc end alypin.
All of these have been combined with adrenalin hydrochloride
with a view to limiting their action in one degree or another;
and also with other inert substance* in such quantity as will
produce isotonic solutions of relatively high specific gravity.
The points in favour of this method of producing analgesia are
as follows: (a) The patient is not rendered unconscious, and is
often able to assist at his own operation, such as by coughing or
moving his b'mbs in any way as may be desired, (ft) There are
no troublesome after-effects, such as nausea, vomiting and thirst.
(c) The formation of haematoma is less frequent. (</) Surgical
shock is considerably lessened, especially in such operations as
amputations and severe abdominal emergencies. («) The risk
attending a general anaesthetic is avoided.
The disadvantages at present attending the method are: (a)
A severe form of headache may sometimes follow, but this has
seemed to depend on the kind of fluid injected, and in the recent
cases has not been so frequent as in the early ones, (ft) The
paralysis of muscles. In a very few cases this has been permanent.
The temporary paralysis of the muscles of respiration is apt to be
a serious matter, (c) Occasionally incontinence of urine and
faeces occurs; this, however, has not been p e rm a n ent except in
a few of the earlier cases. (</) The uncertainty of the method, so
that the analgesia b not always as complete as is desirable, (e)
The analgesia for safety must be limited to a line below the level
of the second rib in front. (/) The use of the Trendelenburg
position is impossible, or indeed the use of any position which
involves lowering the patient's head.
It would appear that the method undoubtedly has its uses, and
that it will take its place in surgery and find its proper level. A
large amount of work is being done on the subject, with a view of
determining the limitations and possibilities of the method, the
best kind of substance to use and the proper dose to employ.
Finally, a large number of operations have been performed
under a local anaesthesia produced by hypnotism (q.v), but this
is a method that can only be used on selected cases. (H. C. C.)
ANAGNIA [mod. Anagni; pop. (iooi) 10,050], an ancient
town of the Hernid, situated on a hill (1558 ft.) above the valley
of the Trerus and the Via Labicana (the post-station 3 m. below
the town, from which a branch road ascended to it, was Com-
pitum Anagninum, which was 40 m. E.S.E. of Rome: see T.
Ashby, in Papers of the British School at Some, I 2x5). In 1880
a pre-Aryan grave was found between the town and the river,
with a skeleton painted red, stone implements and a bronze
dagger. After the Italian immigration, its position in a fertile
district soon gave it importance, and it became the seat of the
assembly of the Hernican towns. In the war of 306 B.C. it was
conquered by Q. Mardus Tremulus and lost its independence.
Its inhabitants had certainly acquired Roman dtizenship before
the Sotial War and it continued to be a municipium throughout
the Roman period. It was besieged by the Saracens in 877, but
in the nth century was a place of considerable importance, the
Conti and Gaetani being the chief families; Pope Boniface VIII.,
a member of the latter, was there made prisoner in 1303. The
andent dty walls are in some points still existing, in others they
have been much restored; they are built of rectangular blocks
of porous limestone about i|fL high. On the north of the town
they are especially well-preserved, and at one point the area
within them is slightly extended by a terrace supported by three
lofty pillars. Within the city there are no ancient remains,
except some massive substruction walls which supported build-
ings on the hillside. The present town still preserves in parts its
medieval aspect The cathedral, constructed in 1074 at the
summit of the hill, is externally plain; it has a fine Gothic
interior, somewhat spoilt by restoration, with a good Cosmati
pavement, and a canopy and paschal candlestick in the same
style. The crypt contains frescoes of the 13th century, and in
the treasury are valuable vestments. Lower down is the Palazzo
Civico, belonging to the nth or early iath century, which is
supported on arches of a single span, under which the road passes.
Its posterior facade is fine. Pope Adrian IV. (Nicholas Break-
speare) died here, and. there is a chapel of St 1
the crypt of the cathedral
See L. Pigorini. in BulUtltnodiPaUtmdogio Italian* (r88n. 8 sea.).
I. Kulakowski, in Atti id Congress* In ttr ma t io meU di Semmm St-**
(Rome, 1904), v. 673 seq. (T. As.)
ANAGRAM (Gr. e>d, back, and Tpa+eur, to write), the res*
of transposing the letters of a word or words in such a manner as
to produce other words that possess meaning. The oosstrcctica
of anagrams is an amusement of great antiquity, its inveutioe
being ascribed without authority to the Jews, probably because
the later Hebrew writers, particularly the Kahhalwta, were foad
of it, asserting that " secret mysteries are woven in the rmrahm
of letters." Anagrams were known to the Greeks and also to the
Romans, although the known Latin examples of words of man
than one syllable are nearly all imperfect. They were popakr
throughout Europe during the middle ages and later, partkukdy
in France, where a certain Thomas Billon was appointed " ant-
grammatist to the king "by Louis XIIL W. Camden (Aeaonr.
7th ed., 1674) defines " Anagrammatisme " as " a dissolution cf
a name truly written into his letters, as his dement s, and a sew
connection of it by artificial transposition, without addition,
subtraction or change of any letter, into different words, rnakicg
some perfect sence applyable to the person named." Drrdea
disdainfully called the pastime the " torturing of one poor word
ten thousand ways," but many men and women of note fca>e
found amusement in iL A well-known anagram is the change of
Ave Maria, gratia plena, Domimu tecmnuuxto Virgo strata, pit,
munda el immaculata. Among others are the anagrmmmatk
answer to Pilate's question, "Quid est Veritas t "—namely, m Ms.
tir qui adest "; and the transposition of " Horatio Nelson M sue
" Honor estaNUo "; and of " Florence Nightingale " into " Fat
on, cheering angd." James L's courtiers discovered m M Jams
Stuart" "A just master," and converted "Charles James
Stuart " into " Claimes Arthur's seat." " Eleanor Andcky,"
wife of Sir John Davies, is said to have been brought before the
High Commission in 1634 for extravagances, stimulated by tat
discovery that her name could be transposed to M Reveale,
Danid," and to have been laughed out of court by another
anagram submitted by the dean of the Arches, " Dame Eleanor
Davies," " Never soe mad a ladie." There must be few names
that could furnish so many anagrams as that of w Augustas de
Morgan," who tells that a friend had constructed about 800 on hs
name, specimens of which are given in his Budget 0/ Paradsxes,
p. 8a. The pseudonyms adopted by authors are often transposed
forms, more or less exact, of their names; thus " Carvincs •
becomes "Alcuinus"; "Francois Rabelais," "Akotnhts
Nasier "; " Bryan Waller Proctor," " Barry Cornwall, poet ' ;
" Henry Rogers," "R.E.H. Greyson," &c. It is to be noted
that the last two are impure anagrams, an u r " being left out is
both cases. " Telliamed," a simple reversal, is the title of a well-
known work by " De MailleL" The most remarkable pseudonyai
of this class is the name "Voltaire," which the odebrsud
philosopher assumed instead of his family name, " Francois Mart
Arouet," and which is now generally allowed to be an anagram ~"
" Arouet, l.j.," that is, Arouet the younger. Perhaps the oa'f
practical use to which anagrams have been turned is to be foaei
in the transpositions in which some of the astronomers of the 1 r*i
century embodied their discoveries with the design apparent^
of avoiding the risk that, while they were engaged in further veri-
fication, the credit of what they had found out might be claimed
by others. Thus Galileo announced his discovery that Veea
had phases like the moon in the form, "Haee 1
janfrustro leguntur—cy" that is, " Cynthiae Jigmras t
Mater Amorum."
Another spedes of anagram, called " palindrome " (Gr. **!*»,
back, and 6>6/iot, running), is a word or sentence which may te
read backwards as well as forwards, letter by letter, while pre-
serving the same meaning; for example, the words u Anna,' 1
noon," " tenet," or the sentence with which Adam is humorously
supposed to have greeted Eve: M Madam, I'm Adam J"
A still more complicated variety is the " logogram " (Gr.
\byot, word), a versified puzzle containing several words derived
ANAH— ANAHUAC
gix
from recombiniag the letters of the original word, the difficulty
lying in the (act that synonyms of the derived words may be
used. Thus, if the original word be •'curtain," the word " dog w
may be used instead of " cur."
ANAH, or 'Ana, a town on the Euphrates, about mid-way
between the Gulf of AlezandretU and the Persian Gulf. It is
called tfanat in a Babylonian letter (about aaoo B.C.), and An-at
by the scribe of Assur-nasir-pal (879 B.C.), 'Aral* (Isidore
Charax), Anathi (Ammianus Marcellinus) by Greek and Latin
writers in the early Christian centuries, 'Ana (sometimes, as if
plural, 'Aalt) by Arabic writers. The name has been connected
with that of the deity Anat. Whilst 'Ana has thus retained its
name for forty-one centuries the site is variously described.
Most early writers concur in placing it on an island; so Assur-
usir-pal, Isidore, Ammianus Marcellinus, Ibn Serapion, al-
[st&kri, Abulfeda and al-fcaramant Ammianus (/#. 24, c a)
alls it s munimentum, Theopbylactus Simocatta (iv. 10, v. i, a)
6 'Aroflwr tpoftpor, Zosimus (iiL 14) a d>pobf*ov, opp. vomwot,
rhich may be the BcKoV* of Ptolemy (v. 10). 1 Leonhart
lauwolff, in aj>. 1 574, found it " divided . . . into two towns,"
m one " Turkish," " so surrounded by the river, that you cannot
> into it but by boats," the other, much larger, on the Arabian
de of the river.* G. A. Olivier in the beginning of the 19th
ntury describes it as a long street (5 or 6 m. long), parallel to
c right bank of the Euphrates— some 100 yards from the
iter's edge and 300 to 400 paces from the rocky barrier of the
-abian desert— with, over against its lower part, an island
aring at its north end the ruins of a fortress (p. 451).
This southernmost town of Mesopotamia proper (Geafro) must
ve shared the chequered history of that land (see Mesopo-
«a). Of 'Ana's fortunes under the early Babylonian empire
i records have not yet been unearthed; but in a letter dating
m the third millennium B.C., six men of Hanat (Ha-na«at K1 )
mentioned in a statement as to certain disturbances which
I occurred in the sphere of the Babylonian Resident of Suhi,
ich would include the district of 'Ana. How 'Ana fared at the
tds of the Mitanni and others is unknown. The suggestion
t Amenophis (Amenhotep) L (16th century B.C.) refers to it
nprobable; but we seem to be justified in holding 'Ana to be
town " in the middle of the Euphrates " opposite (mm put)
hich Assur-nasir-pal halted in his campaign of 879 B.C. The
josed reference to 'Ana in the speech put into the mouth
iennacherib's messengers to Hesekiah (a Kings six. 13,
exxvii. 13) is exceedingly improbable. The town may be
tioned, however, in four 7th century documents edited by
:. W. Johns.' It was at 'Ana that the emperor Julian met the
opposition on his disastrous expedition against Persia (363),
1 he got possession of the place and transported the people;
there that Ziyad and Shureib with the advanced guard of
. army were refused passage across the Euphrates (36/657)
in 'Ali in Mesopotamia (Tabari L 3361). Later 'Ana was
>Iace of exile of the caliph Qaim (al-Q&im bi-amr-illih)
Baslslri was in power (450/1058). In the 14th century
was the seat of a Catholicos, primate of the Persians (Marin
to). In 1610 Delia Valle found a Scot, George Strachan,
nt at 'Ana (to study Arabic) as physician to the amir
1-681). In 1835 the steamer " Tigris " of the English
rates expedition went down in a hurricane just above
near where Julian's force had suffered from a similar storm.
Valle described 'Ana as the chief Arab town on the
-ates, an importance which it owes to its position on one of
jtes from the west to Bagdad; Texdra said that the power
amir extended to Palmyra (early 17th century); but
- found the ruling prince with only twenty-five men in his
, the town becoming more depopulated every day from
protection from the Arabs of the desert. Von Oppenheim
reported that Turkish troops having been recently
ed at the place, it had no longer to pay blackmail {kuwwa)
>h. Byz. (sub Tfrpot) lays that Arrian calls Anatha Tajst.,
cira (i 610) says that Anna" lay on both banks of the river,
Delia Valle (L 671).
. Deeds and Dot. nos. S3, 168, aa8, 385. The characters
; OJS TU, which may mean Ana-tu.
to the Arabs. F. R. Chancy reported some 1800 houses, 9
mosques and 16 water-wheels; W. F. Ainsworth (1835) reported
the Arabs as inhabiting the N. W. part of the town, the Christians
the centre, and the Jews the S.E.; Delia Valle (1610) found some
sun-worshippers still there.
Modern "Ana lies from W. to E. on the right bank along a bend
of the river just before it turns S. towards Hit, and presents an
attractive appearance. It extends, chiefly as a single street, for
several miles along a narrow strip of land between the river and
a ridge of rocky hills. The bouses are separated from one another
by fruit gardens. 'Ana marks the boundary between the olive
(N.) and the date (S.). Arab poets celebrated its wine (Yiqut,
iiL 593 f.), and Mustaufi (8/14U1 century) tells of the fame of its
palm-groves. In the river, facing the town, is a succession of
equally productive islands. The most easterly contains the
ruins of the old castle, whilst the remains of the ancient Anatho
extend from this island for about a m. down the left bank.
Coarse doth is almost the only manufacture.
Bibliogxafhy.— In addition to the authorities cited above may
be mentioned: G. A. Olivier, Voyage dans Vimpire oikoman, &*c,
Hi- 450-459 (1807); Carl Ritter. Erdkunde von As ten, vil b.. pp. 716-
726 (1844); W. F. Ainsworth, Euphrates Expedition, i. 401-418
(1888). Fqr a map see sheet 5 of the atlas accompanying Chesnev's
AN AHUM, a dty of Orange county, California, U.S.A., about
94 m. S.E. of Los Angeles, about is m. from the Pacific Ocean,
and about $ m. from the Santa Ana river. (1000) 1456;
(1910) 2628. It is served by the Atchison, Topeka & Santa F6,
and the Southern Pacific railways. It lies in a fine fruit region, in
which oranges, lemons, apricots, grapes and walnuts are raised.
The plain on which it is laid out, now fertile and well-watered,
was originally an arid waste. Water for irrigation is obtained
from the Santa Ana river, about 15 m. above the nearest point
along the river to the dty. The dty itself has an area of only
1} sq. m., and in 1908 the population of the district, including
that of the dty, was estimated at 500a The principal manu-
factures are dried and canned fruits, wine, beer, and agricultural
implements. Anaheim is of particular interest as the earliest,
of various settlements in southern California in which co-opera-
tion has made possible the establishment of intensive fruit
culture in semi-desert regions. In 1857 fifty Germans (mostly
mechanics) organized in San Francisco the Los Angeles Vineyard
Association and bought 1165 acres of land here which could be
irrigated from the Santa Ana river; each member took posses*'
sion of a 20 acre share only when gradual improvement had made
everything ready for occupancy and the tracts had been dis-|
tributed by lot, with bonuses or rebates to equalize them in value
to the drawers. This ended the co-operative feature of the
enterprise, which was never communistic except that its irrigat-
ing canal remained common property. The settlement was
uninterruptedly successful, and was influential as a pioneer
experiment. Anaheim was incorporated as a town in 1870; this
incorporation was revoked in 1872; in 1878 the town was incor-
porated again; and in x888 Anahdm recdved a dty charter.
ANAHUAC, a geographical district of Mexico, limited by the
traditional and vagudy defined boundaries of an andent Indian
empire or confederation of that name previous to the Spanish
conquest. The word is said to signify " country by the waters "
in the old Aztec language; hence the theory that Anihuac was
located on the sea coast. One of the theories relating to the
location of Anihuac describes It as all the plateau region of
Mexico, with an area equal to three-fourths of the republic, and
extending between the eastern and western coast ranges from
Rio Grande to the isthmus of Tehuantepec A more exact
description, however, limits it to the great plateau valley in
which the dty of Mexico is located, between 18° 4c/ and ao° 30'
N. 1st, about 200 m. long by 75 m. wide, with an average eleva-
tion of 7500 ft., and a mean temperature of 62°. The accepted
meaning of the name fits this region as well as any on the sea
coast, as the lakes of this valley formerly covered one-tenth of its
area. The existence of the name in southern Utah, United
States, and on the gulf coast of Mexico, has given rise to theories
of other locations and wider bounds for the old Indian empire.
912
ANALCITE— ANALYSIS
ANALCITB, a commonly occurring mineral of the zeolite
group. It crystallizes in the cubic system, the common form
being the icositetrahedron (211), either alone (fig. x) or in
combination with the cube (100); sometimes the faces of the
cube predominate in size, and its corners are each replaced by
three small triangular faces representing the icositetrahedron
(fig. 2). Although cubic in form, analcite usually shows feeble
double refraction, and is thus optically anomalous. This
feature of analcite has been much studied, Sir David Brewster
in 1826 being the earliest investigator. Crystals of analcite are
often perfectly colourless and transparent with a brilliant glassy
lustre, but some are opaque and white or pinkish-white. The
hardness of the mineral is 5 to 5 J, and its specific gravity is 2-25.
Chemically, analcite is a hydrated sodium and aluminium
silicate, NaAlSiid+HiO; small amounts of the sodium being
sometimes replaced by calcium or by potassium. The water of
crystallization is readily expelled by heat, with modification, of
the optical characters of the crystals. Before the blowpipe
the mineral readily fuses with intumescence to a colourless glass.
It is decomposed by acids with separation of gelatinous silica.,
Fie. 1.
Fig. a.
, Analcite usually occurs, associated with other zeolitk minerals,
lining amygdaloidal cavities in basic volcanic rocks such as
basalt and melaphyre, and especially in such as have undergone
alteration by weathering; the Tertiary basalts of the north
of Ireland frequently contain cavities lined with small brilliant
crystals of analcite. Larger crystals of the same kind are found
in the basalt of the Cyclopean Islands (Scogli de* Ciclopi or
Faraglioni) N.E. of Catania, Sicily. Large opaque crystals
of the pinkish-white colour are found in cavities in melaphyre
at the Seisser Alpe near Schlem in southern Tirol. In all such
cases the mineral is clearly of secondary origin, but of late years
another mode of occurrence has been recognized, analcite having
been found as a primary constituent of certain igneous rocks
such as monchiquite and some basalts. The irregular grains,
of which it has the form, had previously been mistaken for glass.
r Owing to the fact that analcite often crystallizes in cubes,
It was long known as cubic zeolite or as cuboite. The name now
In use was proposed in 1797 in the form analcime, by R. J. Hatty,
in allusion to the weak (ayaXxif) electrification of the
mineral produced by friction. Euthallite is a compact, greenish
analcite, produced by the alteration of elaeolite at various
localities in the Langesund-f jord in southern Norway. Eudno-
phite, from the same region, was originally described as an
orthorhombic mineral dimorphous with analcite, but has since
been found to be identical with it Cluthalite, from the Clyde
jClutha) valley, is an altered form of the mineral. (L. J. S.)
ANALOGY (Gr. 6**Soyta, proportion), a term signifying,
(1) in general, resemblance which falls short of absolute similarity
or identity. Thus by analogy, the word "loud," originally
applied to sounds, is used of garments which obtrude themselves
on the attention; all metaphor is thus a kind of analogy. (2)
Euclid used the term for proportionate equality; but in mathe-
matics it is now obsolete except in the phrase, "Napier's
Analogies" in spherical trigonometry (see Napier, John).
(3) In grammar, it signifies similarity in the dominant character-
istics of a language, derivation, orthography and so on. (4) In
logic, it is used of arguments by inference from resemblances
between known, particulars to other particulars which are not
observed. Under the name of "example" (*apa6ct7jia)
the process is explained by Aristotle {Prior Anal, il 4) as an
inference which differs from induction (q.v.) m having a particular,
not a general, conclusion; •'.*. if A is demonstrably like B at
certain respects, it may be assumed to be like it in another,
though the latter is not demonstrated. Kant and his followers
state the distinction otherwise, i.e. induction argues from tat
possession of an attribute by many members of a class that a£
members of the class possess it, while analogy argues thst,
Decause A has some of B's qualities, it must have them all (d.
Sir Wm. Hamilton, Lectures on Logic, u. 165-174, for a sLztt
modification of this view). J. S. Mill very properly rejects this
artificial distinction, which is in practice no distinction at all, at
regards induction and analogy as generically the same, tkoczj
differing in the demonstrative validity of their evidence. Ll
induction proceeds on the basis of scientific, causal connrrira,
while analogy, in absence of proof, temporarily accepts a probable
hypothesis. In this sense, analogy may obviously have a
universal conclusion. This type of inference is of the greates
value in physical science, which has frequently and quite legUi-
mately used such conclusions until a negative instance Las
disproved or further evidence confirmed them (for a list of typical
cases see T. Fowler's edition of Bacon's Nov. Org. Ash. u. n
note). The value of such inferences depends on the nature of
the resemblances on which they are based and on that of the
differences which they disregard. If the resemblances are sbjS
and unimportant and the differences great and fundamental
the argument is known as " False Analogy." The subject a
dealt with in Francis Bacon's Novum Organum, especially E. 77
(see T. H. Fowler's notes) under the head of Instantiae cmforma
site proportionate. Strictly the argument by analogy is based
on similarity of relations between things, not on the similarity
of things, though it is, in general, extended to cover the latter.
See works on Logic, e.g. J. S. Mill, T. H. Fowler, W. S. Jevocs.
For Butler's Analogy and its method see Butlek, Joseph.
The term was used in a special sense by Kant in his phrase. *
"Analogies of Experience," the third and most important grotp
in his classification of the a priori elements of knowledge. By
it he understood the fundamental laws of pure natural science
under the three heads, substantiality, causality, reciprocity
(see F. Paulsen, /. Kant, Eng. trans. 1002, pp. 1S8 if.).
ANALYSIS (Gr. ord and Xfor, to break up into parts) , a
general, the resolution of a whole into its component desneets;
opposed to synthesis, the combining of separate elements or
minor wholes into an inclusive unity. It differs from mere
" disintegration " in proceeding on a definite scientific pha.
In grammar, analysis is the breaking up of a sentence into subject,
predicate, object, &c. (an exercise introduced into English schools
by J. D. Morell about 1852); so the analysis of a book or a tertute
is a synopsis of the main points. The chief technical uses of the
word, which retains practically the same meaning in all the
sciences, are in (1) philosophy, (2) mathematics, (3) chemistry.
(1) Logical analysis is the process of examining into the
connotation of a concept or idea, and separating the attributes
from the whole and each other. It, therefore, does not increase
knowledge, but merely clarifies and tests it. In this sense Kaat
distinguished an analytic from a synthetic judgment, as one k
which the predicate is involved in the essence of the subject.
Such judgments are also known as verbal, as opposed to real
or ampliative judgments. The processes of synthesis and
analysis though formally contradictory are practically supple-
mentary; thus to analyse the connotation is to synthesis trc
denotation of a term, and vice versa; the process of knowledge
involves the two methods, analysis being the corrective of
synthetic empiricism. In a wider sense the whole of formal
logic is precisely the analysis of the laws of thought. Ana-
lytical psychology is distinguished from genetic and empirical
psychology inasmuch as it proceeds by the method of introspective
investigation of mental phenomena instead of by physiological
or psycho-physical experiment. For the relation between
analysis and synthesis on the one hand, and deduction and
induction on the other, see Inouctiok.
(2) In mathematics, analysis has two distinct meanmfv
conveniently termed ancient and modern. Ancient analysis.
ANALYST— ANAPA
913
as described by Pappus, related chiefly to geometrical problems,
and is the method of reasoning from the solution, as taken for
granted, to consequences which are known to be true, whereas
synthesis reasons from known data to the solution. (See
Geometry.)
Modern analysis is practically coeval with Descartes, the
bunder of "analytical geometry/' although the calculus of
general quantities had previously been termed analysis. Many
oathematical subjects are now included under this name, and
re treated in the following articles.*— Geometry, Analytical;
NFINITESIMAL CALCULUS ; DIFFERENTIAL EQUATION; VaKIA-
ioss, Calcolub or; Curve; Surface; Function; Spheri-
vl Hajuionics; Series; Fourier's Series; Groups,
beosy or; Probability.
(j) In Chemistry, the word analysis was introduced by Robert
>yle to denote the determination of the composition of sub-
inces. (See Chemistry, Analytical).
ANALYST, in modern times, a person professionally skilled in
Mnical analysis. He may be called upon, in the discharge of
profession, to analyse a wide range of substances. Apart
m private practitioners and those engaged in large manufac-
ing concerns, analysts employed by public bodies are termed
.lie analysts. In most large manufacturing establishments
re is usually a staff of analysts, whose duty it is primarily to
rise constant watchfulness over the processes of manufacture,
est the purity of the substances used, as well as that of the
! products. The services of analysts are constantly required
idicial enquiries, sometimes in purely criminal cases, some-
s in civil proceedings, such as offences against the customs
rise or under the various British Food and Drugs Acts. In
ase of criminal proceedings, the services of the official analyst
hed to the British Home Office are employed. The inland
lue department has a laboratory at Somerset House, with
7 of analysts, who are engaged in analysing for excise and
purposes. Under the Fertilizers and Feeding Stuffs Act
the Board of Agriculture employs an agricultural chemist,
• duty is the analysis of fertilizers and feeding stuffs,
public analyst " is an analyst appointed by a local authority
e purposes of the Sale of Food and Drugs Acts. He
be possessed of competent medical, chemical and micro-
ti knowledge to analyse all articles of food and drink (see
eration).
LYTIC (the adjective of M analysis," q.v.), according with,
isting in, the method of separating a whole into its parts,
posite of synthetic. For analytic chemistry, analytic
■e, &c, see the articles under the noun-headings. The
dyaAtmxd or Analytics was given by Aristotle to bis
s on logic
f ALAI HILLS, a range of mountains in southern India,
bimbatore district of Madras, lying between io° 13' and
M. lat., and between 76° 52' and 77° 33' E. long., forming
1 of the Western Ghats, after this range has been broken
alghat Pass, south of the Nilgiris. They really consist of
clad and grassy tableland, with summits rising about
; the Anaimudi mountain, which is the highest in
India, having an altitude of 8850 ft. Their geological
1 is metamorphic gneiss, veined with felspar and quarts,
ipersed with reddish porphyrite. The lower slopes yield
teak and other timber; and some land has been taken
ee planting. The only inhabitants are a few wild tribes
>y hunting and collecting jungle produce.
IRPHOSIS (a Gr. word, derived from erd, back,
#, form: the second in the Greek is long, but in
e pronunciation varies), a deformation or distortion of
e; in drawing, the representation of an object as seen,
:e, altered by reflexion in a mirror; in botany, e.g. in
>f fungi or lichens, an abnormal change giving the
5 of a different species.
iEN DAVID* a Persian Jew of the 8th century, and
thin Judaism of the sect of Qaraites (Karaites) which
opposition to the rabbinic tradition. 'Anan was an
d candidate for the dignity of Exilarch, and thus his
opposition to the rabbanite Jews was political as well as theo-
logical. His secession occurred at a moment when the time was
ripe for a reaction against rabbinism, and 'Anan became the
rallying point for many opponents of tradition. (See Qaraites.)
AMANDA, one of the principal discHes of the Buddha (q.v.).
He has been called the beloved' disciple of the Buddhist story.
He was the first cousin of the Buddha, and was devotedly
attached to him. Ananda entered the Order in the second year
of the Buddha's ministry, and became one of his personal
attendants, accompanying him on most of his wanderings and
being the interlocutor in many of the recorded dialogues. He is
the subject of a special panegyric delivered by the Buddha just
before his death (Book of the Great Decease, v. 38); but it is the
panegyric of an unselfish man, kindly, thoughtful for others and
popular; not of the intellectual man, versed in the theory and
practice of the Buddhist system of self-culture. So in the long
list of the disciples given in the Anguttara (i. xiv.) where each of
them is declared to be the chief in some gift, Ananda is mentioned
five times (which is more often than any other), but it is as chief
in conduct and in service to others and in power of memory,
not in any of the intellectual powers so highly prized in the
community. This explains why he had not attained to arahat-
ship; and in the earliest account of the convocation said to have
been held by five hundred of the principal disciples immediately
after the Buddha's death, he was the only one who was not an
arahat (Cullavagga, book xi.). In later accounts this incident
is explained away. Thirty-three verses ascribed to Ananda are
preserved in a collection of lyrics by the principal male and
female members of the order (Tkera Gdthfi, 10x7-1050). They
show a gentle and reverent but simple spirit. (T. W. R. D.)
ANANIAS, the Gr. form of Hananiah, or Ananiah, a name
occurring several times in the Old Testament and Apocrypha
(Neh. iii. 33, 1 Ch. xxv. 33, Tob. v. 12. &c), and three times
in the New Testament. Special mention need be made only of
the bearers of the name in the New Testament. (1) A member
of the first Christian community, who, with bis wife Sapphira,
was miraculously punished by Peter with sudden death for
hypocrisy and falsehood (Acts v. i-xo; cf. Josh. vii. x fi\).
(2) A disciple at Damascus who figures in the story of the con-
version and baptism of Paul (Acts ix. 10-17, zxu. 12-16).
(3) Son of Nedebaios (Jos. Ant. xx. 5. 2), a high priest who
presided during the trial of Paul at Jerusalem and Caesarea
(Acts xxiii. 2, xxiv. 1-5). He officiated as high priest from about
a.d. 47 to 50. Quadratus, governor of Syria, accused him of
being responsible for acts of violence. He was sent to Rome
for trial (a.d. 52), but was acquitted by the emperor Claudius.
Being a friend of the Romans, he was murdered by the people at
the beginning of the Jewish war.
ANANTAPUR, a town and district of India, in the Madras
presidency. The town has a station on the Madras railway, 62 m.
S.E. from Bellary. Pop. (xooi) 7938.
The district of Anantapur was constituted in 1882 out of the
unwieldy district of Bellary. It has an area of 5557 sq. m., and
in its northern and central portions is a high plateau, generally
undulating, with large granite rocks or low bill ranges rising
here and there above its surface. In the southern portion of '
the district the surface is more hilly, the plateau there
rising to 2600 ft. above the sea. There is a remarkable
fortress rock at Gooty, 2 171 ft. above the sea, and a similar but
larger rock at Penukonda, with an elevation equal to that of
Bangalore, about 3100 ft. Gooty fortress was a stronghold of
the Mahrattas, but was taken from them by Hyder ALL In 1 780
it was ceded by Tippoo to the nizam, and in 1800 the nizam
ceded the district of Anantapur with others to the British in pay-
ment for a subsidiary British force. The population in xoox was
788,254, showing an increase of 8 % in the decade. The principal
crops are millet, rice, other food grains, pulse, oil seeds and
cotton. There are several steam factories for pressing cotton-
Two railways traverse the district.
ANAPA, a seaport town of Russia, in the government of
Kuban, on the N. coast of the Black Sea, 45 m. S.E. from the
Strait of Yenikale or Kerch, giving access to the Sea of Azov. It
914
ANAPAEST— ANARCHISM
was originally built in 1 781 as a frontier fortress of the Turks
against Russia. Three times captured by the Russians, in 1791,
1807 and 1828, and twice restored by them, in 1792 and 18x2,
it was finally left in their hands by the treaty of Adrianople in
1829. During the Crimean War its fortifications were destroyed
(1855) by the Russians themselves. Pop. (1897) 6676.
ANAPAEST (from Gr. apdirax*rof, reversed), a metrical foot
consisting of three syllables, the first two short and the third
long and accented; so called as the reverse of a dactyl,
which has the first a long syllable, followed by two short ones.
An anapaestic verse is one which only contains, or is mostly
made up of, anapaestic feet.
ANARCHISM (from the Gr, &p~, and bpxh, contrary to
authority), the name given to a principle or theory of life and
conduct under which society is conceived without government
—harmony in such a society being obtained, not by submission
to law, or by obedience to any authority, but by free agreements
concluded between the various groups, territorial and professional,
freely constituted for the sake of production and consumption,
as also for the satisfaction of the infinite variety of needs and
aspirations of a civilized being. In a society developed on these
lines, the voluntary associations which already now begin to
cover all the fields of human activity would take a still greater
extension so as to substitute themselves for the state in all its
functions. They would represent an interwoven network, com-
posed of an infinite variety of groups and federations of all sizes
and degrees, local, regional, national and international —
temporary or more or less permanent — for all possible purposes:
production, consumption and exchange, communications,
sanitary arrangements, education, mutual protection, defence
of the territory, and so on; and, on the other side, for the
satisfaction of an ever-increasing number of scientific artistic,
literary and sociable needs. Moreover, such a society would
represent nothing immutable. On the contrary— as is seen in
organic life at large — harmony would (it is contended) result
from an ever-changing adjustment and readjustment of equili-
brium between the multitudes of forces and influences, and this
4 adjustment would be the easier to obtain as none of the forces
would enjoy a special protection from the state.
If, it is contended, society were organized on these principles,
man would not be limited in the free exercise of his powers in
productive work by a capitalist monopoly, maintained by the
state; nor would he be limited in the exercise of his will by a
fear of punishment, or by obedience towards individuals or
metaphysical entities, which both lead to depression of initiative
and servility of mind. He would be guided in his actions by
his own understanding, which necessarily would bear the impres-
sion of a free action and reaction between his own self and the
ethical conceptions of his surroundings. Man would thus be
enabled to obtain the full development of all his faculties,
intellectual, artistic and moral, without being hampered by
overwork for the monopolists, or by the servility and inertia
of mind of the great number. He would thus be able to reach
full individualization, which is not possible either under the
present system of individualism, or under any system of state-
socialism in the so-called Vdkstaal (popular state).
The Anarchist writers consider, moreover, that their conception
is not a Utopia, constructed on the a priori method, after a few
desiderata have been taken as postulates. It is derived, they
maintain, from an analysis of tendencies that are at work already,
even though state socialism may find a temporary favour with
the reformers. The progress of modern technics, which wonder-
fully simplifies the production of all the necessaries of life;
the growing spirit of independence, and the rapid spread of free
initiative and free understanding in all branches of activity—
including those which formerly were considered as the proper
attribution of church and state— are steadily reinforcing the
no-government tendency.
As to their economical conceptions, the Anarchists, in common
with all Socialists, of whom they constitute the left wing, maintain
that the now prevailing system of private ownership in land, and
our capitalist production for the sake of profits, represent a
monopoly which runs against both the principles of Justice sai
the dictates of utility. They are the main o bs tacl e «aka
prevents the successes of modern technics from being brought ca
the service of all, so aa to produce general wett-beiag. The
Anarchists consider the wage-system and rurrftalwt produc&a
altogether as an obstacle to progress. But they point oat ate
that the state was, and continues to be, the chief iastraneat
for permitting the few to monopolize the land, and the t^'Vt
to appropriate for themselves a quite dispropo r tionate share «?
the yearly accumulated surplus of production. Cosscqoeatrjr.
while combating the present monopolization of land, ui
capitalism altogether, the Anarchists combat with the time
energy the state, as the main support of that system. Not tHs
or that special form, but the state altogether, whether it be s
monarchy or even a republic governed by means of the rtfcrenbm.
The state organization, having always been, both in andeat
and modern history (Macedonian empire, Roman empire, modem
European states grown up on the ruins of the autonomous abe»\
the instrument for establishing monopolies in favour of the refer.
minorities, cannot be made to work for the destruction of these
monopolies. The Anarchists consider, ther e fo r e , that to haad
over to the state all the main sources of economical life — thehal
the mines, the railways, banking, insurance, and so on — as ahe
the management of all the main branches of industry, in additiea
to all the functions already accumulated in its hands (education,
state-supported religions, defence of the territory, Jrc), wocM
mean to create a new instrument of tyranny. State «■»!»*» r «-
would only increase the powers of bureaucracy and "p'^h"
True progress lies in the direction of decentralization, bock
territorial and functional, in the development of the spirit of
local and personal initiative, and of free federation from the
simple to the compound, in lieu of the present hierarchy from the
centre to the periphery.
In common with most Socialists, the Anarchists recognize
that, like all evolution in nature, the slow evolution of society
is followed from time to time by periods of accelerated evolutkn
which are called revolutions; and they think that the era of
revolutions is not yet dosed. Periods of rapid rhangrt w3
follow the periods of slow evolution, and these periods must be
taken advantage of— not for increasing and widening the povea
of the state, but for reducing them, through the orgaaizanaa
in every township or commune of the local groups of producer!
and consumers, as also the regional, and eventually the
international, federations of these groups.
In virtue of the above principles the Anarchists refuse to be
party to the present state organization and to support it by
infusing fresh blood into it They do not seek to constitute,
and invite the working men not to constitute, political parties
in the parliaments. Accordingly, since the foundation of the
International Working Men's Association in 1864-1866, they
have endeavoured to promote their ideas directly ■"»*^»e** the
labour organizations and to induce those unions to a direct
struggle against capital, without placing their faith in parha-
mentary legislation.
The Historical Development of A nardnsw^—Tht c once p t ion ef
society just sketched, and the tendency which is its dynamic
expression, have always existed in mankind, in opposition a
the governing hierarchic conception and te n dency — now the
one and now the other taking the upper hand at different periods
of history. To the former tendency we owe the evofutkiu, by
the masses themselves, of those institutions— the dan, the
village community, the gild, the free medieval dty — by meaas
of which the masses resisted the encroachments of the con-
querors and the power-seeking minorities. The 1
asserted itself with great energy in the great religious 1
of medieval times, especially in the early movements of the
reform and its forerunners. At the same time it evidently found
its expression in the writings of some thinkers, since the times
of Lao-tsze, although, owing to its non-s ch olastic and popular
origin, it obviously found less sympathy among the schoisa
than the opposed tendency.
As has been pointed out by Prof. AdTer in his GendUca* da
ANARCHISM
915
Smalimus mi Kotmmimus, Aristifcpus (b. c. 430 B.C.),
one of the founders of the Cyrenaic school, already taught that
tic wise must not give up their liberty to the state, and in reply
to a question by Socrates he said that he did not desire to belong
either to the governing or the governed class. Such an attitude,
however, seems to have been dictated merely by an Epicurean
attitude towards the life of the masses.
The best exponent of Anarchist philosophy in ancient Greece
was Zeno (342-267 or 270 B.C.), from Crete, the founder of the
Stoic philosophy, who distinctly opposed his conception of a
ree community without government to the state-Utopia of
'lato. He repudiated the omnipotence of the state, its inter-
ention and regimentation, and proclaimed the sovereignty of the
oral law of the individual— remarking already that, while the
•ccssary instinct of self-preservation leads man to egotism,
ture has supplied a corrective to it by providing man with
other instinct— that of sociability. When men are reasonable
ragb to follow their natural instincts, they will unite across
iron tiers and constitute the Cosmos. They will have no need
law-courts or police, will have no temples and no public
ship, and use no money— free gifts taking the place of the
tanges. Unfortunately, the writings of Zeno have not
bed us and are only known through fragmentary quotations.
ever, the fact that his very wording is similar to the wording
in use, shows how deeply is laid the tendency of human
re of which he was the mouth-piece,
medieval times we find the same views on the state
ssed by the illustrious bishop of Alba, Marco Girolamo Vida,
< first dialogue De dignitate reipublicae (Ferd. Cavalli, in
deW IstUuio Veneto, xiii.; Dr E. Nys, Researches in the
y of Economics). But it is especially in several early
an movements, beginning with the 9th century in Armenia,
the preachings of the early Hussites, particularly Chojecki,
e early Anabaptists, especially Hans Denk (cf. Keller,
bostd dor Wiederi&ufer), that one finds the same ideas
expressed— special stress being laid of course on their
spects.
ais and Fenekra, in their Utopias, have also expressed
'deas, and they were also current in the 18th century
the French Encyclopaedists, as may be concluded from
expressions occasionally met with in the writings of
:, from Diderot's Prejace to the Voyage of Bougainville,
1. However, in all probability such ideas could not be
t then, owing to the rigorous censorship of the Roman
Church.
deas found their expression later during the great
volution. While the Jacobins did all in their power
ze everything in the hands of the government, it
jw, from recently published documents, that the
the people, in their municipalities and " sections,"
♦d a considerable constructive work. They appro-
hemselves the election of the judges, the organization
and equipment for the army, as also for the large
for the unemployed, the management of charities,
They even tried to establish a direct correspondence
36,000 communes of France .through the inter-
special board, outside the National Assembly (cf
Kcroix, Actes de la commune de Paris),
dwin, in his Enquiry concerning Political Justice
), who was the first to formulate the political and
>n cep tions of Anarchism, even though he did not
ic to the ideas developed in his remarkable work,
i, are not a product of the wisdom of our ancestors:
product of their passions, their timidity, their
their ambition. The remedy they offer is worse
Lhcy pretend to cure. If and only if all laws and
olished, and the decisions in the arising contests
sonable men chosen for that purpose, real justice
/ be evolved. As to the state, Godwin frankly
lit ion. A society, he wrote, can perfectly well
ny government: only the communities should
rfectly autonomous. Speaking of property, he
stated that the rights of every one " to every substance capable of
contributing to the benefit of a human being " must be regulated
by justice alone: the substance must go " to him who most
wants it" His conclusion was Communism. Godwin, however,
had not the courage to maintain his opinions. He entirely
rewrote later on his chapter on property and mitigated bis
Communist views in the second edition of Political Justice
(8vo, 1706).
Proudhon was the first to use, in 1840 (Qu'est-ce que la pro-
priety? first memoir), the name of Anarchy with application to
the no-government state of society. The name of " Anarchists "
had been freely applied during the French Revolution by the
Girondists to those revolutionaries who did not consider that the
task of the Revolution was accomplished with the overthrow
of Louis XVI., and insisted upon a series of economical measures
being taken (the abolition of feudal rights without redemption,
the return to the village communities of the communal lands
enclosed since 1669, the limitation of landed property to 120
acres, progressive income-tax, the national organization of
exchanges on a just value basis, which already received a begin-
ning of practical realization, and so on).
Now Proudhon advocated a society without government, and
used the word Anarchy to describe it. Proudhon repudiated,
as is known, all schemes of Communism, according to which
mankind would be driven into communistic monasteries or
barracks, as also all the schemes of state or state-aided Socialism
which were advocated by Louis Blanc and the CoUectivists. When
he proclaimed in his first memoir on property that " Property
is theft," he meant only property in its present, Roman-law,
sense of " right of use and abuse "; in property-rights, on the other
hand, understood in the limited sense of possession, he saw the
best protection against the encroachments of the state. At the
same time he did not want violently to dispossess the present
owners of land, dwelling-houses, mines, factories and so on. He
preferred to attain the same end by rendering capital incapable
of earning interest; and this he proposed to obtain by means of
a national bank, based on the mutual confidence of all those who
are engaged in production* who would agree to exchange among
themselves their produces at cost-value, by means of labour
cheques representing the hours of labour required to produce
every given commodity. Under such a system, which Proudhon
described as " Mutuellisme," all the exchanges of services would be
strictly equivalent. Besides, such a bank would be enabled to
lend money without interest, levying only something like 1 %,
or even less, for covering the cost of administration. Every one
being thus enabled to borrow the money that would be required
to buy a house, nobody would agree to pay any more a yearly
rent for the use of it. A general " soda! liquidation " would
thus be rendered easy, without violent expropriation. The same
applied to mines, railways, factories and so on.
In a society of this type the state would be useless. The chid
relations between citizens would be based on free agreement and
regulated by mere account keeping. The contests might be
settled by arbitration. A penetrating criticism of the state and
all possible forms of government, and a deep insight into all
economic problems, were well-known characteristics of Proudhon's
work.
It is worth noticing that French mutualism had its precursor
in England, in William Thompson, who began by mutualism
before he became a Communist, and in his followers John Gray
{A Lecture on Human Happiness, 1825, The Social System, 1831)
and J. F Bray {Labour's Wrongs and Labour's Remedy, 1839)
It had also its precursor in America. Josiah Warren, who was
born in 1708 (d W. Bailie, Josiah Warren, the Pirst American
Anarchist, Boston, 1000), and belonged to Owen's "New
Harmony," considered that the failure of this enterprise was
chiefly due to the suppression of individuality and the lack of
initiative and responsibility. These defects, he taught, were
inherent to every scheme based upon authority and the com-
munity of goods. He advocated, therefore, complete individual
liberty. In 1827 he opened in Cincinnati a little country store
which was the first " Equity Store," and which the people called
916
ANARCHISM
" Time Store," because it was based on labour being exchanged
hour for hour in all sorts of produce. " Cost— the limit of
price/' and consequently " no interest," was the motto of his
store, and later on of his " Equity Village," near New York,
which was still in existence in 1865. Mr Keith's " House of
Equity " at Boston, founded in 1855, is also worthy of notice.
While the economical, and especially the mutual-banking,
ideas of Proudhon found supporters and even a practical applica-
tion in the United States, his political conception of Anarchy
found but little echo in France, where the Christian Socialism
of Lamennais and the Fourierists, and the State Socialism of
Louis Blanc and the followers of Saint-Simon, were dominating.
These ideas found, however, some temporary support among the
left-wing Hegelians In Germany, Moses Hess in 1843, and Karl
Griin in 1845, who advocated Anarchism. Besides, the authori-
tarian Communism of Wilhelm Weitling having given origin to
opposition amongst the Swiss working men, Wilhelm Marr gave
expression to it in the 'forties.
On the other side, Individualist Anarchism found, also in
Germany, its fullest expression in Max Stirner (Kaspar Schmidt),
whose remarkable works (Der Einsigc und sein Eigenthum and
articles contributed to the Rheinisehe ZeUung) remained quite
overlooked until they were brought into prominence by John
Henry Mackay.
Prof. V. Basch, in a very able introduction to his interesting
book, Vlndividuaiisme anarchiste: Max Stirner (1004), has
shown how the development of the German philosophy from Kant
to Hegel, and " the absolute " of ScheUing and the Grist of
Hegel, necessarily provoked, when the anti-Hegelian revolt began,
the preaching of the same " absolute " in the camp of the rebels.
This was done by Stirner, who advocated, not only a complete
revolt against the state and against the servitude which authori-
tarian Communism would impose upon men, but also the full
liberation of the individual from all social and moral bond*— the
rehabilitation of the "I," the supremacy of the individual,
complete " a-moralism," and the " association of the egotists."
The final conclusion of that sort of Individual Anarchism has
been indicated by Prof. Basch. It maintains that the aim of all
superior civilisation is, not to permit ail members of the com-
munity to develop in a normal way, but to permit certain better
endowed individuals " fully to develop," even at the cost of the
happiness and the very existence of the mass of mankind. It is
thus a return towards the most common individualism, advocated
by all the would-be superior minorities, to which indeed man owes
in his history precisely the state and the rest, which these
individualists combat. Their individualism goes so far as to end
in a negation of their own starting-point,— to say nothing of the
impossibility for the individual to attain a really full development
in the conditions of oppression of the masses by the " beautiful
aristocracies." His development would remain uni-lateral.
This is why this direction of thought, notwithstanding its un-
doubtedly correct and useful advocacy of the full development
of each individuality, finds a hearing only in limited artistic and
literary circles.
Anarchism in the International Working Men's Association*—
A general depression in the propaganda of all fractions of
Socialism followed, as is known, after the defeat of the uprising
of the Paris working men in June 1848 and the fall of the
Republic All the Socialist press was gagged during the reaction
period, which lasted fully twenty years. Nevertheless, even
Anarchist thought began to make some progress, namely in the
writings of Bellegarrique {Centrderoy), and especially Joseph
Dejacque {Les Lazariennes, V Humanisphbre, an Anarchist-
Communist Utopia, lately discovered and reprinted). The
Socialist movement revived only after 1864, when some French
working men, all " mutualists," meeting in London during the
Universal Exhibition with English followers of Robert Owen,
founded the International Working Men's Association. This
association developed very rapidly and adopted a policy of direct
economical struggle against capitalism, without interfering in
the political parliamentary agitation, and this policy was followed
until 1871. However, after the Franco-German War. when the
International Association was prohibited la France after the
uprising of the Commune, the German working men, who had
received manhood suffrage for elections to the newly constituted
imperial parliament, insisted upon modifying the tactics of the
International, and began to build up a SodsJ-Dcsnotratic
political party. This soon led to a division in the Worming Meft
Association, and the Latin federations, Spanish, Italian, Betaias
and Jurassic (France could not be represented), constitotas
among themselves a Federal union which broke entirely with the
Marxist general council of the International Within these
federations developed now what may be described as modem
Anarchism. After the names of "Federalists " and " Anti-
authoritarians " had been used for some time by these f ederatioss
the name of " Anarchists," which their adversaries insisted upon
applying to them, prevailed, and finally it was revindicated.
Bakunin (q.v.) soon became the leading spirit among these
Latin federations for the development of the principles ef
Anarchism, which he did in a number of writings, pamphlets
and letters. He demanded the complete abolition of the state,
which — he wrote— is a product of religion, belongs to a lower
state of civilization, represents the negation of liberty, and spab
even that which it undertakes to do for the sake of general weU-
being. The state was an historically necessary evil, tmt its
complete extinction will be, sooner or later, equally necessary.
Repudiating all legislation, even when issuing from universal
suffrage, Bakunin claimed for each nation, each region and each
commune, full autonomy, so long as it is not a menace to its
neighbours, and full independence for the individual, adding
that one becomes really free only when, and in proportion as,
all others are free. Free federations of the communes would
constitute free nations.
As to his economical conceptions, Bakunin described himself,
in common with his Federalist comrades of the International
(Cesar De Paepe, James Guillaume Schwitsgutbel), a M CbHecti-
vist Anarchist "—not in the sense of Vklal and Pccqueur in the
'forties, or of their modern Social-Democratic followers, but to
express a state of things in which all necessaries for production
are owned in common by the Labour groups and the free com-
munes, while the ways of retribution of labour. Communist or
otherwise, would be settled by each group for itself. Soda]
revolution, the near approach of which was foretold at that time
by all Socialists, would be the means of bringing into life the new
conditions.
The Jurassic, the Spanish, and the Italian federations and
sections of the International Working Men's Association, as also
the French, the German and the American Anarchist groups,
were for the next years the chief centres of Anarchist thought
and propaganda. They refrained from any participation ia
parliamentary politics, and always kept in dose contact with the
Labour organizations. However, in the second half of the
'eighties and the early 'nineties of the 19th century, when the
influence of the Anarchists began to be felt in strikes, ia the
1st of May demonstrations, where they promoted the idea of a
general strike for an eight hours' day, and in the anti-militarist
propaganda in the army, violent prosecutions were directed
against them, especially in the Latin countries (including physical
torture in the Barcelona Castle) and the United States (the
execution of five Chicago Anarchists in 1887). Against these
prosecutions the Anarchists retaliated by acts of violence which
in their turn were followed by more executions from above, asa
new acts of revenge from below. This created in the general
public the impression that violence is the substance of Anarchism,
a view repudiated by its supporters, who hold that m reality
violence is resorted to by all parties in proportion as their open
action is obstructed by repression, and exceptional laws render
them outlaws. (Cf . Anarchism and Outrage, by C M. Wilson, and
Report of the Spanish Atrocities Committee, in M Freedom Pam-
phlets "; A Concise History of the Great Ttiol of the Ca**#»
Anarchists, by Dyer Lum (New York, 1886); The CkU*p
Martyrs: Speeches, ftc). 1
1 It is important to r emem b er that the term H Anaichiat ~ ■
inevitably rather loosely used in pubnc, ino *- — J ~" "
ANARCHISM
917
AwtbJsn continued (0 develop, partly in the direction of
Proudhonian " Motuellisrae" but chiefly as Communist-Anar-
chism, to which a third direction, Christian-Anarchism, was
ldded by Leo Tolstoy, and a fourth, which might be ascribed as
Iterary-Anarchism, began amongst some prominent modern
vriters.
The ideas of Proudhon, especially as regards mutual banking,
orresponding with those of Josiah Warren, found a considerable
Mowing in the United States, creating quite a school, of which
te main writers are Stephen Pearl Andrews, William Grene,
ysander Spooner (who began to write in 1850, and whose
ifinished work, Natural Law, was full of promise), and several
hers, whose names will be found in Dr Nettlan's Bibliograpkie
V anarchic.
\ prominent position among the Individualist Anarchists
America has been occupied by Benjamin R. Tucker, whose
raal Liberty was started in 1881 and whose conceptions are
•mbination of those of Proudhon with those of Herbert Spencer.
-ting from the statement that Anarchists are egotists, strictly
king, and that every group of individuals, be it a secret league
few persons, or the Congress of the United States, has the right
jpress all mankind, provided it has the power to do so, that
1 liberty for all and absolute equality ought to be the law,
" mind every one your own business " is the unique moral
>f Anarchism, Tucker goes on to prove that a general and
ugh application of these principles would be beneficial and
! offer no danger, because the powers of every individual
! be limited by the exercise of the equal rights of all others.
rtain class of murderous outrages, and that the same looseness
ii'tion often applies to the professions of " Anarchism " made
h persons. As stated above, a philosophic Anarchist would
ite the connexion. And the general public view which
Anarchist doctrines indiscriminately is to that extent a
on o( terms. But the following risumi of the chief modern
i " Anarchist " incidents is appended for convenience in
the facts under the heading where a reader would expect to
m.
«n 1882 and 1886, in France, Prince Kropotkin, Louise
ind others were imprisoned. In England, Most, one of the
Anarchist leaders, founded Die Frexheit, and, for defending
assassination of Alexander II. at St Petersburg, was sen-
) eighteen months' imprisonment with hard labour. After
oved to the United States, and re-established his paper there
'ork, in May 1886. During this period there were several
congresses in the United States. In one at Albany, in
revolutionary element, led by Justus Schwab, broke away
others; at Allegheny City, in 1870, again there was a
?twecn the peaceful and the revolutionary sections. The
* People at St Louis, the ArbeiUr Zeitung at Chicago, and
hist at Boston, were the organs of the revolutionary
fn 1883, at Pittsburg, a congress of twenty-eight delegates,
ig twenty-two towns, drew up an address to the working
erica. The programme it proposed was as follows:—-
jstruction of the existing class rule by all means, Le.
dent less, revolutionary and international action.
Establishment of a free society, based upon co-operative
1 of production.
ee exchange of equivalent products by and between the
organizations, without commerce and profit-mongery.
Organization of education on a secular, scientific and
or both sexes.
ial rights for all, without distinction of sex or race,
ulation of all public affairs by free contracts between
ous (independent) communes and associations, resting
(tic basis.
her with an appeal to the working men to organise.
J in Chicago, November 1883, by a local committee of
ting French, Bohemian, German and English sections,
e last being August Spies, who was hanged in 1887 for
in the Hay market affair in Chicago, 4th May 1886.
is the culmination of a series of encounters between
orking men and the police, which had covered several
leeting of 4th May was called by Spies and others to
I the action off the police, by whom several working
killed in collisions growing out of the efforts to intro-
hours' day. The mayor of the city attended the
finding it peaceful, went home. The meeting was
nteredT by the police and commanded to disperse,
irown, several policemen being killed and a number
this crime eight men were tried in one panel and
en — Spies. Parsons, Engel, Fischer, Fielden, Schwab,
eath, and one — Neebe— to imprisonment for fifteen
He further indicated (foKowing H. Spencer) the difference which
exists between the encroachment on somebody's rights and
resistance to such an encroachment; between domination and
defence: the former being equally condemnable, whether it be
encroachment of a criminal upon an individual, or the encroach-
ment of one upon all others, or of all others upon one; while
resistance to encroachment is defensible and necessary. For
their self-defence, both the citizen and the group have the right
to any violence, including capital punishment Violence is also
justified for enforcing the du ty of keeping an agreement. Tucker
thus follows Spencer, and, like him, opens (in the present writer's
opinion) the way for reconstituting under the heading of
" defence " all the functions of the state. His criticism of the
present state is very searching, and his defence of the rights of
the individual very powerful. As regards his economical views
B. R. Tucker follows Proudhon.
The Individualist Anarchism of the American Proudhonians
finds, however, but little sympathy amongst the working masses.
Those who profess it— they are chiefly " intellectuals " — soon
realize that the individualization they so highly praise is not
attainable by individual efforts, and either abandon the ranks of
the Anarchists, and are driven into the Liberal individualism
of the classical economists, or they retire into a sort of Epicurean
a-moralism, or super-man-theory, similar to that of Stirner and
Nietzsche. The great bulk of the Anarchist working men prefer
the Anarchist-Communist ideas which have gradually evolved out
of the Anarchist Collectivism of the International Working Men's
Association. To this direction belong— to name only the better
years. The sentences on Fielden and Schwab were commuted by
„ - . --- ,- . - — . ---igel i_
hanged, nth November 1887. On 26th June 1893 an unconditional
pardon was granted the survivors, Fielden, Schwab and Neebe, by
Governor Altgeld. The reasons for the pardon were stated by the
governor to be that, upon an examination of the records he found
that the jury had not been drawn in the usual manner, but by a
special bailiff, who made his own selection and had summoned a
prejudiced jury "; that the " state had never discovered who it
was that threw the bomb which killed the policemen, and the
evidence does not show any connexion whatever between the de-
fendants and the man who did throw k" .or that this man
" ever heard or read a word coming from the defendants, and conse-
Juently fail? to show that he acred on any advice given by them."
udfje Gary, tl ■ judge a 1 he trial, published a defence of its pro-
cedure in the Century Map&sint, vol. mujt p. 803.
A number of 1 utbreaks q tatcr years were attributed to The propa-
ganda of reform by revolution, like those in Spain and France in
1842. in which Ravachol was a prominent figure In jJtoj a bomb
was ci ploded i n the Frenc h C ha m her of Dep u t its by Vai IU n 1 . The
spirit of these men is well il lustra red by the reply which Vailtant
made to the judge who reproached him for endangering the live*
of innocent men and women: " There can be fio Innocent bour-
geois." In 1894 there was an explosion in a Parisian cafe T and
an .„ a theatre at Barcelona. For the latter outrage ti* men
were executed. Preside, 1 Camot of the French Republic was
assassinated by an Italian at Lyorvi in the *jme year. The empress
Elizabeth of Austria wa . mper 1H9H, These
events, all associated by tail public mnh " Anarchism." led to the
passage by the United States Congress of a law, in 1894, to keep
out foreign Anarchists, and to deport any who might be found in the
country, and also to the assemblage of an international conference
in Rome, in 1898, to agree upon some plan for dealing with these
revolutionists. It was proposed that their offences should no longer
be classed as political, but as common-law crimes, and be made
subject to extradition. The suppression of the revolutionary press
and the international co-operation of the police were also suggested.
The results of the conference were not, however, published; and
the question of how to deal with the campaign against society fell
for a while into abeyance. The attempt made by the youth Sipido
on the (then) prince of Wales at Brussels in 1900 recalled attention
to the subject. The acquittal of Sipido, and the failure of the
Belgian government to see that justice was done in an affair of such
international importance, excited considerable feeling in England,
and was the occasion of a strongly-worded note from the British
to the Belgian government. The murder of King Humbert of Italy
in July 1900 renewed the outcry against Italian Anarchists. Even
greater horror and indignation were excited by the assassination
of President McKinley by Czolgoscz on the 6th of September 1901,
at Buffalo, U.S. A. And a particularly dastardly attempt was
made to blow up the young king and queen of Spain on their
wedding-day in 1906. (Ed. E.B.)
gi8
ANARCHISM
known exponents of Anarchism — Elisee Rectus, Jean Grave,
Sebastien Faurc, Emitc Pouget in France; Enrico Malatesta and
Covclli in Italy; R. Mclla, A. Lorenzo, and the mostly unknown
authors of many excellent manifestos in Spain ; John Most amongst
the Germans; Spies, Parsons and their followers in the United
States, and so on; while Domcla Nieuwcnhuis occupies an
intermediate position in Holland. The chief Anarchist papers
which have been published since 1880 also belong to that direction ;
while a number of Anarchists of this direction have joined
the so-called Syndicalist movement — the French name for the
non-political Labour movement, devoted to direct struggle
with capitalism, which has lately become so prominent in
Europe.
As one of the Anarchist-Communist direction, the present
writer for many years endeavoured to develop the following
ideas: to show the intimate, logical connexion which exists
between the modern philosophy of natural scicnccsand Anarchism ;
to put Anarchism on a scientific basis by the study of the tendencies
that are apparent now in society and may indicate its further
evolution; and to work out the basis of Anarchist ethics. As
regards the substance of Anarchism itself, it was Kropotkin's
aim to prove that Communism — at least partial— has more
chances of being established than Collectivism, especially in
communes taking the lead, and that Free, or Anarchist-Com-
munism is the only form of Communism that has any chance
of being accepted in civilized societies; Communism and
Anarchy are therefore two terms of evolution which complete
each other, the one rendering the other possible and acceptable.
He has tried, moreover, to indicate how, during a revolutionary
period, a large city— if its inhabitants have accepted the idea— -
could organize itself on the lines of Free Communism; the city
guaranteeing to every inhabitant dwelling, food and clothing to
an extent corresponding to the comfort now available to the
middle classes only, in exchange for a half-day's, or a five-hours'
work; and how all those things which would be considered as
luxuries might be obtained by every one if he joins for the other
half of the day all sorts of free associations pursuing all possible
aims — educational, literary, scientific, artistic, sports and so on.
In order to prove the first of these assertions he has analysed the
possibilities of agriculture and industrial work, both being
combined with brain work. And in order to elucidate the main
factors of human evolution, he has analysed the part played in
history by the popular constructive agendes of mutual aid and
the historical role of the state.
Without naming -himself an Anarchist, Leo Tolstoy, like his
predecessors in the popular religious movements of the 15th and
1 6th centuries, Chojecki, Denk and many others, took the
Anarchist position as regards the state and property rights,
deducing his conclusions from the general spirit of the teachings
of the Christ and from the necessary dictates of reason. With
all the might of his talent he made (especially in The Kingdom
of God in Yourselves) a powerful criticism of the church, the
state and law altogether, and especially of the present property
laws. He describes the state as the domination of the
wicked ones, supported by brutal force. Robbers, he says,
are far less dangerous than a well-organized government He
makes a searching criticism of the prejudices which are current
now concerning the benefits conferred upon men by the church,
the state and the existing distribution of property, and from the
teachings of the Christ he deduces the rule of non-resistance
and the absolute condemnation of all wars. His religious
arguments are, however, so well combined with arguments
borrowed from a dispassionate observation of the present evils,
that the anarchist portions of his works appeal to the religious
and the non-religious reader alike.
It would be impossible to represent here, in a short sketch, the
penetration, on the one hand, of Anarchist ideas into modern
literature, and the influence, on the other hand, which the
libertarian ideas of the best com temporary writers have exercised
upon the development of Anarchism. One ought to consult
the ten big volumes of the Supplement litUraire to the paper
La rtvoltc and later the Temps nouvcaux, which contain repro-
ductions from the works of hundreds of modern authors express-
ing Anarchist ideas, in order to realize how closely Anarchissi
is connected with all the intellectual movement of our own tines.
J. S. Mill's Liberty, Spencer's Individual versus The State, Marc
Guyau's Morality without Obligation or Sanction, and FomBee's
La morale, Part et la religion, the works of Multatuli (E. Doowcs
Dekker), Richard Wagner's Art and Revolution, the works of
Nietzsche, Emerson, W. Lloyd Garrison, Thoreau, Alexander
Herzen, Edward Carpenter and so on; and in the domain d
fiction, the dramas of Ibsen, the poetry of Walt Whitnaa,
Tolstoy's War and Peace, Zola's Paris and Le travail, the blest
works of Mereahkovsky, and an infinity of works of less knows
authors, — are full of ideas which show how closely Anarchism is
interwoven with the work that is going on in modern thought
in the same direction of enfranchisement of man from the bonds
of the state as well as from those of capitalism.
Bibliography.— William Godwin, A n Enquiry concerning Pdkiai
Justice and its Influence on General Virtue ana Happiness, 1st cdkka,
2 vols. (1703). Mutualism:— John Gray. A Lecture em Hums*
Happiness (1825); The Social System, a Treatise on the Prima fits
of Exchange (1831) ; Proudhon, Qu'esUce que la propritiit \er memtvt
(1840) (Eng. trans, by B. Tucker); Idee gjtniraU sur la reveluhsm
(1 851); Confession d'un revoluttonnoire (1849); Co**oduls**s
iconomiques (1846) ; Josiah Warren, Practicable Details of EqutfaU*
Commerce (New York, 1853); True Civilisation (Boston, i*6j>:
Stephen Pearl Andrews, The Science of Society (ifl£i); Cost, tht
Limit of Price; Moses Hess, " Sozialisraus und CoauBoneaua.
Philosophic dcr That " (on Herwegh's Ein-und-ZwoMxig Bogen ens
der Schweis, 1 843); Karl Grfln, Die sotiaU.Bemtgung in Frankreuk
und £efetm(i845) ; W. Marr.Das junge DeutschUnd (184O. Anarck-
ist Individualism:— Max Stutter Q. K- Schmidt). Der Einsigt wad
mhm^Mamthum (1845) (Fr. trans., 1900); J. H. Mackay. Ma
StirTrr^mUen undsein Werh (1898); V. Basch, L'lndtmdmaUxm
anarchiste (i^LmfcTransition period :— J. Dejacque, Les Leeerknmts
(1851); Le LtdfTffML weekly. New York. 1858-1861, c ont ai nin g
L'Humanisphere (rc^tof*! at Brussels, Bit*, des tempo ueumux).
Anarchist Collectivism <Jfc|he International: — The papers Epici,
Progris (Lode), Salidaritf; J^^ff Guillaume, Idles sur rorgenuchm
sociale (1876); Bulletin de laj9uUration jurassieune (1872-1879:
A. Schwitzguebel, (Everts; Paul\Brousse. Le Suffrage nmvend
(1874) ; L'Etat d Versailles et dans rabmatiou interuaHouaie (1874' ■
newspaper L' Avant-garde (suppressed* 1878); Arthur Arnoukl
L'Etat et la revolution (1877); Histoire\pofulaire de la commrm
(3 vols., 1878) ; Cesar de Paepc in Rhe gah\che and La liberie (1867-
1883). Many others are in the Comptes reni^ms of the congresses of
the International Working Men^s Assoriatid^p. AH these idea,
conceived
socialisme
names of . 1 » _-.,_-. *-,-—. -
and Anarchy (Russian), and only now reproduce*^ hi full ia ha
(Euvres (Paris. 1905 and seq.); Soualpolitischer BriefL^ksel (1804':
Statuts de V alliance internattonale (1868); Propestttoi* m0 tmt *s
comitl central de la liguede la pais etdelalibertf(i868). iThefamo*
Revolutionary Catechism attributed to Bakunin, was noV hi* wt
Biographic von Michael Bahunin, by Dr M. Nettlan. 3 n*^ vok.
contains masses of letters, Ac (hectograpbed in 50 copffe; fo »3
chief libraries).
Modern Anarchism.— The best sources are the collect jo«, of
newspapers which, although compelled sometimes to changt t ber
names, were run for considerable lengths of time and are appr«nsf
" Most, Freiheit, since 1878JI* RtveU*—La RteeUe—T^p
Domela Nieuwenhuis, Retht veer A.y±
1886; Le Libertm; Pouget's F+,
still: J
nouvcaux, since 1878;
since 1878; Freedom, since . — -v* « •
Pesuard; Rheil-Risveglio; see Nettlan's Bibliographic The*
papers and a great number of pamphlets are indispensable Ic-
those who intend to know anarchism, as the works published 11
book form are not numerous. Of the latter only a few will bt
mentioned.— Elisee Rectus, Evolution and Revolution, many editions
in all languages: " Anarchy by an Anarchist." in ContemP. /fcwew
(May, 1884); The Ideal and Youth (18?$): Jean Grave. La tocuti
an lendemain de la revolution, many editions since 1882; La Sorts*
mourante et I 'anarchic (1893); L'A utonomie sdon la science (1S82) :
La Sociltl future (1895); V Anarchic, son but, ses meysns; Sebastien
Faure. La Douleur untverseUe (189a); A. Hamon. Les Hommes ct les
(hkories de V anarchic (1893): Psychologic de ranerchtste-socwluse »
(1895); Enrico Malatesta, Fra Contadint, transL in all lai
Eng. trans. A Talk about Anarchist Communism,
and many
Pamphlets" (1891); Anarchy (do. 189a); An cafi; .
other Italian pamphlets, as also several papers started I at various
times in Italy under different names: F. S. Merlino, •£"£**?•. f
Monopolismo t (1887). Pamphlets, reviews and papers by P-^on.
L. Molinari. E. Covelli, &c The manifestos of the SpansAI Federa-
tions contain excellent expositions of Anardusm: cf. **?**~l
books, pamphlets and papers by J. Llunaa y Puiah. J • Serraaoy
Oteis*.T<icardo Mella. AT Lorenzo, &c John Most, the osper
ANASTASIUS— ANATASE
Fredtil, of which i few articles only have been reprinted as
nmphJetfl in the Internationale Bibliotheh (" The Deistic Pestilence,"
The Beast of Property" in English); Memoiren, 3 fascicules.
F. Domela Nieuwcnhuis, Le Socialism* en danger (1895); C. Malato,
Pkihsopkie it Vanarthie (1890); Charlotte Wilson, Anarchism
("Fabian Tracts," 4); Anarchism and Violence (" Freedom Pam-
phlets"); Albert Parsons, Anarchism, its Philosophy and Scientific
Basis (Chicago, 1888); The Chicago Martyrs: Speeches in Court;
P. Kropotkin, Paroles <T un rholti (1 884) ; Conquest of Bread (1906)
(1st French eel. in itoo) ; Anarchist Morality; Anarchy, its Philosophy
and Ideals; Anarchist Communism; The State, its Historic R6ie;
and other " Freedom Pamphlets "; Fields, Factories and Workshops
(5th popular edition, 1807); Mutual Aid: a Factor of Evolution
(1904). Modern Individualist Anarchists: — B. Tucker, the paper
Liberty (1893 sqq.); Instead of a Booh, by one too busy to write one
(Boston, 1893); fyer l*um. Social Problems (1883); Lysandcr
Spooner, Natural Law, or the Science of Justice (Boston, 189 1).
Religious Anarchists:— Leo Tolstoy, The Kingdom of Cod in Your'
iclves; My Faith; Confession; fire
The best work on Anarchism, and in fact the only one written with
ull knowledge of the Anarchist literature, and quite fairly, is by a
German judge Dr Paul Elubacher, Anarchismus (transl. in all chief
European languages, except English). Prof. Adler's article " Anarch-
imus " in Conrad's Handwdrterbuch der Staatswissenschaften, vol. i.,
less accurate for modern times than for the earlier periods. G. v.
taker, Der Anarchismus (1895); and Prof. Edmund Bernatzik,
Der Anarchismus," in Schmollcr's Jahrbuch, may also be men-
3ncd— the remainder being written with absolute want of know-
Jge of the subject
A most important work is the reasoned Bibliographie de Panarchie,
Dr M. Nettlan (Brussels, 1897, 8vo, 294 ff.), written with a full
owledge of the subject and its immense literature. (P. A. K.)
ANASTASIUS, the name of four popes.
Anastasius I., pope from 399-401. He it was who condemned
; writings of Origen shortly after their translation into Latin.
Inastasius EL, pope from 496-498. He lived in the time of
schism of Acadus of Constantinople. He showed some
dency towards conciliation, and thus brought upon himself
lively reproaches of the author of the Liber pontificalis. On
strength of this tradition, Dante has placed this pope in helL
nastasius IIL, pope from 911-9x3, was a Roman by birth.
rticaUy nothing is recorded of him, his pontificate falling
ie period when Rome was in the power of the Roman nobles.
fASTAsrus IV. was pope from x 153 to 11 54. He was a
an named Conrad, son of Benedictus, and at the time of
lection, on the 9th of July 11 53, was cardinal bishop of
ia. He had taken part in the double election of 1130,
een one of the most determined opponents of Anacletus II.
when Innocent IL fled to France, had been left behind
> vicar in Italy. During his short pontificate, however,
xyed the part of a peacemaker; he came to terms with
nperor Frederick I. in the vexed question of the appoint-
to the see of Magdeburg and closed the long quarrel, which
iged through four pontificates, about the appointment
iam Fitzherbcrt (d. x 1 54) — commonly known as St William
k. — to the see of York, by sending him the pallium, in
>f the continued opposition of the powerful Cistercian
Anastasius died on the 3rd of December 11 54, and was
led by Cardinal Nicholas of Albano as Adrian IV.
5TAS1US I. (c. 430-518), Roman emperor, was born at
chium not later than a.d. 430. At the time of the death
(491), Anastasius, a palace official (silentiarius), held a
;h character, and was raised to the throne of the Roman
>f the East, through the choice of Ariadne, Zeno's widow,
rried him shortly after his accession. His reign, though
ds disturbed by foreign and intestine wars and religious
on s, commenced auspiciously. He gained the popular
y a judicious remission of taxation, and displayed great
nd energy in administering the affairs of the empire.
cipal wars in which Anastasius was engaged were those
s the Isaurian and the Persian. The former (492-496)
ed up by the supporters of Longinus, the brother of
he victory of Cotyaeum in 493 " broke the back " of
t, but a guerilla warfare continued in the Isaurian
s for some years longer. In the war with Persia (502-
odosiopolis and Amida were captured by the enemy,
■rslan provinces also suffered severely and the Romans
Amida Both adversaries were exhausted when
919
peace was made (506) on the basis of status quo. Anastasius
afterwards built the strong fortress of Daras to hold Nisibis in
check. The Balkan provinces were devastated by invasions of
Slavs and Bulgarians; to protect Constantinople and its vicinity
against them he built the " Anastasian wall," extending from
the Propontis to the Euxine. The emperor was a convinced
Monophysite, but his ecclesiastical policy was moderate; he
endeavoured to maintain the principle of the Henotikon of
Zeno and the peace of the church. It was the uncompromising
attitude of the orthodox extremists, and the rebellious demonstra-
tions of the Byzantine populace, that drove him in 51 a to abandon
this policy and adopt a monophysitic programme. His con-
sequent unpopularity in the European provinces was utilized
by an ambitious man, named Vitalian, to organize a dangerous
rebellion, in which he was assisted by a horde of " Huns "
(5x4-5x5); it was finally suppressed by a naval victory won by
the general Marinus. The financial policy of Anastasius was
so prudent and economical that it gained him a reputation for
avarice and contributed to his unpopularity. He died in 518.
Authorities.— Sources: Joshua the Stylite. Chronicle, ed.
Wright, with English translation, Cambridge, 1882; Marcellinus,
Chronicle; Zachariah of Mytilcne, Chronicle (Eng. trans, by Hamilton
and Brooks, London, 1899); Evagrius, Ecclesiastical History;
John Lydus, De Magistratibus; John Malalas, Chronicle. Modern
works: Gibbon, Decline and Fall, vol. iv. (cd. Bury) ; Bury, Later
Roman Empire, vol. i.
ANASTASIUS II. (d. 721), Roman emperor in the East, whose
original name was Artemius, was raised to the throne of Con-
stantinople by the voice of the senate and people in a.d. 713,
on the deposition of Philippicus, whom he had served in the
capacity of secretary. The empire was threatened by the
Saracens both by land and sea, and Anastasius sent an army
under Leo the Isaurian, afterwards emperor, to defend Syria;
adopted wise and resolute measures for the defence of his
capital; attempted to reorganize the discipline of the army;
and equipped and despatched to Rhodes a formidable naval
force, with orders not only to resist the approach of the enemy,
but to destroy their naval stores. The troops of the Opsikian
province, resenting the emperor's strict measures, mutinied,
slew the admiral, and proclaimed Theodosius, a person of low
extraction, emperor. After a six months' siege, Constantinople
was taken by Theodosius; and Anastasius, who had fled to
Nicaea, was compelled to submit to the new emperor, and,
retiring to Thessalonica, became a monk (716). In 7 2 1 he headed
a revolt against Leo, who had succeeded Theodosius, and
receiving a considerable amount of support, laid siege to Con-
stantinople; but the enterprise failed, and Anastasius, falling
into Leo's hands, was put to death by his orders.
Authorities.— Sources: Theophanes, Chronicle; Nicophorus
Patriarches, Breviarium. Modern works: Gibbon, Decline and Fall,
voL v. (ed. Bury) ; Bury, Later Roman Empire, vol. u.
ANASTOMOSIS (a Greek word in which the second is long,
from dHurro/iour, to furnish with a mouth or outlet), the inter-
communication between two vessels; a word used in vegetable
and animal anatomy for the communication between channels
(arteries and veins) containing fluid, and also for the crossing
between the veins or branches of leaves, trees, insect-wings or
river-connexions, and by analogy in art-design.
ANATASE, one of the three mineral forms of titanium dioxide.
It is always found as small, isolated and sharply developed
crystals, and like rutilc, a more commonly occurring modification
of titanium dioxide, it crystallizes in the tetragonal system;
but, although the degree of symmetry is the same for both, there
is no relation between the interfacial angles of the two minerals,
except, of course, in the prism-zone of 4 5° and oo°. The common
pyramid tin) (fig. x) of anatase, 1 parallel to the faces of which
there are perfect cleavages, has an angle over the polar edge of
82 9', the corresponding angle (111): (in) of rutilc being 56 52)'.
It was on account of this steeper pyramid of anatase that the
mineral was named, by R. J. Hatty in 1801, from the Gr.
iLVarounx, '* extension," the vertical axis of the crystals being
longer than in rutile. There are also important differences
* For the notation see Crystallography.
920
ANATHEMA— ANATOMY
Fig. 2.
between the physical characters of anatase and rutile; the former
is not quite so hard (H-s^-6) or dense (sp. gr.-3«o); it is
optically negative, rutile being positive; and its lustre is even
more strongly adamantine or metallic-adamantine than that
of rutile.
Two types or habits of anatase crystals may be distinguished.
The commoner occurs as simple acute double pyramids |m)
(fig. x) with an indigo-blue to black colour and steely lustre.
Crystals of this kind are abundant at Le Bourg d'Oisans in
Dauphine, where they are associated with rock-crystal, felspar
and axinite in crevices in granite and mica-schist. Similar
crystals, but of microscopic size, are widely distributed in sedi-
mentary rocks, such as sandstones, days and slates, from which
they may be separ-
ated by washing
away the lighter
constituents of the
powdered rock.
Crystals of the
second type have
numerous pyra-
midal faces de-
veloped, and they
are usually natter
or sometimes pris-
matic in habit (fig.
a); the colour is
honey - yellow to
brown. Such crystals closely resemble xenotime in appearance
and, indeed, were for a long time supposed to belong to this
species, the special name wiserine being applied to them. They
occur attached to the walls of crevices in the gneisses of the
Alps, the Binnenthal near Bricg in canton Valais, Switzerland,
being a well-known locality.
When strongly heated, anatase is converted into rutile,
changing in specific gravity to 4-1; naturally occurring pseudo-
mprphs of rutile after anatase are also known. Crystals of
anatase have been artificially prepared by several methods;
for instance, by the interaction of steam and titanium chloride
or fluoride.
Another name commonly in use for this mineral is octahedrite,
a name which, indeed, is earlier than anatase, and given because
of the common (acute) octahedral habit of the crystals. Other
names, now obsolete, are oisanite and dauphinite, from the
well-known French locality. (L. J. S.)
ANATHEMA (from Gr. avartftnai, to lift up), literally
an offering, a thing set aside. The classical Greek form oyoffwia
(Lat. anathima) was the technical term for a gift (cf.
donarium, oblatio) made to a god either in gratitude or with a
view to propitiation. Thus at Athens the Thesmothctac (perhaps
all the archons) made a vow that, should they break any law,
they would dedicate a life-size gilt statue in the temple at
Delphi. Similarly, of spoils taken in war, a part, generally a
tenth, was dedicated to the god of the city (e.g. to Athena);
to this class probably belong the trophies erected by the victors
on the field of battle; sometimes a captured ship was placed
upon a hill as an offering to Poseidon (Neptune). Persons who
had recovered from an illness offered anathemata in the temples
of Asclepius (Aesculapius); those who had escaped from ship-
wreck offered their clothes, or, if these had been lost, a lock of
hair, to Neptune (Hor. Odes, i. 5. 13; Virg. Acneid, xii. 768).
The latter offering was very commonly made by young men and
girls, especially young brides. Works of art of all kinds and the
implements of a craftsman giving up his work were likewise
dedicated. Such presents were far more common, as also more
valuable, among the Greeks than among the Romans. Similar
practices were prevalent, to an extent hardly realized, among
the Christians up to the middle ages and even later. Just as
the ancients hung their offerings on trees, temple columns and
the images of the gods, so offerings were made to the Cross, to the
Virgin Mary and on altars generally.
In the form anathima, the word is used in the Septuagint,
the New Testament and ecclesiastical writers a* the ecfarvaleat
of the Hebrew farem, which is commonly translated • accursed
thing" (A.V.) or "devoted thing" (R.V.; cf. the Hosts*
daotio). In Hebrew the root £-r-« means to "set apart,"
" devote to Yahweh," for destruction; but in Arabic it means
simply to separate or sedude (cf. M harem "). The idea of
destruction or perdition is thus a secondary meaning of the word,
which gradually lost its primary sense of consecration. In the
New Testament, though it is used in the sense of ** offering "
(Luke rxi. 5), it generally signifies " separated " from the church,
i.e. " accursed " (cf. Gal. L 8 fL; x Cor. xvt >s) t and it became
the regular formula of rxcomnrmnication from the time of the
council of Chalcedon in 451, especially against heretics, e*g, u
the canons of the council of Trent and those of the Vatican concci
of X&70. See Excommunication; Penance. The ctpmaJu s
maranalka ("the Lord cometh"), which follows anathema
in x Cor. xvi. 32, is often err on eo us ly quoted as though it were
an amplification of the curse.
ANATOLI, JACOB (c. 1194-1256), Hebrew translator from
the Arabic He was invited to Naples by the enlightened ruler
Frederick II., and under this royal patronage and in asvx-iatira
with Michael Scot, made Arabic learning accrwihle to Western
readers. Among his most important services were translaticas
of works by Averroes.
ANATOLIA (Gr. draroH sunrise, £«. eastern land), is
ancient geography, the country east of the Aegean, s«e. Asia Moor.
It was the name of one of the three themes (provinces) into whks
Phrygia was divided in the military reorganization of the East
Roman empire. It is now used (by the Turks in the form
(AnadSlQ to denote a division of the Turkish empire, practically
coincident with Asia Minor (?.».).
ANATOMY (Gr. avaro/^. from d*s-*e>Bw, to cut up),
literally dissection or cutting asunder, a term always used to
denote the study of the structure of living things; thus there a
animal anatomy (zootomy) and vegetable anatomy (phytotomy).
Animal anatomy may include the study of the structure of
different animals, when it is called comparative anatomy or animal
morphology, or it may be limited to one animal only, in waks
case it is spoken of as special anatomy. From a utilitarian point
of view the study of Man is the most important division of special
anatomy, and this human anatomy may be approached from
different points of view. From that of the medical man it
consists of a knowledge of the exact form, position, size asd
relationship of the various structures of the human body in
health, and to this study the term descripthe or topographical
human anatomy is given, though it is often, less happily, spokes
of as Anthropotomy. An accurate knowledge of all the details of
the human body takes years of patient observation to gam and
is possessed by only a few. So intricate is man's body that orJy
a small number of professional human anatomists are complete
masters of all its details, and most of them specialize on certain
parts, such as the brain, viscera, &c; contenting themselves
with a good working knowledge of the rest, Topographical
anatomy must be learned by each person for himself by tie
repeated dissection and inspection of the dead human body
It is no more a science than a pilot's knowledge is, and, like that
knowledge, must be exact and available in moments of emergency.
From the morphological point of view, however, bonus
anatomy is a scientific and fascinating study, .having for at
object the discovery of the causes which have brought about tht
existing structure of Man, and needing a knowledge of the allies
sciences of embryology or ontogeny, phytogeny and histology.
Pathological or morbid anatomy is the study of diseased
organs, while sections of normal anatomy, applied to various
purposes, receive special names such as medical, surgical,
gynaecological, artistic and superficial anatomy. The com-
parison of the anatomy of different races of mankind is part of
the science of physical anthropology or anthropological anatomy.
In the present edition of this work the subject of anatomy ■
treated systematically rather than topographically. Each
anatomical article contains first a description of the structures
of an organ or system (such as nerves, arteries, heart. Ire.), as u
HETORYJ
ft found in Min; and this is followed by an account of the
development or embryology and comparative anatomy or
morphology, u far as vertebrate animals are concerned; bnt
only those parts of the lower animals which are of interest in
explaining Man's structure are here dealt with. The articles
have a twofold purpose; first, to give enough details of man's
structure to make the articles on physiology, surgery, medicine
and pathology intelligible; and, secondly, to give the non-expert
inquirer, or the worker in some other branch of science, the chief
theories on which the modern scientific groundwork of anatomy
is built.
The following separate anatomical articles will be found under
their own headings:—
Alimentary canal Nervot
Arteries. Nerve.
Brain. Olfactory
Coelom and seroua mem branes. Pharynx.
Connective tissues. Pancreas.
Diaphragm. Placenta,
Ductless glands. Reproductive system.
Ear. Respiratory system.
Epithelial, endothelial and gtaa- Scalp.
dular tissues. Skeleton.
Eye. Skin and Exoskeleton.
Heart. Skull.
Joints. Spinal cord.
Liver. Teeth.
Lymphatic system. Tongue.
Mammary gland. Urinary system.
Mouth and salivary glands. Vascular system.
Muscular system. Veins.
HxBTomy or Anatomy 1
h tracing the history of the origin of anatomy, it may be
itly said that more learning than judgment has been displayed,
xie writers claim for it the highest antiquity, and pretend to
i its first rudiments alternately in the animal sacrifices of the
pherd kings, the Jews and other ancient nations, and in the art
•mbalming as practised by the Egyptian priests.* Even the
rriptions of wounds in the Iliad have been supposed adequate
•rove that in the time of Homer mankind had distinct notions
lie structure of the human body. Of the first it may be said
the rude information obtained by the slaughter of animals
sacrifice does not imply profound anatomical knowledge;
those who adduce the second as evidence are deceived by
anguage of the poet of the Trojan War, which, distinguishing
in parts by their ordinary Greek epithets, as afterwards used
[ippoctates, Galen and all anatomists, has been rather too
r supposed to prove that the poet had studied systematically
tructure of the human frame.
th not much greater justice has the cultivation of anatomical
ledge been ascribed to Hippocrates, who, because he is
rsally allowed to be the father of medicine, has also been
ht to be the creator of the science of anatomy. Of
ie article in the Oth edition of this Encyclopaedia, dealing with
ttory of anatomy, and written by the late Ur Craigie of Edin-
has gained such a just reputation as the classiral work on
bject in the English language that it is substantially repro-
Here and there points of special or biographical interest
twn attention to in the shape of footnotes, but any reader
red in the subject would do well to consult, with this article,
rkof R. R. von Toply, Studien t*r Gtsckichi* der Anatomio
Ulalicr (Leipzig, 1898). In addition to this Professor A.
iter has published a series of articles, under the head of
teofogia Anatomica," in the Journal of Anatomy and Pkysi-
sJ point of view, and will be found under the following
s: Atlas and Epistropheus," /. AnaL vol. xxxiiL p. 204:
of Forearm," vol. xxxiiL p. 343; " Poupart's Ligament,
iii. p. 493 ; " Tendo-Achillis," voC xxxiiL p. 676; " Parotid,"
tr. p. 117;" Trochanter," vol. xxxv. p. 269.
oldest anatomical treatise extant is an Egyptian papyrus
- written sixteen centuries before our era. It shows that the
ssels, liver, spleen, kidneys, ureters and bladder were recog-
d t hat the blood-vessels were known to come from the heart.
ssels are des cri be d , some carrying air, some mucus, while
e right ear are said to carry the breath of life, and two to the
the breath of death. See A. Macalister, " Arcbaeologia
-a." J. Anal, and PJr/s. voL xxxii. p. 775. But see also
e" Oassssf.
ANATOMY 921
the seven Individuals of the family of the Heradeidae who
bore this celebrated name, the second, who was the son of
HeracHdes and Phenarita, and grandson of the first
Hippocrates, was indeed distinguished as a physician of JSH
great observation and experience, and the first who
appreciated the value of studying accurately the phenomena,
effects and terminations of disease. It does not appear, however,
notwithstanding the vague and general panegyrics of J. Riolan,
Bartholin, O. Ie Clerc, and A. Portal, that the anatomical know-
ledge of this illustrious person wss either accurate or profound.
Of the works ascribed to Hippocrates, five only are genuine.
Most of them were written either by subsequent authors of the
same name, or by one or other of the numerous impostors who
took advantage of the zealous munificence of the Ptolemies,
by fabricating works under that illustrious name. Of the few
which are genuine, there is none expressly devoted to anatomy;
and of his knowledge on this subject the only proofs are to be found
in the exposition of his physiological opinions, and his medical
or surgical instructions. From these it appears that Hippocrates
had some accurate notions on osteology, but that of the structure
of the human body in general his ideas were at once superficial
and erroneous. In his book on injuries of the head, and in that on
fractures, he shows that he knew the sutures of the cranium and
the relative situation of the bones, and that he had some notion of
the shape of the bones in general and of their mutual connexions.
Of the musdes, of the soft parts in general, and of the internal
organs, his ideas are confused, indistinct and erroneous.
The term fW he seems, in imitation of the colloquial Greek,
to have used generally to signify a blood-vessel, without being
aware of the distinction of vein and artery; and the term
dprnpta, or air-holder, is restricted to the windpipe. He appears
to have been unaware of the existence of the nervous chords; and
the term nene is used by him, as by Grecian authors in general,
to signify a sinew or tendon. On other points his views are
so much combined with peculiar physiological doctrines, that
it is impossible to assign them the character of anatomical facts;
and even the works in which these doctrines are contained are
with little probability to be ascribed to the second Hippocrates.
If, however, we overlook this difficulty, and admit what is con-
tained in the genuine Hippocratic writings to represent at least
the sum of knowledge possessed by Hippocrates and his immediate
descendants, we find that he represents the brain ss a gland,
from which exudes a viscid fluid; that the heart is muscular
and of pyramidal shape, and has two ventricles separated
by a partition, the fountains of life— and two auricles, receptacles
of air; that the lungs consist of five ash-coloured lobes, the
substance of which is cellular and spongy, naturally dry, but
refreshed by the air; and that the kidneys are glands, but
possess an attractive faculty, by virtue of which the moisture
of the drink is separated and descends into the bladder. He
distinguishes the bowels into colon and rectum (6 dpxet).
The knowledge possessed by the second Hippocrates wss
transmitted in various degrees of purity to the descendants and
pupils, chiefly of the family of the Heradeidae, who succeeded
him. Several of these, with feelings of grateful affection, appear
to have studied to preserve the written memory of bis instructions,
and in this manner to have contributed to form part of that
collection of treatises which have long been known to the learned
world under the general name of the Hippocratic writings.
Though composed, like the genuine remains of the physician of
Cos, in the Ionian dialect, all of them differ from these in being
more diffuse in style, more elaborate in form, and in studying;
to invest their anatomical and medical matter with the fanciful
ornaments of the Platonic philosophy. Hippocrates had the
merit of early recognizing the value of facts apart from opinions,
and of those facts especially which lead to general results; and
in the few genuine writings which are now extant it is easy to
perceive that he has recourse to the simplest language, expresses
himself in terms which, though short and pithy, are always
precise and perspicuous, and is averse to the introduction of
philosophical dogmas. Of the greater part of the writings
collected under his name, on the contrary the general character
922
ANATOMY
(HISTORY
is verbosencss, prolixity and a great tendency to speculative
opinions. For these reasons, as well as for others derived from
internal evidence, while the Aphorisms, the Epidemics and the
works above mentioned, bear distinct marks of being the genuine
remains of Hippocrates, it is impossible to regard the book Utpl
$0eun a»0po»vou as entirely the composition of that physician;
and it appears more reasonable to view it as the work of some
one of the numerous disciples to whom the author had communi-
cated the results of his observation, which they unwisely
attempted to combine with the philosophy of the Platonic school
and their own mysterious opinions.
Among those who aimed at this distinction, the most fortunate
in the preservation of his name is Polybus, the son-in-law of the
. . physician of Cos. This person, who must not be
^^ confounded with the monarch of Corinth, immortalised
by Sophocles m the tragic story of Oedipus, is represented as a
recluse, severed from the world and its enjoyments, and devoting
himself to the study of anatomy and physiology, and to the
composition of works on these subjects. To him has been
ascribed the whole of the book on the Nature of Ike Child and
most of that On Man; both physiological treatises interspersed
with anatomical sketches. His anatomical information, with
which we are specially concerned, appears to have been rude and
inaccurate, like that of his preceptor. He represents the large
vessels of the body as consisting of four pairs; the first proceeding
from the head by the back of the neck and spinal cord to the hips,
lower extremities and outer ankle; the second, consisting of the
jugular vessels (ai afayiTiUs), proceeding to the loins, thighs,
hams and inner ankle; the third proceeding from the temples
by the neck to the scapula and lungs, and thence by mutual
intercrossings to the spleen and left kidney, and the liver and
right kidney, and finally to the rectum; and the fourth from the
fore-part of the neck to the upper extremities, the fore-part of
the trunk, and the organs of generation.
This specimen of the anatomical knowledge of one of the most
illustrious of the Hippocratic disciples differs not essentially
from that of Syennesis, the physician of Cyprus, and Diogenes,
the philosopher of ApoUonia, two authors for the preservation
of whose opinions we are indebted to Aristotle. They may be
admitted as representing the state of anatomical knowledge
among the most enlightened men at that time, and they only show
how rude and erroneous were their ideas on the structure of the
animal body. It may indeed, without injustice, be said that the
anatomy of the Hippocratic school is not only erroneous, but
fanciful and imaginary in often substituting mere supposition
and assertion for what ought to be matter of fact From this
censure it is impossible to exempt even the name of Plato himself,
for whom some notices in the Timaeus on the structure of the
animal body, as taught by Hippocrates and Polybus, have pro-
cured a place in the history of the science.
Amidst the general obscurity in which the early history of
anatomy is involved, only two leading facts may be admitted
. i _ t _ ttm _ with certainty. The first is, that previous to the time
of Aristotle there was no accurate knowledge of
anatomy; and the second, that all that was known was derived
from the dissection of the lower animals only. By the appearance
of Aristotle this species of knowledge, which was hitherto
acquired in a desultory and irregular manner, began to be
cultivated systematically and with a definite object; and
among the services which the philosopher of Stagira rendered
to mankind, one of the greatest and most substantial is, that he
was the founder of Comparative Anatomy, and was the first to
apply its facts to the elucidation of zoology. The works of this
ardent and original naturalist show that his sootomical know-
ledge was extensive and often accurate; and from several of his
descriptions it is impossible to doubt that they were derived
from frequent personal dissection. Aristotle, who was 00111584
years before the Christian era, or in the first year of the 09th
Olympiad, was at the age of thirty-nine requested by Philip to
undertake the education of his son Alexander. During this
period it is said he composed several works on anatomy, which,
however, are now lost. The military expedition of his royal
pupil into Asia, by laying open the animal stores of that vast
and little-known continent, furnished Aristotle with the mesas
of extending his knowledge, not only of the animal tribes, bat
of their structure, and of communicating more accurate and
distinct notions than were yet accessible to the w/orkL A sua
of 800 talents, and the concurrent aid of numerous mtemfeat
assistants in Greece and Asia, were intended to f ^ a ««*» ho
researches in composing a system of zoological knowled**; bat
it has been observed that the number of imranrm in which he
was thus compelled to trust to the testimony of other <
led him to commit errors in description which peno
tion might have enabled him to avoid.
The first three books of the History of Animals, n treatise
consisting of ten books, and the four books on the Peris of
Animals, constitute the great monument of the driiMriiam
Anatomy. From these we find that Aristotle was the first who
corrected the erroneous statements of Polybus, Syennesis and
Diogenes regarding the blood-vessels, which they made, as we
have seen, to arise from the head and brain. These he represents
to be two in number, placed before the spinal wfa™. the larger
on the right, the smaller on the left, which, he also remarks, is by
some called aorta iaoprH), the first time we observe that this
epithet occurs in the history. Both he represents to arise from
the heart, the larger from the largest upper cavity, the smaller
or aorta from the middle cavity, but in a different manner and
forming a narrower canal. He also distinguishes the thick, firm
and more tendinous structure of the aorta from the thin and
membranous structure of vein. In describing the **W»Hfritfc)i
of the latter, however, he confounds the team cans and pulmonary
artery, and, as might be expected, he confounds the ramification
ol the former with those of the arterial tubes in general. Whtk
he represents the lung to be liberally supplied with blood, he
describes the. brain as an organ almost destitute of tins fluid.
His account of the distribution of the aorta is wonderfully correct.
Though he does not notice the coeliac, and remarks that the aorta
sends no direct branches to the liver and spleen, be had observed
the mesenteric, the renal and the common iliac arteries, It is
nevertheless singular that though he remarks particularly that
the renal branches of the aorta go to the substance and not the
pelvis («*Xia) of the kidney, he appears to "*»*t the ureters
for branches of the aorta. Of the nerves (rap*) he appears to
have the most confused notions. Making them arise from the
heart, which he says has nerves (tendons) in its largest cavity,
he represents the aorta to be a nervous or tendinous vm
(myxtap 0Aty). By and by, afterwards saying that aB the
articulated bones are connected by nerves, he makes them the
same as ligaments.
He distinguishes the windpipe or air-holder (ijii ajrfs) from
the oesophagus, because it is placed before the latter, because food
or drink passing into it causes distressing cough and suffocation,
and because there is no passage from the lung to the «»— -y%
He knew the situation and use of the epiglottis, seems to have
had some indistinct notions of the larynx, r ep re sen ts the windpipe
to be necessary to convey air to and from the lungs, H T T^i
to have a tolerable understanding of the structure of the lungs.
He repeatedly represents the heart, the shape and site of which
he describes accurately, to be the origin of the blood-vessels, hi
opposition to those who made them descend from the head; yet,
though he represents it as full of blood and the source and fountain
of that fluid, and even speaks of the blood flowing from the heart
to the veins, and thence to every part of the body, he nays nothing
of the circular motion of the blood. The diaphragm he cfistia-
guishes by the name Aafa/ia, and fae?<* jml With the Brer
and spleen, and the whole alimentary canal, he seems wel
acquainted. The several parts of the quadruple ■*— ^rfr of the
ruminating animals are distinguished and named; and he cvea
traces the relations between the teeth and the several forms of
stomach, and the length or brevity, the simplicity or computation
of the intestinal tube. Upon the same principle he distinguishes
the jejunum (4 H?<mt), or the empty portion of tha small
intestines in animals (rd frrspe* XcrreV), the caecum (rptf»Jr n
col byuotts), the colon (rd k&Xop), and the sigmoid flexure
HISTORY)
ANATOMY
923
tiuruntpop col dhyubor). The modem epithet of rectum
\i the literal translation of his description of the straight
progress (<W) of the bowel to the anus (trpMcros). He knew
the nasal cavities and the passage from the tympanal cavity of
he ear to toe palate, afterwards described by B. Eustachius.
rfe distinguishes as " partes simflares " those structures, such
is bone, cartilage, vessels, sinews, blood, lymph, fat, flesh, which,
tot confined to one locality, but distributed throughout the body
encrally, we now term the tissues or textures, whilst he applies
be term " partes dissimilares " to- the regions of the head, neck,
link and extremities.
Next to Aristotle occur the names of Diodes of Carystus and
raxagoras of Cos, the last of the family of the Asdepiadae. The
tter is remarkable for being the first who distinguished the
teries from the veins, and the author of the opinion that the
rmer were air-vessels.
Hitherto anatomical inquiry was confined to the examination of
e bodies of brute animals. We have, indeed, no testimony of the
human body being submitted to examination previous
*/*" to the time of Erasistratus and Herophilus; and it is
ocL vain to look for authentic facts on this point before the
foundation of the Ptolemaic dynasty of sovereigns in
vpt This event, which, as is generally known, succeeded the
th of Alexander, 320 years before the Christian era, collected
> one spot the scattered embers of literature and science,
ch were beginning to languish in Greece under a weak and
racted government and an unsettled state of society. The
dren of her divided states, whom domestic discord and the
»rtainties of war rendered unhappy at home, wandered into
pt, and found, under the fostering hand of the Alexandrian
archs, the means of cultivating the sdences, and repaying
interest to the country of Thoth and Osiris the benefits
h had been conferred on the infancy of Greece by Thalcs
Pythagoras. Alexandria became in this manner the reposi-
of all the learning and knowledge of the civilized world; and
• other nations were sinking under the effects of internal
ositics and mutual dissensions, or ravaging the earth with
/Us of war t the Egyptian Greeks kept alive the sacred flame
ience, and preserved mankind from relapsing into their
a! barbarism. These happy effects are to be ascribed in
linent degree to the enlightened government and liberal
ns of Ptolemy Soter, and his immediate successors Phila-
is and Euergetes. The two latter princes, whose authority
[ualled only by the zeal with which they patronized science
. professors, were the first who enabled physicians to dissect
man body, and prevented the prejudices of ignorance and
tition from compromising the welfare of the human race,
s happy circumstance Herophilus and Erasistratus are
id for the distinction of being known to posterity as the
latomists who dissected and described the parts of the
body. Both these physicians flourished under Ptolemy
ind probably Ptolemy Philadelphia, and were indeed the
if supports of what has been named in medical history the
Irian School, to which their reputation seems to have
d numerous pupils, put though the concurrent testi-
F antiquity assigns to these physicians the merit of dis-
:hc human body, time, which wages endless war with the
nd ambition of man, has dealt hardly with the monu-
f their labours. As the works of neither have been
d, great uncertainty prevails as to the respective merits
ancient anatomists; and all that is now known of their
al researches is obtained from the occasional notices of
ri basius and some other writers. From these it appears
that Erasistratus recognized the valves of the heart,
and distinguished them by the names of tricuspid and
sigmoid', that he studied particularly the shape and
of the brain, and its divisions, and cavities, and
es, and likened the convolutions to the folds of the
that be first formed a distinct idea of the nature of the
hich be made issue from the brain; and that he
I lymphatic vessels in the mesentery, first in brute
nd afterwards, it is said, in man. He appears also to
have distinguished the nerves into those of sensation and those
of motion.
Of Herophilus it is said that he had extensive anatomical
knowledge, acquired by dissecting not only brutes but human
bodies. Of these he probably dissected more than
any of his predecessors or contemporaries. Devoted
to the assiduous cultivation of anatomy, he appears
to have studied with particular attention those parts which were
least understood. He recognized the nature of the pulmonary
artery, which he denominates orterious vein; he knew the vessels
of the mesentery, and showed that they did not go to the vena
porta*, but to certain glandular bodies.; and he first applied
the name of twelve-inch or duodenum (fofacaA&xrvXos) to
that part of the alimentary canal which is next to the stomach.
Like Erasistratus, he appears to have studied carefully the
configuration of the brain; and though, like him, he distinguishes
the nerves into those of sensation and those of voluntary motion,
he adds to them the ligaments and tendons. A tolerable descrip-
tion of the liver by this anatomist is preserved in the writings
of Galen. He first applied the name of choroid or vascular
membrane to that which is found in the cerebral ventricles;
he knew the straight venous sinus which still bears his name;
and to him the linear furrow at the bottom of the fourth ventricle
is indebted for its name of calamus tcriptorius.
The celebrity of these two great anatomists appears to have
thrown into the shade for a long period the names of all other
inquirers; for, among their numerous and rather celebrated
successors in the Alexandrian school, it is impossible to recognize
a name which is entitled to distinction in the history of anatomy.
In a chasm so wide it is not uninteresting to find, in one who
combined the characters of the greatest orator and philosopher
of Rome, the most distinct traces of attention to anatomical
knowledge. Cicero, in his treatise De Natura Dearum. in a short
sketch of physiology, such as it was taught by Aristotle and his
disciples, introduces various anatomical notices, from which the
classical reader may form some idea of the state of anatomy at
that time. The Roman orator appears to have formed a pretty
distinct idea of the shape and connexions of the windpipe and
lungs; and though he informs his readers that he knows the
alimentary canal, he omits the details through motives of
delicacy. In imitation of Aristotle, he talks of the blood being
conveyed by the veins (venae), that is, blood-vessels, through the
body at large; and, like Praxagoras, of the air inhaled by the
lungs being conveyed through the arteries.
Aretaeus, though chiefly known as a medical author, makes
some observations on the lung and the pleura, maintains the
glandular structure of the kidney, and describes the anastomoses
or communications of the capillary extremities of the tcna cava
with those of the portal vein.
The most valuable depository of the anatomical knowledge
of these times is the work of Celsus, one of the most judicious
medical authors of antiquity. He left, indeed, no cfctat.
express anatomical treatise; but from the introductions
to the 4th and 8th books of bis work, De Medicine, with incidental
remarks in the 7th, the modern reader may form very just ideas
of his anatomical attainments. From these it appears that
Celsus was well acquainted with the windpipe and lungs and the
heart; with the difference between the windpipe and oesophagus
(slomockus), which leads to the stomach {ventricutus) ; and with
the shape, situation and relations of the diaphragm. He
enumerates also the principal facts relating to the situation of the
liver, the spleen, the kidneys and the stomach. He appears,
however, to have been unaware of the distinction of duodenum
or twelve-inch bowd, already admitted by Herophilus, and
represents the stomach as directly connected by means of the
Pylorus with the jejunum or upper-part of the small intestine.
The 7th and 8th books, which are devoted to the consideration
of those diseases which are treated by manual operation, contain
sundry anatomical notices necessary to explain the nature of the
diseases or mode of treatment Of these, indeed, the merit is
unequal; and it is not wonderful that the ignorance of the day
prevented Celsus from understanding rightly the mechanism, of
9*4
ANATOMY
(HISTORY
the pathology of hernia. He appears, however, to have formed
a tolerably just idea of the mode of cutting into the urinary
bladder; and even his obstetrical instructions show that his
knowledge of the uterus, vagina and appendages was not con-
temptible. It is in osteology, however, that the information of
Celsus is -chiefly conspicuous. He enumerates the sutures and
several of the holes of the cranium, and describes at great length
the superior and inferior maxillary bones and- the teeth. With
a good deal of care he describes the vertebrae and the ribs, and
gives Very briefly the situation and shape of the scapula, humerus,
radius and ulna, and even of the carpal and metacarpal bones,
and then of the different bones of the pelvis and lower extremities.
He had formed a just idea of the articular connexiojis, and is
desirous to impress the fact that none is formed without cartilage.
From his mention of many minute holes (multa el Unuia foramina)
in the recess of the nasal cavities, it is evident that he was
acquainted with the perforated plate of the ethmoid bone;
and from saying that the straight part of the auditory canal
becomes flexuous and terminates in numerous minute cavities
{multa et tenuia foramina diducilur), it is inferred by Portal that
he knew the semicircular canals.
Though the writings of Celsus show that he cultivated ana-
tomical knowledge, it does not appear that the science was much
studied by the Romans; and there is reason to believe that,
after the decay of the school of Alexandria, it languished in
neglect and obscurity. It is at least certain that the appearance
of Marinus during the reign of Nero is mentioned by authors
as an era remarkable for anatomical inquiry) and that this person
is distinguished by Galen as the restorer of a branch of knowledge
which had been before him suffered to fall into undeserved
neglect. From Galen also we learn that Marinus gave an accurate
account of the muscles, that he studied particularly the glands,
and that he discovered those of the mesentery. He fixed the
number of nerves at seven; he observed the palatine nerves,
which he rated as the fourth pair; and described as the fifth
the auditory and facial, which he regards as one pair, and the
hypoglossal as the sixth.
Not long after Marinus appeared Rufus (or Ruffus) of Ephesus,
a Greek physician, who in the reign of Trajan was much attached
j^jy^ tb physiology, and as a means of cultivating this science
studied Comparative Anatomy and made sundry
experiments on living animals. Of the anatomical writings of
this author there remains only a, list or catalogue of names of
different regions and parts of the animal body. He appears,
however, to have directed attention particularly to the tortuous
course of the uterine vessels, and to have recognized even at
this early period the Fallopian tube. He distinguishes the nerves
into those of sensation and those of motion. He knew the re-
current nerve. His name is further associated with the ancient
experiment of compressing in the situation of the carotid arteries
the pneumogastric nerve, and thereby inducing insensibility
and loss of voice.
• Of all the authors of antiquity, however, none possesses so
just a claim to the title of anatomist as Claudius Galenus, the
1hhn celebrated physician of Pergamum, who was born
about the 130th year of the Christian era, and lived
under the reigns o( Hadrian, the Antonines, Commodus and
Severus. He was trained by his father Nicon (whose memory he
embalms as an eminent mathematician, architect and astronomer)
in all the learning of the day, and initiated particularly into the
mysteries of the Aristotelian philosophy. In an order somewhat
whimsical he afterwards studied philosophy successively in the
schools of the Stoics, the Academics, the Peripatetics and the
Epicureans. When he was seventeen years of age, his father,
he informs us, was admonished by a dream to devote his son to
the study of medicine; but it was fully two years after that
Galen entered on this pursuit, under the auspices of an instructor
whose name he has thought proper to conceal Shortly after he
betook himself to the study of anatomy under Satyrus, a pupil of
Quintus, and of medicine under Stratonicus, a Hippocratic
physician, and Aeschrion, an empiric He had scarcely attained
the age of twenty when he had occasion to deplore the loss of the
first and moat affectionate guide of Us studies; and soon after
he proceeded to Smyrna to obtain the anatomical tsstructkn
of Pelops, who, though mystified by some of the errors of Hip-
pocrates, is commemorated by his pupa as a skilful ■"■•fl—fr
After this he appears to have visited various cities cfistmgutthed
for philosophical or medical teachers; and, finally, to have case
to Alexandria with the view of cultivating mote ac tmsldy and
intimately the study of anatomy under *t*r**4i»-nm+ Here he
remained till his twenty-eighth year, when be regarded hansel
as possessed of all the knowledge then attainable through the
medium of teachers. He now returned to Perganram to exercise
the art which he had so anxiously studied, and re ceived, m his
twenty-ninth year, in unequivocal testimony of the *—ftfr*T
which his fellow-citizens reposed in his skill, by being nitrated
with the treatment of the wounded gladiators; and in tha
capacity he is said to have treated wounds with success which
were fatal under former treatment. A seditious tumult appeals
to have caused him to form the resolution of quitting Fersnassi
and proceeding to Rome at the age of thirty-two. Here, how-
ever, he remained only five years; and returning once more is
Pergamum, after travelling for some time, finally settled is
Rome as physician to the emperor Commodus. The anatomical
writings ascribed to Galen, which are numerous, are to be viewed
not merely as the result of personal research and tnformauoa,
but as the common depository of the anatomical knowledge of
the day, and as combining all that he had learnt from the several
teachers under whom he successively studied with whatever
personal investigation enabled him to acquire- It is on thh
account not always easy to dhh'ngimh what Galen had hnaseH
ascertained by personal research from that which was known by
other anatomists. This, however, though of moment to the
history of Galen as an anatomist, is of little consequence to the
science itself; and from the anatomical remains of this anther
a pretty just idea may be formed both of the progress and of
the actual state of the science at that time.
The osteology of Galen is undoubtedly the most perfect of the
departments of the anatomy of the ancients, fie names and
distinguishes the bones and sutures of the cranium nearly in the
same manner as at present Thus, he notices the quadrilateral
shape of the parietal bones;, he distinguishes the squamous, the
styloid, the mastoid and the petrous portions of the t»*Kpnni
bones; and he remarks the peculiar situation and shape of the
sphenoid bone. Of the ethmoid, which he omits at first, he after-
wards speaks more at large in another treatise. The malar he
notices under the name of zygomatic bone; and he describes at
length the upper maxillary and nasal bones, and the «•—»»— "*«
of the former with the sphenoid. He gives the first dear access!
of the number and situation of the vertebrae, which he drndes
into cervical, dorsal and lumbar, and distinguishes from the
sacrum and coccyx. Under the bead Bones of Ska Thorax, he
enumerates the sternum, the ribs (ol w\mfpal), and the dorsal
vertebrae, the connexion of which with the-former he drsjgmate*
as a variety of diarthrosis. The description of the bones of the
extremities and their articulations concludes the treatise.
Though in myology Galen appears to less advantage than is
osteology, he nevertheless had carried this part of anatoiairal
knowledge to greater perfection than any of Ins p rfdrreinon
He describes a frontal muscle, the six muscles of the eye and a
seventh proper to animals; a muscle to each da nasi, four
muscles of the lips, the thin cutaneous muscle of the neck, which
he first termed fdalysma myoides or muscular expansion, two
musdes of the eyelids, and four pairs of muscles of the lower jaw—
the temporal to raise, the masseter to draw to one side, and two
depressors, corresponding to the digastric and internal pterygoid
muscles. After speaking of the muscles which move the head aad
the scapula, he adverts to those by which the windpipe is opened
and shut, and the intrinsic or proper muscles of the larynx and
hyoid bone. Then follow those of the tongue, pharynx and
neck, those of the upper extremities, the trunk and the lower
extremities successively; and in the course of this description
he swerves so little from the actual facts that most of the names
by which he distinguishes the printioel muscles hare been
HISTORY]
ANATOMY
925
retained by the best modern anatomists. It is chiefly in the
minute account of these organs, and especially in reference to
the minuter muscles, that he appears inferior to the moderns.
The angiological knowledge of Galen, though vitiated by the
erroneous physiology of the times and ignorance of the separate
uses of arteries and veins, exhibits, nevertheless, some ac-
curate facts which show the diligence of the author in dissection.
Though, in opposition to the opinions of Prazagoras and Erasis-
tratus, he proved that the arteries in the living animal contain
not air but blood, it does not appear to have occurred to him to
determine in what direction the blood flows, or whether it was
movable or stationary. Representing the left ventricle of the
heart as the common origin of all the arteries, though he is
misled by the pulmonary artery, he nevertheless traces the
distribution of the branches of the aorta with some accuracy.
The km atygos also., and the jugular veins, have contributed to
add to the confusion of his description, and to render his angiology
the most imperfect of his works.
In neurology we find him to be the author of the dogma that
the brain a the origin of the nerves of sensation, and the spinal
cord of those of motion; and be distinguishes the former from
the latter by their greater softness or less consistence. Though
he admits only seven cerebral pairs, he has the merit of distin-
guishing and tracing the distribution of the greater part of both
classes of nerves with great accuracy. His description of the
brain b derived from dissection of the lower animals, and his
distinctions of the several parts of the organ have been retained
by modern anatomists. His mode of demonstrating this organ,
which indeed is clearly described, consists of five different steps.
In the first the bisecting' membrane — ix. the falx (/iip>ry€
dtXOTotuMxa) — and the connecting blood-vessels are removed;
and the dissector, commencing at the anterior extremity of the
great fissure, separates the hemispheres gently as for as the
torcular, and exposes a smooth surface (Hjw X&P*" rvXudrj roic
ofoor), the mesolobe of the moderns, or the middle band. In
the second he, exposes by successive sections the ventricles, the
choroid plexus and the middle partition. The third exhibits
the pineal body (oupa kcovoh6*s) or conarium, concealed by a
membrane with numerous veins, meaning that part of the plexus
which is now known by the name of velum interpositum, and a
complete view of the ventricles. The fourth unfolds the third
ventricle (rlf oXXj? rptnr aotXia), the communication between
the two lateral ones, the arch-like body (rw/ia ^aXt&xi&s)
fornix, and the passage from the third to the fourth ventricle.
In the fifth he gives an accurate description of the relations of the
third and fourth ventricle, of the situation of the two pairs of
eminences, nates (yknvra) and testes (Si&vuia or 8pX"*)» the
scolecoid or worm-like process, anterior and posterior, and lastly
the linear furrow, called by Hemophilus calamus scriptorius.
In the account of the thoracic organs equal accuracy may be
recognized. He distinguishes the pleura by the name of inclosing
membrane (tyn^ forcf<*cws, membrana suceingens), and remarks
its similitude in structure to that of the peritoneum, and the
covering which it affords to all the organs. The pericardium
also he describes as a membranous sac with a circular basis
corresponding to the base of the heart and a conical apex; and
after an account of the tunics of the arteries and veins, he speaks
shortly of the lung, and more at length of the heart, which,
however, he takes some pains to prove not to be muscular, because
it is harder, its fibres are differently arranged, and its action is
incessant, whereas that of muscle alternates with the state of
rest; he gives a good account of the valves and of the vessels;
and notices especially the bony ring formed in the heart of the
horse, elephant and other large animals.
The description of the abdominal organs, and of the kidneys
and urinary apparatus, is still more minute, and in general
accurate. Our limits, however, do. not permit us to give any
abstract of them; and it is sufficient in general to say that
Galen gives correct views of the arrangement of the peritoneum
and omentum, and distinguishes accurately the several divisions
of the alimentary canal and its component tissues. In the liver,
which he allows to receive an envelope from the peritoneum, he
admits, In imitation of Erasistratus, a proper substance or
parenckyma, interposed between the vessels, and capable of
removal by suitable dissection. His description of the organs
of generation is rather brief, and is, like most of his anatomical
sketches, too much blended with physiological dogmas.
This short sketch may communicate some idea of the condition
of anatomical knowledge in the days of Galen, who indeed is
justly entitled to the character of rectifying and digesting, if not
of creating, the science of anatomy among the ancients. Though
evidently confined, perhaps entirely by the circumstances of
the times, to the dissection of brute animals, so indefatigable and
judicious was he in the mode of acquiring knowledge, that many
of his names and distinctions are still retained with advantage
in the writings of the modems. Galen was a practical anatomist,
and not only describes the organs of the animal body from actual
dissection, but gives ample instructions for the proper mode of
exposition. His language is in general clear, his style as correct
as in most of the authors of the same period, and his manner is
animated. Few passages in early science are indeed so interesting
as the description- of the process for demonstrating the brain
and other internal organs which is given by this patient and
enthusiastic observer of nature. To some it may appear absurd
to speak of anything like good anatomical description in an
author who writes in the Greek language, or anything like an
interesting and correct manner in a writer who flourished at a
period when taste was depraved or extinct and literature cor-
rupted—when the philosophy of Antoninus and the mild virtues
of Aurelius could do little to soften the iron sway of Lucius Verus
and Commodus; but the habit of faithful observation in Galen
seems to have been so powerful that in the description of material
objects, his genius invariably rises above the circumstances of
his age. Though not so directly connected with this subject, it is
nevertheless proper to mention that he appears to have been
the first anatomist who can be said, on authentic grounds, to
have attempted to discover the uses of organs by vivisection
and experimen Is on living animals. In this manner he ascertained
the position and demonstrated the action of the heart; and he
mentions two instances in which, in consequence of disease or
injury, he had an opportunity of observing the motions of this
organ in the human body. In short, without eulogizing an
ancient author at the expense of critical justice, or com*
mending his anatomical descriptions as superior to those of the
moderns, It must be admitted that the anatomical writings of
the physician of Pergamum form a remarkable era in the history
of the science; and that by diligence in dissection and accuracy
in description he gave the science a degree of importance and
stability which it has retained through a lapse of many centuries.
The death of Galen, which took place at Pergamum in the
seventieth year of his age and the sooth of the Christian era, may
be regarded as the downfall of anatomy in ancient times. After
this period we recognize only two names of any celebrity in the
history of the science — those of Soranus and Oribasius, with the
more obscure ones of Meletius and Theophilus, the latter the
chief of the imperial guard of Heraclius.
Soranus, who was an Ephesian, and flourished under the
emperors Trajan and Hadrian, distinguished himself by his
researches on the female organs of generation. He appears to
have dissected the human subject; and this perhaps is one reason
why his descriptions of these parts are more copious and more
accurate than those of Galen, who derived his knowledge from
the bodies of the lower animals. He denies the existence of the
hymen, but describes accurately the clitoris. Soranus the
anatomist must be distinguished from the physician of that
name, who was also a native of Ephesus.
Oribasius, who was born at Pergamum, is said to have been
at once the friend and physician of the emperor Julian, and to
have contributed to the elevation of that apostate to ffrtrmfcf
the imperial throne. For this he appears to have
suffered the punishment of a temporary exile under Valens and
Valentinian; but was soon recalled, and lived in great honour till
the period of his death (387). By le Clerc, Oribasius is regarded
as a compiler; and indeed his anatomical writings bear so close
926
ANATOMY
(HISTORY
a correspondence with those of Galen that the character is not
altogether groundless. In various points, nevertheless, he has
rendered the Galenian anatomy more accurate; and he has
distinguished himself by a good account of the salivary glands,
which were overlooked by Galen.
To the same period generally is referred the Anatomical
Introduction of an anonymous author, first published in 1618 by
Laurembcrg, and afterwards by C. Bernard. It is to be regarded
as a compilation formed on the model of Galen and Oribasius.
The same character is applicable to the treatises of Meletius and
Tneophilus.
The decline indicated by these languid efforts soon sank into
a state of total inactivity; and the unsettled state of society
during the latter agC3 of the Roman empire was extremely
unfavourable to the successful cultivation of science. The
sanguinary conflicts in which the southern countries of Europe
were repeatedly engaged with their northern neighbours between
the 2nd and 8th centuries tended gradually to estrange their
minds from scientific pursuits; and the hordes of barbarians
by which the Roman empire was latterly overrun, while they
urged them to the necessity of making hostile resistance,
and adopting means of self-defence, introduced such habits of
ignorance and barbarism,, that science was almost universally
forgotten. While the art of healing was professed only by some
few ecclesiastics or by itinerant practitioners, anatomy was
utterly neglected; and no name of anatomical celebrity occurs
to diversify the long and uninteresting period commonly dis-
tinguished as the dark ages.
Anatomical learning, thus neglected by European nations,
is believed to have received a temporary cultivation from the
Arabian Asiatics. Of these, several nomadic tribes, known
Phyth to Europeans under the general denomination of Arabs
ctaM> and Saracens, had gradually coalesced under various
leaders; and by their habits of endurance, as well as of enthusi-
astic valour in successive expeditions against the eastern division
of the Roman empire, had acquired such military reputation as
to render them formidable wherever they appeared. After a
century and a half of foreign warfare or internal animosity,
under the successive dynasties of the Omayyads and Abbasids,
in which the propagation of Islam was the pretext for the
extinction of learning and civilization, and the most remorseless
system of rapine and destruction, the Saracens began, under the
latter dynasty of princes, to recognize the value of science, and
especially of that which prolongs life, heals disease and alleviates
the pain of wounds and injuries. The caliph Mansur combined
with his official knowledge of Moslem law the successful cultiva-
tion of astronomy; but to his grandson Mamun, the seventh
prince of the line of the Abbasids, belongs the merit of under-
taking to render his subjects philosophers and physicians. By
the directions of this prince the works of the Greek and Roman
authors were translated into Arabic; and the favour and muni-
ficence with which literature and its professors were patronized
speedily raised a succession of learned Arabians. The residue
of the rival family of the Omayyads, already settled in Spain,
was prompted by motives of rivalry or honourable ambition to
adopt the same course; and while the academy, hospitals
and library of Bagdad bore testimony to the zeal and liberality
of the Abbasids, the munificence of the Omayyads was not less
conspicuous in the literary institutions- of Cordova, Seville
and Toledo.
Notwithstanding the efforts of the Arabian princes, however,
and the diligence of the Arabian physicians, little was done for
anatomy, and the science made no substantial acquisition.
The Koran denounces as unclean the person who touches a
corpse; the rules of Islam forbid dissection; and whatever
their instructors taught was borrowed from the Greeks. Abu-
Bekr Al-Rasi, Abu-Ali Ibn-Sina, Abul-Qasim and Abul Walid
ibn Rushd, the Rhazes, Aviccnna, Abulcasis and Averroes of
European authors, are their most celebrated names in medicine;
yet to none of these can the historian with justice ascribe any
anatomical merit Rhazes has indeed left descriptions of the
eye, of the ear and its meatus, and of the heart; and Avicenna,
Abul-Qasim and Averroes give anatomical descriptions of tlie
parts of the human body. But of these the general character
is, that they are copies from Galen, sometimes not very jest,
and in all instances mystified with a large proportion of the
fanciful and absurd imagery and inflated style of the Arabtaa
writers. The chief reason of their obtaining a place in anatomical
history is, that by the influence which their medical authority
enabled them to exercise in the European schools, the nomen-
dature which they employed was adopted by European ana-
tomists, and continued till the revival of ancient learning restored
the original nomenclature of the Greek physicians. Tons, Use
cervix, or nape of the neck, is nucha; the oesophagus is meri; the
umbilical region is sumen or sumac; the abdomen m ssyrata-;
the peritoneum is sipkae; and the omentum, xirbus.
From the general character now given justice requires that
we except Abdallatif, the annalist of Egyptian affairs, This
author, who maintains that it is impossible to learn anatomy
from books, and that the authority of Galen must yield to
personal inspection, informs us that the Moslem doctors did not
neglect opportunities of studying the bones of the human body
in cemeteries; and that he himself, by once romining a
collection of hones in this manner, ascertained that the lower
jaw is formed of one piece; that the sacrum, though sometimes
composed of several, is most generally of one; and that Galea
is mistaken when he asserts that these bones are not single.
The era of Saracen learning extends to the 13th century;
and after this we begin to approach happier times. The 1
sity of Bologna, which, as a school of literature and
law, was already celebrated in the 12th century,
became, in the course of the following one, not less
distinguished for its medical teachers. Though the misgovera-
ment of the municipal rulers of Bologna had disgusted both
teachers and students, and given rise to the foun d ation of similar
institutions in Padua and Naples, — and though the school of
Salerno, in the territory of the latter, was still in high repute,—
it appears, from the testimony of M. Sarti, that medkine was
in the highest esteem in Bologna, and that it was in such per-
fection as to require a division of its professors into physicians,
surgeons, physicians for wounds, barber-surgeons, oculists and
even some others. Notwithstanding these indications of refine-
ment, however, anatomy was manifestly cultivated rather as
an appendage of surgery than a branch of medical science;
and according to the testimony of Guy de Chauliac, the cultiva-
tion of anatomical knowledge was confined to Roger of Parma,
Roland, Jamerio, Bruno, and Lanfranc or Tjmfranrhi of Milan;
and this they borrowed chiefly from Galen.
In this state matters appear to have proceeded with the
medical school of Bologna till the commencement of the 14th
century, when the circumstance of possessing a teacher j^^^
of originality enabled this university to be the agent
of as great an improvement in medical science as she had already
effected in jurisprudence. This era, indeed, is distingnwheri
for the appearance of Mondino (Mundinus), under whose zealous
cultivation the science first began to rise from the ashes in
which it had been buried. This father of modern anatomy,
who taught in Bologna about the year 13 15, quickly drew the
curiosity of the medical profession by well-ordered demonstra-
tions of the different parts of the human body. In 131 5 he dis-
sected and demonstrated the parts of the human body in two
female subjects; and in the course of. the following year he
accomplished the same task on the person of a single female.
But while he seems to have had sufficient original force of
intellect to direct his own route, J. Riolan accuses him of copying
Galen; and it is certain that his descriptions are corrupted
by the barbarous leaven of the Arabian schools, and hi* Latin
defaced by the exotic nomenclature of Avicenna and Rhazes.
He died, according to G. Tiraboschi, in 1325.
Mondino divides the body into three cavities (ventres), the
upper containing the animal members, as the head, the lower
containing the natural members, and the middle containing
the spiritual members. He first describes the anatomy of the
lower cavity or the abdomen, then proceeds to the middle or
HISTORY]
ANATOMY
927
thoracic organs, and concludes with the upper, comprising the
head and its contents and appendages. His general manner
is to notice shortly the situation and shape or distribution of
textures or membranes, and then to mention the disorders to
which they are subject. The peritoneum he describes under the
name of sip hoc, in imitation of the Arabians, the omentum under
that of urbus, and the mesentery or enchants as distinct fmm
both. In speaking of the intestines he treats first of the rectum,
then the colon, the left or sigmoid flexure of which, as well as
the transverse arch and its connexion with the stomach, he
particularly remarks; then the caecum or monoculus, after this
the small intestines in general under the heads of ileum and
jejunum, and latterly the duodenum, making in all six bowels.
The liver and its vessels are minutely, if not accurately, ex-
amined; and the cava, under the name chilis, a corruption from
the Greek noDy, is treated at length, with the emulgents and
kidneys. His anatomy of the heart is wonderfully accurate;
and it is a remarkable fact, which seems to be omitted by all
subsequent authors, that his description contains the rudiments
of the circulation of the blood. " Fostea vero versus pulmonem
est aliud orificium venae arterialis, quae portal sanguincm ad
pulmonem a corde; quia cum pulmo deserviat cordi secundum
modum dictum, ut ei recompensct, cor ci transmittit sanguinem
per hanc venam, quae vocatur vena arterialis; est vena, quia
portat sanguinem, et arterialis, quia habet duas tunicas; et
habet duas tunicas, primo quia vadit ad membrum quod existit
in continue- motu, et sccundo quia portat sanguinem valde
subtilem et cholericum." The merit of these distinctions,
however, he afterwards destroys by repeating the old assertion
that the left ventricle ought to contain spirit or air, which it
generates from the blood. His osteology of the skull is erroneous.
In his account of the cerebral membranes, though short, he notices
the principal characters of the dura mater. He describes shortly
the lateral ventricles, with their anterior and posterior cornua,
and the choroid plexus as a blood-red substance like a long worm.
He then speaks of the third or middle ventricle, and one posterior,
which seems to correspond with the fourth; and describes the
infundibulum under the names of lacuna and embolon. In the
base of the organ he remarks, first, two mammillary caruncles,
the optic nerves, which he 'reckons the first pair; the oculo-
muscular, which he accounts the second; the third, which appears
to be sixth of the moderns; the fourth; the fifth, evidently
the seventh; a sixth, the nervus vagus; and a seventh, which
is the ninth of the moderns. Notwithstanding the misrepresenta-
tions into which this early anatomist was betrayed, his book is
valuable, and has been illustrated by the successive commentaries
of Alessandro Achillini, Jacopo Bcrengario and Johann Dryander
(1500-1560).
Matthew de Gradibus, a native of Gradi, a town in Friuli, near
Milan, distinguished himself by composing a series of treatises
on the anatomy of various parts of the human body (1480).
He is the first who represents the ovaries of the female in the
correct light in which they were subsequently regarded by
Nicolas Steno or S tense n (1638-1687).
Objections similar to those already urged in speaking of
Mondino apply to another eminent anatomist of those times.
Gabriel de Zerbis, who flourished at Verona towards the con-
clusion of the 15th century, is celebrated as the author of a
system in which he is obviously more anxious to astonish his
readers by the wonders of a verbose and complicated style than
to instruct by precise and faithful description. In the vanity
of his heart he assumed the title of Medicus Thcoricus; but
though, like Mondino, he derived his information from the
dissection of the human subject, he is not entitled to the merit
either of describing truly or of adding to the knowledge previously
acquired. He is superior to Mondino, however, in knowing the
olfactory nerves.
Eminent in the history of the science, and more distinguished
than any of this age in the history of cerebral anatomy. Achillini
irftmtnt °' Boles™ ( M63-1 51 *). the pupil and commentator of
Mondino. appeared at the close of the 1 5th century.
Though a follower of the Arabian school, the assiduity with
which he cultivated anatomy has rescued his name from the
inglorious obscurity in which the Arabian doctors have in
general slumbered. He is known in the history of anatomical
discovery as the first who described the two tympanal bones,
termed malleus and incus. In 1503 he snowed that the tarsus
consists of seven bones; he rediscovered the fornix and the
infundibulum; and be was fortunate enough to observe the
course of the cerebral cavities into the inferior cornua, and to
remark peculiarities to which the anatomists of a future age did
not advert. He mentions the orifices of the ducts, afterwards
described by Thomas Wharton (16x0-1673). He knew the
ileo-caecal valve; and his description of the duodenum, ileum
and colon shows that he was better acquainted with the site and
disposition of these bowels than any of his predecessors or
contemporaries.
Not long after, the science boasts of one of its most distin-
guished founders. Berengario, commonly called Berenger of
Carpi, in the Modenese territory, nourished at Bologna » JJ U U J .
at the beginning of the x6th century. In the annals
of medicine his name will be remembered not only as the most,
zealous and eminent in cultivating the anatomy of the human
body, but as the first physician who was fortunate enough to
calm the alarms of Europe, suffering under the ravages of
syphilis, then raging with uncontrollable virulence. In the
former character he surpassed both predecessors and contem-
poraries; and it was long before the anatomists of the following
age could boast of equalling him. His assiduity was indefatig-
able; and he declares that he dissected above one hundred
human bodies. He is the author of a compendium, of several
treatises which he names Introductions {Isagogae), and of com-
mentaries on the treatise of Mondino, in which he not only
rectifies the mistakes of that anatomist, but gives minute and
in general accurate anatomical descriptions.
He is the first who undertakes a systematic view of the several
textures of which the human body is composed; and in a pre-
liminary commentary he treats successively of the anatomical
characters and properties of fat, of membrane in general (pan-
niculus), of flesh, of nerve, of villus or fibre (Jilum), of ligament,
of sinew or tendon, and of muscle in general. He then proceeds
to describe with considerable precision the muscles of the
abdomen, and illustrates their site and connexions by woodcuts
which, though rude, arc spirited, and show that anatomical
drawing was in that early age beginning to be understood. In
his account of the peritoneum he admits only the intestinal
division of that membrane, and is at some pains to prove that
Gentilis Fulgineus, who justly admits the muscular division also,
is in error. In his account of the intestines he is the first who
mentions the vermiform process of the caecum; he remarks the
yellow tint communicated to the duodenum by the gall-bladder;
and he recognizes the opening of the common biliary duct into
the duodenum {quidam porus portans choUram). In the account
of the stomach he describes the several tissues of which that
organ is composed, and which he represents to be three, and a
fourth from the peritoneum; and afterwards notices the rugae
of its villous surface. He is at considerable pains to explain the
organs of generation in both sexes, and gives a long account of
the anatomy of the foetus. He was the first who recognized the
larger proportional size of the chest in the male than in the
female, and conversely the greater capacity of the female than
of the male pelvis. In the larynx he discovered the two arytenoid
cartilages. He gives the first good description of the thymus;
distinguishes the oblique situation of the heart; describes the
pericardium, and maintains the uniform presence of pericardial
liquor. He then describes the cavities of the heart ; but perplexes
himself, as did all the anatomists of that age, about the spirit
supposed to be contained. The aorta he properly makes to arise
from the left ventricle; but confuses himself with the artcria
venal is, the pulmonary vein, and the vena arterialis, the pul-
monary artery. His account of the brain is better. He gives a
minute and clear account of the ventricles, remarks the corpus
striatum, and has the sagacity to perceive that the choroid plexus
consists of veins and arteries; he then describes the middle or
928
ANATOMY
{HISTORY
third ventricle, the infundibulum or lacuna of Mondino, and the
pituitary gland; and lastly, the passage to the fourth ventricle,
the conarium or pineal gland, and the fourth or posterior ventricle
itself, the relations of which he had studied accurately. He
rectifies the mistake of Mondino as to the olfactory or first pair
of nerves, gives a good account of the optic and others, and is
entitled to the praise of originality in being the first observer
who contradicts the fiction of the wonderful net and indicates
the principal divisions of the carotid arteries. He enumerates
the tunics and humours of the eye, and gives an account of the
internal ear, in which he notices the malleus and incus.
Italy long retained the distinction of giving birth to the first
eminent anatomists in Europe, and the glory she acquired in the
names of Mondino, Achillini, Berenger and N. Massa,
was destined to become more conspicuous in the labours
of R. Columbus, G. Fallopius and Eustachius. While
Italy, however, was thus advancing the progress of science, the
other nations of Europe were either in profound ignorance or in
the most supine indifference to the brilliant career of their zealous
neighbours. The x6th century had commenced before France
began to acquire anatomical distinction in the names of Jacques
Dubois, Jean Fernel and Charles Etienne; and even these cele-
brated teachers were less solicitous in the personal study of the
animal body than in the faithful explanation of the anatomical
writings of Galen. The infancy of the French school had to
contend with other difficulties. The small portion of knowledge
which had been hitherto diffused in the country was so inadequate
to eradicate the prejudices of ignorance, that it was either difficult
or absolutely impossible to procure- human bodies for the purposes
of science; and we are assured, on the testimony of A. Vesalius
and other competent authorities, that the practical part of ana-
tomical instruction was obtained entirely from the bodies of the
lower animals. The works of the Italian anatomists were un-
known; and it is a proof of the tardy communication of know-
ledge that, while the structure of the human body had been
taught in Italy for more than a century by Mondino and his
followers, these anatomists are never mentioned by Etienne, who
flourished long after.
Such was the aspect of the times at the appearance of Jacques
Dubois (1478-1555), who, under the Romanized name of Jacobus
DutolM Sylvius, according to the fashion of the day, has been
fortunate in acquiring a reputation to which his re-
searches do not entitle him. For the name of Dubois the history
of anatomy, it is said, is indebted to his inordinate love of money.
At the instance of his brother Francis, who was professor of
eloquence in the college of Tournay at Paris, he devoted himself
to the study of the learned languages and mathematics; but
discovering that these elegant accomplishments do not invariably
reward their cultivators with the goods of fortune, Dubois betook
himself to medicine. After the acquisition of a medical degree
in the university of Montpcllier, at the ripe age of fifty-one Dubois
returned to Paris to resume a course of anatomical instruction.
Here he taught anatomy to a numerous audience in the college
Of Trinquet; and on the departure of Vidua Vidius for Italy was
appointed to succeed that physician as professor of surgery to the
Royal College. His character is easily estimated. With greater
coarseness in his manners and language than even the rude state
of society in his times can palliate, with much varied learning and
considerable eloquence, he was a blind, indiscriminate and ir-
rational admirer of Galen, and interpreted the anatomical and
physiological writings of that author in preference to giving
demonstrations from the subject. Without talent for original
research or discovery himself, his envy and jealousy made him
detest every one who gave proofs of either. We are assured by
Vesalius, who was some time his pupil, that his manner of
teaching was calculated neither to advance the science nor to
rectify the mistakes of his predecessors. A human body was
never seen in the theatre of Dubois; the carcases of dogs and
other animals were the materials from which he taught; and so
difficult even was it to obtain human bones, that unless Vesalius
and his fellow-students had collected assiduously from the
Innocents and other cemeteries, they must have committed
numerous errors in acquiring the first principles. This assertion,
however, is contradicted by J. Riolan, and afterwards by K_ P. J.
Sprengel and T. Lauth, the last of whom decidedly censures
Vesalius for this ungrateful treatment of his instructor. It is
certain that opportunities of inspecting the human body were by
no means so frequent as to facilitate the study of the soma.
Though his mention of injections has led some to suppose him Use
discoverer of that art, he appears to have made no substantial
addition to the information already acquired; and the first
acknowledged professor of anatomy to the university of Paris
appears in history as one who lived without true honour and
died without just celebrity. He must not be confounded with
Franciscus Sylvius (de le Boe), who is mentioned by F. Ruysch
and M. V. G. Malacarne as the author of a particular method of
demonstrating the brain.
Almost coeval may be placed Charles Etienne (1503-1 564), a
younger brother of the celebrated printers, and son to Henry,
who Hellenized the family name by the classical a^ tm ,
appellation of Stephen (Lrtyapot). It is uncertain
whether he taught publicly. But his tranquillity was di stur bed,
and his pursuits interrupted, by the oppressive persecutions
in which their religious opinions involved the family; and
Charles Etienne drew the last breath of a imvrable fife in a
dungeon in 1564. Etienne, though sprung of a family whose
classical taste has been their principal glory, does not betray the
same servile imitation of the Galeniaa anatomy with which
Dubois is charged. He appears to have been the first to detect
valves in the orifice of the hepatic veins. He was ignorant,
however, of the researches of the Italian anatomists; and his
description of the brain is inferior to that given sixty years before
by Achillini. His comparison of the cerebral cavities to the hnmaa
ear has persuaded F. Portal that he knew the inferior orau, the
hippocampus and its prolongations; but this is no reason for
giving him that honour to the detriment of the reputation of
Achillini, to whom, so far as historical testimony goes, the first
knowledge of this fact is due. The researches of Etienne into the
structure of the nervous system are, however, neither useless nor
inglorious; and the circumstance of demonstrating a canal
through the entire length of the spinal cord, which had neither
been suspected by contemporaries nor noticed by successors till
J. B. Senac (1693-1770) made it known, is sufficient to place him
high in the rank of anatomical disc o v er ers.
The French anatomy of the 16th century was distinguished by
two circumstances unfavourable to the advancement of the science
— extravagant admiration of antiquity, with excessive &^^
confidence in the writings of Galen, and the general
practice of dissecting principally the bodies of the lower ammak.
Both these errors were much amended, if not entirely removed,
by the exertions of a young Fleming, whose appearance forms a
conspicuous era in the history of anatomy. Andreas Vesalna,
(1514-1564), a native of Brussels, after acquiring at Louvain the
ordinary classical attainments of the day, began at the age of
fourteen to study anatomy under the auspices of Dubois. Though
Uwoi^nalityofhismmdsoonlcdhimtoabaiidontheprejudka
by which he was environed, and take the most direct course for
attaining a knowledge of the structure of the human frame, he
neither underrated the Galcnian anatomy nor was indolent in
the dissection of brute animals. The difficulties, however, with
which the practical pursuit of human anatomy was beset a
France, and the dangers with which he had to contend, made him
look to Italy as a suitable field for the cultivation of the science;
and in 1536 we find him at Venice, at once pursuing the study of
human anatomy with the utmost zeal, and requested, ere he bad
attained his twenty-second year, to demonstrate publicly in the
university of Padua. After remaining here about seven years,
Vesalius went by express invitation to Bologna, and shortly
afterwards to Pisa; and thus professor in three universities, he
appears to have carried on his anatomical investigations and
instructions alternately at Padua, Bologna and Pisa, in the
course of the same -winter. It is on this account that Vesalius,
though a Fleming by birth and trained originally in the French
school, belongs, as an anatomist, to the Italian, and may bt
HISTORY]
ANATOMY
929
viewed as the first of an illustrious line of teachers by whom the
anatomical reputation of that country was in the course of the
16th century raised to the greatest eminence.
Vesalius is known as the first author of a comprehensive and
systematic view of human anatomy. The knowledge with which
his dissections had furnished him proved how many errors were
daily taught and learned under the broad mantle of Galenian
authority; and be perceived the necessity of a new system of
anatomical instruction, divested of the omissions of ignorance
and the misrepresentations of prejudice and fancy. The early
age at which he effected this object has been to his biographers the
theme of boundless commendation; and we are told that he began
at the age of twenty-five to arrange the materials he had collected,
and accomplished bis task ere he had completed his 28th year.
Soon after this period we find him invited as imperial physician
to the court of Charles V., where he was occupied in the duties
of practice and answering the various charges which were un-
ceasingly brought against him by the disciples of Galen. After
the abdication of Charles he continued at court in great favour
with his. sob Philip IL To this he seems to have been led princi-
pally by the troublesome controversies in which his anatomical
writings had involved him-. It is painful to think, however, that
even imperial patronage bestowed on eminent talents does not
ensure immunity from popular prejudice; and the fate of Vesalius
wilJ be a lasting example of the barbarism of the times, and of
the precarious tenure of the safety even of a great physician.
On the preliminary circumstances authors are not agreed; but
the most general account states that when Vesalius was dissecting,
with the consent of bis kinsmen, the body of a Spanish grandee,
it was observed that the heart still gave some feeble palpitations
when divided by the knife. The immediate effects of this outrage
to human feelings were the denunciation of the anatomist to
the Inquisition; and Vesalius escaped the severe treatment of
that tribunal only by the influence of the king, and by promising
to perform a pilgrimage to the Holy Land. He forthwith pro-
ceeded to Venice, from which he sailed with the Venetian fleet,
under James Mala testa, for Cyprus. When he reached Jerusalem,
be received from the Venetian senate a message requesting him
again to accept the Paduan professorship, which had become
vacant by the death of his friend and pupil Fallopius. His
festiny, however, which pursued him fast, suffered him not
.gain to breathe the Italian air. After struggling for many days
nth the adverse winds in the Ionian Sea, he was wrecked on
fie island of Zante, where he quickly breathed his last in such
enury that unless a liberal goldsmith had defrayed the funeral
targes, his remains must have been devoured by beasts of prey.
t the time of his death he was scarcely fifty years of age.
To form a correct estimate of the character and merits of
-salius, we must not compare him, in the spirit of modern
rfection, "with the anatomical authors either of later times or
the present day. Whoever would frame a just idea of this
1 tomist must imagine, not a bold innovator without academical
riling, not a genius coming from a foreign country, unused
he forms and habits of Catholic Europe, nor a wild reformer,
-ning indiscriminately everything which accorded not with his
u'on; but a young student scarcely emancipated from the
lority of instructors, whose intellect was still influenced
the doctrines with which it had been originally imbued, —
holar strictly trained in the opinions of the time, living
1st men who venerated Galen as the oracle of anatomy and
divinity of medicine,— exercising his reason to estimate
soundness of the instructions then in use, and proceeding,
e way least likely to offend authority and wound prejudice,
tify errors, and to establish on the solid basis of observation
rue elements of anatomical science. Vesalius has been
ninated the- founder of human anatomy; and though we
seen that in this career be was preceded with honour by
ino and Bcrenger, still the small proportion of correct
^at ion which their reverence for Galen and Arabian doctrines
d them to communicate, will not in a material de g ree
the original merits of Vesalius. The errors which he
d and the additions which he made are so numerous,
that it is impossible, in such a sketch as the present, to com-
municate a just idea of them.
Besides the first good description of the sphenoid bone, he
showed that the sternum consists of three portions and the
sacrum of five or six; and described accurately the vestibule
in the interior of the temporal bone. He not only verified the
observation of Etienne on the valves of the hepatic veins, but
he described well the vena atygos, and discovered the canal
which passes in the foetus between the umbilical vein and the
vena cava, since named ductus venosus. He described the
omentum, and its connexions with the stomach, the spleen
and the colon; .gave the first correct views of the structure of
the pylorus; remarked the small size of the caecal appendix
in man; gave the first good account of the mediastinum and
pleura and the fullest description of the anatomy of the brain
yet advanced. He appears, however, not to have understood
well the inferior recesses; and his account of the nerves is con-
fused by regarding the optic as the first pair, the third as the
fifth and the fifth as the seventh.
The labours of Vesalius were not limited to the immediate
effect produced by his own writings. His instructions and
examples produced a multitude of anatomical inquirers of
different characters and varied celebrity, by whom the science
was.extended and rectified. Of these we cannot speak in detail;
but historical justice requires us to notice shortly those to whose
exertions the science of anatomy has been most indebted.
The first that claims attention on this account is Bartolomeo
Eustachi of San Severino, near Salerno, who though greatly
less fortunate in reputation than his contemporary
Vesalius, divides with him the merit of creating the 5JT
science of human anatomy. He extended the knowledge
of the internal ear by rediscovering and describing correctly the
tube which bears his name; and if we admit that G. F. Ingres-
sias anticipated him in the knowledge of the third bone of the
tympanal cavity, the stapes, he is still the first who described
the internal and anterior muscles of the malleus, as also the
stapedius, and the complicated figure of the cochlea. He is the
first who studied accurately the anatomy of the teeth, and the
phenomena of the first and second dentition. The work, however,
which demonstrates at once the great merit and the unhappy
fate of Eustachius is his Anatomical Engravings, which, though
completed in 155a, nine years after the impression of the work
of Vesalius, the author was unable to publish. First com-
municated to the world in 17x4 by G. M. Lancisi, afterwards
in 1744 by Cajetan Petrioli, again in 1744 by B. S. Albinus,
and subsequently at Bonn in 1700, the engravings show that
Eustachius had dissected with the greatest care and diligence,
and taken the utmost pains to give just views of the shape, size
and relative position of the organs of the human body.
The first seven plates illustrate the history of the kidneys and
some of the facts relating to the structure of the ear. The eighth
represents the heart, the* ramifications of the vena asygos, and the
valve of the vena cava, named from the author. In the seven
subsequent plates is given a succession of different views of the
viscera of the chest and abdomen. The seventeenth contains
the brain and spinal cord; and the eighteenth more accurate
views of the origin, course and distribution of the nerves than had
been given before. Fourteen plates arc devoted to the muscles.
Eustachius did not confine his researches to the study of
relative anatomy. He investigated the intimate structure of
organs with assiduity and success. What was too minute for
unassisted vision he inspected by means of glasses. Structure
which could not be understood in the recent state, he unfolded
by maceration in different fluids, or rendered more distinct by
injection and exsiccation. The facts unfolded in these figures
are so important that it is justly remarked by Lauth, that if the
author himself had been fortunate enough to publish them,
anatomy would have attained the perfection of the 18th century
two centuries earlier at least. Their seclusion for that period in
the papal library has given celebrity to many names which would
have been known only in the verification of the discoveries of
Eustachius.
93©
ANATOMY
(HISTORY
M. R. Columbus and G. Fallopius were pupils of Vesalius.
Columbus, as his immediate successor in Padua, and afterwards
rutmiUm a* professor at Rome, distinguished himself by rectify-
ing and improving the anatomy of the bones; by
giving correct accounts of the shape and cavities of the heart, of
the pulmonary artery and aorta and their valves, and tracing the
course of the blood from the right to the left side of the heart;
by a good description of the brain and its vessels,' and by correct
understanding of the internal ear, and the first good account of
the ventricles of the larynx.
Fallopius, who, after being professor at Pisa in 1548, and at
Padua in 1551, died at the age of forty, studied the general
p aaopka% anatomy of the bones; described better than hereto-
fore the internal ear, especially the tympanum and
its osseous ring, the two fenestra* and their communication with
the vestibule and cochlea; and gave the first good account of
the stylo-mastoid hole and canal, of the ethmoid bone and cells,
and of the lacrymal passages. In myology he rectified several
mistakes of Vesalius. He also devoted attention to the organs
of generation in both sexes, and discovered the utcro-peritoneal
canal which still bears his name.
Osteology nearly at the same time found an assiduous culti-
vator in Giovanni Filippo Ingrassias(z 54 5-1 58o),alearned Sicilian
' 1 !»■!■■ physici* 11 * wn0 > m * skilful commentary on the osteo-
logy of Galen, corrected numerous mistakes. He gave
the first distinct account of the true configuration of the sphenoid
and ethmoid bones, and has the merit of first describing (1546)
the third bone of the tympanum, called stapes, though this is
also claimed by Eustachius and Fallopius.,
The anatomical descriptions of Vesalius underwent the
scrutiny of various inquirers. Those most distinguished by the
Armaxl importance and accuracy of their researches, as well as
the temperate tone of their observations, were Julius
Caesar Aranzi (1530-1589), anatomical professor for thirty-two
years in the university of Bologna, and Constantio Varoli,
physician to Pope Gregory XIII. To the former we are indebted
for the first correct account of the anatomical peculiarities of
the foetus, and he was the first to show that the muscles of the
eye do not, as was. falsely imagined, arise from the dura mater
but from the margin of the optic hole. He also, after considering
the anatomical relations of the cavities of the heart, the valves
and the great vessels, corroborates the views of Columbus
regarding the course which the blood follows in passing from the
right to the left side of the heart Aranzi is the first anatomist
who describes distinctly the inferior cornua of the ventricles of
the cerebrum, who recognizes the objects by which they arc
distinguished, and who gives them the name by which they are
still known (hippocampus); and his account is more minute and
perspicuous than that of the authors of the subsequent century.
He speaks at large of the choroid plexus, and gives a particular
description of the fourth ventricle, under the name of cistern of
the cerebellum, as a discovery of his own.
Italy, though rich in anatomical talent, has probably few
greater names than that of Constantio Varoli (b. 1 543) of Bologna.
VmtoBus. Though he died at the early age of thirty-two, he
acquired a reputation not inferior to that of the most
eminent of his contemporaries. He is now known chiefly as the
author of an epistle, inscribed to Hieronymo Mercuriali, on the
optic nerves, in which he describes a new method of dissect-
ing the brain, and communicates many interesting particulars
relating to the anatomy of the organ. He observes the threefold
division of the inferior surface or base, defines the limits of the
anterior, middle and posterior eminences, as marked by the com-
partments of the skull, and justly remarks that the cerebral
cavities are capacious, communicate with each other, extending
first backward and then forward, near the angle of the pyramidal
portion of the temporal bone, and that they are folded on them-
selves, and finally lost above the middle and inferior eminence
of the brain. He appears to have been aware that at this point
they communicate with the exterior or convoluted surface. He
recognized the impropriety of the term corpus catlosum, seems
to have known the communication called afterwards foramen
Monroianum, and describes the hippocampus 1
had been previously done.
Among the anatomists of the Italian school, as a pupil of
Fallopius, EusUchius and U. Aldxovandus, is generally enumer-
ated Volcher Goiter (b. 1534) of Groningen. He dfetraguzshed
himself by accurate researches on the cartilages, the bones and
the nerves, recognized the value of morbid anatomy, and made
experiments on living animals to ascertain the action of the heart
and the influence of the brain.
The FrutefuU and Necessary Briefs Works of John Hafie 1
(1565) and The Englishemon's Treasure by Master Thomas
Vicary (1586),' English works published at this time, are toknhk
compilations from former authors, much tinged by GnJeniaa and
Arabian distinctions. A more valuable compendium than ekher
is, however, that of John Banister (1578), entitled The Hisbarit
of Man, from the most approved Anathomisles im this Present Ate.
The celebrity of the anatomical school of Italy was worthily
maintained by Hieronymo Fabrido of Acquapendente, who, in
imitation of his master Fallopius, laboured to render rmmtjn
anatomical knowledge more precise by repeated
dissections, and to illustrate the obscure by researches on the
structure of animals in general. In this manner he investigated
the formation of the foetus, the structure of the oesophages,
stomach and bowels, and the peculiarities of the eye, the ear and
the larynx. The discovery, however, on which his surest claims
to eminence rest is that of the membranous folds, which he
names valves, in the interior of veins. Several of these folds had
been observed by Fernet, Sylvius and Vesalius; and in 1547
G. B. Canani observed those, of the vena aeygos; but no one
appears to have offered any rational conjecture on their use,
or to have traced them through the venous system at large,
until Fabridus in 1574, upon this hypothesis, demonstrated the
presence of these valvular folds in all the veins of the extremities.
Fabridus, though succeeded by his pupil Julius Casserius of
PUcenza, may be regarded as the last of that illustrious line of
anatomical teachers by whom the science was so successfully
studied and taught in the universities of Italy. The discoveries
which each made, and the errors which their s u ccessiv e labouis
rectified, tended gradually to give anatomy the r***r**+fr of a
useful as well as an accurate science, and to pave the way for a
discovery which, though not anatomical but physiological, is so
intimatdy connected with correct knowledge of the shape and
situation of parts, that it exercised the most powerful infl^T"**
on the future progress of anatomical inquiry. This was the
knowledge of the circular motion of the blood — a fact which
though obscurely conjectured by Aristotle, Nemesius, Mondino
and Bercnger, and partially taught by Servetus, ry^«nK«%
Andreas Caesalpinus and Fabridus, it was nevertheless reserved
to William Harvey fully and satisfactorily to demonstrate.
Mondino believed that the blood proceeds from the heart to
the lungs through the vena arterioles or pulmonary artery, and
that the aorta conveys the spirit into the blood through all parts
of the body. This doctrine was adopted with little wwvtifrnnim
by Bercnger, who further demonstrated the existence and opera-
tion of the tricuspid valves in the right ventricle, and of the
sigmoid valves at the beginning of the pulmonary artery and
aorta, and that there were only two ventrides separated by
a solid impervious septum. These were afterwards described id
greater detail by Vesalius, who nevertheless appears not to have
been aware of the important use which might be made of this
knowledge. It was the Spaniard Michael Serwet or Servetns
(born in 1509, burnt in 15 S3) who in his treatise Da g^mim*.
TrinitaUs Erroribus, published at Haguenau in xjji,
first maintained the imperviousness of; the septum, and the
1 An interesting article on the character and work of the
icresiinx uruuc uo iuc mmum w sun ww, n. v« uk wiiiw w»
urgeon, John Halle, by E. Barclay Smith, will be found in tae
\Anat.and~' * — *
sbc
' an
jf the 14th cer. — ,- .
but internal evidence shows that be- was a London surgeon. Tht
J Willi <WU«| W7 *-— W«MMM
and Phyi. voL xxriv. |**75-
„ „., w r , _. unpublished English 1
treatise of the 14th century. The name of the author u
•It has been pointed out by Dr „- - . -_,_
is merely an abridged copy ©Tan unpublished
F. Payne that Vfcary *• work
uui internal gvhiokc wiwhi umi w w«« m »«wi h jm bwi^vu. « w
manuscript was written in English In 139a. See British Meuumt
Journal, January 95. 1806.
H1STORY1
ANATOMY
93 *
transition of the blood by what he terras an unknown route,
namely, from the right ventricle by the vena arUriosa (pulmonary
artery) to the rungs, and thence into the arUria venosa or pul-
monary vein and left auricle and ventricle, from which, he adds
afterwards, it b conveyed by the aorta to all parts of the body. 1
Though the leading outlines, not only of the pulmonary or
small but even of the great circulation, were sketched thus early
by one who, though a philosopher, was attached to the church,
it was only in his work De Re Anaiomka, published at Venice
in i s so, that Columbus formally and distinctly announced the
circular course of the blood as a discovery of his own; and main-
tained, in addition to the hnperviousness of the septum, the fact
that the arteria venalis (pulmonary vein) contains, not air, but
blood mixed with air brought from the lungs to the left ventricle
of jthe heart, to be distributed through the body at large.
Soon after, views' still more complete of the small or pulmonary
circulation were given by Andreas Caesalpinus (1519-1603) of
Arezzo, who not only maintained the analogy between
thestructure of the arterious vein or pulmonary artery
and the aorta, and that between the venous artery or
pulmonary veins and veins in general, but was the first to remark
the swelling of veins below ligatures, and to infer from it a
refluent motion of blood in these vessels. The discoveries of
Aranzi and Eustachius in the vessels of the foetus tended at first
to perplex and afterwards to elucidate some of these notions.
At length it happened that, between the years 1598 and 1600,
a young Englishman, William Harvey, pursuing his anatomical
J£ ^ studies at Padua under Fabridus, learnt from that
narr * T * anatomist the existence of the valves in the veins of
the extremities, and undertook to ascertain the use of these
valves by experimental inquiry. It is uncertain whether he
learnt from the writings of Caesalpinus the fact observed by
that author of the tumescence of a vein below the ligature, but
he could not fail to be aware, and indeed he shows that he
was aware, of the small circulation as taught by Servetus and
Columbus. Combining these facts already known, he, by a series
of well-executed experiments, demonstrated clearly the existence,
not only of the small, but ot a general circulation from the left
side of the heart by the aorta and its subdivisions, to the right
side by the veins; This memorable truth was first announced
in the year 16x9.
It is unnecessary here to consider the arguments and facts by
which Harvey defended his theory, or to notice the numerous
assaults to which he was exposed, and the controversies in which
his opponents wished to involve him. It is sufficient to say
that, after the temporary ebullitions of spleen and envy had
'The passage of Servetus is so interesting that our readers may
foci some curiosity in perusing it in the language of the author; and
it is not unimportant to remark that Servetus appears to have been
led to think of the course of the blood by the desire of explaining the
manner in which the animal spirits were supposed to be generated : —
"Vitalis spiritus in sinistra cordis ventriculo suam originem habet,
juvantibus maxime pulmonibusad ipsius Dcrfcctionem. Est spiritus
tenuis, caloris vi elaboratus, flavo colore, ignea potentia, ut sit quasi
ex puriore sanguine lucens, vapor substantiam continens aquae, aeris,
et ignis. Generaturex facta in pulmone commixtioncinspirati aeris
cum claborato subtili sanguine, qucm dexter vcntriculus sinistra com-
municat. Fit autcm communicatio hacc, non per parietem cordis
medium, ut vulgo creditur, scd magno artificio a dextro cordis ventri-
culo, longo per pulmoncs ductu agitatur sanguis subtilis; a pulmoni-
bus pracparatur, flavus efficitur, ct a vena arteriosa in arteria m
venosa m transfunditur. Dcinde in ipsa arteria venosa, inspirato
acri miscetur et exspiratione a fuliginc expurgatur; atque ita tandem
a sinistra cordis ventriculo totum mixtum per diastolen attrahitur,
apta su pel lex, ut fiat spiritus vitalis. Quod ita per pulmoncs fiat com-
municatio et praeparatio, docet conjunctio varia, et communicatio
venae artcriosae cum arteria venosa in pulmonibus. Confirmat hoc
magnitudo insignis venae arteriosae, quae nee talis nee tanta esset
facta, nee tantam a corde ipso vim purissimi sanguinis in pulmoncs
emittcret, ob solum eorum nutriment um; nee cor pulmonibus hac
ratione scrviret, cum pracscrtimantea incmbryone solerent pulmones
ipsi aliunde nutriri, ob mcmbranulas illas seu valvulas cordis, usque
ad riorum nativitatem; ut docet Galenus, &c. Itaque ille spiritus a
sinistra cordis ventriculo arteriaS totius corporis dcinde transfunditur,
ita ut qui tenuior est, superiora petit, ubi magiselaboratur, praedpue
in plcxu retiformi, sub basi cerebri sito, ubi ex vitali fieri incipit
animalis, ad propriam rationalis animae rationem accedens. —
De TrinitaU. lib. v.
subsided, the doctrine of the circular morion of the blood was
admitted by all enlightened and unprejudiced persons, and
finally was universally adopted as affording the most satisfactory
explanation of many facts in anatomical structure which were
either misunderstood or entirely overlooked. The inquiries to
which the investigation of the doctrine gave rise produced
numerous researches on the shape and structure of the heart and
its divisions, of the lungs, and of the blood-vessels and their
distribution. Of this description were the researches of Nicolas
Steno on the structure of the heart, the classical work of Richard
Lower, the dissertation of J. N. Pechlin, the treatise of Raymond
Vieussens, the work of Marcello Malpighi on the structure of the
lungs, several sketches in the writings of John Mayow, and other
treatises of less moment Systematic treatises of anatomy
began to assume a more instructive form, and to breathe a more
philosophical spirit The great work of Adrian Spigclius, which
appeared in 1627, two years after the death of the author,
contains indeed no proof that he was aware of the valuable
generalization of Harvey; but in the institutions of Caspar
Bartholinus, as republished and improved by his son Thomas
in 1651, the anatomical descriptions and explanations are given
with reference to the new doctrine. A still more unequivocal
proof of the progress of correct anatomical knowledge was given
in the lectures delivered by Peter Dionis, at the Jardin Royal of
Paris, in 1673 and the seven following years, in which that
intelligent surgeon gave most accurate demonstrations of all
the parts composing the human frame, and especially of the
heart, its auricles, ventricles and valves, and the large vessels
connected with it and the lungs. These demonstrations, first
published in 1600, were so much esteemed that they passed
through seven editions in the space of thirty years, and were
translated into English.
The progress of anatomical discovery continued in the mean-
time to advance. In the course of the 16th century Eustachius,
in studying minutely the structure of the vena azygos, had
recognized in the horse a white vessel full of watery fluid,
connected with the internal jugular vein, on the left side of the
vertebral column, corresponding accurately with the vessel since
named thoracic duct. Fallopius also described vessels belonging
to the liver distinct from arteries and veins; and similar vessels
appear to have been noticed by Nicofaus Massa (1409-1560).
The nature and properties of these vessels were, however,
entirely unknown. On the 23rd of July 1622 Gaspar Aselli, pro-
fessor of anatomy at Pavia, while engaged indemonstrat- 1fi||f
ing the recurrent nerves in a living dog, first observed
numerous white delicate filaments crossing the mesentery in all
directions; and though he took them at first for nerves, the
opaque white fluid which they shed quickly convinced him that
they were a new order of vessels. The repetition of the experiment
the following day showed that these vessels were best seen in
animals recently fed; and as he traced them from the villous
membrane of the intestines, and observed the valves with which
they were liberally supplied, he inferred that they were genuine
chylifcrous vessels. By confounding them with the lymphatics,
he made them proceed to the pancreas and liver— a mistake
which appears to have been first rectified by Francis de le Boe.
The discovery of Aselli was announced in 1627; and the following
year, by means of the zealous efforts of Nicolas Peiresc, a liberal
senator of Aix, the vessels were seen in the person of a felon who had
eaten copiously before execution, and whose body was inspected
an hour and a half after. In 1 629 they were publicly demonstrated
at Copenhagen by Simon Pauli, and the same year the thoracic
duct was observed by Jacques Mentel (1 500-1670) for the first
time since it was described by Eustachius. Five years after
(1634), John Wesling, professor of anatomy and surgery at Venice,
gave the first delineation of the lacteals from the human subject,
and evinced more accurate knowledge than his predecessors of
the thoracic duct and the lymphatics. Nathaniel High more 1 in
1637 demonstrated unequivocally the difference between the
lacteals and the mesenteric veins; and though some perplexity
1 Highmore was a physician practising at Sherborne all his life
(1613-1685).
93*
ANATOMY
IHISTORY
was occasioned by the discovery of the pancreatic duct by
Christopher Winning, this mistake was corrected by Thomas
Bartholin us; and the discovery by Jean Pecquet in 1647 of the
common trunk of the lacteals and lymphatics, and of the course
which the chyle follows to reach the blood, may be regarded as
the last of the series of isolated facts by the generalization of
which the extent, distribution and uses of the most important
organs of the animal body were at length developed.
To complete the history of this part of anatomical science one
step yet remained — the distinction between the lacteals and
JoyBtk. lymphatics, and the discovery of the termination of the
latter order of vessels. The honour of this discovery is
divided between George Joyliffe (1621-1658), an English ana-
tomist, and Olaus Rudbeck (1630-1703), a young Swede. The
former, according to the testimony of Francis Glisson and Thomas
Wharton, was aware of the distinct existence of the lymphatics
in 1650, and demonstrated them as such in 165a. It is neverthe-
less doubtful whether he knew them much before the latter period ;
and it is certain that Rudbeck observed the lymphatics of the
large intestines, and traced them to glands, on the 27th of January
1651, after he had, in the course of 1650, made various erroneous
conjectures regarding them, and, like others, attempted to trace
them to the liver. The following year he demonstrated them in
presence of Queen Christina, and traced them to the thoracic duct,
and the latter to the subclavian vein. Their course and distribu-
tion were still more fully investigated by Thomas Bartholinus,
Wharton, J. Swammerdam and G. Blaes, the last two of whom
recognized the existence of valves; while Antony Nuck of Leiden,
by rectifying various errors of his predecessors, and adding
several new and valuable observations, rendered this part of
anatomy much more precise than formerly.
After this period anatomists began to study more minutely the
organs and textures. Francis Glisson 1 distinguished himself by a
minute description of the liver (1654), and a clearer account of
the stomach and intestines, than had yet been given. Thomas
Wharton a investigated the structure of the glands with particular
care; and though rather prone to indulge in fanciful generaliza-
tion, he developed some interesting views of these organs; while
Walter Charleton (1610-1707), who appears to have been a
person of great genius, though addicted to hypothesis, made
some good remarks on the communication of the arteries with
the veins, the foetal circulation and the course of the lymphatics.
But the circumstance which chiefly distinguished the history of
anatomy at the beginning of the 17th century was the appear-
nnmf ance of Thomas Willis* (1621-1675), wn x> rendered
himself eminent not only by good researches on the
brain and nerves, but by many judicious observations on the
structure of the lungs, the intestines, the blood-vessels and the
glands. His anatomy of the brain and nerves is so minute and
elaborate, and abounds so much in new information, that the
reader is struck by the immense chasm between the vague and
meagre notices of his predecessors and the ample and correct
descriptions of Willis. This excellent work, however, is not the
result of his own personal and unaided exertions; and the
character of Willis derives additional lustre from the candid
avowal of his obligations to Sir Christopher Wren and Thomas
Millington, and, above all, to the diligent researches of his
fellow-anatomist Richard Lower.
Willis was the first who numbered the cranial nerves in the
order in which they are now usually enumerated by anatomists.
His observation of the connexion of the eighth pair with the
slender nerve which issues from the beginning of the spinal cord
is known to all. He remarked the parallel lines of the mesolobe,
afterwards minutely described by Felix Vicq d'Azyr (1748-1704).
He seems to have recognized the communication of the convoluted
surface of the brain and that between the lateral cavities beneath
the fornix. He described the corpora striata and optic thalami;
1 Glisson was for forty years professor of physic at Cambridge.
* Wharton was a graduate both of Oxford and Cambridge, and
physician to St Thomas's Hospital.
■ Willis was Sedleian professor of natural philosophy fn Oxford
in 1660. Later he practised in London.
the four orbicular' eminences, with the bridge, which he first
named annular protuberance; and the white mammilla ry
eminences, behind the infundibulum. In the cerebeBnm fee
remarks the arborescent arrangement of the white and grey
matter, and gives a good account of the internal carotids, and the
communications which they make with the branches of the
basilar artery.
About the middle of the 17th century R. Hooke and Nehenma
Grew employed the simple microscope in the minute examiaatioB
of plants and animals; and the Dutch philosopher A. Lecawes-
hoek with great acuteness examined micr oscopically the solids
and fluids of the body, recognized the presence of scales in the
cuticle, and discovered the corpuscles in the blood and milk, aad
the spermatozoa in the seminal fluid. The researches of ^taJpsjhi
also tended greatly to improve the knowledge of minute g|>tif
structure. He gave the first distinct ideas on the
organization of the lung, and the mode in which the branchial
tubes and vessels terminate in that organ. By the microscope
he traced the transition of the arteries into the veins, and saw
the movements of the blood corpuscles in the capillaries. He
endeavoured to unfokl,by dissection and microscopic observation,
the minute structure of the brain. He studied the structure of
bone, he traced the formation and explained the structure of the
teeth; and his name is to this day associated with the discovery
of the deeper layer of the cuticle and the Matp%t»«n bodies in the
spleen and kidney. In these difficult inquiries the observations
of Malpighi are in general faithful, and he may be regarded as the
founder of histological anatomy.
Nicolas Steno, or Stensen, described with accuracy (1660) the
lacrymal gland and passages, and rediscovered the parotid duct.
L. Bellini studied the structure of the kidneys, and described the
tongue and tonsils with some care; and Charles Drehncourt
laboured to investigate the changes effected on the uterus by
impregnation, and to elucidate the formation of the foetus. The
science might have derived still greater advantages from the
genius of Regnier de Graaf, who investigated with accuracy the
structure of the pancreas and of the organs of generation in both
sexes, had he not been cut off at the early age of thirty-two.
Lastly, Wepfer, though more devoted to morbid anatomy, made,
nevertheless, some just observations on the anatomical disposi-
tion of the cerebral vessels, the glandular structure of the fiver,
and the termination of the comjnon>duct in the duodenum.
The appearance of Frederic Ruysch, who was bom in 1638,
became professor of anatomy at Amsterdam in 1665 and died
in that city in 1731, gave a new impulse to anatomi- muwn\
cal research, and tended not only to give the science
greater precision, but to extend its limits in every direction.
The talents of Ruysch are said to have been developed by accident.
To repel the audacious and calumnious aspersions with which
Louis de Bils attacked de k Bee and van Home, Ruysch
published his tract on the valves of the lymphatics, which
completely established his character as an anatomist of origjnaEty
and research. This, however, is the smallest of his aci»kts to
the science. The art of injecting, which had been originally
attempted by Eustachi and Varofi, and was afterwards ruddy
practised by Glisson, Bellini and Willis, was at length carried
to greater perfection by de Graaf and Swammerdam, the former
of whom injected the spermatic vessels with mer cmy and
variously coloured liquors; while the latter, by enapJoying
melted wax with other ingredients, made the first approach
to the refinements of modem anatomy. By improving this
idea of using substances which, though solid, may be rendered
fluid at the period of injecting, Ruysch carried this art to the
highest perfection.
By the application of this happy contrivance he was enabled
to demonstrate the arrangement of minute vessek in the interior
of organs which had escaped the scrutiny of previous anatomists.
Scarcely a part of the human body eluded the penetration of
his syringe; and his discoveries were proportionally great.
His account of the valves of the lymphatics, of the vessels of the
lungs, and their minute structure; his researches on the vmscnlar
structure of the skin, of the bones, and their epiphyses, aad their
msioRYi ANATOMY
mode of growth and onion; Ms observations on the spleen,
the glans penis, the clitoris, and the womb impregnated and
unimpregnated, were but a limited part of his anatomical
labours. He studied the minute structure of the brain; he
demonstrated the organization of the choroid plexus; he de-
scribed the state of ^he hair when affected with Polish plait;
he proved the vascular structure of the teeth; he injected
the dura mater, the pleura, the pericardium and peritoneum;
he unfolded the minute structure of the conglomerate glands;
he investigated that of the synovial apparatus placed in the
interior of the joints; and he discovered several curious par-
ticulars relating to the lacteals, the lymphatics and the lymphatic
glands.
Meanwhile, H. Meibomius rediscovered (1670) the palpebral
glands, which were known to Casserius; Swammerdam studied
the action of the lungs, described the structure of the human
uterus, and made numerous valuable observations on the coeca
and pancreatoid organs of fishes; and Th. Kerckring laid the
foundation of a knowledge of the process of ossification. John
Conrad Brunner, in the course of experiments on the pancreas,
discovered (1687) the glands of the duodenum named after him,
and J. Conrad Peycr (1677-1681) described the solitary and
agminated glands of the intestinal canal. Leonard Tassin,
distinguished for original observation, rendered the anatomical
history of the brain more accurate than heretofore, and gave
particular accounts of the intestinal tube, the pancreatic duct
and the hepatic ligaments (1678).
That France might not be without participation in the glory
of advancing the progress of anatomical knowledge, the names
Dmwwm of Joseph Guichard Duverney and Vieussens are
commemorated with distinction. Duverney, born
in 1648, and first introduced into public life in 1676 in the Royal
Academy of Sciences, decorated with the honorary title of
professor of anatomy to the dauphin, and appointed in 1679
professor at the Jardin Royal, distinguished himself by the first
accuiate account of the organ of hearing, and by his dissections
of several animals at the academy supplied valuable materials
for the anatomical details of the natural history of animals
published by that learned body. He appears to have been the
first who demonstrated the fact that the cerebral sinuses open
into the jugular veins, and to have been aware that the former
receives the veins of the brain and are the venous receptacles
of the organ. He understood the cerebral cavities and their
mode of communication; distinguishes the posterior pillars of
the vault from the pedes hippocampi; recognizes the two plates
of the septum lucidum; and, what is still more remarkable,
he first indicates distinctly the discussation of the anterior
pyramids of the medulla oblongata— a fact afterwards verified
by the researches of Mistichclli, F. P. du Petit and CD. Santorini.
He studied the ganglions attentively, and gives the first distinct
account of the formation, connexions and distribution of the
intercostal nerves. It is interesting to remark that his state-
ment that the veins or sinuses of the spinal cord terminate in
the vena azygos was verified by the subsequent researches of
G. Dupuytren (1777-1835) and G. Breschet (1784-1845). which
showed that the vertebral veins communicate by means of the
intercostal and superior lumbar veins with the azygos and
hemi-azygos. His account of the structure of bones and of
the progress of ossification is valuable. He recognized the
vascular structure of the spleen, and described the excretory
ducts of the prostate gland, the verumontanum, and the ante-
prostates.
One of the circumstances which at this time tended consider-
ably to the improvement of anatomical science was the attention
with which Comparative Anatomy was beginning to be cultivated.
In ancient times, and at the revival of letters, the dissection of
the lower animals was substituted for that of the human body;
and the descriptions of the organs of the latter were too often
derived from the former. The obloquy and contempt in which
this abuse involved the study of animal anatomy caused it to
be neglected, or pursued with indifference, for more than two
Centuries, during which anatomists confined their descriptions.
933
at least very much, to the parts of the human body. At this
period, however, the prejudice against Comparative Anatomy
began to subside; and animal dissection, though not substituted
for that of the human body, was employed, as it ought always
to have been, to illustrate obscurities, to determine doubts
and to explain difficulties, and, in short, to enlarge and rectify
the knowledge of the structure of animal bodies generally.
For this revolution in its favour, Comparative Anatomy was
in a great measure indebted to the learned societies which were
established about this time in the different countries of Europe.
Among these, the Royal Society of London, embodied by charter
by Charles II. in 1662, and the Academy of Sciences of Paris,
founded in 1666 by J. B. Colbert, are undoubtedly entitled to the
first rank. Though later in establishment, the latter institution
was distinguished by making the first great efforts in favour of
Comparative Anatomy; and Claude Perrault, Pecquet, Duverney
and Jean Miry, by the dissections of rare animals obtained from
the royal menagerie, speedily supplied valuable materials for the
anatomical naturalist In England, Nehemiah Grew, Edward
Tyson 1 and Samuel Collins' cultivated the same department
with diligence and success. Grew has left an interesting account
of the anatomical peculiarities of the intestinal canal in various
animals; Tyson, in the dissection of a porpoise, an opossum
and an orang outang, adduces some valuable illustrations
of the comparative differences between the structure of the
human body and that of the lower animals; Collins rt^ r-
has the merit of conceiving, and executing on an
enlarged plan, a comprehensive system, embodying all the
information then extant (1685). With the aid of Tyson and his
own researches, which were both extensive and accurate, he
composed a system of anatomical knowledge in which he not only
gives ample and accurate descriptions of the structure of the
human body, and the various morbid changes to which the organs
are liable, but illustrates the whole by accurate and interesting
sketches of the peculiarities of the lower animals. The matter of
this work is so excellent that it can only be ascribed to ignorance
that it has received so little attention. Though regarded as a
compilation, and though indeed much of the human anatomy is
derived from Vesalius, it has the advantage of the works pub-
lished on the continent at that time, that it embodies most of
the valuable facts derived from Malpighi, Willis and Vieussens.
The Comparative Anatomy is almost all original, the result
of personal research and dissection; and the pathological
observations, though occasionally tinged with the spirit of the
times, show the author to have been endowed with the powers
of observation and judicious reflexion in no ordinary degree.
About this time also we recognize the first attempts to study
the minute constitution of the tissues, by the combination of the
microscope and the effects of chemical agents. Bone furnished
the first instance in which this method was put in use; and
though Gagliardi, who undertook the inquiry, had fallen into
some mistakes which it required the observation of Malpighi to
rectify, this did not deter Clopton Havers* and Nesbitt, 4 in
England, and Courtial, H. L. Duhamel-Dumonceau and Delasone,
and afterwards Hcrissant, in France, from resuming the same
train of investigation. The mistakes into which these ana-
tomists fell belong to the imperfect method of inquiry. The
facts which they ascertained have been verified by recent
experiment, and constitute no unessential part of our knowledge
of the structure of bone.
Ten years after the publication of the work of Collins, Ridley,*
another English anatomist, distinguished himself by a monograph
(1695) on the brain, which, though not free irom errors, contains,
nevertheless, some valuable observations. Ridley is the first
1 Tyson was a graduate both of Oxford and Cambridge. He was
reader of anatomy at Surgeons' Hall, London.
• Collins was an M. D. of Padua. Oxford and Cambridge. He was
physician in ordinary to Charles II.
* Haven was a London physician, and died in 1702.
4 Robert Nesbitt (d. 1761) studied at Leiden and practised as a
physician in London.
•Humphrey Ridley (1653-1708) was a London physician who
studied at Leiden.
934
ANATOMY
iBJSTonr
who distinguishes by name the restiform processes, or the
posterior pyramidal eminences. He recognized the figure of the
four eminences in the human subject; he remarked the mam-
miliary bodies; and he discovered the sinus which passes under
his name.
Raymond Vieussens, by the publication of his great work on
neurography in 1684, threw new light on the configuration and
\lmnmat stniCturc of the brain, the spinal cord and the nerves;
* and gave a description of the arrangement and dis-
tribution of the latter more precise than heretofore. Of the
formation and connexions of the sympathetic nerve especially
he gave views which have been generally adopted by subsequent
anatomists. His new arrangement of the vessels, published in
1705, contains several curious opinions. His observations on
the structure of the heart, published in 1706, and enlarged in
171 5, exhibit the first correct views of the intimate structure of
an organ which afterwards was most fully developed by the
labours of G. M. Lancisi and J. B. Scnac.
To the same period (1685-1607) belong the rival publications
of G. Bidloo 1 and William Cowper, the latter of whom, however,
stained a reputation otherwise good by publishing as his own the
engravings of the former. Cowper further distinguished himself
by a minute account of the urethral glands, already known to
Columbus and Mery; by a good description of the intestinal
glands, discovered by Brunner and Peyer; and by demon-
strating the communication of the arteries and veins of the
mesentery.
The anatomical genius of Italy, which had slumbered since the
death of Malpighi, was destined once more to revive in Lancisi,
A. M. Valsalva, and his illustrious pupils G. D. Santorini and
J. B. Morgagni. Valsalva especially distinguished himself by
his description of the structure of the ear, which, in possessing
still greater precision and minuteness than that of Duvcrney, is
valuable in setting the example of rendering anatomy altogether
StatoHal, a ^^^ °f description. Santorini, who was professor
at Venice, was no unworthy friend of Valsalva and
Morgagni. His anatomical observations, which relate to the
muscles of the face, the brain and several of the nerves, the ducts
of the lachrymal gland, the nose and its cavities, the larynx, the
viscera of the chest and belly, and the organs of generation in the
two sexes, furnish beautiful models of essays, distinguished for
perspicuity, precision and novelty, above anything which had
then appeared. These observations, indeed, which bear the
impress of accurate observation and dear conception, may be
safely compared with any anatomical writings which have
appeared since. Those on the brain are particularly interesting.
MorragnL Morgagni, though chiefly known as a pathological
anatomist, did not neglect the healthy structure. His
Adversaria, which appeared between 1706 and 17x9, and his
Epistles, published in 1728, contain a series of observations to
rectify the mistakes of previous anatomists, and to determine
the characters of the healthy structure of many parts of the
human body. Many parts he describes anew, and indicates facts
not previously observed. All his remarks show how well he
knew what true anatomical description ought to be. In this
respect, indeed, the three anatomists now mentioned may be said
to have anticipated their contemporaries nearly a century; for,
while other authors were satisfied with giving loose and inaccurate
or meagre notices of parts, with much fanciful supposition,
Valsalva, Santorini and Morgagni laboured to determine with
precision the anatomical characters of the parts which tjiey
describe.
The same character is due to J. B. Winslow (1669-1760), a
native of Denmark, but, as pupil and successor of Duverney, as
winttow. wcl1 as a convert to Catholicism , naturalized in France,
and finally professor of anatomy at the Royal Gardens.
His exposition of the structure of the human body is distinguished
for being not only the first treatise of descriptive anatomy,
divested of physiological details and hypothetical explanations
foreign to the subject, but for being a dose description derived
from actual objects, without reference to the writings of previous
•Bidloo was a Dutch anatomist and Cowper a London surgeon.
anatomists. About the same time W. Cheselden in London, the
first Alexander Monro in Edinburgh, and B. S. Albums in Leiden,
contributed by their several treatises to render anatomy stiS
more precise as a descriptive science. The OstecgrapkU of the
first-mentioned was of much use in directing attention to the
study of the skeleton and the morbid changes to which it b liable.
This work, however, magnificent as it was, was excelled by that
of Albinus, who in x 747 published engravings, executed i|iiK
by Jan Wandelaar (1691-1759), of the bones and
muscles, which had never been surpassed in accuracy of outline
or beauty of execution. The several labours of Albinos, indeed,
constitute an important era in the history of the science. He was
the first who classified and exhibited the musdes in a proper
arrangement, and applied to them a nomenclature which is still
retained by the consent of the best anatomists. He gives a
luminous account of the arteries and veins of the intestines,
represents with singular fidelity and beauty the bones of the
foetus, inquires into the structure of the skin and the cause of
its colour in different races; represents the changes incident
to the womb in different periods of pregnancy, and describes
the relations of the thoracic duct and the vena azygos with the
contiguous parts. Besides these large and magnificent works,
illustrated by the most beautiful engravings, six books of
Academical Annotations were the fruits of his long and
assiduous cultivation of anatomy. These contain valuable
remarks on the second structure and morbid deviations of
numerous parts of the human body.
Albinus found a worthy successor in his pupil Albert von
Haller (1708-1777), who, with a mind imbued with every depart-
ment of literature and science, directed his chief atten- g^m
tion, nevertheless, to the cultivation of anatomical and
physiological knowledge. Having undertaken at an early age
(twenty-one) to illustrate, with commentaries, the physiological
prelections of his preceptor H. Boerhaave, he devoted himself
assiduously to the perusal of every work which could tend to
facilitate his purpose; and, as he found numerous erroneous or
imperfect statements, and many deficiencies to supply, be under-
took an extensive course of dissection of human and animal
bodies to obtain the requisite information. During the seventeen
years he was professor at Gottingen, he dissected 400 bodies,
and inspected their organs with the utmost care. The result of
these assiduous labours appeared at intervals in the form of
dissertations by himself, or under the name of some one of his
pupils, finally published in a collected shape between 1746 and
1751 (Disputationes Anatomicae Selections), and in eight numbers
of most accurate and beautiful engravings, representing the
most important parts of the human body, ej. the ^pfrryrrr
the uterus, ovaries and vagina, the arteries of the different regions
and organs, with learned and critical explanatory observations.
He verified the observations that in the foetus the testicles lie in
the abdomen, and showed that their descent into the scrotum may
be complicated with the formation of congenital hernia. Some
years after, when he had retired from his academical duties at
Cottingen, be published between 1757 and 1765 the large and
elaborate work which, with singular modesty, he styled Elements
of Physiology. This work, though professedly devoted to physio-
logy, rendered, nevertheless, the most essentially services to
anatomy. Haller, drawing an accurate line of dfolinttwp
between the two, gave the most clear, precise and complete
descriptions of the situation, position, figure, component parts and
minute structure of the different organs and their appendages.
The results of previous and coeval inquiry, obtained by extensive
reading, he sedulously verified by personal observation; and
though he never rejected facts stated on credible authorities, he
in all cases laboured to ascertain their real value by experiment.
The anatomical descriptions are on this account not only the
most valuable part of his work, but the most valuable that
had then or for a long time after appeared. It is painful,
neverthdess, to think that the very form in which this work is
composed, with copious and scrupulous reference to authorities,
made it be regarded as a compilation only; and that the author
was compelled to show, by a list of his personal researches,
HISTORY1
ANATOMY
935
that the most lamed wort ever given to the physiologist was
also the most abundant in original information.
With the researches of Haller it is proper to notice those of
his contemporaries, John Frederick Meckel, J. N. Lieberkiihn,
and his pupil John Godfrey Zinn. The first, who was professor
of anatomy at Berlin, described the Casscrian ganglion, the first
pair of nerves and its distribution and that of the facial nerves
generally, and discovered the spheno-palatine ganglion (1748-
1751). He made some original and judicious observations on the
tissue of the skin and the mucous net (1753-1757); and above
all, he recognized the connexion of the lymphatic vessels with the
veins— a doctrine which, after long neglect, was revived by
Vincent Fohmann (1794-1837) and Lippi. He also collected
several valuable observations on the morbid states of the heart
and brain. Lieberkuhn published in 1745 a dissertation on the
villi and glands of the small intestines. Zinn, who was professor
of medicine at GSttingen, published a classical treatise on the
eye (1755), which demonstrated at once the defects of previous
inquiries, and how much it was possible to elucidate, by accurate
research and precise description, the structure of one of the most
important organs of the human frame. It was republished after
his death by H. A. Wrisberg (1780). About the same time
J. Weitbrccht gave a copious and minute account of the ligaments,
and J. Lieutaud (1 703-1 780), who had already laboured to
rectify many errors in anatomy, described with care the structure
and relations of the heart and its cavities, and rendered the
anatomy of the bladder very precise, by describing the triangular
space and the mammillary eminence at its neck.
The study of the minute anatomy of the tissues, which had
originally been commenced by Leeuwenhoek, Malpighi and
Ruysch, began at this period to attract more general attention.
Karl August von Bergen had already demonstrated (1732) the
general distribution of cellular membrane, and showed that it not
only incloses every part of the animal frame, but forms the basis
of every organ— a doctrine which was adopted and still more
fully expanded (1757) by his friend Haller, in opposition to what
was asserted by Albinus, who maintains that each part has a
proper tissue. William Hunter at the same time gave a clear and
W. liumtti ingenious statement of the difference between cellular
* membrane and adipose tissue (1757), in which he
maintained the general distribution of the former, and represented
it as forming the serous membranes, and regulating their physio-
logical and pathological properties—doctrines which were after-
wards confirmed by his brother John Hunter. A few years after,
the department of general anatomy first assumed a substantial
form in the systematic view of the membranes and their mutual
connexions traced by Andrew Bonn of Amsterdam. In his
A. IT if inaugural dissertation De Continuationibus Membra-
narum, published at Leiden in 1763, this author, after
some preliminary observations on membranes in general and
their structure, and an exposition of that of the skin, traces its
transition into the mucous membranes and their several divisions.
He then explains the distribution of the cellular membrane,
the aponeurotic expansions, and the periosteum and perichon-
drium, by either of which, he shows, every bone of the skeleton
is invested and connected. He finally gives a very distinct view
of the arrangement of the internal membranes of cavities, those
named serous and fibro-scrous, and the manner of their dis-
tribution over the contained organs. This essay, which is a happy
example of generalization, is remarkable for the interesting general
views of the structure of the animal body which it exhibits;
and to Bonn belongs the merit of sketching the first outlines of
that system which it was reserved for the genius of M. F. X. Bichat
to complete and embellish. Lastly, T. de Bordeu, in an elaborate
essay (1767) on the mucous tissue, or cellular organ, as he terms
it, brought forward some interesting views of the constitution,
nature and cxteqt of the cellular membrane.
Though anatomy was hitherto cultivated with much success
as illustrating the natural history and morbid states of the human
body, yet little had been done for the elucidation of local diseases,
and the surgical means by which they may be successfully treated.
The idea of applying anatomical knowledge directly to this
purpose appeals to have originated with Bemardin Genga,
a Roman surgeon, who published in 1672, at Rome, a work
entitled Surgical Anatomy, or the Anatomical History of the Bones
and Muscles of Ike Human Body, with Que Description of Ike Blood-
vessels. This work, which reached a second edition in 1687, is
highly creditable to the author, who appears to have studied
intimately the mutual relations of different parts. It is not im-
probable that the example of Genga led J. Palfyn, a surgeon at
Ghent, to undertake a similar task about thirty years after ( 1 7 1 8-
1726). For this, however, he was by no means well qualified;
and the work of Palfyn, though bearing the name of Surgical
Anatomy, is a miserable compilation, meagre in details, inaccurate
in description, and altogether unworthy of the honour of being
republished, as it afterwards was by Antony Petit.
While these two authors, however, were usefully employed
in showing what was wanted for the surgeon, others were occupied
in the collection of new and more accurate facts. Albinus,
indeed, ever assiduous, had, in his account of the operations
of Rau, given some good sketches of the relative anatomy of
the bladder and urethra; and Chcseldcn had already, in his mode
of cutting into the urinary bladder, shown the necessity of an
exact knowledge of the relations of contiguous parts. The first
decided application, however, of this species of anatomical
research it was reserved for a Dutch anatomist of the 18th
century to make. Peter Camper, professor of anatomy at
Amsterdam, published in x 760 and z 76 2 his anatomico- campon
pathological demonstrations of the parts of the human
arm and pelvis, of the diseases incident to them, and the mode
of relieving them by operation, and explained with great clearness
the situation of the blood-vessels, nerves and important muscles.
His remarks on the lateral operation of lithotomy, which contain
all that was then known on the subject, are exceedingly interest-
ing and valuable to the surgeon. It appears, further, that he
was the first who examined anatomically the mechanism of
ruptures, his delineations of which were published in 1801 by
S. T Sdmmerring. Camper also wrote some important memoirs
on Comparative Anatomy, and he was the author of a well-known
work on the Relations of Anatomy to the Fine Arts,
The attention of anatomists was now directed to the elucidation
of the most obscure and least explored parts of the human frame
—the lymphatic vessels and the nerves. Although, since the
first discovery of the former by Asclli, Rudbeck and Pecquet,
much had been done, especially by Ruysch, Nuck, Meckel and
Haller, many points, notwithstanding, relating to their origin
and distribution in particular organs, and in the several classes
of animals, were imperfectly ascertained or entirely unknown.
William Hunter investigated their arrangement, and
proposed the doctrine that they are absorbents; n^mtr,
and John Hunter, who undertook to demonstrate
the truth of this hypothesis by experiment, discovered, in
1758, lymphatics in the neck in birds. As the doctrine re-
quired the existence of this order of vessels, not only in quad-
rupeds and birds but in reptiles and fishes, the inquiry attracted
attention among the pupils of Hunter; and William Hcwson 1
at length communicated, in December 1768, to the tuwtoo.
Royal Society of London an account of the lacteals
and lymphatics in birds, fishes and reptiles, as he had discovered
and demonstrated them. The subject was about the same time
investigated by the second Alexander Monro, who indeed claimed
the merit of discovering these vessels in the classes of .animals
now mentioned. But whatever researches this anatomist may
have instituted, Hewson, by communicating his observations
to the Royal Society, must be allowed to possess the strongest
as well as the dearest claim to discovery. The same author,
in 1774, gave the first complete account of the anatomical
peculiarities of the lymphatic system in man and other animals,
and thereby supplied an important gap in this department.
Hcwson is the first who distinguishes the lymphatics into two
orders — the superficial and the deep — both in the extremities
and in the internal organs. He also studied the structure of the
1 Hewson was a partner with William Hunter in the Windmill
Street School of Anatomy.
93&
intestinal villi, in which he verified the observations of
Lieberkuhn; and he made many important observations on the
corpuscles of the lymph and blood. He finally applied his
anatomical discoveries to explain many of the physiological
and pathological phenomena of the animal body. Ten years after,
John Sheldon, another pupil of Hunter, gave a second history
and description of the lymphatics, which, though divested of
the charm of novelty, contains many interesting anatomical
facts. He also examined the structure of the villi.
Lastly, Cruikshank, 1 in 1786, published a valuable history
of the anatomy of the lymphatic system, in which be maintains
the accuracy of the Hunterian doctrine, that the
lymphatics are the only absorbents; gave a more
minute account than heretofore of these vessels,, of
their coats and valves; and explained the structure of the
lymphatic glands. He also injected the villi, and examined them
microscopically, verifying most of the observations of LieberkOhn.
The origin of the lymphatics be maintains rather by inference
than direct demonstration. To these three works, though in
other respects very excellent, it is a considerable objection that
the anatomical descriptions are much mixed with hypothetical
speculation and reasonings on properties, and that the facts are
by no means always distinguished from mere matters of opinion.
At the same time J. G. Haase published an account of the
lymphatics of the skin and intestines, and the plexifonn nets
of the pelvis.
To complete this sketch of the history of the anatomy of
the lymphatic system, it may be added that Paolo Mascagni,
MamaraL wno °*d DeeD cn Ragcd from the year 1777 to 1781
in the same train of investigation, first demonstrated
to his pupils several curious facts relating to the anatomy
of the lymphatic system. When at Florence in 1782 he
made several preparations, at the request of Peter Leopold,
grand duke of Tuscany; and when the Royal Academy of
Sciences at Paris announced the anatomy of this system for
their prize essay appointed for March 1784, Mascagni resolved
on communicating to the public the results of his researches —
the first part of his commentary, with four engravings. Anxiety,
however, to complete his preparations detained him at Florence
till the dose of 1785; and from these causes his work did not
appear till 1787. These delays, however, unfavourable as they
were to his claims of priority to Sheldon and Cruikshank, were
on the whole advantageous to the perfection of his work, which
is not only the most magnificent, but also the most complete
that ever was published on the lymphatics. In his account of
the vessels and their valves he confirms some of Hewson's
observations and rectifies others. Their origin he proves by
inference much in the same manner as Cruikshank; but he
anticipates this author in the account of the glands, and he
gives the most minute description of the superficial and
deep lymphatics, both in the members and in the internal
organs.
General accounts of the nerves had been given with various
degrees of accuracy by Willis, Vieussens, Winslow, and Jhc first
Monro; and the subject had been much rectified and improved
by the indefatigable Haller. The first example of minute de-
scriptive neurography was given in 1748 by John Frederick
Meckel, whose account of the fifth pair and of the nerves of the
face will long remain a lasting proof of accuracy and research.
The same subject was investigated in 2765 by Hirsch and in
i>77 by Wrisbcrg. In 1766 Metxger examined the origin,
distribution and termination of the first pair— a point which
was afterwards very minutely treated by A. Scarpa* in his
anatomical disquisitions, published in 1780; and the internal
nerves of the nostrils were examined in 170 1 by Haase. The
optic nerve, which had been studied originally by Varoli, and
afterwards by M£ry, Duvcrney, J. F. Henkcl, Moeller, Hcin
and Kaldschmid, was examined with extreme accuracy, with
the other nerves of the organ of vision, by Zinn in his elaborate
1 W. Cruikshank followed W. Hunter as lecturer at the Windmill
Street school.
* Scarpa was professor of anatomy at Modena and Pavia.
ANATOMY pustow
treatise. The phrenic nerves and the oesophageal branches
of the vagus were studied by Haase; the phrenic, the abdominal
and the pharyngeal nerves, by Wrisbcrg; those of the heart
most minutely by Andersch; and the origins, formation and
distribution of the intercostal nerves, by Iwanov, C G. Ludwig,
and GirardL The labours of these anatomists, however, woe
eclipsed by the splendid works of Walter (1783) on the nerves
of the chest and belly; and those of Scarpa (1704) on the distriba-
tion of the eighth pair and splanchnic nerves in general la
minuteness otdescription and in beauty of engraving these works
have not yet been equalled, and will never perhaps be surpassed
About the same time, Scarpa, so distinguished m every branch
of anatomical research, investigated the minute structure of
the ganglions and plexuses. The anatomy of the brain itself
was also studied (1780) with great attention by the second
Monro, M. V. G. Malacarne and Vicq d'Azyr.
Lastly, the anatomy of the gravid uterus, which bad been
originally studied by Albinus, Roederer and Smeflie, was again
illustrated (1774) most completely by William Hunter, whose
engravings will remain a lasting memorial of scientific seal and
artistic talent.
The perfection which anatomical science attained in the last
ten years of the 18th and during the 19th century is evinced
not only in the improved character of the systems g9 ^
published by anatomists, but in the enormous advance cmm*-
which has taken place in the knowledge of the minute
structure of the animal tissues, of the development of the tissues
and organs, and of the modifications in form and structure
exhibited by various groups of animals.
The first who gave a good modern system was R. B. Sabatwr,
but his work was speedily eclipsed by the superior merits of the
treatises of Sommerring, Bichat and Portal. The excellent
work by Samuel Thomas Sttmmerring, originally published m
the German language, between the years 1701 and -r^^-.
1796; then in the Latin language, between the years g^
1704 and 1800; and in a second edition in the German
language in 1800 and 1801, maintaining the high character
which it first possessed for clear arrangement, accurate descrip-
tion and general precision, was, between the years 184 1 and
1844 republished in eight volumes at Leipzig by Tb. L. W.
Bischoff, F. G. J. Henle, E. H. Huschke, TbeOe, G. G. Valentin.
Vogel, and R. Wagner, with suitable additions, and a
large amount of new and accurate information. In this edition
Rudolph Wagner gives, in the first division of the first volume,
the life, correspondence and literary writings of Somrnerrmg;
and in the second volume the anatomy of the bones and ligaments.
The third volume contains the anatomy of the muscles and the
vascular system by Tbcile. G. G. Valentin devotes one volume,
the fourth, to the minute anatomy of the nervous system and its
parts, as disclosed by careful examination by the micro sc o p e;
and it must be allowed that the author has been at great pants
to present just views of the true anatomy of the brain, the sens*!
cord, the nervous branches and the ganglia. In the fifth volume,
E. H. Huschke of Jena gives the anatomical history of the
viscera and the organs of the senses, a department which had
been left in some degree incomplete in the original, bat for one
division of which the author had left useful materials m his
large figures already mentioned. In the sixth votume, an entke
and complete system of general anatomy, deduced from personal
observation and that of other careful observers, the materials
being in general new, and in all instances confirmed and rectified,
is given by F. G. J. Henle. The seventh volume contains the
history of the process of development in mammalia and man.
by Th. L. W. Bischoff. The eighth volume treats of the patho-
logical anatomy of the human body, by Julius Vogel, but contaias
only the first division, relating to the generalities of the subject.
This, which is probably the most accurate as it is the most
elaborate system of anatomical knowledge up to the date of
its publication in 1844, was translated into the French language
by Jourdan, and published in 1846 under the name of
EncyclopMie onoUmique. The eighth vohune was transkted
into English in ihe year 1847-
MODERN HUMAN]
ANATOMY
937
The Anatomie thOrale of M. F. X. Bichat is a monument of his
philosophical genius which will last as long as the structure
WebmL and functionsof the human body are objects of interest.
His Anatomie descriptive is distinguished by dear
and natural arrangement, precise and accurate description,
mud the general ingenuity with which the subject is treated.
The physiological observations are- in general correct, often
novel, and always highly interesting. It is unfortunate, however,
that the ingenious author was cut off prematurely during the
preparation of the third volume. The later volumes are, however,
pervaded with the general spirit by which the others are im-
pressed, and are highly creditable to the learning, the judgment
and the diligence of P. J. Rouz and M. F. R. Buisson. The system
of A. Portal is a valuable and correct digest of anatomical and
ftoflcfr pathological knowledge, which, in exact literary
ar mwia i information, is worthy of the author of the Histcire
2*ff" de V anatomie et de la ckirvrgie tt axkd t in accuracy of
mm ** descriptive details, shows that Portal trusted not
to the labours of his predecessors only. A. Boyer published in
1803 a complete treatise on descriptive anatomy. H. Coquet
formed, on the model of the Anatomie descriptive of Bichat,
a system in which he avails himself of the literature and precision
of Sdmmerring and the details of PortaL An English translation
of this work was prepared by Dr Robert Knox. Jean Cruveilhier
published in 1834-1835 a good general treatise on descriptive
anatomy, which was translated into English, and published as
a part of The Library of Medicine. Cnrveilhier's treatise has
passed through several editions. The most elaborate work of the
French school is the great treatise of M. J. Bourgery, consisting
of four divisions,on descriptive, general, surgical and philosophical
anatomy (1833-1854). These are beautifully illustrated.
Modesn Human Anatomy (Antkropolomy)
The history of modern human anatomy in Great Britain begins
with the time at which the dissection of the human body became
part of the training of students of medicine, and this is one of the
greatest debts, though by no means the best recognized, of the
many which medical science owes to that remarkable man
William Hunter. Before his time the anatomy professors of the
moat celebrated schools both at home and abroad used one or at
moat two subjects to illustrate their courses of lectures, and were
in the habit of demonstrating the performance of surgical
operations not on human bodies but on those of lower animals.
Few students dissected the human body, because for such
dissection they had no opportunities. The English law, since
the time of Henry Vm., allowed only the bodies of persons
executed for murder to be dissected, and the supply seems to
have been sufficient for the humble needs of the time. The
reformation of this antiquated and imperfect system took place
in 1747, when Hunter established complete courses of anatomical
lectures and opened a school for dissection. The practice of
dissection grew so rapidly that by about 1703 there were
too regular anatomy students in .London, while in 1823
their number was computed at about xooo. Of course the
supply of murderers was not enough for all these students,
and the very fact that only murderers were allowed for this
purpose made people bitterly hostile to the bodies of their
relations and friends being dissected. In accounting for the great
aversion which there has always been from dissection in England,
it should be remembered that, although capital punishment
was the penalty for very many offences at the beginning of the
19th century, only the bodies of murderers were handed over to
the anatomists.
When once the absolute necessity of a surgeon's having a good
knowledge of anatomy was realised, bodies had to be procured
at any hazard, and the chief method was to dig them up as soon
as possible after their burial. This practice of exhumation or
" body-snatching " on a large scale seems to have been peculiar
to Great Britain and America, and not to have been needed on
the continent of Europe. In France. Italy, Portugal and Austria
no popular objection was raised to the bodies of friendless people,
who died in hospitals, or of those whose burial was paid for by
the state, being dissected, provided a proper religious service
was held over them. In Germany it was obligatory that the
bodies of all people unable to pay for their burials, all dying in
prisons, all suicides and public women should be given up. In
all these countries the supply was most ample, exhumation was
unknown, and the. cost of learning anatomy to the students
was very moderate. In Great Britain the earlier exhumations
seem to have caused very little popular concern; Hunter, it
is said, could manage to get the body of any person he wanted,
were it that of giant, dwarf, hunchback or lord, but later, when
the number of students increased very rapidly, the trade of
" resurrection man " became commoner, and attracted the
lowest dregs of the vicious classes. It is computed that in
1828 about aoo people were engaged in it in London alone,
though only a few gained their entire livelihood by it. In the
first half of the :8th century, and for some time afterwards,
the few dissections which were undertaken were carried out
in the private houses of medical men. In 1 70a a rule was passed
at St Thomas's Hospital preventing the surgeons or pupils from
dissecting bodies there without the express permission of the
treasurer, but by 1780 this rule seems to have lapsed, and a
definite dissecting-room was established, an example which was
soon followed by Guy's and St Bartholomew's.
In the early years of the 19th century the number of students
increased so rapidly that a good many private anatomy schools
grew up, and in 1828 we find that the total list of London dis-
secting rooms comprised those of Guy's, London, St Bartholo-
mew's and St Thomas's hospitals, the Webb Street school of
Mr Grainger, the Aldersgate school of Mr Tyrrell, the Windmill
Street school where Caesar Hawkins and Herbert Mayo lectured,
and the schools of Messrs. Bennett, Carpue, Dermott and Sleigh.
These schools needed and, it seems, obtained nearly 800 bodies
a year in the years about 1833, when there were nearly 1000
students in London, and it is recorded that bodies were even
sent to Edinburgh and Oxford.
When it is realized that the greater number of these were ex-
humed, it is easy to understand how hostile the public feeling
became to the body-snatchers or " resurrection men," and also
in a modified form to the teachers of anatomy and medical
students. This was increased by the, fact that it soon became
well known that many of the so-called resurrection men only
used their calling as a cloak for robbery, because, if they were
stopped with a horse and cart by the watch at night, the presence
of a body on the top of stolen goods was sufficient to avert
suspicion and search. It is in many places suggested, though
not definitely stated, that the Home Office authorities under-
stood how absolutely necessary it was that medical students
should learn the details of the human body, on which they would
be called to operate, and that the police had instructions not to
interfere more than was necessary with the only method by
which that education could be supplied, however unlawful it
might be. So emboldened and careless did these body-snatchers
become, and so great was the demand for bodies, that they no
longer confined themselves to pauper graves, but took the
remains of the wealthier classes, who were in a position to resent
it more effectually; often they did not even take the trouble
to fill in the graves after rifling their contents, and, in con-
sequence, many sextons, who no doubt had been bribed, lost
their posts, and men armed with firearms Watched the London
burial-places at night The result of this was that the " resurrec-
tion men " had to go farther afield, and their occupation was
attended with considerable danger, so that the price of a body
gradually rose from £2 to about £14, which seems the maximum
ever paid. In addition to this heavy sum the anatomical
teachers had to pay the fines of the exhumers when they were
caught, or to support their families when they were imprisoned.
By 1828 the annual supply of bodies had dropped to about 450,
and about aoo English students were forced each year to go
to Paris for their anatomical instruction. There they could get
a body for about seven francs and could also be taught by
English anatomists who settled in that city for the purpose.
As early as about 1810 an anatomical society was formed, to
938
ANATOMY
[MODERN HUMAN
impress on the government the necessity for an alteration in the
law, and among the members we find the names of John Aber-
nethy, Charles Bell, Everard Home, Benjamin Brodie, Astley
Cooper and Henry Cline. It was owing to the exertions of this
body that in 1828 a select committee was appointed by the
government to report on the whole, question, and to the minutes
of evidence taken before this body the reader is referred for
further details.
The report of this committee led to the Anatomy Act of 1833,
but there can be little doubt that its passage through the House
was expedited by the recent discovery and arrest of the infamous
William Burke and William Hare, who, owing to the extreme
difficulty of procuring subjects for dissection in Edinburgh and
the high price paid for them, had made a practice of enticing men
to their lodgings and then drugging and suffocating them in order
to sell their bodies to Dr Knox. Hare turned king's evidence
but Burke was executed. (See MacGregor's History of Burke
and Hare, 1884, Lonsdale's Life and Writings of Robert Knox,
1870. Many further details connected with the condition of
anatomy, especially in Dublin, before the passing of the Anatomy
Act, will be found in Memoirs of James Macartney by Professor A.
Macalister, F.R.S.) The bill to legalize and regulate the supply
of subjects for dissection did not pass without considerable
opposition. In 1829 the College of Surgeons petitioned against
it, and it was withdrawn in the House of Lords owing to the
opposition of the archbishop of Canterbury, but in 1832 a new
Anatomy Bui was introduced, which, though violently opposed
by Messrs Hunt, Sadler and Vyvyan, was supported by Macaulay
and O'Connell, and finally passed the House of Lords on the 19th
of July 1832.
This is the act which governs the practice of anatomy in the
British Isles up to the present day, and which has only been
slightly modified as to the time during which bodies may be
kept unburied in the schools. It provides that any one intend-
ing to practise anatomy must obtain a licence from the home
secretary. As a matter of fact only one or two teachers in each
institution take out this licence and are known as licensed
teachers, but they accept the whole responsibility for the proper
treatment of all bodies dissected in the building for which their
licence is granted. Watching over these licensed teachers,
and receiving constant reports from them, are four inspectors
of anatomy, one each for England, Scotland, Ireland and London,
who report to the home secretary and know the whereabouts
of every body which is being dissected. The main clause of the
act is the seventh, which says that a person having lawful
possession of a body may permit it to undergo* anatomical
examination provided no relative objects; the other clauses
are subsidiary and detail the methods of carrying this into effect.
In clause x6, however, the old act of Henry VHI. is repealed
and the bodies of murderers are no longer to be given up for
dissection after execution.
There can be little doubt that this act has worked well and with
a minimum of friction; it at once did away with body-snatching
and crimes like those of Burke and Hare. No licensed teacher
now could or would receive a body without a medical certificate
and a warrant from the inspector of anatomy, and, when the
bodies are buried, a proper religious service, according to the
creed professed during life, is provided. The great majority
of bodies are those of unclaimed poor in the workhouse in-
firmaries, but a few are obtained each year from the general
hospitals. Occasionally a well-to-do person, following the
example of Jeremy Bentham, leaves his body for the advance-
ment of science, but even then, if his relatives object, it is not
received.
The ample supply of subjects obtained by legitimate means
which the anatomy act provided was followed by the opening
of anatomical schools at all the great London hospitals and the
universities, with the result that anatomical research was
stimulated and text-books embodying the latest discoveries
were brought out. It is wonderful, however, how much descrip-
tive anatomy was taught in the days before text-books were
common and how much of what is essential to the study of I
surgery and medicine the students knew. Inl
old book of anatomical questions and answers dated 181a, oae
is struck by the fact that any one working through them with
the body would probably pass an average modern anatomical
examination to-day.
The various phases which anatomy in the British Isles hat
passed through have also been experienced in America, thoogh
it is difficult to compare the two countries owing to the fact that
each state in the Union makes its own laws as to dissect ion, and
that these vary considerably. The first anatomy act worthy of
the name was that of Massachusetts, and was passed in igji.ose
year before the British act. There is reason to beSevev however,
that, in some states, all the evils of body-snatching existed ap
to the end of the 19th century. In some more enlightened states,
such as Pennsylvania and Massachusetts, the modern acts, are is
advance of the British in that they are mandatary instead of
permissive, and their compulsory nature is found rather to redact
than to increase public opposition to dissection. A study of the
history of anatomy in the United States during the xotfc century
furnishes an instructive lesson on the futility of attempting to
suppress dissection by legislation and on the serious and some-
times terrible crimes to which any such attempt naturally leads.
It also teaches that, when unclaimed bodies mmst be given up
and must be treated reverently and buried decently, there is lest
friction than when public boards have the right of arbitrarily
refusing to allow their unclaimed dead to be used for the service
of the living.
In all the important countries of Europe, with the ex cepti on
of Russia and Turkey, anatomy acts exist. They almost all
differ from the British act in being mandatory instead of per-
missive; in other words, certain unclaimed bodies must he
given up to the schools of anatomy. As a rule these come from
the general hospitals, but sometimes, as in Germany, Austria
and Sweden, suicides are received and form a considerable part of
the whole number. Even where executed criminals are available
they nowadays form a negligible contribution, but the ondaimrd
bodies of people dying in prison are provided for in the French,
Belgian, Norwegian, Swedish, German and Italian regulations,
and in Paris they form an important element of the supply. In
Russia several attempts to gain an anatomy act have been made,
but have always been opposed by those in authority, and there b
good reason to believe that bodies are procured by bribing hospital
and mortuary attendants. It is said that the army contributes a
large percentage of the total number. In Turkey no facilities
for dissecting the dead body exist, as the practice is against
the Mahommedan religion; the German pathologists in Turkey,
however, insist on making Post mortem <ra imitation* In the
British colonies anatomical regulations vary a good deal; some-
times, as in New South Wales, the act is founded on that of Great
Britain and is permissive, but in Victoria the minister may
authorize the medical officer of any public institution supported
wholly or in part by funds from the general revenue to permit
unclaimed bodies to be dissected, provided the persons, during
life had not expressed a wish against it. This act in its working
is equivalent to a mandatory one, since the power of ref using
bodies is not left in the hands of , in this respect, uneducated poor
law guardians.
In the early years of the 19th century Sir Charles Bell's work
on human anatomy is by far the most important in the British
Isles. He wrote the article on the nerves in his brother John
Bell's work on the anatomy of the human body, as well as his
own classical works on the anatomy of expression, the hand and
the arteries; but his chief work was the discovery of the difference
between motor and sensory nerves. Sir Astley Cooper brought
out his beautifully illustrated monograph on hernia in 1S07.
Besides these, the Edinburgh school had contributed the system-
atic treatises of Andrew Fyfe, John Bell, the third Monro and
John Gordon. In 1828 appeared the first edition of Qoain's
Anatomy, written by Jones Quain This monumental work,
which is still among the very first of English text-books, has ma
through ten editions, and is of even greater value to the teacher
and researcher than to the medical student, because of its
SUPERFICIAL AND ARTISTIC)
ANATOMY
939
excellent bibliographies and the way in which it ha* been kept
abreast of modern morphological knowledge by its various
editors. Hardly any of the original work now remains. In
1858 another famous text-book on systematic anatomy appeared,
written by Henry Gray, and this has always been particularly
popular with students both in Great Britain and in America; it
pays more attention to the surgical applications of anatomy
than to the scientific and morphological side, and has reached
its sixteenth edition.
The Cyclopedia of Anatomy and Physiology, edited by Dr
Robert Todd from 1835 to 1859, which contained articles on
both human and comparative anatomy, is now somewhat ont of
date, but did much for the advancement of the science when it
appeared.
In 1893 a text-book written by several authors and edited by
Henry Morris appeared. It has run through three editions and
is especially popular in America. The latest English system-
atic work of first-rate importance is the splendid compilation
edited by D. J. Cunningham (1002) and written, with-one or two
exceptions, by pupils of the veteran anatomist Sir William
Turner. It is defeated to him and will long serve as a memento
of the work which, he has done in training anatomists for the
whole of the British empire. Besides these systematic treatises,
many dissecting manuals have been published. The earliest
were the Dublin Dissector and the London Dissector; others
still in use are those of G. V. Ellis, C. Heath, D. J. Cunningham,
and J. Cleland and J. Mackay. In 1889 Professor A. Macalister
published a book on anatomy, which combined the advantages
of a text-book with those of a dissecting guide.
In America the English text-books are largely used in addition
to that edited by F. H. Gerrish. There is a special American
edition of Gray.
Many systematic works on modern anatomy have come from
Germany. J. F. Meckel, J. C. RosenmuUer, C. F. Krause, G. F.
HSdebrandt, J. Hyrtl, H. Luschka and A. Meyer have all pub-
lished works which have made their mark, but by far the most
important, and, as some consider, still the best of all anatomical
text-books, is that of F. G. J. Henle, professor of anatomy in G5t-
tingen, which was completed in 1873. The beautiful illustrations of
frozen specimens of the body brought out by W. Braune added a
great deal to the student's opportunities of learning the relations
of the various structures, and are largely used all over the world.
Rudinger's Anatomy also contains many plates showing various
sections, but the most complete text-book in the German language
is that by Prof. Karl von Bardeleben of Jena; this is in eight
volumes and contains notices of the latest literature on de-
scriptive and morphological anatomy by the most prominent
German anatomists. In addition to these W. Spaltehols and
C. Toldt have brought out valuable atlases. In France J. Testut's
and Poirier's anatomies, both of great excellence and beautifully
illustrated, are the ones in common use.
There are two epoch-making dates in the history of modern
English anatomy besides that of the passing of the Anatomy Act
in 183a. The first of these is 1867, when the first volume of the
Journal of Anatomy and Physiology appeared. This afforded a
medium for English anatomists to publish their original work,
besides containing valuable reviews and notices of books and work
published abroad; it has appeared quarterly without a break
since that time, and was long under the immediate direction
of Sir William Turner.
The second date is 1887, when the Anatomical Society of
Great Britain and Ireland was founded through the exertions of
Mr C. B. Lockwood. It meets three times a year in London and
once, in the summer, at some provincial school. It numbers
some one hundred and fifty members, and enables anatomists
from the whole British empire to meet one another and discuss
subjects of common interest Its first president was Prof.
Murray Humphry of Cambridge, and its official organ is the
Journal of Anatomy and Physiology.
No account of modern anatomical "work would be complete
without drawing attention to the great mass of special periodical
literature containing the records of original work which are being
published. It is said that some three or four thousand articles
on anatomy appear in six hundred journals each year. To
mention a few of these, in addition to the British Journal of
Anatomy and Physiology there is an American Journal of A natomy,
the French Bulletin et mimoires do la sociitS anatomiquc, and La
journal de V anatomic et de la physiologic, and the German Inter-
nationale Monatschrift fur Anatomic und Physiologic, Anatom-
ischer Anuiger, Waldeyer's Archiv fUr Anatomic und Physiologic,
Schwalbe's Zcilschrift fttr Morphologic und Anthropologic,
Gegenbaur's Morphologischcs Jahrbuch, edited by Ruge, and
Merkel's Anatomischc Hcftc
Unfortunately the outlook of anatomy in Great Britain is not
altogether satisfactory. The number of subjects for dissection
has since 1895 been steadily diminishing, especially in London.
This is due partly to the modern system of insuring lives for
small sums and so decreasing the number of unclaimed bodies,
and partly to the fact that, owing to the permissive nature of the
British Anatomy Act, several boards of guardians will not allow
even unclaimed bodies to be used for dissection and for the teaching
of operative surgery. It is not popularly understood that a
dearth of bodies means not only a check to abstract science,
but a serious handicap to medical education, which must react
more upon the poor than upon the rich, since the latter can afford
to pay for the services of medical men educated abroad, where
no difficulties are placed in the way of their learning fully the
structure of the body they have to treat in disease. (F. G. P.)
Anatomy— Superficial and Artistic
The objects of the study of superficial anatomy are to show,
first, the form and proportions of the human body and, second,
the surface landmarks which correspond to deeper structures
hidden from view. This study blends imperceptibly with others,
such as physical anthropology, physiognomy, phrenology and
palmistry, but whereas these deal chiefly with variations,
superficial anatomy is concerned with the type.
With regard to the proportions of the body the artist and
anatomist approach the subject from a slightly different point of
view. The former, by a process of artistic selection, seeks the
ideal and adopts the proportions which give the most pleasing
effect, while the latter desires to know only the mean of a large
series of measurements.
The scheme which Dr Paul Richer suggests^ natomic artislique,
Paris, 1 890) .and Professor Arthur Thomson &pprovc&( Anatomy for
Art Students, x8o6), is to divide the whole body into head-lengths,
of which seven and a half make up the stature. Four of these
are above the fork and three and a half below (see figs, x and 2).
Of the four above, one forms the head and face, the second
reaches from the chin to the level of the nipples, the third from
the nipples to the navel, and the fourth from there to the fork.
By dividing these into half-heads other points can be determined;
for instance the middle of the first head-length corresponds to
the eyes, the middle of the second to the shoulder, of the fourth
to the top of the hip-joint, and of the fifth to the knee-joint.
The elbow- joint, when the arms are by the side, is a little above
the lower limit of the third head-length, whilst the wrist is
opposite the very centre of the stature, three head-lengths and
three-quarters from the crown or the soles. The tips of the fingers
reach a little below the middle of the fifth head-lengt h. (In fig. x
the fingers are bent) By making the stature eight head-lengths
instead of seven and a half the artistic effect is increased, as it is
also by slightly lengthening the legs in proportion to the body.
Approximate average breadth measurements are two heads for
the greatest width of the shoulders, one and a half for the greatest
width of the hips, one for the narrowest part of the waist, and
three-quarters for the breadth of the head on a level with the
eyes
The relation of superficial landmarks to deep structures
cannot be treated here in full detail, but the chief points may be
indicated. Certain parts of the head may easily be felt through
the skin. If the finger is run along the upper margin of the orbit,
the notch for the supraorbital nerve may usually be felt at the '
junction of the inner and middle thirds. At the outer end of
940
ANATOMY
(SUPERFICIAL AND AKTBTIC
the margin is its junction with the malar bone, and this easily
felt point is known as the external angular process. The junction
of the frontal and nasal bones at the root of the nose is the nasion,
while at the back of the skull the external occipital protuberance
or inion is felt and marks the position of the torcular Herophfli,
where the venous sinuses meet The zygoma may be felt running
back from the malar bone to just in front of the ear, and two
fingers' breadth above the middle of it marks the pterion, a very
important point in the localization of intracranial structures.
It corresponds to the anterior branch of the middle meningeal
artery, to the Sylvian point where the three limbs of the fissure
of Sylvius diverge, to the middle cerebral artery, the central
lobe of the brain or island of ReO ( and the anterior part of the
corpus striatum. The fissure of Sylvius can be marked out by
drawing a line from the external angular process back through
the Sylvian point to the lower part of the parietal eminence.
Fie. i.
«, Serratus magnus.
ft Deltoid.
y t Biceps.
i, Pou part's ligament.
«, Patella.
T.P. Transpyloric plane.
S.C. Subcostal plane.
I.T. Intcrtubercular plane.
Fig. 2.
0, Dimple over posterior superior
spine of ilium,
r. Lower angle of scapula.
1, External head of triceps.
«, Depression over great tro-
chanter,
f. Popliteal space.
% Gastrocnemius.
The scale between the figures represents head-lengths.
The position of the sulcus of Rolando is important because of the
numerous cortical centres which lie close to it. For practical
purposes it may be mapped out by taking the superior Rolandic
point, | in. behind the bisection of a line drawn from the nasion
to the inion over the vault of the skull, and joining that to the
inferior Rolandic point, which is just above the line of the fissure
of Sylvius and x in. behind the Sylvian point. The external
parietooccipital fissure, which forms the boundary between the
parietal and occipital lobes of the brain, is situated practically
at the lambda, which is a hand's breadth (2} in.) above the inion.
The lateral sinus can be mapped out by joining the inion to the
asterion, a point two-thirds of the distance from the lambda
to the tip of the mastoid process; thence the sinus curves down-
ward and forward toward the tip of the mastoid process. A
point 1 -in. horizontally backward from the top of the external
auditory meatus wfll always strike it
Craniocerebral topography has been dealt with by Broca, BischofT,
Turner, Fere, Pozzi, Giacomini, Ecker, HerTtler and Hare. Among
the more recent papers are those of R. W. Reid (Lancet, 27th Sep-
tember 1884). VV. Anderson and G. Makins (Lancet, 13th July 1889),
Prof. Chiene (detailed in Cunningham's Tai-Bmk «/ Am*mn\
V A Horsley (Am. Journal Med. Sci^iSSjhC^ Thane andJL Godtee
(Quain's Anatomy— appendix to 10th edition).
discusses the whole question in his " Coatribatiosi to the Serface
Anatomy of the Cerebral Hemispheres " (Cunnin-
No. vii. R. Irish Academy, Dublin, 1892), and he
series of casta to illustrate it.
The Face. — On the front of the face a line drawn down froa
the supraorbital notch between the bicuspid teeth to the side
of the chin will cut the exit of the second division of the fifth
nerve from the infraorbital foramen, a quarter of an inch below
the infraorbital margin, and also the exit of the third division of
the fifth at the mental foramen, midway between the upper and
lower margins of the body of the jaw. In practice it wfll be found
that the angle of the mouth at rest usually corr es po n ds to the
interval between the bicuspid teeth. The skin of the eyelids is
very thin, and is separated from the subjacent fibrous tarsal
plates by the orbicularis palpebrarum musde. On everting the
lids the delicate conjunctival membrane is seen, and b e twe en tins
and the tarsal plates lie the meibomian glands, which eaa be
faintly seen as yellowish streaks. From the free edges of the
eyelids come the eyelashes, between which many large sweat-
glands open, and when one of these is inflamed it causes a " stye."
Internally the two eyelids form a little recess called the internal
canthus, occupied by a small red eminence, the canucuh
lachrymalis, just external to which a small vertical fold of
conjunctiva may often be seen, called the plka srmflunam,
representing the third eyelid of birds and many mammals By
gently drawing down the lower eyelid the lower punctata nay
be seen close to the caruncula; it is the pinhole opening into the
lower of the two canaliculi which carry away the tears to the
lachrymal sac and duct. On the side of the face the facial artery
may be felt pulsating about an inch in front of the angle of the
jaw; it runs a tortuous course to near the angle of the mouth,
the angle of the nose and the inner angle of the eye; in the
greater part of its course its vein lies some distance behind it.
The parotid gland lies between the ramus of the jaw and the
mastoid process; anteriorly it overlaps the masseter to form the
soda parotidis, and just below this its duct, the duct of Stensen,
runs forward to pierce the buccinator and open into the mouth
opposite the second upper molar tooth. The line of this duct may
be marked out by joining the lower margin of the tragus to s
point midway between the lower limit of the nose and the mouth.
The facial or seventh nerve emerges from the skull at the stylo-
mastoid foramen just in front of the root of the mastoid process;
in the parotid gland it forms a network called the pes anserinus,
after which it divides into six branches which radiate over the
face to supply the muscles of expression.
The Neck. — In the middle line below the chin can be fdt the
body of the hyoid bone, just below which is the prominence of
the thyroid cartilage called " Adam's apple," better marked is
men than in women. Still lower the cricoid cartilage is easily fdt,
while between this and the suprasternal notch the trachea and
isthmus of the thyroid gland may be made out. At the side the
outline of the sterno-mastoid musde is the most striking mark;
it divides the anterior triangle of the neck from the posterior.
The upper part of the former contains the submaxillary gland,
which lies just below' the posterior half of the body of the )&*.
The line of the common and the external carotid arteries may be
marked by joining the sterno-davicular articulation to the angle
of the jaw. The eleventh or spinal accessory nerve correspoodi
to a line drawn from a point midway between the angle of the
jaw and the mastoid process to the middle of the posterior border
of the sterno-mastoid musde and thence across the posterior
triangle to the deep surface of the trapezius. The external
jugular vrin can usually be seen through the skin; it rum ia a
line drawn from the angle of the jaw to the middle of the davide,
and dose to it are some small lymphatic glands. The anterior
jugular vein is smaller, and runs down about half an inch froa
the middle line of the neck. The davide or collar-bone forms
the lower limit of the neck, and laterally the outward slope of
the neck to the shoulder is caused by the trapezius muade.
The Chest.— It is important to realize that the shape of the
SUPERFICIAL AND ARTISTIC!
ANATOMY
941
chest does not correspond to that of the bony thorax which
endows the heart and lungs; all the breadth of the shoulders
is doe to the shoulder girdle, and contains the axilla and the head
of the humerus. In the middle line the suprasternal notch is seen
above, while about three fingers' breadth below it a transverse
ridge can be felt, which is known as Ludovic's angle and marks
the junction between the manubrium and gladiolus of the
sternum. Level with this line the second ribs join the sternum,
and when these are found the lower ribs may be easily counted
in a moderately thin subject. At the lower part of the sternum,
where the seventh or last true ribs join it, the ensiform cartilage
begins, and over this there is often a depression popularly known
as the pit of the stomach. The nipple in the male is situated In
front of the fourth-rib or a little below; vertically it lies a little
external to a line drawn down from the middle of the clavicle;
in the female it is not so constant. A little below it the lower
Umit of the great pectoral muscle is seen running upward and
outward to the axilla; in the female this is obscured by the
breast, which extends from the second to the sixth rib vertically
and from the edge of the sternum to the mid-axillary line later-
ally. The female nipple is surrounded for half an inch by a more
or less pigmented disc, the areola. The apex of a normal heart
is in the fifth left intercostal space, three and a half inches from
the mid-line.
The Abdomen.— In the mid-line a slight furrow extends from
the ensiform cartilage above to the symphysis pubis below;
this marks the linea alba in the abdominal wall, and about its
middle point is the umbilicus or naveL On each side of it the
broad recti muscles can be seen in muscular people. The outline
of these muscles is interrupted by three or more transverse
depressions indicating the lineae transversae in the recti; there
is usually one about the ensiform cartilage, one at the umbilicus,
and one between; sometimes a fourth is present below the
umbilicus. The upper lateral limit of the abdomen is the sub-
costal margin formed by the cartilages of the false ribs (8, 9, 10)
joining one another; the lower lateral limit is the anterior part
of the crest of the ilium and Poupart's ligament running from the
anterior superior spine of the ilium to the spine of the pubis (see
fig. 1, 6); these lower limits are marked by definite grooves.
Just above the pubic spine is the external abdominal ring, an
opening in the muscular wall of the abdomen for the spermatic
cord to emerge in the male. The most modern method of mark-
ing out the abdominal contents is to draw three horizontal and
two vertical lines; the highest of the former is the transpyloric
line of C. Addison (fig. z, T.P.), which is situated half-way between
the suprasternal notch and the top of the symphysis pubis; it
often cuts the pyloric opening of the stomach an inch to the
right of the mid-line. The hilum of each kidney is a little below
it, while its left end approximately touches the lower limit of the
spleen. It corresponds to the first lumbar vertebra behind.
The second line is the subcostal (fig. 1, S.C.), drawn from the
lowest point of the subcostal arch (tenth rib); it corresponds to
the upper part of the third lumbar vertebra, and is an inch or so
above the umbilicus; it indicates roughly the transverse colon,
the lower ends of the kidneys, and the upper limit of the trans-
verse (3rd) part of the duodenum. The third line is called the
intertubercular (fig. z, LT.), and runs across between the two
rough tuberdes,which can be felt on the outer lip of the crest of the
ilium about two and a half inches from the anterior superior spine.
This line corresponds to the body of the fifth lumbar vertebra,
and passes through or just above the ileo-caecal valve where the
small intestine joins the large. The two vertical or mid-Poupart
lines are drawn from the point midway between the anterior
superior spine and the pubic symphysis on each side vertically
upward to the costal margin. The right one is the most valuable,
as the ileo-caecal valve is situated where it cuts the intertuber-
cular line, while the orifice of the vermiform appendix is an inch
lower down. At its upper part it meets the transpyloric line at
the lower margin of the ribs, usually the ninth, and here the gall-
bladder is situated. The left mid-Poupart line corresponds in
its upper three-quarters to the inner edge of the descending
colon. The right subcostal margin corresponds to the lower
limit of the liver, while the right nipple ts about half an inch
above the upper limit of this viscus.
The Back.— There is a well-marked furrow stretching all the
way down the middle line of the back from the external occipital
protuberance to the cleft of the buttocks. In this the spinous
processes of the vertebrae can be felt, especially if the model
bend forward. The cervical spines are difficult to feel, except
the seventh and sometimes the second, and although the former
is called the vertebra prominens, its spine is less easily felt than
is that of the first thoracic. In practice it is not very easy to
identify any one spine with certainty: one method is to start
from the prominent first thoradc and to count down ; another is to
join the lower angles of the two scapulae (fig. a, y) when the arms
are hanging down, and to take the spine through which the line
passes as the .seventh.
The spinal furrow is caused by the prominence of the erector
spinae muscles on each side; these become less well marked as
they run upward. The outlines of the scapulae can be well seen;
they cover the ribs from the second to the seventh inclusive.
The scapular spine is quite subcutaneous, and can be followed
upward and outward from the level of the third thoracic spine
to the acromion, and so to the outer end of the clavicle. On the
lower margin of the acromion is a little tubercle known as the
metacromial process or acromial angle, which is very useful for
taking measurements from. The tip of the twelfth rib may
usually be felt about two inches above the middle of the iliac
crest, but this rib is very variable in length. The highest point
of the iliac crest corresponds to the fourth lumbar spine, while
the posterior superior iliac spine is on a level with the second
sacral vertebra. This posterior superior spine is not easily felt,
owing to the ligaments attached to it, but there is usually a little
dimple in the skin over it (fig. 2 , fi). By drawing horizon tal lines
through the 1st, 3rd and 5th lumbar spines, the transpyloric,
subcostal and intertubercular lines or planes may be reproduced
behind and the same viscera localized.
The Arm. — Running downward and outward from the inner
half of the clavicle, where that bone is convex forward, is the
clavicular part of the pectoralis major, while from the outer third
of the bone, where it is concave forward, is the clavicular part of
the deltoid; between these two muscles is an elongated triangular
gap with its base at the clavicle, and here the skin is somewhat
depressed, while the cephalic vein sinks between the two muscles
to join the axillary vein. The tip of the coracoid process is
situated just under cover of the inner edge of the deltoid, one
inch below the junction between the outer and middle thirds of
the clavicle. The deltoid muscle (fig. 1 , fi) forms the prominence
of the shoulder, and its convex outline is due to the presence of
the head of the humerus deep to it; when this is dislocated the
shoulder becomes flattened. The pectoralis major forms the
anterior fold of the axilla or armpit, the posterior being formed by
the latissimus dorsi and teres major muscles. The skin of the
floor of this space is covered with hair in the adult, and contains
many large sweat glands. The axillary vessels and brachial
plexus of nerves lie in the outer wall, while on the inner wall are
the serrations of the serratus magnus muscle, the outlines of some
of which are seen on the side of the thorax, through the skin,
when the arm is raised (fig. z , o). Below the edge of the pectoralis
major, the swelling of the biceps (fig. 1 , 7) begins to be visible, and
this can easily be traced into its tendon of insertion, which
reaches below the level of the elbow joint. On each side of the
biceps is the external and internal bicipital furrow, in the latter
of which the brachial artery may be felt and compressed. The
median nerve is here in close relation to the artery. At the bend
of the elbow the two condyles of the humerus may be felt; the
inner one projects beneath the skin, but the outer one is obscured
by the rounded outline of the brachio-radialis muscle. The
superficial veins at the bend of the elbow are very conspicuous;
they vary a good deal, but the typical arrangement is an M, of
which the radial and ulnar veins form the uprights, while the
outer oblique bar to the median cephalic and the inner oblique
the median basilic vein. At the divergence of these two the
median vein comes up from the front of the forearm, while
942
ANATOMY
(SUPERFICIAL AND ARTISTIC
the two vertical limbs are continued up the arm as the cephalic
and basilic, the former on the outer side, the latter on the inner.
On the back of the arm the three heads of the triceps are distin-
guishable, the external forming a marked oblique swelling when
the forearm is forcibly extended and internally rotated (fig. 2, 6).
In the upper part of the front of the forearm the antecubital fossa
or triangle is seen; its outer boundary is the bnchio-radialis, its
inner the pronator radii teres, and where these two join below is
the apex. In this space are three vertical structures — externally
the tendon of the biceps, just internal to this the brachial artery,
and still more internally the median nerve. Coming from the
inner side of the biceps tendon the semi-lunar fascia may be felt;
It passes deep to the median basilic vein and superficial to the
brachial artery, and in former days was a valuable protection to
the artery when unskilful operators were bleeding from the
median basilic vein. About the middle of the forearm the fleshy
parts of the superficial flexor muscles cease, and only the tendons
remain, so that the limb narrows rapidly. In front of the wrist
there is a superficial plexus of veins, while deep to this" two
tendons can usually be made to start up if the wrist be forcibly
flexed; the outer of these is the flexor carpi radialis, which is the
physician's guide to the radial artery where the pulse is felt If
the finger is slipped to the outer side of this tendon, the artery,
which here is very superficial, can be felt beating. The inner of
the two tendons is the palmaris longus, though it is not always
present. On cutting down between these two the median nerve
is reached.
The wrist joint may be marked out by feeling the stylbid
process of the radius on the outer side, and the styloid process of
the ulna on the inner side behind, and joining these two by a line
convex upward. The superficial appearance of the palm of the
hand is described in the article on Palmistry; with regard to
anatomical landmarks the superficial palmar arterial arch is
situated in the line of the abducted thumb, while the deep arch is
an inch nearer the wrist. The digital nerves correspond to lines
drawn from the clefts of the fingers toward the wrist. On the
back of the forearm the olecranon process of the ulna is quite
subcutaneous, and during extension of the elbow is in a line
with the two condyles, while between it and the inner condyle
ties the ulnar nerve, here known popularly as the " funny bone."
From the olecranon process the finger may be run down the
posterior border of the ulna, which is subcutaneous as far as the
styloid process at-the lower end. On the dorsum of the hand is a
plexus of veins, deep to which the extensor tendons are seen on
extending the fingers. When the thumb is extended, two tendons
stand out very prominently, and enclose a triangular space
between them which is sometimes known as the "anatomical
snuffbox "; the outerof these is the tendon of the extensor bre vis,
the inner of the extensor longus pollids. Situated deeply in the
space is the radial artery, covered by the radial vein. On the
dorsum of the hand there is a plexus of veins, and deep to these
the tendons of the extensor longus digitorum stand out when the
wrist and fingers are extended.
The Leg.—Jvat below Poupart's ligament (fig. 1, 3), a tri-
angular depression with its apex downward may be seen in
muscular subjects; it corresponds to Scarpa's triangle, and its
inner border is the tendon of the adductor longus, which is
easily felt if the model forcibly adducts the thigh. In this triangle
the superficial inguinal glands may be made out. The head of
the femur lies just below the centre of Poupart's ligament The
tartorius muscle forms the outer boundary of the triangle, and
may be traced from the anterior superior spine obliquely down-
ward and inward, across the front of the thigh, to the inner side
of the knee. The two vasti muscles are well marked, the internal
being the lower and forming with the sartorius the rounded
bulging above the inner side of the knee. The internal saphenous
vein runs superficially up the inner side of the thigh from behind
the internal condyle to the femur to the saphenous opening in the
deep fascia, the top of which is an inch horizontally outward
from the spine of the pubis. On the other side of the thigh
a groove runs down which corresponds to the ilio-tibial band,
a thickening of the fascia lata or deep fascia; the lower end of
this leads to the head of the fibula. On the front of the th*a,
below the sartorius, the rectus muscle makes a prommenx wfcka
leads down to the patella, the outlines of which bone are very
evident (fig. x, c). The only part of the femur besides the peat
trochanter which is superficial is the lower end, and tins ferns
the two condyles for articulation with the tibia. If the posternr
part of the inner condyle be joined to the mid-point between the
anterior superior spine and the symphysis pubis, when the tkga
is externally rotated, the line will correspond in its upper two-
thirds to that of the common and superficial femoral arteries,
the former occupying -the upper inch and a half. The com m a
femoral vein lies just internal to its artery, while the anterior
crural nerve is a quarter of an inch external to the latter. Tie
rounded mass of the buttock is formed by the gluteus maximal
muscle covered by fat; the lower horizontal boundary is caQed
the fold of the nates, and does not correspond exactly to the
lower edge of the muscle. At the side of the buttock is a de-
pression (fig. 2, c) where the great trochanter of the femur caa
be felt; a line, named after Nelaton, drawn from the anterior
superior spine to the tuberosity of the ischium, passes through
the top of this. On the back of the thigh the hamstrings f orn
a distinct swelling; below the middle these separate to enclose
the diamond-shaped popliteal space (fig. 2, f), the outer ban-
strings or biceps being specially evident, while, on the inner side,
the tendons of the semi-tendinosus and semi-xnembranosis caa
be distinguished. The external popliteal nerve may be felt
just behind the biceps tendon above the head of the fibula.
On the f ron t of the leg, below the knee, the ligamentum patellae
is evident, leading down from the patella (fig. x, <) to the tubercle
of the tibia. From this point downward the anterior border of
the tibia or shin is subcutaneous, as is also the interna] surface
of the tibia. Internal to the skin is the fleshy mass made by the
tibialis anticus and extensor longus digitorum muscles. At the
inner side of the ankle the. internal malleolus is subcutaneous,
while on the outer side the tip of the external malleolus is rather
lower and farther back. Both this malleolus and the lower
quarter of the shaft of the fibula are subcutaneous, and this
area, if traced upward, is continuous with a furrow on the outer
side of the leg which separates the anterior tibial from the
peroneal groups of muscles, and eventually leads to the subcu-
taneous head of the fibula. At the back of the leg the two heads
of the gastrocnemius form the calf, the inner one (fig. *, *) being
larger than the outer. Between the two, in the mid-line of the
calf, the external saphenous vein and nerve lie, while lower dova
they pass behind the external malleolus to the outer side of the
foot The internal saphenous vein and nerve lie just behind the
internal border of the tibia, and below pass in front of the
internal malleolus. At the level of the ankle-joint the tibialis
posticus and flexor longus digitorum tendons lie just behind the
internal malleolus, while the peroneus longus and brevis are
behind the external. Running down to the heel is the tends
Achnlis with the plantaris on its inner side; On the dorsum of the
foot the musculo-cutaneous nerve may be seen through the skin
in thin people when the toes are depressed; it runs from the
anterior peroneal furrow, already described, to all the tecs,
except the cleft between the two inner ones, There is also a
venous arch to be seen, the two extremities of which pass respec-
tively into the external and internal saphenous veins. The losg
axis of the great toe, even in races unaccustomed to boots, runs
forward and outward, away from the mid-line betw e en the
two feet, so that perfectly straight inner sides to boots are not
really anatomical The second toe in classical statues is often
longer than the first, but this is seldom seen in Englishmen. Oa
the outer side of the sole the skin is often in contact with the
ground all along, but on the inner side the arch » more marked,
and, except in flat-footed people, there is an area in which the
sole does not touch the ground at aU.
For further details of surface anatomy see Anatomy for Art
Students, by A. Thomson (Oxford, 1896); Harold Stiles's article in
Cunningham's Text-Book of Anatomy (Young I. Pentlaod. 1902};
G. Thane and R. Godlee's Appendix to Quoin's Anatomy (Loncnuat
Green & Co., 1806); Surface Anatomy, by B. Windle and Manners
Smith (H. K. Lewis, 1896); Landmark* ami Snrfau Marmmjs of
ANATTO— ANAXARCHUS
943
As Human Body, by L. B. Rawting (H. K. Lewis, 1906); Surf act
Anatomy, by T. G. Moorhead (BailKere, Tindall A Cox. 1905). No
one interested in the subject should omit to read an article on " Art
in its relation to Anatomy," by W. Anderson, British Medical
Journal, 10th August 1895. (F. G. P.)
ANATTO (possibly a native American name, with many
variants such as annaito, arnotto), a colouring matter produced
from the seeds of Bixa oreUana (natural order Flacourtiaccac), a
small tree which grows in Central and South America. The seeds
are surrounded with a thin coating of a waxy pulp, which is
separated from them "by washing in water, passing the liquid
through a sieve and allowing the suspended pulp to deposit.
The water is then drained away and the paste dried, till it is a
thick, stiff, unctuous mass. In this state it has a dark orange-red
colour and is known as " roll " or " flag " arnotto, according to
the form in which it is put up, but when further dried it is called
" cake " arnotto. Arnotto is much used by South American
Indians for painting their bodies; among civilized communities
its principal use is for colouring butter, cheese and varnishes. It
yields a fugitive bright orange colour, and is to some extent
used alone, or in conjunction with other dyes, in the dyeing of
silks and in calico printing. It contains a- yellow colouring
matter, bixin, CmHmO*
ANAXAGORAS, Greek philosopher, was born probably about
the year 500 B.C. (Apollodorus op+Diog. Laert. ii. 7.) At his
native town of Qazomenae in Asia Minor, he had, it appears,
some amount of property and prospects of political influence,
both of which he surrendered, from a fear that they would hinder
his search after knowledge. Nothing is known of bis teachers;
there is no reason for the theory that he studied under Her-
motimus of Qazomenae, the ancient miracle-worker. In early
manhood (c. 464-463 B.C.) he went to Athens, which was rapidly
becoming the headquarters of Greek culture. There he is said
to have remained for thirty years. Pericles learned to love and
admire him and the poet Euripides derived from him an enthu-
siasm for science and humanity. Some authorities assert that
even Socrates was among his disciples. His influence was due
partly to bis astronomical and mathematical eminence, but still
more to the ascetic dignity of bis nature and bis superiority to
ordinary weaknesses— traits which legend has embalmed. It
was he who brought philosophy and the spirit of scientific
inquiry from Ionia to Athens. His observations of the celestial
bodies led him to form new theories of the universal order,
and brought him into collision with the popular faith. He
attempted, not without success, to give a scientific account of
eclipses, meteors, rainbows and the sun, which he described as
a mass of blazing metal, larger than the Peloponnesus; the
heavenly bodies were masses of stone torn from the earth and
ignited by rapid rotation. The ignorant polytheism of the
time could not tolerate such explanation, and the* enemies of
Pericles used the superstitions of their countrymen as a means
of attacking him in the person of his friend.
Anaxagoras was arrested, on a charge of contravening the
established dogmas of religion (some say the charge was one of
Medism), and it required all the eloquence of Pericles to secure
his acquittal. Even so he was forced to retire from Athens to
Lampsacus (434-433 B.C.), where he died about 428 B.C., honoured
and respected by the whole city.
It is difficult to present the cosmical theory of Anaxagoras
in an intelligible scheme. All things have existed in a sort of
way from the beginning. But originally they existed in infinitesi-
mally small fragments of themselves, endless in number and in-
extricably combined throughout the universe. All things existed
in this mass, but in a confused and indistinguishable form.
There were the seeds {avipftara) or miniatures of corn and flesh
and gold in the primitive mixture; but these parts, of like
nature with their wholes (the bitotoptpij of Aristotle), had to
be eliminated from the complex mass before they could receive
a definite name and character. The existing species of things
having thus been transferred, with all their specialities, to the
prehistoric stage, they were multiplied endlessly in number,
by reducing their size through continued subdivision; at the
same time each one thing is so indissolubly connected with every
other that the keenest analysis can never completely sever
them. The work of arrangement, the segregation of like from
unlike and the summation of the.d/totOMcpii into totals of the
same name, was the work of Mind or Reason; rojra xp4jiara
Ijv 6/foO • tfra povt IMAr aftrd Atcxoawtfc. This peculiar
thing, called Mind (poDj), was no less illimitable than the
chaotic mass, but, unlike the Intelligence of Heraditus (?.*.),
it stood pure and independent (jioOm 4d*' favroO), a thing
of finer texture, alike in all its manifestations and every-
where the same. This subtle agent, possessed of all knowledge
and power, is especially seen ruling in all the forms of life. Its
first appearance, and the only manifestation of it which Anaxa-
goras describes, is Motion. It originated a rotatory movement in
the mass (a movement far exceeding the most rapid in the world
as we know it), which, arising in one corner or point, gradually
extended till it gave distinctness and reality to the aggregates
of like parts. But even after it has done its best, the original
intermixture of things is not wholly overcome. No one thing
in the world is ever abruptly separated, as by the blow of an
axe, from the rest of things. The name given to it signifies
merely that in that congeries of fragments the particular " seed "
is preponderant. Every a of this present universe is only a by
a majority, and is also in lesser number b t c, d. It is noteworthy
that Aristotle accuses Anaxagoras of failing to differentiate
between rout and 4nxh, while Socrates (Plato, Pkaedo, 08 b)
objects that his vovt is merely a deus ex machine to which he
refuses to attribute design and knowledge.
Anaxagoras proceeded to give some account of the stages in
the process from original chaos to present arrangements. The
division into cold mist and warm ether first broke the spell of
confusion. With increasing cold, the former gave rise to water,
earth and stones. The seeds of life which continued floating
in the air were carried down with the rains and produced vegeta-
tion. Animals, including man, sprang from the warm and
moist clay. If these things be so, then the evidence of the
senses must be held in slight esteem. We seem to see things
coming into being and passing from it; but reflection tells us
that decease and growth only mean a new aggregation (oiry-
Kpuns) and disruption (kaMpuns). Thus Anaxagoras distrusted
the senses, and gave the preference to the conclusions of
reflection. Thus he maintained that there must be blackness as
well as whiteness in snow; how otherwise could it be turned
into dark water?
Anaxagoras marks a turning-point in the history of philosophy.
With him speculation passed from the colonies of Greece to
settle at Athens. By the theory of minute constituents of
things, and his emphasis on mechanical processes in the formation
of order, he paved the way for the atomic theory. By his
enunciation of the order that comes from reason, on the other
hand, he suggested, though he seems not to have stated ex-
plicitly, the theory that nature is the work of design. The con-
ception of reason in the world passed from him to Aristotle,
to whom it seemed the dawn of sober thought after a night of
disordered dreams. From Aristotle it descended to bis com-
mentators, and under the influence of Averroes became the
engrossing topic of speculation.
Authorities. — The fragments of Anaxagoras have been collected
by E. Srhaubacb (Leipzig, 1827), and W. Schorn (Bonn, 1829); see
also F. W. A. Mullach, Fragmenta Philos. Grace. I 243-252; A. Fair-
banks, The First Philosophers of Greece (F898). For criticism see
T. Gomperz, Creek Thinkers (Eng. trans., L. Magnus, 1901), bk. ii.
chap. 4: E. Bcrsot, De controversis quibusdam Anaxagorae dortrinis
(Paris, 1844); E. Zeller, Die Philosophic der Griechen (Eng. trans.,
S. F. Alley ne, 2 vols., London, 1881) ; J. M. Robertson. Short History
of Freethoutht (London, 1906); W. Windelband. History of Philo-
sophy (Eng. trans., J. H. Tufts, 1893); J. I. Bcare, Greek Theories
of Elementary Cognition (1906) ; L. Parmentier, Euripide et A naxa*
gore (1892) ; F. Lortzing, " Bencht Qber die griechischen Philosophen
vor Sokrates " (for the years 1876-1697) in Buraian's Jakresberickt
uber die Fortsckritte der classtscken Altertumswissenschaft, cxvL
(1904), with references to important articles in periodicals.
(W. Vv.^ J. M. M.)
ANAXARCHUS (c 340 B.C.), a Greek philosopher of the school
of Democritus, was born at Abdera. He was the companion
and friend of Alexander in his Asiatic campaigns. He checked
944
ANAXILAUS— ANBAR
the vainglory of Alexander, when he aspired to the honours of
divinity, by pointing to his wounded finger, saying," See
the blood of a mortal, not of a god." The story that at Bactra
in 397 b.c in a public speech he advised all to worship Alexander
as a god even during his lifetime, is with greater probability
attributed to the Sicilian Cleon. It is said that Nicocreon,
tyrant of Cyprus, commanded him to be pounded to death in
a mortar, and that he endured this torture with fortitude; but
the story is doubtful, having no earlier authority than Cicero.
His philosophical doctrines* are not known, though some have
inferred from the epithet coftcu/ionxof ("fortunate"), usually
applied to him, that he held the end of life to be cttatnoifa.
ANAXILAUS, of Larissa, a physician and Pythagorean philo-
sopher, who was banished from Rome by Augustus, b.c. 38, on
the charge of practising the magic art. This accusation appears
to have originated in his superior skill in natural philosophy, by
which he produced effects that the ignorant attributed to magic
Eoteb., Ckron. ad Olymp. clxxxviii; St Iran. L 13; Pliny xix.
4, xxv. 95, xxviii. 49, xxxii. 5a, xxxv. 50.
ANAXIMANDER, the second of the physical philosophers of
Ionia, was a citizen of Miletus and a companion or pupil of Thales.
Little is known of his life. Aelian makes him the leader of the
Milesian colony to Amphipolis, and hence some have Inferred
that he was a prominent dtixen. The computations of ApoUo-
dorus have fixed his birth in 6x1, and his death shortly after
547 B.C. Tradition, probably correct in its general estimate,
represents him as a successful student of astronomy and geo-
graphy, and as one of the pioneers of exact science among the
Greeks. He taught, if he did not discover, the obliquity of the
ecliptic, is said to have introduced into Greece the gnomon (for
determining the solstices) and the sundial, and to have invented
some kind of geographical map. But his reputation is due mainly
to his work on nature, few words of which remain. From these
fragments we learn that the beginning or first principle (&px4>
a word which, it is said, he was the first to use) was an endless,
unlimited mass (ov-ccpo*), subject to neither old age nor decay,
and perpetually yielding fresh materials for the series of beings
which issued from it. He never defined this principle precisely,
and it has generally (e.g. by Aristotle and Augustine) been
understood as a sort of primal chaos. It embraced everything,
and directed the movement of things, by which there grew up a
host of shapes and differences. Out of the vague and limitless
body there sprung a central mass, — this earth of ours, cylindrical
in shape, poised equidistant from surrounding orbs of fire, which
had originally clung to it like the bark round a tree, until their
continuity was severed, and they parted into several wheel-
shaped and fire-filled bubbles of air. Man himself and the
animals had come into being by like transmutations. Mankind
was supposed by Anaximander to have sprung from some other
species of animals, probably aquatic. But as the measureless
and endless had been the prime cause of the motion into separate
existences and individual forms, so also, according to the just
award of destiny, these forms would at an appointed season
suffer the vengeance due to their earlier act of separation, and
return into the vague immensity whence they had issued. Thus
the world, and all definite existences contained in it, would lose
their independence and disappear in the " indeterminate." The
blazing orbs, which have drawn off from the cold earth and
water, arc the temporary gods of the world, clustering round the
earth, which, to the ancient thinker, is the central figure.
See Histories of the Ionian School by Ritten, Mallet; Schleier-
machcr, " Dissert, sur la philosophic d'Anaximandre," in the
IShnoires de lacad. des sciences de Berlin (1815); J. Burnet, Early
Creek Philosophy (Lond. 189?); A. W. Benn. Greek Philosophers
(Lond. 1883 foil.); A Fairbanks, First Philosophers of Greece
(Lond. 1898}; Ritter and Preller, Historio Phil. If 17-92: Mullach,
Progmenta Phil. Graec. I 337-240, and Ionian School of Philo-
sophy.
ANAlHfENES, of Lampsacus (ft. 380-390 B.c), Greek rhetori-
cian and historian, was a favourite of Alexander the Great,
whom he accompanied in his Persian campaigns. He wrote
histories of Greece and of Philip, and an epic on Alexander
(fragments in Muller, Scriptores Rerum Alexandri Magnt). As
a rhetorician, he was a determined opponent of Isocrates and ha
schooL The Rhetoric* ad Alexandrian, usually included amocg
the works of Aristotle, is now generally admitted to be by
Anaximenes, although some consider it a much later product**
(edition by Spengel, 1847).
See P. Wendland, Anax, van Lamptakos (1905); also Rhetoxjc
ANAXIMENES, of Miletus, Greek philosopher in the latter half
of the 6th century, was probably a younger contemporary of
Anaximander, whose pupil or friend he is said to have been. He
held that the air, with its variety of contents, its universal
presence, its vague associations in popular fancy with the
phenomena of life and growth, is the source of all that exists.
Everything is air at different degrees of density, and under the
influence of heat, which expands, and of cold, which contracts
its volume, it gives rise to the several phases of existence. The
process is gradual, and takes place in two directions, as beat or
cold predominates. In this way was formed a broad disk of
earth, floating on the circumambient air. Similar condensations
produced the sun and stars; and the flaming state of these
bodies is due to the velocity of their motions.
See Schmidt. Disseriatio de Anaximensis psychology (Jena, 1869);
Ritter and Preller, Historia Phil. If 23-97; A. Fairbanks* Fan*
Philosophers of Greece (1898); Muttach, Fnpnenta Pk*. Gemec L
241-243; also Ionian School of PHiLOsonrr; Evolution.
ANAZARBUS (med. Ain Zarba; mod. Nowta), an ancient
Cilidan city, situated in the Aldan plain about 10 m. W. of the
main stream of the Pyramus (Jihun) and near its tributary the
Sempas Su. A lofty isolated ridge formed its acropolis. Though
some of the masonry in the ruins is certainly pre-Roman, Suidas's
identification of it with Cyinda, famous as a treasure city in the
wars of Eumenes of Cardia, cannot be accepted in the face of
Strata's express location of Cyinda in wesfenv Cihaa. Under the
early Roman empire the place was known as Caesarm, and was
the metropolis of Cflicia Secunda. Rebuilt by the emperor
Justin after an earthquake, it became JustinopoUs (a-D, 595);
but the old native name persisted, and when Thoros L, king of
Lesser Armenia, made it his capital early in the 12th century,
it was known as Anazarva. Its great natural strength and
situation, not far from the mouth of the Sis pass, and near the
great road which debouched from the Cflkian gates, made
Anazarbus play a considerable part in the struggles between the
Byzantine empire and the early Moslem invaders. It had been
rebuilt byHarun al-Rashid in 706 aj>., refortified at great
expense by Saif addaula, the Hamdanid (10th century) and
Saiked, and ruined by the crusaders.
The present wall of the lower city is of late construction,
probably Armenian. It encloses a mass of ruins conspicuous in
which are a fine triumphal arch, the colonnades of two streets
a gymnasium, &c. A stadium and a theatre lie outside on the
south. The remains of the acropolis fortifications are very
interesting, including roads and ditches hewn in the rock; but
beyond ruins of two churches and a fine tower built by Thoros L
there are no notable structures in the upper town. For pictvr-
esqueness the site is not equalled in Cflicia, and it is worth while
to trace the three fine aqueducts to their sources. (D.G. H.)
ANBAR, originally called Fotuz Srafux, or PniSAFoaA. a town
founded about aj>. 350 by Shapur (Sapor) IL Sassanid, king of
Persia, on the east bank of the Euphrates, just south of the Nahr
Isa, or Sakhlawieh canal, the northernmost of the canals connect-
ing that river with the Tigris, in lat. 33" sr* N. t long. 43* 49' E.
It was captured and destroyed by the emperor Julian in ajk 363.
but speedily rebuilt It became a refuge for the Christian and
Jewish colonies of that region, and there are said to have been
00,000 Jews in the place at the time of its capture by Afi in 657.
The Arabs changed the name of thetowntoAnbar( (< granaries "),
Abu V Abbas as-Saffab, the founder of the Abbasid caliphate,
made it his capital, and such it remained until the founding
of Bagdad in 762. It continued to be a place of much im-
portance throughout the Abbasid period. It is now entirely
deserted. The site is occupied only by ruin mounds, as yet
unexplored. Their great extent indicates the former importance
of the dty. (J. p. pgj
ANCACHS— ANCESTOR-WORSHIP
945
A1CACHS, a coast province of central Peru, lying between the
departments of Lima and Libertad, and W. of the Maranon
river. Area, 16,562 sq. m.; pop. (1896) 428,703. The depart-
ment was created in 1835, and received its present name in 1839,
and its last accession of territory in x86x. Lying partly on the
arid coast, partly in the high Cordilleras and partly in the valley
of the Marafion, it has every variety of climate and productions.
Rice, cotton, sugar-cane, yucas (Manihot aipt) and tropical
fruits are produced in the irrigated valleys of the coast, and
wheat, Indian corn, barley, potatoes, coffee, coca, &c, in the
upland regions. Cattle, and sheep are also raised for the coast
markets. Mining is likewise an important industry. The capital,
Huaras (est pop. 8000 in 1806), on the Rio Santa or Huaras,
is a large mining centre in the sierras, 0931 ft. above sea-level,
from which a railway runs to the small seaports of Santa and
Chimbote, 27s m. distant Other noteworthy towns are Carax
(6000) and Carhuaz (5000) in the sierra region, and Huarmey
(1500) on the coast.
ANCABUS, in Greek legend, son of Zeus or Poseidon, king of
the Ldeges of Samoa. In the Argonautic expedition, after the
death of Tiphys, helmsman of the " Argo," he took his place.
It is said that, while planting a vineyard, he was told by a sooth-
sayer that he would never drink of its wine. As soon as the
grapes were ripe, he squeezed the juice into a cup, and, raising
it to his life mocked the seer, who retorted with the words,
IloXXd fUTotv riXst k&Amm* sal x^Xcot axpov (" there is
many a slip between the cup and the Up ")• At that moment
it was announced that a wild boar was ravaging the land.
Ancaeus set down the cup, leaving the wine untasted, hurried
out, and was killed by the boar.
Apolkmius Rhodius, L 188 (and Scholiast), iL 867-900.
AVGA8TEB AND KESTEVEN, Duke of, an English title
borne by the well-known Lincolnshire family of Bertie from
1715 to 1809. Robert Bertie (1660-1723), son and heir of
Robert, third earl of Lindsey (d. 1701), who succeeded his father
as lord great chamberlain of England, was created marquess of
Lindsey in 1706, being made duke of Ancaster and Kesteven in
July 1715. His eldest surviving son, Peregrine (1686-1742),
who had been a member of parliament for Lincolnshire from
1708 to 1 7 14, succeeded to the dukedom and also to the lord-
lieutenancy of Lincolnshire, which had been held by his father.
His son and successor, Peregrine (17 14-1778), who was also
lord great chamberlain and lord-lieutenant of Lincolnshire,
attained the rank of general in the British army. The fourth duke
was Robert (1756-1770), son of the third duke, who died in July
1779, when his barony of Wiiloughby de Eresby and the hereditary
office of lord great chamberlain fell into abeyance until 1780.
The dukedom, however, and other honours came to his uncle
Brownlow (1729-1809), on whose death in February 1809 the
dukedom of Ancaster and Kesteven became extinct; but the
earldom of Lindsey descended to a distant kinsman, Albemarle
Bertie (1744-18x8). After a second period of abeyance the
barony of Wiiloughby de Eresby was revived in 187 1 in favour
of Clementina Elizabeth (d. 1888), a descendant of the Bcrties,
who was the widow of Gilbert John Heathcote, xst Baron
Aveland (d. 1867). Her son and successor, Gilbert Henry
Heathcote-Drummond-Willouchby (b. 1830), 23rd Baron
Wiiloughby de Eresby, and joint hereditary lord great chamber-
lain, was created carl of Ancaster in 1898.
ANCELOT, JACQUES ARS&NE FRANCOIS POLYCARPB
(1794-1854), French dramatist and litterateur, was born at
Havre, on the 9th of February 1704. He became a clerk in the
admiralty, and retained his position until the revolution of
1830. In 1816 his play Warwick was accepted by the Theatre
Francais, but never produced, and three years later a five-act
tragedy, Louis IX., was staged. Three editions of the play
were speedily exhausted; it had a run of fifty representations,
and brought him a pension of 2000 francs from Louis XVIII.
His next work, Le Maire du palais, was played in 1825 with less
success; but for it he received the cross of the legion of honour.
In 2824 he produced Fiesque, a clever adaptation of Schiller's
Fiesco. In 1828 appeared Otga, ou I'orpkdinc russe, the plot of
I. 10*
which had been inspired by a voyage he made to Russia in 1826.
About the same period he produced in succession Marie do
Brabant (1825), a poem in six cantos; V Homme du monde (1827),
a novel in four volumes, afterwards dramatized with success;
and in 1829 a play, Elisabeth d'Angfctcrre. By the revolution of
July 1830 he lost at once his royal pension and bis office as
librarian at Meudon; and he was chiefly employed during the
next ten years in writing vaudevilles and light dramas and
comedies. A tragedy, Maria Padilla (1838), gained him
admission to the French Academy in 1841. Ancelot was sent
by the French government in 1849 to Turin, Florence, Brussels
and other capitals, to negotiate on the subject of international
copyright; and the treaties which were concluded soon after
were the res ult, in a great measure, of his tact and intelligence.
ANCESTOR-WORSHIP, a general name for the cult of deceased
parents and forefathers. Aristotle in his Ethics stigmatizes as
" extremely unloving " (Xlo* &<t*\ov) the denial that ancestors
are interested in or affected by the fortunes of their descendants;
and in effect ancestor-worship is the staple of most religions,
andent or modern, civilized or savage. The ancient Jews were
a striking exception; for though the frequent mention of ancestral
graves on hilltops or in caves, and in connexion with sacred
trees and pillars, and the resemblance of the "elohim" in
Exod xxi. 4-6 to household gods, may suggest that cults of the
dead preceded that of Yahweh, nevertheless in the classical age
of their religion (see Hebrew Religion) as reflected in the
Old Testament, ancestor-worship has already vanished " The
Semitic nomads," remarks Renan in his History of Israel (tome 1,
p. 50), " were the religious race par excellence, because in fact
they were the least superstitious of the families of mankind, the
least duped by the dream of a beyond, by the phantasmagory
of a double or a shadow surviving in the nether regions. . . .
They suppressed the chimeras which went with belief in a
complete survival after death, chimeras which were homicidal
at the time, in so far as they robbed man of the true notion of
death and led him to multiply murders."
Renan here refers to the burial rite of an andent Scythian
king (as described by Herodotus, iv. 71), at whose tomb were
strangled his concubine, cup-bearer, cook, groom, lackey, envoy,
and several of his horses. Such cruel customs were, of course,
and still are assodated in many lands with the cult of the dead;
but, on the other hand, there are gentler and more benefidal
aspects observable to-day in China and Japan. There the
mighty dead are present with the living, protect them and thdr
houses and crops, are their strength in battle, and teach their
hands to war and their ringers to fight. In the Russo-Japanese
War in xoo4-5.the greatest incentive to deeds of patriotic valour
was for Japanese soldiers the belie' that the spirits of their
ancestors were watching them; and in China it is not the man
himself that is ennobled for his philanthropic virtues or learning,
but his ancestor. No more solemn duty weighs upon the China-
man than that of tending the spirits of his dead forefathers.
Confucius, it is recorded, sacrificed to the dead, as if they
were present, and to the spirits, as if they were there. In
view of such Chinese sacrifices the names of the dead are in-
scribed on wooden plaques called spirit-tablets, into which the
spirits are during the ceremony supposed to enter, having
quitted the very heaven and presence of God in order to
commune with posterity. Twice a year, in spring and autumn, 1
a Chinese ruler goes in state to the imperial college in Pekin,
and presents the appointed offerings before the spirit-tablets
of Confudus and of the worthies who have been assodated with
him in his temples. He greets the sage's spirit with this prayer:—
" This year, in this month, on this day, I, the emperor, offer
sacrifice to the philosopher K'ung, the andent teacher, the perfect
sage, and say, O teacher, in virtue equal to heaven and earth.
Now in this second month of spring, in reverent observance of the
old statutes, with victims, silks, spirits, and fruits, I offer sacrifice
to thee."
In andent Rome painted wax images of ancestors who had
1 Prof. J. Legge, in Religious Systems of the World, London, 1693*
0.7a.
946
ANCESTOR-WORSHIP
served the state in its highest offices were preserved in the atria
or halls of their descendants, inscribed, like the Chinese tablets,
with titles recording their dignity and exploits. Whether the
departed spirits tenanted them according to the Chinese belief
is not recorded; though it probably was so, for at funerals they
might be carried, like the images of the gods in Lectisternia
(see Image Worship), on couches before the corpse. Oftener,
however, they were mere masques worn at funerals by men who
personated the ancestors and wore their robes of office. Perhaps
the vulgar regarded these men as temporary reincarnations of
those whom they thus represented.
The word Manes signified the friendly ancestral ghosts of a
Roman household. To them, under the name of Lares, it was
the solemn preoccupation of male descendants to offer food and
sacrifice and to keep alight the hearth fire which cooked the
offerings. Small waxen images of the Manes called Lares,
clothed in dogskin, and on feast days crowned with garlands,
stood round the family hearth of which they were the unseen
guardians (but see Lakes). To lack such care and tendance was
— along with want of regular burial — the most dreadful fate
that could overtake an ancient; and a Roman, like a Hindu,
in case he was childless, adopted a male child whose duty it
would be, as if his own son, to continue after his death the family
rites or sacra. On this side the ancestor-worship of the Aryans
has been productive of the most important institutions of adop-
tion and will or testament. Sir Henry Maine (Ancient Law, ch.
v.) has justly observed that " the history of political ideas begins
with the assumption that kinship in blood is the sole possible
ground of community in political functions," and that in early
commonwealths "citizens considered all the groups in which
they claimed membership to be founded on common lineage."
A man only shared in house, tribe and state, so far as he was
descended from particular ancestors and eponymous heroes, and
due cult of these illustrious dead was the condition of his enjoying
any rights or inheriting any property. Yet if society was to
grow, men of alien descent had to be admitted into the original
brotherhood and amalgamated therewith. " Adverting to Rome
singly," adds the same author, " we perceive that the primary
group, the family, was being constantly adulterated by the
practice of adoption." Thus transition was made possible from
an agnatic society based on blood ties to one based on contiguity
In the worship of the Lares the head of a Roman household
commemorated and reinforced the blood tie which made one
flesh of all its members living and dead. The gens in turn was
regarded as an expansion of the family, as was the state of the
gens; and members of these larger units by worship of common
ancestors— usually mythical — kept alive the feeling that they
were a single organic whole animated by a common soul and
joined in consanguinity. Outcasts alone, the offspring of irregular
unions, could be ignorant of the blood which ran in their veins,
of the unseen ancestors to be fed and tended in family and
gentile rites. 1 Such considerations help us to understand the
enormous importance attached in ancient societies to the right
of intermarriage, as also to grasp the origin of wills and testa-
ments. For a will was to begin with but a mode of indicating
(not necessarily in writing) on whom devolved the duty of con-
ducting a parent's funeral, and together with that duty the right
of inheriting his property. The due performance of funeral
rites re-created the blood tie and renewed the kinship of living
and dead at the moment when death seemed specially to en-
danger it by removal of that representative of the household
whose special duty it had been to keep up the family sacra. In
Hindostan, as Maine remarks (op. tit. ch. vi.), we have a parallel
to the Roman system; for there " the right to inherit a dead
man's property is exactly co-extensive with the duty of performing
his obsequies. If the rites are not properly performed or not
performed by the proper person, no relation is considered as
established between the deceased and anybody surviving
* Livy lv. s*—"Quam enlra aliam vim connubia promiscua
habere, nisi ut ferarum prope ritu yulgentur concubitiu plebts
Patrumque? ut qui natus sit, ignored cujus sanguinis, quorum
him; the law of succession does not apply, and nobody can ia>
herit the property. Every great event in the life of a Jinda
seems to be regarded as leading np to and h»»"ic ea the*
solemnities. If he marries, it is to have children who but
celebrate them after his death; if he has no children, he ties asdo
the strongest obligation to adopt them from another tamih,
1 with a view,' writes the Hindu doctor, ' to the funeral aks
the water and the solemn sacrifice.' " " May there be bora b
. our lineage," so the Indian Manes are supposed to say, M a cm*
to offer to us, on the thirteenth day of the moon, rice boded
in milk, honey and ghee." 1
It is then in connexion with the history of inheritance sa4
adoption, and of the gradual evolution from societies held
together only by blood-kinship to societies consolidated on other
bases, especially on that of local contiguity, that nnmlnr —iltij
chiefly calls for investigation.
We must now pass on to other aspects of it less important far
the student of ancient law, but interesting to the fblklorist.
In ancient Rome the Di manes-, or as we should say the blessed
dead, who reposed in their necropolis outside the walls, west
specially commemorated on the dies parentaUs or days of placat-
ing them (placandis Manibus). These began on the ijth d
February and ended on the 22nd with the CarisUa or feast cf
Cora Cognaiio. The family have on the preceding days sofescaiy
visited the grave, and offered to the shades gifts of water, vine,
milk, honey, oil, and the blood of black victims; they have
decked the tomb with flowers, have renewed the feast and fare-
well of the funeral, and have prayed to the ancestors to watch
over their welfare. Now the survivors return home and heat
a love-feast, in which all quarrels are healed, all trespasses
forgiven. The Lares are brought out to preside over tins sokes
feast, and for the occasion are incincti or dothed in tanks girt
at the loins.
It is doubtful whether we should dignify fay the name of
ancestor-worship the older Roman festival of the Lemmru,
which was held on the oth, nth and 13th of May. For tie
lemures were, like our unlaid ghosts, unburied, mischievoos tr
inimical spirits, and these three days were nefasti or unlucky.
because their malign influence was abroad. The ghosts had ta
be driven out of the house, and Ovid (Fasti, v. 432) relates how
the head of the family arose at midnight, and with feet unfettered
by shoon or sandals, and with washen hands traversed his boose
beckoning against the ghosts with fingers joined to thumb.
Nine times with averted glance he spat a black bean oat of his
mouth and cried: " With these I redeem me and mine.* The
ghosts followed and picked up, or perhaps entered into the beans.
Then he washed afresh, and rattled his brass vessels, and nine
times over bade them begone with the polite formula. Manes exits
paiemi, " Go forth, O paternal manes."
The gesture described was probably the same as that with
which a Christian priest averts demonic influences from tbe
heads of his congregation in the act of blessing them. The
many hands of Zeus Sabazios turned up in andent excavations
observe a similar gesture. All over the earth we meet with such
periodically recurrent ceremonies of expelling demons and ghosts,
who usually are given a meal before being hunted back into their
graves. But an account of such ceremonies belongs rather to
demonology than to the history of the worship of Manes, whkfa
are peaceful, well-conducted and beneficent beings, endowed
and, so to speak on the foundation, like the Christian souls
for whose masses money has been left. Ancestor-worship has
its parallels in Christian cults of the dead and of the saints; it
must be remembered, however, that a saint is not as a rule as
ancestor, and that his cult is not based upon family feeling and
love of kinsmen, nor tends to stimulate and encourage the sarre.
Such cults have never prevented those who participated in then
from fighting one another. Ancestor-worship 00 this side is aiss
in strong contrast with the teaching of the Gospel, for it b as
apotheosis of family affections and supplies a real cement where*
with to bind society together; whereas the Christian Messafe
taught that, " If any cometh to me, and hateth not bis father
• E. B. Tylor* Primitive Culture, ii. p. I to.
ANCHISES— ANCHOR
94-7
and hit mother, and his wife and his children, and his brethren
and his sister, yea, and his own life also, he cannot be my disciple."
To the ordinary good citizen of antiquity, whose religion was the
consecration of family ties, such a precept was no less scandalous
than it is to a Chinaman or Hindu of to-day. Was not the duty
of following the Messiah to supersede even that of burying one's
parents, the most sacred of all ancient obligations? The Church
when it had once conquered the world allowed such precepts
to lapse and fall into the background, and no one save monks or
Manichaean heretics remembered them any more; indeed
modern divines affect to believe that marriage rites and family
ties were the peculiar concern of the Church from the very first;
and few modems will fail to sympathize with the misgivings of
the barbarian chief who, having been converted and being about
to receive Christian baptism, paused as he stepped down into
the font, and asked the priests if in the heaven to which their
rites admitted him he would meet and converse with his pagan
ancestors. On being assured that he would not, he stepped
out again and declined their methods of salvation.
In the above paragraphs we have drawn examples only from
races organized on a patriarchal basis among whom the headship
passes from father to son. But many primitive societies do not
trace descent through males and yet may be said to worship
ancestors. The aborigines of Australia furnish an example.
The Aruntas among them are said to have no idea of paternity,
but believe that local spirits of tree, rock or stream enter women
as they pass by their haunts. In doing so they drop a wooden
soul-token called a Chwinga, This the elders of the tribe pick
up or pretend to find, and carefully store up in a deft of the mils
or in a cave which no woman may approach. The souls of
members of the tribe who have died survive in these slips of wood,
which are treasured up for long generations and repaired if they
decay. They are carried into battle to assist the tribe, are
regularly anointed, fondled and invoked; for it is believed that
the souls present in them are powerful to work weal and woe to
friend and enemy respectively. They thus resemble the Chinese
spirit tablet.
Reference has been made above to the possibility that the
Roman imago of an ancestor actually embodied his ghost, at
least on solemn occasions. The custom of providing a material
abode or nidus for the ghost is found all over the earth; e.g. in
New Ireland a carved chalk figure of the deceased, indicating
the sex, is procured, and entrusted to the chief of a village, who
sets it up in a funeral hut in the middle of a large taboo house
adorned with, plants. The survivors believe that the ghostly
ogre, being so well provided for, will abstain from haunting them.
The Romans, as we remarked above, distinguished between
the Lemures or wandering mischievous ghosts and the Manes
snugly interred and tended in the cemetery which was part of
every Italian settlement The distinction, however, is one for
which survivors alone are responsible and not one inherent in
the nature of ghosts. No race at all, it would seem, except the
Jews, has ever been able to regard a man's death as the end of
him; and except in the higher forms of Christianity the dead
are everywhere supposed to need the same sort of food, equip-
ment, tenement and gear which they enjoyed in life, and to
molest the living unless they obtain it. It may be affection, or
it may be fear, which prompts the survivor to feed and tend his
dead; in general no doubt it is a mixture of both feelings.
In Africa and other savage countries a third motive sometimes
operates, namely the desire to consult the dead— as Odysseus,
anxious about his return home, was constrained to do— or to
tise them against the living; for negro magicians are reputed
even to murder remarkable individuals in order to possess them-
selves of their power and to be able to use them as familiar
spirits.
The question has often been raised, what is the relation of
private cults of ancestors to public religion? Do men after
death become gods? Euhemerus of Messenia tried of old to
rationalize the Greek myths by supposing that the Olympian
gods were deified men. Such a theory, like its modern rival of
the sw>rsyth, may of course be pushed till it becomes absurd;
yet in India critical observers, like Sir Alfred C Lyall, attest
innumerable examples of the .gradual elevation into gods of
human beings, the process even beginning in their lifetime.
There a man wins local fame as an ascetic with abnormal powers,
or a wife, because Alcestis-like she sacrificed herself for her
husband and immolated herself on his pyre. Miracles occur at
their shrines, and the surviving relatives who guard them wax
rich off the offerings brought. " In the course of a wtsy few years,
as the recollection of the man's personality becomes misty, his
origin- grows mysterious, Jus career takes a legendary hue, his
birth and death were both supernatural; in the next generation
the names of the elder gods get introduced into the story, and so
the marvellous tradition works itself into a myth, until nothing
but a personal incarnation can account for such a series of
prodigies. The man was an Avatdr of Vishnu or Siva; his
supreme apotheosis is now complete, and the Brahmins feel
warranted in providing for him a niche in the orthodox
pantheon." 1
Authqxitixs.— H. S. Maine. Ancient Lam (London, 1906);
E. B. TyTor. Primitive Culture (London, 1903); and article on the
" Matrjju-rhal Family System," in the Nineteenth Century, xl. 81
i 1 896k W. W Fowler. The Roman Calendar (London, 1906);
ustcl de Coubinee*, La Citi antique (17th ed., 1900); L. Andre, Le
Cult* d*s *HWi tkrt Us Ilibreux (189s); C. GrOneuen, Der Ahnen-
hulius und die Urretiium Israels (Halle, 1900); Grant Allen, The
Eaokdmm c/ ihe Idta vf God (London, 1897); F- B. Jevons, Intro*
dutiien to the History of Religion (London, 1896): Sir A. C. Lyall.
AiuJk. Studies (London, 1 899 and 1907); D. G. Brinton, Religions
of Primitive Peoples (New York, 1897); H. Oldenberg, Die Reftrion
des Veda (Berlin, 1894). (F. C C)
ANCHISES, in Greek legend, Trojan hero, son of Capys and
Themis, grandson (according to Hyginus, son) of Assaracus,
connected on both sides with the royal family of Troy, was
king of Dardanus on ML Ida. Here Aphrodite met him and,
enamoured of his beauty, bore him Aeneas. For revealing the
name of the child's mother, in spite of the warnings of the goddess,
he was killed or struck blind by lightning (Hyginus, Fab. 94).
In the more recent legend, adopted by Virgil in the Aeneid, he
was conveyed out of Troy on the shoulders of his son Aeneas,
whose wanderings he followed as far as Sicily, where he died
and was buried on ML Eryx. On the other hand, there was a
grave on ML Ida at Troy pointed out as his. From the name
Assaracus, from the intercourse between the Phoenicians and the
early inhabitants of the Tread, and from the connexion of
Aphrodite, the protecting goddess of the Phoenicians, with
Anchises, it has been inferred that his family was originally of
Assyrian origin. His flight on the shoulders of Aeneas is fre-
quently represented on engraved gems of the Roman period;
and his visit from Aphrodite is rendered in a beautiful bronze
relief, engraved in Millingen's Unedited Gems.
ANCHOR (from the Greek AyKvpa, which Vossius considers is
from byai, a crook or hook), an instrument of iron or other heavy
material used for holding ships or boats in any locality required,
and preventing them from drifting by winds, tides, currents or
other causes. This is done by the anchor, after it is let go from
the ship by means of the cable, fixing itself in the ground and
there holding the vessel fasL
The word " anchor " is also used figuratively for anything
which gives security, or for any ornament or appendage which
takes the same form. Owing to a vessel's safety depending upon
the anchor, it is obviously an appliance of great importance, and
too much care cannot be expended on its manufacture and proper
construction. The most ancient anchors consisted of large
stones, baskets full of stones, sacks filled with sand, or logs of
wood loaded with lead. Of this kind were the anchors of the
ancient Greeks, which, according to Apollonius Rhodius and
Stephen of Byzantium, were formed of stone; and Athenaeus
states that they were sometimes made of wood. Such anchors held
the vessel merely by their weight and by the friction along the
bottom. Iron was afterwards introduced for the construction
of anchors, and an improvement was made by forming them
with teeth or " flukes " to fasten themselves into the bottom,
> A. C. Lyall, AsiaHe Studies (reprinted by Watts and Co., London,
1907). p. 19.
94 8
ANCHOR
whence the words 686ms and denies are frequently taken for
anchors in the Greek and Latin poets. The invention of the
teeth is ascribed by Pliny to the Tuscans; but Pausanias gives
the credit to Midas, king of Phrygia. Originally there was only
one fluke or tooth, whence anchors were called ercp&rronor, but
a second was added, according to Pliny, by Eupalamus, or,
according to Strabo, by Anacharsis, the Scythian philosopher.
The anchors with two teeth were called d>#£oXot or dugto-rojufc,
and from ancient monuments appear to have resembled generally
those used in modern days, except that the stock is absent from
them alL Every ship bad several anchors; the largest, cor*
\£if
Fig. i.— Rodger's Anchor. Fie. a.— Improved Martin Anchor,
responding to our sheet anchor, was only used in extreme danger,
and was hence peculiarly termed Upk or sacra, whence the
proverb sacram anckoram solvere, as flying to the last refuge.
Until the beginning of the 19th century anchors were of
imperfect manufacture, the means of effecting good and efficient
welding being absent and the iron poor, whilst the arms, being
straight, generally parted at the crown, when weighing from
good holding-ground. A clerk in Plymouth Yard, named
Pering, in the early part of that century (1813) introduced curved
arms; and after 1852 the Admiralty anchor, under the direction
of the Board, was supplied to H.M. ships, followed by Lieutenant
(afterwards Captain) Rodger's anchor (fig. 1). This marked
a great departure from the form of previous anchors. The arms,
de, df were formed in one piece, and were pivoted at the crown
d on a bolt passing through the forked shank ab. The points or
pees e,f, to the palms g were blunt. This anchor had an excellent
reputation amongst nautical men of that period, and by the
committee on anchors, appointed by the admiralty in 1852,
^^ it was placed second only
/Pa\ ft to the anchor of Trotman.
Wlh Ik ^ atcr came tnc self-cantins
^^ ^] P ^^ Jjfl and dose-stowing Martin
^^^ea^^^ f*\ anchor, which, passing
^^=f Ksr through successive im-
provements, became the
improved Martin anchor
(fig. 2) made of forged iron.
A projection in the centre
of the arms works in a
recess at the hub of the
shank; the vacancies out-
side the shank are filled by
blocks bolted through on
each side, and are flush
with the side plates, which
keep the flukes in position.
The introduction of cast
steel in 1894 led to the improved Martin- Adelphi pattern (fig. 3), in
which the crown and arms are cast in one, and, with the stock,
arc made of cast steel, the shank remaining of forged iron. A
projection in the crown works in a recess (right, fig. 3), and is
secured in its place by a forged steel pin, fitted with a nut and
washer, which passes through the crown and the heel of the
shank. All the above anchors were provided with a stock
FlO. 3.— Improved Martin- Adelphi
Anchor.
(fig. 1, kk), the use of which is to " cant " the anchor. If ft
falls on the ground, resting on one arm and one stock, when a
strain is brought on the cable, the stock cants the anchor,
causing the arms to lie at a downward angle to the holding
ground; and the pees enter and bury themselves below the
surface of the soil.
To stow a stocked anchor on the forecastle, it is hove up dote
to the forefoot, and by means of a ground chain (secured to a
balancing or gravity band on the anchor), which is joined to
a catting chain rove through a cat davit, the anchor is hove up
Fig. 4.— Anchor Crane.
horizontally and placed on its bed, where it -is secured by chains
passing over a rod fitted with a lever for " letting got" The cat
davit is hinged at its base, and can be laid flat on the deck for
right ahead fire or when at sea. Gxound and catting chains
have been superseded in some ships by a wire pendant and cat
hook; the anchor is then hove dose up to the hawse-pipe. To
avoid cutting away a portion of the forecastle, in the " Creasy ,"
11 Terrible " and " Diadem " classes of the British navy, Ike
anchors, secured by chains, are stowed a-cock-bill, outside
the ship, with thdr crowns resting on iron shoes secured to the
ship's side and the flukes fore and aft. A difficulty is expe rie n c ed
in stowing the anchors when the ship b pitching or rolling
heavily. Fig. 4 illustrates an anchor with cat davit or anchor crane
used in the P. and O. Company's steamers (" India " dass,
8000 tons); for sea the anchor is stowed on board by the anchor
crane.
Stockless anchors have been extensively used in the British
mercantile marine and in some foreign navies. In 1903 they
i A fl A
Fla 6.— W. L. By«r*s
Stockkss Anchor.
Fig. 5.— Hall's Improved
Stockless Anchor.
were adopted generally for the British navy, after exte
anchor trials, begun in 1885. Thdr advantages 1
combined with a saving of time and labour; absence of davits,
anchor-beds and other gear, with a resulting reduction in weight :
and a dear forecastle for " right ahead " gun fire or for wot ti n g
ship. On the other hand a larger hawse-pipe is required, and
there appears to be a consensus of opinion that a stockkss anchor
ANCHOVY
949
when " let go M does not hold so quickly as a stocked one, is more
uncertain in its action over uneven ground, and is more liable
to " come home " (drag). The stoddess anchors principally in use
in the British navy are Hall's improved, Brer's, and Wasteneys
Smith's. In Hall's improved (fig. 5) the arms and crown of
cast steel are in one piece, and the shank of forged steel passes
up through an aperture in the crown to which it is secured by
two cross bolts. Two trunnions or lugs are forged to the lower
end of the shank. In Byer*s plan (fig. 6) the flukes and crown
consist of a steel-casting secured
to a forged shank by a through
bolt of mild steel, the axis of
which is parallel to the points
of the flukes; one end of the
bolt has a head, but the other is
screwed and fitted with a phos-
phor bronze nut to allow the
bolt to be withdrawn for ex-
amination. A palm is cast on
each side of the crown to trip
the flukes when the anchor is on
the ground, and for bringing them
1 snug against the ship's side when
weighing. Wasteneys Smith's
«?.- . w . e ••!.• anchor (fig. 7) is composed of
crown which form one forging,
and the two flukes or arms which are separate castings. A
bolt passes through the crown of the anchor, connecting the
flukes to it; to prevent the flukes working off the connecting
through bolt, two smaller bolts pass through the flukes at right
angles to the through bolt and are recessed half their diameter
into it.
Fig. 8 represents the starboard bow of H.M.S. " New Zealand "
Fig. 8.— Starboard Bow of H.M.S. " New Zealand."
(16*350 tons) with lower and sheet (spare) anchors stowed. To
let go a stockless anchor (fig. 9) the cable or capstan holder C
is unscrewed, and in practice it is found desirable to knock
off the bottle screw-slip A, allowing the weight of the anchor
to be taken by the inner slip A' (Blake's stopper). Stern, stream
and kedge anchors are usually stowed with special davits. A
portable anchor suitable for small yachts is the invention of
Mr Louis Moore; the shank passes through the crown of the
anchor like the handle of a pickaxe and the stock over the head
of the shank. At the end of the stock are loose pawls. There
are no keys or bolts, and the only fastening is for the cable.
The anchor takes to pieces readily and stows snugly. In 1800
Colonel Bucknill also invented a portable anchor for small
yachts.
Iron buoy-sinkers (fig. 10), as used by the London Trinity
House Corporation, weigh from 8 to 40 cwt; the specified
weight is cast on them in large raised figures, and the cast and
wrought irons used are of special quality, of which samples are
previously submitted to the engineer-in-chief.
The anchors supplied to ships of the British navy are required
Fig. 9.— Forecastle of H.M.S. " New Zealand. 1 "
A. Bottle or screw-slip. B. Deck or navel pipes.
A . Slip or Blake's stopper. F. Fairicads for wire hawsers.
D. Bitts. H. Hawse-pipes.
C. Cable or Capstan-holders. S. Stopper-bolts.
C . Centre line capstan. R. Rollers.
to withstand a certain tensile strain, expressed in tons, propor-
tionate to their weights in cwts. New anchors are supplied
by contractors, but repairs are made in H.M. dockyards, a record
of its repairs being stamped on each
anchor. In the Anchors and Cables
Act 1800 a list is given of authorized
testing-establishments, with their dis-
tinctive marks and charges, and testing-
houses for foreign-owned vessels are Fig. 10.— Iron Buoy-
enumerated in Table 22 of Lloyd? s Sinker.
Register of British and Foreign Shipping.
Cast-steel anchors, in addition to the statutory tests, are sub-
jected to percussive, hammering and bending tests, and are
stamped " annealed steel." (J- W. D.)
ANCHOVY (Engraulis encrasichotus), a fish of the herring
family, easily distinguished by its deeply-deft mouth, the angle
of the gape being behind the eyes. The pointed snout extends
beyond the lower jaw. The fish resembles a sprat in having a
forked tail and a single dorsal fin, but the body is round and
slender. The maximum length is 8J in. Anchovies are abundant
in the Mediterranean, and are regularly caught on the coasts of
Sicily, Italy, France and Spain. The range of the species also
extends along the Atlantic coast of Europe to the south of
Norway. In winter it is common off Devon and Cornwall, but
has not hitherto been caught in such numbers as to be of com-
mercial importance. Off the coast of Holland in summer it is
more plentiful, entering the Zuider Zee in such numbers as to
give rise to a regular and valuable fishery. It is also taken in the
estuary of the Scheldt There is reason to believe that the
anchovies found at the western end of the English Channel in
November and December are those which annually migrate
from the Zuider Zee and Scheldt in autumn, returning thither
in the following spring; they must be held to form an isolated
stock, for none come up from the south in summer to occupy the
English Channel, though the species is resident on the coast of
Portugal. The explanation appears to be that the shallow and
landlocked waters of the Zuider Zee, as well as the sea on the
Dutch coast, become raised to a higher temperature in summer
than any part of the sea about the British coasts, and that there-
fore anchovies are able to spawn and maintain their numbers in
these waters. Their reproduction and development were first
described by a Dutch naturalist from observations made on the
shores of the Zuider Zee. Spawning takes place in June and
July, and the eggs, like those of the majority of marine fishes,
are buoyant and transparent, but they are peculiar in having an
elongated, sausage-like shape, instead of being globular. They
resemble those of the sprat and pilchard in having a segmented
yolk and there is no oil globule. The larva is batched two or
95Q
ANCIEN REGIME— ANCILLON
Ibree days after the fertilization of the egg, and is very minute
and transparent In August young specimens ij to 3 J in. in
length have been taken in the Zuider Zee, and these must be
held to have been derived from the spawning of the previous
summer. There is no evidence to decide the question whether
all the young anchovies as well as the adults leave the Zuider
Zee in autumn, but, considering the winter temperature there,
it is probable that they da The eggs have also been obtained
from the Bay of Naples, and near Marseilles, also off the coast
of Holland, and once at least off the coast of Lancashire. The
occurrence of anchovies in the English Channel has been carefully
studied at the laboratory of the Marine Biological Association at
Plymouth. They were most abundant in 1889 and 1 800. In the
former year considerable numbers were taken off Dover in drift
nets of small mesh used for the capture of sprats. In the follow-
ing December large numbers were taken together with sprats at
Torquay. In November 1800 a thousand of the fish were
obtained in two days from the pilchard boats fishing near Ply-
mouth; these were caught near the Eddystone. When taken in
British waters anchovies are either thrown away or sent to the
market fresh with the sprats. If salted in the proper way, they
would doubtless be in all respects equal to Dutch anchovies, if
not to those imported from Italy. The supply, however, is small
and inconstant, and for this reason English fish-curers have not
learnt the proper way of preparing them. The so-called " Nor-
wegian anchovies " imported into England in little wooden kegs
are nothing but sprats pickled in brine with bay-leaves and
whole pepper. (J- T. C.)
ANCIEN RfiQIKB, The, a French phrase commonly used, even
by English writers, to denote the social and political system
established in France under the old monarchy, which was swept
away by the Revolution of 1 780. The phrase is generally appli-
cable only to France, for in no other country, with perhaps the
exception of Japan, has there been in modern times- so clearly
marked a division between "the old order " and the new.
ANCIENT (also spelt Antient; derived, through the Fr.
ancien, old, from the late Lat antianum, from ante, before), old
or in olden times. "Ancient history" is distinguished from
medieval and modern, generally as meaning before the fall of
the western Roman empire. In English legal history, " ancient "
tenure or demesne refers to what was crown property in the time
N of Edward the Confessor or William the Conqueror. "The
Ancient of days " is a Biblical phrase for God. In the London
Inns of Court the senior barristers used to be called "ancients."
From the 16th to the x8th century the word was also used, by
confusion with "ensign," %jt. flag or standard-bearer, for that
military title, as in the case of Shakespeare's "ancient Pistol";
but this use has nothing to do with "ancient" meaning
"old."
ANCIENT LIGHTS, a phrase in English law for a negative
easement (?.».) consisting in the right to prevent the owner or
occupier of an adjoining tenement from building or placing on
his own land anything which has the effect of illegally obstructing
or obscuring the light of the dominant tenement At common
law a person, who opens a window in his house, has a natural
right to receive the flow of light that passes through it But his
neighbour is not debarred thereby from building on his own
land even though the effect of his action is to obstruct the flow
of light thus obtained. Where, however, a window had been
opened for so long a time as to constitute immemorial usage
in law, the light became an "ancient light" which the law
protected from disturbance. The Prescription Act 1832 created
a statutory prescription for light. It provided (s. 3) that " when
the access and use of light to and for " (any building) " shall have
been actually enjoyed therewith for the full period of 20 years with-
out interruption, the right thereto shall be deemed absolute and
indefeasible, any local usage or custom to the contrary notwith-
standing, unless it shall appear that the same was enjoyed by some
consent or agreement, expressly made or given for that purpose
by deed or writing." The statute does not create an absolute
or indefeasible right immediately on the expiration of twenty
years. Unless and until the dominant owner's claim is brought
into question (s.4) no absolute or indefeasible title ess arise
under the act Tbe dominant owner has only an inchoate right
to avail himself under the act of the twenty years' uninierrepted
enjoyment, if his claim is brought into question. But in the
meantime, however long the enjoyment may have bees, his
right is just the same, and the origin of his right is just the same
as if the act had never been passed. These principles were laid
down in 1004 by the House of Lords m the leading case of C«& v.
Home or Colonial Stores Lid. (1004 A.C 179). They overrule
an earlier view propounded by Lord Westbury in 1865 (Tepiixg
v. Jones, 11 H.L.C. 200) that the Prescription Act 1832 had
abrogated the common law prescription as to light, that the
right to "ancient lights" now depends upon positive rnarlment
alone, and does not require, and ought not to be rested on, any
fiction of a "lost grant" (see Easement). There has been
much difference of judicial opinion as to what constitutes an
actionable interference with " ancient lights." On the one band,
the test has been prescribed that if an angle of 45*— uninterrupted
sky light — was left, the easement was not interfered with, and,
while this is not a rule of law, it is a good rough working criterion.
On the other hand, it was held in effect by the Court of Appeal
in the case of Colls v. Home 6> Colonial Stores Ltd. (1902; 1 Ch.
302) that to constitute an actionable obstruction of ancient lights
it was sufficient if the hght was sensibly less than it was before.
The House of Lords, however, in the same case (1004 A. C 170)
overruled this view, and held that there must be a suhsfaninl
privation of light enough ta render the occupation of the bouse
or building uncomfortable according to the ordinary notions of
mankind and (in the case of business premises) to prevent the
plaintiff from carrying on his business as beneficially as I
See also Kim v. Jolly (1005; 1 Ch. 480).
There is, in Scots law, no special doctrine as to
lights." The servitude of light in Scotland is simply the 1
servitude non officiendi luminibus set prospedmi (see EassaBEsrr
and Roman Law). The same observation applies to the Code
Civil and other European Codes based on it The doctrine
as to ancient lights does not prevail generally in the United
States (consult Ruling Cases, under "Air").
ANCILLARY (from the Lat. audita, a handmaid), an adjective
meaning "subordinate to" or "merely helping," as opposed to
"essential" By Thackeray and some other writers it is also
employed rather affectedly in its primary meaning of "pertain rag
to a maid-servant"
ANCILLON, CHARLES (1650-1715). one of a dttfmgohbed
family of French Protestants, was born on the s8Ut of July
1659, at Met*. His father, David AndUon (1617-1692), was
obliged to leave France on the revocation of the edict of Nantes,
and became pastor of the French Protestant community in Berlin.
Charles Ancillon studied law at Marburg, Geneva, and Paris,
where he was called to the bar. At the request of the Huguenots
at Metz, he pleaded its cause at the court of Louis XIV., urging
that it should be excepted in the revocation of the edict of Nantes,
but his efforts were unsuccessful, and he Joined bis father in
Berlin. He was at once appointed by the elector Frederick
"juge et directeurde colonie de Berlin." Hie had before this
published several works on the revocation of the edict of Nantes
and its consequences, but his literary capacity was mediocre, bis
style stiff and cold, and it was his personal character rather than
his reputation as a writer that earned him the confidence of the
elector. In 1687 he was appointed head of the so-called Acadimie
des nobles, the principal educational establishment of the state;
later on, as councillor of embassy, he took part in the
negotiations which led to the assumption of the title of king by
the elector. In 1609 he succeeded Pufendorf as historiographer
to the elector, and the same year replaced his uncle Joseph
Ancillon as judge of all the French refugees in Brandenburg. He
died on the 5th of July 1715. Ancillon 's chief claim to remem-
brance is the work that he did for education in Prussia, and the
share he took, in co-operation with Leibnita, in founding the
Academy of Berlin. Of bis fairly numerous works the only one
still of value is the Histoire de Vttoblisttmrnt des Frmmgais rdfaies
dams Us Hats de Brondebourg (Berlin, 1600).
ANCILLON— ANCONA
951
ANCILLON, JOHAKN PETER FRIEDRICH (1766-1837),
Prussian historian and statesman, great-grandson of Charles
Ancillon, was born at Berlin on the 30th of April 1766. He
studied neology at Geneva, and after finishing his course was
appointed minister to the French community at Berlin. At the
same time his reputation as a historical scholar secured him
the post of professor of history at the military academy. In
1793 he visited Switzerland, and in 1706 France, and published
the impressions gathered during his travels in a series of articles
which he afterwards collected under the title of Melanges de
litter ature et de philosophic (1801). Ancillon took rank among
the most famous historians of his day by his next work, Tableau
des revolutions du systeme politique de V Europe depuis le X V* stick
(1803, 4 vols.; new ed., 1824), which gained him the euloghim
of the Institute of France, and admission to the Academy of
Berlin. It was the first attempt to recognize psychological
factors in historical movements, but otherwise its importance
was exaggerated. Its " sugary optimism, unctuous phraseology
and pulpit logic " appealed, however, to the reviving pietism of
the age succeeding the Revolution, and these qualities, as well
as his eloquence as a preacher, early brought Ancillon Into notice
at court. In 1808 he was appointed tutor to the royal princes,
in 1809 councillor of state in the department of religion, and in
1 8 1 o tutor of the crown prince (afterwards Frederick William I V. ) ,
on whose sensitive and dreamy nature he was to exercise a power-
ful but far from wholesome influence. In October 18x4, when
his pupil came of age, Ancillon was included by Prince Harden-
berg in the ministry, as privy councillor of legation in the
department of foreign affairs, with a view to utilizing his supposed
gifts as a philosophical historian in the preparation of the pro-
jected Prussian constitution. But Ancillon's reputed liberalism
was of too invertebrate a type to survive the trial of actual
contact with affairs. The practical difficulty of the constitutional
problem gave the "court parson" — as Gneisenau had con-
temptuously called him— excuse enough for a change of front
which, incidentally, would please his exalted patrons. He
covered his defection from Hardenberg's liberal constitu-
tionalism by a series of "philosophical" treatises on the
nature of the state and of man, and became the soul of the
reactionary movement at the Berlin court, and the faithful
henchman of Metternich in the general politics of Germany and
of Europe.
In 1817 Ancillon became a councillor of state, and in 18x8
director of the political section of the ministry for foreign affairs
under Count Bcrnstorff. In his chief's most important work,
the establishment of the Prussian ZoUverein, Ancillon had no
share, while the entirely subordinate role played by Prussia
in Europe during this period, together with the personal part
taken by the sovereign in the various congresses, gave him little
scope for the display of any diplomatic talents he may have
possessed. During this time he found plentiful leisure to write
a series of works on political philosophy, such as the Nouveaux
essois de politique et de philosophic (Paris, 1824). In May 1831
be was made an active privy councillor, was appointed chief
of the department for the principality of Neuchatel, in July
became secretary of state for foreign affairs, and in the spring
of 1832, on Bernstorff's retirement, succeeded him as head of
the ministry.
By the German public, to whom Ancillon was known only
through his earlier writings and some isolated protests against
the "demagogue-hunting" in fashion at Berlin, his advent
to power was hailed as a triumph of liberalism. They were
soon undeceived. Ancillon had convinced himself that the rigid
class distinctions of the Prussian system were the philosophically
ideal basis of the state, and that representation " by estates "
was the only sound constitutional principle; his last and indeed
only act of importance as minister was his collaboration with
Metternich in the Vienna Final Act of the 12th of June 1834,
the object of which was to rivet this system upon Germany
for ever. He died on the 1 9th of April 1 83 7 , the last of his family.
His historical importance lies neither in his* writings nor in his
political activity, but in his personal influence at the Prussian
court, and especially in its lasting effect on the character of
Frederick William IV.
See C. A. L. P. Varnhagen von Ense, Blatter aus der preussischen
Gesckichte, 5 vols. (Leipzig. 1868-1869); *». TagebUchcr, vol. I
(Leipzig. 1861); H. O. Treitschke, Deutsche CcschithU (Leipzig.
1879-1804), and essay on Ancillon in Preussische Jahrbucher for April
1872; AUgemeine Deutsche Biographic, s.v. (Leipzig, 1875).
ANC6N, a small village and bathing-place on the coast of
Peru, 22 m. N. of Lima by rail The bay is formed by two
projecting headlands and is one of the best on the coast Jt has
a gently sloping beach of fine sand and has been a popular
bathing-place since the time of President Balta, although the
country behind it is arid and absolutely barren. At some time
previous to the discovery of America, Ancon had a large ab-
original population. Traces of terraces on the southern headland
can still be seen, and the sand-covered hills and slopes overlooking
the bay contain extensive burial-grounds which were systematic
ally explored in 1875 by Messrs W. Reiss and A. Stdbel (see
Rciss and Stand's The Necropolis of Ancdn in Peru, translated
by A. H. Keane, 3 vols., Berlin, 1880-1887). In modern times
Anc6n has been the scene of several important historical events.
Its anchorage was used by Lord Cochrane in 1820 during his
attacks on Callao; it was the landing-place of an invading
Chilean army in 1838; it was bombarded by the Chileans in
1880; and in 1883 it was the meeting-place of the Chilean and
Peruvian commissioners who drew up the treaty of Anc6n, which
ended the war between Chile and Peru.
ANCON (from the Gr. aytuv), the anatomical name for
" elbow "; " ancones " in architecture are the projecting bosses
left on stone blocks or on drums of columns, to allow of their
being either hoisted aloft or rubbed backwards and forwards
to obtain a fine joint; the term is also given by Vitruvius to the
trusses or console brackets on each side of the doorway of a
Greek or Roman building which support the cornice over the
same. A particular sort of sheep, with short crooked forelegs,
is called " ancon " sheep.
ANCONA. ALESSANDRO (1835- ), Italian critic and
man of letters, was born at Pisa on the 20th of February 1835,
of a wealthy Jewish family, and educated in Florence; at the
age of eighteen he published his essay on the life and work of
the philosopher Tommaso Campanella. In 1855 Ancona went
to Turin, nominally to study law, but in reality to act as inter-
mediary between the Tuscan Liberals and Cavour; he was an
intimate friend of Luigi Carlo Farini (q.v.) and represented
Tuscany in the Sodeta Nazionale. On the fall of the Austrian
dynasty in Tuscany (April 27, 1859) he returned to Florence,
where he edited the newly founded newspaper La Nationc.
In x86x he was appointed professor of Italian literature at the
university of Pisa. Among his works the following may be
mentioned: Opera di Tommaso Campanella, 2 vols. (Turin, 1854) ;
Sacre Rappresentazioni dei sccoli XIV., XV. , e XVI. (3 vols.,
Florence, 1872); Origini del Teairo in Italia (2 vols., Florence,
1877); La Poesia popolare italiana (Livorno, 1878), besides
several volumes of literary essays, editions of the works of Dante
and other early Italian writers, &c
ANCONA, a seaport and episcopal see of the Marches, Italy,
capital of the province of Ancona, situated on the N.E. coast
of Italy, 185 m. N.E. of Rome by rail and 132 m. direct, and
x 27 m. S.E. of Bologna. Pop. (X901) 56,835. The town is finely
situated on and between the slopes of the two extremities of the
promontory of Monte Conero, Monte Astagno to the S., occupied
by the citadel, and Monte Guasco to the N., on which the
cathedral stands (300 ft.). The latter, dedicated lo S. Ciriaco,
is said to occupy the site of a temple of Venus, who is mentioned
by Catullus and Juvenal as the tutelary deity of the place. It
was consecrated in 1128 and completed in 1189. Some writers
suppose that the original church was in the form of a Latin cross
and belonged to the 8th century. An early restoration was
completed in 1234. It is a fine Romanesque building in grey
stone, built in the form of a Greek cross, with a dodccagonal
dome over the centre slightly altered by Margaritone d' Areszo
in 1 270. The facade has a Gothic portal, ascribed to Giorgio da
Como (1228), which was intended to have a lateral arch on each
952
ANCREN R1WLE— ANCRUM
side The interior, which has a crypt in each transept, in the
main preserves its original character. It has ten columns which
are attributed to the temple of Venus, and there are good screens
of the x 2th century, and other sculptures. In the dilapidated
episcopal palace Pope Pius II. died in 1464. An interesting
church is S. Maria della Piazza, with an elaborate arcaded facade
(12x0). The Palazzo del Comune, with its lofty arched sub-
structures at the back, was the work of Margaritone d' Arezzo,
but has been since twice restored. There are also several fine
late Gothic buildings, among them the churches of S. Francesco
and S. Agostino, the Palazzo Benincasa, and the Loggia dei
Mercanti, all by Giorgio Orsini, usually called da Sebenico (who
worked much at Sebenico, though he was not a native of it), and
the prefecture, which has Renaissance additions. The portal of
S. Maria della Misericordia is an ornate example of early Renais-
sance work. The archaeological museum contains interesting
pre-Roman objects from tombs in the district, and two Roman
beds with fine decorations in ivory (£. Brizio, in N otitic degli
tcavi t 1002, 437. 478).
To the east of the town is the harbour, now an oval basin of
000 by 880 yards, the finest harbour on the S. W. coast of
the Adriatic, and one of the best in Italy. It was originally
protected only by the promontory on the N., from the elbow-like
shape of which (Gk. fry***) the ancient town, founded by
Syracusan refugees about 300 B.C., took the name which it still
holds. Greek merchants established a purple factory here (SO.
Ital. viii. 438). Even in Roman times it kept its own coinage
with the punning device of the bent arm holding a palm branch,
and the head of Aphrodite on the reverse, and continued the use
of the Greek language. When it became a Roman colony is
doubtful. 1 It was occupied as a naval station in the IUyrian
war of 178 B.c (Liv. zli. 1). Caesar took possession of it
immediately after crossing the Rubicon. Its harbour was of
considerable importance in imperial times, as the nearest to
Dalmatia,* and was enlarged by Trajan, who constructed the
north quay, his architect being Apollodorus of Damascus. At
the beginning of it stands the marble triumphal arch with a
single opening, and without bas-reliefs, erected in his honour in
a.d. x x 5 by the senate and people. Pope Clement II. prolonged
the quay, and an inferior imitation of Trajan's arch was set
up; he also erected a lazaretto at the south end of the harbour,
now a sugar refinery, Van vitclli being the architect-in-chief. The
southern quay was built in 1880, and the harbour is now pro-
tected by forts on the heights, while the place is the seat of the
7th army corps.
The port of Ancona was entered in 1004 by 869 steamships and
600 sailing vessels, with a total tonnage of 061,612 tons. The
main imports were coal, timber, metals, jute. The main exports
were asphalt and calcium carbide. Sugar refining and ship-
building are carried on.
Ancona is situated on the railway between Bologna and
Brindisi, and is also connected by rail with Rome, via Foligno
and Orte.
After the fall of the Roman empire Ancona was successively
attacked by the Goths, Lombards and Saracens, but recovered
its strength and importance. It was one of the cities of the
Pentapolis under the exarchate of Ravenna, the other four being
Fano, Pesaro, Scnigallia and Rimini, and eventually became a
semi-independent republic under the protection of the popes,
until Gonzaga took possession of it for Clement VII. in 1532.
From 1797 onwards, when the French took it, it frequently
appears in history as an important fortress, until Lamoriciere
capitulated here on the 29th of September i860, eleven days
after his defeat at Castelfidardo. (T. As.)
ANCREN RIWLE, a Middle English prose treatise written for
a small community of three religious women and their servants
at Tarent Kaines (Tarrant Crawford), at the junction of the
Stour and the Tarrant, Dorset It was generally supposed to
1 Scanty remains of the ancient town walls, of a gymnasium near
Che harbour and of the amphitheatre arc still extant.
* It was connected by a road with the Via Flaminia at Nuceria
(Norcera). a distance of 70 m.
date from the first quarter of the 13th century t but Pn>
feasor E. Kolbing is inclined to place the Corpus Cfariari MS
about the middle of the 12th century. The boose of Tama
was founded by Ralph de Kahaines, and greatly enriched abou
X230 by Richard Poor, bishop successively of Ch ic h est er , Saj>
bury and Durham, who was born at Tarrant and died there m
1237. At the time when the Aneren Riwle was addressed to
them the anchoresses did not belong to any of the mcmanif orders,
but the monastery was under the Cistercian rule before 1266 *
There are extant seven Fngifoh MSS. of the work, and one Latis,
the Latin version being generally supposed to be a translatiotL
The Latin MS., Regula Anachoritarum sine de vila sofcvw
( Magdalen College, Oxford, No. 67, f oL 50) has a prefatory note : —
Hie incipit prohemium vencrabilis patris maeistri Sismawis de
Gandavo, episeopi Sarum, in librum de vita soMaria, quern scrips*
sororibus ruts anachoritis apud Tarent*. But Bishop Simon of
Ghent, who died in 13x5, could not have written the book, ii :t
dates, at latest, from the early 13th century. It has rxxa
tentatively attributed to Richard Poor, who was connected w.13
Tarrant, and was actually a benefactor of the monastery. Bat
the adoption of Prof. Kolbing's early date would almost destroy
Poor's claim.
The Aneren Riwle is written in a simple, non-rhetorical style.
The severity of the doctrine of self-renunciation is softened by
the affectionate tone in which it is inculcated. The book contains
rules for the conduct of the anchoresses, and gives liturgical
directions for divine service; but the greater part of it is taken
up with the purely spiritual side of religion. The rules for the
restraint of the senses, for confession and penance, are sub-
ordinated to the central idea of the supreme importance of purity
of heart and the love of Christ The last chapter deals with the
domestic affairs and administration of the monastery. Incidertt-
ally the writer gives a picture of the manners and ideas of the
time, and provides an account of the doctrine then generally
accepted in the English church.
A ncren Riwle was edited for the Camden Society by the Rev. Jacie*
Morton in 1843 from the Cotton MS. (Nero A xiv.). A coHatvui of
this text with the MS. by E. Kolbing is printed in the Jakrbmck ,'k.r
romanische u. engl. Spr. und Lit. xv. 180 acq. (1876). The Aneren
Riwle (ed. Abbot F. A. Gasquet. 1 90s) is available for the
ordinary reader in The King's Classics. There are three English
MSS. of Aneren Riwle in the Cottonian collection ia the Bntab
Museum, numbered Nero A xiv., Titus D xvisi.. and Cleopatra C \u
Nero A xiv. is written in pure south-western dialect. Portion* ct
this text are printed in Henry Sweet's First Middle English Pnwur
(Oxford, 2nd cd., 1895), which contains a grammatical introducrtcr.
MS. 402 in the library of Corpus Christi College.Cambridge. comaia*
the earliest version of Aneren Riwle, entitled Aneren Wissi. arj
dating (according to E. Kolbing in Engiiscke Stndien, 1686. vol. 1*
116) from about 1 150. The language shows considerable trace* <4
the Midland dialect. MS. 234 in Caius College. Cambridge, com* .*
a considerable portion of the Aneren Riwle, but does not follow t. .
order of the other MSS. For its exact contents see Kolbieg. tc
Engiiscke Studien, iii. 535 (1880). A more recently discovered
version in Magdalene College, Cambridge, in MS Pepys 24**. n
entitled The Recluse, and is abridged and differently arranged. It
is written in English of the latter half of the 14th century (we
A. C. Paues in Engiiscke Studien, xxx. 344-346. 1903). A Lai a
version (Cotton MS. Vitcllius E vit.), and a French copy {ibid. F * u. )
were seriously damaged in the fire at Ashburnham House, but b**ta
MSS. have been recently restored. The Latin MS. (Codex lavu, )
at Magdalen College, Oxford, is probably a copy of another Laos
text, for it contains obvious slips.
JSee also R. Walker. " Ueber die Sprachc der Aneren Riwle u«rf
die der Homilic: Halt Mieidenkad," in Beitrage tur Gesekukte der
deutscken Spracke und Literatur (Halle. 1874. i. 209), giving am
analysis of the differences in dialect between the two work*, a ad
Edgar Elliott Bramlette, "The Original Language of the Anc*rm
Riwle," in Anglia, xv. 478-498, arguing in favour of a Lata
original.
ANCRUM, a village on Ale or Alne Water (a tributary of the
Teviot), Roxburghshire, Scotland, 2 m. W. of Jedfoot Bride*
station on the Roxburgh- Jedburgh branch of the North Bnii-a
railway. Pop. (1901) 973. The earlier forms of the natrr,
" Alnecrumba," " Ankrom "and" Alnecrom," indicate itsGaci:e
derivation from cram, " crooked "— " the crook or bend of the
1 For information on the subject of Tarent Kaines are Sir \V.
Dugdale, Monasticon Anglican*** (new ed-» 1846), vol. v. 619
ct seq.
ANCUS MARCIUS— ANCYRA
953
Alnc* The vffiagetsof considerable antiquity, and was formerly
held by the see of Glasgow. Its cross, said to date from the
time of David I., is one of the best preserved crosses in the Border
counties. Ancrum Moor, 2 m. N.W., was the scene of the battle
in which, on the 17th of February 1545* the Scots under the earl
of Angus, Sir Walter Scott of Bucdeuch, and Norman Leslie,
defeated 5000 English, whose leaders, Sir Ralph Even or Eureand
Sir Brian Latoun or Layton, were slain. A Roman road, 24 ft
broad, forms the N.E. boundary of the parish of Ancrum.
ANCUS MARCIUS (640-6x6 B.C.), fourth legendary king of
Rome. Like Numa, his reputed grandfather, he was a friend
of peace and religion, but was obliged to make war to defend his
territories. He conquered the Latins, and a number of them he
settled on the Aventine formed the origin of the Plebeians.
He fortified the Janiculum, threw a wooden bridge across the
Tiber, founded the port of Ostia, established salt-works and
built a prison.
Ancus Marcius is merely a duplicate of Numa, as is shown by
his second name, Numa Marcius, the confidant and pontifex of
Numa, being no other than Numa Pompilius himself, represented
as priest The identification with Ancus is shown by the legend
which makes the latter a bridge-builder (pontifex), the constructor?
of the first wooden bridge over the' Tiber; It is in the exercise
of his priestly functions that the resemblance is most clearly
shown. Like Numa, Ancus died a natural death.
See Livy I 32, 33; Dion Hatic. iii. 36-45; Cicero, D§ Republican
E. 18. For a critical examination of the story see Schweglcr,
Romische Cesckickte, bk. xiii.; Sir G. Cornewall Lewis, Credibility
of Early Roman History, ch. «.; W. Ihne, History of Rome, u;
R. Pais, Storia di Roma, L (1898), who considers that the name
points to the personification of the cult of Mars, and that the military
achievement* of Ancus are anticipations of later events.
ANCYLOPODA, or Ancylodactyla, an apparently primitive
extinct subordinal group of TJngulata showing certain resem-
blances to the Perissodactyla, both as regards the cheek-teeth
and the skeleton, but broadly distinguished by the feet being of
an edentate type, carrying long curved and deft terminal claws.
From this peculiar structure of the feet it would seem that the
weight of the body was mainly carried on their outer sides, as in
Edentates. The group is typified by Ckalicotherium, of which
the original species was discovered in the Lower Pliocene strata
of Eppelsheim, Hesse-Darmstadt, in 1825, and named on the
evidence of the teeth, the limbs being subsequently described
as Macrotherium. The skull is short, with a dental formula of
*-f • c.f , £.f. «.f, but in fully adult animals most of the front teeth
were shed. The molar teeth recall those of Palaeosyofs (see
TrrANOTHiMroAE). Remains referred to Ckdicotherium have
been also obtained from the Lower Pliocene and Upper Miocene
strata of Greece, Hungary, India, China and North America.
A skull from Pikermi, near Mt Pentelikon, Attica, shows the
absence in the adult state of upper and lower incisors and upper
canines, much the same condition being indicated in an Indian
skull. There were three iocs to each foot, and the femur lacked
a third trochanter.
Macrotherium, which is typically from the Middle Miocene
of Sansan, in Gers, France, may indicate a distinct genus. Limb-
bones nearly resembling those of Macrotherium, but relatively
stouter, have been described from the Pliocene beds of Attica
and Samos as Ancylolherium. In America the names Moro-
therium and M or opus have been applied to similar bones, on the
belief that they indicated edentates. Macrotherium magnum
must have been an animal of about 9 ft in length.
The South American genus Homalodontotherium is often placed
in the Ancylopoda, but reasons against this view are given in
the article Litopterna. Professor H. F. Osborn considers that
the Ancylopoda are directly descended from the Condylarthra.
See also H. F. Osborn, " The Ancylopoda Chalicotherium and
Artionyx, Amer. Nat. (1893), p. 118, and ''Artionyx. a New Genus of
Ancylopoda." Bull. Amer. Mus. vol. v. p. 1 (1893). [N.B.— Artionyx
was subsequently found to be an Artiodactyle.J (R. L.*)
ANCYRA (mod. Angdra, q.v.), an ancient city of Galatia in
Asia Minor, situated on a tributary of the Sangarius. Originally
a large and pro sp erous Phrygian city on the Persian Royal Road,
Ancyra became the centre of the Tectosages, one of 'the three
Gaulish tribes that settled permanently in Galatia about 232 b.c.
The barbarian occupation dislocated civilisation, and the town
sank to a mere village inhabited chiefly by the old native popula-
tion who carried on the arts and crafts of peaceful life, while the
Gauls devoted themselves to war and pastoral life (see Galatia).
In 189 b.c. Ancyra was occupied by Cn. Manlius Vulso, who
made it his headquarters in his operations against the tribe. In
63 B.C. Pompey placed it (together with the Tcctosagan territory)
under one chief, and it continued under native rule till it became
the capital of the Roman province of Galatia in 25 B.C. By
this time the population included Greeks, Jews, Romans and
Romanized Gauls, but the town was not yet Hellenized, though
Greek was spoken. Strabo (c. a.d. 19) calls it not a city, but a
fortress, implying that it had none of the institutions of the
Graeco-Roman city. Inscriptions and coins show that its civil-
ization consisted of a layer of Roman ideas and customs super-
imposed on Celtic tribal characteristics, and that it is not until
c. a J). 250 that the true Hellenic spirit begins to appear.
Christianity was Introduced (from the N. or N.W.) perhaps as
early as the 1st century, but there is no shred of evidence that
the Ancyran Church (first mentioned aj>. 192) was founded by
St Paul or that he ever visited northern Galatia. The real great-
ness of the town dates from the time when Constantinople became
the metropolis of the Roman world: then its geographical
situation raisedit to a position of importance which it retained
throughout the middle ages. See further Angora (i).
The modern town contains many remains of the Roman and
Byzantine periods. The most important monument is the
Augusteum, a temple of white marble erected to " Rome and
Augustus " during the lifetime of that emperor by the common
council or diet of the three Galatian tribes. The temple was
afterward* converted into a church, and in the x6th century a
fine mosque was built against its S. face. On the walls of the
temple is engraved the famous Monumentum Ancyranum, a long
inscription in Latin and Greek describing the Res gestae din
Augusti; the Latin portion being inscribed on the inner left-hand
wail of the pronaos, the Greek on the outside wall of the naos
(cello). The inscription is a grave and majestic narrative of the
public life and work of Augustus. The original was written
by the emperor in his 76th year (a.d. 13-14) to be engraved
on two bronze tablets placed in front of his mausoleum
in Rome, and as a mark of respect to his memory a
copy was inscribed on the temple walls by the council of the
Galatians. Thus has been preserved an absolutely unique
historical document of great importance, recounting (1) the
numerous public offices and honours conferred on him, (2) his
various benefactions to the state, to the pUbs and to his soldiers,
and (3) his military and administrative services to the empire.
Bibliography.— C. Ritter, BrdhundevonAsien, vol. xviii.(i837-
1859); Hamilton, Researches in A. M. (1842); Texier, Descrip. de
FAsxe Min. (1839-1849); Perrot, Extior. d§ laCalatie (1862);
Humann and Puchstein, Reisen in Kteinasien (1890). For Mon.
Ancyr., Mommsen, Res gestae diei A ugusti (1883) ; and Inser. graecae
ad res Romanas pertinenUs. iii. (1902). For coins, Brit. Museum
Catal., Galatia (1899); Babelon-Reinach, RecueU general a" A. M.
See also under Galatia. (J. G. C. A.)
Synod or Ancyra.— An important ecclesiastical synod was
held at Ancyra, the seat of the Roman administration for the
province of Galatia, in a.d. 3 14. The season was soon after Easter;
the year may be safely deduced from the fact that the first nine
canons are intended to repair havoc wrought in the church by
persecution, which ceased after the overthrow of Maximums in
313. The tenth canon tolerates the marriages of deacons who
previous to ordination had reserved the right to take a wife;
the thirteenth forbids chorepiscopi to ordain presbyters or
deacons; the eighteenth safeguards the right of the people in
objecting to the appointment of a bishop whom they do not wish.
See Mansi, ii. 514 ff. The critical text of R. B. Rackham (Oxford,
1891), Studia btblica et etdesiasHca, iii. 139 ff., is conveniently re-
printed in Lauchert 29 ff. H. R. Peraval translates and comments
on an old text in the Nicene and Post-Nicene Fathers (2nd series),
xiv. 61 ff. An elaborate discussion is found in Hefele, ConcUien^
gesckichte (2nd ed.). i- 219 ff. (English translation, i. 199 ff.);
more briefly in Herzog-Hauck (3rd ed.), L 497. For full titles
5 Council.
(W. W. R.*)
95*
ANDALUSIA— ANDALUSITE
ANDALUSIA, or Andalucia, a captaincy-general, and
formerly a province, of southern Spain; bounded on the N.
by Estremadura and New Castile, E. by Murcia and the
Mediterranean Sea, S. by the Mediterranean and Atlantic,
and W. by Portugal. Pop. (xooo) 3.563.606; area, 33.777
sq. m. Andalusia was divided in 1833 into the eight provinces
of Almeria, Cadiz, Cordova, Granada, Jain, Huelva, Malaga and
Seville, which are described in separate articles. Its ancient
name, though no longer used officially, except to designate a
military district, has not been superseded in popular speech by
the names of the eight modern divisions.
Andalusia consists of a great plain, the valley of the Guadal-
quivir, shut in by mountain ranges on every side except the
S.W., where it descends to the Atlantic This lowland, which
is known as Andalucia Baja, or Lower Andalusia, resembles
the valley of the Ebro in its slight elevation above sea-level
(300-400 ft), and in the number of brackish lakes or fens, and
waste lands {desfoUados) impregnated with salt, which seem
to indicate that the whole surface was covered by the sea at
no distant geological date. The barren tracts are, however,
exceptional and a far larger area is richly fertile. Some districts,
indeed, such as the Vega of Granada, are famous for the luxuri-
ance of their vegetation. The Guadalquivir (q.v.) rises among
the mountains of Jain and flows in a south-westerly direction
to the Gulf of Cadiz, receiving many considerable tributaries on
its way. On the north, its valley is bounded by the wild Sierra
Morena; on the south, by the mountains of the Mediterranean
littoral, among which the Sierra Nevada (q.v.), with its peaks of
Mulhaccn (imm f t.)and Vclcta(i 1,148 ft.), is the most conspicu-
ous. These highlands, with the mountains of Jain and Almeria
on the east, constitute Andalucia Alia or Upper Andalusia.
No part of Spain has greater natural riches. The sherry
produced near Jerez de la Frontera, the copper of the Rio Tinto
mines and the lead of Almerfa are famous. But the most note-
worthy characteristics of the province are, perhaps, the brilliancy
of its climate, the beauty of its scenery (which ranges in character
from the alpine to the tropical), and the interest of its art and
antiquities. The climate necessarily varies widely with the
altitude. Some of the higher mountains are covered with
perpetual snow, a luxury which is highly prized by the inhabit-
ants of the valleys, where the summer is usually extremely hot,
and in winter the snow falls only to melt when it reaches the
ground. Here the more common European plants and trees
give place to the wild olive, the caper bush, the aloe, the cactus,
the evergreen oak, the orange, the lemon, the palm and other
productions of a tropical climate. On the coasts of the Mediter-
ranean about Marbella and Malaga, the sugar-cane is successfully
cultivated. Silk is produced in the same region. Agriculture
is in a very backward state and the implements used are most
primitive. The chief towns are Seville (pop. xooo, 148,315), which
may be regarded as the capital, Malaga (130,100), Granada
(7S.900), Cadiz (69,382), Jerez de la Frontera (63,473), Cordova
(58,275) and Almerfa (47.326).
Andalusia has never been, like Castile or Aragon, a separate
kingdom. Its history is largely a record of commercial and
artistic development. The Guadalquivir valley is often, in part
it least, identified with the biblical Tarshish and the classical
Tar less us, a famous Phoenician mart. The port of Agadir or
Gaddir, now Cadiz, was founded as early as xxoo B.C. Later
Carthaginian invaders came from their advanced settlements
in the Balearic Islands, about 516 B.C. Greek merchants also
visited the coasts. The products of the interior were conveyed
by the native Iberians to the maritime colonies, such as Abdera
(Adra), Calpe (Gibraltar) or Malaca (Malaga), founded by the
foreign merchants. The Punic wars transferred the supreme
power from Carthage to Rome, and Latin civilization was
established firmly when, in 27 B.C., Andalusia became the Roman
province of Jtaetico— so called after its great waterway, the
Badis (Guadalquivir). In the 5th century the province was
overrun by successive invaders— Vandals, Suevi and Visigoths —
from the first of whom it may possibly derive its name. The
forms Vandalusia and Vandalitia are undoubtedly ancient;
many authorities, however, maintain that the name is derived
from the Moorish Andalus or Andalask, " Land of the West."
The Moors first entered the province in 71 1, and only in 140* was
their power finally broken by the capture of Granada. Their
four Andalusian kingdoms, Seville, Jain, Cordova and Granada,
developed a civilization unsurpassed at the time in Europe. An
extensive literature, scientific, philosophical and historical, with
four world-famous buildings— the Giralda and Alcazar of Sevflle,
the Mezquita or cathedral of Cordova and the Alhambra at
Granada-— are its chief monuments. In the 16th and 17th
centuries, painting replaced architecture as the distinctive art
of Andalusia; and many of the foremost Spanish pointers,
including Velazquez and Murillo, were natives of this province.
Centuries of alien domination have left their mark upon the
character and appearance of the Andalusia ns, a mixed race, who
contrast strongly with the true Spaniards and possess many
oriental traits. It is impossible to estimate the influence of the
elder conquerors, Greek, Carthaginian and Roman; but there
are dear traces of Moorish blood, with a less well-defined Jewish
and gipsy strain. The men are tall, handsome and well-made,
and the women are among the most beautiful in Spain; wtule
the dark complexion and hair of both sexes, and their peculiar
dialect of Spanish, so distasteful to pure CastiUans, are indisput-
able evidence of Moorish descent. Their musk, dances and
many customs, come from the East- In general, the people are
lively, good-humoured and ready-witted, fond of pleasure, lazy
and extremely superstitious. In the literature and drama of his
country, the Andalusian is traditionally represented as the
Gascon of Spain, ever boastful and mercurial; or else as a
picaresque hero, bull-fighter, brigand or smuggler,
is still famous for its bull-fighters; and every outlying 1
has its legends of highwaymen and contraband.
In addition to the numerous works cited under the heading
Spain, see Curiosidades historical de Andalucia. by N. Diaz de
Escovar (Malaga, 1900) ; Hiitoire de la conqutU de VAwdalonsif, by
O. Houdas (Paris, 1889): Andalausie et Portugal (Paris. 1886): £Z.
Folk-Lore Andalus (Seville, 1883); and Nobleaa de Audedmda, by
G. Argote de Molina (Seville, 1588).
ANDALUSITE, a mineral with the same chemical composition
as cyanite and sillimanite, being a basic aluminium sOkate,
AltSiOi. As in sillimanite, its crystalline form
is referable to the orthorhombic system.
Crystals of andalusite have the form of almost
square prisms, the prism-angle being 89° xa';
they are terminated by a basal plane and some-
times by small dome-faces. As a rule the
crystals are roughly developed and rude colum-
nar masses are common, these being frequently
altered partially to kaolin or mica. Such
crystals, opaque, and of a greyish or brownish
colour, occur abundantly in the mica-schist of the Lisetts Alp
near Innsbruck in Tirol, while the first noted
of the many localities of the mineral is in
Andalusia, from which place the mineral
derives its name. The unaltered mineral is
found as transparent pebbles with topaz
in the gem-gravels of the Minas Novas
district, in Minas Geraes, Brazil These
pebbles are usually green but sometimes
reddish-brown in colour, and are remarkable
for their very strong dichroism, the same
pebble appearing green or reddish-brown
according to the direction in which it is
viewed. Such specimens make very effective
gem-stones, the degree of hardness of the
mineral (H.-7J) being quite sufficient for
this purpose. Its specific gravity is 3-18;
it is unattacked by adds and is infusible
before the blowpipe.
Andalusite is typically a mineral of
metamorphic origin, occurring most fre-
quently in altered clay-slates and crystalline schists, near the
junction of these with masses of intrusive igneous neks such as
Ftc x.
I
f
Fig. a.— Trans*
verse sections of a
crystal of Chiasto*
ANDAMAN ISLANDS
955
granite. It fas been recognised- also, however, as a primary
constituent of granite itself.
A curious variety of andalusite known as chiastolite is specially
characteristic of day-slates near a -contact with granite. The
elongated prismatic crystals enclose symmetrically arranged
wedges of carbonaceous material, and in cross-section show a
black cross on a greyish ground Cross-sections of such crystals
are polished and worn as amulets or charms. Crystals of a sire
suitable for this purpose are found in Brittany and the Pyrenees,
while still larger specimens have been found recently in South
Australia. The name chiastolite is derived from the Greek
Xidorof, crossed or marked with the letter x : crass-stone
and made are earlier names, the latter having been given on
account of the resemblance the cross-section of the stone bears
to the heraldic trm ^ ifa or n wffffr . (L. J. S.)
AHDAMAN ISLANDS, a group of islands in the Bay of Bengal.
Large and small, they number 204, and lie 500 m. from the mouth
of the Hugh, 120 m. from Cape Negrais in Burma, the nearest
point of the mainland, and 340 m. from the northern extremity of
Sumatra. Between the Andamans and Cape Negrais intervene
two small groups, Preparis and Cocos; between the Andamans
and Sumatra lie the Nicobar Islands, the whole group stretching
in a curve, to which the meridian forms a tangent between
Cape Negrais and Sumatra; and though this curved line measures
700 m., the widest sea space is about 01 m. The extreme length
of the Andaman group is 3x9 m. with an extreme width of 32 m.
The main part of it consists of a band of five chief islands, so
closely adjoining and overlapping each other that they have
long been known collectively as " the great Andaman." The
axis of this hand, almost a meridian line, is 156 statute miles
long. The five islands are in order from north to south: North
Andaman (51 m. long);- Middle Andaman (50 m.); South
Andaman (49 m.); Baratang, running parallel to the east
of the South Andaman for 17 m. from the Middle Andaman;
and Rutland Island (iz m.). Four narrow straits part these
islands: Austin Strait, between North and Middle Andaman;
Hominy's Strait between Middle Andaman and Baratang,
and the north extremity of South Andaman; Middle (or Anda-
man) Strait between Baratang and South Andaman; and
Jdacpherson Strait between South Andaman and Rutland
Island. Of these only the last is navigable by ocean-going
vessels. Attached to the chief islands are, on the extreme N.,
Landfall Islands, separated by the navigable Qeugh Passage;
Interview Island, separated by the very narrow but navigable
Interview Passage, off the W. coast of the Middle Andaman;
the Labyrinth Island off the S.W. coast of the South Andaman,
through which is the safe navigable Elphinstone Passage;
Ritchie's (or the Andaman) Archipelago off the E. coast of the
South Andaman and Baratang, separated by the wide and safe
Diligent Strait and intersected by Kwangtung Strait and the
Tadma Jura (Strait). little Andaman, roughly 26 m. by x6,
forms the southern extremity of the whole group and lies 31 m.
S. of Rutland Island across Duncan Passage, in which lie the
Cinque and other islands, forming Manners Strait, the main
commercial highway between the Andamans and the Madras
coast, Besides these are a great number of islets lying off
the shores of the main islands. The principal outlying islands
are the North Sentinel, a dangerous island of about 28 sq. m.,
tying about 18 m. off the W. coast of the South Andaman;
the remarkable marine volcano, Barren Island (1150 ft.),
quiescent for more than a century, 71 m. N.E. of Port Blair; and
the equally curious isolated mountain, the extinct volcano of
Narcondam, rising 2330 ft. out of the sea, 71 m. E. of the North
Andaman. The land area of the Andaman Islands is 2508 sq. m.
About 18 m. to the W. of the Andamans are the dangerous
Western Banks and Dalrymple Bank, rising to within a few
fathoms of the surface of the sea and forming, with the two
Sentinel Islands, the tops of a line of submarine hills parallel
to the Andamans. Some 40 m. distant to the E. is the Invisible
Bank, with one rock just awash; and 34 m. S.E. of Narcondam
Is a submarine hill rising to 377 fathoms below the surface of the
•ea. Narcondam, Barren Island and the Invisible Bank, a
great danger of these teas, are in a line almost parallel to the
Andamans far finfog towards them from north to south.
Topography.— The islands forming Great Andaman consist
of a mass of hills enclosing very narrow valleys, the whole covered
by an exceedingly dense tropical jungle. The hills rise, especially
on the east coast, to a considerable elevation: the chief heights
being in the North Andaman, Saddle Peak (2400 ft); in the
Middle Andaman, Mount Diavok> behind Cuthbert Bay (1678 ft.) ;
in the South Andaman, Koiob (1505 ft), Mount Harriet (1193 ft,)
and the Cholunga range (1063 ft); and in Rutland Island,
Ford's Peak (1422 ft). Little Andaman, with the exception
of the extreme north, is practically flat There are no rivers
and few perennial streams in the islands. The scenery is every-
where strikingly beautiful and varied, and the coral beds of the
more secluded bays in its harbours are conspicuous for their
exquisite colouring.
Harbours. — The coasts of the Andamans are deeply indented,
giving existence to a number of safe harbours and tidal creeks,
which are often surrounded by mangrove swamps. The chief
harbours, some of which are very capacious, are (starting north-
wards from Port Blair, the great harbour of South Andaman)
on the E. coast: Port Meadows, Colebrooke Passage, Elphin-
stone Harbour (Homfray's Strait), Stewart Sound and Port
Cornwallis. The last three are very large. On the W. coast:
Temple Sound, Interview Passage, Port Anson or Kwangtung
Harbour (large), Port Campbell (large), Port Mouat and Mac-
pherson Strait There are besides many other safe anchorages
about the coast, notably Shoal Bay and Kotara Anchorage in the
South Andaman; Cadell Bay and the Turtle Islands in the
North Andaman; and Outram Harbour and Kwangtung Strait
in the archipelago. The whole of the Andamans and the out-
lying islands were completely surveyed topographically by the
Indian Survey Department under Colonel Hobday in x 883-1886,
and the surrounding seas were charted by Commander Carpenter
in 1888-X889.
Geology.— The Andaman Islands, in conjunction with the other
groups mentioned above, form part of a lofty range of submarine
mountains, 700 m. long, running from Cape Negrais in the
Arakan Yoma range of Burma, to Achin Head in Sumatra.
This range separates the- Bay of Bengal from the Andaman Sea,
and it contains much that is geologically characteristic of the
Arakan Yoma, and formations common also to the Nicobars and
to Sumatra and the adjacent islands. The older rocks arc early
Tertiary or late Cretaceous but there are no fossils to indicate age.
The newer rocks, common also to thr Nicobars and Sumatra,
are in Ritchie's Archipelago chiefly and contain radiolarians and
f oraminif era. There is coral along the corsts everywhere, and the
Sentinel Islands are composed of the newer rocks with a super-
structure of coral A theory of a still continuing subsidence of
the islands was formed by Kurz in 1866 and confirmed by Oldham
in 1884. Signs of its continuance are found on the east coast in
several places. Barren Island is a volcano of the general Sund*
group which includes also the Pegu group to which Narcondam
belongs. Barren Island was last in eruption in "803, but there
is still a thin column of steam from a sulphur bed at the top and
a variable hot spring at the point where the last outburst of lava
flowed into the sea.
Climate.- Rarely affected by a cyclone, though within the
influence of practically every one that blows in the Bay of Bengal,
the Andamans are of the greatest importance because of the
accurate information relating to the direction and intensity of
storms which can be communicated from them better than from
any other point in the bay, to the vast amount of shipping in this
part of the Indian Ocean. Trustworthy information also
regarding the weather which may be expected in the north and
east of India, is obtained at the islands, and this proves of the
utmost value to the controllers of the great trades dependent
upon the rainfall. A well-appointed meteorological station has
been established at Port Blair since 1868, Speaking generally,
the climate of the Andamans themselves may be described as
normal for tropical islands of similar latitude. It is warm
always, but tempered by pleasant sea-breezes; very hot when
956
ANDAMAN ISLANDS
the sun is northing; irregular rainfall, but usually dry during
the north-east, and very wet during the south-west monsoon.
Not only does the rainfall at one place vary from year to year,
but there is an extraordinary difference in the returns for places
quite dose to one another. The official figures in inches for the
station at Port Blair, which is situated in by far the driest part
of the settlement, were: —
1895.
1896.
1897.
1898.
I899.
I9OO.
lOOI.
12564
107-28
13641
127*22
87-01
83-28
I32-50
A tidal observatory has also been maintained at Port Blair since
1880.
Flora.— A section of the Forest Department of India has been
established in the Andamans since 1883, and in the neighbour-
hood of Port Blair 156 sq. m. have been set apart for regular
forest operations which are carried on by convict labour. The
chief timber of indigenous growth js padouk (Ptcrocarpus dalber-
gioidts) used for buildings, boats, furniture, fine joinery and all
purposes to which teak, mahogany, hickory, oak and ash are
applied. This tree is widely spread and forms a valuable export
to European markets. Other first-class timbers are koko
(Albizzia lebbek), white chuglam (Terminal™ bialato), black
chuglam (Myristka irya), marble or zebra wood {Diospyroskurzii)
and satin-wood {Murray a exotica), which differs from the satin-
wood of Ceylon (Chloroxylon swictenia) . All of these timbers are
used for furniture and similar purposes. In addition there are a
number of second-and third-class timbers, which are used locally
and for export to Calcutta. Gangaw (Messuafcrrca}the Assam
iron-wood, is suitable for sleepers; and didu (Bombox insigne) is
used for tea-boxes and packing-cases. Among the imported
flora are tea, Siberian coffee, cocoa, Ceara rubber (which has not
done well), Manila hemp, teak, cocoanut and a number of
ornamental trees, fruit-trees, vegetables and garden plants.
Tea is grown in considerable quantities and the cultivation is
under a department of the penal settlement. The general
character of the forests is Burmese with an admixture of Malay
types. Great mangrove swamps supply unlimited fire-wood of
the best quality. The great peculiarity of Andaman flora is
that, with the exception of the Cocos islands, no cocoanut palms
arc found in the archipelago.
Fauna.— Animal life is generally deficient throughout the
Andamans, especially as regards mammalia, of which there are
only nineteen separate species in all, twelve of these being peculiar
to the islands. There is a small pig (Sus andatnanensis), important
to the food of the people, and a wild cat {Paradoxurus lytlert);
but the bats(sixteen species) and rats( thirteen species) constitute
nearly three-fourths of the known mammals. This paucity of
animal life seems inconsistent with the theory that the islands
were once connected with the mainland. Most of the birds also
are derived from the distant Indian region, while the Indo-
Burmese and Indo-Malayan regions are represented to a far less
degree. Rasorial birds, such as peafowl, junglefowl, pheasants
and partridges, though well represented in the Arakan hills, are
rare in the islands; while a third of the different species found
are peculiar to the Andamans. Moreover, the Andaman species
differ from those of the! adjacent Nicobar Islands. Each group
has its distinct harrier-eagle, red-cheeked paroquet, oriole, sun-
bird and bulbul. Fish are very numerous and many species are
peculiar to the Andaman seas. Turtles are abundant and supply
the Calcutta market. Of imported animals, cattle, goats, asses
and dogs thrive well, ponies and horses indifferently, and sheep
badly, though some success has been achieved in breeding them.
Population. — The Andaman Islands, so near countries that
have for ages attained considerable civilization and have been the
seat of great empires, and close to the track of a great commerce
which has gone on at least 2000 years, are the abode of savages
as low in civilization as almost any known on earth. Our earliest
notice of them is in a remarkable collection of early Arab notes
on India and China (a.d. 851) which accurately represents the
view entertained of this people by mariners down to modern
times. " The inhabitants of these islands eat men alive They
are black, with woolly hair, and in their eyes and <
there is something quite frightful .... They go naked mad have
no boats. If they had, they would devour all who passed Beat
them. Sometimes ships that are windbound and have ex-
hausted their provision of water, touch here and apply to the
natives for it; in such cases the crews sometimes fall into the
hands of the latter and most of them are massacred.' 9 The
traditional charge of cannibalism has been very persistent; bet
it is entirely denied by the islanders themselves, and is now and
probably always has been untrue. Of their massacres of ship-
wrecked crews, even in quite modern times, there is no doubt,
but the policy of conciliation unremittingly pursued for the last
forty years has now secured a friendly reception for abipwrecked
crews at any port of the islands except the south and vest of
Little Andaman and North Sentinel Kland , The Anda man e se a re
probably the relics of a negro race that once inhabited the SX.
portion of Asia and its outlying islands, representatives of which
are also still to be found in the Malay Peninsula and the Philip-
pines. Their antiquity and their stagnation are attested by the
remains found in their kitchen-middens. These are of great age,
and rise sometimes to a height exceeding 1 5 ft The fossil sheSs,
pottery and rude stone implements, found alike at the base and
at the surface of these middens, prove that the habits of the
islanders have not varied since a remote past, and lead to the
belief that the Andamans were settled by their present inhabi-
tants some time during the Pleistocene period, and certainly no
later than the Neolithic age. The population is not susceptible
of accurate computation, but probably it has always been small
The estimated total at a census taken in 1001 was only aooa
Though all descended from one stock, there are twelve distinct
tribes of the Andamanese, each with its own dearly-defined
locality, its own distinct variety of the one fundamental *»»g«»f
and to a certain extent its own separate habits. Every tribe is
divided into septs fairly well defined. The tribal feeling may be
expressed as friendly within the tribe, courteous to other Anda-
manese if known, hostile to every stranger, Andamanese or other.
Another division of the natives is into Arycuio or long-ehore-men*
and the Eremlaga or jungle-dwellers. The habits and raparitirs
of these two differ, owing to surroundings, irrespectively of tribe.
Yet again the Andamanese can be grouped according to certain
salient characteristics: the forms of the bows and arrows, of the
canoes, of ornaments and utensils, of tattooing and of language.
The average height of males is 4 ft. 10) in.; of females, 4 ft. 6 in.
Being accustomed to gratify every sensation as it arises, they
endure thirst, hunger, Want of food and bodily discomfort badly.
The skin varies in colour from an intense sheeny black to a
reddish-brown on the collar-bones, cheeks and other parts of the
body. The hair varies from a sooty black to dark and tight
brown and red. It grows in small rings, which give itlhe appear-
ance of growing in tufts, though it is really closely and evenly
distributed over the whole scalp. The figures of the men are
muscular and well-formed and generally pleasing; a straight,
well-formed nose and jaw are by no means rare, and the young
men are often distinctly good-looking. The only artificuJ
deformity is a depression of the skull, chiefly among one of the
southern tribes, caused by the pressure of a strap used for carryiiu;
loads. The pleasing appearance natural to the men is not a
characteristic of the women, who early have a tendency to
stoutness and ungainliness of figure, and sometimes to pronounced
prognathism. They are, however, always bright and merry, are
under no special social restrictions and have considerab.e
influence. The women's heads are shaved entirely and the mens
into fantastic patterns. Yellow and red ochre mixed with grease
are coarsely smeared over the bodies, grey in coarse patterns
and white in fine patterns resembling tattoo marks. Tattoo-
ing is of two distinct varieties. In the south the body is
slightly cut by women with small flakes of glass or quartz in
zigzag or lineal patterns downwards. In the north it is deeply
cut by men with pig-arrows in lines across the body. The
male matures when about fifteen years of acje, marries
when about twenty-six, begins to age when about forty,
and lives on to sixty or sixty-five if be reaches old age. Except
ANDAMAN ISLANDS
957
as to the marrying age, these figures fairly apply to women.
Before marriage free intercourse between the sexes is the rule,
though certain conventional precautions are taken to prevent it.
Marriages rarely produce more than three children and often
none at alL Divorce is rare, unfaithfulness after marriage not
common and incest unknown. By preference the Andamanese
are exogamous as regards sept and endogamous as regards tribe.
The children are possessed of a bright intelligence, which, how-
ever, soon reaches its climax, and the adult may be compared
in this respect with the civilized child of ten or twelve. The
Andamanese are, indeed, bright and merry companions, busy in
their own pursuits, keen sportsmen, naturally independent and
not lustful, but when angered, cruel, jealous, treacherous and
vindictive, and always unstable— in fact, a people to like but not
to trust. There is no idea of government, but in each sept there
as a head, who has attained that position by degrees on account
of some tacitly admitted superiority .^nd commands a limited
respect and some obedience. The young are deferential to their
Aiders. Offences are punished by the aggrieved party. Property
is communal and theft is only recognized as to things of absolute
necessity, such as arrows, pigs' flesh and fire. Fire is the one
thing they are really careful about, not knowing how to renew
it. A very rude barter exists between tribes of the same group
in regard to articles not locally obtainable. The religion consists
of fear of the spirits of the wood, the sea, disease and ancestors,
and of avoidance of acts traditionally displeasing to them. There
is neither worship nor propitiation. An anthropomorphic deity,
Puluga, is the cause of all things, but it is not necessary to pro-
pitiate him. There is a vague idea that the u soul " will go some-
where after death, but there is no heaven nor hell, nor idea of a
corporeal resurrection. There is much faith in dreams, and in
the utterances of certain " wise men," who practise an embryonic
magic and witchcraft. The great amusement of the Andamanese
is a formal night dance, but they are also fond of simple games.
The bows differ altogether with each group, but the same two
kinds of arrows are in general use: (i) long and ordinary for
fishing and other purposes; (a) short with a detachable head
fastened to the shaft by a thong, which quickly brings pigs up
short when shot in the thick jungle. Bark provides material for
string, while baskets and mats are neatly and stoutly made from
canes and buckets out of bamboo and wood. None of the tribes
ever ventures out of sight of land, and they have no idea of
steering by sun or stars. Their canoes are simply hollowed out of
trunks with the adze and in no other way, and it is the smaller
ones which are ou trigged; they do not last long and are not good
sea-boats, and the story of raids on Car Nicobar, out of sight
across a stormy and sea-rippled channel, must be discredited.
Honour is shown to an adult when he dies, by wrapping him in
a cloth and placing him on a platform in a tree instead of burying
him. At such a time the encampment Is deserted for three
months. The Andaman languages are extremely interesting
from the philological standpoint. They are agglutinative in
nature, show hardly any signs of syntactical growth though
every indication of long etymological growth, give expression to
only the most direct and the simplest thought, and are purely
colloquial and wanting in the modifications always necessary for
communication by writing. The sense is largely eked out by
manner and action. Mincopie is the first word in Colebrooke's
vocabulary for " Andaman Island, or native country," and the
term— though probably a mishearing on Colebrooke's part for
MOngebe (" I am an Onge," i.e. a member of the Onge tribes-
has thus become a persistent book-name for the people. At-
tempts to civilize the Andamanese have met with little success
either among adults or children. The home established near
Port Blair is used as a sort of free asylum which the native visits
according to his pleasure. The policy of the government is to
leave the Andamanese alone, while doing what is possible to
ameliorate their condition.
Penal Settlement.— The point of enduring interest as regards
the Andamans is the penal system, the object of which is to turn
the life-sentence and few long-sentence convicts, who alone are
sent to the settlement, into honest, self-respecting men and
women, by leading them along a continuous course of practice in
self-help and self-restraint, and by offering them every inducement
to take advantage of that practice. After ten years' graduated
labour the convict is given a ticket-of-leave and becomes self-
supporting. He can farm, keep cattle, and marry or send for his
family, but he cannot leave the settlement or be idle. With
approved conduct, however, he may be absolutely released after
twenty to twenty-five years in the settlement; and throughout
that time, though possessing no civil rights, a quasi-judicial
procedure controls all punishments inflicted upon him, and he
is as secure of obtaining justice as if free. There is an unlimited
variety of work for the labouring convicts, and some of the
establishments are on a large scale. \ery few experts are
employed in supervision; practically everything is directed by
the officials, who themselves have first to learn each trade.
Under the chief commissioner, who is the supreme head of the
settlement, are a deputy and a staff of assistant superintendents
and overseers, almost all Europeans, and sub-overseers, who are
natives of India. All the petty supervising establishments are
composed of convicts. The garrison consists of 140 British and
300 Indian troops, with a few local European volunteers. The
police are organized as a military battalion 643 strong. The
number of convicts has somewhat diminished of late years and
in 1 001 stood at z z ,047. The total population of the settlement,
consisting of convicts, their guards, the supervising, clerical and
departmental staff, with the families of the latter, also a certain
number of ex-convicts and trading settlers and their families,
numbered 16,106. The labouring convicts are distributed among
four jails and nineteen stations; the self-supporters in thirty-
eight villages. The elementary education of the convicts'
children is compulsory. There are four hospitals, each under a
resident medical officer, under the general supervision of a senior
officer of the Indian medical service, and medical aid is given free
to the whole population. The. net annual cost of the settlement
to the government is about £6 per convict. The harbour of Port
Blair is well supplied with buoys and harbour lights, and is
crossed by ferries at fixed intervals, while there are several
launches for hauling local traffic. On Ross Island there is a light-
house visible for 19 m. A complete system of signalling by night
and day on the Morse system is worked by the police. Local posts
are frequent, but there is no telegraph and the mails are irregular.
History.— It is uncertain whether any of the names of the
islands given by Ptolemy ought to be attached to the Andamans;
yet it is probable that his name itself is traceable in the Alexan-
drian geographer. Andaman first appears distinctly in the Arab
notices of the 9th century, already quoted. But it seems possible
that the tradition of marine nomenclature had never perished;
that the ' Ay aBov ialftopos vrjaos was really a misunderstanding
of some form like Agdamdn, while Nfrat Bapefovai survived as
Lanka BdlHs % the name applied by the Arabs to the Nicobars.
The islands are briefly noticed by Marco Polo, who probably saw
without visiting them, under the name Angamanain, seemingly
an Arabic dual, ' The two Angamans," with the exaggerated but
not unnatural picture of the natives, long current, as dog-faced
Anthropophagi. Another notice occurs in the story of Nicolo
Conti (c. Z440), who explains the name to mean " Island of
Gold," and speaks of a lake with peculiar virtues as existing in it.
The name is probably derived from the Malay Handuman, coming
from the ancient Hanuman (monkey). Later travellers repeat
the stories, too well founded, of the ferocious hostility of the
people; of whom we may instance Cesarc Federid (1569), whose
narrative is given in Ramusio, vol. iii. (only in the later editions),
and in Purchas. A good deal is also told of them in the vulgar
and gossiping but useful work of Captain A. Hamilton (1727).
In z 7 83- 1 789 the government of Bengal sought to establish in the
Andamans a penal colony, associated with a harbour of refuge.
Two able officers, Colebrooke of the Bengal Engineers, and Blair
of the sea service, were sent to survey and report. In the sequel
the settlement was established by Captain Blair, in September
1789, on Chatham Island, in the S.E. bay of the Great Andaman,
now called Port Blair, but then Port Cornwallis. There was
much sickness, and after two years, urged by Admiral Cornwallis,
95«
ANDANTE— ANDERSEN
the government transferred the colony to the N.E. part of Great
Andaman, where a naval arsenal was to be established With
the colony the name also of Port Corawallis was transferred to
this new locality. The scheme did ill; and in 1706 the govern-
ment put an end to it, owing to the great mortality and the
embarrassments of maintenance. The settlers were finally
removed in May 1706. In 1824 Port Corawallis was the rendez-
vous of the fleet carrying the army to the first Burmese war. In
1839, Dr Heifer, a German savant employed by the Indian
government, having landed in the islands, was attacked and
killed. In 1844 the troop-ships " Briton " and " Runnymede "
were driven ashore here, almost close together. The natives
showed their usual hostility, killing all stragglers. Outrages on
shipwrecked crews continued so rife that the question of occupa-
tion had to be taken up again; and in 1855 a project was formed
for such a settlement, embracing a convict establishment This
was interrupted by the Indian Mutiny of 1857, but as soon as the
neck of that revolt was broken, it became more urgent than ever
to provide such a resource, on account of the great number of
prisoners falling into British hands. Lord Canning, therefore,
in November 1857, sent a commission, headed by Dr F. Mouat,
to examine and report The commission reported favourably,
selecting as a site Blair's original Port Corawallis, but pointing
out and avoiding the vicinity of a salt swamp which seemed to
have been pernicious to the old colony. To avoid confusion, the
name of Port Blair was given to the new settlement, which was
established in the beginning of 1 858. For some time sickness and
mortality were excessively large, but the reclamation of swamp
and clearance of jungle on an extensive scale by Colonel Henry
Man when in charge (1868-1870), had a most beneficial effect, and
the health of the settlement has since been notable. The Anda-
man colony obtained a tragical notoriety from the murder of the
viceroy, the earl of Mayo, by a Mahommedan convict, when on a
visit to the settlement on the 8th of February 1872. In the same
year the two groups, Andaman and Nicobar, the occupation of
the latter also having been forced on the British government (in
1869) by the continuance of outrage upon vessels, were united
under a chief commissioner residing at Port Blair.
See Sir Richard Temple, The Andaman and Nicobar Islands
1
India Office. London, and Home Department, Calcutta), 1893-
1898. Andamanese Manual (1887), Notes on the Languages of
i
Vol xxiv. of the Proceedings of ike National Museum, U.S.A.);
A. L. Butler, " Birds of the Andamans and Nicobars " (Proc.
Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., vols. xii. and xiii.); and A. Akock. A
Naturalist in Indian Seas (190a).
ANDANTE (Ital. for "moving slowly," from ondare t to go),
a musical term to indicate pace, coming between adagio and
allegro; it is also used of an independent piece of music or of
the slow movement in a sonata, symphony, &c.
ANDERIDA, an ancient Roman fort at Pevensey, near East-
bourne in Sussex (England), built about A.D. 300 as part of a
scheme of land-defence against the Saxon pirates; repaired,
probably by the great StiLcho, about aj>. 400; and after the
Norman Conquest utilised by William the Conqueror for a
Norman castle. Its massive Roman enceinte still stand* but
little damaged.
ANDERNACH, a town of Germany, in the Prussian Rhine
province, on the left bank of the Rhine, zo m. N.W. of Coblenz by
the main line to Cologne. Pop. (1000) 7889. Viewed from the
river it makes a somewhat gloomy, though picturesque, im-
pression, with its parish church la basilica dating from the xath
century, with four towers), the round watch-tower on the Rhine,
old walls in places 15 ft thick, and a famous crane (erected 1554)
for lading merchandise. Among other buildings are a Gothic
Minorite church (now Protestant), a town hall, and a prison,
formerly the castle of the archbishops of Cologne. Andernach has
considerable industries, brewing and manufactures of chemicals
and perfumes, and has also a trade in corn and wine. Bat its
most notable article of commerce is that of will it san. snoee
of lava and tufa-stone, a product much used by Che Dutch in the
construction of their dykes.
Andernach (Antunnacum) is the old Roman Girfrff— ex*
Nacum, founded by Drusus and fortified in the 3rd century jld.
In X109 Andernach received civic rights, passed in 1167 to the
electors of Cologne, in 1253 joined the confederatjosi of the
Rhine cities and was the most southern member of the Hanseatic
league. Here in 1474 a treaty was signed between the emperor
Frederick III., the four electors of the Rhine and France. In
x 704 Andernach passed to France, but in 181 5 was ceded, together
with the left bank of the Rhine, to Prussia.
ANDERSEN, HANS CHRISTIAN (1805-1875). Danish poet
and fabulist, was born at Odense, in FOnen, on the sod of
April 1805. He was the son of a sickly young shormahrr of
twenty-two, and his still younger wife: the whole famfly lived
and slept in one little room. Andersen very early showed sign*
of imaginative temperament, which was fostered by the
indulgence and superstition of his parents. In 1816 the shoe-
maker died and the child was left entirely to his own devices.
He ceased to go to school; he built himself a little toy-theatre
and sat at home making clothes for his puppets, and reading all
the plays that he could borrow; among them were those of
Holberg and Shakespeare. At Easter 1819 he was confirmed
at the church of St Kund, Odense, and began to turn his thoughts
to the future. It was thought that he was best fitted to be a
tailor; but as nothing was settled, and as Andersen wished to
be an opera-singer, he took matters into his own hand and
started for Copenhagen in September 18x9. There be was taken
for a lunatic, snubbed at the theatres, and nearly reduced to
starvation, but he was befriended by the musicians Christoph
Weyse and Siboni, and afterwards by the poet Frederik Hocgh
Guldberg (1771-1852). His voice failed, but he was admitted
as a dancing pupil at the Royal Theatre. He grew idle, and
lost the favour of Guldberg, but a new patron appeared in the
person of Jonas Collin, the director of the Royal Theatre, who
became Andersen's life-long friend. King Frederick VL was
interested in the strange boy and sent him for some years, free
of charge, to the great grammar-school at Slagdse. Before he
started for school he published his first volume, The Ckmst at
Palnatoke's Crave (1822). Andersen, a very backward and un-
willing pupil, actually remained at Slagrhe and at another school
in Elsinore until 1827; these years, he says, were the darkest
and bitterest in his life. Collin at length consented to comaVWr
him educated, and Andersen came to Copenhagen. In 1839 he
made a considerable success with a fantastic volume entitled
A Journey on Foot from Holman's Canal to Ike East Point of
Amager, and he published in the same season a farce and a book
of poems. He thus suddenly came into request at the moment
when his friends had decided that no good thing would ever come
out of bis early eccentricity and vivacity,. He made little further
progress, however, until 1833, when he received a small travel-
ling stipend from the king, and made the first of his long European
Journeys. At Le Lode, in the Jura, he wrote Agnate and Ike Mer-
man; and in October 1834 he arrived in Rome. Early in 1835
Andersen's novel, The Improvisator*, appeared, and achieved
a real success; the poet's troubles were at an end at last In the
same year, 1835, the earliest instalment of Andersen's immortal
Fairy Tales (Eventyr) was published in Copenhagen. Other parts,
completing the first volume, appeared in. 1836 and 1837. The
value of these stories was not at first perceived, and they sold
slowly. Andersen was more successful for the time being with
a novel, O.T., and a volume of sketches, In Sweden; in 1837 he
produced the best of his romances. Only a Fiddler. He now
turned his attention, with but ephemeral success, to the theatre,
but was recalled to his true genius in the charming nusccflanies
of 1840 and 1842, the Picture- Book without Pictures, and A Poets
Bazaar. Meanwhile the fame of bis Fairy Tola bad been
steadily rising; a second series began in 1838, a third in t8-is-
Andersen was now celebrated throughout Europe, although in
Denmark itself there was still some resistance to his pretensions.
Ill June 1847 he paid his first visit to England, and enjoyed a
ANDERSON
959
triumphal todal success; When lie left, Claries Dickens saw him
off from Ramsgate pier. After this Andersen continued to publish
much; he still desired to excel as a novelist and a dramatist,
which he could not do, and he still disdained the enchanting
Fairy Tales, in the composition of which his unique genius lay.
Nevertheless he continued to write them, and in 1847 *nd 1848
two fresh volumes appeared. After a long silence Andersen
published in 1857 another romance, To be or not to be. In 1863,
after a very interesting journey, he issued one of the best of his
travel-books, In Spain. His Fairy Tales continued to appear, in
instalments, until 1872, when, at Christmas, the last stories were
published. In the spring of that year Andersen had an awkward
accident, falling out of bed and severely hurting himself. He was
never again quite well, but he lived till the 4th of August 1875,
when he died very peacefully in the house called RoUghed, near
Copenhagen. (E. G.)
ANDERSON, ADAH (1699-1 765), Scottish economist, was
born in x6oa, and died in London on the zoth of January 1765.
He was a clerk for forty years in the South Sea House, where he
published a work entitled Historical and Chronological Deduction
of the Origin of Commerce from the Earliest Accounts to the Present
Time, containing a History of the Great Commercial Interests of the
British Empire (1762, 2 vols. foL).
ANDERSON, ALEXANDER (c. 1582-1620?), Scottish mathe-
matician, was born at Aberdeen. In his youth he went to the
continent and taught mathematics at Paris, where he published
or edited, between the years i6xa-and 16x9, various geometrical
and algebraical tracts, which are conspicuous for their ingenuity
and elegance. He was selected by the executors of Franciscus
Vieta to revise and edit his manuscript works, a task which
he discharged with great ability. The works of Anderson
amount to six thin 4to volumes', and as the last of them was
published in 16x9, it is probable that the author died soon after
that year, but the precise date is unknown.
ANDERSON, SIR EDMUND (1530-1605), English lawyer,
descended from a Scottish family settled in Lincolnshire, was
born in 1530 at Flixborough or Broughton in that county
After studying for a short time at Lincoln College, Oxford, he
became in 1550 a student of the Inner Temple. In x 579 he was
appointed serjeant-at-law to Queen Elizabeth, and also an
assistant judge on circuit As a reward for his services in the trial
of Edmund Campian and his followers (1581), he was, on the
death of Sir James Dyer, appointed lord chief justice of the
Common Pleas (1582), and was knighted. He took part in all
the leading state trials which agitated England during the latter
years of Elizabeth's reign. Though a great lawyer and thoroughly
impartial in civil cases, he became notorious by his excessive
severity and harshness when presiding over the trials of catholics
and nonconformists; more markedly so in those of Sir John
Perrot, Sir Walter Raleigh, and John Udall the puritan minister.
Anderson was also one of the commissioners appointed to try
Wary queen of Scots in 1586. He died on the xst of August
1605 at Eyworth in Bedfordshire. In addition to Reports
of Many Principal Cases Argued and Adjudged in the Time of
Queen Elizabeth in the Common Bench, published after his
death, he drew up several expositions of statutes enacted in
Elisabeth's reign which remain in manuscript in the British
Museum.
ANDERSON, ELIZABETH GARRETT (1836- ), English
medical practitioner, daughter of Newson Garrett, of Aldeburgh,
Suffolk, was born in 1836, and educated at home and at a private
school. In i860 she resolved to study medicine, an unheard-
of thing for a woman in those days, and one which was regarded
by old-fashioned people as almost indecent. Miss Garrett
managed to obtain some more or less irregular instruction at
the Middlesex hospital, London, but was refused admission
as a full student both there and at many other schools to which
she applied. Finally she studied anatomy privately at the
London hospital, and with some of the professors at St Andrews
University, and at the Edinburgh Extra Mural school She had
no less difficulty in gaining a qualifying diploma to practise
medicine London University, the Royal Colleges of Physicians
and Surgeons, and many other examining bodies refused to
admit her to their examinations; but in the end the Society
of Apothecaries, London, allowed her to enter for the License
of Apothecaries' Hall, which she obtained in 1865. In 1866
she was appointed general medical attendant to St Mary's
dispensary, a London institution started to enable poor women
to obtain medical help from qualified practitioners of their own
sex. The dispensary soon developed into the New hospital for
women, and there she worked for over twenty years. In 1870
she obtained the Paris degree of M.D. The same year she was
elected to the first London School Board, at the head of the
poll for Marylebone, and was also made one of the visiting
physicians of the East London hospital for children; but the
duties of these two positions she found to be incompatible with
her principal work, and she soon resigned them. In 1871 she
married Mr J. G. S. Anderson (d. 1907), a London shipowner,
but did not give up practice. She worked steadily at the develop-
ment of the New hospital, and (from 1874) at the creation of a
complete school *of medicine in London for women. Both
institutions have .since been handsomely and suitably housed
and equipped, the New hospital (in the Euston Road) being
worked entirely by medical women, and the schools (in Hunter
Street, W.C.) having over 300 students, most of them preparing
for the medical degree of London University, which was opened
to women in 1877. In 1897 Mrs Garrett Anderson was elected
president of the East Anglian branch of the British Medical
Association. In 1908 she was elected (the first lady) mayor of
Aldeburgh. The movement for the admission of women to
the medical profession, of which she was the indefatigable
pioneer in England, has extended to every civilized country
except Spain and Turkey.
ANDERSON, JAMES (16A2-1728), Scottish genealogist, anti-
quary and historian, was born at Edinburgh on the 5th of
August 1662. He was educated for the law, and became
a writer to the signet in 1691. His profession gave him the
opportunity of gratifying his taste for the study of ancient
documents; and just before the union the Scottish parliament
commissioned him to prepare for publication what remained
of the public records of the kingdom, and in their last session
voted a sum of £1040 sterling to defray his expenses. At this
work he laboured for several years with great judgment and
perseverance; but it was not completed at his death in 1728.
The book was published posthumously in 1739, edited by
Thomas Ruddiman, under the title Sdectus Diplomatum el
Numismatum Scotiae Thesaurus. The preparation of this great
national work involved the author in considerable pecuniary
loss; and soon after his death, the numerous plates, engraved
by Sturt, were sold for £530. These plates are now lost, and the
book has become exceedingly scarce. After the union of the
crowns, Anderson was appointed in 1715 postmaster-general
for Scotland, as some compensation for his labours; but in the
political struggles of 17x7 he was deprived of this office, and
never again obtained any reward for bis services. He died on the
3rd of April 1728. He published, during the controversy about
the union, An Historical Essay showing that the Crown and King-
dom of Scotland is Imperial and Independent (Edin., 1705,), and
later Collections relating to the History of Mary Queen of Scotland
(in 4 vols., Edin., 1727-17 28).
ANDERSON, JAMES (1 730-1808), Scottish agriculturist and
economist, was born at Hermiston, near Edinburgh, in 1739
While still a boy he undertook the working of a farm in Mid
Lothian which his family had occupied for several generations,
and later he rented in Aberdeenshire a farm of 1300 acres of
unimproved land. In 1783 he settled in Edinburgh, where
in x 79 1 he projected a weekly publication called The Bee, which
was largely written by himself, and of which eighteen volumes
were published. In 1797 he began to reside at Isleworth, and
from 1709 to 1802 he produced a monthly publication, Recreations
in Agriculture, Natural History, Arts and Miscellaneous Litera-
ture. He was also the author of many pamphlets on agri-
cultural and economical topics. He died on the 15th of
October 1808.
960
ANDERSON— ANDES
ANDERSON, JOHN (1726-1796), Scottish natural philosopher,
was born at Roseneath, Dumbartonshire, in 1726. In 1756 he
became professor of oriental languages in the university of
Glasgow, where he had finished his education; and in 1760 he
was appointed to the more congenial post of professor of natural
philosophy. He" devoted himself particularly to the application
of science to industry, instituting courses of lectures intended
especially for artisans, and he bequeathed his property for the
foundation of an institution for the furtherance of technical and
scientific education in Glasgow, Anderson's College, now merged
in the Glasgow and West of Scotland Technical College. He
died in Glasgow on the 13th of January 1796. His Institutes of
Physics, published in. 1786, went through five editions in ten
years.
ANDERSON, HART (1859- ), American actress, was born
at Sacramento, California, on the 28th of July 1850. Her father,
an officer in the Confederate service in the Civil War, died in 1863.
She was educated in various Roman Catholic institutions, and
at the age of thirteen, with the advice of Charlotte Cushman,
began to study for the stage, making her first appearance at
Louisville, Kentucky, as Juliet in 1875. Her remarkable beauty
created an immediate success, and she played in all the large
cities of the United States with increasing, popularity. Between
1883 and 1889 she had several seasons in London, and was the
Rosalind in the performance of As You Like It which opened the
Shakespeare Memorial theatre at Stratford-on-Avon. Among
her chief parts were Galatea (in W. S. Gilbert's Pygmalion and
Galatea), Clarice (in his Comedy and Tragedy, written for her),
Hermione, Perdita, and Julia (in The Hunchback). In 1889 she
retired from the stage and in 1890 married Antonio de Navarro,
and settled in England.
See William Winter's State Life of Mary Anderson (New York,
1886), and her own A Few Memories (New York, 1896).
ANDERSON, RICHARD HENRY (1831-1879), American
soldier, was born in South Carolina on the 7th of October 182 1.
Graduating at West Point in 1842, he served in the Mexican War
(in which he won the brevet of first lieutenant) and in the Kansas
troublcsof i856-i8s7,becomingfirstlieutenant in x848andcaptain
in 1855. At the outbreak of the Civil War in 1861 he resigned
his commission in the U.S. army, and entered the Confederate
service as a brigadier-general, being promoted major-general in
August 1862 and lieutenant-general in May 1864. With the
exception of a few months spent with the army under Bragg in
1862, Anderson's service was wholly in the Army of Northern
Virginia. Under Lee and Longstreet he served as a divisional
commander in nearly every battle from 1862 to 1864, winning
especial distinction at Chancellorsville and Gettysburg. When
Longstreet was wounded at the battle of the Wilderness, Ander-
son succeeded him in command of the zst corps, which he led
in the subsequent battles. His services at the battle of Spott-
sylvania (q.v.) were most important. He remained with the
army, as a corps commander, to the close of the war, after which
he retired into private life He died at Beaufort S.C on the
26th of June 1879.
ANDERSON, ROBERT (1750-1830), Scottish author and
critic, was born at Carnwath, Lanarkshire, on the 7th of January
1750. He studied first divinity and then medicine at the uni-
versity of Edinburgh, and subsequently, after some experience
as a surgeon, took the degree of M.D. at St Andrews in 1778.
He began to practise as a physician at Alnwick, but he became
financially independent by his marriage with the daughter of
Mr John Gray, and abandoned his profession for a literary life
in Edinburgh. For several years his attention was occupied
with his edition of The Works of the British Poets, with Prefaces
Biographical and Critical (14 vols. 8vo, Edin., 1792-1807). His
other publications were, The Miscellaneous Works of Tobias
Smollett, M.D., with Memoirs of his Life and Writings (Edin.,
1796); Life of Samuel Johnson, LL.D., with Critical Observations
on his Works (Edin., 1815); The Works of John Moore, M.D.,
with Memoirs of his Life and Writings (Edin., 7 vols., 1820); and
The Grave and other Poems, by Robert Blair; to which are pre-
fixed some Account of his Life and Observations on his Writings
(Edin., 1826). Dr Anderson died at Edinburgh on the soth of
February 1830.
ANDERSON, a dty and the county-seat of Madison county,
Indiana, U.S.A., situated on the west fork of the White river,
about 35 m. NJE. of Indianapolis. Pop. (1880) 4126; <i£oo)
10,741; (1000) 20,178, of whom zoSi were foreign-barn;
(toxo, census) 22,476. It is served by the Central Infisnn, the
Cleveland, Cincinnati, Chicago & St Louis, and the Pittsburg.
Chicago & St Louis railways, and also by the Indiana Union
Traction System (electric), the general offices and central power
plant of which are situated there. Its importance as a manu-
facturing centre is due to its location in the natural gas region.
In Z905 Anderson ranked first among the cities of the state in the
manufacture of carriage and wagon material, and iron and
steeL Among its many other manufactures are glass and glass-
ware, paper, strawboards, crockery and tiles. In 1905 the total
factory product was valued at $8,314,760. There is a good
public library; much attention has been devoted to public
improvements; and the water works and the electric lighting
plants are owned and operated by the city. In connexion with
the water works there is a good filtration plant. lint settled
about 1822, Anderson was incorporated in 1865.
ANDBRSONVILLB, a village of Sumter county, Georgia,
U.S. A., in the S.W. part of the state, about 60 m. S. W . of Macon,
on the Central of Georgia railway. Pop. (19x0) 174, From
November 1863 until the close of the Civil War it was the seat of
a Confederate military prison. A tract of i6| acres of land near
the village was cleared of trees and enclosed with a .stockade.
Prisoners began to arrive in February 1864, before the prison
was completed and before adequate supplies had been received,
and in May their number amounted to about 12,000. In Jane
the stockade was enlarged so as to include 26J acres, but the
congestion was only temporarily relieved, and in August the
number of prisoners exceeded 32,000. No shelter had been
provided for the inmates: the first arrivals made rode sheds
from the debris of the stockade; the others made tents of
blankets and other available pieces of doth, or dug pits in the
ground. Owing to the slender resources of the Confederacy, the
prison was frequently short of food, and even when tins was
sufficient in quantity it was of a poor quality and poorly prepared
on account of the lack of cooking utensils. The water supply,
deemed ample when the prison was planned, became polluted
under the congested conditions. During the summer of 1864 the
prisoners suffered greatly from hunger, exposure and disease,
and in seven months about a third of them died. la the autumn,
after the capture of Atlanta, all the prisoners who could be
moved were sent to Millen, Georgia and Florence, South Ca r o lina
At Millen better arrangements prevailed, and when, after
Sherman began his march to the sea, the prisoners were returned
to Andersonville, the conditions there were somewhat improved.
During tbe war 49,485 prisoners were rece i ved at the Anderson-
ville prison, and of these about 13,000 died. The terrible con-
ditions obtaining there were due to the lack of food smp pBes a
the Confederate States, the incompetence of the prison offitiah,
and the refusal of the Federal authorities in 1864 to make
exchanges of prisoners, thus filling the stockade with unlooked-for
numbers. After the war Henry Win, the superintendent, was
tried by a court-martial, and on the xoth of November 1865 is
hanged, snd the revelation of the sufferings of the prison er s was
one of the factors that shaped public opinion regarding the South
in the Northern states, after tbe dose of the Gvtt War. The
prisoners' burial ground at Andersonville has been made a
national cemetery, and contains 13,7x4 graves of which 921 are
marked " unknown."
There is an impartial account of the Andersonville proem w
James F. Rhodes, History of the United States (vol v.. New York,
1904). The partisan accounts are ntimerom; see. for MatMcr.
A. C. Hamlin, Martyria; or, Andersomtille Prison (Boston, 1866);
and R. R. Stevenson, The Southern Side; or, Aude nm t iH t Priam
(Baltimore, 1876).
ANDES, a vast mountain system forming a continnoos chaia
of highland along the western coast of South America. It is
roughly 4400 m. long, 100 m. wide in some parts, and of aa
ANDES
961
avenge height of 13,000 ft. 1 The connexion of this system with
that of the Rocky Mountains, which has been pointed out by
many writers, has received much support from the discovery of
the extensive eruptions of granite during Tertiary times, extend-
ing from thesouthern extremity of South America to Alaska. The
Andean range is composed of two great principal chains with a
deep intermediate depression, in which, and at the sides of the
great chains, arise other chains of minor importance, the chief
of which is that called the Cordillera de la Costa of Chile. This
starts from the southern extremity of the continent, and runs
in a northerly direction, parallel with the coast, being broken
up at its beginning into a number of islands, and afterwards
forming the western boundary of the great central valley of
Chile. To the north this coastal chain continues in small ridges
or isolated hills along the Pacific as far as Colombia, always
leaving the same valley more or less visible to the west of the
western great chain.
Of the two principal chains the eastern is generally called
Los Andes, and the western La Cordillera, in Colombia, Peru
and Bolivia, where the eastern is likewise known as
]£Z Cordillera Real de los Andes, while to the south of
parallel 23° S. lat in Chile and Argentina, the western
is called Cordillera de los Andes. The eastern disappears in the
centre of Argentina, and it is therefore only the Cordillera de los
Andes that is prolonged as far as the south-eastern extremity of
the continent The Cordillera de la Costa begins near Cape Horn,
which is composed principally of crystalline rocks, and its heights
are inconsiderable when compared with those of the trueCordillera
of the Andes. The latter, as regards its main chain, is on the
northern coast of the Beagle Channel,inTierradei Fuego, bounded
on the north by the deep depression of Lake Fagnano and of
Admiralty Sound. Staten Island appears to be the termination
to the east The Cordillera of the Andes in Tierra del Fuego
is formed of crystalline schists, and culminates in the snow-
capped peaks of Mount Darwin and Mount Sarmiento (7200 ft.),
which contains glaciers of greater extent than those of Mont
Blanc. The extent of the glaciers is considerable in this region,
which, geographically, is more complex than was formerly
tupposed. Although, in the explored portion of the Fuegian
hain, the volcanoes which have been mentioned from time to
ime have not been met with, there seem to have existed to the
outh, on the islands, many neo-volcanic rocks, some of which
ppear to be contemporaneous with the basaltic sheet that
overs a part of eastern Patagonia. The insular region between
fount Sarmiento and the Cordillera de los Andes, properly so
1 lied, i.e. that which extends from Magellan Strait northwards,
not fully explored, and all that is known of it is that it is
-incipally composed of the same rocks as the Fuegian section,
id that the greater part of its upper valleys is occupied by
iciers that reach down to the sea amid dense forest
As Admiralty Sound and Lake Fagnano bound the Cordillera
the north in Tierra del Fuego, so at the eastern side of the
rdiilera in the southernmost part oi the continent there is a
igitudinal depression which separates the Andes from some
ependent ridges pertaining to a secondary parallel, broken
tin called the pre-Cordillera. This depression is occupied in
at part by a aeries of lakes, some of these filling transversal
aches in the range, whilst others are remains of glacial re-
roirs, bordered by morainic dams, extending as far as the
era tableland and corresponding in these casts with trans-
>al depressions which reach the Atlantic Ocean. Between the
larger lakes, fed by the Andine glaciers of the eastern
at/am. fl l°P* of the Southern Andes, are Lakes MaraviUa,
s- s.' 100 sq. m., and Sarmiento, 26 sq. m., 51° S. lat, which
overflow into Last Hope Inlet; Argentino, 570 sq. m.,
5. lat. ; and Viedma, 450 sq. m., 49° 30' S. lat, which empty
the river Santa Cruz; the fjordian Lake San Martin, 49°
L, and Lakes Nansen, 18 sq. m.; Azara, 8 sq. m.; and
•ano, x8 sq. m., which are dependents of Lake San Martin
s to the specific elevations of many of the peaks mentioned in
irticle, various authorities differ, and it is impossible in many
to rate one estimate as of greater value than another.
(380 sq. m.), and Lakes Pueyrredon (98 sq. m.) and Buenos Aires
(700 sq. m.), which now overflow into the Pacific, through one
of the remarkable inlets that are found throughout the Cordillera,
the Calen Inlet, which is the largest western fjord of Patagonia.
To the north of Lake Buenos Aires there is Lake Elizalde, which,
while situated on the eastern slope, sends its waters to the Pacific
Ocean, and Lakes
Fontana (30 sq. m.)
and La Plata (34 sq.
m.), 45° S. lat,
which feed the river
Senguerr, which
flows to the Atlantic.
Lake General Pas
(66 sq. to.) on the
eastern slope of the
Andes, at 44 S. lat,
is the principal
source of the Palena
river, which cuts all
the Cordillera, while
Lakes Fetalauquen
(20 sq.m.) Menendez
(28 sq. m.), Riva-
davia (10 sq. m.),
and other smaller
lakes, also situated
between 43° 30',
and 42 30' S. lat.
on the eastern slope
send their waters to
the Pacific by the
river Fetaleufu
which cuts through
the Andes by a
narrow gorge. The
waters of Lake Puelo
(18 sq. m.) likewise
flow into the same
ocean through the
river of that name,
which also cuts the
Cordillera, and of
which the principal
affluent likewise
drains the waters of
a system of small
lakes, the largest of
which, Lake Mas*
cardi, measures 17
sq. m., which in
comparatively re-
cent times formed
part of the basin
of Lake Nahuel-
Huapi (207 sq. m.),
41° S. lat An ex-
tensive area of
glacial deposits
shows that a sheet
of ice formerly
covered the whole
eastern slope to a
great distance from
the mountains. To the west another sheet reached at the
same time the Pacific Ocean.
From the Strait of Magellan up to 5a S. lat, the western
slope of the Cordillera docs not, properly speaking, exist Abrupt
walls overlook the Pacific, and great longitudinal and transversal
channels and fjords run right through the heart of the range,
cutting it generally in a direction more or less oblique to its axis,
the result of movements of the earth's crust
962
ANDES
The mountains forming the Cordillera between Magellan Strait
and 41° S. lat are higher than those previously mentioned
in Tierra del Fuego. Generally composed of granite, gneiss and
Palaeozoic rocks, covered in many parts by rugged masses of
volcanic origin, their general height is not less than 6500 ft, while
Mount Geikie is 7 500 ft. and Mount Stokes 7 100 ft. To the north
are Mounts Mayo (7600 ft.), Agassiz (10,600 ft.), and Fitaroy,
in 49° S. lat. ( 1 1 , 1 ao ft). The section from 5a 9 to 48 S. lat is a
continuous ice-capped mountain range, and some of the glaciers
extend from the eastern lakes to the western channels, where
they reach the sea-level. The level of the lakes begins at 130 ft
at Lake Mara villa and gradually ascends to nearly 700 ft at Lake
San Martin. Passing the breach through which Lake San Martin
empties itself into Calen Inlet, in 48 S. lat, is found a wide
oblique opening in the range, through which flows the river Las
Heras, fed by Lake Pueyrredon, which is only 410 ft above the
sea-level to the east of the Andes, while Lake Buenos Aires,
immediately to the north, is 7x0 ft The Andes continue to be to
the west an enormous rugged mass of ice and snow of an average
height of 0000 ft, sending glaciers to all the eastern fjords.
Mount San Lorenzo, detached from the main chain in the
pre-Cordillera, is 1 1 ,800 ft high. Mount San Valentin (1 2,700 ft)
is the culminating point of the Andes in the region extending
from 49° to 46° S. lat, a little north of which is the river Huemules
which is followed by the breach of the river Aisen. These two
rivers have emptied a large system of lakes, which in pre-Glacial
times occupied the eastern rone, thus forming a region suitable
for colonization in the broad valleys and hollows, where the
rivers, as in the case with those in the north, cut through the
Andes by narrow gaps, forming cataracts and rapids between the
snowy peaks. Volcanic action is still going on in these latitudes,
as the glaciers are at times covered by ashes, but the predominant
rocks to the east are the Tertiary granite, while to the west gneiss,
older granite and Palaeozoic rocks prevail. The highest peaks,
however, seem to be of volcanic origin. Farther north, up to
41 S. lat, the water gaps are situated at a lesser distance one
from the other, owing mainly to more continuous erosion, this
section of the continent being the region of the maximum rainfall
on the western coast to the south of the equator. Between the
gaps of the river Aisen and river Cisnes or Frias, which also
pierces the chain, is found a huge mountain mass, in which is
situated Mount la Torre (7150 ft). These form the continental
watershed, but in this region erosion is taking place so rapidly
that the day is not far distant when Lakes La Plata and Fontana,
situated to the east at a height of 5000 ft and now tributaries
of the Atlantic, may become tributaries of the Pacific.
Already filtration* from the former go to feed western
affluents through the granitic masses. To the north of
Mount la Torre flows in the river Cisnes, 44° 48' S. lat, across
another water gap, continuing the range to the north with high
peaks, as Alto Nevado (7350 ft) and Cacique (7000 ft). The
gkders reach almost the western channels, as is the case at the
river QuelaL The northern glaciers, descending nearly to sea-
level, are situated at 43° 4©' S. lat To the north 45° S. lat. a
well-defined western longitudinal valley, at some recent time
occupied by lakes and rivers, divides the Cordillera into two
chains, the eastern being the main chain, to which belong Mounts
Alto Nevado, Cacique, Dentista, Maldonado, Serrano, each over
7000 ft high; and Torredllas (7400 ft), Venttsquero (7500 ft),
and Tronador (11,180 ft); while the western chain, broken into
imposing blocks, contains several high volcanic peaks such as
Mounts Tantelcs, Corcovado, MmchUnahuida, Hornopiren and
Yates. The rivers Palena, with its two branches, Pico and
Carrenleufu, Fetaleufu, Puelo and Manso cut, the two chains,
while the rivers Refiihue, Bodadahue and Cochamo have their
sources in the main eastern ridge. Mention has been made of
active volcanoes in 51°, 49° and 47° S. lat, but these have not
been properly located. The active volcanoes south of 41°, con-
cerning which no doubt exists, are the Huequen, in 43° lat, and
the Calbuco, both of which have been in eruption in modern times.
The surroundings .of Mount Tronador, consisting of Tertiary
granite and basalt, form one of the most interesting regions in
the Patagonian Andes for the inmmtainom of tsttreture. To
the east extends the large and picturesque lake of Nahaci-Huapi,
to the west is Lake Todos Los Santos (50 sq. m.), to which the
access is easy and of which the scenery is of surpassing beauty.
Between 41° and 38* S. lat, among other smaller lakes, are
Lakes Traiul (45 sq. m.), Lacar (ja sq. m.), which, ptop tri y
belonging to the system of Atlantic lakes, empties itself by the
only water gap that occurs in this aone of the Cordfllera into
the river Valdivia, a tributary of the Pacific, Lake Lolog (15 sq.
m.), Huechu-lafquen (45 sq. m.), and Lake Alanine (21 sq. ol).
The volcanoes of Lanin (12,140 ft), QuetropiUan (9180 ft),
Villarica (10,400 ft), Yaimas and Tolhuaca are afl more or less
active; the first is in the main chain, whOe the others ate on
the western slope. The scenery in the neighbourhood b magni-
ficent, the snowy cones rising from amidst woods of aiancaria,
and being surrounded by blue lakes. While the scenery of the
western slope of the Andes is exceedingly grand, with its deep
fjords, glaciers and woods, yet the severity of its climate detracts
considerably from its charm. The dimate of the eastern slope,
however, is milder, the landscapes are magnificent, with wooded
valleys and beautiful lakes. The valleys are already partly
settled by colonists. Between 5a and 40* S. lat erosion has
carried the watershed of the continent from the summit of the
Cordillera to the eastern plains of Patagonia.
From 40° S. southward the Chile-Argentine Boundary Com-
mission under Sir T. H. Holdich carried out important investiga-
tions in 1 00a; and between 38° and 33* S. lat the Andes were
somewhat extensively explored about the dose of the 10th
century by Argentine and Chilean Commissions. The highest
peaks in the latter section are volcanic and their eruptions have
sensibly modified the character of the primitive ridges. Out-
flows of lava and tufa cover the mountain sides and fiD up the
valleys. The Jurassic and Cretaceous formations, which in
the Southern Cordillera are situated outside of the range to
the east, form to a considerable extent the mass of the great
range, together with quarts porphyry, the Tertiary, granite
and other eruptive rocks, which have been observed along all
the chain in South America up to Alaska in the north. Gneiss
is seldom met with, but there are crystalline rocks, belonging
chiefly to the pre-Cordillera of the eastern and to the Cordulera
de la Costa on the western side.
About 38 S. the Andes take a great transversal extension;
there are no wide intermediate valleys between the different
ridges but the main ridge is perfectly defined. Volcanic n ^
cones continue to predominate, the old crystalline rocks Avmmm
almost disappear, while the Mesoaoic rocks are most Qo^Jr A
common. The higher peaks are in the main chain, while ****
the Domuyo (15,317 ft.) belongs to a lateral eastern
ridge. The principal peaks between this and Mount Tupungato at
33 S. lat. are: Mount Cochico (8255 ft), Campanario, (13,140
ft), Peteroa (13,297 ft.)t Tinguiririca, Castillo (16,335 ft).
Volcano Maipu (17,576 ft), Alvarado (14,600 ft), AmariDo
(15,321 ft), Volcano San Jose (191849 ft.)* Piuquenes (17*815 ft),
and Volcano Bravard (19,6x9 ft).
North of Maipu volcano, ascended by R. P. Gussfeldt in 1883,
the Cordillera is composed of two huge principal ridges which
unite and terminate in the neighbourhood of Mount Tupungato,
The valley between them is 9000 ft high; and in that part of
the Cordillera are situated the highest passes south of 33° S. lat,
one of which, the Piuquenes Pass, reaches 13,333 ft* whilst the
easiest of transit and almost the lowest fa that of Picbachen
(6505 ft), which is the most frequented during winter. Mount
Tupungato reaches 22,329 ft, according to Argentine measure-
ment To the north of this mountain, situated at the watershed
of the Andes, extends a lofty region comprising peaks soch as
Chimbote (1 8,645 ft) and Mount Pollens (20, 266 ft). The Pirca
Pass is situated at a height of 16,062 ft The gsps of Bermejo
and Iglesia, in the Uspallata road, the test known of all the passes
between Argentina and Chile, are at 13*025 ft and 13*41* ft
altitude respectively, while the nearest peaks, those of Junes!
and Tolorsa, are 19,358 and 20,140 ft high.
Mounts Tupungato, Aconcagua (*3*39J '*•) *ad Me*c«4nrJt
ANDES
963
t (Including mppwA hmgr)
ulefMaJm)
MMf JmrmuJo f Dogger J
mostly porphgrtttattd
(21,983 ft.) are the highest peaks of the central Argentine-Chilean
Andes. These three peaks are formed of eruptive rocks, sur-
rounded by Jurassic beds which have undergone a thorough
metamorphosis. While in the west of the Andes, from the latitude
of Aconcagua, the central valley of Chile runs without any notable
interruption to the south end of the continent, a valley which
almost disappears to the north, leaving only some rare inflexions
which are considered by Chilean geographers and geologists
to be a continuation of the same valley; to the east in Argentina
a longitudinal valley, perfectly characterized, runs along the
eastern foot of the Cordillera, separating this from the pre-
Cordillera, which is parallel to the Cordillera de la Costa of Chile.
Between Aconcagua and Mercedario are the passes of Espinadto
(14,803 ft) and Los Patos or Valle Hermoso (11,736 ft), chosen
by the Argentine General San Martin, when he made his memor-
able passage across the chain during the War of Independence.
North of Valle Hermoso the Andean ridges, while very high,
are not abrupt, and the passes are more numerous than in the
south; some of them descending xo,ooo ft, but most of them
between 13,000 and 14,000 ft The pass of Quebrada Grande
is 12,468 ft in altitude; Cencerro, 12,044 ft; Mercedario,
13,306 ft; Ojota, 14,304 ft; Pachon, 14,48s ft ; while Gordito
is 10,3x8 ft Farther north the passes are higher. Barahona
Pass is 15,093 ft; Ternera, 15,913 ft; San Lorenzo, 16420 ft,
while the peak of the volcano reaches 18,143 ft ; Mount OUvares,
20472 ft; Porongos, 19,488 ft; Tortolas, 20,121 ft; and
Potro, 19,357 ft
As far as s8° S. lat the Cordillera de los Andes has been prin-
cipally formed by two well-defined ridges, but to the north,
recent volcanic action has greatly modified its orography. Only
a single line of passes characterizes the main ridge, and amongst
them are the passes of Ollita (15,036 ft), Pefias Negras (14435
ft), Pircas Negras (13,6x5 ft), La Gallina (16,340 ft), Ires
Quebradas (15,535 ft), and Aguita (15485 ft). To the north
of Mount Potro the peaks in the Cordillera are not very prominent
as tar as the great mass of Tres Quebradas, but here are to be
met with some that may be considered as amongst the highest of
__. the whole range. Mount Aguita is 30,600 ft, and the
culminating peak of those of Tres Cruces reaches
22,658 ft To the east of the eastern longitudinal valley, at 37°
S. lat, begins a high volcanic plateau between the Cordillera
and the southern prolongation of the Bolivian Cordillera Real,
which contains lofty summits, such as Mount Veladero (20,908 ft),
Mount Bonete (21,980), Mount Rectus (30,670), Mount Pissis
(22,146), Mount O jo del Salado (21,653), «"* Incahuasi (31,7x9).
To the north of Tres Cruces is a transversal depression in the
Cordillera, which is considered to be the southern termination
of the high plateau of the Puna de Atacama. The Cordillera of
the Andes borders the Puna to the west, while the Bolivian
Cordillera Real bounds it to the east. In that region the Cordillera
G. Upper Jurmislc Ogptum
YV. Y*m
OV. OMtr Voleamle to**
Ol. DhritieModm
X Cf*g*tf**9r»gbtk0 8tctha»
of the Andes is of comparatively recent origin, being principally
constituted by a line of high volcanoes, the chief summits being
those of Juncal, Panteon de Aliste, Azufre or Listarria(x8 t 636 ft),
Llullaillaco (21,720), Mifliques (19,357), Socompa (19,048),
Licancaur (19,685), Viscachuelas (20,605), Tapaquilcha (19,530),
Oyahua (19,242), Ancaquilcha (20,275), Olca (19,159), Mifio
(20,1 13), Sillilica (21,100), Perinacota (20,918), Sagama (33,339),
Tacona (19,740), Misti (19,029); to the east closes in the inter-
mediary high plateau which begins at 38° S. lat in Argentina.
The principal peaks of the Bolivian Andes and its prolongation
from south to north, are Famatina, in the centre of Argentina,
(20,340 ft), languna Blanca (18,307), Diamante (18,045), Cachi
(20,ooo),Granadas,Lipez(i9,68o), Guadalupe (18,910), Chorolque
(18480), Cuzco (17,930), Enriaca (18,716), Junari (16,200),
Michiga (17410), Quimza-Cruz (18,280), Qh'mani (21,190) and
Sorata (2x490).
While the western range of the Cordillera is principally formed
by volcanic rocks, the eastern (to the east of the range is Cerro
Potosi, 15400 ft) Andes of Bolivia are chiefly composed of old
crystalline rocks. Between the ranges in the high plateau north
to 37° are numerous isolated volcanoes which have been in
activity in recent times, such as Peinado (18,808 ft), San Pedro
(18,701), Antuco (19,029), Antofalla (20,0x4), Rincon (17,881),
Pastos Grandes (17,553), Zapalegui (17,553), Suniguira (19,258),
Tahue (17458); volcanoes which have been elevated from a
lacustrine basin, which very recently occupied the whole ex-
tension, and the remains of which are, in the south, the Laguna
Verde, at 28°, and in the north Lake Tttkaca. The discovery of
great Pampean mammals in the Pleistocene beds of that region
shows that this upheaval of the latter is very recent, for in the
heart of the Cordillera, as well as on the west coast of Bolivia
and Peru, there have been discovered, in very recent deposits,
the remains of some mammals which cannot have crossed the
high range as it now exists.
The two Cordilleras that formed the Andes to the north of 28°S.
lat. are continued in Peru. The western, which reaches an
altitude of about 10,000 ft., then ceases to exist as a con- ^^
tinuous chain, there remaining only a short, high ridge, o MM< awi
called by Edward Whymper the " Pacific range of the
equator," and between this ridge and the crystalline Andean axis,
the "avenue of volcanoes," to use his words, arises amidst
majestic scenery. Chimborazo, which is not in the main chain,
reaches 20,517 ft; Cotopaxi (19,580), Antisana (19,260),
Coyambo (19,200) are in the eastern range, with many other
peaks over 1 6 ,000 ft. which still contain glaciers. Sangay ( 1 7 ,380
ft), under the equator, according to Wolff, appears to be the most
active volcano in the world. Pichincha (15 304 ft.) and Cotocachi
(16,297 ft.) are the loftiest volcanoes of the western range. In
Colombia the three principal chains are continuations of those
under the equator, and show very slight traces of volcanic action,
964.
ANDESINE— ANDESITE
In the western chain, which is remarkable for its regularity, the
highest peak is 11,150 ft., and the lowest pass 6725 ft. The
nrfnmMi ccntr »J chain, separated from the western chain by the
valley of the Cauca and from the eastern by the valley
of the Magdalena, is unbroken ; it is the more important owing to
its greater altitudes and is of volcanic character. To the south,
near the equator, are Mounts Arapul (13,360 fL) and Chumbul
(1 5,720 ft.). The volcanoes Campainero (12, 470 ft) and Pasto
(14,000 ft.) are also in that zone. Farther north is the volcano
Purace, which presents a height of 16,060 ft.; then come Huila
(18,000), Santa Catalina (16,170), and Tolima (18,400), Santa
Isabel (16,760), Ruiz (17,390) and Hervas (18440). The eastern
chain begins north of the equator at 6000 ft, gradually rises to
the height of Nevado (14,146 ft.), Pan de Azucar (1 2,140 ft), and
in the Sierra Nevada de Cochi attains to peaks of 16,700 ft
The snow-line of the Andes is highest in parts of Peru where it
lies at about 16,500 ft Its general range from the extreme north
to Patagonia is 14,000 to 15,500 ft, but along the Patagonian
frontier it sinks rapidly, until in Iterra del Fuego it lies at about
4900 ft
Structure. — The structure of the Andes is least complex in the
southern portion of the range. Between 33° and 36 S. the chain
consists broadly of a series of simple folds of Jurassic and
Cretaceous beds. It is probably separated on the east from the
recent deposits of the pampas by a great fault, which, however,
is always concealed by an enormous mass of scree material. The
Cretaceous beds lie in a broad synclinal upon the eastern flank,
but the greater part of the chain is formed of Jurassic beds,
through which, on the western margin, rise the numerous
andcsitic volcanic centres. There is no continuous band of
ancient gneiss, nor indeed of any beds older than the Jurassic.
There is very little over-folding or faulting, and the structure is
that of the Jura mountains rather than of the Alps. The inner
or eastern ridge farther north of Argentina consists of crystalline
rocks with infolded Ordovidan and Cambrian beds, often overlaid
unconformably by a sandstone with plant-remains (chiefly
Rhaetic). In Bolivia this eastern ridge, separated from the
western Cordillera by the longitudinal valley in which Lake
Titicaca lies, is formed chiefly of Archaean and Palaeozoic rocks.
All the geological systems,f rom the Cambrian to the Carboniferous,
are represented and they are all strongly folded, the folds leaning
over towards the west. West of the great valley the range is
composed of Mesozoic beds, together with Tertiary volcanic rocks.
(The Cordillera of Argentina and Chile is clearly the continuation
of the western chain alone.) In Ecuador there is still an inner
chain of ancient gneisses and schists and an outer chain composed
of Mesozoic beds. The longitudinal valley which separates them
is occupied mainly by volcanic deposits. North of Ecuador the
structure becomes more complex. Of the three main chains into
which the mountains are now divided, the western branch is
formed mostly of Cretaceous beds; but the inner chains no
longer consist exclusively of the older rocks, and Cretaceous beds
take a considerable share in their formation.
The great volcanoes, active and extinct, are not confined to any
one zone. Sometimes they rise from the Mesozoic zone of the
western Cordillera, sometimes from the ancient rocks of the
eastern zone. But they all lie within the range itself and do not ,
as in the Carpathians and the Apennines, form a fringe upon the
inner border of the chain.
The curvature of the range around the Brazilian massif, and
the position of the zone of older rocks upon the eastern flank, led
Suess to the conclusion that the Andes owe their origin to an
overthrust from east to west, and that the V or land lies beneath
the Pacific In the south Wehrli and Burckhardt maintain that
the thrust came from the west, and they look upon the ancient
rocks of Argentina as the Vorland. In this part of the chain,
however, there is but little evidence of overthrusting of any kind.
Authorities.— John B. Minchin, "Journey in the Andean
Tableland of Bolivia," Proceedings of Geographical Society (1882);
Paul Gdssfeldt, Reise in den centralen ckiieno-argentinischen Andes
(Berlin, 1884); John Ball, Notes of a Naturalist in South America
(London, 1887); Alfred Hettner. Reisen in den colombianischen
Andeen (Leipzig, 1888); " Die Kordillere von Bogota,* Petemu
UitUiiunien. civ-(i8qj) ; Edward Why rnper. Trowels
Andes of the ^Equator (London, iBo^^Teodaro Wolff,
'** "* tftder ("
Bolivian Andes." Gsc
IkeGrm
Gedc£i& del Ecwtder (Leipzig* 1&52); £. A, Fit
i); Sir Martin Conway *
Andes {London,
w um mnt tmsGn
foftff . £~ffr«Jfi«
akLTkVSfa
hfurn. xiv. (London. 1809); 7ft*
Andes (London and New York* 1901); Carl Rurcknardt,
in the.
Memstm id
is Psta-
i btcrfen, '* The Patafosna
1 41 * and 48"S. lac," Gee*?.
r. Die dutemiscke Xenthne
*— J° a S. laL.
Cordjiltae arKintino-chillenne, jo" *t 41* S. lat-,'
Musto de La Plata (1899) ; F, P. Moreno, M Expkni
gonia," Geagr. Jourx *vL (row) ; Ham Stttfen, "
Cordillera and its Main River*, between.
Journ. (London, 1900); Paul Kroner,
Expedition. (Herlin. 1900); Carl BurcLhardr, M Profits _
tr«».««nu w m» vi/iuiucr* aUKAUAOKJuutaiie," Andes Sat
de La Plata (1900) ; Argentine-Chilian Boundaries in the CewmWere, de
los Andes, Argentine Evidence (London, 1900); M Sooth America;
Outline of its Physical Geography," Geogr. Jem. xru. (1901).
Maps of Cordillera de los Andes, Surveys of Argentine Bonadsry
Commission; L. R. Patron. Cordillera de Us Andes (Rtpmlhium de
Chile. Qficina des LimUes) Santiago (Chile). 1903 et seq.) ; Sir T. H.
Holdich, " The Patagonian Andes," Geogr. Jmenu xxiiL (1904).
ANDESINB, a member of the group of minerals known as
ptagiaclase felspars, occupying a position in the isotnorplMxa
series about midway between albite (NaAlSigOa) and anonhite
(CaAl»Si|Oft); its chemical composition and physical char-
acters are therefore intermediate between those of the two
extremes of the series. Distinctly developed crystals or crystal-
lized specimens are rarely met with, the mineral usually occurring
as embedded crystals and grains in the igneous and gneissic rocks,
of which it forms a component part. It occurs, for example, is
the andesite of the Andes, from whence it derives its name.
ANDESITE, a name first applied by C. L. von Buch to a series
of lavas investigated by him from the Andes, which has passed
into general acceptance as the designation of a great family of
rocks playing an important part in the geology of most of the
volcanic areas of the globe. Not only the Andes but most of the
Cordillera of Central and North America consist very largely of
andesites; they occur also in great numbers in Japan, the
Philippines, Java and New Zealand. They belong to all geo-
logical epochs, and are frequent among the Silurian and Devonian
rocks of Britain, forming the ranges of the Cheviots, Ochik,
Breidden Hills, and part of the Lake district. The well-known
volcanoes, Montague Pelee, the Souf riere of St Vincent, Krakatoa,
Tarawera and Bandaisan have within recent years emitted great
quantities of andcsitic rocks wi th disastrous violence. No group
of lavas is more widespread and more important from a geo-
graphical standpoint than the andesites.
They are typical intermediate rocks, containing on an average
about 60 % of silica, but showing a considerable range of com-
position. Most of them correspond to the plutonic dioritcs, bet
others more nearly represent the gabbros. Their essential
distinguishing features are mineralogical and consist in the
presence of much soda-lime felspar (ranging from oligodase to
bytownite and even anorthite), along with one or more of the
ferro-magnesian minerals, biotite, hornblende, augite and hypers-
thene. Both olivine and quarts are typically absent, though is
some varieties they occur in small quantity. Orthodase is more
common than these two, but is never very abundant. The
andesites have mostly a porphyritic structure, and the larger
felspars and ferro-magnesian minerals are often visible to the
naked eye, lying in a finer groundmass, usually crystalline, but
sometimes to a large extent vitreous. When very fresh they are
dark-coloured if they contain much glass, but paler in colour, red,
grey or pinkish when more thoroughly crystallized. They
weather to various shades of dark brown, reddish-brown, green,
grey and yellow. Many of them are highly vesicular or amygda-
loidal.
The older (pre-Tertiary) andesites are grouped together by
many German, and formerly by British petrologbU, under the
term porphyrites, but are distinguished only by being, as a rule,
in a less fresh condition. Apart from this there are three great
subdivisions of this family of rocks, the quartz-andesites or
dadtes, the hornblende-and biotite-andesites, and the augite and
hyperstnene-andesitcs (or pyroxene-andesites). The dadtes, a
term first applied by Karl Hdnrich Hektor Guido Stache (b, 1855)
to quarts-bearing andesite of Transylvania or Daoa, contain
ANDIJAN— ANDORRA
9 6 5
iry quartz, and are the most siliceous members of the
y; their quartz may appear in small blebs (or phenocrysts),
ay occur only as minute interstitial grains in the ground-
; other dacites are very vitreous (dadtic-pitchstones). In
r of their structural peculiarities they closely simulate the
ites, from which they differ in containing less potash and
soda, and in consequence less orthoclase felspar and more
odase. The hornblende- and biotite-andesites, like the
es, have in most cases a pale colour (pink, yellow or grey),
j comparatively rich in felspar. They resemble the trachytes
in appearance and in structure, but their felspar is mostly
odase, not sanidine.. The biotite and hornblende have
i the same characters in both of these groups of rocks, and
>ften surrounded by black borders produced by corrosion
partial resorption by the magma. A pale green augite is
nun in these andesites, but bronzite or hypersthene is
wratively rare. The pyroxene-andesites are darker, more
: rocks, with a higher specific gravity, and approach closely
le basalts and dolerites, especially when they contain a
I amount of olivine. They are probably the commonest
s of andesite, both at the present time and in former geo-
al periods. Often their groundmass consists of brownish
, filled with small microliths of augite and felspar, and
ag a velvety, glistening lustre when observed in a good light
lopilitic structure).
addition to the accessory minerals, zircon, apatite and iron
», which are practically never absent, certain others occur
b, on account of their rarity and importance, are of special
est Sharply-formed little crystals of cordierite are occasion-
found in andesites (Japan, Spain, St Vincent, Cumberland);
seem to depend on more or less complete digestion of
nents of gneiss and other rocks in the molten lava. Garnet
sapphire have also been found in andesites, and perhaps have
tame signification; a rose-red variety of epidote (withamitc)
town as a secondary product in certain andesites (Glencoe,
land), and the famous red porphyry (porfido rosso) of the
ents is a rock of this type. Ore deposits very frequently
r in connexion with andesitjc rocks (Nevada, California,
gary, Borneo, &c), especially those of gold and silver. They
: been laid down in fissures as veins of quartz, and the sur-
iding igneous rocks are frequently altered and decomposed
peculiar way by the hot ascending metalliferous solutions,
esites affected in this manner are known as propylites.
alteration is one of those post-volcanic, pneumatolytic
ssses, so frequent in volcanic districts. Propylitization
lists in the replacement of the original minerals of the andesite
secondary products such as kaolin, epidote, mica, chlorite,
rtz and chalcedony, often with the retention of the igneous
ctures of the rocks.
i microscopic characters the andesites present considerable
ety; their porphyritic felspars are usually of tabular shape
3 good crystalline outlines, but often filled with glass
losures. Zonal structure is exceedingly common, and the
tral parts of the crystals are more basic (bytownitc, &c.) than
edges (oligoclase). Sanidine occurs with considerable fre-
ncy, but not in notable amount The biotite and hornblende
yellow or brown and richly pleochroic. The hypersthene is
rly always idiomorphic, with a distinct pleochroism ranging
n salmon-pink to green. Augite may be green in the more
1 andesites, but is pale brown in the pyroxene-andesites. The
tite is often filled with minute dust-like enclosures. In the
ites felsitic groundmasses are by no means rare, but micro-
stalline types consisting of plagiodase and sanidine with
iru are more prevalent. The hornblende- and mica-andesites
e groundmasses composed mainly of add plagiodase with
le orthoclase or glassy base (pilotaxitic groundmass). Clear
wn glass with many small crystals of plagiodase and pale
wn augite (hyalopilitic groundmass) is very frequent in
-oxene-andesites. Vitreous rocks bdonging to all of the above
ups are well known though not very common, and exhibit the
litic, pumiceous, spherulitic and other structures, character-
c to volcanic obsidians and pitchstones. (J- S. F.)
ANDIJAN, a town of Russian Turkestan, Province of Ferghana,
eastern terminus of the Transcaspian railway, 84 m. by rail
E.N.E, of Khokand, on the left bank of the upper Syr-darya.
Altitude 1630 ft Pop. (1000) 49,682. It was formerly the
residence of the khans of Khokand, and has beautiful gardens
and a large park in the middle of the town. Andijan is a centre
for the trade in raw cotton and has cotton factories. All over
Central Asia, West Turkestan merchants are known generally
as Andijani. The town was destroyed by an earthquake on the
16th- 1 7th of December 1002, when 5000 persons perished and
x6,ooo houses were demolished. It has since been rebuilt
ANDIRON (older form ondcrne; med. Lat andena, anderio), a
horizontal iron bar, or bars, upon which logs are laid for burning
in an open fireplace. Andirons stand upon short legs and are
usually connected with an upright guard. This guard, which
may be of iron, steel, copper, bronze, or even silver, is often
elaborately ornamented with conventional patterns or heraldic
ornaments, such as the fitur-deAys, with sphinxes, grotesque
animals, mythological statuettes or caryatides supporting heroic
figures or emblems. Previously to the Italian Renaissance,
andirons were almost invariably made entirely of iron and
comparatively plain, but when the ordinary objects of the house-
hold became the care of the artist, the metal-worker lavished
skill and taste upon them, and even such a man as Jean Berain,
whose fancy was most especially applied to the ornamentation
of Boulle furniture, sometimes designed them. Indeed the
fire-dog or chenet reached its most artistic development under
Louis XIV. of France, and the first extant examples — often of
cast-iron — are to be found in French museums and royal palaces.
Fire-dogs, with little or no ornament, were also used in kitchens,
with ratcheted uprights for the spits. Very often these uprights
branched out into arms or hobs for stewing or keeping the viands
hot.
ANDKHTJI, a town and khanate in Afghan Turkestan. The
town (said to have been founded by Alexander the Great) stands
between the northern spurs of the Paropamisus and the Oxus; it
is 100 m. due west of Balkh on the edge of the Turkman desert
The khanate is of importance as being one of the most northern
in Afghanistan, on the Russian border. Until 1820 it was sub-
ject to Bokhara, but in that year Mahmud Khan besieged it for
four months, took it by storm and left it a heap of ruins. To
preserve himself from utter destruction the khan threw himself
into the arms of the Afghans. The tract in which Andkhui stands
is fertile, but proverbially unhealthy; the Persians account it " a
hell upon earth " by reason of its scorching sands, brackish water,
flies and scorpions. The population, estimated at x 5,000, consists
prindpally of Turkmans with a mixture of Uzbegs and a few
Tajiks. The district was allotted to Afghanistan by, the Russo-
Afghan boundary commission of 1885.
ANDOCIDBS, one of the " ten " Attic orators, was born about
440 B.C. Implicated in the mutilation of the Hermae (415),
although he saved his life by turning informer, he was condemned
to partial loss of dvil rights and went into exile. He engaged in
commercial pursuits, and after two unsuccessful attempts
returned to Athens under the general amnesty that followed the
restoration of the democracy (403), and filled some important
offices. In 391 he was one of the ambassadors sent to Sparta to
discuss peace terms, but the negotiations failed, and after this
time we hear no more of him. Oligarchical in his sympathies, he
offended his own party and was distrusted by the democrats.
Andocides was no professional orator; his style is simple and
lively, natural but inartistic
Speeches extant: — De Reditu, ptea for his return and removat of
civil disabilities; De MytUriis, defence against the charge of impiety
in attending the Eleusinian mysteries; De Pace, advocating peace
with Sparta; Contra Akibiadem, generally considered spurious.
Text:— Blaaa, 1880, Lipsius, 1888; De Myst., with notes by Hickie,
1 88s; De Red. and De Myst., with notes by Marchant, 1889; see
Jebb, Attic Orators', L. L. Forman, Index Andocideus, 1897.
ANDORRA, or Andosre, a small, neutral, autonomous, and
semi-independent state, on the Franco-Spanish frontier, and
chiefly on the peninsular side of the eastern Pyrenees. Pop.
(1900) about 5500; area about 175 sq. m. Andorra is surrounded
966
ANDOVER
by mountains, and comprises one main valley, watered by the
Gran Balira, Valira or Balire, a tributary of the Segre, which
itself flows into the Ebro; with several smaller valleys, the most
important being that of the Balira del Orien, which joins the Gran
Balira on the left. The territory was once densely wooded, and
is said to derive its name from the Moorish Aldarra, " the place
thick with trees "; but almost all the forests have been destroyed
for fuel. The climate is generally cold, with very severe winters.
The land Is chiefly devoted to pasture for the numerous flocks and
herds; but on the more sheltered southern slopes it is carefully
cultivated, and produces grain, potatoes, fruit and tobacco. Game
and trout are plentiful; milk, butter, hams, hides and wool are
exported, principally to France. The local industries are of the
most primitive kind, merely domestic, as in the middle ages.
Lack of capital, of coal, and of good means of communication
prevents the inhabitants from making use of the iron and lead in
their mountains. During the coldest winter months their com-
munications are much easier with Spain than through the snow-
clad passes leading into Ariege. The only roads are bridle-paths,
and one municipal road by the Balira valley, connecting Andorra
with the high road to Sco de Urgel and Manresa; but in 1904
France and Spain agreed to build a railway from Az to Ripoll,
which would greatly facilitate traffic
The Andorrans are a robust and well-proportioned race, of an
independent spirit, simple and severe in their manners. They
are all Roman Catholics. Apart from the wealthier landowners,
who speak French fluently, and send their children to be educated
in France, they use the Catalan dialect of Spanish. Andorra
comprises the six parishes or communes of Andorra Vlcilla,
Canillo, Encamp, La Massana, Ordino and San Julian de Loria,
which are subdivided into fifty-two hamlets or pueblos.
Preserved from innovations by the mutual jealousy of rival
potentates, as well as by the conservative temper of a pastoral
population, Andorra has kept its medieval usages and institutions
almost unchanged. In each parish two consuls, assisted by a
local council, decide matters relating to roads, police, taxes, the
division of pastures, the right to collect wood, &c Such matters,
as well as the general internal administration of the territory, are
finally regulated by a Council General of 24 members (4 to each
parish), elected since 1866 by the suffrages of all heads of families,
but previously confined to an aristocracy composed of the richest
and oldest families, whose supremacy had been preserved by the
principle of primogeniture. A general syndic, with two inferior
syndics, chosen by the Council General, constitutes the supreme
executive of the state. Two viguiers — one nominated by France,
and the other by the bishop of Urgel — command the militia, which
consists of about 600 men, although all. capable of bearing arms
are liable to be called out. This force is exempt from all foreign
service, and the chief office of the viguiers is the administration
of criminal justice, in which their decisions, given simply accord-
ing to their judgment and conscience, there being no written
laws, are final. Civil cases, on the other hand, are tried in the
first instance before one of the two aldermen, who act as deputies
of the nguiers; the judgment of this court may be set aside by
the civil judge of appeal, an officer nominated by France and the
bishop of Urgel alternately; the final appeal is either to the Court
of Cassation at Paris or to the Episcopal College at Urgel. The
French viguier is taken from the French department of Ariege and
appointed for life, but the viguier of the bishop must be an
Andorran, holding office for three years and re-eligible. There are
notaries and clerks, auditors for each parish elected by the heads
of families, police agents and bailiffs, chosen and sworn in, like all
the above officers, by the Council General The archives are
mostly kept in the " house of the valley " in the capital, Andorra
Vicilla, a struggling village of 600 inhabitants. In this government
house the Council General meets and has a chapel. Here also the
aldermen, viguiers and judge of appeal administer justice and
assemble for all purposes of administration. Two magistrates,
styled rakanadores, are appointed by the Council General to see
that viguiers and judges preserve the customs and privileges of
Andorra. The parishes have a permanent patrol of six armed
men besides the militia. Spain and the bishop of Urgel are very
jealous of French encroachments, and daim to have a bottn?
right ultimately to annex the little state. In the mean w hi le It
continues to pay each of the suzerain powers £40 a year, levied
by a tax on pastures.
Andorra is the sole surviving specimen of the Independence
possessed in medieval times by the warlike inhabitants of naaay
Pyrenean valleys. Its privileges have remained intact, because
the suzerainty of the district became equally and fndivisihly
shared in 1278 between the bishops of Urgel and the counts of
Foix, the divided suzerainty being now inherited by the French
crown and the present bishop of Urgel; and the two powers
have mutually checked innovations, while the insignificant
territory has not been worth a dispute. Thus Andorra is not a
republic, but is designated in official documents as the VciUes el
Sunerainetis. Before 1378 it was under the suzerainty of the
neighbouring counts of Castelbo, to whom it had been ceded in
X170 by the counts of Urgel. A marriage be twee n the heiress of
Castelbo and Roger Bernard, count of Foix, carried the rights of
the above-named Spanish counts into the house of Foix, and
hence subsequently to the crown of France, when the heritage of
the feudal system was absorbed by the sovereign ; but the bishops
of Urgel claimed certain rights, which after long disputes were
satisfied by the " Act of Division " executed in x 278. The claims
of the bishopric dated from Carolingian times, and the independ-
ence of Andorra, like most other Pyrenean anomalies, has been
traditionally ascribed to Charlemagne (742-814).
AuTfTOnrTrES r — Whh the exception or £i*&es gj f»p u pk £ fu*s turla
valUt d'Av&irrt, by J. RLaik ifciria, lt?Sk the standard books an
Andorra dtal mainly with tei history and" institutions. They cqa-
Prise the foJ lowing : — The Vallty cf Atderra-, translated from the
rendi of E, B, Bcither by F, H. Deverell (Bristol. 1&86); I. Av&»
Arnau, Fl PtHUj y Andorra (Barcelona* i**W); L» Dalcaaa de
Banner, Historic & la Rrp.-ibliai de Andeirs (Barcelona, 1 649):
C Haudcm de Mon- ' " " '
(in the BiMiGtfdfxe c
my, Oi£j*rJ hfturiquti di la quest*** fAuderrt
|fi, Paris, I&8O- See
dtt Chart**. voL ifi, Paris, iSSj
also C Baudot! de Mony, RcUiwki poiiiiififr! des ctmies it I .
la CiX'abe n *< iwflifl"* commeutemnl da XIV* sietl* (Paris. 1 896}.
A fair mjjj was published by A. Hank ben, of Vienna, -in 1898.
ANDOVER, a market-town an<} municipal borough in the
Andover parliamentary division of Hampshire, England, 67 m.
W.S.W. of London by the London & South Western railway,
served also by the Midland 8c South Western Junction railway.
Area 8663 acres. Pop. (1001) 6500. It is pleasantly situated
on the river Anton, a tributary of the Test, in a nffly district.
The church of St Mary replaced an ancient one in 1848, a
Norman doorway is preserved from the original atractcre.
The site of a Norman priory can be traced. Several early
earthworks are seen in the vicinity, among which the circular
camp on Bury Hill, S.W. of the town, is a very fine example. It
is probably of British origin. Andover is the centre of a huge
agricultural district Malting is carried on and there is a huge
iron-foundry; but the silk manufactures, once prosperous,
are now extinct. The corporation consists of a mayor, 4 aldermen
and is councillors.
There are numerous Roman villas in the district, bat Andover
itself is not a Roman site. The town, the name of which appears
in the forms Andefeian, Andieura and Andever, probably owes
much of its importance to the neighbourhood of the Roman
road from Silcbester to Old Sarum. It is mentioned in King
Edred's will, a document of doubtful authenticity, dated c. 955.
Later the Witenagemot met here, and it is the traditional scene
of the meeting of iEthelred and Olaf the Dane. Andover existed
as a borough before 1 1 76, and Henry II. exempted its inhabitants
from toll and passage. In 1201 King John increased the farm
paid by the burgesses, while Henry 111. granted them return
of writs, probate of wills and other privileges. The corporatioo
was reconstituted in 1509 and again in x68a. From 1205 tifl
1305 the burgesses returned two members to parliament bat
then ceased to do so till 1586. After the reform of 1867 they
returned only one member and in 1885 the borough was dis-
franchised. A gild merchant is mentioned as early as it 75-
The cattle-market was granted in 1682, and there a an ancient
corn-market, probably held by prescription. The November
sheep-fair dates from 1 205, and the neighbouring fair at Wcyhfl
ANDOVER— ANDRASSY
967
bfoce 15991 ptrt of the borough) was formerly among the moat
important in England. The town possessed an iron-market early
to the 14th century. At that date the wool-trade also was very
prosperous, and the manufactures of silk and parchment axe
among the extinct industries of the town.
ANDOVER, a township of Essex county, Massachusetts,
U.SA, pleasantly situated on the S. side of the Merrimac Valley.
Pop. (1800) 6x42; (xooo) 6813; (xoio, U. S. census) 7301.
The Shawsheen river supplies power for a considerable manu-
facturing industry (twine, woollens and rubber goods being
manufactured) in the villages of Andover, BaUardville and
Frye. Andover, the principal village, is about 33 m. N. of Boston
and is served by the western division of the Boston & Maine
railway and by interurban electric railways. The township
is noteworthy for its educational institutions. Abbot Academy,
opened in 1829, is said to be the oldest existing academy in the
United States incorporated for the education of girls alone;
an art gallery, given to the academy by Mrs John Byers, was
opened in 1007. Phillips Academy, opened in 1 778 (incorporated
in 1780), was the first incorporated academy of the state; it
was founded through the efforts of Samuel Phillips (1752-180*,
president of the Massachusetts senate in 1785-1787 and in 178&-
1801, and lieutenant-governor of Massachusetts in 1801-1802),
by his father, Samuel Phillips (1715-1700), and his uncle, John
Phillips (1719-1795)," for the purpose of instructing youth, not
only in English and Latin grammar, writing, arithmetic and
those sciences wherein they are commonly taught, but more
especially to learn them the great end and real business of living."
It is one of the largest secondary schools in New England and
enjoysa wideand high reputation. An archaeological department,
with an important collection in American archaeology, was
founded by Robert S. Peabody and his wife in .1901. The
Academy grounds include those occupied in 1808-1009 by the
Andover Theological Seminary before its removal to Cam-
bridge (q.v.). Andover was settled about 1643 &nd was
incorporated in 1646, being named from the English town of
Andover, Hampshire, whence some of the chief settlers had
migrated; the first settlement was made in what is now the
township of North Andover (pop. 5539 in 1910), which was
separated from Andover in 1855. Simon Bradstreet (1603-1697),
Important among the early men of Massachusetts, was one of
the founders; and his wife, Anne Dudley Bradstreet (16x2-1672),
was the first woman versifier of America; the Bradstreet house
in North Andover, said to have been built about 1667, is still
standing. Andover was a prominent centre in the witchcraft
trials of 1693. Elizabeth Stuart Phelps-Ward was born and
lived for many years in Andover, and Harriet Beecher Stowe
lived here from 1852 to 1864 and is buried here.
See S. L. Bailey. Historical Sketches of Andover (Boston, 1880);
John L. Taylor, Memoir of Samuel Phillips (Boston. 1836); and
Phitena and Phebe F. M'Keen, History of Abbot Academy (Andover,
1880).
ANDRADA, DIE60 DB PAJVA DB (152&-1575), Portuguese
theologian, was born at Coimbra, son of the grand treasurer
>f John III. His original bent was towards foreign mission.
3e earned distinction in 1562 at the council of Trent as envoy
►f King Sebastian. Between 1562 and 1567 he published many
ontroversial tracts, especially against the Lutheran, Martin
rhemnitz (g.t.). His first tract, Do Societalis Jtsu Origin*, led
his being erroneously presumed a Jesuit (P. Alegambe,
libiiotM. Scriptorum S. /., 1676, p. 177). His Do Conciliorum
1 uctoritaU was welcomed at Rome as exalting the papal authority,
ost humous were his Defensio TridenHnae Fidei, 1578 (remark-
ble for its learned statement of various opinions regarding the
nmaculate Conception), and three sets of his sermons in
ortuguese.
His nephew, Diego, the younger (1586-1660), produced
hauleidos (1628) and other Latin poems, including sacred
-a mas; a novel, Casamento Perfeito (1630); and shone as a
storical critic.
See Bibliograpkie VnkeneUe (181 1); N. Antonio, Biblieth. Hist.
ova (1783), i. 304; and for the nephew, life by A. Dos Keys in
*rp. lUmst. Poet. Lot. (1745) iii.
ANDRADA B 8YLVA, BOsHFACIO JOZ* V (1765-1838),
Brazilian statesman and naturalist, was born at Villa de Santos,
near Rio Janeiro. In 1800 he was appointed professor of geology
at Coimbra, and soon after inspector-general of the Portuguese
mines; and in 18x2 he was made perpetual secretary of the
Academy of Lisbon. Returning to Brazil in 1819, he urged
Dom Pedro to resist the recall of the Lisbon court, and was
appointed one of his ministers in 1821. When the independence
of Brazil was declared, Andrada was made minister of the interior
and of foreign affairs; and when it was established, he was
again elected by the Constituent Assembly, but his democratic
principles resulted in his dismissal from office, July 1823. On
the dissolution of the Assembly in November, he was arrested
and banished to France, where he lived in exile near Bordeaux till,
in 1829, he was permitted to return to Brazil. But being again
arrested in 1833, and tried for intriguing on behalf of Dom
Pedro I., he passed the rest of his days in retirement till he died
at Nictheroy in 1838.
ANDRASSY, JULIUS (Gyula), Count (1823-1800), Hungarian
statesman, the son of Count Kiroly Andrassy and Etelka
Szapary, was born at Kassa in Hungary on the 8th of March
1823. The son of a Liberal father, who belonged to the Opposition
at a time when to be in opposition was to be in danger, Andrassy
at a very early age threw himself into the political struggles of
the day, adopting at the outset the patriotic side. Count
Istvan Szechenyi was the first adequately to appreciate his
capacity, when in 1845 the young man first began his public
career as president of the society for the regulation of the waters
of the Upper Theiss. In 1846 he attracted attention by his
bitter articles against the government in Kossuth's paper, the
PestiHirlop, and was returned as one of the Radical candidates
to the diet of 1848, where his generous, impulsive nature made him
one of the most thorough-going of the patriots. When the
Croats under Jellachich invaded Hungary, Andrassy placed
himself at the head of the gentry of his county, and served with
distinction at the battles of Pakozd and Schwechat, as Gfirgei's
adjutant (Sept. 1848). Towards the end of the war Andrassy
was sent to Constantinople by the revolutionary government to
obtain at least the neutrality of Turkey during the struggle.
After the catastrophe of Vilagos he migrated first to London
and then to Paris. On the 21st of September 1851 he was
hanged in effigy by the Austrian government for his share in the
Hungarian revolt. He employed his ten years of exile in studying
politics in what was then the centre of European diplomacy, and
it is memorable that his keen eye detected the inherent weakness
of the second French empire beneath its imposing exterior.
Andrassy returned home from exile in 1858, but his position was
very difficult. He had never petitioned for an amnesty, steadily
rejected all the overtures both of the Austrian government and
of the Magyar Conservatives (who would have accepted something
short of full autonomy), and clung enthusiastically to the Deak
party. On the 21st of December 1865 he was chosen vice-
president of the diet, and in March 1866 became president of the
sub-committee appointed by the parliamentary commission to
draw up the Composition (commonly known as the Ausgleick)
between Austria and Hungary, of which the central idea, that of
the " Delegations," originated with him. It was said at that
time that he was the only member of the commission who could
persuade the court of the justice of the national claims. After
K6niggrMtz he was formally consulted by the emperor for the
first time. He advised the re-establishment of the constitution
and the appointment of a responsible ministry.
On the 1 7th of February 1867 the king appointed him the first
constitutional Hungarian premier. It was on this occasion that
Desk called him " the providential statesman given to Hungary
by the grace of God." As premier, Andrassy by his firmness,
amiability and dexterity as a debater, soon won for himself a
commanding position. Yet his position continued to be difficult,
inasmuch as the authority of Deak dwarfed that of all the party
leaders, however eminent. Andrassy chose fbr himself the
departments of war and foreign affairs. It was he who reorganized
the Honved system, and he used often to say that the regulation
9 68
ANDRE
of the military border districts was the most difficult labour of
his life. On the outbreak of the Franco-German War of 1870,
Andrassy resolutely defended the neutrality of the Austrian
monarchy, and in his speech on the 28th of July 1870 warmly
protested against the assumption that it was in the interests of
Austria to seek to recover the position she had held in Germany
before 1863. On the fall of Beust (6th of November 1871),
Andrassy stepped into his place. His tenure of the chancellorship
was epoch-making. Hitherto the empire of the Habsburgs
had never been able to dissociate itself from its Holy Roman
traditions. But its loss of influence in Italy and Germany, and
the consequent formation of the Dual State, had at length
indicated the proper, and, indeed, the only field for its diplomacy
in the future— the near East, where the process of the crystalliza-
tion of the Balkan peoples into nationalities was still incomplete.
The question was whether these nationalities were to be allowed to
become independent or were only to exchange the tyranny of the
sultan for the tyranny of the tsar. Hitherto Austria had been
content either to keep out the Russians or share the booty with
them. She was now, moreover, in consequence of her misfortunes
deprived of most of her influence in the councils of Europe. It
-was Andrassy who recovered for her her proper place in the
European concert. First he approached the German emperor;
then more friendly relations were established with the courts of
Italy and Russia by means of conferences at Berlin, Vienna,
St Petersburg and Venice.
The recovered influence of Austria was evident in the negotia-
tions which followed the outbreak of serious disturbances in
Bosnia in 1875. The three courts of Vienna, Berlin
2?" i4 ** and St Petersburg had come to an understanding
JJt£?£ ** t° tncu * attitude in the Eastern question, and
their views were embodied in the despatch, known
as the "* Andrassy Note," addressed on the 30th of December
1875 by Count Andrassy to Count Beust, now Austrian
ambassador to the court of St James's. In it he pointed out
that the efforts of the powers to localise the revolt seemed in
danger of failure, that the rebels were still holding their
own, and that the Ottoman promises of reform, em-
bodied in various firmans, were no more than vague statements
of principle which had never had, and were probably not intended
to have, any local application. In order to avert the risk of a
general conflagration, therefore, he urged that the time had come
for concerted action of the powers for the purpose of pressing
the Porte to fulfil its promises. A sketch of the more essential
reforms followed: the recognition rather than the toleration of
the Christian religion; the abolition of the system of farming
the taxes; and, in Bosnia and Herzegovina, where the religious
was complicated by an agrarian question, the conversion of
the Christian peasants into free proprietors, to rescue them from
their double subjection to the great Mussulman landowners. In
Bosnia and Herzegovina also elected provincial councils were to
be established, irremovable judges appointed and individual
liberty guaranteed. Finally, a mixed commission of Mussulmans
and Christians was to be empowered to watch over the carrying
out of these reforms. The fact that the sultan would be responsible
to Europe for the realization of his promises would serve to
allay the natural suspicions of the insurgents. 1
To this plan both Great Britain and France gave a general
assent, and the Andrassy Note was adopted as the basis of negotia-
tions. When war became inevitable between Russia and the Porte,
Andrassy arranged with the Russian court that, in case Russia
prevailed, the status quo should not be changed to the detriment
of the Austrian monarchy. When, however, the treaty of San
Stefano threatened a Russian hegemony in the near East,
Andrassy concurred with the German and British courts that the
final adjustment of matters must be submitted to a European
congress. At the Berlin Congress in 1878 he was the principal
Austrian plenipotentiary, and directed his efforts to diminish the
gains of Russia and aggrandize the Dual Monarchy. The latter
object was gained by the occupation of Bosnia-Herzegovina under a
mandate from the congress. This occupation was most unpopular
■ Herttlet, Map of Europe by Treaty. No. 456, voL iv. p. 24181
in Hungary, both for financial reasons and because of the strong
philo-Turk sentiments of the Magyars, but the result hriDiantl?
justified Andrassy's policy. Nevertheless he felt constrained to
bow before the storm, and placed his resignation in the emperor's
hands (8th of October 1879). The day before his retirement
he signed the offensive-defensive alliance with Germany, which
placed the foreign relations of Austria-Hungary once mare on a
stable footing.
After his retirement, Andrassy continued to take an active
part in public affairs both in the Delegations and in the Upper
House. In 1885 he warmly supported the project for the reform
of the House of Magnates, but on the other hand he jealously
defended the inviolability of the Composition 0! 1867, and on the
5th of March 1889 in his place in the Upper House spoke
against any particularist tampering with the common army.
In the last years of his life he regained his popularity, and his
death on the z8th of February x8oo was universally mourned
as a national calamity. He was the first Magyar statesman who,
for centuries, had occupied a European position. Breadth of
view, swift resourcefulness, and an intimate knowledge of men
and things were his distinguishing qualities as a statesman.
Personally he was the most amiable of men; it has been well
said that he united in himself the Magyar ""p^ with the
modern gentleman. ' His motto was: " It is hard to promise,
but it is easy to perform." If Deak was the architect, Andrassy
certainly was the master-builder of the modern Hungarian state.
By his wife, the countess Katinka Kendeffy, whom he married
in Paris in 1856, Count Andrassy left two sons, and one daughter,
Uona (b. 1859), who. married Count Lajos Batthyiny. Both
the sons gained distinction in Hungarian politics. The eldest.
Tivador (Theodore) Andreas (b. xoth of July 1857), was elected
vice-president of the Lower House of the Hungarian parliament
in x8oo. The younger, Gyula (Julius, b. 30th of Jane i860),
became under-secretary in the Wekerle ministry in 189a; in
1893 he became minister of education, and in June 1894 was
appointed minister in attendance on the king, retiring in 1895
with Wekerle; in 1898, with his elder brother, he left the Liberal
party, but returned to it again after the fall of the Banffy
ministry; he is the author of Ungams AusgUkk nrii OsUrrtick
torn Jakre 1867 (Ger. ed., Leipzig, 1897), and a work in Hungarian
on the origins of the Hungarian state and constitution (Budapest,
'^Andrassy's Speeches (Hum.) edited by Bela Lederer <
pest, 1 891); Memoir (Hung.) by Benjamin KaHay (Budapest.
1891); Necrology (Hung.) in the Akad. Ertesiti, Evf. 14 tBodapett.
1891); Recollections of Count Andrdssy (Hung.), by Mioo K6nyi
(Budapest: 1891). (R. N. B.)
ANDRB, JOHN (1751-1780), British soldier, was born in
London in 1751 of Genevese parents. Accident brought him in
x 769 to Lichfield, where, in the house of the Rev. Thomas Seward,
whose daughter Anna was the centre of a literary circle, he met
the beautiful Miss Honora Sneyd. A strong attachment sprang
up between the two, but their marriage was disapproved of by
Miss Sneyd's family, and Andre" was sent to cool his love in hb
father's counting-house in London and on a business tour to the
continent Commerce .was, however, too tame an occupatkra
for his ambitious spirit, and in March 1771 he obtained a com-
mission in the Seventh (Royal Fusiliers), which, after travel in
Germany, he joined in Canada in 1774. Here his character, con-
duct and accomplishments gained him rapid promotion. Miss
Sneyd in 1773 married R.L.£dgeworth,the father of the novelist,
Maria Edgeworth, having previously refused Thomas Day, the
author of Sandford and Uerton\ but Andre" remained faithful
to' his love for her. In a letter to Anna Seward, written shortly
after being taken prisoner by the Americans at the capitulation
of St John's on the 3rd of November 1775, he states that he has
been " stripped of everything except the picture of Honora,
which I concealed. in my mouth. Preserving this I yet think
myself fortunate." ' Exchanged towards the close of 1776, Andrt
became in succession aide-de-camp to General Grey and to the
commander-in-chief of the British forces, Sir Henry CKnloo,
who raised him to the rank of major and appointed him adjutant -
general of the forces in 1778. Early in 1780 the American
ANDREA— ANDREA DEL SARTO
969
gcnertl,Beaedict Arnold (f .**.), thinkinghimseU injuriously treated
by Us colleagues, made overtures to the British to betray to
them the important fortress of West Point on the Hudson river,
the key of the American position, of which he was commandant.
This seemed to Sir Henry Clinton a favourable opportunity for
concluding the war, and Major Andre" was appointed to negotiate
with Arnold For this purpose he landed from a vessel bearing a
flag of truce and had an interview with Arnold, who delivered
to him full particulars and plans of the fortress of West Point,
and arranged with him to co-operate with the British during an
attack which was to be made in a few days. Unfortunately for
Andre, the British vessel was fired on before the negotiations
were finjshed and obliged to drop down the river. Andre 1 , there-
fore, could not return by the way he came and was compelled
to pass the night within the American lines. After making the
fatal mistake of exchanging his uniform for a civilian disguise, he
set out next day by land for New York, provided by Arnold with
a passport, and succeeded in passing the regular American outposts
undetected. Next day, however, just when all danger seemed to
be over, Andr6 was stopped by three American militiamen, to
whom he gave such contradictory answers that, in spite of Arnold's
pass, they searched him and discovered in his boots the fatal
proofs of his negotiations for the betrayal of West Point. Not-
withstanding his offer of a large sum for his release, his captors
delivered him up to the nearest American officer. Washington,
although admitting that Andre was " more unfortunate than
criminal," sent him before a court-martial, by which, notwith-
standing a spirited defence, he was, in consequence of his own
admissions, condemned to death as a spy. In spite of the
protests and entreaties of Sir Henry Clinton and the threats of
Arnold he was hanged at Tappan on the and of October 1780.
Arnold, warned by the unfortunate Andre, escaped by flight the
punishment he so richly merited. The justice of Andre's execu-
tion has been a fruitful theme for discussion, but both British and
American military writers are agreed that he undoubtedly acted
in the character of a spy, although under orders and entirely
contrary to his own feelings. Washington's apparent harshness
in refusing the condemned man a soldier's death by shooting
has also been censured, but it is evident that no other course was
open to the American commander, since a mitigation of the
sentence would have implied a doubt as to its justice. Besides
courage and distinguished military talents, Major Andre* was a
proficient in drawing and in music, and showed considerable
poetic talent in his humorous Couhckase, a kind of parody on
Ckevy-chasc, which appeared in three successive parts at New
York, the last on the very day of his capture. His fate excited
universal sympathy both in America and Europe, and the whole
British army went into mourning for him. A mural sculptured
monument to his memory was erected in Westminster Abbey by
the British government when his remains were brought over
and interred there in 182 1; and a memorial has been erected
to him by Americans on the spot where he was taken. Andre's
military journal, giving an interesting account of the British
movements in America from June 1777 to the close of 1778,
was taken to England in x 782 by General Grey, whose descendant,
Earl Grey, discovered it in 190a and disposed of it to an American
gentleman.
See The Life and Carter of Major John Andrt, fi*., by Winthrop
?? r » ent ^i new . t «i 1 ». New ™* *9<»); Andre's Journal (Boston,
Mass., The Bibliophile Society, 1904).
ANDREA. OIOVAMm (1275-1348), Italian canonist, was born
at Mugello, near Florence, about x 275. He studied canon law at
Bologna., where he distinguished himself in this subject so much
that he was made professor at Padua, and later at Pisa and
Bologna, rapidly acquiring a high reputation for his learning
and his moral character. Curious stories are told of him; for
instance, that by way of self-mortification he lay every night for
twenty years on the bare ground with only a bear's skin for a
»vering; that in an audience he had with Pope Boniface VIII.
lis extraordinary shortness of suture led the pope to believe he
vas kneeling , and to ask him three times to rise, to the immense
nerriment of the cardinals; and that he had a daughter, Novella,
so accomplished in law as to be able to read her father's lectures
in his absence, and so beautiful, that she had to read behind a
curtain lest her face should distract the attention of the students.
He is said to have died at Bologna of the plague in 1348, and an
epitaph in the church of the Dominicans in which he was buried,
calling him Rabbi Dodorum, Lux, Censor, Normaque liontm,
testifies to the public estimation of his character. Andrea wrote
a Gloss on the Sixth Book of the Decretals, Glosses on the Clemen-
lines and a Commentary on the Rules of Sextus. His additions to
the Speculum of Durando are a mere adaptation from the
Consilia of Oldradus, as is also the book De Sponsalibus et
liatrimonio, from J. Anguisdola.
ANDREA DEL SARTO (148 7-1 531). This celebrated painter of
the Florentine school was born in Gualfonda, Florence, in 1487,
or perhaps i486, his father Agnolo being a tailor (sarto): hence
the nickname by which the son is constantly designated. There
were four other children. The family, though of no distinction,
can be traced back into the 14th century. Vannucchi has since
1677 been constantly given as the surname — according to some
modern writers, without any authority. It has recently been
said that the true name is Andrea d'Agnolo di Francesco di Luca
di Paolo del Migliore. But this only gives, along with our
painter's Christian name, the Christian names of his antecessors
for five generations, and is in no way his own surname. In 1494
Andrea was put to work under a goldsmith. This occupation
he disliked. He took to drawing from his master's models, and
was soon transferred to a skilful woodcarver and inferior painter
named Gian Barile, with whom he remained until 1408. Barfle,
though a coarse-grained man enough, would not stand in the
way of the advancement of his promising pupil, so he recom-
mended him to Piero di Cosimo as draughtsman and colourist.
Piero retained Andrea for some years, allowing him to study from
the famous cartoons of Leonardo da Vinci and Michelangelo.
Finally Andrea agreed with his friend Frandabigio, who was
somewhat his senior, that they would open a joint shop; at a
date not precisely defined they took a lodging together in the
Piazza del Grano. Their first work in partnership may probably
have been the "Baptism of Christ," for the Florentine Com-
pagnia dello Scalzo, a performance of no great merit, the begin-
ning of a series, all the extant items of which are in monochrome
chiaroscuro. Soon afterwards the partnership was dissolved.
From 1509 to 15x4 the brotherhood of the Servites employed
Andrea, as well as Frandabigio and Andrea Feltrini, the first-
named undertaking in the portico of the Annunziata three
frescoes illustrating the life of the Servite saint Filippo Benizzi
(d. 1285). He executed them in a few months, being endowed
by nature with remarkable readiness and certainty of hand
and unhesitating firmness in his work, although in the general
mould of his mind he was timid and diffident. The subjects are
the saint sharing his cloak with a leper, cursing some gamblers,
and restoring a girl possessed with a devil. The second and third
works excel the first, and are impulsive and able performances.
These paintings met with merited applause, and gained for their
author the pre-eminent title " Andrea senza errori " (Andrew the
unerring) — the correctness of the contours being particularly
admired. After these subjects the painter proceeded with two
others— the death of S. Filippo and the children cured by touching
his garment,— all the five works being completed before the
dose of 151a The youth of twenty-three was already in
technique about the best fresco-painter of central Italy, barely
rivalled by Raphael, who was the elder by four years. Michel-
angelo's Sixtine frescoes were then only in a preliminary stage.
Andrea always worked in the simplest, most typical and most
trying method of fresco— that of painting the thing once and for
all, without any subsequent dry-touching. He now received
many commissions. The brotherhood of the Servites engaged
him to do two more frescoes in the Annunziata at a higher price;
he also painted, towards 151 2, an Annunciation in the monastery
ofS. Gallo.
The " Tailor's Andrew " appears to have been an easy-going
plebeian, to whom a modest position in life and scanty gains
were no grievances. As an artist he must have known his own
97°
ANDREA DEL SARTO
value; but he probably rested content in the sense of his super-
lative powers as an executant, and did not aspire to the rank of
a great inventor or leader, (or which, indeed, he had no vocation.
He led a social sort of life among his compeers of the art, was
intimate with the sculptor Rustici, and joined a jolly dining-dub
at his house named the Company of the Kettle, also a second
club named the Trowel. At one time, Franciabigio being then
the chairman of the Kettle-men, Andrea recited, and is by some
regarded as having composed, a comic epic, " The Battle of the
Frogs and Mice "—a rechauffl, as one may surmise, of the Greek
Bairackomyomachia, popularly ascribed to Homer. He fell in
love with Lucrezia (del Fede), wife of a hatter named Carlo
Recanati; the hatter dying opportunely, the tailor's son married
her on the 26th of December 151a. She was a very handsome
woman and has come down to us treated with great suavity in
many a picture of her lover-husband, who constantly painted her
as a Madonna and otherwise; and even. In painting other women
he made them resemble Lucrezia in general type. She has been
much less gently handled by Vasari and other biographers.
Vasari, who was at one time a pupil of Andrea, describes her as
faithless, jealous, overbearing and vixenish with the apprentices.
She lived to a great age, surviving her husband forty years.
By 1514 Andrea had finished his last two frescoes in the court
of the Servites, than which none of his works was more admired —
the " Nativity of the Virgin," which shows the influence of
Leonardo, Domenico Ghirlandajo and Fra Bartolommco, in
effective fusion, and the " Procession of the Magi," intended as
an amplification of a work by Baldovinetti; in this fresco is a
portrait of Andrea himself. He also executed at some date a
much-praised head of Christ over the high altar. By November
15 1 5 he had finished at the Scalzo the allegory of Justice, and
the " Baptist preaching in the desert,"— followed in 15x7 by
" John baptizing," and other subjects. Before the end of 1516
a " Pieta " of his composition, and afterwards a Madonna, were
sent to the French court. These were received with applause;
and the art-loving monarch Francis I. suggested in 1518 that
Andrea should come to Paris. He journeyed thither towards
June of that year, along with his pupil Andrea Sguazzetla, leaving
his wife in Florence, and was very cordially received, and for the
first and only time in his life was handsomely remunerated.
Lucrezia, however, wrote urging his return to Italy. The king
assented, but only on the understanding that his absence from
France was to be short; and he entrusted Andrea with a sum of
money to be expended in purchasing works of art for his royal
patron. The temptation of having a goodly amount of pelf in
hand proved too much for Andrea's virtue. He spent the king's
money and some of his own in building a house for himself in
Florence. This necessarily brought him into bad odour with
Francis, who refused to be appeased by some endeavours which
the painter afterwards made to reingratiate himself. No serious
punishment, however, and apparently no grave loss of pro-
fessional reputation befell the defaulter
In 1520 he resumed work in Florence, and executed the
" Faith " and " Charity " in the cloister of the Scalzo. These
were succeeded by the " Dance of the Daughter of Herodias,"
the " Beheading of the Baptist," the " Presentation of his head
to Herod," an allegory of Hope, the " Apparition of the Angel
to Zacharias " (1533), and the monochrome of the Visitation.
This last was painted in the autumn of 1524, after Andrea had
returned from Luco in Mugello— to which place an outbreak
of plague in Florence had driven him, his wife, his step-daughter
and other relatives. In 1525 he painted the very famous fresco
named the " Madonna del Sacco, " a lunette in the cloisters of
the Servites; this picture (named after a sack against which
Joseph is represented propped) is generally accounted his master-
piece. His final work at the Scalzo was the " Birth of the
Baptist" (1526), executed with some enhanced elevation of
style after Andrea had been, diligently studying Michelangelo's
figures in the sacristy of S. Lorenzo. In the following year
he completed at S. Salvi, near Florence, a celebrated " Last
Supper," in which all the personages seem to be portraits. This
also is a very fine example of his style, though the conception
of the subject is not exalted. It it the last monumental work of
importance which Andrea del Sarto lived to execute. He dwelt
in Florence throughout the memorable siege, which was soon
followed by an infectious pestilence. He caught the malady,
struggled against it with little or no tending from his wife, who
held aloof, and he died, no one knowing much about it at the
moment, on the 22nd of January 1 53 1, at the comparatively early
age of forty-three. He was buried unceremoniously in the church
of the Servites.
Various portraits painted by Andrea are regarded as likenesses of
himself, but this is not free from some doubt One is in London,
in the National Gallery, an admirable half-figure, purchased in
1862. Another is at Alnwick Castle, a young man about twenty
years of age, with his elbow on a table. Another at Panshangcr
may perhaps represent in reality his pupil Domenico Conti.
Another youthful portrait is in the Uffizi Gallery, and the Pitti
Gallery contains more than one. Among his more renowned
works not already specified are the following. The Virgin and
Child, with St Francis and St John the Evangelist and two
angels, now in the Uffizi, painted for the church of S. Francesco
in Florence; this is termed the " Madonna di S. Francesco/'
or " Madonna delle Arpie," from certain figures of harpies which
are decorativcly introduced, and is rated as Andrea's masterpiece
in oil-painting. The altar-piece in the Uffizi, painted for the
monastery of S. Gallo, the " Fathers disputing on the doctrine
of the Trinity "— SS. Augustine, Dominic, Francis, Lawrence,
Sebastian and Mary Magdalene — a very energetic work. Both
these pictures are comparatively early — towards 15x7. The
" Charity " now in the Louvre (perhaps the only painting which
Andrea executed while in France). The " Pieta," in the Belvedere
of Vienna; this work, as well as the " Charity," shows a strong
Michelangelesque influence. At Poggio a Guano a celebrated
fresco (1521) representing Julius Caesar receiving tribute, various
figures bringing animals from foreign lands— a striking per-
spective arrangement; it was left unfinished by Andrea and
was completed by Alessandro Allori. Two very remarkable
paintings (1523) containing various incidents in the life of the
patriarch Joseph, executed for the Borgherini family. In the
Pitti Gallery two separate compositions of the " Assumption of
the Virgin," also a fine " Pieti." In the Madrid museum the
" Virgin and Child," with Joseph, Elizabeth, the infant Baptist
and an Archangel. In the Louvre the "Holy Family," the
Baptist pointing upwards. In Berlin a portrait of his wife.
In Panshanger a fine portrait named " Laura." The second
picture in the National Gallery ascribed to Andrea, a M Holy
Family," is by some critics regarded as the work rather of one
of his scholars— we hardly know why. A very noticeable incident
in the life of Andrea del Sarto relates to the copy, which he
produced in 1523, of the portrait group of Leo X. by Raphael;
it is now in the Naples Museum, the original being in the Pitti
Gallery. Ottaviano de' Medici, the owner of the original, was
solicited by Frederick II., duke of Mantua, to present it to him.
Unwilling to part with so great a pictorial prize and unwilling
also to disoblige the duke, Ottaviano got Andrea to make the
copy, which was consigned to the duke as being the origicaL
So deceptive was the imitation that even Giulio Romano, who
had himself manipulated the original to some extent, was com-
pletely taken in; and, on showing the supposed Raphael years
afterwards .to Vasari, who knew the facts, he could only be un-
deceived when a private mark on the canvas was named to him
by Vasari and brought under his eye. It was Michelangelo who
had introduced Vasari in 1524 to Andrea's studio. He is said
to have thought very highly of Andrea's powers, saying on one
occasion to Raphael, " There is a little fellow in Florence who will
bring sweat to your brow if ever he is engaged in great works.**
Andrea had true pictorial style, a very high standard of correct-
ness and an enviable balance of executive endowments. The
point of technique in which he excelled least was perhaps that
of discriminating the varying textures of different objects and
surfaces. There is not much elevation or ideality in his works —
much more of reality. His chiaroscuro is not carried out accord-
ing to strict rule, but is adjusted to his liking for harmony of
ANDREANI— ANDREOSSY
97 «
colour and fused tone and transparence; in fresco more especially
his predilection for varied tints appears excessive. It may be
broadly said that his taste in colouring was derived mainly from
Fra Bartolommeo, and in form from Michelangelo; and his
style partakes of the Venetian and Lombard, as well as the
Florentine and Roman— some of his figures are even adapted
from Albert DOrer. In one way or other he continued improving
to the last. In drawing from nature, his habit was to sketch
very slightly, making only such a memorandum as sufficed to
work from. The scholars of Andrea were very numerous; but,
according to Vasari, they were not wont to stay long, being
domineered over by his wife; Pontormo and Domenico Puligo
may be mentioned.
In this account of Andrea del Sarto we have followed the
main lines of the narrative of Crowe and Cavalcaselle, supple-
mented by Vasari, Lanzi and others.
There are biographies by Biadi (1820), by von Reumont (1831),
by Bautnann (1878), and by Guinness (1899) (W M R.)
ANDRBANI, ANDREA, Italian engraver on wood, in chiaro-
scuro, was born at Mantua about 1540 (Brulliot says 1560) and
died at Rome in 1623. His engravings are scarce and valuable,
and are chiefly copies of Mantegna, DOrer and Titian. The
most remarkable of his works are " Mercury and Ignorance,"
the " Deluge," " Pharaoh's host drowned in the Red Sea "
(after Titian), the " Triumph of Caesar " (after Mantegna),
and " Christ retiring from the judgment-seat of Pilate."
ANDRES, KARL (1808-1875), German geographer, was born
at Brunswick on the 20th of October 1808. He was educated at
Jena, Gdttingen and Berlin. After having been implicated in a
students' political agitation he became a journalist, and in 1851
founded the Bremer HandetsblaU. From 1855, however, he
devoted himself entirely to geography and ethnography, working
successively at Leipzig and at Dresden. In 1862 he founded the
important geographical periodical Globus. His works include
Nordamerika in geopaphischen und geschichtlichen Umrissen
(Brunswick, 1854), Gcographischt Wonderungen (Dresden, 1859),
and Geographie des Welthandels (Stuttgart, 1867-1872) He died
at Wildungen on the xoth of August 1875.
His son Rxchaxd, born on the 26th of February 1835, followed
his father's career, devoting himself especially to ethnography
He wrote numerous books on this subject, dealing notably with
the races of his own country, while an important general work
was Ethnographische ParaUeUn und Vorgleiche (Stuttgart,
1878). He also took up cartography, having a chief share
in the production of the Physikalisch-statistiscke Alias des
deutschen Retches (Leipzig, 187 7) » AUgemeine Hondatlas (first
ed., 1881), and other atlases; and he continued the editorship
of the Globus.
ANDRfiB. SALOMON AUGUST (1854-1897 ?). Swedish
engineer, was born at Grenna, on Lake Vetter, on the 18th of
October 1854- After education at the Stockholm technical
college, he studied aeronautics, and in 1895 elaborated a plan for
crossing the north polar region by a balloon which should be in
some degree dirigible by sails and trailing ropes. After an
abortive effort in 1806, the winds being contrary, he suited with
two companions from Danes Island, Spitsbergen, on the nth of
July 1897. The party was never seen again, nor is the manner
of its fate known. Of several expeditions sent in search of it, the
first started in November 1897, on the strength of a report of cries
of distress heard by shipwrecked sailors at Spitsbergen; in 1898
and 1899 parties searched the north Asiatic coast and the New
Siberia Islands; and in May 1899 Dr Nathorst headed an expedi-
tion to eastern Greenland. None was successful, and only scanty
information was obtained or inferred from the discovery of a few
buoys (on the west of Spitsbergen, northern Norway, Iceland,
Sec.) which the balloonists had arranged to drop, and a message
taken from a carrier pigeon despatched from the balloon two days
if ter its ascenL There were also messages in two of the buoys,
i>u t they dated only from the day of the ascent The others were
:mpty.
ANDREINI, FRANCESCO, Italian actor, was born at Pistoia
n the last half of the 16th century He was a member of the
company of the Gelosi which Henry IV. summoned to Paris to
please his bride, the young queen Marie de' Medici. His wife
Isabella Andreini (1 562-1604) was a member of her husband's
company, distinguished alike for her acting and her character, —
commemorated in the medal struck at Lyons in the year of her
death, with her portrait on one side, and the figure of Fame on
the reverse with the words aeterna fama. She was also known in
literature, her books including a pastoral, Miriilla (Verona, 1 588),
a volume of songs, sonnets and other poems (Milan, 1601), and a
collection of letters, published after her death. She inspired many
of the French poets, notably Isaac du Ryer (d. c. 1 63 1 ) . Her son
Giambattxsta Andreini (1578-1650) was bom in Florence, and
had a great success as a comedian in Paris under the name of
Leylio. He was a favourite with Louis XIII., and also with the
public, especially as the young lover. He left a number of plays
full of extravagant imagination. The best known are V Adamo
(Milan, 1613), The Penitent Magdalene (Mantua, 1617), and
The Centaur (Paris, 1622). From the first of these three volumes,
which are extremely rare, Italians have often asserted that Milton,
travelling at that time in their country, took the idea of Paradise
Lost.
ANDRfiOSSY. ANTOINE-FRANCOIS, Count (1761-1828),
French soldier and diplomatist, was born at Castelnaudary, in
Languedoc, on the 6th of March 1 76 1 . He was of Italian extrac-
tion, and his ancestor Francois Andreossy (1633-1688) bad been
concerned with Riquet in the construction of the Languedoc
Canal in 1669 He had a brilliant career at the school of artillery
at Metz, obtained his commission in 1781, and became captain
in 1788 On the outbreak of the Revolution he adopted its
principles. He saw active service on the Rhine in 1794 and in
Italy in 1795, and in the campaign of 1796-97 was employed in
engineer duties with the Army of Italy. He became chef de
brigade in December 1796 and general of brigade in 1798, in
which year he accompanied Bonaparte to Egypt. He served
in the Egyptian campaign with distinction, and was selected as
one of Napoleon's companions on his return to Europe.
Andreossy took part in the coup d'itat of the 18th of Brumaire,
and on the 6th of January 1 800 was made general of division. Of
particular importance was his term of office as ambassador to
England during the short peace which followed the treaties of
Amiens and Luneville. It had been shown (Coquillc, Napoleon
and England, 1904) that Andreossy repeatedly warned Napoleon
that the British government desired to maintain peace but must
be treated with consideration. His advice, however, was dis-
regarded. When Napoleon became emperor he made Andreossy
inspector-general of artillery and a count of the empire. In the
war of 1805 Andreossy was employed on the headquarters staff
of Napoleon. From 1808 to 1809 he was French ambassador at
Vienna, where he displayed a hostility to Austria which was in
marked contrast to his friendliness to England in 1802-1803. In
the war of 1809, Andreossy was military governor of Vienna
during the French occupation. In 1 81 a he was sent by Napoleon
as ambassador to Constantinople, where he carried on the policy
initiated by Sehastiani. In 1814 he was recalled by Louis XVIII.
Andreossy now retired into private life, till the escape of his former
master from Elba once again called him forth. In 1826 he was
elected to the Acadimie des Sciences, and in the following year was
deputy for the department of the Aude. His numerous works
included the following:— on artillery (with which arm he was
most intimately connected throughout his military career),
Quelques idles relatives a Vusage de V or tiller ie dans Vattaque el
la difense des places (Metz); Essai sur le tir des projectiles
creux (Paris, 1826); and on military history, Campagne sur le
Main tt la Rednite de VarmU gaUc-batave (Paris, 1802); Opera-
tions des pontonniers en Italie . 1795-1796 (Paris, 1843). He
also wrote scientific memoirs on the mouth of the Black Sea
(1818-1819); on certain Egyptian lakes (during his stay in
Egypt), and in particular the history of the Languedoc Canal
(Histoire du canal du Midi, 2nd ed., Paris, 1804), the chief
credit of which he claimed for his ancestor Andreossy died at
Montauban in 1828.
See Marion, Notice nicrohgique sur le Lt.-GhUral Comle A ndriossy.
ANDRES— ANDREW OF LONGJUMEAU
972
ANDRfiS, JUAN (1740-1817), Spanish Jesuit, was born at
Planes in the province of Valencia, and became professor of
literature at Gandia and finally royal librarian at Naples. He
died at Rome on the 12th of January 181 7. He is the author of
many miscellaneous treatises on science, music, the art of teach-'
ing the deaf and dumb, &c. But his chief work, the labour of
fully twenty years, is entitled Ddl' origine, progressi, e stalo
attualed* ogni Lctteratura (7 vols., Parma, 178 2- 1799). A Spanish
translation by his brother Carlos appeared at . Madrid between
1784 and 1806, and an abridgment in French (1838-1846) was
compiled by the Jesuit Alexis Nerbonne. The original was
frequently reprinted during the first half of the 19th century.
See C. Sommervogel, Bibliotheque de la compagnie de Jisus,
premiere partie (Brussels and Paris), vol. i. col. 343-350.
ANDREW (Gr. 'Appear, manly), the Christian Apostle,
brother of Simon Peter, was born at Bethsaida on the Lake of
Galilee. He had been a disciple of John the Baptist (John i.
37-40) and was one of the first to follow Jesus. He lived at
Capernaum (Mark i. 29). In the gospel story he is referred to as
being present on some important occasions as one of the disciples
more closely attached to Jesus (Mark xiii. 3; John vi. 8, xii. 22);
in Acts there is only a bare mention of him (i. 13). Tradition
relates that he preached in Asia Minor and in Scythia, along the
Black Sea as far as the Volga. Hence he became a patron saint
of Russia. He is said to have suffered crucifixion at Patras
(Patrae) in Achaea, on across of the form called Crux decussate
(X) and commonly known as " St Andrew's cross." According
to tradition his relics were removed from Patras to Constantinople,
and thence to St Andrews (see below). The apocryphal book,
The Ads of Andrew, mentioned by Eusebius, Epiphanius and
others, is generally attributed to Leudus the Gnostic. It was
edited and published by C. Tischendorf in the Ada Apostohrum
apocrypha (Leipzig, 1821). This book, as well as a Gospel of
St Andrew, was declared apocryphal by a decree of Pope Gelasius.
Another version of the Andrew legend is found in the Passio
Andreae, published by Max Bonnet {Supplementum II Codicis
apocryphi, Paris, 1895). On this was founded an Anglo-Saxon
poem (" Andreas und Elene," first published by J. Grimm, 1841 ;
cf. C. W. Goodwin, The Anglo-Saxon Legends of S, Andreas and
S. Veronica, 1851). The festival of St Andrew is held on the
30th of November.
See Apociyphal Literature; alsoLipsius, DieapokrypheuApos-
tdgetckichUn und AposteUegmden, vol. i. (1883), and Hastings' Dic-
tionary of the Bible, s.v.
Scottish Legends.— About the middle of the 8th century
Andrew became the patron saint of Scotland. Concerning this
there are several legends which state that the relics of Andrew
were brought under supernatural guidance from Constantinople
to the place where the modern St Andrews stands (Pictish,
Muckross; Gaelic, Kilrymont). The oldest stories (preserved
in the Colbertine MSS., Paris, and the Harleian MSS. in the
British Museum) state that the relics were brought by one
Regulus to4he Pictish king Angus (or Ungus) Macfergus (c. 731-
761). The only historical Regulus (Riagail or Rule, whose name
is preserved by the tower of St Rule) was an Irish monk expelled
from Ireland with St Columba; his date, however, is c. 573-000.
There are good reasons for supposing that the relics were origin-
ally in the collection of Acca, bishop of Hexham, who took them
into Pictland when he was driven from Hexham (c. 732), and
founded a see, not, according to tradition, in Galloway, but on
the site of St Andrews. The connexion with Regulus is, therefore,
due in all probability to the desire to date the foundation of the
church at St Andrews as early as possible.
See A. Lan*. St Andrews (London. 1893), pp. 4 ff.; W. F. Skene,
Celtu Scotland', also the article St Andrews.
ANDREW II. (1175-1235), king of Hungary, son of Bela III.,
king of Hungary, succeeded his nephew, the infant Ladislaus III.,
in 1 205. No other Magyar king, perhaps, was so mischievous
to his country Valiant, enterprising, pious as he was, all these
fine qualities were ruined by a reckless good nature which never
thought of the morrow. He declares in one of his decrees that
the generosity of a king should be limitless, and he acted up to
this principle throughout his reign. He gave away everythint
money, villages, domains, whole counties, to the utter is npo v eri a a-
ment of the treasury, thereby rendering the crown, for the first
time in Hungarian history, dependent upon the great feudatories,
who, in Hungary as elsewhere, took all they could get mad gave
as little as possible in return. In all matters of g o vernmen t,
Andrew was equally reckless and haphazard. He is directly
responsible for the beginnings of the feudal anarchy which well-
nigh led to the extinction of the monarchy at the end of the 13th
century. The great feudatories did not even respect the fives
of the royal family, for Andrew was recalled from a futile attempt
to reconquer Galida (which really lay beyond the Hungarian sphere
of influence), through the murder of his first wife Gertrude of
Meran (September 24, 1213), by rebellious nobles jealous of the
influence of her relatives. In 1 2 1 5 he married Inbnthe of France,
but in 12x7 was compelled by the pope to lead a crusade to the
Holy Land, which he undertook in hopes of being elected Latia
emperor of Constantinople. The crusade excited no enthusiasm
in Hungary, but Andrew contrived to collect 15,000 men together,
whom he led to Venice; whence, not without much ^gffrt
and the surrender of all the Hungarian claims upon Zara, about
two-thirds of them were conveyed to Acre. Bat the whole
expedition was a forlorn hope. The Christian kingdom of
Palestine was by this time reduced to a strip of coast about
440 sq. m. in extent, and after a drawn battle with the Turks on
the Jordan (November xo), and fruitless assaults on the fort-
resses of the Lebanon and on Mount Tabor, Andrew started home
(January x8, 12 18) through Antioch, Iconium, Constantinople
and Bulgaria. On his return he found the feudal barons in the
ascendant, and they extorted from him the Golden Boll (see
Hungary, History). Andrew's last exploit was to defeat aa
invasion of Frederick of Austria in 1234. The same year he
married his third wife, Beatrice of Este. Besides his three sons,
Bela, Coloman and Andrew, Andrew had a daughter Ttfr'a 1 —.
who married the king of Aragon. He was also the father of St
Elizabeth of Hungary.
No special monograph for the whole reign exists, bat there is a good
description of Andrew's crusade in Reinhold Roehrichc, Grwkuh*
des Kbnigreickes Jerusalem (Innsbruck, 1898) . The best aocoaat of
Andrew's government is in Laaslo Ssalay % %R%doryf HnmgaryQiui* .) ,
voL i. (Leipzig and Pest. X85X-1862). TR.N. Bj
ANDREW OF LOMOJUMBAU (Longumeau, LoujumeL Ac).
a French Dominican, explorer and diplomatist. He accom-
panied the mission under Friar Aseelin, sent by Pope Innocent IV.
to the Mongols in 1247; at the Tatar, camp near Kara he met a
certain David, who next year (1248) appeared at the court of
King Louis IX. of France in Cyprus. Andrew, who was now
with St Louis, interpreted to the king David's message, a real
or pretended offer of alliance from the Mongol general fjchikdai
(Ilchikadai), and a proposal of a joint attack upon the Islamic
powers for the conquest of Syria. In reply to this the French
sovereign despatched Andrew as his ambassador to the great
Khan Kuyuk; with Longjumeau went his brother (a monk) and
several others— John Goderiche, John of Carcassonne, Herbert
"le sommelicr," Gerbert of Sens, Robert a clerk, a certain
William, and an unnamed clerk of Poissy. The party set out
about the x6th of February 1249, with letters from King Louis
and the papal legate, and rich presents, including a chapel-tent,
lined with scarlet cloth and embroidered with sacred pictures.
From Cyprus they went to the port of Antioch in Syria, and
thence travelled for a year to the khan's court, going ten leagues
a day. Their route led them through Persia, along the southern
and eastern snores of the Caspian (whose inland character, un-
connected with the outer ocean, their journey helped to demon-
strate), and probably through Tabs, north-east of Tashkent
On arrival at the supreme Mongol court— cither that on the
Imyl river (near Lake Ala-kul and the present Rusao-Cbinese
frontier in the Altai), or more probably at or near Karakonua
itself, south-west of Lake Baikal— Andrew found Kuyuk Khaa
dead, poisoned, as the envoy supposed, by Batu's agents. The
regent-mother Ogul Gaimish (the "Camus" of Rubraquis)
seems to have received and dis m issed him with presents and a
ANDREW— ANDREWES
973
for Louis IX, the bitter a fine specimen of Mongol insolence,
t is certain that before the friar had quitted " Tartary,"
pi Khan, Kuyuk's successor, had been elected. Andrew's
t to his sovereign, whom he rejoined in 1351 at Caesarea in
tine, appears to have been a mixture of history and fable;
Iter affects his narrative of the Mongols' rise to greatness,
he struggles of their leader, evidently Jenghiz Khan, with
er John; it is still more evident in the position assigned
e Tatar homeland, dose to the prison of Gog and Magog.
lie other hand, the envoy's account of Tatar manners is
accurate, and his statements about Mongol Christianity
its prosperity, though perhaps exaggerated (e.g. as to the
hapels on wheels in the nomadic host), are based on fact
ads of bones marked his road, witnesses of devastations
b other historians record in detail; Christian prisoners,
Germany, he found in the heart of "Tartary" (at Talas);
eremony of passing between two fires he was compelled to
rve, as a bringer of gifts to a dead khan, gifts which were of
>e treated by the Mongols as evidence of submission. This
ting behaviour, and the language of the letter with which
rew reappeared, marked the mission a failure: King Louis,
Joinville, " se repenti fort."
e only know of Andrew through references in other writers:
specially William of Rubruquis in Recueil de voyages, iv. (Paris,
), pp. 261. 265, 279. 296, 310, 353. 363. 370; Jotnville. ed.
risque Michel (1858, Ac.), pp. 142. &e.; Jean Pierre Sarraun,
me vol.. pp. 254-255; William of Nangis in Recueil des historical
CauUs, xx. 359-367; Remusat,' Mhnoira sur Us relations
ioues des princes chriHens . . avec Us . . Mongols (1822,
7p. 52. (C. R. B.)
NDREW, JOHH ALBION (1818-1867), American political
er, " war governor " of Massachusetts, was born at Wind-
i, Maine, on the 31st of May 18x8. He graduated at Bowdoin
ege in 1837, studied law in Boston, was admitted to the
oik bar in 1840, and practised his profession in Boston. He
took a deep interest in religious matters, was a prominent
aber of the Church of the Disciples (Unitarian; founded in
ton by the Rev. James Freeman Clarke), and was assistant
or for some time of The Christian World, a weekly religious
er. With ardent anti-slavery principles, he entered political
as a "Young Whig" opposed to the Mexican War; he
une an active Free-SoOer in 1848, and in 1854 took part
be organization in Massachusetts of the new Republican party,
served one term, in 1858, in the state House of Rcprcsenta-
s, and in 1859 declined an appointment to a seat on the
ch of the state supreme court. In this year he took such
active part in raising funds to defend John Brown, then on
J in Virginia, that he aroused the suspicions of a senatorial
unittee investigating Brown's raid, and was summoned to
shington to teU what he knew of the affair. In i860 he
) chairman of the Massachusetts delegation to the Republican
ional convention at Chicago, which nominated Lincoln for the
sidency; and from x 861 to January 1866, throughout the
ing period of the Civil War, he was governor of Massachusetts,
x>ming known as one of the ablest, most patriotic and most
rrgetic of the remarkable group of "war governors" in the
irth. Immediately after Ids inauguration he began filling the
litia regiments with young men ready for active service, saw
it they were well drilled and supplied them with good modern
!es. As a result, Massachusetts was the only northern state in
y wsy prepared for war when the Confederates fired on Fort
mter; and her troops began to muster in Boston on the 16th
April, the very day after President Lincoln's call for volunteers.
1 the next day the Sixth Massachusetts Volunteer Infantry
trtcd south for the defence of Washington, and was the first
Uy armed and equipped volunteer regiment to reach the
pital. Within six days after the call, nearly four thousand
assachusetts volunteers had departed for Washington. In 1 863 ,
Governor Andrew's own request, the secretary of war author-
ed him to raise several regiments of negro troops, with white
mmissioBcd officers, and the Fifty-fourth Massachusetts
tfantry was the first regiment of free negroes raised in the
prth Governor Andrew's example was quickly followed in
other states, and before the end of the year 36,000 negroes had
been enrolled in the Union armies. When the war department
ruled that thenegro troops were entitled topay only as "labourers"
and not as soldiers, Governor Andrew used all his influence with
the president and the secretary of war to secure for them the same
pay as white troops, and was finally successful. Notwithstanding
his loyal support of the administration during the struggle, he
did not fully approve of its conduct of the war, which he deemed
shifting and timid; and it was with great reluctance that he sup-
ported Lincoln in 1864 for a second term. In 1865 he rejected
the more radical views of his party as to the treatment to be
accorded to the late Confederate states, opposed the immediate
and unconditional enfranchisement of freedmen, and, though
not accepting President Johnson's views in their entirety, he
urged the people of Massachusetts to give the new president
their support. On retiring from the governor's office he declined
the presidency of Antioch College, at Yellow Springs, Ohio, and
various positions in the service of the Federal government,
and resumed the practice of law, at once achieving great success.
In 1865 he presided at the first national convention of the
Unitarian Church. He died suddenly of apoplexy, at Boston,
on the 30th of October 1867.
See Henry G. Pearson's Life of John A. Andrew (2 vols.* Boston
and New York, 1904).
ANDREWES, LANCELOT (1555-1626), English divine, was
born in 1 555 in London. His family was an ancient Suffolk one;
his father, Thomas, became master of Trinity House. Lancelot
was sent to the Cooper's free school, Ratcliff, in the parish of
Stepney, and then to the Merchant Taylors' school under Richard
Mulcaster. In 157 x he was entered as a Watts scholar at Pem-
broke Hall, Cambridge, where in x 574-1 575 he graduated B.A.,
proceeding M.A. in 1578. In 1576 he had been elected fellow
of Pembroke. In 1580 he took orders; in 1581 he was in-
corporated M.A. at Oxford. As catechist at his college he
read lectures on the Decalogue, which, both on their delivery
and on their publication (in 1630), created much interest. He
also gained much reputation as a casuist. After a residence
in the north as chaplain to Henry Hastings, earl of Huntingdon,
President of the North, he was made vicar of St Giles's, Cripple-
gate, in 1588, and there delivered his striking sermons on the
temptation in the wilderness and the Lord's prayer. In a
great sermon on the xoth of April (Easter week) 1588, he stoutly
vindicated the Protestantism of the Church of England against
the Romanists, and, oddly enough, adduced "Mr Calvin"
as a new writer, with lavish praise and affection. Andrcwes was
preferred to the prebendal stall of St Pancras in St Paul's,
London, in 1589, and on the 6th of September of the same year
became master of his own college of Pembroke, being at the time
one of the chaplains of Archbishop Whitgift, From 1589 to
1609 he was also prebendary of Southwell. On the 4th of March
1590, as one of the chaplains of Queen Elizabeth, he preached
before her a singularly outspoken sermon, and in October gave
his introductory lecture at St Paul's, undertaking to comment
on the first four chapters of Genesis. These seem to have been
worked up later into a compilation called The Orphan Lectures
(1657). Andrcwes was an incessant worker as well as preacher,
and often laboured beyond his strength. He delighted to move
among the people, and yet found time to meet with a society
of antiquaries, of which Raleigh, Sidney, Burleigh, Arundel, the
Herberts, Saville, Stow and Camden were members. In 1598
he declined the two bishoprics of Ely and Salisbury, as the offers
were coupled with a proposal to alienate part of the revenues
of those sees. On the 23rd of November 1600 he preached at
Whitehall a remarkable sermon on justification, which gave rise
to a memorable controversy. On the 4th of July 1601 be was
appointed dean of Westminster and gave much attention to the
school there. He assisted at the coronation of James I. and in
X604 took part in the Hampton Court conference. His name is
the first on the list of divines appointed to make the authorised
version of the Bible. In 1605 he was consecrated bishop of
Chichester and made lord almoner. In 1609 he published
Terturo Torti, a learned work which grew b*ut of the Gunpowder
974
ANDREWS— ANDRIEUX
Plot controversy and was written in answer to Bellarmine's
Maltkaeus Tortus, which attacked James I.'s book on the oath
of allegiance. After his translation to Ely (1609), he again
controverted Bellarmine in the Responsio ad Apologia*, a
treatise never answered. In 161 7 he accompanied James I. to
Scotland with a view to persuading the Scots that Episcopacy
was preferable to Presbyterianism. In 1618 he attended the
synod of Dort, and was soon after made dean of the Chapel
Royal and translated to Winchester, a diocese which be ad-
ministered with loving prudence and the highest success. He died
on the 26th of September 1626, mourned alike by leaders in
church and state.
Two generations later, Richard Crashaw caught up the universal
sentiment, when, in his lines " Upon Bishop Andrewes' Picture
before his Sermons," he exclaims.'—
14 This reverend shadow cast that setting sun.
Whose glorious course through our horizon run.
Left the dim face of this dull hemisphere,
All one great eye, all drown'd in one great teare."
Andrewes was distinguished in many fields. At court, though no
trifler or flatterer, he was a favourite counsellor in three successive
reigns, but he never meddled much in civil or temporal affairs. His
learning made him the equal and the friend of Grotius, and of the
foremost contemporary scholars. His preaching was a unique
combination of rhetorical splendour and scholarly richness; nis
piety that of an ancient saint, semi-ascetic and unearthly in its self-
denial. As a churchman he is typically Anglican, equally removed
from the Puritan and the Roman positions. He stands in true
succession to Richard Hooker in working out the principles of the
English Reformation, though while Hooker argued mainly against
Puritanism, Andrewes chiefly combated Romanism. A good sum-
mary of his position is found in his First Answer to Cardinal Perron,
who had challenged James I.'s use of the title " Catholic" Hi*
position in regard to the Eucharist is naturally more mature than
that of the first reformers. " As to the Real Presence we are agreed ;
our controversy is as to the mode of it. As to the mode we define
nothing rashly, nor anxiously investigate, any more than in the
Incarnation of Christ we ask now the human is united to the divine
nature in One Person. There is a real change in the elements — we
allow ut pants tarn eonsecratus non sit pants quern natura formavit;
sod, quern benedictio consecravit, et consecrando etiam immutavit"
(Responsio. p. 263). Adoration is permitted, and the use of the terms
" sacrifice ' and " altar " maintained as being consonant with
scripture and antiquity. Christ is " a sacrifice — so, to be slain; a
propitiatory sacrifice— so, to be eaten " (Sermons, vol. ii. p. 296).
'' By the same rules that the Passover was, by the same may ours
be termed a sacrifice. In rigour of speech, neither of them; for to
speak after the exact manner of divinity, there is but one only
sacrifice, vert nominis, that is Christ's death. And that sacrifice but
once actually performed at His death, but ever before represented
in figure, from the beginning; and ever since repeated in memory
to the world's end. That only absolute, all else relative to it, repre-
sentative of it, operative by it. . . . Hence it is that what names
theirs carried, ours do the like, and the Fathers make no scruple at
it — no more need we " (Sermons, vol. ii. p. 300). As to reservation,
" it needcth not : the intent is had without it,' since an invalid may
always have his private communion. Andrewes declares against
the invocation of saints, the apparent examples in patristic literature
are " rhetorical outbursts, not theological definitions." His services
to his church have been summed up thus. — (1) he has a keen sense
of the proportion of the faith and maintains a clear distinction
between what is fundamental, needing ecclesiastical commands,
and subsidiary, needing only ecclesiastical guidance and suggestion;
(2) as distinguished from the earlier protesting standpoint, e.g. of the
Thirty-nine Articles, he emphasized a positive and constructive
statement of the Anglican position.
Literature.— Of his works the Manual of Private Devotions is
the best known, for it appeals to Christians of every church. One
of the many good modern editions is that by Alex. Whyte (1900).
Andrewes's other works occupy eight volumes in the Library of
Anglo-Catholic Theology (1841-1854). Of biographies we have
those by H. Isaacson (1650), A.T. Russell (1863), ft. L. Ottlcy (1894),
and Dean Church's essay in Masters in English Theology. See also
W. H. Frcre, Lancelot Andrewes as a Representative of Anglican
Principle s (18 98; Church Hist. Soc Publications, No. 44)
ANDREWS, JAMES PEWIT (c. 1737-1797), English historian
and antiquary, was the younger son of Joseph Andrews, of
Shaw House, Newbury, Berkshire, where he was born. He
was educated privately, and having taken to the law was one
of the magistrates at the police court in Queen Square, West-
minster, from 1792 to his death. He developed a taste for
literature, and his miscellaneous works include The Savages of
Europe (London, 1764), a satire on the English which he trans-
lated from the French, and Anecdotes Ancient and Modem (London,
1789), an amusing collection of gossip. His chief work wis 1
History of Great Britain connected with the CkronsUty of Esrss*
from Caesar** Invasion to Accession of Edward VI ^ in a »uk
(London, 1 794-1 795). Its plan is somewhat singular, as a porLcs
of the history of England is given on one page, and a genera;
sketch of the contemporaneous history of Europe on the oppesse
page. He also wrote a History of Great Britain from Desk tf
Henry VIII. to Accession of James VI. of Scotland, a cootinaaioc
of Robert Henry's History of Great Britain, published in 1;/
and again in 1806. Andrews died at Brompton on the 6;i <d
August 1 797, and was buried in Hampstead Church. He mimed
Anne Penrose, daughter of a rector of Newbury.
ANDREWS, THOMAS (1813-1885), Irish chemist and parser*.
was born on the 19th of December 18x3 at Belfast, where hs
father was a linen merchant. After attending the Be3ast
Academy and also the Academical Institution, he went to
Glasgow in 1828 to study chemistry under Professor Taocas
Thomson, and thence migrated to Trinity College, Dublin, w£»c~e
he gained distinction in classics as well as in science. Finally,
he graduated as M.D. at Edinburgh in 1835, and settled don
to a successful medical practice in his native place, also grvisg
instruction in chemistry at the Academical Institution. Tea
years later he was appointed vice-president of the newly estab-
lished Queen's College, Belfast, and professor of chemistry,
and these two offices he held till 1879, when failing health com-
pelled his retirement He died on the 26th of November 1SS5.
Andrews first became known as a scientific investigator by his
work on the heat developed in chemical actions, for which the
Royal Society awarded him a Royal medal in 1844. Another
important research, undertaken with P G. Tait, was devoted
to ozone. But the work on which bis reputation mainly rests.
and which best displayed bis skill and resourcefulness in experi-
ment, was concerned with the liquefaction of gases. He carried out
a very complete inquiry into the laws expressing the relations
of pressure, temperature and volume in carbonic dioxide, in
particular establishing the conceptions of critical temperature
and critical pressure, and showing that the gas passes from the
gaseous to the liquid state without any breach of continuity.
His scientific papers were published in a collected form m i88o>
with a memoir by Professors Tait and Cram Brown.
ANDRIA, a town and episcopal see of Apulia, Italy, in the
province of Bari; 35m. W. of the town of Ban by steam tramway,
and 6 m. S.S.E. of Barletta. Pop. (1901) 49.560. It was
founded probably about 1046 by Peter, the first Norman count
ofAndria. It was a favourite residence of the emperor Frederick
II., whose second and third wives, lolanthe and *— ***** of
England, were buried in the cathedral dedicated to St Richard,
who is believed to have come from England in 49s; their tombs,
however, no longer exist. There are several other fine churches
of the 13th century. The Castel del Monte, 0} m. S. of Andria,
was constructed by Frederick II., who frequently resided here;
it is an octagonal building in two storeys with octagonal towers
at each angle, and was further surrounded by three outer waDs.
Despite its massive and imposing exterior, its details arc fine.
See E. Rocchi in L'Arte, L (1898) 121.
ANDR1EU, BERTRAM) (1761-18**), French engraver of
medals, was born at Bordeaux. He is considered as the restorer
of the art in France, which had declined after the time of
Louis XIV., and during the last twenty years of his life he was
entrusted by the French government with the execution of
every work of importance. Many of his medals are figured in
the MedaUic History of Napoleon
ANDRIEUX, FRANCOIS GUILLATJMB JEAN STANISLAS
(1750-1833), French man of letters, was born at Strasbourg on
the 6th of May 1 759. He was educated at Strassburg and pro-
ceeded to Paris to study law. There he became a dose friend
of Collin d'Harlevillc. He became secretary to the duke of
Uses, and practised at the bar, but his attention was divided
between his profession and literature. His plays are of the
1 8th century style, comedies of intrigue, but they rank with
those of Collin d'Harleville among the best of the period next
to those of Beaumarchais. Les £tourdis, his beat comedy*
ANDRISCUS— ANDRONICUS I.
975
represented in 1788 and won for the author the praise of
Harpe. Audrieux hailed the beginning of the Revolution
1 delight and received a place under the new government,
at the beginning of the Terror he retreated to Mevoisins,
patrimony of his friend Collin d'Harleville. Under the
vention he was made civil judge in the Court of Cassation,
was one of the original members of the Institute. A moderate
esman, he was elected secretary and finally president of the
mnat, but with other of his colleagues he was expelled for his
conrilable attitude towards the establishment of the civil
e. On his retirement he again turned to write for the stage,
during Le Trisor and Holier e avee ses amis in 1804. He
ame librarian to Joseph Bonaparte and to the Senate, was
feasor of grammar and literature at the £cole Polytechnique
I eventually at the College de France. As a professor he was
raordinarily successful, and his lectures, which have un-
>pily not been preserved, attracted mature men as well as
: ordinary students. He was rigidly classical in his tastes,
i an ardent opponent of romanticism, which tended in his
iiion to the subversion of morals. Among his other plays
1 La Camtdienne (1816), one of his best comedies, and a tragedy,
cius Junius Brutus (1830). Andrieux was the author of some
:ellent stories and fables: La Promenade de Penelon, Le Bulle
Alexandre VI. and the Meunier de SaintSoucu In 1839 he
came perpetual secretary to the Academy, and in fulfilment
his functions be worked hard at the completion of the
ictionary. He died on the oth of May 1833 in Paris.
See also A H. TaOlandier, Notice surlavie elles outrages d Andrieux
9so) ; Sainte-Beuve, Portraits litUraires, voL i.
ANDRISCUS, often called the "pseudo-Philip," a fuller of
iramyttium, who claimed to be a son of Perseus, last king of
Macedonia. He occupied the throne for a year (140-148 B.C.).
nable to obtain a following in Macedonia, he applied to Deme-
ius Soter of Syria, who handed him over to the Romans. He
>ntrived, however, to escape; reappeared in Macedonia with a
rge body of Thradans; and, having completely defeated the
raetor Publius Juventhis (149)1 he assumed the title of king.
[is conquest of Thessaly and alliance with Carthage made the
tuation dangerous. Eventually he was defeated by Q. Caedlius
letellus (148), and fled to Thrace, whose prince gave him up to
Lome. He figured in the triumph of Metellus (146), who received
be title of "Macedonicus" for his victory. Andriscus's brief reign
ras marked by cruelty and extortion. After this Macedonia was
ormally reduced to a province.
Velletut Paterculus L il : Floras 0. 14* Livy, Epti. 49, 50, 53;
Hod. Sic. Joaii. 9.
ANDROCLUS, a Roman slave who lived about the time of
Tiberius. He is the hero of a story told by Aulus Gellius (v. 14),
which states that Androdus had taken refuge from the cruelties
)f his master in a cave in Africa, when a lion entered the cave and
thowed him his swollen paw, from which Androdus extracted a
large thorn. The grattf ul animal subsequently recognized him
when he had been captured and thrown to the wild beasts in the
circus, and, instead of attacking him, began to caress him (Aelian,
De Not. An. viL 48).
ANDROMACHE, in Greek legend, the daughter of Ettion,
prince of Thebe in Mysia, and wife of Hector. Her father and
seven brothers fell by the hands of Achilles when their town was
taken by him; her mother, ransomed at a high price, was slain
by Artemis (Iliad, vi. 4x4). During the Trojan War her husband
was slain by Achilles, and after the capture of the dty her son
Astyanax (or Scamandrius) was hurled from the battlements
(Eurip. Troades, 7 so). When the captives were allotted, Andro-
mache fell to Neoptolemus (Pyrrhus), the son of Achilles, whom
she accompanied to Epirus, and to whom she bore three sons.
When Neoptolemus was slain at Ddphi, he left his wife and
kingdom to Helenus, the brother of Hector (Virgil, Aen.'uL 294).
After the death of her third husband, Andromache returned to
Asia Minor with her youngest son Pergamus, who there founded
a town named after himself. Andromache is one of the finest
characters in Homer, distinguished by her affection for her
husband and child, her misfortunes and the resignation with
which she endures them. The death of Astyanax, and the
farewell scene between Andromache and Hector (Iliad, vi. 323),
were represented in andent works of art, while Andromache
herself is the subject of tragedies by Euripides and Radne.
ANDROMEDA in Greek legend, the daughter of Cepheus and
Cassiopeia (Cassiope, Cassiepeia), king and queen of the Ethio-
pians. Cassiopeia, having boasted herself equal in beauty to the
Nereids, drew down the vengeance of Poseidon, who sent an
inundation on the land and a sea-monster which destroyed man
and beast The orade of Amnion having announced that no
relief would be found until the king exposed bis daughter Andro-
meda to the monster, she was fastened to a rock on the shore.
Here Perseus, returning from having slain the Gorgon, found her,
slew the monster, set her free, and married her in spite of Phineus,
to whom she had before been promised. At the wedding a quarrel
took place between the rivals, and Phineus was turned to stone
by the sight of the Gorgon's head (Ovid, Metam. v. 1). Andro-
meda followed her husband to Tiryns in Argos, and became the
ancestress of the family of the Persddae. After her death she
was placed by Athena amongst the constellations in the northern
sky, near Perseus and Cassiopeia. Sophocles and Euripides (and
in modern times Corneille) made the story the subject of tragedies,
and its inddents were represented in numerous andent works of
art
Apollodorus ii. 4; Hyginus, Fab. 64, Ovid, Metam. W. 66a;
Fedde, De Perseo et Andromeda (i860)
The Greeks personified the constellation Andromeda as a woman
with her arms extended and chained. Its Latin names arc Perseo,
Mulier catenata ("chained woman"), Virgo devota, &c; the
Arabians replaced the woman by a seal; Wilhclm Schickard
(1592*1635) named the constellation " Abigail "; Julius Schiller
assigned to it the figure of a sepulchre, naming it the " Holy
Sepulchre." In 1786 Johann Elert Bode formed a new constella-
tion, named the "Honours of Frederick," after his patron
Frederick II., out of certain stars situated in the arm of Ptolemy's
Andromeda; this innovation found little favour and is now
discarded.
Twenty-three stars are catalogued by Ptolemy and Tycho
Brahe; Hevelius increased this number to forty-seven, while
Flamsteed gave sixty-six. The most brilliant stars are a
Andromedae or " Andromeda's head," and fi Andromedae in the
girdle (Arabic mirach or mixar), both of the second magnitude,
7 Andromedae in the foot (alamak or alhames), of the third
magnitude. Sdentific interest centres mainly on the following . —
the nebula in Andromeda, one of the finest in the sky (see
Nebula); 7 Andromedae, the finest binary in the heavens, made
up of a yellow star of magnitude 2} , and a blue-green of magnitude
SJ, the latter being itself binary; Nova Andromedae, a 'new"
star, discovered in the nebula by C. E. A. Hartwig in 1885, and
subsequently spectroscoptcally examined by many observers,
R Andromedae, a regularly variable star, and the Andromedids,
a meteoric swarm, associated with Biela's comet, and having their
radiant in this constellation (see Meteor).
ANDRON (Gr. aripAr), that part of a Greek house which was
reserved for men, as distinguished from the gynacceum (71*04-
kuop), the women's quarters.
ANDRONICUS 1. (Counenus), emperor of the East, son of
Isaac, and grandson of Alexius L Comnenus, was born about
the beginning of the 1 2th century. He was endowed by nature
with the most remarkable gifts both of mind and body. He was
handsome and eloquent, but licentious; and at the same time
active, hardy, courageous, a great general and an able politician.
Hisearly years werespent in alternate pleasureand military service.
In 1 141 he was taken captive by the Turks (Scljuks) and remained
in their hands for a year. On being ransomed he went to Constan-
tinople, where was hdd the court of his cousin.the emperor Manuel,
with whom he was a great favourite. Here the charms of his niece,
the princess Eudoxia, attracted him. She became his mistress,
while her sister Theodora stood in a similar relation to the
emperor Manud. In x 152, accompanied by Eudoxia, he set out
for an important command in Cilida. Failing in his principal
enterprise, an attack upon Mopsuestia, he returned, but was
97b
ANDRONICUS IL— ANDROPHAGI
again appointed to the command of a province. This second post
he seems also to have left after a short interval, for he appeared
again in Constantinople, and narrowly escaped death at the
hands of the brothers of Eudoxia. About this time (1153) a
conspiracy against the emperor, in which Andronicus participated,
was discovered and he was thrown into prison. There he re-
mained for about twelve years, during which time he made
repeated but unsuccessful attempts to escape. At last; in 1165,
he was successful; and, after passing through many dangers,
reached the court of Yaroslav, grand prince of Russia, at Kiev.
While under the protection of the grand prince, Andronicus
brought about an alliance between him and the emperor Manuel,
and so restored himself to the emperor's favour. With a Russian
army he joined Manuel in the invasion, of Hungary and assisted
at the siege of Semlin. After a successful campaign they re-
turned together to Constantinople (1x68); but a year after,
Andronicus refused to take the oath of allegiance to the prince
of Hungary, whom Manuel desired to become his successor.
He was removed from court, but received the province of
Cilicia. Being still under the displeasure of the emperor,
Andronicus fled to the court of Raymund, prince of Antioch.
While residing here he captivated and seduced the beautiful
daughter of the prince, Fhilippa, sister of the empress Maria.
The-anger of the emperor was again roused by this dishonour, and
Andronicus was compelled to fly. He took refuge with Amalric,
king of Jerusalem, whose favour he gained, and who invested
him with the town of Berytus, now Beirut. In Jerusalem he saw
Theodora, the beautiful widow of the late king Baldwin and
niece of the emperor Manuel. Although Andronicus was at that
time fifty-six years old, age had not diminished his charms, and
Theodora became the next victim of his artful seduction. To
avoid the vengeance of the emperor, she fled with him to the
court of the sultan of Damascus; but not deeming themselves
safe there, they continued their perilous journey through Persia
and Turkestan,round the Caspian Sea and across Mount Caucasus,
until at length they settled among the Turks on the borders of
Trcbizond. Into that province Andronicus, with a body of
adventurers, made frequent and successful incursions. While
he was absent upon one of them, his castle was surprised by the
governor of Trebizond, and Theodora with her two children were
captured and sent to Constantinople. To obtain their release
Andronicus made abject submission to the emperor; and,
appearing in chains before him, implored pardon. This he ob-
tained, and was allowed to retire with Theodora into banishment
in the little town of Oenoe, on the shores of the Black Sea. In
x 180 the emperor Manuel died, and was succeeded by his son
Alexius II., who was under the guardianship of the empress
Maria. Her conduct excited popular indignation; and the
consequent disorders, amounting almost to civil war, gave an
opportunity to the ambition of Andronicus. He left his retire-
ment, secured the support of the army and marched upon
* Constantinople, where his advent was stained by a cruel massacre
of the Latin inhabitants. Alexius was compelled to acknowledge
him as colleague in the empire, but was soon put to death.
Andronicus, now (1183) sole emperor, married Agnes, widow of
Alexius II., a child eleven years of age. His short reign was
characterized by strong and wise measures. He resolved to
suppress many abuses, but, above all things, to check feudalism
and limit the power of the nobles. The people, who felt the
severity of his laws, at the same time acknowledged their justice,
and found themselves protected from the rapacity of their
superiors. The aristocrats, however, were infuriated against
him, and summoned to their aid William of Sicily. This prince
landed in Epirus with a strong force,. and marched as far as
Thessalonica, which he took and destroyed; but he was shortly
afterwards defeated, and compelled to return to Sicily. An-
dronicus seems then to have resolved to exterminate the
aristocracy, and his plans were nearly crowned with ;
But in 1 1 85, during his absence from the capital, ms J
ordered the arrest and execution of Isaac Angerue, a c
of the first Alexius. Isaac escaped and took refuge in the church
of St Sophia. He appealed to the populace, and a tumult
arose which spread rapidly over the whole city. When An-
dronicus arrived he found that bis power was overthrown,
and that Isaac had been proclaimed emperor. Isaac delivered
him over to his enemies, and for three days he was exposed
to their fury and resentment. At last they hung him up by the
feet between two pillars. His dying agonies were shortened
by an Italian soldier, who mercifully plunged a sword into his
body. He died on the x 2th of September x 185.
ANDRONICUS II. (Palaeologus) (i 260-X33 a), eastern Roman
emperor, was the elder son of Michael Palaeologus, whom he
succeeded in 1282. He allowed the fleet, which bis father had
organized, to fall into decay; and the empire was thus less able
than ever to resist the exacting demands of the rival powers of
Venice and Genoa. During his reign the Turks under Osman
conquered nearly the whole of Bithynla, and to resist them the
emperor called in the aid of Roger di Flor, who commanded a
body of Spanish adventurers. The Turks were defeated, but
Roger was found to be nearly as formidable an enemy to the
imperial power. He was assassinated by Andronicos's son and
colleague, the emperor Michael IX., in 1305. His adventurers
(known as the Catalan Grand Company) declared war upon
Andronicus, and, after devastating Thrace and Macedonia,
conquered the duchy of Athens and Thebes. From 13 20 on wards
the emperor was engaged in war with his grandson Andionkus
(see below). He abdicated in 1328 and died in 1332.
ANDRONICUS III. (c. 1296-1341), eastern Roman emperor,
was the son of Michael, son of Andronicus II. His conduct
during youth was so violent that, after the death of his father
Michael in 1320, his grandfather resolved to deprive him of his
right to the crown. Andronicus rebelled; he had a powerful
party, and the first period of civil war ended in his being uo w n e d
and accepted as colleague by his grandfather, 1325. The quarrel
broke out again and, notwithstanding the help of the Bulgarians,
the older emperor was compelled to abdicate, 1328. During his
reign Andronicus III. was engaged in constant war, chiefly with
the Turks, who greatly extended their conquests. He annexed
large regions in Thessaly and Epirus, but they were lost before
his death to the rising power of Servia under Stephen Dussn.
He did something for the reorganization of the navy, and re-
covered Lesbos and Chios from the Genoese. He died in 1341.
ANDRONICUS OF CYRRHUS, Greek astronomer, flourished
about 100 B.C. He built a korologium at Athens, the so-called
tower of the winds," a considerable portion of which stiS
exists. It is octagonal, with figures carved on each side, repre-
senting the eight principal winds. A brazen Triton on the
summit, with a rod in his hand, turned round by the wind, pointed
to the quarter from which it blew. From this model is derived
the custom of placing weathercocks on steeples.
ANDRONICUS OF RHODES (c. 70 B.C.), the eleventh scholnrch
of the Peripatetics. His chief work was the arrangement off the
writings of Aristotle and Theophrastus with materials supplied
to him by Tyrannion. Besides arranging the works, be seems
to have written paraphrases and commentaries, none of which
is extant. Two treatises are sometimes erroneously attributed
to him, one on the Emotions, the other a commentary on
Aristotle's Ethics (really by Constantine Palaeocappa in the
16th century, or by John Callistus of Thessalonica).
ANDROPHAGI (Gr. for " man-eaters "), an ancient nation of
cannibals north of Scythia (Herodotus iv. 18, 106), probably in
the forests between the upper waters of the Dnieper and Don.
They were most likely Finns (Samoycd has the sam
and perhaps the ancestors of the Mordvinians (9.9.).
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